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ARNOLD ARBORETUM
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
ARNOLDIA
A publication of
The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University
VOLUME XXXI
1971
PUBLISHED BY THE
ARNOLD ARBORETUM
JAMAICA PLAIN, MASSACHUSETTS
ARNOLDIA
Index to Volume 31
Illustrations are in bold face.
Aaron’s Rod, 191
Abies kaempferi, 17
Abricot, 222
Abutilon avicennae, 11, 17
Acacia farnesiana, 232
Acacia, Egyptian, 232
Acer negundo, 237
— pensylvanicum, 241
— platanoides, 241
— rubrum, 218
— saccharinum, 241
— saccharum, 241
Achillea, 25
— ageratifolia, 26
— ‘Cerise Queen’, 26
— ‘Coronation Gold’, 25
— ‘Crimson Beauty’, 26
— filipendulina, 25
— ‘Fire King’, 26
— fischeri var. wilsoni, 26
— ‘Gold Plate’, 25
— millefolium, 26, 197, 202
f . rosea, 26
— napellus, 26
— ‘Moonshine’, 25
— ‘Parkers Variety’, 26
— ‘Perry’s White’, 25
— ptarmica, 25, 175
— ‘Snowball’, 25
— ‘The Pearl’, 25
— tomentosa, 26
Aconite, 26
Aconite, Winter, 174
Aconitum, 26, 174
— ‘Bressingham Spire’, 27
— fischeri, 26
— napellus, 27, 174
Acorus, 267
Adair, Miss, 47
Addison, Joseph, 156
Adiantum pedatum, 229
Aesculus hippocastanum, 239
— octandra, 233
— pavia, 239
Agrimony, 291, 293
Agrostis tenuis, I'll
Akane, 292
Albizia julibrissin, 241, 288, 290,
293
Alder, 232
Ale-Hoof, 185
Aleurites fordii, 8, 16
Alkanet, 27, 199
— Italian, 27
Alkekengi, 173, 174
Allium cepa, 208
— porrum, 208
— sativum, 206
— schoenoprasium, 199
Allspice, Carolina, 89, 234
Almond, 222
— Dwarf Flowering, 238
Alnus glutinosa, 232
Alpinus, Prosper, 118
Althea arborescens Provincialis,
214
— frutex, 214
— rosea, 186
Alum Root, 79
Amaranthus, 18, 168, 174
— caudatus, 174
— cultivars, 177
— ? lividus, 18
— oleraceus, 18
— tricolor, 174
Amelanchier, 90
— canadensis, 243
— stolonifera, 241, 244
American Bonsai Society, 262
Amorpha, 232
Amorpha fruticosa, 232
Amsonia, 27
— tabernaemontana, 27
Anaphalis margaritacea, 196
Anchor Tree, 237
Anchusa, 27
— azurea, 27
— Dwarf, 31
— myosotidiflora, 28, 31
— ‘Royal Blue’, 28
— sempervirens, 199
Anderson, Larz, 268
i
ii | ARNOLDIA
Andromeda, 232
Anemone, 172, 174
Anemone coronaria, 174
— hortensis , 174
Anethum graveolens, 200, 213
Angelica archangelica , 199
Angels-Tears, 180
Anise, 199
Annual Reports of the Patents
Office, 10
Antennaria, 177
Anthemis nobilis, 199
Anthriscus cerefolium, 199, 213
Antirrhinum majus, 194
Apium graveolens, 213
var. dulce, 231
Apple, 222
Aprecok tree, 230
Apricock, 222
Apricot, 222
Aquilegia, 28
— canadensis, 228
— ‘Copper Queen’, 28
— ‘Crimson Star’, 28
— ‘McKana’s Giants’, 28
— ‘Mrs. Scott Elliot’, 28
— ‘Rose Queen’, 28
— Snow Queen’, 28
— vulgaris, 179
Arabian pipe, 255
Aralia spinosa, 232
Arbor-Judae, 214
Arborvitae, 214
Archangell, Purple, 181
— Red, 181
— White, 182
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, 227
Arens, George, 29
Argemone mexicana, 229
Armenia, 174
Aronia arbutifolia, 236
Arrow-wood, 232
Artemesia, 28
— abrotanum, 202
— albula ‘Silver King’, 29
‘Silver Queen’, 29
— dracunculus, 202
— schmidtiana var. nama, 29
Artichoke, 146, 203
— Jerusalem, 203
Artifacts (of the Arnold Arbore-
tum), 109
Art of Simpling, The, 37
Asagao, 293
Asakuran zansho, 292
Asclepias syriaca, 219
Ash, American, 232
— European, 232
— White, 232
Ashley River, 21
Asimina triloba, 242
Asparagus, officinalis, 203
Asphodeline luteus, 175
Asphodell, 175
Asphodel Lily, Red, 181
— Yellow, 181
Asphodelus albus, 175
Aster, 29, 175
— amellus, 175
— China, 169, 227
— Hardy, 24
— New York, 29
— novi-belgii, 29
— Stokes, 227
— tradescantii, 175
Astilbe, 29
— x arendsii, 29
— ‘Etna’, 31
— ‘Federsee’, 31
— ‘Fire’, 31
— ‘Garnet’, 31
— ‘Irene Rotseiper’, 31
— ‘Red Sentinel’, 31
— ‘Rheinland’, 31
— ‘Vesuvius’, 31
Atane, 292
Auricula, 192
Avena sativa, 208
Avens, 76
Azakusa Park, 269
Azalea, Flame, 232
— Indica, 233
— Pinxterbloom, 239
— Swamp White, 233
Baby’s-breath, 35, 76, 129
Baccharus halimifolia, 238
Bachelor’s Button, 168, 172, 175,
179
— Yellow, 193
Bacon, Lord, 116
Balloon Flower, 136
Balm, 199
Balsam, 168, 175
— Double, 227
Baptisia, 31
— australis, 31
— tinctoria, 31
Index I iii
Barberry, 173, 222
Barley, 203
Barrenwort, 72, 182
Barton, W. P. G., 119
Bartram, John, 119
— John and William, 89
— William, 90
Basil, 199
Bastard Indigo, 232
Bauhin, John, 118
Baum, 199
Bayberry, 214
Bead Tree, 236
Bean, 146
— French, 203
— Kidney, 203
— Scarlet, 204
Bearberry, 227
Beare’s Ears, 192
Beautyberry, American, 233
Beaver tree, 218
Bedstraw, Yellow, 227
Bee Balm, 24, 132, 227
Beech, American, 233
— European, 233
— Water, 220
Bee-flower, 199
Beet, 204
Bellflower, 175
— Peach-leaved, 175
Beilis perennis, 181
cultivars, 189
Belon, Pierre, 114
Bent, Arthur Cleveland, 358
Berberis vulgaris, 222
Bergamot, 132
— Wild, 191
Besler, Basil, 116
Beta vulgaris, 204
Betula lenta, 233
— nigra, 233
Bibleleaf, 200
Bignonia capreolata, 237
Bindweed, Blew, 176
Birch, Black, 233
— River, 233
Birds, both resident and tran-
sient, 363
— Breeding Residents in the Ar-
nold Arboretum, 361
— in the Arnold Arboretum,
Richard E. Weaver, 349—360
Bishop, D. D., 13
Bishop’s Hat, 72
Bittersweet, American, 233
Blackberry, 246
Black-eyed Susan, 173, 227
Blackhaw Viburnum, 238
Black Snakeroot, 32
Bladder-nut, 214
Blanket-Flower, 75
Blazing Star, 128
Bleeding Heart, 34, 35
Blew Bindweed, 176
— Bottle, 179
— Grape Flower, 185
Bloodroot, 173, 176
Bluebell, 186
— Virginia, 230
Bluebirds, 355
Blue Bonnett, 179
— Jasmine, 1 16
— Jay, 349
Bobolinks, 355
Bocconia cordata, 131
Boehmeria nivea, 9, 18, 292
Bonsai, 261-273, 274
— An Informal History of,
Charles R. Long, 261-273
— House, 311
— in old prints, 263, 265
— Nature in Miniature, Donald
M. Vining, 274-282
Borage, 199
Borago officinalis, 199
Botanic Garden in Washington,
13
Bottle-Brush Bush, 89
Bouncing Bet, 227
Box, English, 215
Boyce Thompson Arboretum, 45
Brassica campestris, 6, 16
— chinensis, 5, 16
— napus, 231
— nigra, 201
Pompeiana, 217
— oleracea var. botrytis, 204, 231
var. capitata, 204
— rapa, 212
— Tritiana, 217
Breiter, Christian August, 42
Bridgeman (landscape Arch.),
156
British and American Steam Nav-
igation Co., 22
(British) East India Company, 21
Broccoli, 231
Brooklyn Botanic Garden, 268
IV ARNOLDIA
Brooks, E. Bruce, DeWolf, Gor-
don P., Jr., Potter, George E.,
Japanese, Latin, and English
Names of Plants in Early Jap-
anese Poetry, 292
Broom, Butchers, 234
— Scotch, 233
— Spanish, 215
Broussonetia papyrifera, 242,
286, 292
Brown, Lancelot “Capability”, 156
Brunnera, 31
— macrophylla, 28, 31
Buckeye, Red, 239
— Sweet, 233
Buckwheat, 17, 204
Buddhism, 264
Bugbane, 32
Bugloss, 27, 199
— Siberian, 31
Bulbous Violet, Great Late-flower-
ing, 188
Bulley, A. K., 51
Burnett, 199
Burning-Bush, 70, 234
Busbecq, Augier de, 1 14
Bushclovers, 290, 292
Butchers Broom, 234
Butter and Eggs, 196
Buttercup, 168
Butternut, 234
Button Bush, 234
Button-Wood, 220
Buxus, 310
— bonsai, 271
— sempervirens, 215
Cabbage, 146, 204
Caesalpinia, 18
Calendula, 168, 172, 176
Calendula officinalis, 176, 198
California Bonsai Society, 262
Callicarpa americana, 233
Callistephus chinensis, 227
Calolisianthus, 316
Caltha palustris, 172
Calycanthus floridus, 89, 234
Camellia japonica, 20
— sinensis, 20
var. assamica, 20
Campanula, 178
Campanula medium, 178
— persicifolia, 175
— pyramidalis, 175
— rapunculoides , 176
— rapunculus, 210
— trachelium, 175, 176, 178
Campernelle Jonquil, 180
Camphor tree, 12, 17
Campion, 130
— Morning, 227
— Red, 227
Campsis radicans, 221
Candytuft, 178
— Purple, 178
Cannabis sativa, 206
Canterbury Bells, 175, 178
Capelli, Jerome, 118
Capsicum frutescens var. lonq-
um, 231
Caragana arborescens, 242
Caraway, 199
Cardinal, 349
— Flower, 178
Carnation, 24, 28, 29, 34, 227
Carolina allspice, 89, 234
— Laurel, 241
Carpinus caroliniana, 239
Carrot, 146, 204
Carum carvi, 199, 211
Carya illinoensis, 242
— laciniosa, 239
— ovata, 239
Case Estates, 34
Cassine, 234
Cassioberry, 234
Castanea dentata, 246
— Equina, 254
— pumila, 236
— sativa, 246
Castanopsis cuspidata, 285, 292
Casuarina (bonsai), 271
Catalpa bignonioides, 234
— Southern, 234
Catbird, 351
Catbriar, 90
Catch Fly, 130, 227
Catmint, 199
Catnip, 199
Cat-tail, 227
Cauliflower, 204
Cayenne Pepper, 231
Ceanothus americanus, 241
Cedar, 17
— Atlantic White, 234
— Red, 216
Celandine, 176
— Great, 178
— Poppy, 178
Celastrus scandens, 233
Celery, 231
Celosia argentea v. cristata, 228
Celtis occidentalis, 216
Centaurea, 178
Centaurea centaurium, 178
— cyayius, 172, 175, 179
Centaury, 178
— Corn, 179
Cephalanthus occidentalis, 234
Cephalotaxus fortunei, 17
Cerastium tomentosum, 28
Ceratiola, 316
Ceratostigma, 31
— plumbaginoides, 31
Cercis canadensis, 214
— siliquastrum, 214
Cha, 20
Chaenomeles, 314
Chaleedonian Iris, 187
Chalk-plant, 76
Chamaecyparis, 294, 295
Chamaecyparis funebris, 18
— obtusa, 298, 299
— pisifera Squarrosa’, 297, 299
— thyoides, 234
Chamaedrys, 184
Chamaerops, 17
Chamelaea, 218
Chamomile, 199
Charles Sprague Sargent and the
Arnold Arboretum, 23
Charlwood and Cummins, 1, 4, 5
Chaste Tree, 234
Chaw, 20
Cheiranthus cheiri, 197
Chekiang, 5
Chelidonium majus, 178
Chelone glabra, 230
— obliqua, 230
Chequered Lily, 178
Cherry, 222, 292
— blossoms, 290
— Choke, 215
— sour, 222
— Wild, 215
— Laurel. 234
Chervil, 199
Chestnut, 246
— French, 246
Chha, 20
Chibbals, 199
Chickadee, 350
Index | v
— Black-capped, 349, 362
Chicory, 206
Chimney Bellflower, 175
Chimonanthus praecox, 245
China Aster, 169
— berry, 236
Chinese Jute, 17
— Lantern, 172, 179
— strawberry tree, 8
— turnip-radish, 5
Ching Period, 271
Chinquapin, 236
Chin Ying, 270
Chionanthus virginica, 237, 366
Chipmunk, 360
Chives, 199
Chlordane, 355
Chlorinated hydrocarbons, 355,
357
Chokeberry, Red, 236
Ch’ on Ying, 270
Christmas Bird Count at the Ar-
nold Arboretum, 68
Christmas Rose, 185
Chrysanthemum, 29, 32
Chrysanthemum balsamita, 200
— coccineum, 32
— cushion varieties, 32
— Hardy, 32
— leucanthemum, 173, 181
— maximum, 32
— parthenium, 183
— segatum, 176
Chusan Palm, 17
Cicely, Sweet, 202
Cichorium endivia, 205
— intybus, 206
Cimicifuga racemosa, 32
— simplex, 32
Cinnamomum camphora, 17
Citrullus lanatus, 208
Citrus aurantium, 224
— tachibana, 292
Civil War, 13
Clary, 199
Clematis, 32, 236
— heracleaefolia var. davidiana,
33
— integrifolia ‘Coerulea’, 33
— recta var. mandshurica, 33
— virginiana, 236
Clethra alnifolia, 236
Clove-Gilliflower, 168, 179
Cochlearia officinalis, 231
VI ARNOLDIA
Cockscomb, 228
Coffee-bean, Kentucky, 236
Coffin House, 166
Cohosh, 32
Colchicine, 47, 54
Colchicum autumnale, 179
Cold Damage to Forsythia Flower
Buds, Alfred J. Fordham, 64—
66
Cole-flower, 204
Cole-wort, 204
Coles, William, 37
Collinson, Peter, 119
Colonial Gardens, Rudy J. Fav-
retti, 145-171
Colonial Garden Plants, Rudy J.
Favretti and Gordon P. De-
Wolf, Jr., 172-249
Colonial Gardens, Additional
Sources of Information chro-
nologically arranged, Gordon
P. DeWolf, Jr., 250-253
Columbine, 28, 179, 228
— Feathered, 190
Comfrey, 200
Commissioner of Patents, 1, 5
Commissioner’s Report on Agri-
culture for the year 1859, 12,
13
Comptonia peregrina , 238
Conifer collection, 342
Convallaria majalis, 188
Convolvulus, 176
Coral Bells, 79
Coralberry, 236
Coreopsis, 33, 228
— grandefiora, 33
— lanceolata, 33, 228
— tripteris, 34
— Thread-Leaf, 33
— verticillata, 33
‘Golden Shower’, 33
Coriander, 200
Coriandrum sativum, 200
Corn, 205
Corn Centaury, 179
Corne Flagge, French, 184
Italian, 184
of Constantinople, 184
— Indian, 206
— Turkie, 206
Cornel, 215
— White, 236
Cornelian Cherry, 41, 215
Corn Flag, 184
Cornflower, 179
Comus alba, 236
— amomum, 215
— ftorida, 215
— mas, 41, 215
— stolonifera, 215
Coronilla, 18
Coronilla emerus, 237
Cortusi, Giacomo, 116
Corylus avellana, 223
Costmary, 200
Cotinus coggyria, 220
Cotoneaster, 314
Cotton, 231
Cottonwood, Eastern, 243
Coventry Bells, 178
Cowberry, 236
Cowbird, 351, 353
“Coweumbers”, 205
Cowslip, 168, 172, 192
Cowslips of Jerusalem, 188
Crab-apple, 237, 246
Wild Sweet, 237
Cranberry, 236, 246
Cranesbill, 75, 183
— Long-rooted, 183
— tuberous-rooted, 183
Crape-myrtle, Common, 237
Crataegus crus-galli, 238
— monogyna, 223
— oxycantha, 238
— oxycanthoides, 223
— phaenopyrum, 238
— punctatus , 244
Creeping Charley, 228
— Jenny, 131, 228
Cress, 200
— Garden, 231
Crocus purpureus, 180
— sativus, 201
— vernus, 180
Cross-vine, 237
Crow, 349
Crowfoot, 192
— Aconite-leaved, 193
— Bulbous, 193
— Grassy, 193
Crown Imperial, 180
Cryptomeria japonica, 18, 285,
292
Cucumber, 205
Cucumis melo, 208
— sativus, 205
Index | vii
Cudweed, 196
Cultivation and Manufacture of
Tea in the United States, 22
Curcurbita lagenaria, 206
— pepo, 210
var. melopepa, 212
Currant, 222
— European Black, 246
Curtis Primrose, 180
Custis, Colonel, 119
Cydonia oblonga , 226
Cynara scolymus, 203
Cypress, Bald, 237
— Deciduous, 237
Cyrilla racemiflora, 237
— Swamp, 237
Cytisus, 310
— scoparius, 233
— Spanish, 215
Daffadown Dillies, 172, 180
Daffodil, 172, 180
— Checkered, 178
— Common, 181
— Pale, 180
— Rush-leaved, 180
— Wild, 181
Dahurian larch, 282
Daisy, 181
— English, 182
— Garden, 181
— Great, 181
— Ox-eye, 173
— Painted, 32
— Perennial, 181
— Shasta, 32
Dames Violet, 193
Dana greenhouses, 344
Dandelion, 168, 205
Daphne mezereum, 218
Datura, 181
— stramonium, 196
Daucus carota, 204
Daylily, 78, 173, 181
— Orange, 181
— Yellow, 181
DDT, 355
Dead Nettle, 181
Purple, 181
Red, 181
Delphinium, 24, 26, 29, 34, 169,
171, 187
— ajacis, 188
— consolida, 187
— elatum, 34
Denny, Judge Owen N., 357
Department of Agriculture, 1, 10,
lOn
Derderian, Constance E., Japa-
nese Theory — American Prac-
tice, 294
Devils Walking Stick, 232
DeWolf, Gordon P., Jr., Colo-
nial Gardens, Some Additional
Sources of Information Chro-
nologically Arranged, 250-253
Notes on the History of
Tea, 20-23
and Robert S. Hebb, The
Story of Forsythia, 41—61
Potter, George E., Brooks,
E. Bruce, Japanese, Latin and
English Names of Plants in
Early Japanese Poetry, 292
Dianthus, 28, 34, 168, 173, 189
— barbatus, 174
— caesius, 34
— caryophyllus, 179, 227
— gratianopolitanus , 34
— plumarius, 229
— superbus, 292
Dicentra, 34
— cucularia, 35
— eximia, 35
Bountiful’, 35
— oregana, 35
— spectabilis, 34
var. alba, 35
Dickey, Miriam, 354
Dictamnus, 70
— albus, 70, 183
var. ruber, 71
— fraxinella, 70
Die-back, 61
Dieldrin, 355
Digitalis, 71, 182
— purpurea, 71, 182
Dill, 200
Dincauze, Dena Ferran, Prehis-
toric Land Use in the Arnold
Arboretum, 108-113
Dioscorea, 316
— alata, 231
Dioscorides, 114
Diospyros virginiana, 242
Dirca palustris, 41, 240
Director’s Report, 307-346
Viii | ARNOLDIA
Dittany, 70, 183
Dock, 200
Dogtooth Violet, 182
Dogwood, Flowering, 215
— Silky, 215
Dortmund Botanic Garden, 50
Dove, Mourning, 360
Draba verna, 230
Drooping Pine, The, 269, 271
Drop wort, 74
Duck, Black, 349
Dutchman’s Breeches, 34, 35
Dwarf Gayfeather, 129
Dwarfing trees, 293
East India Company, 4, 6, 21
Echinops, 71
— exaltatus ‘Taplow Blue’, 71
Ekeberg, Carl Gustavus, 21
Elaeagnus angustifolia, 242
Elder, American, 237
— Box, 237
— Rose, 216
Elderberry, 223
Eldern, 223
Elecampane, 182
Eleocharis dulcis, 292
Eleocoecus oliifera, 16
Elias Haskett Derby Mansion,
157
Ellis, John, 94
Elm, American, 237
— Winged, 237
— trees, 289
Emanies, 172, 174
Emerus, 237
Endive, 205
Endymion nonscriptus, 186
English Daisy, 182
— Monkshood, 26
Epimedium, 72, 182
— alpinum, 182
— grandiflorum, 72
var. violacenm, 72
— pinnatum, 72
var. colchicum, 72
— x rubrum, 72
— x youngianum var. niveum, 72
Eranthus hymalis, 174
Erh-Ch’i, 271
Erica, 310
Ernest Francs collection, 268
Eryngium maritimum, 194
Erythronium dens-canis, 182
Euonymus atropurpureus, 234
Eupatorium, 73
— chinense var. simplicifolium,
291, 293
— coelestinum, 73
‘Wayside Variety’, 73
Euphorbia cyparissias, 73
— epithymoides, 73, 74
— marginata, 73
— myrsinites, 73
— polychroma, 73
— wulfenii, 74
Evening Primrose, 133, 228
Everlasting, 194
— American, 196
¥ agopyrum esculentum, 17, 204
Fagus grandifolia, 233
— sylvatica, 233
Fairchild, David, 8
Faire Haird Iacinth (Gerarde),
184
Fair Maid of France, 168, 193
Fall class at Arboretum, 317
Fall Daffodil, 228
False Dragonhead, 135. 136
Farrand, Beatrix, Mrs., 55
— Hybrids, 55
Farrer, Reginald, 51
Favretti, Rudy J.. Colonial Gar-
dens, 145-171
and DeWolf, Gordon P., Jr.,
Colonial Garden Plants, 172-
249
Faxon, C. E., 349, 354
Featherfew, 168
Fennel, 200
— Flower, 191
Fernleaf Yarrow, 25
Fern, Maidenhair, 229
— Sweet, 238
Fether-Few, 183
Feverfew, 168, 183
Ficus carica, 223
Fig, 223
Filago, 262
Filbeards, 223
Filbert, 223
Filipendula, 74
— hexapetala, 74
‘Flore-Plena’, 74
— rubra, 74
— ulmaria, 74
Fir, 215
Index I ix
Firmiana platanifolia, 16
— simplex, cover 1, no. 1, 9, 10,
15, 16
Fitch House, 166
Flag, “Blue & Varied”, 187
Flagg, Yellow, 187
Flax, 200
— Toad, 196
— Wild, 196
Flaxweede, 196
Fleur-de-lis, 127
Flicker, Yellow-shafted, 353, 354
Flora Japonica, 42
Floral dimorphism, 56
Florentine Iris, 187
Firs Africanus, 190
Multiplex, 190
Flower de Luce, 187
Great Turkie, 187
White, 187
Yellow, 187
Flower Gentle, 174
Flowering Almond, Dwarf, 238
— Plum, 284
Flower of Bristol, 193
— of Constantinople, 193
Flycatchers, 353
Foamflower, 228
Foeniculum vulgare, 200, 213
Forcing Cut Branches, 61
Fordham, Alfred, 294
— Cold Damage to Forsythia
Flower Buds, 64-66
— Notes from the Arnold Arbo-
retum, Propagation of Fother-
gilla, 256-259
— Notes from the Arnold Arbo-
retum, Weather Station Report
Forest Flora of Japan, 23
Forsyth, William, 42
Forsythia, 41-63, 167
Forsythia ‘Arnold Dwarf’, 45, 52,
55, 56
— ‘Arnold Giant’
See Forsythia x intermedia
‘Arnold Giant’
— ‘Beatrix Farrand’, 54, 55
— densiflora, 54
— europaea, 50, 54, 57, 59
— giraldiana, 51
— x intermedia, 41, 45, 54, 55
‘Arnold Giant’, 47, 53, 55,
56, 59
Densiflora’, 46
Lynwood’, 47
‘Nana’, 41, 59
Primulina’, 46
‘Spectabilis’, 41, 46, 50, 55,
57, 59
‘Spring Glory’, 47
‘Tremonia’, 50
‘Vitellina’, 45, 46
— japonica, 51
var. saxatilis, 52, 55, 57
— ‘Karl Sax’, 54, 55, 56, 59
— x kobendzae, 54
— mandschurica, 54
— makai, 54
— ovata, 41, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59
‘Robusta’, 56
— suspensa, 42, 43, 51
— suspensa var. fortunei, 42, 46,
57
var. sieholdii, 41, 42, 46,
57, 58, 60
— x variabilis, 54
— viridissima, 42, 44, 46, 56
‘Bronxensis’, 41, 45
var. koreana, 45, 52
— ‘Vitellina’ see Forsythia x in-
termedia ‘Vitellina’
Forsythia culture, 56
— - Flower Buds, Cold Damage to,
64-66
— Habitat, 48-49
— Key to, 67—68
Forsythias Introduced by the Ar-
nold Arboretum, 63
Fortune, Robert, 2, 44, 120, 267,
271
and the Cultivation of Tea
in the United States, William
Gardener, 1—18
Three Years’ Wanderings
in the Northern Provinces of
China, 293
Fothergill, Dr. John, 89, 90
Fothergilla alnifolia, 90
— Carolina, 90
— Dwarf, 238
— gardenii, 90, 93, 94, 95, 238,
256, 257
— major, 90, 91, 93, 94, 97, 256,
257
habitat, 92
— monticola , 90, 93
— propagation of, A. J. Forham,
256-259
X | ARNOLDIA
— seedlings two months old, 258
Fothergillas, The, Richard E.
Weaver, 89-96
Four-O'Clock, 168
Foxglove, 71, 182
Fragaria chiloensis, 226
— Virginia, 226
Franklinia, alatamaha, 89, 238
Fraxinella, 183
Fraxinus, 17
— americana, 232
— chinensis, 17
— excelsior, 232
French Mallow, 186
Fringed pink, 289, 291, 292
Fringe tree, 237, 366
Fritillaria imperialis, 180
— meleagris, 178
Froebel. Otto. 50
Fruit of China, 236
Fuga Daemonum, 216
Funeral Cypress, 18
Gaillardia, 75
— ‘Burgundy’, 75
— ‘Goblin’. 75
— ‘Sun Dance’, 75
— Sun Gold’, 75
Galanthas nivalis, 229
Galax. 228
Galax aphylla, 228
Galium vemum , 227
Garden and Forest, 23
Garden. Dr. Alexander, 94
Gardeners' Chronicle of America,
268
Gardener's Dictionary, The, 90
Gardener, William, Robert
Fortune and the Cultivation of
Tea in the United States, 1
Garden Hyacinth, 186
— Mallow, 186
Gardoqnia, 316
Garlic, 146, 206
Garroway’s Coffee House, 21
Gas Plant, 70
Gayfeather, 128
— Dwarf, 129
Gelder Rose, 216
Gelseminum sempervirens, 216
Gentianaceae, 316
Geranium, 75, 183
— grandiflorum, 76
var. alpinum, 76
— lancastriense, 75
— macrorrhizum, 183
— robertianum, 184
— sanguineum, 75, 76, 183
var. album, 75
‘Johnson’s Blue’, 75
var. lancastriense , 75
var. prostratum, 75
— tuberosum, 183
Gerard, John, 37, 116
Germander, 184
Geum, 76
— chiloense, 76
— coccineum, 76
— ‘Dolly North’, 76
— ‘Fire Opal’, 76
— ‘Lady Stratheden’, 76
— ‘Mrs. Bradshaw’, 76
— ‘Princess Juliana’, 76
— ‘Red Wings’, 76
— ‘Wilton Ruby’, 76
Gilliflower, 173
Ginkgo biloba, 18, 18
Giraldi, G., 51
Gladiolus, 184
Gladiolus byzantinus, 184
— communis, 184
Glechoma hederacea, 185
Gleditsia sinensis, 18
— triacanthos, 239
Globe Amaranth, 168, 184
— Thistle, 71, 72
Globularia, 189
Glycyrrhiza glabra, 200
Goff, Captain, 21
Golden Rain Tree, 238
Gomphrena, 168
Gomphrena globosa, 172, 175,
184
Goodell, Henry, 294
Gooseberry, 223
Gooseneck Loosestrife, 130
Gossypium herbaceum, 231
Gottingen, Botanic Garden of, 45
Gouldes, 176
Gourd, 206
— , English, 146
Government Experimental and
Propagating Garden, 10, 12
Governor Stephan Hopkins
House, 166
Grackles, Purple, 350, 360
Grandfather Mountain, 97
Granny Gray-Beard, 89
Grape, 223, 238
— Flower, Blew, 185
, Great, 185
, Skie-Coloured, 185
— Hyacinth, 184
Grass-cloth, 18
Great Purple Faire Haired Ia-
cinth, 184
Green dye, 17
Ground cover Plots, 34
Ground Ivy, 185
Groundsel Tree, 238
Guelder Rose, 216
Guinea-hen flower, 178
Gum, Black, 233
— Sour, 233
Guthrie, Elinor, 268
Gymnocladus dioica, 236
Gypsophila, 35, 76, 129
— ‘Bristol Fairy’, 77
— paniculata, 35, 77
‘Perfecta’, 77
'Pink Fairy’, 77
Hachi-no-ki, 265
Hackberry, Common, 216
Hagi, 292
Hair-oil, 6
Hajinami, 292
Halesia Carolina, 89, 244
Hamelia, 316
Hamamelidaceae, 89
Hamamelis, 94, 310, 314
— virginiana, 93, 221, 258
Hardhack, 244
Hardy Ageratum, 73
— Aster, 29
— Hibiscus, 79
— Mums, 32
— Statice, 129
Harebell, 186
Hatheway House, 166
Haw, Black, 238
Hawks, Francis, 268
Hawks, 355
— Red-tailed, 360
— Sparrow, 360
Hawkweed, 176
Hawthorn, 223
Hazelnut, 223
Heart’s Ease, 191
Hebb, Robert, 294
Perennials for Low Main-
Index | xi
tenance Gardens I, 24-35; II,
70-82; III, 127-139
and Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr.,
The Story of Forsythia, 41-61
Hedera helix, 240
Helenium, 77
— autumnale, 77
— ‘Bruno’, 77
— ‘Moerheim Beauty’, 77
— ‘Primilum Magnificum’, 78
Helianthus annuus, 196, 198
— tuberosus, 203, 211
Helichrysum, 177
— stoechas, 194
Hellebore, 185
Helleborus, Black, 185
— niger, 185
Hemerocallis, 78
— ‘Bess Ross’, 79
— ‘Cartwheels’, 79
— flava, 181
— ‘Frances Fay’, 78
— fulva, 173, 181
— ‘Hortensia’, 78
— lilio-asphodelus, 181
— ‘Little Rainbow’, 79
— ‘Luxury Lace’, 79
— ‘Satin Glass’, 78
Hemlock, 216
Hemp, 206
— Palm, 3, 17
Henry Whitfield House, 166
Hepatica, 179, 186
Hepatica nobilis, 186
Herb Robert, 184
Hesperis matrionalis, 193
Heuchera, 79
— ‘Chartreuse’, 79
— ‘Fire Sprite’, 79
— ‘Freedom’, 79
— ‘June Bride’, 79
— ‘Pluie de Feu’, 79
— ‘Rosamundi’, 79
— sanguinea, 79
— ‘White cloud’, 79
Hibiscus, 79
— ‘Appleblossom’, 80
— esculentus, 231
— moscheutos, 79, 229
— mutabilis, 214
— palustris, 79
— ‘Raspberry Rose’, 80
— ‘Satan’, 80
— ‘Snow Queen’, 80
Xli | ARNOLDIA
— ‘Snow White’, 80
— ‘Super Clown’, 80
— Super Red’, 80
— ‘Super Rose’, 80
— syriacus, 214
Meehani’, .330
— ‘White Beauty’, 80
Hickory, Scaly-bark, 239
— Shellbark, 239
Hinoki False Cypress, 298
Hishi, 292
Hiyodoribana, 293
Holly, 90
Holly, Evergreen, 239
— Sea, 194
— Swamp, 239
Hollyhock, 168, 186
Holt, J., 14
— Patent Commissioner, 6, 8,
Honesty, 229
Honey Locust, 239
Honeysuckle, Coral, 216
— French, 216
— Tatarian, 239
— Wild, 239
Hops, 206
Hop Tree, 240
Hoptree, 244
Horai-san, 264
Hordeum vulgare, 203
Hornbeam, American, 239
Horse Chestnut, 239, 254
— Dwarf, 239
Hosta . 80
— ‘Betsy King’, 81
— coerulea, 82
— fortunei, 81
— glauca, 81
— ‘Honeybells’, 81
— Royal Standard’, 81
— sieboldiana , 81
aereo-marginata, 82
‘Frances Williams’, 82
‘Yellow Edge’, 82
— undulata, 81, 82
— ventricosa , 82
Houseleek, 200
Hovarth, M. H., 47
Howard, Richard A., Director’
Report, 307-346
Humulus lupulus, 206
Hungarian Iris, 187
Hung lo-po, 16
Hyacinth, 186
— Common, 186
— Garden, 186
Hyacinthus orientalis, 186
Hydrangea, 228
Hydrangea arborescens, 228, 240
— Smooth, 240
Hypericum perforatum, 216
Hyssop, 172, 200
Hyssopus officinalis, 200
Iacinth, Faire Haird, 184
— Great Purple Faire Haired, 184
Iberis umbellata, 178
Ilex, 90
— aquifolium, 239
— cassine, 234
— decidua , 239
— glabra, 173, 228, 240
— opaca, 239
— verticillata, 173, 245
— vomitoria, 234
Illustrations of the Botany of the
Himalayas, 14
Impatiens balsamina, 175, 227
— capensis, 175
Imperial Household Collection,
Bonsai, 266
Indian Cress, 191
Indian Relics of the Arnold Ar-
boretum, 106
Indian Relics of the Arnold Ar-
boretum, Ernest J. Palmer,
99-107
Indigo, 18
— Bastard, 232
— False, 31
— Wild, 31
— Bunting, 354
Informal History of Bonsai, An,
Charles R. Long, 261-273
Inkberry, 228, 240
Interrogatories concerning the
culture of the tea plant in
China, 13
Introduction of the Tea Plant, 13
Inula helenium, 182
Ipomoea batatas, 210, 211
— nil, 176, 293
Iris, 127, 187
Iris, Chalcedonian, 187
— ‘Christmas Time’, 127
— Dusky Dancer’, 127
— Dwarf, 228
— ‘Esther Fay’, 127
Index I xiii
— Florentine, 187
— ‘Gatineau’, 128
— germanica , 187
cultivar, 207
var. florentina, 187
— ‘Ginger Snap’, 127
— Hungarian, 187
— Mourning, 187
— Persian, 187
— persica, 187
— pseudoacorus, 187
— pumila , 187, 207, 228
— ‘Rippling Waters’, 127
— ‘Ruby Wine’, 128
— sibirica, 127, 187
— ‘Stepping Out’, 127
— susiana, 187, 207
— ‘Ultrapoise’, 127
— variegata , 187
— ‘White Magnificence’, 128
— ‘White Swirl’, 128
— ‘Winter Olympics’, 127
Iron wood, 240
Isaac Stevens House, 166
Isatis tinctoria, 202
Ishi-tsuki. 280
Isop, 200
Isquouterquash, 172
Issop, 172
Itea virginica. 244
Ivy, 173
— English. 240
Jacinth, 186
Jackson, J., 22
Japan cedar, 18
Japanese black pine, 280
— garden of Johonet C. Wicks,
283
Japanese, Latin, and English
Names of Plants in Early
Japanese Poetry, DeWolf, Gor-
don P., Jr., Potter, George E.,
Brooks, Bruce E., 292—293
Japanese red pine, 277, 282
Japanese Theory — American
Practice, Constance E. Der-
derian, 294—296
Japanese tree lilac, 120
— white pine, 277
Jardin des Plantes, 118
Jasmine, 216
— Arabian, 218
— Blue, 116
— Carolina, 216
Jasminum caeruleum, 116
— officinale, 216
— sambac, 218
Jay, Blue, 349
Jefferson, Thomas, 119, 157
plan of “Roundabout
Walk’’, 158
Jeseminum caerulium Arabum,
116
Jimson Weed, 196
Jin, 280
Jones, Dr. William, 22
Jonquil, Campernelle, 180
Joseph’s Coat, 174
Joseph Webb House, 166
Journal Horticole et de Viticul-
ture de Suisse, 268
Journey to the Tea Countries of
China and India, Robert For-
tune, 4
Judas Tree, 214
Juglans cinerea, 234
— nigra, 226
— regina, 226
Junco, Slate-colored, 350
Juniper, 216, 240, 271, 289, 310
— Chinese, 240
— Pfitzer, 167
— Savin, 216, 220
Juniperus chinensis, 240
— communis, 240
— sabina, 220
— virginiana, 216
Kalm, Peter, 37
Kalmia latifolia, 240, 173
Kamchatka Bugbane, 32
Kansu, China, 118
Kashiwa, 292
Kasuga Gonen Kenki, 264
Keiri, 197
Kent, William, 156
Kentranthus ruber, 197
Kentucky Coffee tree, 236
Kew Gardens, 10
Kiangsu, 5
Kniphofia, 128
— ‘Earliest of All’, 128
— ‘Maid of Orleans’, 128
— ‘Primrose Beauty’, 128
— ‘Springtime’, 128
— ‘Summer Sunshine’, 128
— uvaria, 128
Xiv | ARNOLDIA
Koelreuteria paniculata , 238
Kojiki, 285, 289, 291
Krussman, Gerd, 50
Kudzu, 293
Kuri, 292
Kuzu, 293
— vine (in Japanese poetry), 291
Laburnum, 216
Laburnum anagyroides, 216
Lactuca sativa, 208
Lagenaria vulgaris, 206
Lagerstroemia indica, 237
Lamium album, 182
— purpureum, 181
Lantana camara, 217
Larch, 17, 217
Larix decidua Miller, 217
— gmelini, 281, 282
Lark’s Claw, 187
— heel, 169, 172, 187
— Spur, 169, 172, 187
Corn, 187
Garden, 188
Upright, 188
Wild, 187
— Toes, 187
Lathyrus japonicus v. glaber, 229
— latifolius, 196
— odoratus, 230
Laurel, 240
— Carolina, 241
— Cherry, 234
— White, 218
Laurus camphora, 17
Lavender, 28, 200
— Cotton, 201
Lavandula officinalis, 28, 200
var. nana, 28
Lay lock, 116
Leadwort, Blue, 31
Leaf spots, 61
Leatherwood, 41, 240
Lecture Series: “Meet the Staff”,
88
LeDuc, W. G., 22
Lee, T. B., 54
Leeks, 146, 208
Leitneria swamp, 310
Lelacke, The, or Pipe Tree, Helen
Roca-Garcia, 114-120
Lens culinarius, 231
Lentils, 231
Leonard and Company, 268
Lepidium sativum, 231, 200
Lespedeza, 292
Lettuce, 208
Leucojum, 188
Leucojum aestivum, 188
— autumnale, 188
Leucothoe, 240
Leucothoe axillaris, 240
— racemosa, 232
Levisticum officinale, 200
Liatris, 128
Liatris punctata, 129
— pycnostachya, 129
— scariosa, 129
‘September Glory’, 128, 129
— spicata, 129
‘Kobold’, 129
‘Silver Tips’, 129
— ‘White Spire’, 128, 129
Licorice, 200
Ligustrum lucidum, 18
— vidgare, 219
var. italicum, 219
Lilac, 114 (see also Syringa)
— Blue, 119, 120
— Great white flowered, 120
— Japanese tree, 120
— Large Chinese, 120
— Large flowering hybrid, 120
— Large Siberian, 120
— Persian, 118, 119, 120
— Purple, 119, 120
— Red, 120
— sive syringa, 218
— White, 116, 120
Lilac Registration, 1970, John C.
Wister and Joseph Oppe, 121—
126
Lilach, 116
Lilium, 188
— canadense, 188, 202
— candidum, 188
— martagon, 188, 202
— pomponium, 202
Lily, 188
— Chequered, 178
— Common white, 188
— of the Valley, 26, 188
Lily, Wash-House, 173
Lime, 217
Limonium, 129
— latifolium, 129
‘Colliers Pink’, 129
‘Violetta’, 129
Index | xv
Linaria vulgaris, 196
Linden, American, 240
Lindera benzoin, 41, 220
Lindley, John, 44
Lingon, 236
Linnaeus, 94, 118
Linum usitatissimum, 200
Liquidambar styraciflua, 220
Liquorice, 200
Liriconfancie, 181
Liriodendron tulipifera, 221
Li Shih Hsin, 271
Lisianthus, 316
Liverwort, 186
Livingstons, estate of, 158
Lizard’s Tail, 229
Lobba, 16
L’Obel, Mathieu, 116
Lobelia cardinalis, 178
Loblolly Pine, 240
Lochot, J., 118
Locust, 218
— Honey, 239
— Pink, 241
— Rose Acacia, 241
Long, Charles R., An Informal
History of Bonsai, 261-273
Longfellow House, 166
Long-rooted Cranesbill, 183
Lonicera caprifolium, 216
— pericyclemenum, 216
— sempervirens, 216
— tatarica, 239
Loosestrife, 130
— Purple, 131
Lovage, 200
Love-Lies-Bleeding, 174
Low maintenance garden at the
Case Estates, 30
Lugs, 187
Lunaria annua, 229
Lungwort, 188
Lupine, 24, 190
— Canyon, 130
— False, 137
— Great Blue, 190
— White, 190
Lupinus, 130
— albus, 190
— cytisoides, 130
— hirsutus, 190
— perennis, 190
— X regalis ‘Russell Hybrids’,
130
Lychnis, 130
— chalcedonia, 193
— coronaria, 130
— dioica, 227
— viscaria, 227
Lycopersicum escidentum, 196
Lysimachia nummularia, 228
Lyman, Theodore, 157
Lyre Flower, 34
Lysimachia, 130
— clethroides, 130
— nummularia, 131
‘Aurea’, 131
— punctata, 130
— vulgaris, 131
Ly thrum, 131
— ‘Dropmore Purple’, 131
— ‘Morden Gleam’, 131
— ‘Morden Pink’, 131
— ‘Morden Rose’, 131
— ‘Robert’, 131
— salicaria, 131
Maack, Richard, 120
Macleaya, 131
— cor data, 131
Madder, 200
Magnolia, 218
Magnolia grandiflora, 241
— Southern, 241
— tripetala, 244
— Umbrella, 244
— virginiana, 90, 218
Maidenhair Fern, 229
Maize, 146, 206
Majorana hortensis, 200
Makino, Tomitaro, 51
Mallard, 349
Mallow, French, 186
— Garden, 186
— Rose, 229
— Shrub, 214
Maltese Cross, 130, 193
Malus angustifolia, 246
— armeniaca, 230
— coronaria, 237
— “Porter”, 160
— pumila, 222
Manual of the Trees of North
America, 23
Manyoshu, 285, 289, 291
Maple, Norway, 241
— Red, 218
— Silver, 241
XVi | ARNOLDIA
— Sugar, 241
Marco Polo’s Travels, 21
Marigold, 172, 190, 195
— African, 169, 190
— Aztec, 190
— French, 169
— Marsh, 172
— Pot, 176
Marjoram, Sweet, 200
Marsh Marigold, 172
Martagon Imperiale, 188
— Spotted, of Canada, 188
Marvel-of-Peru, 190
Marygold, 172, 190
— French, 190
— Pot, 172
Mason, Charles, 1
Mateba-shii, 292
Matsu, 292
Matthiola incana, 194
Mattioli, Pietro Andrea, 114
Maximowicz, Carl Johann, 120
McClure, Dr. F. A., 271
McIntyre, Samuel, 157
McKelvey, Susan Delano, 119
McMahon, Bernard, 119, 173
McMahon’s Garden Calendar,
173
Meadow Rue, 137, 190, 229
— - Saffron, 179
— - sweet, 74
Medicago denticulata, 18
Medlar, 224
Melandrium rnbrnm, 227
Melia azedarach, 236
Melissa officinalis, 199
Melon, 146, 208
— citrall, 208
— - Musk, 208
— Turkie, 208
Memoires of Miss Susan Quincy,
157
Mentha arvensis, 201
— longifolia, 201
— piperata, 201
— pulegium, 201
— - spicata , 201
— - sylvestris, 201
— viridis, 201
Mertensia virginica, 230
Mespilus, Snowy, 241
Mespilus germanica, 224
Mezereum, 218
Michaux, 21
Middleton Barony, 21
Milfoil, 25, 26
Milkweed, Wisanck, 219
Miller, Phillip, 90
Mimosa, 241
Mimosa pudica, 194
Ming Huang Peeping at Bathing
Court Attendants, 272
Ming Period, 270
Mint, Corn, 201
— Garden, 200, 201
— Horse, 201
Mirabilis jalapa, 190
Miscanthus sinensis, 287, 291,
292, 293
Mission House, 166
Mississippi Nut, 242
Mist-Flower, 73
Mitsu-gure, 292
M’Mahon, Bernard, see McMa-
hon
Mockingbird, 349, 351, 356
Mock Orange, 218
Moffatt-Ladd House, 152, 166
Monarda, 132
— Blue, 191
— ‘Cambridge Scarlet’, 132
— ‘Croftway Pink’, 132
— didyma, 132, 227
Granite Pink’, 132
— fistulosa, 191
— Mahogany’, 133
— Purple, 191
— Salmon Queen’, 133
Moneywort, 228
Monticello, 156, 159
— plan of “Roundabout Walk”,
158
Moon wort, 229
Moosewood, 241
Morning face, 293
— Glory, 169, 191
Heavenly Blue’, 169
Morus alba, 224, 246
— nigra, 224
— rubra, 246
Moss cypress, 297
— Pink, 135
Moneywort, 131
Monkshood, 26
Moorish gardens, 116
Mountain Laurel, 173, 240
Mt. Vernon, 156, 157
— 1792 paintings, 155
Index I xvii
— Vaughan plan of, 153
Mourning Iris, 187
Mulberrv, 224
— Red, 246
— White, 246
Mullein, 191
— Great, 191
— Moth, 191
Muscadine, 238
Muscari botryoides, 185
— comosus, 184
— racemosum, 185
Mushi, 292
Mushmillions, 172
Musi, 292
— fibers, 286
Muskmellons, 172
Mustard, 6, 201
Myrica cerifera , 90, 214
— gale, 244
— nagi, 16
— pensylvanica, 214
— rubra, 8, 16
Myrrhis odorata, 202, 213
nadeshiko, 292
Nakai, Takenoshi, 52
Naked Ladies, 179
Nanga, 266
Nannyberry, 241
Narcissus, 180
— X biflorus, 180
— calathinus, 180
— Caparonius, 179
— jouquilla, 180
— odorus, 180
— Peerless, 180
— Poetic, 180
— poeticus, 180
— Polyanthus, 180
— pseudonarcissus, 181
— Sweet-scented, 180
— tazetta, 180
— triandrus, 180
— White, 180
Nasturtium, 191
National arboretum, 13
National archives, 12
National Art Club Exhibit of
Chinese Table Plants and
Paintings, 271
Nectarine, 224
Nehemiah Williams Farm, 147,
148
Nemu-no-ki, 293
Nepeta cataria, 199
— hederacea, 185
Nettle-leaved Throatwort, 175
Neiu and Accurate Treatise of
Cookery etc., 37
New Jersey Tea, 241
New York Aster, 29
Botanical Garden, 45
Nicotiana, 168
Nicotiana rustica, 202
— tabacum, 202
Nigella, 191
Nigella damascena, 191
Ning-po, 267
Noah Webster House, 160, 166
Nonesuch, 193
Notes from the Arnold Arbore-
tum, 24-35, 70-82, 127-139,
256-259, 368
Notes on the History of Tea,
Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr., 20-23
Nuthatch, Red-breasted, 350
— White-breasted, 350
Nyssa sylvatica, 233
Oak, Black, 241
— Blackjack, 241
— Chestnut, 242
— Live, 242
— Poison, 243
— Red, 218
— Scarlet, 219
— Southern Red, 242
— Water, 242
— White, 218
— Willow, 242
Oats, 208
Obedience Plant, 135
Ocimum basilicum, 199
Oenothera, 133
— biennis, 228
Okra, 231
Okubo, Hikozaemon, 266
Old Sturbridge Village, 160, 166
Old tree, 270
Olea europaea, 246
Oleaster, 242
Olive, 246
— Russian, 242
Omina-eshi, 293
Onion, 146, 208
Oodung, 8, 12, 16
Ophrys apifera, 199
XViii I ARNOLDIA
Oppe, Joseph, and John C. Wis-
ter, 1970 Lilac Registrations,
121-126
Orange, 224
— Seville, 224
— Sour, 224
Oriental Poppy, 134
Oriole, Baltimore, 353
Ornithogallum, 194
Ornithogalum umbellatum , 194
Osier, Red, 215
Ostrya Virginiana, 240
Oswego Tea, 132
Owl, Great Homed, 360
Oxe-Eye, Common, 181
Ox-eye Daisy, 173
Oxslip, 168
Oxycantha, 223
Oxydendron arboreum, 244
Ozdobruych, Z. Katedry Roslin,
54
Pachysandra, 167
Paeonia , 133
— ‘Albert Crousse’, 134
— ‘Alstead’, 134
— ‘Ama-no-sode’, 134
— bonsai, 271
— ‘Champlain’, 134
— ‘Clair de Lune’, 134
— ‘Cygnet’, 134
— Festiva Maxima’, 134
— Fuji-no-mine’, 134
— Karl Rosenfeld’, 134
— ‘La France’, 134
— Le Cygne’, 134
— ‘Lowell Thomas’, 134
— mascula, 192, 235
— ‘Mikado’, 134
— 'Nippon Brilliant’, 134
— officinalis, 192
— Pico’, 134
— suffruticosa, 143
Pageant of Chinese Painting, 270
Pagoda tree, Japanese, 242
Paigle, 192
Pai lo-po, 16
Palmer, Ernest J., Indian Relics
of the Arnold Arboretum, 99-
107
Pansy, 191
Papaver, 134
— Bonfire’, 134
— ‘Cavalier’, 134
— ‘Cheerio’, 134
— ‘Crimson Pompon’, 134
— Doubloon’, 131
— ‘G. I. Joe’, 134
— ‘Helen Elizabeth’, 134
— orientate, 229
— rhoeas, 192
— ‘Salome’, 134
— somniferum, 192
— ‘Spotless’, 134
Paper Mulberry, Common, 242
Parietaria officinalis, 191
Paritary, 191
Parkinson, John, 116
Parsley, 201, 210
Parsnip, 210
Parsons and Sons, 120
Parthenocissus quinquefolia, 221
Pasania edulis, 292
Pastinaca sativa, 210
Patents office, 12, 14
Patrinia, 293
— scabiosaefolia, 291, 293
Pawpaw, 242
Pea, 210
— Beach, 229
— Black Eyed, 231
— Cow, 231
— shrub, Siberian, 242
Peach, 224
Pear, 225
Pecan, 242
Peerless Narcissus, 180
Peionie, Male, 235
Pelletory, 191
Pemberton Hill, Boston, 152
Penn, John, 158
Pennyroyal, 201
P’en tsai, 262
Peony, 133, 192
— Female, 192
— Male, 192, 235
Pepper Grass, 231
— Guinea, 231
Peppermint, 201
Pepper plant, 287, 292
Perennials for Low Maintenance
Gardening, Robert S. Hebb,
Part I, 24-35; Part II, 70-82;
Part III, 127-139
Periploca, 219
Periwinkle, 229
Persea borbonia, 90, 243
Persian Iris, 187
Index I xix
Persimmon, 242
Petroselinum crispum, 210
var. latifolium, 201
— hortense, 213
Petunia, 168
Phaseolus coccineus, 204
— vulgaris, 203
Pheasant, Ring-necked, 349, 357
Pheasant’s Eye, 180
Philadelphus, 116
— coronarius, 218
Philipse Manor, 158
Phlox, 24, 135, 229
— ‘Alexander’s Beauty’, 135
— ‘Alexander’s Surprise’, 135
— Blue Hills’, 135
— Blue Ridge’, 135
— Carolina, 229
— Emerald Cushion’, 135
— ‘Lavender Lady’, 135
— maculata, 229
— nivalis, 135
— paniculata, 135, 229
— ‘Scarlet Flame’, 135
— ‘Sky Blue’, 135
— stolonifera, 135
— subulata, 135
Phoebe, 350
Phoenix bird, 9
— tree, 10
Physalis alkekengi, 174
Physostegia, 135
— Grandiflora’, 136
— ‘Rosy Spire’, 136
— Summer Snow’, 136
— virginiana, 135
— Vivid’, 135
Picea abies, 215
Pigeon, 357, 360
Pimpinella anisum, 199
Pine, 219, 269, 292
— Japanese White, 277
— Loblolly, 240
— tree, 289
— Virginia Scrub, 242
— Weymouth, 243
— White, 243
Pink, 28, 34, 168
— Cheddar, 34
— Clove, 227
— Grass, 229
Pinus, 219, 270
— bonsai, 265
— densiflora, 227, 278
— paruiflora, 275, 277, 281
— strobus, 243
— taeda, 240
— thunbergii, 276, 277, 278, 280
— virginiana, 242
Pipe, Blew, 221
— White, 221
— Tree, 116, 219, 220
Pipe-tree, double White, 218
single White, 218
Pisum maritimum, 229
— sativum, 210
Plantain-lily, 80
Plant collecting in the Arnold
Arboretum, 326
Plant Records Center, 314
Plants in Early Japanese Poetry,
Sally Lindfors Sullivan, 284-
291
Platanus occidentalis, 220
Platycodon, 136
— ‘Apo-yama’, 136
— grandiflorum, 136
var. mariesii, 136
Plimouth Plantation, 161, 163,
166
Pliny Freeman Farm, 166
Plum, 225
plum-blossoms, 290
Plum, Cherry, 243
— Damson, 225-226, 243
— Myrobalan, 243
— tree, 293
Plumbago larpentae, 31
Plume-Poppy, 131, 132
Poecilocapsus lineatus, 61
Poison Oak, 243
Pole-cat Bush, 244
Polyanthus Narcissus, 180
Polygonum, 17
— tinctorium, 18
Pomegranate, 226
Pompions, 210
Pope, Alexander, 156
Poplar, 219, 243
— Lombardy, 243
Poppy, 192
— Black, 192
— Celandine, 178
— Field, 192
— French, 192
— Opium, 192
— Oriental, 134, 229
— Prickly, 229
XX ARNOLDIA
— White, 192
Populus alba, 219
— deltoicles, 243
— nigra, 219
var. italica, 243
“Porter”, variety of Apple, 160
Portidaca oleracea, 201
Possum Haw, 239
Potato, 210
Potentilla, 243
Potentilla fruticosa, 243
Potter, George E., DeWolf, Gor-
don P., Jr., Brooks, E. Bruce,
Japanese, Latin, and English
Names of Plants in Early
Japanese Poetry, 292
Practical American Gardener, 38
Practical Gardening Class, 24
Prehistoric Land Use in the Ar-
nold Arboretum, Dena Ferran
Dincauze, 108-113
Price, William, and Sons, 119
Primrose, 168, 172, 192
— Curtis, 180
— Garden, 209
Primula auricula, 192
— veris, 192
— vulgaris, 192
Privet, 219
— Evergreen, 219
— Italian, 219
Propagation of Fothergilla, Notes
from the Arnold Arboretum,
A. J. Fordham, 256-259
Propagation of Some Aged Bon-
sai Plants, Alfred J. Fordham,
297-299
Prunus amygdalus, 222
— armeniaca, 222
— caroliniana, 234
— cerasifera, 243
— cerasus, 222
— domestica, 225
— dulcis, 222
— glandulosa var. sinensis, 238
— insititia, 243
— mume, 293
— persica, 224
var. nectarina, 224
— sargentii, 310
— subhirtella ‘Pendula’, 144
— virginiana, 215
Pseudolarix amabilis, 17
— kaempferi, 17
Ptelea trifoliata, 244
Puckoon, 173
Pueraria lobata, 291, 293
Pulmonaria officinalis, 188
Pumpions, 172
Pumpkins, 146, 172, 210
Punica granatum, 226
Purple Loosestrife, 131
Purslane, 201
Pyracantha, 219
Pyrethrum, 32
Pyrus communis, 225
— pyrifolia, cover 1, No. 6
Queen-of-the-Meadow, 74
Queen of the Prairie, 74
Quercus acutissima, 285, 292
— alba, 218
— borealis, 218
— coccinea, 219
— falcata, 242
— marilandica, 241
— nigra, 242
— phellos, 242
— prinus, 242
— velutina, 241
— virginiana, 242
Quince, 226
Quincy Estate, 157
— Miss Susan, 157
— President, 157
Radish, 146, 210
Ragwort, Golden, 228
Ramie, 292
Rampion, 210
Ramusio, Juan B., 21
Ranunculus, 192
Ranunculus aconitifolius, 193
— acris, 193
— asiaticus, 192
— bulbosus, 193
— gramineus, 193
Rape, 6, 231
Raphanus sativus, 16, 210
Raspberries, 226
Raspisberry, 226
Red Bay, 90, 243
Red-bud, 219
Red-Hot Poker, 128
Red Osier, 215
Red-satin Flowers, 216
Red-Wing, 350
Rehder, Alfred, 46, 116
Index I xxi
Review, Early American Gardens
“For Meate or Medicine”, Ann
Leighton, 140
— Ecological Studies, Analysis
and Synthesis, ed. J. Jacobs,
O. L. Lange, J. S. Olson, W.
Wieser, 302
— Flora of New Zealand, Vol. 2.
Indigenous Tracheophyta. Mo-
nocotyledons except Graminae,
Lucy R. Moore and Elizabeth
Edgar, 303
— Gardens, Plants and Man,
Carleton B. Lees, 141
— Hortulus, Walahfrid Strabo,
translated by Raef Payne, 85
— Methods of Hydrobiology,
Jurgen Schwoerbel, 369
— The Royal Botanic Garden
Edinburgh, 1670-1970, Harold
R. Fletcher and William H.
Brown, 371
— The Story of the Royal Horti-
cultural Society, Harold R.
Fletcher, 370
— Trees and Shrubs Hardy in
the British Isles, W. J. Bean,
84
— Wild Flowers of Greece, Niki
and Constantine Goulimis, 39
Rhamnus chlorophorus , 17
— davurius, 17
— tinctorius, 17
— utilis, 17
Rheum rhaponticum, 201
Rhododendron, 232, 333
— atlanticum, 232
— calendulaceum, 232
— canescens, 232
— indicum, 233
— maximum, 240
— nudiflorum, 232
— periclymenoides, 232
— prionophyllum, 232
— roseum, 232
— viscosum, 233
Rhubarb, 201
Rhus aromatica, 244
— radicans, 243
— succedanea, 12
— toxicodendron, 243
Ribes grossularia, 223
— nigrum, 246
— sylvestre, 222
Riceboro, 22
Robin, 349
Robinia hispida, 241
— pseudo-acacia, 218
Robinson Estate, 157
Roca-Garcia, Helen, The Lelacke
or Pipe Tree, 114-120
Weeds: A Link with the
Past, 3, Tansy, 38
Rochel, Anton, 118
Rocket, 193
Rosa, 219
— laevigata, 243
— palustris, 243
— spinosissima, 243
Rosalie, Baroness von Josika, 120
Rose, 219
— Cherokee, 243
— Scotch, 243
— Swamp, 243
— Wild, 243
— Campion, 130, 193
— Mallow, 79
Rosemary, 201
Rose of Sharon, 219
Rosmarinus officinalis, 201
Rouen, Botanic Garden of, 119
Royle, John Forbes, 1, 14
Rubia cordifolia var. munjista,
292
— tinctorum, 200
Rubus, 246
— idaeus, 226
Rudbeckia hirta, 173, 227
Rue, 201
— Meadow, 137, 190, 229
Ruellia, 18
Rumex acetosa, 202, 231
— patientia, 200
Ruscus aculeatus, 234
Ruta graveolens, 201
Rye, 212
Saffron, 201
— Meadow, 179
Sage, 201
St. John’s Wort, 216
sakura, 292
Salem Towne House, 160, 166
Salisburia adiantifolia, 18
Salix alba var. vitellina, 245
— babylonica, 245
— lucida, 83
XXii | ARNOLDIA
Sallad Tree, 214
Salvia officinalis, 201
— sclarea, 199
Sambucus canadensis, 223, 237
— nigra, 223
— rosea, 216
Sandpear, cover 1, No. 6
Sanguinaria canadensis, 173, 176
Sanguisorba officinalis, 199
Santolina, 28, 201
— chamaecyparissus, 201
Sapium sebiferum, 17
Saponaria officinalis, 227
Sargentiana exhibit, 321
Sargent memorabilia, 23
Sassafras albidum, 219
— - Swamp, 218
Satureja hortensis, 201
— montana, 201
Saunders, William, lOn
Saururus ceriums, 229
Savine, 220
— Tree or Bush, 220
Savory, Summer, 201
— Winter, 201
Sax, Karl, 47, 54
Scabiosa, 194
Scabiosa atropurpurea, 194
Scabious, Sweet, 194
Scilla nonscripta, 186
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, 61
Scuppernong, 238
Scurvy Grass, 231
Sea Hilver, 194
— Holly, 194
— Holme, 194
— lavender, 129
Secale cereale, 212
Sedum, 136
Sedum Brilliant’, 137
— Carmen’, 137
— ‘Indian Chief’, 137
— ‘Meteor’, 137
— spectabile, 136
— ‘Star Dust’, 137
Sempervivum tectorum, 200
Senecio aureus, 228
Senkei, 267
Sensitive Plant, 194
Serapio, 116
Service-bush, 243
Service tree, 220
Shadblow, 243
Shadbush, 90, 243
Shakespear’s Head, Garden at,
166
Shasta Daisy, 32
Sheepberry, 241
Shii, 292
Shiroguwai, 292
Shrine, China, 18
Shugart, S. T., 12
Siberian Iris, 127
— pea-shrub, 242
Siebold, Philipp Franz, 42
Silk tree, 290, 293
Silva of North America, 23
Silverbell, Carolina, 244
Silver Mound, 29
Sipi, 292
— acorns, 286
Siu, S. M., 271
Sium sisarum, 201
Skeggs, 187
Skirret, 201
Slieve Donard Nursery, 47
Smilax laurifolia, 90
Smith, Dr. Junius, 22
Smith’s Castle, 166
Smoketree, 220
Snake-head, 179
Snakeroot, 32
Snapdragon, 169, 194
Sneezewood, 77
Sneeze wort, 25
Snowdrop, 229
— Autumnal, 188
— Summer, 188
Snowdrop tree, 244
Snow-on-the-mountain, 73
Soap bean tree, 18
Soapwort, 227
Solanum lobulatum, 316
— tuberosum, 210, 211
Soliman, 20
Solis sponsa, 176
“Solitude”, seat of John Penn,
158
Solsequia, 176
Sophora japonica, 242
Sorbus torminalis, 220
Sorrel, 202
— Garden, 231
Sourwood, 244
Southernwood, 202
Spartium junceum, 215
Sparrow, English, 349, 357, 358,
360
Index I xxiii
— Fox, 350
— Vesper, 355
— White-crowned, 349
Spath Nurseries, 45
Spearmint, 201
Sperage, 203
Spice bush, 41, 220
Spiderwort, 138
Spinach, 212
Spinacia oleracea, 212
Spinage, 212
Spiraea, 244
— Frutex, 220
Spiraea salicifolia, 220
— tomentosa, 244
— vanhouttei, 167
Spring classes of the Arnold Ar-
boretum, 89
Spring Flower Show of Mass.
Horticultural Society, 315
Spring Flower Show of Worcester
County Horticultural Society,
315
Spring-Scent, 89
Spurge, 73
Squash, 172
— Summer, 212
Squirrel, Gray, 360
Stachys olympica, 28
Standish House, 161
Staphylea pinnata , 214
Starling, 357, 358, 360
Star of Bethlehem, 194
Starwort, 175
Stay-in-Place, 136
Steele, Sir Richard, 156
Sterculia platanifolia, 16
Sternbergia lutea, 228
Stewartia, 89, 244
— malachodendron, 244
— Mountain, 244
— ovata, 244
Stillingia sebifera, 17
Stock, 173
Stock-Gilliflower, 194
Stokesia laevis , 227
Stonecrop, 136
— Showy, 136
Stopes, Marie, 267
Stories of Ladies, 270
Story of Forsythia, The, Gordon
P. DeWolf, Jr., Robert S. Hebb,
41-61
Strawberries, 226
Strawflowers, 194
Sturbridge Village, see Old Stur-
bridge Village
Succory, 206
Sugi, 292
Sullivan, Sally Lindfors, Plants
in Early Japanese Poetry, 284
Sumac, Fragrant, 244
Sumacke, Venice, 220
Summerthing Bloom-in, 315
Sundrop, 133
Sunflower, 196
Sung Period, 270
Susuki, 293
— grass, 287, 292
Sutton, Stephanne, 23
Swallow, Barn, 355
Swamp Red-berry Bush, 245
Swedish East Indiaman, 21
Sweet Bay, 90, 218
— Fern, 238
— Gale, 244
— Gum, 220
— John, 168, 174
— Pea, 169
Annual, 230
Perennial, 196
— Pepper Bush, 236
— Shrub, 89, 234
— Spire, 244
— William, 168, 174
Sycamore, 220
Symphoricarpos orbiculatus, 236
Symphytum officinale, 200
Syringa, 220
Syringa ‘Adam Mickiewicz’, 125
— ‘Agincourt Beauty’, 121
— ‘Agnes Smith’, 121
— alba, 221
— ‘Alexander’s Attraction’, 121
— ‘Alexander’s Variegated’, 121
— ‘Alice Franklin’, 121
— ‘Alice Rose Foster’, 121
— amurense, 120
var. japonica, 120
— ‘Anna Karpow’, 125
— arabica, 255
— Arabica flore albo duplici, 218
— ‘Basia’, 121
— ‘Blue Delight’, 122
— ‘Bogdan Przyrzykowski’, 125
— ‘Bright Centennial’, 122
— caerulea, 221
Lusitanica, 116
XXIV I ARNOLDIA
— chinensis, 117, 119
— ‘Cynthia’, 122
— Danusia’, 122
— Dappled Dawn’, 122
— ‘Diana’, 122
— ‘Dr. W. Bugala’, 125
— ‘Dwight D. Eisenhower’, 122
— Eaton Red’, 122
— Elaire Brown Alexander’, 122
— ‘Eliose’, 122
— ‘Elizabeth Files’, 122
— ‘Esterka’, 122
— ‘Fale Baltyku’, 125
— ‘Far Horizon’, 122
— ‘Ferna Alexander’, 122
— flore albo simplici, 218
— ‘Florence’, 122
— ‘Galina Ulanova’, 125
— ‘Goplana’, 122
— ‘Gotensiia’, 125
— ‘Hagny’, 122
— Hazel’, 122
— ‘India’, 125
— Irene Karpow-Lipska’, 125
— ‘Ivan Michurin’, 125
— ‘Izobiliie’, 125
— ‘Jack Alexander’, 122
— ‘Jaga’, 122
— ‘Jagienka’, 122
— ‘Jill Alexander’, 122
— josikaea, 120, 115
— ‘Judy’s Pink’, 122
— ‘Jutrzenka Pomorza’, 125
— Kapriz’, 125
— K. A. Timiriazev’, 125
— ‘Kobierski’, 125
— Konstanty Karpow’, 126
— ‘Krasavita Moskvy’, 125
— ‘Kum-Bum’, 122
— ‘Leone Gardner’, 122
— ‘Leonid Leonov’, 126
— ‘Leon Wyczolkowski’, 126
— Lilian Davis’, 122
— ‘Lustrous’, 123
— 'Lynette Sirois’, 122
— ‘Malachow’, 126
— ‘Marshal Vasilevskii’, 125
— Mary Ann Gardner’, 123
— Mary Evelyn White’, 123
— ‘May Day’, 123
— ‘Mieczta’, 126
— Minister Dab Koeiol’, 126
— Mount Domogled’, 123
— Mrs. Charles Davis’, 123
— ‘Niebo Moskvy’, 125
— ‘Niewinnosc’, 126
— ‘Nike’, 123
— oblata, 120
— Old Fashioned’, 123
— ‘Olimpiada Kolesnikova’, 125
— Pamiat o S. M. Kirovi’, 125
— ‘Panna Dorota Golabeeka’, 126
— Persian, 221
— persica, 117, 118, 119, 221
var. laciniata, 118
— ‘Phyliss Alexander’, 123
— ‘Pioneer’, 125
— Piotr Chosinski’, 126
— Polly Stone’, 123
— ‘Pol Robson’, 126
— Pomorzanka’, 126
— Prof. Bialobok’, 126
— Prof. Edmund Jankowski’,
126
— ‘Prof. Hoser’, 126
— Prof. Josef Brzizinski’, 126
— Prof. Roman Kobendza’, 126
— ‘Ralph W. Stone’, 123
— ‘Rochester’, 123
— ‘Royalty’, 123
— ‘Rozana Mlodosc’, 126
— ‘Starlight’, 123
— ‘Stefan Makowieeki’, 126
— ‘Stropkey Variegated’, 123
— ‘Sumierki’, 125
— suspensa , 42
— ‘Sweet Refrain’, 123
— ‘Tadeiszko’, 126
— Telimena’, 123
— Tit Tat Toe’, 123
— ‘Violet Glory’, 123
— ‘Vivian Christenson’, 123
— vulgaris, 116, 118, 119
— — Rochester’, 124
— ‘White Sands’, 123
— ‘Woodland Blue’, 123
— ‘Zarya Kommunizma’, 125
— ‘Znamia Lenina’, 125
Tachibana, 292
Tagetes erecta, 169, 190
— patula, 169, 190
Tail flower, 291 , 293
Taipings, China, 5
Takashima, Takakone, 264
Taku, 292
— fibers, 280
Tanacetum vulgare, 37, 202
Index
Tanager, Scarlet, 353
T’ang dynasty. 20
— Period, 271
Tansy, 37, 202
Tappan Reeves Law Office, 166
Taraxacum officinale, 205
Tares, 231
Tarragon, 202
tatibana, 287, 292
Taxoclium distichum, 237
Taxus baccata. 245
Te, 20
Tea cultivation, 1-18
Tessai, Tomioka, 264
Teucrium chamaedrys, 184
Thalictrum ‘Album’, 137
— aquilegifolium, 137, 191, 229
— caroliniana, 138
— dipterocarpum, 137
— flavum , 190
— ‘Hewitt’s Double’, 137
— montana , 138
— rochebumianum, 137
Thermopsis, 137
Thorn, Great-fruited, 244
— Large-berried. 244
Thornapple, 196
Thrasher, Brown, 350, 351, 359
Three-chestnut. 292
Throatwort. Great, 175
— Nettle-leaved, 175
Thrushes, Mimic, 350
Thuja , 10, 13. 18, 297
— occidentalis, 214
— orientalis , 18
Thunberg. Carl Pehr, 42
Thyme, 202
— Garden, 202
Thymus serpyllum , 202
— vulgaris, 202
Tiarella cordifolia, 228
Tickseed, 33, 228
Tilia americana , 240
— europaea , 217
Time, 202
Toad Flax, 196
Tobacco, 168. 202
Tomato, 196
Torch-Lily, 128
Towhee, 354
Trachycarpus excelsus, 17
— fortunei , 3. 17
Tradescantia, 138
— ‘Blue Stone’, 138
— Iris Prichard’, 138
— ‘J. C. Weguelin’, 138
— ‘Purple Dome’, 138
— Red Cloud’, 138
— ‘Snowcap’, 138
— virginiana, 138
T rapa japonica, 292
Tree shrine, China, 18
Trefoil, 244
Tribune Horticale, 268
Tricolor, 174
Trifolium, 18
Triticum, 205
— aestivum, 212
Trollius europeus, 230
Tropaeolum majus, 191
Trumpetcreeper, 221
Tsubura-jii, 292
Tsuga canadensis, 216
Tsurezure Gusa, 264
Tulipa clusiana, 196
— gesneriana, 196
Tuliptree, 221
T’ung-oil, 8
— tree, 12, 16
Tupelo, 233
— Black, 233
Turkey-hen flower, 178
Turkish Elderberry, 114
Turkisher Holunder, 114
Turnip, 16, 212
Turnip radish, 16
Turtlehead, 230
Typha latifolia, 228
T’zu-Hsi, Empress, 271
Ulmus alata, 237
— americana, 237
Ume, 293
U.S. Expedition to Japan, 268
Uyeki, Homika, 54
Vaccinium macrocarpon, 246
— oxycoccus, 236
— vitis-idaea, 236
Vahl, Martin, 42
Valerian, 197
— Great Wild, 197
— Official, 197
— Red, 197
Valeriana officinalis, 197
Van Cortlandt Manor, 158
Vandalism, 314
van Melle, P. J., 42
XXVi | ARNOLDIA
Van Rensselaers, estate of, 158
Varin, Jacques, 119
Varnum Gardens, 166
Vaughan plan of Mt. Vernon, 153
Veitch Nurseries, 42
Verbascum blattaria , 191
— thapsus , 191
Veronica maritima, 230
Vetch, 231
Viburnum acerifolium , 244
— Blackhaw, 238
— cassinoides, 245
— dentatum , 232
— lentago, 241
— Maple Leaf, 244
— opulus var. roseurn , 216
— plicatum, ‘Mariesii’, 329
— prunifolium , 238
Vicia sativa, 231
"View of the Seat of Colonel
Boyd, Portsmouth, 153
Vigna sinensis, 231
Vinca minor, 229
Vining, Donald M., Bonsai: Na-
ture in Miniature, 274
Viola odorata , 197
— tricolor, 191
Violet, 197
— Dogtooth, 182
— Great Late-flowering Bulbous,
188
— Sweet, 197
Virginia Bluebells, 230
— creeper, 221
— silk, 219
— Willow, 244
Virgin’s Bower, 236
Viscaria vulgaris, 227
Vitamin C, 6
Vitex agnus-castus, 234
Vitis rotundifolia, 238
— vinifera, 223
von Degen, A., Dr., 50
Walahfrid Strabo, 37
Wallflower, 194, 197
Walnuts, 226
Waltham House, 157
Wanton-Lyman-Hazard House,
166
Warbler, 350, 351, 355
— Yellow, 352
Washington, George, 119, 157
Washington Thorn, 238
Water Beech, 220
Water-chestnut, 286, 292
Watermelon, 208
Wax Insect Tree, 17
— Myrtle, 90, 214
— plant, 12
Waxwings, Cedar, 348. 350
Wayside Gardens, 47
Weather data, Arnold Arboretum
Oct., Nov., Dec., 1970, Jan.
1971, 38
Weather Station Report
July 1, 1970 to June 30. 1971,
368
Weaver. Richard E.. Birds in the
Arnold Arboretum, 349
The Fothergillas, 89-96
Weeds: A Link with the Past, 3,
Tansy, Helen Roca-Gareia, 37-
38
Welles-Shipman House, 166
Wentworth, Governor, 119
Weston, Richard, 118
Wheat, 212
— rust, 173
Whipple House, 166
White-Hall, 166
Whitlow Grass, 230
Wicks, Johonet, Japanese Garden
of, 283
Wild orange tree, 287
Williams, S. Wells, 10
Willow, Virginia, 244
— Weeping, 245
— Yellow, 245
Wilson, Ernest H., 137, 274
Windflower, 174
Winslow House, 163
Winter Aconite, 174
Winterberry, 172, 173. 174, 245
Wintersweet, 245
Wister, John C., and Joseph
Oppe, 1970 Lilac Registrations,
121-126
Wisteria, American. 245
Wisteria frutescens, 245
Witch alder, 89
Witch-hazel, 89, 93, 94, 221
Withered, 245
Woad, 202
Wolfsbane, 174
Woodpecker, Downy, 69. 349
Wood-oil, 8
Worcester County Horticultural
Show, 315
Wormwood, 28
Wu-t’ung, 9
— tree, 8
Wu Yee-sun, Mr., 271
Wyman, Donald, Dr., Receives
Scott Award, 300-301
Yamanako and Company, 268
Yam, 231
Yang Mae Tree, 16
Yang-mei, 8
Yarrow, 25, 26, 197, 202
Yaupon, 234
Yew, 245
Index | xxvii
— English, 245
— Japanese, 167
Yose-ue, 277
Yoshida, Kenko, 264
Yucca, 197
Yucca gloriosa, 197
Zabel, Hermann, 45
Z anthoxylum piperatum forma
inerme, 292
Zea maize, 205
— mays, 206
Zeami, 265
Zinnia, 168
Zuccarini, Joseph Gerhard, 42
Contents
Robert Fortune and the Cultivation of Tea
in the United States
ROBERT GARDENER
Notes on the History of Tea
GORDON DE WOLF, JR.
Weeds: A Link with the Past
3. Tansy
HELEN ROCA-GARCIA
Notes from the Arnold Arboretum
Perennials for Low Main-
tenance Gardening Part I
ROBERT s. HEBB
Arnoldia Reviews
ARNOLDIA is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum
of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Mass. 02130
Published six times a year: on the 15th of January,
March, May, July, September, and November
Subscriptions: $3.50 per year. Single copies, 60 cents
Photograph of Robert Fortune from Plant Hunting in China by
E. H. M. Cox, with permission of Collins Publishers, London, 1945.
On the cover: Firmiana simplex and shrine. China 1909. Photo by
E. H. Wilson.
Robert Fortune and the Cultivation of Tea
in the United States
From 1839 until the Department of Agriculture was consti-
tuted in 1862, the Commissioner of Patents in Washington was
responsible for organizing government aid and encouragement
to American farmers. In the discharge of this duty, the Patents
Office drew attention to foreign crops of economic value that
might be cultivated in particular areas of the United States.
Among such crops tea figured prominently. An experimental
tea plantation was privately established at Greenville, S.C., in
1848 and aroused considerable interest. The start of the ex-
periment nearly coincided with the outbreak of the devastating
Taiping Rebellion in China and prudent governments might
well decide to experiment with tea in their own territories. The
government of the United States was one such.
The Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the year
1855, on Agriculture,1 discussed the advantages of establishing
tea as an agricultural crop in some of the southern states and
advocated the project as economically sound. It summarized
the then current botanical knowledge of the tea plant, and
quoted from Robert Fortune’s analysis (published in his Three
Years’ Wanderings 2) of the tea plantations that he had visited
in China during the years 1843 to 1846.
On the 21st July 1857 the Honorable Charles Mason, Com-
missioner of Patents at the time, wrote to his customary seed
suppliers in London, the firm of Charlwood & Cummins of 14
Tavistock Row, Covent Garden, to inquire the probable cost of
about ten bushels of tea seed, and “the expenses that might
occur in sending an agent for the purpose of collecting the
same.” 3 The seed merchants stated that they would “consult
Dr. Royle 4 and Mr. Fortune,” and hoped to supply the informa-
tion in the next mail. They were as good as their word.
Fortune, who had returned to England eight months pre-
viously, from a visit to China on behalf of the East India Com-
1
Fig. 1: Robert Fortune, from Plant Hunting in China by E. H. M. Cox.
pany, collecting tea seed for the government plantations in the
Himalayas, was visiting friends and relations in Scotland.
Within a week the firm had got in touch with him, and on the
17th August they forwarded to Washington a copy of the pre-
liminary letter he had addressed to them from Scotland. “No
one in this country is so competent to give an opinion as Mr.
Fortune,” was their comment on this letter.
Fortune had written as follows:
Tea seeds are in great demand in India at the present time,
and I doubt if a large supply could be obtained from that
country. The finer varieties introduced by me from China,
certainly could not be spared, and I would not advise the
American Government to introduce and propagate inferior
kinds. The best way would be to follow the example of the [
Fig. 2: Trachycarpus fortune!. China. Hemp Palm valuable for its fiber.
Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1911.
km
4 | ARNOLDIA
East India Company and introduce the best kind from China
direct.
The plan proposed in your letter, viz. “to send the seeds
in tin cases” would not succeed. From long experience I have
found that these seeds, like acorns, chestnuts etc., retain their
vitality for a very short time when out of the ground; — cer-
tainly not one in a thousand would vegetate on reaching
America. Any money spent upon an experiment of this
kind would only be thrown away.
You will find in my Journey to the Tea Countries of China
and India, the plan I adopted with good success whilst en-
gaged in introducing the Tea plant to India. If the Ameri-
can Government is determined to give the matter a fair trial
and wishes to spend a reasonable sum to insure success I
would have no objection to take the business in hand, and
from the experience I have here, would most likely bring it
to a successful issue.
Three days after sending this letter to the Commissioner of
Patents, Charlwood & Cummins were reporting
We have had an interview with Mr. Fortune, and he informs
us that he would accept the same terms from you, that he had
from the East India Company, which was £500 per annum
and all expenses paid, which would amount to about £700 addi-
tional: for this he would procure the best varieties of Teas.
It would be too late this season as they ripen in October. He
should leave this [? sc. country] in March and he would be
able to get the seeds down from the North 5 of China to the
Port of shipment in November or December, and he would
arrive in America (several shipments being made by various
vessels) during April or May. Thus 20 or 30 (or more)
Ward’s cases could be sent each containing seeds enough to
produce say 2000 plants. This could be effected during the
year and Mr. Fortune assures us this way only (that is by
the seeds being placed in soil in Ward’s cases) is there any
chance of success. . . . Should you therefore entertain the
project of sending an agent — you can let us know whether
we might engage Mr. Fortune, as we know of no other man
so capable or experienced to carry out your views in this mat-
ter. 0
Fortune was engaged; and he proceeded to arrange the broad
plan of itinerary and shipments. Seeds and living plants were
to be divided among several vessels, to reduce risk of loss.
Cultivation of Tea | 5
Should direct sailings to eastern seaports in the United States
be insufficient, the Cape route to Europe could be used, with
trans-shipment in the United Kingdom being handled by the
U.S. Government agent in London, located in Henrietta Street,
now W. 1. After despatching the collections from China, For-
tune was to take the ‘overland’ route through Suez. The quick
passage across the Indian Ocean, before the south-west mon-
soon broke, and a summer crossing of the North Atlantic, would
save weeks on the journey from China to Baltimore round Cape
Horn or the Cape of Good Hope.7
Fortune left England on the 4th March 1858 on his fourth
journey to China. It has attracted singularly little attention at
any time. For information regarding it, we are almost entire-
ly dependent on the letters from Charlwood & Cummins al-
ready quoted, and from the series of Fortune’s letters to the
Commissioner of Patents,8 both sets preserved and available
only in the National Archives in Washington. Perhaps for this
reason, the cardinal importance of the journey, as the occa-
sion of direct introduction of various Chinese ligneous and other
species into the United States, has been consistently overlooked;
and to place it on record, while giving a full account of the
journey, is the principal purpose of this paper.
Fortune’s reports to Washington do not state precisely where
he went in the course of seven or eight months of active col-
lecting. It seems likely that he made straight for his old haunts
in Chekiang. The Taipings during 1858 held little more than
the Lower Yangtze valley west of the Grand Canal. Pressure
on them there had been somewhat relaxed as a consequence of
the Anglo-French military operations against the Manchu gov-
ernment in North China. The more considerable operations
of 1859-60 were to leave a way open for the rebels to overrun
almost the entire province of Kiangsu south of the Yangtze,
save for Shanghai itself, and again to extend their raids into
Chekiang and Kiangsi. However, 1858 was a year of relative
quiet. Fortune expressly states “the unsettled state of the coun-
try does not interfere with my plans in the slightest degree.
Everywhere the people receive me kindly and Wellcome (sic)
me back amongst them.”
He wrote this from Shanghai on the 10th August 1858 as
part of his first report to the Commissioner of Patents. Ac-
companying it were three packets of seed which he thought
“may prove worth cultivation in the U.S.” Two contained varie-
ties of the Chinese tumip-radish. The larger, and more par-
ticularly commended, contained seed of the Brassica chinensis
6 | ARNOLDIA
which he had already advocated for English and for Indian use
because of the oil expressed from its seeds. He wrote to Mr.
Holt that this variety of mustard or rape (reduced under Bras-
sica campestris L., in the Index Florae Sinensis, Part I, p. 46,
by Forbes and Hemsley) “is probably superior to the varieties
cultivated in Europe, both in production of and in the value of
the oil. The Chinese esteem it highly for burning in lamps, as
well as for culinary purposes; the Ningpo ladies use it as a
hair-oil.” Word of a novel, even if possibly somewhat inflam-
mable, dressing for the hair might have seemed welcome to the
Patents Office of a generation overly dependent on macassar
oil. Scientists at a later time might appreciate that there is a
scientific reason hidden in the Chinese esteem for its unpre-
possessing loose-leafed appearance as a vegetable. It is an ex-
cellent source of the anti-scorbutic Vitamin C.
As to the main task of the journey, Fortune reports:
I have visited various great tea districts, and made my ar-
rangements with the natives for large supplies of Tea and
other seeds and plants at the proper season. I am now doing
the same in the country about Shanghai, & if my health does
not fail me, I hope to send you abundant supplies of inter-
esting things during the autumn and winter. I am also em-
ployed in getting Wards cases made for their transmission.
After this letter, he again disappeared from view for nearly
four months. He was making the round of the tea-farms that
he had visited in the summer, to collect the seed that he had
ordered. His transactions of former years, just and liberal, and
the respect and liking in which he was held, now brought their
material advantage. The seed had been saved for him, it was
waiting and ready, and he had only to pick up the supply and
go on his way. A quantity such as had taken him three years
to procure, in his journeys for the East India Company, he now
obtained in one season. Early in December, he was back in
Shanghai, ready to start packing his autumn collections, and
despatching them in successive shipments.
By an ingenious refinement of his former method, he now
regulated the time of germination of the tea seeds sown in his
glazed Wardian cases. They were not to sprout until late May
or early June, when he was due in Washington to see to their
replanting. Hence those in the first shipments were covered
heavily with earth, to keep them dormant, and those of later
shipments were covered lightly, to allow of early quickening.
Cultivation of Tea [ 7
Fig. 3: Camellia sinensis from Medicinal Plants by Bentley and Trimen,
London, 1880.
8 | ARNOLDIA
The first shipment was on the 6th December, five cases in all.
One was a box of tea seeds which, his report to Mr. Holt states,
were “packed in earth in the manner recommended by you in
one of your earlier letters.” Fortune evidently did not trust this
variation or experiment. He never used it again. For the rest
of this shipment, and for all subsequent ones, he reverted to
the glazed Wardian cases, in which the seeds were sown thickly
in damp earth, to germinate in the salt-excluded equable mois-
ture thus generated. In addition to several plants of the yang-
mei or Chinese strawberry tree ( Myrica nagi Thun. syn. rubra,
whose value Fortune rated higher than did the rest of the
world), the seeds of two interesting introductions accompanied
the tea in the cases of the first consignment.
One was the t’ung-oil or wood-oil tree familiar to him from
previous visits to China, Aleurites fordii, that he had attempted
to promote for Indian acclimatisation. In America, as in India,
he was unsuccessful in pressing the need to grow this hardy
tree. The importance of the oil to commerce was barely realized
in the 1850s. Yet Fortune was only a little too early in his ad-
vocacy. Within decades t’ung oil was a substantial item of for-
eign export from the Yangtze valley; and in 1901 the botanist
David Fairchild, in the course of a round-the-world trip or-
ganized by the Department of Agriculture, visited Canton and
observed the use of the oil as a ship’s varnish and an ingre-
dient in caulking material. As a result, he arranged for a supply
of seeds to be sent to the U.S., where the tree was re-introduced
in 1904, and successfully established thereafter in southern
plantations.
The Chinese call Aleurites fordii the wu-t’ung tree. Popular
names are part of the folk-lore of the race. They are no more
likely in China than in England or America to distinguish bo-
tanical species; and they frequently confuse them. There is
more than one kind of tree called wu-t’ung. Another of them
happened to be included in this first shipment. Artistically,
though not commercially, it was more important than the t’ung-
oil tree. Fortune did not mention its botanical name. He mere-
ly called the seeds those of the “oo-dung an ornamental tree.”
Oo-dung is wu-t’ung, in this case Firmiana simplex, a tree of
stately height, fine bark, and noble foliage and flower. The yel-
low flowers, though individually small, create a striking effect
through being displayed on compound racemes eighteen inches
long and nine inches wide. The seeds are enclosed in long pods
that taper to a beak at one end. The leaves (in respect of
which the former botanical name Sterculia platanifolia was
T
Fig. 4: Boehmeria nivea. China. A valuable textile fiber plant.
Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1910.
more descriptive) have sometimes three and sometimes five
lobes. The character wu describes these features of leaf and
seed-pod, for it is made up in part of the characters for “five”
and “mouth.”
According to the Chinese, Firmiana is the tree in whose
branches the phoenix loves to perch — the bird of happiness
and renewal. Their proverbial rhyme, roughly translated runs:
In gardens where no wu-t’ung grows
There is no calling the phoenix to come.
1 0 | ARNOLDIA
If Fortune knew of that saying, he did not mention it to Mr.
Holt in commendation of the tree. The visual appeal sufficed.
The phoenix tree had been known in England for a hundred
years, having been introduced from Japan in 1757; and it was
being grown in Kew Gardens by 1789. It flourishes in a Mediter-
ranean climate of dependable summer warmth and sun fol-
lowing a mild winter. Gardens and public places of Virginia
and South Carolina (where recently there were numerous very
old trees) and New Orleans may have owed some of their beauty
to Fortune’s shipments (for there were several), notwithstand-
ing the Civil War.
There were half-a-dozen more shipments of tea seed planted
in Wardian cases, and of miscellaneous seeds and plants that
winter, until the last on the 19th February 1859. Apart from
a new Thuja and further supplies of Firmiana simplex, the
trees were mostly those well-known to Fortune from his dis-
coveries in earlier years. Several of the species had been rec-
ommended for trial in America by S. Wells Williams, the
missionary, linguist, man of letters, and botanist, in Canton,
writing to the American representative in China in 1850. 9 The
Patents Office was thus already aware of their importance.
To receive the products of Fortune’s expedition, a five-acre
plot in a central position in Washington had been acquired in
1858, and heated greenhouses had been constructed on the site.
This plot was called the Government Experimental and Propa-
gating Garden.*
One of its main purposes, from the outset, was to raise seeds
and plants, of whatever provenance, for transmission to locali-
ties thought suitable for their exploitation. This work is dis-
cussed in the Annual Reports of the Patents Office, and subse-
quently of the Department of Agriculture.
Fortune left Shanghai early in March 1859, well pleased
with the kinds and quantities that he had shipped. He had
* The United States Experimental and Propagating Garden was set up
in 1858 under the aegis of the Patents Office on five acres of land on
Missouri Avenue between Four-and-a-Half and Sixth Street. When the
Department of Agriculture was separated from the Patent Office the
garden was turned over to the new department. The first superintendent
under the Department of Agriculture, William Saunders (1822—1900), com-
plained that when he took over in 1862 he did not receive the records
of what was growing in the garden.
In 1867 the Department of Agriculture moved to a new building
erected for it west of the Smithsonian Institution. The grounds around
the building were placed under Saunders’ charge and were to be de-
veloped as an Arboretum. — Eds.
Fig. 5: Abutilon avicennae. China. Cultivated for fiber which is used
for making ropes and coarse sacking. Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1910.
made a significant selection, and had sent, as the list in the
appendix will show, a tried collection of highly ornamental and
very useful plants whose value and adaptability he had proved
over the years. As for the principal object of his journey, his
final report from Shanghai, dated the 19th February 1859,
stated that should the season’s consignment reach Washington
in good condition “the produce from the tea-seeds alone will
render that plant common in every garden in America.”
Enough seed, giving over 32,000 plants,10 was flourishing in
12 | ARNOLDIA
the Propagating Garden that summer, and enough enquiries
were coming in from potential growers, to justify his enthu-
siasm.
Travelling by the ‘overland’ route through Egypt from Suez
to Alexandria by way of Cairo, Fortune expected to take ship
from England to reach Washington late in May. However, in
London he was handed a letter from a new Commissioner of
Patents, S. T. Shugart, countermanding the plan to visit Ameri-
ca. Fortune’s disappointment was severe. His presence was
necessary to get the best out of his seedlings. There was the
strong desire to complete a horticultural mission.
As I have taken a deep interest in the success of this great
experiment, it would have afforded me much pleasure to
have given you the benefit of my experience in rearing and
transporting to proper sites the Tea and other useful produc-
tions I have sent you from China. The most difficult part of
this mission (namely the procuring and introducing these
seeds and plants) being successfully accomplished, it will
be a source of deep regret if the experiment should fail from
want of that experience which can only be acquired in the
country to which these plants are indigenous.11
But for the preservation of a number of Fortune’s letters in
the National Archives, there would be as little direct record of
his employment by the Patents Office, as there is of the reasons
for its curtailment — reasons which we can only surmise to
lie in a reduced appropriation for 1859. Not only is the series
of official letters addressed to Fortune absent from the files,
the Commissioner’s Report on Agriculture for the year 1859
(devoted largely to the inception of the Government Experimen-
tal and Propagating Garden) does not disclose, any more than
does the Report for 1858, that the “agent employed to visit
China for the purpose of collecting the seeds of the tea-shrub
and of other plants” 12 was Fortune; and in listing various
oriental trees and plants recently received, that must have come
from Fortune, mis-cites their origin. “50 plants of the Tung
Oil Tree,” “Oodung, and other ornamental trees,” “Rhus succe-
danea, wax plant,” and “The camphor tree, 21 plants,” are too
close to the lists referred to in Fortune’s letters, for their origin
to be doubted. Yet in each case they are stated to have come
from Japan! Thus, since the outset, confusion and mis-state-
ment have obscured the origin and introduction of several spe-
cies sent to the United States by Fortune. Only in referring to
Cultivation of Tea \ 13
an unidentified oriental Thuja does the report name him, by
saying: “Mr. Fortune states that, in China, it is the most orna-
mental of the species he has seen.” Fortune’s extant letters to
the Patents Office do not contain this remark (though they
record the despatch of a Thuja sp.); but the series is not com-
plete.
The Secretary of the United States Agricultural Society, writ-
ing soon afterwards, had an acid comment to make on the
circumstances of the mission. His account of the Introduction
of the Tea Plant 13 opened with the statement “Twenty-six
thousand Tea Plants, either imported or raised from imported
seed, have been distributed during the past spring by the Patents
Office, and the experiment of acclimatizing this valuable pro-
duction will doubtless be fully and fairly tried.” It went on to
say that the Commissioner of Patents had engaged Fortune to
visit China, to procure plants and seed for the United States,
and had terminated his employment when he was in London on
his way to Washington; and added, “It is to be hoped that this
dismissal really arose from a desire on the part of the govern-
ment to economize, and not from the jealous fears of any
subordinate official that Mr. Fortune would receive the honors
attendant on the successful introduction of the tea plant.”
When Fortune’s letter after dismissal reached Washington,
there was still another Commissioner of Patents. The new ap-
pointee, D. D, Bishop, accepted Fortune’s claim for six months’
salary in lieu of notice, provided Fortune would answer a de-
tailed questionnaire on the raising of tea. The completed docu-
ment in the National Archives, headed Interrogatories concern-
ing the culture of the tea plant in China ,14 affords an authorita-
tive and concise compendium on the cultivation of tea in China
and (Assam excluded) in India as of that date; and it was
briefly summarized, for the benefit of would-be growers, in the
Commissioner’s Report on Agriculture for 1859.
If the Civil War was the prime reason for the failure of For-
tune’s tea experiment, the same political vortex was probably
responsible for stifling another plan that his employment had
suggested. Proposals for conserving his collections were being
prepared in Washington almost before he had arrived in China.
One of them might have produced the National Arboretum
nearly seventy years earlier than the actual date of its founding,
1927.
There was a Botanic Garden in Washington that had been
established in 1850, but it was not available to supply the
Washington Park System with the large numbers of trees an-
14 ARNOLDIA
nually required to ornament the streets and parks. The Pa-
tents Office took advantage of the impending arrival of seed-
lings from China, to propose to the Secretary of the Interior 15
the establishment of nurseries for propagating all forest trees
likely to be hardy in the Washington climate, and, as an adjunct
or corollary, the establishment of an American arboretum to
display every tree and shrub native to North America. The
proposal was not then accepted; and when the Department of
Agriculture was formed in 1862 many of the functions of the
Patents Office were transferred to it — including further inter-
est in the suggestion.
William Gardener
Dowsings, East Mersea, Nr. Colchester
Essex, England
Notes I
1. 34th Congress, 1st. Session: Senate: Ex. Doc. No. 20.
2. London, John Murray, 1847.
3. Quoted. Charlwood & Cummins to Patents Commr., 10
Aug. 1857.
4. John Forbes Royle, M.D., F.R.S., (1799-1858). Surgeon,
H.E.I.C. Med. Service, Rengal, 1819. Curator, Bot. Gdn.
Saharanpur 1823. Ret. to England 1831, thereafter
serving H.E.I.C. as Reporter in India Products (i.e. se-
nior advisor on agriculture & forestry). “Illustrations of
the Botany of the Himalayas” 1834-8. Prof. Mat. Med.
King’s Coll. London 1837-56.
5. A term which, at this time, covered the provinces between,
roughly, southern Fukien and the Yangtze.
6. Charlwood & Cummins to Patents Commr., 20 Aug. 1857.
7. Letter from Fortune to J. Holt, Pat. Commr., 1 March 1858.
8. Dates, and place of origin, of these letters are:
i. 1 March 1858, from 1 Gilston Rd., Brompton, London,
(in reply to letters of 4th and 8th Feb. 1858, not
traceable in Nat. Archives, from Patents Commr.).
ii. 18 Aug. 1858, from Shanghai.
iii. 6 Dec. 1858,
iv. 14 " " " "
v. 22 Jan. 1859,
vi. 25 " " " " , not traceable in Nat.
Archives.
vii. 19 Feb. " " "
viii. 24 May " , from 1 Gilston Rd., Brompton, London,
Fig. 6: Firmiana simplex. China. Three trees, seventy feet.
Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1910.
16 | ARNOLDIA
(in reply to letter of dismissal of 28 April 1859, not
traceable in Nat. Archives),
xi. 5 Aug. 1859, from 1 Gilston Rd., Brompton, London,
(in reply to letter of 7 July 1859, not traceable in Nat.
Archives ) .
9. Quoted Report of Pat. Commr. on Agriculture for 1850, pp.
450-453 (31st Congress, 2d Session: House of Repre-
sentatives: Ex. Doc. No. 32).
10. Report of Pat. Commr. on Agriculture for 1859, Experi-
mental & Propagating Garden, p. 2 (36th Congress, 1st.
Session: Senate: Ex. Doc. No. 11).
11. Letter listed Note 8, viii, above.
12. Report of Pat. Commr. on Agriculture for 1858, p. v (35th
Congress, 2nd Session: House of Representatives: Ex.
Doc. No. 105).
13. Journal of Agriculture, 1859, pp. 166-8.
14. Dated 6th Sept. 1859.
15. Commr. of Patents to Secretary of the Interior, 17 May
1858.
Notes II
Seeds sent to Washington from China by Robert Fortune, dur-
ing the winter of 1858/9, as mentioned in his extant letters
listed earlier (Bills of Lading not preserved).
Fortune’s descriptions
Brassica sp., “cultivated in
Chekiang for the oil ex-
pressed from its seeds.”
Turnip radish called “Lobba,”
two varieties.
Yang Mae Tree ( Myrica sp.),
“commonly called an arbu-
tus here, but really a Myri-
ca.”
Tung-oil Tree ( Eleococcus
oliifera ).
“ Oo-dung ” “an ornamental
tree.”
Revised nomenclature
Brassica chinensis L. = B.
campestris L.
Presumably hung lo-po and pai
lo-po, ‘red’ & ‘white’ turnip:
forms of Raphanus sativus
L.
Myrica nagi Thunb. syn. M.
rubra Sieb. et Zucc.
Aleurites fordii Hemsl.
Sterculia platanifolia L.f. syn.
Firmiana platanifolia (L.f.)
Schott et Endl. syn. F. sim-
plex W. F. Wight.
Fortune’s descriptions
Hemp Palm ( Chamaerops ),
“valuable for its fibre, a very
ornamental tree, and much
more hardy than any other
species of Palm already
known.”
Laurus camphora (Camphor
tree)
Stillingia sebifera (Tallow
tree)
“Both (sc. above) ought to
succeed admirably in the
United States, and both are
not only very useful but very
ornamental.” (Letter of
14.12.1858.)
Fraxinus sp. (Wax Insect
Tree)
Buckwheat ( Polygonum ) “sent
in the hope that it may prove
superior to that kind al-
ready in cultivation in
America.”
Rhamnus chlorophorus
Rhamnus utilis
“The two species yield ( to-
gether, sc.) the celebrated
green dye which has excited
a great deal of attention of
late years in Europe.”
Chinese Jute “a valuable
fibre.”
Cephalotaxus fortune! “an
ornamental yew.” This
species was introduced by
Fortune to England in
1849.
Abies Kaempferi “a very fine
new Cedar or Larch.”
Cultivation of Tea | 17
Revised nomenclature
The Chusan Palm, Trachycar-
pus fortunei H. Wendl. red.
T. excelsus H. Wendl.
Cinnamomum camphora T.
Nees & Eberm.
Sapium sebiferum Roxb.
Fraxinus chinensis Roxb.
Fagopyrum esculentum
Moench.
Rhamnus tinctorius Waldst.
et Kit.
Rhamnus davurius Pall.
Abutilon avicennae Gaertn.
Cephalotaxus fortunei Hook.
Pseudolarix kaempferi Gord.
syn. P. amabilis Rehder.
18 ARNOLDIA
Fortune’s descriptions
Fortune discovered this
tree in Chekiang and intro-
duced it to England 1853.
Coronilla sp. & Trifolium
“Cultivated extensively for
manure.”
Thuja sp. “an Ornamental
new Arborvitae.” 1
Ligustrum lucidum “a fine
Evergreen.”
Amaranthus (with variegated
leaves)
Cupressus funebris (Funeral
Cypress )
Cryptomeria japonica (Japan
Cedar) 1
Salisburia adiantifolia “a no-
ble and beautiful tree.” 1
Ruellia , producing the Indigo
of Chekiang. Specimens of
the plant from which the
fabric called “grass-cloth” is
prepared.
Soap bean tree “pods used as
soap.” 2
Revised nomenclature
Medicago denticulata Willd.
(Not positively identified)
[Apparently Thuja orientalis
L.]
Ligustrum lucidum Ait.
Amaranthus oleraceus L. var.
[? lividus L.]
Chamaecyparis funebris Endl.
Cryptomeria japonica (L.f.)
D. Don.
Ginkgo biloba L.
Polygonum tinctorium Ait.
Boehmeria nivea Gaud.
See Note 2.
1 Patent Office Report for 1859 records this species as grown in Gov-
ernmental Experimental & Propagating Garden that year.
2 The seeds or seed-pods of several species are used in China for soap.
Fortune’s is likely to be the Caesalpinia sp. (probably C. chinensis Roxb.)
that he sent from Central China to the Agricultural & Horticultural So-
ciety of India in 1854 and 1855. Gleditsia sinensis Lam. is a possibility.
Fig. 7: Ginkgo biloba and shrine, China. Tree eighty feet.
Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1908.
Notes on the History of Tea
It is surprising how incomplete our knowledge is. We are all
aware that we import coffee from tropical America. But where
do we obtain our tea? What is tea? From what plant does it
come? How long have we been drinking it? All these questions
passed through my mind as I read the manuscript of the pre-
ceding article. To answer some of my questions, and yours, I
gathered together the following notes.
The tea of commerce consists of the more or less fermented,
rolled and dried immature leaves of Camellia sinensis. There
are two botanical varieties of the tea plant. One, var. sinensis,
the original Chinese tea, is a shrub up to 20 feet tall, native in
southern and western Yunnan, spread by cultivation through-
out southern and central China, and introduced by cultivation
throughout the warm temperate regions of the world. The other,
var. assamica , the Assam tea, is a forest tree, 60 feet or more
tall, native in the area between Assam and southern China.
Var. sinensis is apparently about as hardy as Camellia japonica
(the common Camellia). The flowers are white, nodding, fra-
grant, and produced variously from June to January, but usually
in October. The name is derived from the Chinese Te. An alter-
nate Chinese name seems to be cha, which passed into Hindi
and Arabic as chha, anglicized at an early date as Chaw.
The United States consumes about 115 million pounds of
tea annually. The major tea exporting countries are India,
Ceylon, Japan, Indonesia, and the countries of eastern Africa.
Pakistan, Formosa and Argentina also export lesser quantities
of tea. It is interesting to note that southern Russia produces a
tea crop which is consumed domestically. Of course China also
produces a large tea crop which is not exported to any extent.
Tea was being prepared in China at least as early as the 4th
century A. D.; it was taxed as early as 793 (during the T’ang
dynasty). Introduced into Japan (as an article of commerce)
in the 9th century, it was cultivated there by about 1200 A. D.
An Arabian merchant named Soliman travelled to China
about 850 A. D. and in an account of his travels described the
use of tea in that country. Europeans, however, did not learn
20
ARNOLD ARBORETUM
HARVARD UNIVERSITY
ARNOLDIA
A publication of
The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University
VOLUME XXX
1970
PUBLISHED BY THE
ARNOLD ARBORETUM
JAMAICA PLAIN, MASSACHUSETTS
ARNOLDIA
Index to Volume 30
Illustrations are in bold face.
Abies concolor ‘Gables Weeping,’
251
Acer griseum, 26, 210
— japonicum & vars, 168
— nikoev.se, 168
— palmatum & vars., 169
— pensylvanicum, 169
— rubrum, 169
Acetaria, A Discourse of Sallets,
115
Acocotli, 129
Acocoxochitl, 131
Acoctoli, 133
Actinidia chinensis, 180—185
adhesives, 62-63
Ailanthus altissima, 170
Air Pollution, 40—44
Akebia quinata, 158
Albizia julibrissin ‘Ernest Wil-
sion,’ 252
Alder, Black, 172
Allium, 97
Alpine Gardens, Mt. Rokko, Ja-
pan, 19, 20
Amelanchier species, 169
American Gardener, The, 115
American Hemerocallis Society,
9, 19
American Museum of Natural
History, 77—79
Amur Cork Tree, 162
Amur River, 163
Andrew’s Botanist’s Repository,
137
Angelica-Tree, Japanese, 170
Aralia elata, 170
Arboretum Weather Station, 186
Arnold Arboretum Bulletin of
Popular Information, 1, 200
Aronia species, 171
Arsenicals, 44-45
Autumn Color, Trees, 168
Shrubs and Vines, 171
Autumn Flowers, Shrubs, 168
Autumn Fruits, Trees, 170
Shrubs and Vines, 172
Azalea border, 85
— Pinkshell, 171
Aztec gardens, 123-125
Azuma, 163
Baccharis halimifolia, 172
Radianus, Juannes, 125
— Manuscript, 126
Bagasse: Kraft Ayensee, 58-59
Barberry, Japanese, 172
— Korean, 172
— Warty, 172
— Wintergreen, 172
Barretto, Mrs. Gloria, 19
Basic Books for the Library, Gor-
don P. DeWolf, Jr., 107
Bayberry, 173
Beautyberry, Japanese, 172
Beech, European, 169
Bee tree, 91
Berberis julianae, 172
— koreana, 172
— thunbergii, 172
— verruculosa, 172
Bergenia cordifolia, 240
Berlin-Dahlen Botanic Garden,
166
Betula species, 169
binding leather, 59-60, 64
Birch, 169
— American, 169
Bittersweet, evergreen, 166
Black Haw, 172
Blueberry, 172
Bonsai House, 227
Bonsai, Rhododendron indicum,
227
Boston Climatological Data, Sum-
mary of, 191
Boston Ivy, 171
Boston Poison Center, 213
Botanical Collecting, Hong Kong,
9-19
Japan, 19-20
X
ii | ARNOLDIA
Korea, 19
Botanic Garden (Berlin-Dahlen),
166
(Harvard U. at Cam-
bridge), 166
Botanical Garden (City Univer-
sity of Osaka), 20
(University of Bucharest),
166
(University of Kyoto), 20
(University of Tokyo), 20
Botanical Institute of Leningrad,
166
Botanico-Periodicum-Huntianum
(B-P-H), 7
Bridalwreath spiraea, 172
Bromfield, Louis, 100
Brush chipper, 220
Burning Bush, 171
Bussey Institution, 97—98
Buxus, 15
Cabot Foundation, 98
Calcium arsenate, 44
Callicarpa japonica, 172
Camellia granthamiana, 10, 11,
12
Can Man Survive?, 77-79
Cape gooseberries, 180
Carbaryl (Sevin), 45
Card Index of plants, 81
Care and Preservation of Library
Materials, George H. M. Law-
rence, 56-66
Carissa grandiflora ‘Seminole
Queen,’ 251
Carya ovata ‘Holden,’ 251
Case Estates, 92-99, 166
temperature, 193
Case, Miss Louisa, 92
— Miss Marion R., 92
Castor-aralia, 171
Cavanilles, Antonio Jose, 122,
135
Celastrus, 98
Cephalanthus occidentalis var.
pubescens, 257
Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 169
Cercis canadensis, 169
‘Royal white,’ 252
‘Silver Cloud,’ 253
Chaenomeles, 97
Change of place for registration
authority for Ilex, 99
Cherry, Sargent, 169
Cheng, Peter, 15
Chinese Cork Tree, 163
Chinese Gooseberries, 180
Chionanthus virginicus ‘Floyd,’
253
Chokeberry, 171
Chung Chi College, 9-18, 22
Churchyard Yews and Immortal-
ity, The, V. Cornish, 140
Cibotium barometz, 13
City University of Osaka, Botani-
cal Garden, 20
Clark, William Smith, 163
Classes, Fall 1970, 197
— Spring 1970, cover 3, no. 2
Clematis dioscoreifolia var. ro-
busta, 172
— Sweet Autumn, 172
Climate at the Arnold Arboretum,
Alfred James Fordham, 186-
193
Cochineal insect, 134
Cockspur Thom, 170
Cocoxochitl, 129, 133
Coffee-Tree, Kentucky, 170
Cohuanenepilli, 126
Color charts, 83
Conifers, 27
Conservancy Society of Hong
Kong, 18
Conservation, Hong Kong, 18
Convent of Huaxtepec, 134
Coralberry, Chenault, 173
Cork Tree, Amur, 171
Cork Trees, The, Helen Roca-Gar-
cia, 162-166
Cornus florida, 169, 170
— sericea, 26
‘Flaviramea,’ 26
— stolonifera ‘Isanti’, 253
Coronilla varia ‘Penngift’, 158
Cortes, Hernan, 123, 125
Cotinus obovatus, 171
Cotoneaster, 172
Crabapples, 84, 94, 171
Crab Apples for America, 84
Cranberry Bush, American, 173
European, 173
Crataegus collection, Mainte-
nance and removal, 84
Crataegus crus-galli, 170
Index I iii
— lavallei, 170
— monogyna, 170
— nitida, 169, 170
— oxycantha, 170
— phaenopyrurn, 169
Crook, A. H., 22
Crop protection, 44
Cytisus praecox, 86
Dahlia, The: An Early History,
Paul D. Sorensen, 121—138
Dana Greenhouses, 186
Daphne burkwoodii ‘Carol
Mackie,’ 253
Darrow, George, 19
deCandolle, Alphonse, 136
Department of Public Health, 36
DeWolf, Gordon P„ Jr., and Sib-
ber, Mark, Yews in Fiction and
Fact, 139
DeWolf, Gordon P., Jr., 2
— - Basic Books for the Library,
107
— - What Can We Do About Pollu-
tion?, 33-55
— Suburban Economics, 175-
179
Dicofol, 45
Dillon, Gordon W., 2
d’Incarville, Father, 180
Dioscorides, 23
Director’s Report, Fiscal Year
ended June 30, 1970, 201
Disposal of solid wastes, 179
Diospyros virginiana, 170
Distribution of New Plants, 85—
89
Dogwood, Flowering, 169, 170
Drainage, 103
Draper, Henry, 94
dry mount, 63
Elaeagnus, Autumn, 172
— multiflora, 174
— urnbellata, 172
Elsholtzia stauntonii, 168
Ernmart, Emily, 126
Environmental Pollution, 33-55
Environment, Changes in, 176
— Early New England, 176, 177
' — Preservation of, 176, 177
Euonymus, 172, 173
— alatus, 171
- — fortunei ‘Coloratus,’ 158
— radicans var. vegeta, 166
— Winged, 171
Evenings with Friends II, 199
Evodia danielli, 170
— Korean, 170
Exochorda ‘Carol Ann Bianco/
254
Experimental Research, Case Es-
tates, 97
Fagus grandifolia, 169
— sylvatica, 169
Fall Classes of the Arnold Arbo-
retum (1970), 197-199
Farrand, Mrs. Beatrix, 85, 157
Faxon Drawings for Christmas
Cards, 195
Feder, Dr. William, 43
Ferns, Hong Kong, 21-22
Film preservation, 63—64
Fires, 84
Flemer, William III, Plant with
Nature, 100
Flora Japonica, 145
Flowering Plants of Hong Kong,
The, 22
Flower Shows, 91—92
Fluorescent light, 64
Food for Birds, 1 16
Fordham, Alfred J., 20, 182
— Climate at the Arnold Arbore-
tum, 186-193
— and Kennedy, Robert C., In-
ternational Plant Propagators’
Society, Nineteenth Annual
Meeting, 117—119
Fortune, Robert, 180
Fothergilla, 171
— major, 157
Foxing stain, 62
Frances Williams and her Gar-
den Adventures, Gertrude S.
Wister, 148-154
Franklinia, 168
— aiatamaha, 168, 169
Fung, Theresa, 18, 22
Galanthus caucasius, 78
Garden Club of America, visit to
the Arnold Arboretum, 243
Gardener’s Dictionary, Phillip
Miller, 144
IV ARNOLDIA
Genus Hosta in Swedish Gardens,
The, Nils Hylander, 150
George Robert White Medal, 156
Georgina , 136
Gerard, John, 24
Ginkgo , 169
— biloba, 169
Girdling Vines, 91
Gleditsia triacanthos, 170
Goat willow, 141
Golden-rain Tree, 171
Greenstone Pie, 185
Ground Cover plants, 95
Groundsell Bush, 172
Growing Season, 191
Gum, Black, 169
— Sweet, 169
Gymnocladus dioica, 170
Halesia monticola, 170
Hamamelis, 171
— mollis, cover 1, no. 2
— virginiana, 168
Handbook of Hollies, 67-71
Hardiness map, Arboretum, 83
Harvard University at Cam-
bridge, Botanic Garden, 166
Hawthorn, English, 170
— Glossy, 169, 170
— - Lavalle, 170
— Single Seed, 170
— Washington, 169, 170
Heat, library, 65
Hebb, Robert S., Notes from the
Arnold Arboretum, 25—26, 72-
74, 116, 168-173, 251-260
Helianthus tuberosus, 247
Hemerocallis, 9, 19, 20, 97
— minor, 19
Hemerocallis Society, 97
Hernandez, Francisco, 128
Hibiscus species, 207
Historia Naturalis, 115
History of Botany, 115
Hokkaido, 163
Hollies, 96
Holly, American, 170
— Japanese, 172
— Longstalk, 170
Holly, Yew and Box, W. Dalli-
more, 141-142
Holmes, Dr. F. W„ 38
Honeylocust, Common, 170
Hong Kong, 9
Flora of, 22
map, 16-17
Natural History Society, 10
Report from, Shiu-Ying Hu,
9-22
Horticulture at the Arnold Ar-
boretum, 1936-1970, Donald
Wyman, 81
Hortus Kewensis, 137
Hosta sieboldiana, 148
— sieboldiana, ‘Frances Wil-
liams,’ 152
— undulata, 149
Hosta plot, 98
Howard, Heman, 83, 138
Howard, Richard A., A Change
in Arnoldia, 1
Huango-po, 163
Huaxtepec, 124-125
Hupeh, Western, 163
Hu, Shiu-Ying, Report from Hong
Kong, 9-22
— Notes on the Genus Ilex Lin-
naeus, 67
Humidification, library, 65
Hunt Botanical Library, 2
Hurricane of 1938, 82
Hydrangea ‘Tokyo Delight,’ 20
Hylander, Nils, Genus Hosta in
Swedish Gardens, The, 150
Ichang Gooseberry, 181
leones et Descriptiones Planta-
rum, 135
Ilex aquifolium, 67—70, 69
— change in place of registration
authority, 99
— crenata, 172
— glabra, 172, 206
— International Registration, 99
— Linnaeus, Dr. Shiu-Ying Hu,
67-71
— X meserveae, 68, 69
— nomenclatural history, 67
— opaca, 170
— pedunculosa, 156, 170, 206,
211
— rugosa, 67—71, 68
— verticillata, 172
Illicium, from Hong Kong, 15
Imperial Garden (St. Petersburg,
Russia), 163, 166
Index ! v
Index to Arnoldia, 200
Industrial Pollution, 33-34, 38,
41, 43
Inkberry, 172
Inks, 60-61
International Plant Propagators’
Society, Nineteenth Annual
Meeting, 117—119
— Registration Authority for cul-
tivated Ilex, 99
Introduction and Distribution of
New Plants, 85
Jack, John George, 163
Jade Jewel, 184
Japanese Cork Tree, 166
Josselyn, John, 24
Judd, William H., 81
Juniperus ehinensis ‘Sargent!!,’
158
Jussieu, Bernard, 180
Kalmia latifolia, 207
Kalopanax pictus, 171
Katsura Tree, 169
Kennedy, Robert C. and Ford-
ham, Alfred J., International
Plant Propagators’ Society,
Nineteenth Annual Meeting,
117-119
Kew, 137
Kitamura, S., 19
Kiwi Fruit, 180-185
Upside Down Cake, 185
Koelreuteria paniculata, 171
Korea, collecting Hemerocallis in,
19
Kraft Aysensee, 58—59
Landscape architecture, see Plant
With Nature
Landscape planting. Ecological
requirements, 102
Landscaping, 84
Larch, Golden, 169
Lavalle Cork Tree, 163
Lawrence, George H. M., 2
— Dr. George H, M., Care and
Preservation of Library Mate-
rials, 56—66
Laws, Pollution, 35-36
Lead arsenate, 44
Leather binding, 59-60, 64
Lecture Series “Meet the Staff”
Spring 1970, 90
Fall, see Evening with
Friends, II, 199
Lee, J. B., 19
Legislation: Pollution, 34-37
Lespedeza bicolor, 168
Library collections, 2-8
Library of Congress, 6
Library materials, care and pres-
ervation of, 56—66
Lightning damage, 222, 223
Ligustrum species, 172
Lilies, 96
Linnaeus collection, 60—61
Liquidambar styracifl.ua , 169, 171
Liriodendron tulipifera, 102
— — ‘Ardis’, 254
Lonicera henryi, 158
Low Maintenance Garden, 93,
94, 234
Lycium chinense, 158
Lysichiton camtschatense, 20
Lysidice rhodostegia, 15
Macao, 180
Magnolia grandiflora, 12
■ — X loebneri, 95
— Star, 172
— stellata, 155, 172, 206
— Sweetbay, 172
— virginiana, 172
Maidenhair Tree, 169
Malathion, 45
Malus x adstringens ‘Kelsey’, 254
— — ‘Rodney’, 255
‘Sparkler’, 255
— ‘American Beauty’, 255
— ‘Cameron’, 255
— ‘Donald Wyman’, 116, 147,
256
— ‘Henrietta Crosby’, 94
— ‘Maybride’, 256
— ‘Pink Charming’, 258
— ‘Pink Perfection’, 256
— ‘Royal Ruby’, 258
■ — • sargentii, 167
— sieboldi, 147
— ‘Snowcloud’, 258
— I species and cultivars, 171
Manglietia fordiana, 12
Manuscripts: preservation of, 57
VI
ARNOLDIA
Mao-erh-tao, 181
Map, Hong Kong, 16-17
Maple, Fullmoon, 168
— Japanese, 169
— Nikko, 168
— Red, 169
— Striped, 169
— Swamp, 169
Map of grounds, 82
Martinus de la Cruz, 125
Massachusetts Agricultural Col-
lege, 163
— College of Pharmacy, 84
— Horticultural Society, 2
— laws, Pollution, 35—36
Maximowicz, C. J., 166
Medicinal plants. Garden of, 84
Mercer Research Fellows, 1970,
234
Merrill, Dr. E. D., 85
Merry, Mrs. Percy L., 97
Metasequoia glyptostroboid.es, 228
Methoxychlor, 45, 207
Meyer, F., 19
Mexican History (Botanical),
122-132
Microclimates, 187
Microfilm, 5, 58
Miller, Phillip, 144
Mint Shrub, 168
Moctezuma, 123-124
Moosewood, 169
Mountain-Ash, European, 169
— Korean, 169
Mt. Rocco, Alpine Garden, 19, 20
Mulch display plots, 94, 237
Myrica pensylvanica, 173
Nahuatl, 125
Nandina domestica ‘Moyer Red,’
259
Nannyberry, 172
Narcissus, 96
National Science Foundation, 8
Natural Cycle of Growth, 101
Naturalist in Western China, 163
Nepenthes, Hong Kong, 14
New England Rareties Discov-
ered, 24
New mulching materials, 94
New York Botanical Garden, Li-
brary, 6
Nomenclatural history of Ilex, 67
Nopal Cactus, 134
Norietis, Arturs, 186
Notes from the Arnold Arbore-
tum, 25-26, 72-74, 116, 155-
158, 168-173, 251-260
— on the Genus Ilex Linnaeus,
Dr. Shiu-Ying Hu, 67—71
Nuttall, Zelia, 123
Nyssa sylvatica, 169
Oak, Black, 169
— Pin, 169
— Red, 169
— Scarlet, 169
Olmsted, Frederick Law, 84
Orchids, Hong Kong, 15, 19
Origin of Cultivated Plants, The,
114
Ortega, 137
Over-pollution, 34-36
Oxydendrum arboreum, 169, 171
Ozone, Air pollution, 43
Palmer, Ernest, 83
— E. J„ 34
Pamphlets, Preservation, 56
Paper preservation treatment,
61-62
Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Ter-
restris, 115
Paris Green (copper aceto-arse-
nite), 44
Parrotia, Persian, 169
Particulates: Air Pollution, 41—
43
Parthenocissus quinquefolia, 158,
171
Passiflora, 128
Payne, C. Harman, 137
Pearfruit Cork Tree, 166
Penultimate manuscript, 57
Permanent nursery area, 95
Persimmon, common, 170
Pesticides, 44-46, 50-55, 178,
179
— Safe, 45-46
— Toxicity table and hazards,
50-55
Phellodendron, 162-166
— amurense, 162, 164-165, 171
— chinense, 162
— japonicum, 166
— lavallei, 163
— piriforme, 166
— sachalinense , 163
Phillip II, 128
pH in paper preservation, 58-59,
62, 65
Photo-chemical smog, 43
Photographic material: preserva-
tion, 57-58
Photoperiodic response, 101
Picea omorika, 72, 73, 206
Pieris fioribunda, 157, 206
Pigweed, 23
Pinus banksiana ‘Uncle Fogey,’
259
— flexilis ‘Scratch Gravel,’ 259
— ponderosa ‘Twodot Columnar,’
259
— strobus, Witches’ Broom seed-
lings on, 219
Planchon, Jules, 180
Plane Tree, 171
Plantago major, 23, 23-24
medicinal uses, 23, 24
Plantain, 23-24
Plant Distribution, 85
Plant Introduction Garden, Chi-
co, Cal., 182
Plant Registration — Notes from
the Arnold Arboretum, 251-
260
Plant with Nature, 100
Platanus species, 171
Platy codon, Hong Kong, 15
Pollution? What Can We Do
About, Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr.,
33-55.
Poplar collection, 84
Population, 175
— excess, 34-36
Portulaca oleracea, 114
Potassium lactate, leather preser-
vation, 59-60
Precipitation gauges, 192
Preservation of Library Materi-
als, G. Lawrence, 56-66
Pride, Mr. George, 97
Prinsepia sinensis, 94
Privet, 172
Problems in urban pollution, 33
Problems of Horticultural and
Botanical Libraries, John F.
Reed, 2-8
Index | vii
Protection of Crops, pesticides,
44
Pruning Exhibit, 91
Pruning program, 84
Prunus sargentii, 169
Pseudolarix amabilis, 169
Purslane, 114
Quercus coccinea, 169
— palustris, 169
— phellos, 102
— rubra var. maxima, 169
— velutina, 169
Rabbit damage, 207
Radiational cooling, 189
Rag paper, 59
Raup, Dr. Hugh M., 187
Real Estate Tax, 175—176
Redbud, Eastern, 169
Reed, John F., Problems of Hor-
ticultural and Botanical Libra-
ries, 2-8
— 2, 56
Rees, Abraham, Cyclopedia
(1819), 24
Rehder, Alfred, 183
Report from Hong Kong, Shiu-
Ying Hu, 9-22
Report of the Director, 201
Rerum Medicarum Novae His-
paniae Thesaurus, 129
Research, Staff, 1970, 215-217
Reviews, Dr. Alexander Garden
of Charles Town, Edmund
Berkeley & Dorothy Smith
— The Book of Spices, Frederick
Rosengarten, Jr., 29-31
— Can Man Survive? 77-79
— The Early Horticulturists,
Ronald Webber, 75—77
— Making Things Grow, Thalas-
sa Cruso, 28, 29
— Man, Nature, and History, W.
M. S. Russell, 120
— Orchids, Floyd S. Shuttle-
worth, Herbert S. Zim, and
Gordon W. Dillon, 159
— Oxford Book of Food Plants,
G. B. Masefield, M. Wallis, and
S. G. Harrison, 160
— A Photo Guide to the Patterns
of Discoloration and Decay in
Viii | ARNOLDIA
Living Northern Hardwood
Trees, Alex L. Shigo and Ed-
win vH. Larson, 196
— The Quest for Plants, Alice M.
Coats, 75-77
Rhododendrons, 84
Rhododendron carolinianum,
157, 206
— indicum Bonsai, 227
— periclymenoides, 158, 207
— prinophyllum, 158, 207
— schlippenbachii, 158, 207
— vaseyi, 158, 171, 207
— yedoense var. poukhanense,
86
Rhus species, 173
— aromatica, 158, 171
— copallina, 171
— glabra, 171
— typhina, 171
Roca-Garcia, Helen, Weeds: A
Link with the Past, 1. The
Plaintain, 23
— Weeds: A Link with the Past,
2. Purslane, 114
— The Cork Trees, 166
Rosa species, 173
— virginiana , 26, 172
— rugosa, 171
— wichuriana, 158
Rose, 173
— Rugosa, 171
— Virginia, 172
Roxbury-Dorchester Beautifica-
tion Program, 230-233
Rutaceae, 162
Safe Pesticides, 45
Sakhalin Cork Tree, 163, 166
Salix caprea, 141
Salt Pollution, 38-39
Sand, planting in, 105
Sargent, Charles Sprague, 1, 81,
182
Sassafras, 169
— albidum, 169
Sax, Dr. Karl, 85
Sciadopitys verticillata, 157, 206
Scorgie, Dr. Helen, 96
Seed collection, problems of, 87
Serviceberry, 169
Sevin, (Carbaryl), 45, 207
Sewage, 38
Shade Trees, Pollution of, 38—39
Short, Charles, 56
Shrub Bush-clover, 168
Silber, Mark and DeWolf, Gor-
don, Jr., Yews in Fiction and
Fact, 139
Silverbell, Mountain, 170
Small Tree Demonstration Plot,
95
Smog, Photo-chemical, 43
Smoke district, Boston & Vicini-
ty, 40-41
Snowberry, 173
Soil, Pollution, 37-4B
Sorbus alnifolia, 169
— aucuparia & vars., 169
Soot and Fly Ash, Air Pollution,
41
Sorensen, Paul D., The Dahlia:
An Early History, 121-138
Sorrel Tree, 169, 171
Sourwood, 169, 171
Sovasol, 207
Special Collections, Case Estates,
96
Spiraea prunifolia, 172
Stachys grandiflora, 238
Stephanandra incisa ‘Crispa,’ 158
Stewartia, Korean, 169
— koreana, 169
Strandell, Dr. Birger, 60-61
Sutton, Stephanne, Actinidia chi-
nensis, the Kiwi Fruit, ISO-
185
Suburban Economics, Gordon P.
DeWolf, Jr., 175
Sulphur Dioxide, 41
Sumac, 173
— Fragrant, 171
— Shining, 171
— Smooth, 171
— Staghorn, 171
Sweet-gum, 171
Sweetleaf, Asiatic, 173
Symphoricarpos albus, 173
— x chenaultii, 173
Symplocarpus foetidus, growing
in Japan, 20
Symplocos paniculata, 173
Syringa prestoniae, 94
— reticulata, 166
Taxation, 175-176
Taxes, 37, 39-40, 46
Taxus, 139-147, 173
— baccata, 141, 146
— brevifolia, 145
— canadensis, 144, 145
— cuspidata, 145
var. capitata, 145
— x hunnewelliana Rehder, 143
— x media Rehder, 143
Temperatures at Arnold Arbore-
tum, 189—193
— differences in, 192
— gradients, 189
Thesaurus, 129
Thiery de Menonville, Nicolas
Joseph, 134
Thouin, Andre, 136
Tokyo, University of, 163
Trees and Shrubs, Charles
Sprague Sargent, 166
Tree of Heaven, 170
Trees for your Community, 95
Tree Lilac, 163
Trips to Europe, 87
Trott, L., 15
Tsuga canadensis ‘Watnong Star,’
260
Tupelo, Black, 169
Union List of Serials, 7
University of Tokyo, Botanical
Garden, 20
U. S. Department of Agriculture
Bureau of Plant Industry, 182
Weather Bureau, 186
U. S. National Arboretum, 19
Vaccinium species, 172
Veitch nurseries, 181
Vellum-bound books, 60
Viburnum, 94
— cassinoides, 173
— dilatatum, 173
xanthocarpum, 172
— lantana, 172
— lentago, 172
— Linden, 173
— Mapleleaf, 172
— opulus, 173
— Orange-fruited tea, 173
— prunifolium, 172
Index | ix
— setigerum var. aurantiacum,
173
— trilobum, 173
— Yellow Linden, 173
Vinca minor, 148
Virginia creeper, 171
Von Siebold, P. F., 145
War Years, 84
Water Pollution, 37-40
Water resources, 178
Wayfaring Tree, 172
Walden, or Life in the Woods,
115
Weather data, Arnold Arboretum,
Jan. 1968— Nov. 1969, 26
— Dec. 1969— Jan. 1970, 74
— Feb. -Mar. 1970, 119
— April— May 1970, 154
— Aug.— Sept. 1970, 260
— summary 1969-1970, 199
Weather Station, 188
Weeds: A Link with the Past, 1.
The Plantain, Helen Roca-Gar-
cia, 23-24
— 2. Purslane, Helen Roca-Gar-
cia, 114-115
Weevil, white pine, 74
Weston Garden Club, 93
What can we do about pollution?,
Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr., 33-55
White Pine Weevil, 74
Witches’ Broom seedlings
on, 219
Williams, Frances Ropes, 148
Williams, Robert G., 85
Wildenow, Karl, 136
Wilson, Ernest H., 1, 20, 81, 145,
163
Winter in the Arnold Arboretum,
25-26
Winterberry, 172
Wister, Gertrude S., Frances Wil-
liams and Her Garden Adven-
tures, 148-154
Wisteria, 98
Witch-hazel, 168, 171
Witches’ Broom seedlings on
White Pine, 219
Witherod, 173
Woo, Ting-Kwok, 9, 12-13
Wyman, Donald, 1, 82, 183, 200
X ARNOLDIA
— Horticulture at the Arboretum,
1936-1970
— Mrs. Donald, 93
Yang-tao, 181
Yang-taw, 182
Yew, 173
Yews in Fiction and Fact, Mark
Silber and Gordon P. DeWolf,
Jr., 139-147
Yu Expedition, 86
Yung, C. T., 18
Zuccarini, J. G., 145
History of Tea [ 21
about tea until the publication of Juan B. Ramusio’s edition of
Marco Polo’s Travels in 1545.
It is not certain whether it was the Dutch or the Portuguese
who first introduced tea into Europe very early in the 17th cen-
tury. It was apparently first brought to the attention of the
(British) East India Company in 1615. Between 1615 and 1657
small lots of tea appeared in London (imported from Holland)
and sold for between £5 and £10 per pound. In 1657 the pro-
prietor of Garroway’s Coffee House obtained a large consign-
ment and began offering the prepared beverage for sale. In 1664
the East India Company presented two pounds two ounces of
tea to King Charles II, at a cost to them of 40 shillings per
pound. By 1677 the demand was so great that the East India
Company finally took steps to obtain a regular commercial
supply of tea.
From 1660 until 1689 the prepared beverage was taxed in
England at the rate of 8 pence per gallon. Beginning in 1689
a duty of 5 shillings per pound was levied, plus 5% ad valorem.
The taxes were gradually increased, until about 1770 when they
totaled 119% of the original value. It may be recalled that at
that period the tax on tea figured in certain disturbances in the
American colonies.
Tea was first known in the West only as dried leaves, and for
a considerable period the true tea plant was unknown to western
botanists. Apparently the first living tea plant in Europe was
owned by one Captain Goff, a director of the East India Com-
pany. It is recorded that he grew it in his orangery, and that
he would not part with any propagating material. In due course
of events his plant died and the species was temporarily lost to
cultivation in the West. In 1763 Carl Gustavus Ekeberg, the
captain of a Swedish East Indiaman presented Linnaeus with
seedlings of tea that he had germinated and grown on a return
voyage from China. Living plants were reintroduced into En-
gland about 1770, and Thomas Martyn records that they were
introduced into Georgia at about the same time. It is also re-
corded that the younger Michaux planted tea as an ornamental
in the gardens of the Middleton Barony, on the Ashley River,
about 15 miles from Charleston, S. C., about 1800.
Tea was introduced into Brazil. In 1810. In an attempt to
facilitate commercial production a colony of Chinese were
settled in southern Brazil also. By 1850 the Chinese colony had
broken up, but by then tea plants were widely distributed in
Brazil.
About 1835 the (British) East India Company began planta-
22 | ARNOLDIA
tion culture of tea in India. It should be noted that by this
time the Dutch had plantations in Indonesia which were pro-
ducing tea commercially.
Dr. Junius Smith, a lawyer who was one of the founders of the
British and American Steam Navigation Co., started a tea
plantation on his property near Greenville, S.C., in 1848. Un-
fortunately he died in 1852 and his plantings were neglected.
At about the same time a Dr. William Jones, in Riceboro (or
McIntosh), Liberty County, Georgia, set out a tea plantation.
In 1858 Robert Fortune was commissioned to obtain propagat-
ing material of tea, as is described in the preceding article.
Fortune sent about 10,000 tea plants which were increased to
30.000 in a short time. Tea seeds were also imported from
Brazil. These were distributed in the southeastern states until
the war brought an end to this activity. After the war fresh
supplies of seed were imported from Japan. In 1867 it was dis-
covered that seed could be obtained domestically from the plants
imported in 1858. Between 1868 and 1876 some 5,000 to
20.000 plants were distributed annually. Between 1877 and
1879 more than 100,000 tea plants were distributed. Apparently
the plants grew well, but none of the recipients seem to have
produced tea commercially.
In 1880 the Hon. W. G. Le Due, United States Commissioner
of Agriculture, engaged a Mr. J. Jackson, a British national who
had had experience in tea production in India, to set up a model
commercial plantation. The property formerly owned by Dr.
Jones, in Liberty County, Georgia, was purchased, and his
plantings were the source of samples of tea submitted to the
Commission that spring. Mr. Jackson also planted more than
20,000 more tea plants that first year.
In the United States tea culture was encouraged sporadically
by the government for the next thirty years but with little suc-
cess. After the publication, in 1912, of Bureau of Plant Industry
Bulletin No. 234 “The Cultivation and Manufacture of Tea in
the United States,” official governmental encouragement of tea
cultivation seems to have ceased.
Gordon DeWolf, Jr.
Bibliography
LeDuc, W. G., Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture . Appen-
dix: 35-45, 1880.
Martyn, T., The Gardener’s and Botanist’s Dictionary. London,
Rivington et al., 1807.
History of Tea ] 23
Mitchell, Geo, F., The Cultivation and Manufacture of Tea in
the United States, U.S.D.A., Bureau of Plant Industry Bul-
letin 234: 1-40, 1312,
Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1859-Agri-
culture: 1-22, 1860.
Saunders, W. Tea-culture as a Probable American Industry,
U.S.D.A. Special Report No. 18: 1-21, 1879.
Sealy, J. R., A Revision of the Genus Camellia. London, Royal
Horticultural Society, 1958.
Watt, G., Dictionary of the Economic Products of India. Cal-
cutta, Government of India Central Printing Office, 1889.
On December 14 a reception was held at the Administration
Building in Jamaica Plain for the Sponsors, Patrons and Donors
of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, to meet Miss Stephanne
Sutton, on the occasion of the publishing of her hook, Charles
Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum.
Miss Sutton was present to autograph copies of her book
while the Friends enjoyed refreshments and examined the dis-
plays of Sargent memorabilia. Examples of The Silva of North
America, The Forest Flora of Japan, Manual of the Trees of
North America, all by Sargent, were on display, as well as books
by Alfred Rehder, E. H. Wilson, George Russell Shaw, and
other contemporaries of Sargent. Also of interest were examples
of “Garden and Forest,” a journal of horticulture, with articles
signed “C.S.S.”
Another interesting item was a colored map of North Ameri-
ca showing natural divisions of North American forests, pre-
pared under the direction of C. S. Sargent.
A collection of photographs of remote parts of China and
Tibet, by Joseph Rock, Wilson, and others, were displayed, as
well as historic photographs of James Arnold, Joseph Rock,
E, H. Wilson, and C. S. Sargent and his family. It was an after-
noon of homage to Charles Sprague Sargent and of appreciation
to Stephanne Sutton for her fine book.
Notes from the Arnold Arboretum
Perennials for
Low Maintenance Gardening
Part I
Herbaceous perennials have a reputation for being difficult to
grow. Many of them are, and numerous favorites of long stand-
ing such as the Hardy Aster, Carnation, Delphinium, Lupine,
Bee Balm, Phlox, and others require time and effort if good re-
sults are to be achieved. Some must be divided frequently to
maintain robust vigor, others have to be staked or supported,
some have serious insect and disease problems, and many
simply do not live up to the promise of permanence so fre-
quently heralded in the catalogs.
The Arnold Arboretum constantly receives inquiries for lists
of dependable, hardy trees, shrubs, and ground covers, but few
people seem aware of the relatively long list of perennials that
adapt themselves well to shrub borders or foundation plantings.
In fact, there are enough of these perennials so that the old style
perennial border could easily come back to favor today if em-
phasis were placed on selecting those varieties which combine
the virtues of a long life with relative indifference to neglect.
This past autumn the Practical Gardening Class at the Ar-
nold Arboretum selected as a class project the renovation of a
part of the Low Maintenance Garden at the Case Estates. For
many years this garden has demonstrated that certain slow-
growing shrubs can be combined with herbaceous perennials
to make an attractive display. A number of the shrubs had
grown large, and we decided to remove some of these to ob-
tain space for displaying more of the perennials desirable in
low maintenance schemes. Selection of the best varieties re-
ceived much attention, and this article is an outcome of that
selection.
In this discussion a deliberate attempt has been made to
enumerate the disadvantages of many favorite garden plants,
and this must be done if one is to end up with a list of the
easiest types to grow. Catalogs of nurserymen have a decided
24
Low Maintenance Gardening | 25
tendency to emphasize the advantages of all their offerings;
for after all, nurserymen have to make a living, too. Most
popular books on perennials do list the drawbacks involved, but
this is frequently lost among lengthy descriptions and cultural
formulae. Some of the plants described here have few faults;
others will be dismissed in a seemingly harsh manner. Keeping
the above objectives in mind, it is hoped that this will not cause
undue alarm to that dedicated group of advanced gardeners
who take delight in growing the more difficult plants to perfec-
tion.
Achillea — Yarrow, Milfoil, Sneezewort
This genus of the Daisy family is for the most part easy to
grow and possesses the endearing ability to live on in spite of
considerable neglect. Almost all adapt well to poor garden soils.
In fact, average to poor soil which is somewhat on the dry side
is best for them, as rich moist conditions will lead to weak
growth and inferior flowers. The ability to withstand drought
in open sunny locations and the finely textured, fern-like foliage
which remains in good condition throughout the growing season
are other points in favor of this group. Perhaps their worst
fault is a tendency to spread rapidly by basal shoots, and ample
space must be allotted to them. A. ptarmica (Sneezewort) and
its various cultivated forms such as A. ‘The Pearl,’ A. ‘Perry’s
White,’ and A. ‘Snowball’ have definite invasive tendencies and
do best when divided every year. For this reason, despite their
value as cut flowers, they cannot be recommended here.
A. filipendulina (Fernleaf Yarrow) and its varieties and hy-
brids are decidedly the best for use in low maintenance type
plantings. The author’s favorite is a relatively new variety
called ‘Moonshine’ which has a neat, compact habit and is well
fitted for the front of the border. It grows to a height of only
eighteen to twenty-four inches and staking is not necessary as
is sometimes the case with the taller typical form of A. filipendu-
lina. The silvery grey foliage contrasts with the sulphur-yellow
flowers, which are borne over a long period of time in flat-topped
umbel-like inflorescences. Beware the glowing descriptions of
catalogs which describe this and other varieties as “blooming
from June to the very end of September.” This condition can
only be achieved by faithful attention to the removal of the
faded flowers. Few indeed are the perennials which are “ever
blooming” when left to their own devices.
A close second to A. ‘Moonshine’ is A. ‘Coronation Gold,’ a
taller and more robust form also with yellow flowers. A. ‘Gold
26 | ARNOLDIA
Plate’ and A. ‘Parker’s Variety’ are occasionally available. They,
too, fit into the above description and well-grown specimens
often have flower heads up to six inches across. All varieties
in this group provide good cut flowers which, if picked early,
can be dried for winter arrangements.
A. millefolium (Common Yarrow, Milfoil) is widely natural-
ized in this country and is occasionally grown in medicinal herb
gardens, but it is weedy and hardly worth the trouble in the
border. The same holds for A. millefolium f. rosea a form with
pinkish red flowers. Several improvements have been derived
from this, which can be recommended, and we see offered such
varieties as A. ‘Fire King,’ A. ‘Cerise Queen,’ and A. ‘Crimson
Beauty’ which have flowers ranging from rosy-red to very deep
pink. These grow to a height of one and a half feet and form
a rather dense mat of growth which is best divided every third
year. Apart from this, they require little additional attention.
A. ageratifolia and A. tomentosa are sometimes offered in
catalogs for use in the front of the border. These are at best
rock garden subjects, and of little use elsewhere.
Aconitum — Aconite, Monkshood
Plants which prefer to be left alone and which at the same
time do not outgrow their welcome must be considered valu-
able. When they also display attractive glossy foliage through-
out the season and provide conspicuous blue flowers which are
excellent for cutting, they deserve to be widely grown. Atten-
tion is focused from time to time on the poisonous nature of
the Monkshoods. Although it is true that no portion of the plant
should be eaten, it is unlikely that human beings would find oc-
casion to taste either the leaves or the roots of this plant. That
excellent ground cover, Lily of the Valley, produces rather con-
spicuous red fruits which are also poisonous, but this is seldom
held against it when planting time comes.
Monkshoods are sometimes planted near Delphiniums to
provide a similar vertical effect in late August and September
after the Delphinium fades. They resent hot summers and do
best in partial shade in slightly acid soil rich in humus. The
taller types often have to be staked to look their best, so choice
of a shorter variety is advisable where maintenance will be
minimal.
A. fischeri with violet-blue flowers stands sturdy and erect at
two and a half to three feet, whereas its variety A. fischeri var.
wilsoni towers to six to eight feet and requires support. A.
napellus, the English Monkshood, is quite variable with flowers
Low Maintenance Gardening | 27
ranging from blue to violet and its foliage is more finely divided
than the others. It, too, may require support.
The best of several cultivars of A. napellus is A. ‘Bressing-
ham Spire’ and although it is difficult to find, it is in the trade in
this country, and well worth the effort to locate. The flowers
are a deep violet-blue. The three-foot terminal spikes are fol-
lowed by several secondary spikes from halfway up the stem.
These prolong the flowering period by a few weeks and do not
detract from the upright “Gothic” form of the plant. As to stak-
ing, one well-known English writer states that the stems are
“strong enough to resist a tornado.”
Amsonia — - Amsonia
Amsonia tabernaemontana is an American plant native from
Pennsylvania to Florida and Texas. It has been neglected by
gardeners and yet it is one of the easiest plants to grow that
we have.
It is insect and disease free, slow-growing and never invasive,
does equally well in moist or dry soils, is easily transplanted,
never needs staking, does well in sun or partial shade (perhaps
a little better in shade), and the foliage remains in excellent
condition throughout the growing season. The tough stems are
said to be quite resistant to wind and the plant will thrive in
seaside gardens.
Perhaps this long list of virtues will pardon Amsonia for not
being the showiest plant in the border when in blossom. How-
ever, the steel-blue flowers in terminal panicles are most at-
tractive when at their best in May.
The plant usually attains a height of three to four feet and
a few nurseries list a “dwarf variety” of A. tabernaemontana
which grows from two to three feet tall. This latter is probably
not a variety at all, but another native species, A. ciliata, which
is suitable for growing at the front of the herbaceous border.
Anchusa — Alkanet, Bugloss
Some plants are best admired in other people’s gardens; per-
haps this is one. A. azurea the Italian Alkanet blooms for a
long period and has true-blue flowers, a color which is always
welcome. It is not particular as to soil, provided it is well
drained. However, while it requires no staking it is coarse and
bristly, and as it grows to a height of five feet, it is suited to the
back of the border only. After about the second year the plants
invariably start to deteriorate. It also has a habit of seeding in
and taking over territory not assigned to it, thus becoming a
28 ARNOLDIA
nuisance in a small garden. A. ‘Royal Blue’ is a dwarf three-
foot cultivar now available in this country. It appears to be a
vast improvement and if one must have Alkanet, this is the one
to try. It should not require staking, but will have to be divided
after the second or third year if it is not to peter out.
Anchusa mysotidifiora is listed in many catalogs. This is
properly Brunnera macrophylla (see below), a much more
worthy garden subject than the true Alkanet.
Aquilegia — Columbine
Unless one can provide excellent drainage, Columbines are
apt to be transitory in nature and of no value to those who have
little time to continuously replace plants. They should be tried,
however, for if they find conditions to their liking they seed in
over large areas on their own, and seedlings in any unwanted
places are quite easy to control. Many of the fancy long-spurred
varieties show a decided tendency to degenerate to all sorts of
“mongrels” when seeding occurs, but A. ‘Copper Queen,’ A.
‘Crimson Star,’ A. ‘Snow Queen,’ and A. ‘Rose Queen’ have the
reputation for reproducing surprisingly true.
Columbines have another bad feature which must be taken
into consideration if space is limited. Often they suffer from
leaf miners which are difficult to control and when the brief
show of flowers is gone, one is left with a not-too-beautiful dis-
play of debilitated foliage.
There are a large number of species and cultivated strains
to choose from. The alpine sorts are difficult and should be
avoided by the novice. A. ‘Mrs. Scott Elliot’ and A. ‘McKana’s
Giants’ are old favorites of vigorous growth and fairly easy cul-
ture.
Artemisia — Artemesia, Wormwood
Soft silver or gray foliage can be used in a number of ways
in the perennial border, either to provide notes of accent or as
contrast to such colors as blue, red, pink, or yellow. Of the
plants which possess this characteristic, Dianthus (Pinks and
Carnations) are difficult to grow in the Boston area and other
places where summers are hot and dry; Santolina is not reliably
hardy; Lavandula officinalis, the true Lavender, and its variety
L. officinalis var. nana and various hybrids will survive, but in
exposed situations they may require winter protection; Stachys
olympica and Cerastium tomentosum have excellent gray fo-
liage and are hardy, but both have definite invasive tendencies.
One variety of Artemisia is reliably hardy and very suitable
Low Maintenance Gardening | 29
for planting in low maintenance schemes. This is a cultivated
form of A. schmidtiana var. nana known as ‘Silver Mound.’ It
forms a rounded, mound- like plant about one foot high and
a foot and a half in diameter. One failing is that if planted in
too rich a soil, growth is lush and the mound of foliage flops
and opens in the middle. It would be best to consider this plant
where hot, sunny conditions prevail and soil conditions are
relatively poor.
A. albula ‘Silver King,’ and A. albula ‘Silver Queen’ are fre-
quently offered in catalogs. They form a mass of silver gray
leaves on stems two to three feet tall and provide excellent dried
leaves for winter arrangements. However, they are disappoint-
ingly short lived if not divided annually and they cannot tolerate
wet winters.
Aster — Hardy Aster
Hardy Asters can be given very little attention here, and the
gardener who has a minimum of time is advised to stay away
from this group. The well-known Michaelmas daisies of En-
glish gardens are all cultivated varieties of our own native New
York Aster, A. novi-belgii. Annual spring division is almost a
necessity if good shape is desired. So, too, is staking and cut-
ting back in midsummer.
Numerous other species and varieties are available and some
of the dwarf cultivars are excellent, both for the perennial
border and for the rock garden, but they all should be divided
every second or third year.
Astilbe — Astilbe
Astilbes suffer from the same affliction as the Asters, they need
to be transplanted every few years to maintain their vigor. This
is unfortunate because the flowers of the modem Astilbe hybrids
can be obtained in a number of very pleasing pastel shades.
They have become an almost indispensable feature of waterside
plantings and thrive where soils are moist and rich. Partial
shade is beneficial where moist conditions cannot be relied upon
throughout the summer.
Astilbes would be my personal choice over Asters, Chrysan-
themums, Carnations, or Delphiniums if I could grow only one
group of perennials which require extra attention. This is due
largely to the attractive feathery panicles of flowers which
range in color from purple to red, pink, or white. Some of the
best Astilbes offered today are cultivars of A. x arendsii pro-
duced by George Arens of Ronsdorf, Germany. They usually
jJ
>-N £r»J ■■
Fig. 8: Low maintenance garden at the Case Estates. Photo: P. Bruns.
Low Maintenance Gardening | 31
grow to about two feet tall, but under ideal conditions they may
reach three and a half feet.
A. Tedersee’ (rosy red) and A. Irene Rotseiper’ (lilac rose)
are of robust growth and better able to withstand dry conditions
than most. Other good cultivars are A. ‘Etna’ (garnet red), A.
Tire’ (intense salmon red), A. ‘Garnet’ (deep rose), A. ‘Red
Sentinel’ (deep brick-red), A. ‘Rheinland’ (bright pink), and A,
‘'Vesuvius’ (fiery red).
Baptism — - False or 'Wild Indigo
It has been suggested that B. australis (the False Indigo)
might be desirable for those who have difficulties with Del-
phiniums and Lupines. If grown specifically for this purpose
it may prove to be a rather poor substitute, but the plant is of
value in many other ways.
It does not require a rich soil, has no serious insect or disease
problems, will live on for a number of years in one spot, and
will not become invasive. Although it will tolerate full sun,
best results are obtained in partial shade. The indigo-blue flow-
ers are borne in terminal racemes on stems reaching three to
four feet. After flowering in May, attractive inflated black pods
develop, which are useful in dried arrangements. Baptism
australis is also a member of that group of plants whose foliage
remains in good condition all summer.
B. tinctoria (the Wild Indigo) has small yellow flowers fol-
lowed by small black pods. It is better suited for wild areas
than flower borders.
Brunner a — Dwarf Anchusa, Siberian Bugloss
Brunner a macrophylla (Syn. Anchusa myosotidiflora ) is a
very easy plant to grow where conditions are shady and the soil
is moist. It is extremely hardy and tolerates much neglect. Of
particular value are the branched racemes of tiny true-blue star-
like flowers which are darker than those of Forget-me-nots. The
plant blossoms during April and May and can be used for a
ground cover in shady places. It can also be used individually
and in small, groupings in the flower border.
Ceratostigma — Blue Leadwort
Ceratostigma plumb aginoides is most frequently listed in
catalogs as Plumbago larpentae. It is a desirable little plant
which produces clusters of light blue flowers during late sum-
mer and early fall. The plant is hardy if it is given sunny con-
ditions, rich soil, and excellent drainage.
32 | ARNOLDIA
Six to eight inches is its maximum height, and when left un-
disturbed a single plant will form a clump twelve to eighteen
inches across. In the fall the leaves turn to a bronze-green and
this color intensifies with cooler weather.
Chrysanthemum — Hardy Chrysanthemum, Pyrethrum, Shasta
Daisy
This very large group of the Daisy family contains a great
number of subjects which are nearly indispensable in the her-
baceous border, but there are several problems when consider-
ing them in a planting designed for a minimum of maintenance.
The “Hardy Mums,” by far the most widely planted of the
group are best if divided every year (or at least every other
year). Similarly, Cushion varieties should be divided every
other spring. Winter protection is often necessary as the root
systems are shallow and subject to heaving during alternate
periods of freezing and thawing. Chrysanthemum coccineum
(the Painted Daisy or Pyrethrum) and varieties of C. maximum
(The Shasta Daisy) must also be divided every second or third
year, and not all cultivars are dependable over a wide range of
conditions.
Whole books have been written which describe the many
varieties of Chrysanthemum. This will not be attempted here
due to their limited value in the low maintenance garden.
Cimicifuga — Snakeroot, Bugbane, Cohosh
These are rather stately plants five to eight feet tall which,
when well established, can be left alone for many years. The
small white flowers are produced on long racemes well above
the shiny compound leaves. They are best used as single speci-
mens in the herbaceous border but adapt themselves equally well
to massing at the edge of a pond or stream. A moist soil with
a high organic content will suit them best.
Two species are commonly available. C. racemosa (Black
Snakeroot or Bugbane) will, under ideal circumstances reach a
height of nearly eight feet although it grows from five to six
feet under normal conditions. It blooms from late June to early
August, the flowering period being prolonged by the produc-
tion of lateral branches. C. simplex, the Kamchatka Bugbane,
reaches a maximum height of three feet and blooms in late
September and October.
Clematis — Clematis
The numerous climbing woody varieties of Clematis are de-
manding when it comes to the proper conditions for good growth.
Low Maintenance Gardening | 33
This is not so with the herbaceous kinds, but few amateur gar-
deners know of their value. Although not as showy as the
climbers, they bloom over a long period during the summer
and, once established, become permanent additions to the gar-
den. They require rich, well drained soil and benefit from oc-
casional applications of lime. Full sun or partial shade is satis-
factory.
C. integrifolia ‘Coerulea’ has large porcelain-blue bell-shaped
flowers. Although it attains a height of only two feet, the stems
have a tendency to flop if not supported. Where this cannot be
done, allow plenty of room so that the plant will not crowd its
neighbors. When given a moderately moist situation, or if
watered during dry spells, it will bloom from June to August.
C. recta var. mandshurica is valuable for its white flowers in
terminal and axillary clusters during June and July. It is very
vigorous and best seen as a single specimen near the back of
the border. Again, one should allow ample room for this vig-
orous grower.
C. her acleae folia var. davidiana (sold as C. davidiana ) flow-
ers later than the above; its blue flowers are welcome in Au-
gust and September. The fragrant tubular flowers are produced
in terminal and axillary clusters on stems two and a half to
three feet high. The compound foliage has a decidedly coarse
appearance and it would be best not to feature this plant in the
most prominent part of the border.
Coreopsis — Tickseed
A few members of this large genus of the Daisy family are
excellent for the low maintenance border, but many lack com-
plete hardiness or are best seen naturalized in a wild garden. All
are of value for their showy yellow flowers which last well
when cut.
One of the best is the Thread-Leaf Coreopsis, C. verticillata.
It makes dense clumps about two feet tall, and although indi-
vidual flowers are small, they are freely produced among the
finely textured leaves. It blooms from June to September. An-
other good feature of this plant is the ability to withstand dry
soil conditions. C. verticillata ‘Golden Shower’ is about six inches
taller and has larger deeper yellow flowers.
C. grandiflora is perhaps the showiest of the group, but too
often it behaves as a biennial and for that reason cannot be
considered here. C. lanceolata is similar in appearance and of
greater value. The showy two-foot plants will withstand much
neglect if planted in a sunny location.
34 | ARNOLDIA
The best tall species to grow is C. tripteris. It has slightly
fragrant flowers one and a half inches across, which are pale
yellow with a disk that turns brown or purple. It blooms in
August, and although plants may reach six feet at the rear of
the border, staking is not required and established clumps need
not be disturbed for many years.
Delphinium — Delphinium
Few plants can approach the modern strains of D. elatum for
their bold effect in the border, but this is a decidedly finicky
group and cannot be guaranteed as long-lived under normal con-
ditions. One new strain called D. ‘Connecticut Yankees’ may
well be the answer for those who would like to grow the Del-
phinium but cannot cater to its many whims. These come in
an excellent color range, and form well-branched bush-type
plants seldom over thirty inches tall and resembling species
Delphiniums in habit. These were tried at the Arnold Arbore-
tum for the first time last summer and although they were
given almost no attention, excellent results were obtained. Un-
doubtedly they are more permanent than taller Delphinium hy-
brids, but we do not know at this point how long they will last
under our conditions.
Dianthus — Pink, Carnation
This is another large genus which cannot receive much at-
tention here. Some varieties are not very hardy and the group
as a whole is disappointing throughout most of this country
where summers are hot and dry.
A notable exception is the Cheddar Pink, D. gratianopolitanus,
which understandably, is more frequently listed under the syn-
onym D. caesius. This has admirably survived exposed condi-
tions in the Ground Cover Plots at the Case Estates. Its only
fault is that it forms such a thick mat that portions die out from
time to time and division must be resorted to. Plants form a
dense, low mat of foliage with small fringed flowers in shades
of pink borne on six-inch stems. D. ‘Rose Queen’ is an inter-
esting selection with double bright-rose flowers.
Dicentra — Bleeding Heart, Lyre Flower, Dutchman’s Breeches
For permanence the best of this group is D. spectabilis, the
Bleeding Heart or Lyre Flower, which is a true aristocrat of the
border for the short period when it is in bloom. A well-estab-
lished plant forms a large clump with arching sprays of pink
heart-shaped flowers in late May and June. It prefers a rich
Low Maintenance Gardening | 35
soil with a high organic-matter content and results are always
best if light shade can be provided. Specimen plants are prefer-
able to groupings because they take up a lot of room, and the fo-
liage has a tendency to die down in the hot part of the summer,
leaving a large gap in the border. This would be unfortunate
were it not for the fact that Gypsophila paniculata (Baby’s
Breath) and its varieties can be used effectively nearby. By the
time the Bleeding Heart is ready to disappear Gypsophila is
ready to fill in the gaps. An alternative is to use the empty
spaces for the planting of annuals. D. spectabilis var. alba is
occasionally available. This has a very delicate constitution and
is really not worth bothering with.
D. eximia is of great value for its long flowering period from
May to August. The dissected leaves are grayish blue, remain
attractive throughout the growing season, and make a good con-
trast to the pink flowers. Under normal circumstances it will
have to be divided every third or fourth year. D. eximia ‘Bounti-
ful’ is a relatively new cultivar said to be the result of a cross
between D. eximia and D. ore g ana. Flowers are a deeper pink,
almost fuchsia-red. All during the summer a few flowers are
produced, but in the autumn it blooms almost as freely again
as it did in the spring.
D. cucularia, Dutchman’s Breeches, requires woodland con-
ditions and is not a fitting subject for the herbaceous border.
To be continued
Robert S. Hebb
36 I ARNOLDIA
Weeds: A Link
with the Past
3. Tansy
Tansy ( Tanacetum vulgar e) is a tall, robust, aromatic plant
with cut leaves and deep yellow flowers, which brightens the
meadow and stream edges of the Arboretum in July and August.
It is a native of Europe, but was observed in North America
in 1748 by the botanist and explorer Peter Kalm. Originally
tansy was valued as a medicinal plant; a monk named Walah-
frid Strabo mentioned it in 840 A.D. in a Latin poem :
The doctors use it for the power it has
A draught of it clears away as much blood inside
As the size of the dose you take of this nourishing brew.
John Gerard, in the 16th century, wrote that cakes were made
of it in England in the spring, which were called “Tansies,” and
he commented, “Which be pleasant in taste and good for the
stomacke.”
William Coles reported in The Art of Simpling in 1656, “Wild
Tansy laid to soak in buttermilk for nine days and then applied
as a wash to the face has the reputation for making the com-
plexion very faire.”
A cookbook published in 1741, A New and Accurate Treatise
of Cookery etc. According to the Politest and most Improved
Taste, gives directions for an elaborate pudding called A Tansy.
It contrasts markedly with our present-day cholesterol-conscious
cooking :
Take twenty yolks, and eight whites of eggs, beat them well
and strain them into a quart of thick cream; one nutmeg, and
three naples-baskets [biscuits ?] grated, as much juice of
spinach, with a little Tansy; sweeten it to your palate, then
butter a dish well, and set it in an oven fit to bake custards;
watch it, and when it is done take it out and turn it on a pye
plate; scrape sugar and squeeze orange over it. Garnish the
dish with orange and lemon and serve it up.
37
38 | ARNOLDIA
The name “Tansy” in many cookbooks of the eighteenth cen-
tury appears to be a synonym for “pudding.” In A Collection of
Above Three Hundred Receipts in Cookery, Physick and Surgery
for the Use of all Good Wives, Tender Mothers and Careful
Nurses by “Several Hands,” written in 1749, a recipe is given
for a baked pudding containing milk, eggs, spinach juice and
“As much sugar as will make it very sweet.” It contains no
tansy, but is titled, A very good Tansy. Another book of the same
period gives directions for making An Apple Tansy which con-
sists of fried apple slices in a sweetened and flavored omelette;
and A Gooseberry Tansy which is similar but uses gooseberries.
However, the use of the plant as a medicine and a household
item continued; it was used to get rid of intestinal worms and
to treat gout; it added color and flavor to cheese; and was rubbed
into meat to ward off the attacks of the fleshfly. As late as 1819
directions for planting tansy were included in the Practical
American Gardener.
But our modem tastes do not appreciate the strong honest
flavors of the past and tansy is no longer needed by Good Wives,
Tender Mothers and Careful Nurses.
Helen Roca-Garcia
Summary of weather data recorded at the Dana Greenhouses
October, November and December 1970.
Average
Precipitation Daily Temp.
2.81
4.54
6.13
October
November
December
65.2
52.2
25.2
Arnoldio Reviews
Wild Flowers of Greece, paintings by Niki Goulandris, text by
Constantine N. Goulimis, edited by W. T. Steam.
Visitors to Greece return to their homes with unforgettable
memories of the beauty of the architectural treasures of a past
era, and enthusiastic over the natural loveliness of the native
wild flowers. This handsome volume indicates clearly that the
wild flowers are equally appreciated by some local citizens.
Constantine N. Goulimis, a successful lawyer, spent the last
twenty years of his life collecting specimens of native plants
and compiling notes on them. Mrs. Niki A. Goulandris, an ex-
tremely talented artist of Athens, has painted many of the speci-
mens Mr. Goulimis gathered. Life-sized reproductions of 103
species are included within this volume. Dr. William T. Steam
of the British Museum (Natural History) revised and edited
the text; and the volume has been issued as the first publication
of the Goulandris Botanical Museum, an institution formed to
further studies of the Flora of Greece. Sir George Taylor of
the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, has written an introduction
including a brief historical summary of studies of the plants of
Greece and of the collaboration of British botanists with local
scholars. The multiple collaboration resulted in a splendid
reference volume sure to charm the browser, offer botanical
information to the professional botanist, and direct the tourist
to the right time and the right place to see the wild flowers of
Greece at their best.
The decision to prepare a series of illustrated volumes on the
flora of Greece was made in 1954. During the next nine years
the collector worked closely with the artist to coordinate botani-
cal notes with paintings of living plant materials. The accuracy
and beauty of the illustrations reveal that a mutual understand-
ing was achieved. The text was unfinished at the time of Dr.
Goulimis’ death, and Dr. Steam explains his role as editor in his
preface to the volume. The author decided that formal descrip-
tions were not necessary since the paintings were life size, and
as references would be given to standard floras published
through 1934. For the new species described from Dr. Goulimis’
collections, or published subsequent to 1934, the editor has re-
published the original description, in Latin, so that Wild Flowers
39
40 | ARNOLDIA
of Greece is in a sense an illustrated supplement to the basic
botanical description.
A paragraph on the distribution of each species offers not only
the location and altitude but the flowering period as well. The
text accompanying the plates commonly makes reference to
monographs or the pertinent comments of other authors. The
nomenclature and arrangement of the Flora Europea has been
adopted for families already treated. Many of the plants il-
lustrated are in cultivation in Europe and in the United States,
and the reference to Gardener’s Chronicle and the Botanical
Magazine are welcome as these often supply cultural informa-
tion.
In a work of this excellent visual appeal the author’s opening
statements are often read quickly if at all. In this volume they
form a major contribution. This is not only a personal account
of some 220 expeditions representing journeys of over 200,000
miles and the ascent of over 70 mountains on the mainland and
the islands of Greece, but an excellent phytogeographic account
of the area where many of these unusual species occur. Dr.
Goulimis calls them “botanical paradises” and his enthusiasm
is contagious.
Greek history and mythology play a role in the origin of plant
names and the uses of plants. The author frequently includes
such information in the introduction or the commentaries on
species.
For those individuals interested in the preservation of wild
flowers Dr. Goulimis offers pertinent observations on the results
of their protection in Greece. The area around Mt. Athos, where
20 endemic species occur, received its initial protection from
grazing animals in a ruling of the Emperor of Byzantium, Vas-
silios the Macedonian, who ruled from 866 to 886 A.D. This
may be therefore the world’s oldest established wild flower
sanctuary.
Wild Flowers of Greece is a folio volume not convenient for
transport in the field. Perhaps someday the Goulandris Botani-
cal Museum or the distributors will consider a volume of re-
duced page size which could be enjoyed in the field and used for
identification.
R.A.H.
Goulimis, Constantine N., and Goulandris, Niki A., edited by
W. T. Stearn, Wild Floivers of Greece. Kifissia, Greece, The
Goulandris Botanical Museum, 1970. Distributed by Academic
Press, New York, xxxii + 214 pages, 103 plates in color (un-
numbered), folio, index. $40.00.
Contents
41 The Story of Forsythia
GORDON P. DE WOLF
ROBERT S. HEBB
64 Cold Damage to Forsythia
Flower Buds
ALFRED J. FORDHAM
70 Notes from the Arnold Arboretum
Perennials for Low Main-
tenance Gardening Part II
ROBERT s. HEBB
84 Arnoldia Reviews
ARNOLDIA is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum
of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Mass. 02130
Published six times a year: on the 15th of January,
March, May, July, September, and November
Subscriptions: $3.50 per year. Single copies, 60 cents
On the cover: Forsythia x intermedia ‘Spectabilis’ at the
Arnold Arboretum. Photo by P. Bruns.
The Story of Forsythia
It is difficult to imagine what the spring garden must have
been like without the Forsythias, but it is of interest to note
that no Forsythia species was common in cultivation until
about 1850 and it was not until 1908 that the first really out-
standing horticultural variety was imported into this country.
Because of their ability to produce an abundant display of
bright color so early in the season, few groups of shrubs have
risen to favor as quickly as the Forsythias. The only other
hardy early flowering shrubs that have yellow flowers are Cor-
nus mas, the Cornelian Cherry; Lindera benzoin. Spice Bush;
and Dirca palustris, Leatherwood. Delightful as each of these
may be, none can match the bright display which most of the
Forsythias produce.
The following account is an attempt to describe the various
species and cultivars of Forsythia which have played a role in
the development of our current garden varieties, and also to
describe a number of the best ones which are easily available
on the market today. Some varieties, of interest only in bo-
tanical collections, have been omitted from this discussion as
well as a few cultivars currently available which will probably
never become popular.
Forsythia x intermedia and its cultivar ‘Spectabilis’ have
played an important role in the development of many varieties.
These are excellent garden plants, but it is felt by the authors
that much more needs to be done. Larger, more attractive flow-
ers should be developed; greater hardiness should be bred into
future varieties probably using F. ovata; and forms with a
more graceful habit of growth would be a welcome addition us-
ing a variety such as F. suspensa var. sieboldii as a starting
point. Dwarf shrubs are in great demand today and in For-
sythia we have only F. ‘Arnold Dwarf,’ a good ground cover but
with washed out flower color and sparse bloom; F. viridissima
‘Bronxensis,’ which flowers well but is difficult to propagate and
grow; and F. x. intermedia ‘Nana,’ another plant with poor,
greenish-yellow flowers. Even though the story of our garden
Forsythias is a long one, several more chapters are undoubtedly
waiting to be written.
41
42 | ARNOLDIA
Forsythia suspensa (Thunberg) Vahl, Enum. PL 1: 39. 1804.
Between August 1775 and November 1776 Carl Pehr Thun-
berg, a pupil of Linnaeus, visited Japan as a member of the
Dutch Embassy to the Imperial Court at Tokyo. Some years
later, in 1784, he published a Flora Japonica which included
about 1000 species which he had collected on his trip, includ-
ing many cultivated plants. One plant in particular, and the
one in which we are interested, he called Syringa suspensa.
This was a deciduous shrub with slender weeping branches
which produced quantities of yellow flowers in April, before the
leaves began to grow.
According to P. J. van Melle, a catalog published in 1817,
of a garden maintained by Christian August Breiter in Leipzig,
lists the name Syringa suspensa. We suppose that this is the
plant that Thunberg described, but how or when it got to Leip-
zig we have no idea.
In 1804 Martin Vahl, Professor of Botany at Copenhagen,
recognized that Thunberg’s plant was not a lilac and established
the genus Forsythia for the plant. The genus commemorates
William Forsyth, who was at that time Director of the Royal
Garden at Kensington.
From 1825 to 1830 Philipp Franz von Siebold was living in
Japan as an employee of the Dutch government. He too stud-
ied many Japanese plants, native and cultivated, and on his
return to Holland he (with Joseph Gerhard Zuccarini) pre-
pared a Flora Japonica. In this work he published a colored
illustration of Forsythia suspensa, indicating that it was known
only in cultivation, and noted that there were two forms, one
with slender, weeping stems and the other with stouter, more
erect and spreading stems. In 1833 Verkerk Pistorius is said
to have imported living plants to Holland where they were
apparently cultivated for the next twenty years.
In 1857 Forsythia suspensa var. sieboldii was flowered in
England at the Veitch Nurseries. This is the form of the species
with long, slender, pendant branches which is effective when
planted in such a way that it may trail over walls. The shrub
grows to 6 feet tall, the stems are arching and become 10—12
feet long. The flowers are slightly larger than F. viridissima,
being about an inch long (2.5 cm. ), clear yellow without a
tinge of green, and borne singly. In 1864 the erect form of
the species, Forsythia suspensa var. fortunei, was introduced,
with spreading (not weeping) branches. The flowers are
either solitary or as many as 6 together. The leaves are fre-
quently 3-lobed or 3-parted, and the corolla lobes are narrow
Fig. 1 : Forsythia suspensa from Flora Japonica by Siebold and
Zuccarini, 18 35.
The Story of Forsythia \ 43
44 | ARNOLDIA
and generally twisted. The Arnold Arboretum received cuttings
of Forsythia suspensa from Francis Parkman, the historian, in
1876.
Forsythia viridissima Lindl., Jour. Hort. Soc. 1: 226. 1846.
In 1844 or 1845 Robert Fortune, on his first trip to China
sponsored by the Horticultural Society of London, found a For-
sythia cultivated in a Chinese garden. He sent material to
London and John Lindley, the Assistant Secretary of the Hor-
ticultural Society, described it in the first volume of the Jour-
nal of the Horticultural Society as Forsythia viridissima. At
this time he quoted Fortune’s notes as follows:
This is a deciduous shrub with very dark green leaves,
which are prettily serrated at the margin. It grows about
8 or 10 feet high in the north of China, and sheds its
leaves in autumn. It then remains dormant like any of
the deciduous shrubs of Europe, but is remarkable for the
number of large prominent buds which are scattered
along the young stems produced the summer before. Ear-
ly in spring these buds, which are flower-buds, gradually
unfold themselves, and present a profusion of bright yellow
blossoms all over the shrub, which is highly ornamental.
I first discovered it growing in the same garden with Wei-
gela rosea, which, I have said in another place, belonged
to a Chinese Mandarin, on the island of Chusan, and was
generally called the Grotto Garden by the English. Like
the Weigela it is a great favourite with the Chinese, and
is generally grown in all the gardens of the rich in the
north of China. I afterwards found it wild amongst the
mountains of the interior in the province of Chekiang,
where I thought it even more ornamental in its natural
state amongst the hedges than when cultivated in the
fairy gardens of the Mandarins.
For twenty years or more Forsythia viridissima was the only
Forsythia in cultivation in Britain and in the United States.
Today it is rarely seen. It forms an erect branching shrub four
to nine feet tall; the flowers are a little less than an inch long
(2-2.5 cm.), yellow tinged with green, and borne singly or
two together. It is hardy to Zone V (Massachusetts and south-
ern New York State as far north as Albany). The Arboretum
obtained seed of Forsythia viridissima from the garden of
Charles Sprague Sargent in 1874.
The Story of Forsythia | 45
Forsythia viridissima ‘Bronxensis’ Everett Gard. Chron. Am. 51 :
296. 1947.
F. viridissima ‘Bronxensis’ is difficult to propagate and for
that reason not many nurserymen offer it. At the time the
plant was first described, it was growing at the New York Bo-
tanical Garden where no record of its origin had been kept. It
was later found that the Botanical Garden had received its
plant from the Boyce Thompson Arboretum, Yonkers, N.Y.,
where it was grown from seed received from the Imperial Uni-
versity Botanic Garden of Tokyo, Japan, in 1928 as F. koreana.
Three plants developed from these seeds, two of which were
F. viridissima var. koreana and the third a dwarf seedling.
F. viridissima ‘Bronxensis’ is a true dwarf, ten-year-old plants
being little more than a foot high and two feet in diameter. It
blossoms freely, unlike F. ‘Arnold Dwarf,’ but although the
outer branches are somewhat spreading, they do not root into
the ground at their tips as F. ‘Arnold Dwarf does, and it can-
not be used as a ground cover. It is, however, a very fitting sub-
ject for the rock garden.
Forsythia x intermedia Zabel, in Gartenflora 34: 35. 1885.
In the summer of 1878 Hermann Zabel, Director of the Mu-
nicipal Garden in Munden, found seedling Forsythias in the
Botanic Garden of Gottingen which were apparently the re-
sult of a cross between F. viridissima and F. suspensa var. for-
tunei. He described this, in 1885, as Forsythia x intermedia.
This hybrid has been the source of many garden forms. Its
value lies in its being somewhat hardier than either parent,
being hardy through much of New Hampshire, Vermont and
up-state New York. In habit it is similar to Forsythia suspensa
var. fortunei. The Arboretum received its first plant of this
hybrid in 1889. Forsythia x intermedia is of importance today
because it has yielded a series of selections, and hybrids be-
tween those selections which are among the most useful of
contemporary Forsythias.
Forsythia x intermedia ‘Vitellina’ Koehne, in Spath Nurs. Cat.,
Berlin, Germany. 1899.
Beginning in 1899 a number of selections were made at the
Spath Nurseries, Berlin, Germany, from seedlings of F. x inter-
media. Forsythia x intermedia ‘Vitellina’ was offered for sale
in the same year, thus starting the parade of new cultivars
which are characterized as having more upright and vigorous
46 | ARNOLDIA
growth than their “ancestor,” F. suspensa var. fortunei, and
larger and more profuse flowers than either F. suspensa or F.
viridissima. Forsythia ‘Vitellina’ is noted for having the small-
est flowers (3.6 cm. diameter) in this general group of hybrids
and although these are deep yellow, the cultivar is not in gen-
eral cultivation today.
Forsythia x intermedia ‘Densiflora’ (Koehne) Schelle, in Beiss-
ner, et al., Handb. Laub.-Ben 413. 1903.
Forsythia x intermedia ‘Densiflora’ was introduced in the
same year as F. ‘Vitellina’ by Spath and proved popular for a
number of years because of its profuse flowers. It has spread-
ing and pendulous branches, like F. suspensa, and crowded,
pale yellow, rather flat flowers with slightly recurved corolla
lobes. Its parentage is the same as ‘Vitellina.’
Forsythia x intermedia ‘Spectabilis’ Koehne in Gartenflora 55:
227. 1906.
The next introduction from Spath in 1906 was F. ‘Spectabilis’
and it is the one cultivar in the series from that nursery which
has remained extremely popular to the present day. Combin-
ing the stiffer habit of F. viridissima, with the more profuse
flowering of F. suspensa var. sieboldii, it is especially noted for
its display of large vivid yellow flowers which are one-and-a-
half inches across, and are produced in clusters.
Never before had any Forsythia produced as many or such
deeply colored flowers as this new hybrid selection. After sixty-
five years, during which many other varieties have come on
to the market, Forsythia x intermedia ‘Spectabilis’ remains the
standard for any new cultivar to better when it comes to
critical comparisons.
Forsythia x intermedia ‘Primulina’ Rehder, Mitt. Deutsch.
Dendr. Ges. 1912 (21): 193. 1913.
The story of the Forsythias switched next to the other side
of the Atlantic, to the Arnold Arboretum, where in 1912 Alfred
Rehder observed a chance seedling growing in a mass planting
of Forsythias on Bussey Hill. It was propagated and named F.
‘Primulina.’ Of much the same habit as F. ‘Spectabilis,’ it ts a
selection from F. x intermedia but in. this case the flow. rs are
pale-yellow. It was much admired by those who objected to
the “brassy” tones of F. ‘Spectabilis,’ but is seldom grown out-
side of botanical collections now that the following cultivar is
easily available.
The Story of Forsythia \ 47
Forsythia x intermedia ‘Spring Glory’ Wayside Gardens Cat.,
Mentor, Ohio. 1942.
Mr. M. H. Hovarth of Mentor, Ohio, discovered ‘Spring
Glory’ in 1930 as a branch sport on a plant of F. x intermedia
‘Primulina’ which grew in his garden. He noted one branch
consistently produced larger and more densely arranged flow-
ers than the others on the bush. Cuttings taken from this
branch produced plants which were far superior to F. ‘Primu-
lina,’ and about 1942 it was introduced into the trade by Way-
side Gardens, Mentor, Ohio, as F. x intermedia ‘Spring Glory.’
It is still one of the leading varieties on the market today, and
well worth growing by those who object to the color of F. x inter-
media ‘Spectabilis.’
Forsythia x intermedia ‘Lynwood’ G. E. Peterson, Jour. Roy. Hort.
Soc. 82: 127. 1957.
The next sport to be found on a plant of F. x intermedia
‘Spectabilis’ occurred in a garden in Northern Ireland called
Lynwood. The owner, Miss Adair, noticed a branch on her
plant that had flowers which were more open and better dis-
tributed along the stem than those on the rest of the plant. The
Slieve Donard Nursery of Newcastle, Northern Ireland, took
cuttings from the branch and introduced it about 1935. It is
called F. ‘Lynwood’ in honor of the garden where it originated.
The flowers are brilliant yellow and slightly lighter than F. x
intermedia ‘Spectabilis.’ Although the plant is possibly a bit
stiff in habit of growth, in flower it is without doubt one of the
best. By 1949 the cultivar had reached America where nursery-
men called it ‘Lynwood Gold,’ a name thought to have greater
appeal. Unfortunately, it still appears in catalogs under this
incorrect name.
Forsythia x intermedia ‘Arnold Giant’ Sax, Arnoldia 7: 10. 1947.
Until the 194Q’s the main role played by the Arnold Arbore-
tum in the story of the Forsythias was that of the original im-
porter of some species and cultivars into the United States.
About this time Dr. Karl Sax, Director of the Arnold Arbore-
tum, and certain of his students became interested in the breed-
ing of Forsythias, and particularly in the treatment of seedlings
with a colchicine emulsion in an attempt to produce tetraploid
plants. By producing tetraploid cells (which contain double
the ordinary number of chromosomes) in the growing point of
a young plant, entire plants can be developed which have two
Figs. 2 and 3: Typical habitat for Forsythia, Kongo-san, Korea.
Photos: E. H. Wilson, 1918.
50 | ARNOLDIA
times the normal chromosome number. In many instances such
plants have more vigor and larger flowers. Forsythia ‘Arnold
Giant’ was developed in this manner from a seedling of F. x
intermedia ‘Spectabilis.’ It has thicker leaves, larger and dark-
er flowers, and is more erect in habit of growth than F. x inter-
media ‘Spectabilis.’ Although offered by some nurserymen, it
has never proved popular in this country as it is too rigidly up-
right and difficult to place correctly in the garden. It is also
difficult to root from cuttings, an objectionable characteristic
for a Forsythia.
Forsythia x intermedia ‘Tremonia’
In 1966 the Arnold Arboretum obtained a new cultivar of
Forsythia x intermedia called ‘Tremonia’ from Mr. Gerd Kruss-
man of the Dortmund Botanic Garden, Dortmund, West Ger-
many. Although it is too early to predict the habit of growth
or flower production of our specimens, young plants in the
nurseries produced flower buds for the first time last fall. The
plants are of immediate interest, moreover, because of the
deeply cut leaves, giving it the most interesting foliage of all the
Forsythias. Young plants and hardwood cuttings were released
by the Arnold Arboretum to the nursery trade in 1969 and it is
hoped that within a few years Forsythia x intermedia ‘Tre-
monia will be available commercially.
Forsythia europaea Degen and Baldacci, in Oestr. Bot. Zeitschr.
(1897): 406.
In 1897 a new species of Forsythia was discovered in Albania.
Seed was immediately distributed and by 1904 seedlings were
flowering in various public and private gardens. The story was
set out by Otto Froebel, a nurseryman of Zurich:
It may be regarded as a most interesting phenomenon
that in our days an entirely new shrub should have been
found in Europe, the existence of which no one had any
idea of and the family of which had hitherto only been
known in Japan and China.
This was only rendered possible through this European
species having its home in a part of the Balkan Peninsula
in Albania, which has hitherto been comparatively unex-
plored on account of the danger and difficulty of the
journey and the absence of any accommodation. I was
indebted to the kindness of Dr. A. von Degen in Budapest
for a small packet of the seed collected by him in October
The Story of Forsythia | 51
1899, from which I was able to raise a few plants. Thanks
to careful attention the seedlings throve well, and by the
autumn of 1902 they had grown to be fine, strong bushes
8 feet and more high; and to my surprise, and contrary
to all expectation, one single plant, in 1904, produced a
small number of blooms scattered over two year old wood,
but unfortunately it was not observed until too late. I sent
the already half-bloomed spray to Herr Beissner in Bonn,
but he could not use the material for further investigation.
Forsythia europaea is a stiff upright shrub 6 feet or more
tall. The flowers are generally solitary, or two or three together,
a little less than one inch long (2 cm.) and pale yellow in color.
Although it is about as hardy as F. suspensa it is not a par-
ticularly ornamental species, and is seldom found outside of
botanical collections. The Arnold Arboretum received seed of
this new species from A. K. Bulley in 1900.
Forsythia giraldiana Lingelsh., in Jahresb. Schles. Ges. 1908,
lxxxvi. 1 (1909).
In 1897 G. Giraldi collected a Forsythia in North Shensi,
China. The material was not in flower, but fruits were present.
The dried specimens were studied by Alexander Lingelsheim
who determined that the plant was related to, but differnt from,
F. viridissima. He published a description based on the dried
specimens and the collector’s notes and called the plant For-
sythia giraldiana. In 1914 Reginald Farrer collected seeds of
the same species in Kansu, China.
Forsythia giraldiana is an upright shrub up to twelve feet
tall. The flowers are yellow, borne singly, a little less than an
inch long (1. 6-2.1 cm.) and it is one of the earliest of Forsyth-
ias to flower. It is as hardy as F. suspensa but not so ornamental.
The Arboretum obtained material of this species in 1938.
Forsythia japonica Makino, in Bot. Mag. Tokyo xxviii: 105, Fig.
IV. 1914.
In the first part of the twentieth century plant exploration in
eastern Asia produced quantities of interesting plants. In 1914
Tomitaro Makino, Lecturer in Botany in the Imperial Univer-
sity, Tokyo, described a Forsythia collected in the mountains in
the Province of ‘Bitchu’ which is in southwest Honshu, between
Hiroshima and Kyoto (it is now the Chugoka District). This is
a relatively small-flowered species, the flowers only a little more
52 | ARNOLDIA
than one-half an inch long, (1.5 cm.). He called it Forsythia
japonica, and it is the only species of the genus native in Japan.
Forsythia ovata Nakai in Bot. Mag. Tokyo xxxi: 104. 1917.
In 1917 Takenoshi Nakai collected fruiting material of a
Forsythia in the Diamond Mountains of Central Korea (just
inland from the eastern coast and bisected now by the boundary
between North and South Korea) and published a description
of Forsythia ovata in 1917. In that same year E. H. Wilson col-
lected seeds of the species in the same location and in 1923
Alfred Rehder published a description of the flowers based on
plants raised in the Arnold Arboretum. Forsythia ovata makes
a stiff spreading shrub 4 to 6 feet tall. The flowers are small,
less than 1 inch long (1-1.5 cm.) and “butter yellow.” Its great
virtue is its hardiness (to Zone IV) and the fact that it is the
earliest Forsythia to come into bloom.
Forsythia japonica Makino var. saxatilis Nakai, in Bot. Mag.
Tokyo xxxiii: 10. 1919.
In 1919 Nakai described another Forsythia from specimens
collected near Seoul, Korea, a small shrub 3 feet tall, with
small flowers. Its only claim to fame is that it is one parent
of Forsythia ‘Arnold Dwarf.’ Nakai originally considered this
to be only a variety of Forsythia japonica; however in 1921 he
decided that it was sufficiently different from that species to
be considered a species in its own right. Further study by Reh-
der suggests that Nakai’s original disposition was the correct
one, and it is now generally referred to as Forsythia japonica
var. saxatilis.
Forsythia viridissima Lindley var. koreana Rehder, in Jour. Arn.
Arb. 5: 134. 1924.
Exploration in Korea continued and in 1924 Rehder described
another of Wilson’s introductions as Forsythia viridissima var.
koreana. In 1923, Nakai, in the course of a study trip to the
United States, visited the Arnold Arboretum and discussed this
plant among others with Rehder and Wilson. In 1926 he pub-
lished a description of it and raised it to specific rank saying:
“This Korean species is one of the most decorative among the
Forsythias.” It is a large shrub, up to 12 feet high, with flowers
about the size of F. ovata.
Fig. 4: Forsythia x intermedia ‘Arnold Giant.’
54 | ARNOLDIA
Forsythia mandschurica Uyeki in Jour. Chosen Nat. Hist. Soc.
9: 21. 1929.
Homika Uyeki described a plant from Mt. Keikwan, Manchu-
ria, as Forsythia mandschurica in 1929. This is said to be
similar to F. japonica and F. saxatilis but little more is known
of it. So far as we know it is not in cultivation.
Forsythia nakai T. B. Lee, 111. Woody PI. Korea: 330. 1966.
The next year, 1930, Nakai described a plant which he
called Forsythia densiflora based on specimens collected grow-
ing on calcareous rocks on Mt. Chojusan in the Province of
Kokai in Korea. Nakai thought it would be a good garden
plant, but it apparently has not been used in cultivation. It
should be noted that the name Forsythia densiflora had already
been used for an entirely different plant, so that Nakai’s name
cannot stand. In 1966 T. B. Lee, of the Forest Experimental
Station at Seoul, Korea, published the new name Forsythia
nakai for this plant, and this is the name that must be used
henceforth.
Hybrids
Because of the value of Forsythias as garden plants, a num-
ber of hybrids have been made, although relatively few aside
from Forsythia x intermedia have proved superior to selections
from the species. Forsythia x intermedia has already been men-
tioned. In 1935 a cross between Forsythia europaea and F.
ovata was raised in the Arnold Arboretum. We still have a
plant of this cross, but it is not particularly ornamental. In
1965 Z. Katedry Roslin Ozdobuych described two hybrids raised
in Poland — Forsythia x kobendzae (F. europaea x F. suspensa )
and F. x variabilis (F. ovata x F. suspensa ). Unfortunately we
do not have specimens and so are in no position to evaluate
these plants.
The best known hybrids are those which were produced by
Professor Karl Sax at the Arnold Arboretum. Forsythia ‘Arnold
Giant’ is a seedling of F. x intermedia whose chromosomes were
doubled by treatment with colchicine in 1939. This has stiff
erect stems, with thick, large leaves and flowers one inch long,
but is difficult to propagate. It was crossed back to F. inter-
media spectabilis and in 1944 a large population of seedlings
was produced. One of these (which is no longer in cultivation)
was a triploid and was named F. ‘Beatrix Farrand.’ Another
clone, a tetraploid, was named F. ‘Karl Sax’ by Joab L. Thomas
The Story of Forsythia | 55
in 1960. There are still a number of these seedlings growing
in the Arnold Arboretum. They have become large, massive
plants, six to eight feet tall with relatively large flowers. A
number of clones from this cross were distributed, and since
there has arisen a confusion over the name "Beatrix Farrand,’
we propose the following:
The progeny of the cross Forsythia ‘Arnold Giant’ x Forsythia
intermedia ‘Spectabilis’ shall receive the group name (Farrand
Hybrids). Within the group two cultivars (clones) have so
far been named :
1. ) Forsythia (Farrand Hybrids) ‘Beatrix Farrand,’ Wyman, Ar-
noldia 19: 12. 1959.
This triploid cultivar was the result of a cross made by Dr.
Sax and his students between F. ‘Arnold Giant’ and F, x inter-
media ‘Spectabilis.’ It is described as being upright and dense
in habit, producing dense clusters of flowers which are slight-
ly darker than those of F. x intermedia ‘Spectabilis.’ Its name
honors Mrs. Beatrix Farrand, a well-known landscape architect
who served as landscape consultant to the Arnold Arboretum
for several years. This clone apparently is not in the trade. All
of the plants with this name that have been examined cytolog-
ic ally have proved to be tetraploids.
2. ) Forsythia (Farrand Hybrids) ‘Karl Sax’ J. L. Thomas, Ar-
noldia 20: 49. 1960.
This clone was later selected and named F. ‘Karl Sax’ in rec-
ognition of Dr. Sax’s work with the group. It is a moderately
compact shrub, the branches not being as rigidly erect as those
of F. ‘Arnold Giant.’ The deep yellow flowers are profuse and
large, up to 4.5 cm. across. It is easier to root from cuttings
than F. ‘Arnold Giant’ and is hardier than many other cultivars.
We recommend that all Forsythias in the trade now called
‘Beatrix Farrand’ be designated F. (Farrand Hybrids) and that
each grower, if he feels his clones warrant it, register a new
cultivar name.
Another of Dr. Sax’s hybrids is Forsythia ‘Arnold Dwarf’
Sax, Arnoldia 7: 10. 1947. This Forsythia is grown not for its
flowers, but because of its value as a ground cover. It originated
at the Arnold Arboretum in 1941 as the result of a cross which
Dr. Sax made between F. x intermedia and F. japonica var. saxa-
tilis. It is a low-growing shrub, old specimens seldom reaching
over three feet in height. Young branches root readily when
56 | ARNOLDIA
they come in contact with moist soil, and in the process they
droop to form a dense mat of foliage. The flowers are very
sparingly produced, and when observed are pale greenish-yel-
low and of no value from an ornamental standpoint. The great
versatility of Forsythia ‘Arnold Dwarf’ as an unusual ground
cover, even under somewhat difficult conditions, more than
makes up for this latter defect.
Floral Dimorphism
Forsythias exhibit an interesting form of floral dimorphism.
Some plants have styles as long as, or longer than, the tube of
the corolla, and others have the style only as long as the calyx,
or shorter. This is a structural adaptation to prevent or reduce
self-pollination. The phenomenon has been studied in Primula
where it has been determined that pollination of long- and
short-styled flowers gives significantly better seed production
than self-pollination.
Culture
Forsythias are among the easiest of all our hardy shrubs to
grow. Mass plantings in the Arnold Arboretum have been placed
on steep hillsides where the soil is poor and very dry in the
summer. Despite this, our plants have flourished for a number
of years and blossom well, except when an unusually severe
winter destroys the flower buds. Forsythias have been re-
ported to tolerate both acid and alkaline soil conditions, and do
especially well when given an annual application of a 5-10-10
fertilizer. They will also flower when planted in slightly shady
conditions, but a sunny position will insure better ripening of
the wood in late summer, a condition which relates directly
to the ability of plants to withstand periods of severe cold in
the winter. One of the few soil conditions which Forsythias will
not tolerate is one in which excessive moisture surrounds the
roots for any period of time.
With the one exception of F. viridissima, which is the least
hardy of the common forms, all Forsythias in cultivation are
reliably hardy in the Boston area, but not much further north
except along the sea coast of New Hampshire and southern
Maine. A few species and cultivars, namely F. ovata, F. ovata
‘Robusta,’ F. ‘Arnold Giant,’ and F. ‘Karl Sax,’ are reported as
being able to withstand colder conditions which roughly approx-
imate to Zone 4 of the Arnold Arboretum Plant Hardiness Zone
Map; that is, southern Maine, southern New Hampshire, south-
ern Vermont, and most of New York State. Probably the hardi-
Fig 5: Top: left: F. japonica var. saxatilis
right: F. suspensa var. fortunii
Center: left: F. ovata
right: F. suspensa var. sieboldii
Bottom: left: F. x intermedia ‘Spectabilis’
right: F. europaea
The Story of Forsythia \ 59
est of all is F. ovata and its cultivar F. ovata ‘Robusta.’ This
latter plant flowers much more freely than the type and should
be tried in areas where other varieties have not been successful
or where F. ovata has been disappointing due to its rather shy
flowering habits. F. europaea, the species from Albania, is ex-
tremely hardy, too, but because of its ungainly upright habit of
growth it is not popular. F. ‘Karl Sax’ has not been in cultivation
long enough for us to make a proper assessment of its hardiness,
but it has been reported as being nearly as hardy as F. ovata.
The above discussion has been concerned with the ability of
certain species or varieties to survive more extreme cold than
others, but unfortunately still another factor enters the picture
with Forsythia — namely bud hardiness. During some winters
temperatures are experienced which, although not cold enough
to kill the plants, will injure flower buds to such an extent that
blossoming may be either reduced somewhat or almost entirely
eliminated the following spring. These conditions can occur
when temperatures drop below -15° F as determined by Rob-
ert Mower and his students at Cornell. Flower buds of the
hardier varieties listed above are generally less affected, and it
is of interest to note that F. ovata and F. ovata ‘Robusta’ flower
well at the Arnold Arboretum when exceedingly harsh winters
have killed the flower buds of other Forsythias.
When planting Forsythia it must be remembered that they
will form specimens six feet tall and eight feet wide, and too
often we see them severely cut back or sheared into nearly
topiary form in an attempt to confine them into a small space.
However, they will grow vigorously and flower even under this
treatment. Ernest H. Wilson once wrote (Am. Arb. Bull. Pop.
Inf. Ser. 3, Vol. 11. 1928):
. . . one of the tragedies of spring is the brutal way in
which these good-natured shrubs are clipped and sheared
at the annual tidying up of the garden. As one travels
through the suburbs and countryside decapitated bushes
Fig. 6: Top: 1. F. ovata
2. F. europaea
3. F. x intermedia ‘Nana’
4. F. suspensa var. sieboldii
5. F. x intermedia ‘Spectabilis’
Bottom left: F. x intermedia ‘Spectabilis’
right: F. x intermedia ‘Arnold Giant’
Bottom right: F. ‘Karl Sax’
60 | ARNOLDIA
of Forsythias are to be seen on either hand despite the ob-
vious fact that every branch cut from them in early April
means a loss of flowers. If people would only wait and
enjoy the crop of blossoms and then cut the Forsythia
bushes back as severely as circumstances or fancy dictates,
no harm would be done. Like other spring flowering shrubs
and trees Forsythias produce their blossoms on the past
season’s growth and the pruning of all these plants should
be done immediately after the blossoms have fallen. It is
surprisingly difficult to get people to appreciate or at least
to practice this simple fact.
On this same theme, Donald Wyman once wrote: (Arn. Arb.
Bull. Pop. Inf. Ser. 4, Vol. 5. 1937):
Unfortunately many public plantings of Forsythias are
sadly mutilated because of lack of intelligent care in prun-
ing. Forsythias should be given plenty of room in which
to grow and expand. They should not be crowded closely
together for any reason except to make a good, dense bank
planting where the whole object is to cover the ground.
Many times when a single bush is used, it will be placed
only two or three feet from a walk when actually it should
be placed 8 to 10 feet from the walk, in order to give the
plant plenty of room to expand fully at maturity. If the
plants are pruned from the side, this necessarily cuts off
the lovely drooping branches and spoils the entire effect,
leaving only the unsightly base and a few branches ending
prematurely in mid-air when they should be allowed to
arch gracefully to the ground.
In fact, it is best to prune Forsythias as little as possible.
Varieties of F. x intermedia seem to flower best on growth of
two to three years, and when pruning must be done, only the
older branches and dead wood should be removed to ground
level. One should not leave stubs nor cut branches half-way
back. In a very old planting where much dead wood occurs and
drastic measures must be resorted to, entire plants can be cut
back to the ground. The vigorous young shoots which result
will be flowering well in a few years.
Forsythias can be used against walls and fences, as espaliers,
or as informal hedges. The graceful F. suspensa var. sieboldii,
with its long trailing stems has been used as an espalier or
trained up over pergolas. A few striking examples can be seen
in the Boston area where plants of this species have been
The Story of Forsythia | 61
placed in such a way that their branches hang down and
cover high walls along roadsides. One such example can be
seen along the Arborway close to the Forest Hills gate of the
Arnold Arboretum.
Few problems are encountered with insects or diseases on
Forsythias. The only insect known to cause problems is the
four-lined plant bug, Poecilocapsus lineatus, which makes char-
acteristic tan circles in the leaves. When the insects begin to
feed plants should be sprayed with Malathion. Leaf-spots oc-
casionally occur due to the presence of one or several fungi
( Altemaria sp., Phyllosticta discincola, P. forsythiae, and P.
terminalis) . Infected leaves can be picked off and burned or a
copper spray can be used. Stem-Gall is another fungus disease
( Phomopsis sp.) which causes abnormal nodular growths simi-
lar in appearance to the bacterial crown-gall disease or galls
caused by insects. When severely attacked, whole branches die
back and the bushes can look unsightly after the leaves have
fallen. The best control is to cut off and burn all branches that
bear the galls. Die-back is caused by a fungus ( Sclerotinia
sclerotiorum ) which enters the plant via the flowers and flower
stalks, and then grows into the twigs and kills them for some
distance. The best control is to remove and burn all dead twigs
and stems.
Buds on the Forsythias are fully formed by autumn. Every
few years when we experience an unusually mild spell towards
the end of autumn such weather induces some to break their
dormancy and open. This is a normal occurrence (it also hap-
pens with such groups as Chaenomeles, Lonicera , and even with
a few varieties of Syringa), but at such times we can expect
to receive at the Arboretum telephone calls from a number of
people who wish to report this “strange phenomenon.”
Gordon P. DeWolf
Robert S. Hebb
Appendix
1. Forcing Cut Branches
In preparation for a flower show in 1955, Mr. Roger Coggeshall,
then Propagator at the Arnold Arboretum, kept a record of the
length of time it took to force branches of certain shrubs which
were collected at various dates (see Arnoldia 15: 2. 1955.) These
were forced in a greenhouse where night temperatures were main-
taind at 55°-60°F, The figures he kept for two species of Forsythia
give an indication of the number of days it should take for those
who may wish to force cut branches in the home.
62 I ARNOLDIA
No, of days to bloom :
Date of
normal bloom
out-of-doors
Forsythia ovata
Forsythia suspensa
cut
Jan. 28
18
20
cut
Mar. 18
8
6
April 5
April 1 5
2. Bibliographic list of varieties which have never been popular,
illegitimate names, and synonyms (see Wyman, Arnoldia
21:6. 39-42. 1961).
Forsythia x intermedia ( suspensa var. sieboldii x viridissima ) (Za-
bel in Gartenflora 34: 35. 1885).
‘Arnold Brilliant’ (Tingle Nurs. Cat., Pittsville, Md. 1959).
Illegit. nomen nudum.
‘Aurea’ (Beardslee Nurs. Cat., Perry, Ohio. 1958). “Golden
leaved Forsythia with pale yellow flowers, found by us
in a flowering shrub border.”
‘Compacta Nana’ (Anonymous, Plant Buyer’s Guide, Oak
Park Nurseries, Inc., East Patchogue, L.I., N.Y. 1958).
Illegit. nomen nudum — x intermedia ‘Nana.’
‘Dwarf’ ( Siebenthaler Nurs. Cat., Dayton, Ohio. 1951). Il-
legit. as a nomen nudum = x intermedia ‘Nana.’
‘Farrand’ (Sax, Arnoldia 15: 10. 1955, Sax ex Wyman, Ar-
noldia 16: 14. 1956). Changed at the request of Mrs.
Beatrix Farrand to ‘Beatrix Farrand’ in 1959; = ‘Beatrix
Farrand.’
‘Lynwood Gold’ (Wayside Garden Cat., Mentor, Ohio. 1949).
A commercial synonym = ‘Lynwood.’
‘Mertensiana’ (Mertens & Nussbaumer ex Krussm. in
Deutsche Baumschule 2: 298. 1950). Originated in
nursery of Mertens and Nussbaumer, Zurich, Switzer-
land, in 1949. “Low, compact, leaves monstrous, vari-
able. Distinguished by deformed leaves and crowded
flowers.”
‘Nana’ (Wyman, Nat. Hort. Mag. 40: 194. 1961). Low
dwarf, with simple, lobed and sometimes compound
leaves; lamellate pith between the nodes, solid pith at
the nodes; slow to bloom; poor, greenish-yellow flowers.
A twenty-year-old plant was only 5' tall and 8' wide.
Originated in midwestern United States.
Forsythia suspensa (Thun. Vahl, Enum. PI. 1: 39. 1804).
‘Aurea’ (Anonymous, PI. Buyer’s Guide. 1958). Illegit. no-
men nudum = ‘Variegata.’
‘Aureo-variegata’ (Koehne in Gartenflora 55. 206. 1906) =
‘Variegata.’
‘Decipiens’ (Koehne, Gartenflora 55: 206. 1906). Originated
in Spath Nurseries, Germany, 1905; flowers single,
not nearly as conspicuous as those of other cultivars of
this species.
‘Fortunei Nana’ (Siebenthaler Nurs., Dayton, Ohio, Cat.
1938). Illegit. nomen nudum = F. intermedia ‘Nana.’
‘Nyman’s Variety’ (Krussman, Die Laubgeholze 155. 1951).
Branches bronze-colored, closely resembles F. suspen-
The Story of Forsythia \ 63
sa atrocaulis, bush erect, profuse flowers of ivory yel-
low.
‘Pallida’ (Koehne, Gartenflora 55: 206. 1906). Flowers a
very pale, washed-out yellow.
‘Variegata’ (Butz; Penn. State Agr. Coll. Rep. 1899-1900:
376. 1901). “With yellow variegated leaves.”
Forsythia viridissima (LindL, Jour. Hort. Soc., London 1: 226.
1846).
‘Variegata’ (Diet, of Card.; Roy. Hort. Soc. 2: 830. 1951).
A “golden variegated form.”
Other hybrids (?)
‘Golden Queen’ (Anonymous, PL Buyer’s Guide, 1958). II-
legit, nomen nudum.
‘Glories a’ (Brimfield Gardens Nurs. Cat., Wethersfield,
Conn. 1956). Listed as “pale yellow flowers.” Illegit.
nomen nudum.
‘Golden Bell’ (Anonymous, Pi. Buyer’s Guide. 1958). Il-
legit. nomen nudum. Undoubtedly confused with the
sometimes used general common name of Forsythia.
‘Golden Sun’ (L. Kammerer, Morton Arb., Bull. Pop. Inf. 34:
25. 1959). Illegit. nomen nudum.
3, Forsythias introduced by the Arnold Arboretum
The Arnold Arboretum has played a long and continuous role in
the story of the cultivated Forsythias, perhaps more than any other
institution. This role has included the discovery and introduction
into cultivation of new species from the wild, the introduction of
cultivars developed abroad, and the breeding and introduction of
improved new forms.
Species or varieties discovered and introduced by the Arnold Arbo-
retum
F. ovata, introduced by E. H. Wilson. Collected in Diamond
Mountains, Korea, 1917.
F, suspensa var. atrocaulis, discovered by E. H. Wilson. Col-
lected in Hsing-shang, Hsien, W. Hupeh, China, Jan-
uary 13, 1908.
F. viridissima var. koreana. Seeds sent by the Korean De-
partment of Forestry, 1919.
F. x intermedia ‘Spectabilis.’ Plants received from Spath
Nurseries, Berlin, Germany, 1906.
F. x intermedia Tremonia.’ Cuttings received from Dort-
mund Botanical Garden, Dortmund, Germany, 1966.
Hybrids produced at the Arnold Arboretum
‘Arnold Dwarf’ (x intermedia x japonica var. saxatilis ) —
1941,
‘Arnold Giant’ (x intermedia ‘Spectabilis’) — 1947.
‘Beatrix Farr and’ (x intermedia ‘Arnold Giant’ x intermedia
‘Spectabilis’) — 1959.
‘Karl Sax’ (x intermedia ‘Arnold Giant’ x intermedia ‘Specta-
bilis’) — 1960.
‘Primulina’ (x intermedia ‘Spectabilis’) — - 1912.
Cold Damage to Forsythia Flower Buds
At the Arnold Arboretum in spring of 1967 the Forsythia
plants near the summit of Bussey Hill flowered well while most
of those in the main group opposite the shrub collection were
ringed with blossoms only on their lower portions. Why the
Forsythias behaved differently in the two locations may be
readily explained by figures contained in temperature records
kept at the Dana Greenhouses.
Since August 15, 1962, the Arnold Arboretum has operated a
simple weather station in collaboration with the U.S. Weather
Bureau. (See Amoldia 30(5): 186-193, Sept. 1970). The
equipment consists of a maximum and minimum thermometer
and a non-recording precipitation gauge. Daily at 8 A.M. ob-
servations of temperature and precipitation are recorded and
some interesting data have been accumulated.
Those familiar with the Arnold Arboretum are aware of the
wide variety of topographical characteristics that are present
within the bounds of this relatively small 265 acre area. With
such geographical variation there is also a wide range of
climatic differences. These deviations from the overall cli-
matic picture have been termed microclimates. Microclimatic
situations are infinite. They can occur at hilltops, slopes, val-
leys, different sides of a house, either side of a wall, under a
tree, over a stone, or in a footprint. Areas concerned can be
highly localized and sometimes involve distances as little as
portions of an inch.
Temperature at Ground Level
In early autumn of 1966 a recording thermometer was placed
on the ground below the Arboretum’s official thermometer
which is positioned at 5 feet. Each day when official observa-
tions were made, the temperature at the ground was also re-
corded. During some nights with radiational cooling, tempera-
ture differences as great as 16° existed between the two levels.
Radiational Cooling
Radiational cooling is typical of calm, clear nights during
64
Cold Damage to Forsythia Flower Buds | 65
which the atmosphere loses heat to outer space through radia-
tion. In the absence of wind, cold air settles to the ground and
drains from the higher elevations to lower areas. These nights
during which our lowest temperatures occur are the most dam-
aging to plants. Temperature drop is often greater during win-
ter than at other seasons because the longer nights allow radia-
tion to take place over a longer period of time.
Table 1 shows differences in minimum temperatures which
occurred at ground level and the official thermometer five feet
above ground level in February and March, 1967.
Table 1 reveals two instances in which the flower bud damage
described above could have occurred. The buds of most Forsyth-
ias are susceptible to freezing at about -15°. February 13
shows -9°F at official level and -22°F at the ground, while
March 19th shows 0°F and — 16°F at these same levels. The
wide differences in each example would indicate nights of ra-
diational cooling and therefore even deeper cold in the Arbore-
tum’s low areas. The Forsythia collection is at a lower elevation
than the weather station, and it is situated on the fringe of the
large bowl-shaped cold pocket that contains the shrub collec-
tion. It is reasonable to suppose that the temperature there was
many degrees colder than those cited in each of the above ex-
amples. Buds which led to the display of flowers on lower por-
tions of the plants as previously described were insulated by a
protective covering of snow, and were not affected. Snow with
its myriad air spaces is the finest of all winter protective cover-
ings. The Forsythias on Bussey Hill are located on slopes with
good air drainage and they flowered well in 1967. Owing to
more favorable microclimates their buds were not damaged.
Graduation of Cold
In January, 1968, additional thermometers were placed at
our weather station so that temperatures at the ground and at
one and two foot levels could be recorded. Table 2 shows some
temperatures at these levels during the mid-January cold spell,
1971.
Forsythia bloom at the Arnold Arboretum — Spring 1971
It may be predicted as of January 22, 1971, that Forsythia
flowering in spring of 1971 at the Arnold Arboretum will follow
the pattern previously described for 1967. In the main collec-
tion flower buds above the present 15-inch snow line would have
been killed in the mid-January cold spell, perhaps on the 17th
or 19th of January. On those dates the ground level tempera-
66 | ARNOLDIA
tures fell to -16° and —19° at the Arboretum weather station.
If no deep cold occurs during diminished snow for the balance
of the winter, a ring of blossoms from ground level to 15 inches
will be present. Forsythias near the summit of Bussey Hill are
located in more favorable microclimates and should flower well.
It is quite likely that Forsythias in the Boston suburbs will also
conform to this prediction.
Alfred J. Fordham
Table 1
Differences in minimum temperatures at ground
level and five feet, in February and March, 1967
Feb.
Five feet
Ground
Mar.
Five feet
Ground
1
13
14
1
17
13
2
32
32
2
9
4
3
17
18
3
14
14
4
9
3
4
32
32
5
21
20
5
28
26
6
22
20
6
31
30
7
10
8
7
31
30
8
-4
-3
8
19
10
9
9
-6
9
22
13
10
16
19
10
28
15
11
27
17
11
36
28
12
9
6
12
35
28
13
-9
-22
13
22
16
14
0
-1
14
36
32
15
14
32
15
33
30
16
38
32
16
24
23
17
17
16
17
12
6
18
14
12
18
5
-2
19
6
-1
19
0
-16
20
11
12
20
14
1
21
27
25
21
22
12
22
14
5
22
28
26
23
22
16
23
25
24
24
13
7
24
26
17
25
9
2
25
30
24
26
7
3
26
32
26
27
6
-3
27
33
24
28
23
12
28
34
32
29
36
34
30
24
26
31
30
24
Cold Damage to Forsythia Flower Buds \ 67
Table 2
Some temperatures at varying levels in January, 1971
Jan.
Ground
1 Foot
2 Feet
5 Feet
17
5*
-16
-11
— 7
18
-3*
-8
-5
-2
19
_19**
-15
-12
-9
20
-12**
-9
-6
-5
* Thermometer in path dug in snow at base of thermometer stand.
** Thermometer removed from path and placed on snow near base
of the stand (snow was 15 inches deep).
Key to Forsythias
(Modified from Rehder’s Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs)
(Note — in the flowers of Forsythia the style may be either longer
or shorter than the stamens).
A. Branches hollow in the internodes, without pith of any kind;
with solid masses of pith only at the nodes; leaves often 3-fo-
liolate or 3-parted on the shoots; flowers 1— 3(— 6) in each clus-
ter (2-6(-12) at each node) corolla about 2.5 cm. long; calyx
about as long as the corolla tube. Branches arching. Flower-
ing April— May. F. suspensa
AA, Branches with thin, papery lamellae of pith in the internodes,
sometimes with solid masses of pith at the nodes. B
B. Petioles and lower surface of the veins (and leaves) pu-
bescent C
C. Branches arching, calyx as long as the corolla-tube,
flowers 1—3 in each cluster, the corolla about 2.5 cm.
long F. suspensa f. pubescens
CC. Branches erect or spreading, calyx shorter than the
corolla-tube D
D. Flowers solitary (paired at the nodes), corolla
about 1.5 cm. long. Flowering in April
F. japonica
DI) Flowers 1-3 in each cluster (2-6 at each node)
corolla. 1. 5-2.0 cm. long. Flowering in April ....
F. giraldiana
BB. Whole plant glabrous, flowers solitary or several in each
cluster (2 — several at each node), corolla 2 cm. or more
long E
E. Pith in solid masses at the nodes, usually with lamel-
lae of pith in the internodes; leaves often 3-parted on
the shoots; flowers usually several in each cluster,
corolla about 2.5— 3.0 cm. or more long, calyx shorter
than the corolla tube. Branches arching. Flowering
in April and May F. x intermedia
(F. suspensa x F. viridissima )
68 | ARNOLDIA
EE. Pith lamellate throughout nodes and internodes, leaves
generally entire, only exceptionally 3-parted F
F. Leaves usually entire or with only a few shallow
teeth, ovate to ovate-lanceolate; flowers usually
solitary (paired at each node), corolla about 2
cm. long, calyx shorter than the corolla-tube,
branches erect.
* main axis of flowering branches 3-5 mm. in
diameter. Flowering in April and May
F. europea
** main axis of the flowering branches 2-3 mm.
in diameter. Flowering in April
F. giraldiana
FF. Leaves serrate, only occasionally nearly entire G
G. Leaves elliptic-oblong to lanceolate, cuneate
at the base, serrate only above the middle;
branches angular, green; flowers 1-3 in a
cluster (2-6 at a node), bright yellow with a
greenish tinge, corolla 2. 0-2. 5 cm. long, ca-
lyx about half as long as the corolla tube.
Branches erect. Flowering in April— May . ...
F. viridissima
GG. Leaves ovate, usually rounded at the base and
serrate nearly to the base; branches round
or nearly so, yellowish; flowers solitary
(paired at the nodes), amber yellow, corolla
1. 5-2.0 cm. long; calyx about half as long
as the corolla-tube. Branches erect. Flower-
ing in March and April F. ovata
Christmas Bird Count at the Arnold Arboretum
On January 2, 1971, a group of amateur ornithologists led by
Miss Miriam Dickey met at the Arnold Arboretum to partici-
pate in the National Audubon Society’s annual “Christmas
Count” of birds.
The group covered the Arnold Arboretum with the following
results :
Blue Jay
44
Junco
18
Brown Creeper
2
Mockingbird
1
Cardinal
4
Nuthatch
8
Cedar Waxwing
20
Purple Finch
1
Chickadee
18
Robin
38
Common Crow
26
Song Sparrow
2
Goldfinch
3
Starling
29
Gull, Great Black-backed
8
l ow bee
1
Hawk, Red-Tailed
1
White-throated Sparrow
5
House Sparrow
17
Woodpecker, Downy
9
Woodpecker, Hairy
2
Drawing of Downy Woodpecker by P. Bruns.
Notes from the Arnold Arboretum
Perennials for
Low Maintenance Gardening
Part II
Dictamnus — Gas Plant, Dittany, Burning-Bush
Of all the plants discussed in this article, Dictamnus albus
(listed as D. fraxinella in most catalogs) is, along with Peonies,
without doubt the most permanent of all perennials in the gar-
den. The best treatment is simply to leave the plants alone,
and they will increase in vigor as each year passes. In fact, the
best way to ruin a good clump of Dictamnus is to divide it and
attempt to reestablish the resulting plants elsewhere. For this
reason, it is advisable to begin with young plants of seedling
size, preferably started in pots. Even then it may take several
seasons before they give the desired effect, but the results will be
worth waiting for.
Although it will tolerate partial shade, a sunny location with
moderately rich soil is probably best for the Gas Plant. Situa-
tions which remain wet for any length of time should be avoided,
and the plant can be counted upon to withstand moderate pe-
riods of drought. Although it is slow to start, a well-grown speci-
men will take up a lot of room in the border and it is best to
leave about two feet in each direction for expansion. Annuals
can be used to fill the gaps in the meantime. A well-grown Gas
Plant will eventually attain a height of three feet, and is of
value as a specimen plant in the background of the small garden
or as a middle-of-the-border subject when combined with shrubs.
Staking is not required as the stems do not have the tendency
of other plants of similar height to fall over.
The short period of blossom (about one week during July) has
been listed as an objectionable characteristic. Perhaps this
would be true if it were not for the handsome pinnate leaves
which remain in good condition throughout the season and pro-
vide an excellent accent wherever the plant is placed.
The name Gas Plant or Burning Bush is derived from the fact
that under exactly the right conditions the plant exudes a volatile
70
Low Maintenance Gardening [ 71
gas, particularly around the flowers, and this can be ignited by
a match. The author has yet to encounter “exactly the right
conditions” under which this can be done. Supposedly they
exist during calm sultry evenings while the plant is in bloom.
Dictamnus albus has white flowers and those of its variety
D. albus var. ruber are a soft rose-pink.
Digitalis — Foxglove
The Common Foxglove, Digitalis purpurea, is an old time
favorite, but it is excluded here because of its biennial charac-
ter. Plants must be renewed each year from seeds and winter
protection is necessary in areas of severe cold. It is true that
Foxgloves will, under the right conditions, self-sow in the same
manner as Hollyhocks. In a semi-wild garden, this may be a
distinct advantage, but in most borders considerable time must
be spent pulling out the hundreds of seedlings which come up
in the most unwanted places.
There are a few perennial species of Digitalis, but they are not
particularly showy in the border, and suffer from the same
over-promiscuity in their seed sowing activities.
Echinops — Globe Thistle
If the reader is unfamiliar with the appearance of Globe
Thistles, he should make an attempt to observe them growing
in another garden before deciding to plant them in his own.
Opinion seems to be divided pretty nearly 50-50 for or against
this group.
Some people object strongly to the coarse general appearance
of the plant, and the harshness of the thistle-like leaves. Others,
including those who like to arrange cut flowers, prize the blue
globular flower heads which are made up of many spiny bracts
and flowers. The thistle-like leaves are white on the under-
surfaces and give character to the plant.
Aside from this, the author has a distinctly unpleasant recol-
lection of once having to dig and divide a large clump of Echi-
nops. The vigorous fleshy root system penetrates the soil to more
than a foot in depth, making this a particularly arduous chore,
so it is best to leave Echinops alone as long as the plants main-
tain their vigor. The task will probably have to be faced, how-
ever, every four or five years.
There are a number of species and varieties to choose from,
but without question the best is the cultivar of E. exaltatus called
‘Taplow Blue.’ This selection comes from England and has
72 | ARNOLDIA
glistening rich blue flower heads up to three inches in diameter.
To be seen at their best, all varieties of the Globe Thistle
should be planted in full sun and in a soil which is somewhat
on the lean side. Shade or rich soil conditions encourage them
to grow tall and lanky. In general, however, they are quite
easy to grow.
Epimedium — Barrenwort, Bishop’s Hat
This group is well known to a number of advanced garden-
ers, but has been undeservedly neglected by the majority of the
gardening public in this country. Although they will grow well
in full sun if the soil is moist, they are best used as ground
covers in shady areas where the soil is fairly rich and damp.
This would exclude Epimedium from many perennial borders
and they are mentioned here mainly because they will grow well
at the base of a tree if fertilizer is applied occasionally.
The problem of what to plant at the base of the tree is always
encountered, and a number of very charming herbaceous bor-
ders have been planned around existing small trees such as
Crab apples or Magnolias.
The pinnate foliage (some varieties have very interesting
leaf patterns) is attractive when the plants are not in flower
and is made more valuable by its ability to persist into the
winter. The foliage should be cut back to the ground in late
winter or very early spring to enhance the beauty of the new
leaves in spring. New leaves are pale green, tinted with a deli-
cate shade of rose, but in the summer become deeper and often
are mottled with purple. The cooler weather of autumn brings
out an attractive crimson coloration.
Many varieties can be obtained if one is patient enough to
sift through a number of catalogs. Unfortunately, where this
group is concerned, incorrect names abound in the trade.
E. grandiflorum produces the largest flowers of any in the
genus. They vary between one and two inches, the outer sepals
are red, the inner violet, and the spurred petals are white. E.
grandiflorum var. violaceum has pure violet petals.
E. pinnatum has small bright yellow flowers with rose-red
spurs. Most plants listed in catalogs under this name are prob-
ably E. pinnatum var. colchicum which grows a foot tall and
blooms later than E. grandiflorum.
One of the showiest is E. x rubrum (E. alpinum x E. grandi-
florum) which has large, brilliant red flowers flushed with yel-
low or white. The juvenile foliage is red, a most attractive asset.
The author’s favorite is E. x youngianum var. niveum, a hy-
Low Maintenance Gardening | 73
brid between E. grandiflorum and E. pinnatum var. colchicum.
Plants are a bit shorter than those listed above, usually only
reaching a height of ten inches. The bronze foliage provides a
handsome contrast to the pure white flowers.
Eupatorium — Mist-Flower, Hardy Ageratum
Only one species in this genus is suited to the perennial
border, all others being more suitable when naturalized in wild
gardens or woodlands. E. coelestinum is native from New Jer-
sey to Florida and Texas, and its pale lavender flowers can be
used in the same manner as the more fickle Asters to provide
a contrast to the rich yellow, orange, and bronze of many au-
tumn flowering plants. It resembles Ageratum when in bloom
and some people will mistake it for that plant even though it
does not have the compact habit of Ageratum.
This has been listed in several books as having invasive ten-
dencies, but although it will spread fairly rapidly, the author
has not seen a situation where it was out of hand. Best results
are obtained when plants are exposed to full sunlight, and per-
haps its most serious drawback is that even in sun the two-foot
plants may become straggly after a few years and need to be
divided.
E. coelestinum ‘Wayside Variety’ was grown at the Arnold
Arboretum last year and seems to be somewhat more compact
in habit. It is a distinct improvement on the wild form.
Euphorbia — Spurge
Several members of this genus have given it a bad name
among gardeners. E. marginata commonly called Snow-on-the-
Mountain is an annual with decidedly weedy and invasive ten-
dencies. E. cyparissias can be a great nuisance if planted in
too rich a soil, becoming rampant and soon outgrowing its wel-
come. This is, however, a good rock garden subject and can be
used as a ground cover in very arid places. E. myrsinitesis is
another species which may be difficult to keep in bounds.
However, E. epithymoides (sometimes seen in catalogs as E.
poly chroma) is a neat, symmetrical plant for the front of the
border. It grows to a height of one-and-a-half to two feet and
produces globular umbels of bright chartreuse-yellow bracts
from the end of April until early June. As with the rest of this
family, flowers are really not the conspicuous feature, and color
is produced by the enlarged bracts which surround the true
flowers. The foliage remains attractive all summer and turns
to a rather handsome dark red in autumn.
74 | ARNOLDIA
E. wulfenii is of value for its handsome clusters of yellow
bracts in May. It is taller than E. epithymoid.es and reaches a
height of three feet. It is an unusual cut flower, and even more
so for its blue-green leaves.
All species of Euphorbia do best in well-drained sandy soils
and should be considered by anyone who has dry soil conditions.
The last two species above are the best and they can be ex-
pected to last for many years with very little attention. In fact,
all Euphorbias resent being disturbed when well established
and it is better to start with young plants than with divisions.
Eilipendula — Meadow-sweet, Dropwort
This genus used to be included with Spiraea, and unfortu-
nately, like Astilbe, it can still be found by this name in some
catalogs. Eilipendulas are usually grown for their large feath-
ery panicles of numerous small flowers. Several of the species
in common cultivation are quite tall and suitable for the rear
of the border, used in combination with shrubs, or as woodland
or streamside plantings.
F. hexapetala, the Dropwort, seldom exceeds two feet, how-
ever, and is an excellent border subject. The fem-like foliage
is especially pleasing and can be used to advantage to tone down
the leaves of certain coarser plants. The creamy-white flower
panicles are produced in June. It is another plant for those who
have poor dry soils, as it will succeed in such locations if fer-
tilizer is given from time to time. Occasionally one can find the
beautiful double-flowered form E. hexapetala ‘Flore-Plena.’ This
is lower, to fifteen inches tall, and well worth the effort to lo-
cate in nurseries.
F. rubra , Queen-of-the-Prairie, is one of the best back-of-the-
border plants. It grows from four to six feet tall and produces
large terminal clusters of small pink flowers in June and July.
Its variety F. rubra var. venusta (Martha Washington Plume in
some catalogs) is a much better form with deep pink flowers.
F. ulmaria, Queen-of-the-Meadow, is another tall species which
will reach four to five feet in height under good conditions.
This is a Eurasian species which is now rather widely naturalized
in New England.
Filipendulas are of added value because they can go for many
years without needing to be divided. A possible drawback to the
last two species discussed above is that watering is essential
during dry periods and these are best planted in moist, fertile
soil.
Low Maintenance Gardening | 75
Gaillardia — Blanket-Flower
Gaillardias can cause great disappointment unless they are
grown in a very well-drained soil. Even then, permanence is
somewhat questionable. Many types sprawl unless staked early,
and the best ones are seldom very hardy. Some people are
greatly attracted to the bright color of the flowers, others think
them too gaudy. Some varieties are advertised to bloom on and
on during the summer, and this is true if one is careful to re-
move dead and fading flower heads faithfully.
One member of the Arboretum staff has suggested that these
might best be used for colonizing gravel heaps, and although
this suggestion might have some merit, it must be said that
Gaillardias are best left to those with the time and patience
to cater to their specialized needs. For those in this latter cate-
gory, some of the good varieties to watch for in catalogs are as
follows: G. ‘Burgundy’ — deep red, two feet; G. ‘Goblin’ — red
and yellow, one foot; G. ‘Sun Dance’ — red with yellow edges;
and G. ‘Sun Gold’ — yellow, two feet.
Geranium — Cranesbill
These are sometimes confused with Pelargonium (whose com-
mon name, unfortunately, is Geranium), a showy group of great
value as pot plants and for summer bedding. True Geraniums
come from temperate parts of the world. Some (but not all) of
the handsome species are hardy as far north as Boston and
among them are several which will adapt well to low-mainte-
nance plantings.
The most commonly planted is G. sanguineum, a plant which
forms a mound about a foot tall and two feet in diameter and
produces rose-purple flowers in profusion from May until early
August. The attractive leaves turn bright red in late autumn.
G. sanguineum var. album has attractive white flowers and
those of the selection G. sanguineum ‘Johnson’s Blue’ are a good
bright blue. G. sanguineum var. prostratum (still in most cata-
logs as G. lancastriense or G. sanguineum var. lancastriense )
forms a neat mat of foliage seldom over six inches high with
freely borne light pink flowers with red veins.
It would be a mistake to plant any of the above in an overly
rich soil as they may spread too rapidly and have to be divided
after a few years. Although they will withstand light shade,
flowering will be more profuse in full sun. Under this latter
condition, plants should be able to remain undisturbed for a
number of years. Sometimes grasses can invade an old clump
to such an extent that it will have to be lifted and divided.
76 | ARNOLDIA
Another nearly indestructible hardy species is G. grandiflorum.
This species is usually only a foot high and produces large
purple-blue flowers with red veins in clusters on fifteen-inch
stems from May to July. G. grandiflorum var. alpinum is a
smaller plant with larger, nearly true-blue flowers. As with G.
sanguineum an overly rich soil encourages excessive spreading
tendencies.
Geum — Avens
Geums have had a bad name among gardeners in the Boston
area for some time. Many people have heard glowing reports
of the wonderful flower colors but have been dismayed when
their newly acquired plants have died during the first winter.
A number of beautiful cultivars such as ‘Mrs. Bradshaw’ and
‘Lady Stratheden’ are derived from G. chiloense which is re-
liably hardy only as far north as Long Island. These are the
ones which have caused the trouble and they should be avoided
in our area.
G. coccineum , a species with bright orange-red flowers, is
native to Asia Minor and Southern Europe. Breeders have se-
lected hardy forms of this and crossed them with the less hardy
G. chiloense to produce a remarkably showy and valuable group
of cultivars which are quite hardy in our area and which do not
require the biennial divisions necessary to maintain the old
selections of G. chiloense.
Several of the outstanding newer hybrids to watch out for
and try are as follows: G. ‘Dolly North’ — flowers gold overlaid
with orange; G. ‘Fire Opal’ — flowers rich red with bronzy over-
tones; G. ‘Princess Juliana’ — - flowers clear rich orange; G. ‘Red
Wings’ — flowers scarlet; G. ‘Wilton Ruby’ — flowers ruby-red.
These hybrids grow to two-and-a-half feet tall and bloom from
May to July. Young plants are slow to start and it may take
a year or two for them to become established. Those who have
been disappointed with the old cultivars of G. chiloense should
be aware of this latter characteristic before making hasty con-
clusions about the newer ones.
Gypsophila — Baby’s-breath, Chalk-plant
The latter common name given above and the generic
name derived from the Greek word which means lime-loving
give one of the main clues to success with this group. It is wise
to have the soil tested before growing most perennials, and this
is particularly so with Gypsophila. If the reaction is lower than
Low Maintenance Gardening | 77
pH 6, ground limestone should be applied to bring it up to
pH 7 or pH 7.5. One other soil condition is equally as necessary
if success is to be achieved. Gypsophilas will not overwinter in
moist soggy soils and a well-drained sunny situation is es-
sential. Further care should be taken in choosing a good loca-
tion because all except the dwarf varieties of Baby’s-breath take
up a lot of room, and once established the thick fleshy roots re-
sent any disturbance.
This may seem a rather long list of requirements for a plant
that is included in a list of supposedly maintenance-free gar-
den subjects. These requirements are, however, relatively simple
if properly understood; and once established the plants can be
expected to last for years if they receive the necessary dose of
ground limestone from time to time. Many people who use
relatively low-maintenance plants soon discover that mulching
not only cuts down on the incidence of certain weeds, but im-
proves the growth response of many plants. Baby’s-breath will
benefit from this in still another way, as a mulch will help pre-
vent the thick fleshy roots from being heaved in the winter.
The mulch, however, should not cover the crown of the plant or
rotting may occur before the ground becomes completely frozen.
In the coldest of winters in the Boston area, some plants of
Gypsophila may be killed and a good mulching may prevent this.
The best and probably the easiest to obtain of the cultivars
of G. paniculata is the double white G. ‘Bristol Fairy.’ This is
an extremely vigorous plant which can eventually fill up an area
in the border four feet wide, with stems three feet high. It has
long been known that by proper placement of Gypsophila the
large gaps left by the withering of early flowering plants such as
Oriental poppies and Dicentra spectabilis can be filled. Other
varieties of G. paniculata include G. paniculata ‘Perfecta,’ a re-
cent introduction from Europe with flowers supposedly twice
the size of G. ‘Bristol Fairy,’ and G. paniculata ‘Pink Fairy’ a
form with fully double pink flowers.
Helenium — Sneezewood
Cultivars of our native H, auturnnale have long been con-
sidered essential for fall color in the border. The older forms
grow from four to six feet tall and must be divided, if not every
other year, then every third year, to maintain any semblance
whatever of tidiness. Fortunately there are several newer cul-
tivars which are shorter, do not fall over or need to be staked,
and can be recommended here. H. ‘Bruno’ has dark red flowers
on two-and-a-half-foot stems; H. ‘Moerheim Beauty’ has velvety
78 | ARNOLDIA
maroon-red flowers on two-and-a-half-foot stems; and H. ‘Pu-
milum Magnificum’ has yellow flowers on stems that are only
twelve to eighteen inches high.
Chrysanthemums were described earlier in this article as too
finicky to be included in a low maintenance scheme. The three
cultivars named above can be used as a substitute to provide
nearly the same effect at the same time with much less effort.
They will grow almost anywhere, but do best in a moderately
moist soil. Exposure to full sun will help to produce the desired
bushy habit.
Hemerocallis — Daylily
Hybridizers have produced so many cultivars of this nearly
perfect plant for the low maintenance garden that probably the
greatest problem one will encounter is knowing which varieties
to choose. In general the plants are nearly indestructible if
placed in a reasonably fertile soil in sun or partial shade, but
excessive fertility will lead to rank growth and poor flowering.
Although it is often thought that Daylilies can be left to their
own devices almost forever, division at infrequent intervals will
produce superior plants. One of the biggest chores with Day-
lilies is the need to remove the unsightly flowering stalks after
the flowers have gone by. This can be a task if one has exten-
sive plantings.
Professional growers and amateur fanciers are now produc-
ing a completely new race of tetraploid hybrids which undoubt-
edly will be widely popular in the future. Although these can
be obtained at present, prices still prohibit widespread use and
they must be classed as “collectors items.” Gardeners in the
Boston area who wish to see these coming attractions of the
Daylily world will want to visit the Hemerocallis plantings at
the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston.
It would be extremely difficult to choose the best moderately
priced varieties to grow today were it not for the 1970 Popularity
Poll published in the December, 1970, issue of The Hemerocallis
Journal. Daylily fanciers throughout the country have sent in
lists of what they consider the best cultivars, and it is interesting
to note that the six which are most popular in the Northeast also
appear high up on the list of national favorites.
Those especially recommended are as follows: H. ‘Frances
Fay’ — a low-growing variety with flowers of a melon tone (the
melon in this case refers to cantaloupe); H. ‘Satin Glass’ — this
is a new break in the “melon” color, being towards the pale
creamy side; H. ‘Hortensia’ — the top winner in the national
Low Maintenance Gardening | 79
poll with well-shaped golden yellow flowers, the petals are
slightly twisted and ruffled; H. ‘Luxury Lace’ — has medium
sized lavender flowers with a greenish throat; H. ‘Cartwheels’
— with medium-sized golden yellow flowers, which are almost
round, a desired quality; H. ‘Little Rainbow’ — the unusually
colored attractive flowers are pale yellow with blendings of
pink, lavender, and green. It is somewhat surprising to note
that no red-flowered varieties appear on this list. One of the
best of these is H. ‘Bess Ross’ which has good clear red flowers
without the brown-red or purple-red overtones present in some
varieties.
None of the above varieties are tetraploids, and all are easily
available at a moderate price.
Heuchera — Coral Bells, Alum Root
For best results in most locations Heucheras need to be di-
vided every third year, a distinct disadvantage for a very charm-
ing group of plants. Although perfectly hardy, they are sus-
ceptible to heaving during alternate periods of freezing and
thawing, and one should take the extra precaution of applying
a mulch in winter. These traits are most unfortunate when con-
sidering a list of plants to be grown with a minimum of main-
tenance, and they cannot receive the high praise in this discus-
sion that they would most certainly deserve elsewhere.
Modern hybrids come in a good range of flower colors and
the beautifully mottled leaves can be decidedly attractive as
well. Some of the good cultivars presently available are de-
rived from Heuchera sanguinea or H, sanguinea x H. micrantha
and include the following: H. ‘Chartreuse’ — chartreuse flowers;
H. ‘Fire Sprite’ — rose to rose-red flowers; H. ‘Freedom’ — rose-
pink flowers; H. ‘June Bride’ — a very good white flower; H.
‘Pluie de Feu’ — deep pink to almost cherry-red flowers; H.
‘Rosamundi’ — one of the best cultivars with coral-pink flowers;
and H. ‘White Cloud’ — white to creamy-white flowers.
Hibiscus — Rose Mallow, Hardy Hibiscus
The numerous cultivars which have arisen from the selection
and crossing of Hibiscus moscheutos and H. palustris are not
frequently seen in the Boston area even though most of them
are perfectly hardy. This is strange because the equally showy
tropical representatives of this genus are featured in many
amateur greenhouses.
Some of the newer cultivars display gigantic flowers up to
ten and twelve inches across making them the largest-flowered
80 | ARNOLDIA
herbaceous perennials that can be grown in this area. Some peo-
ple object to the size and bright colors as being too gaudy but
when grown as a single specimen in the mixed border, striking
effects can be achieved. One great drawback is their suscep-
tibility to attack by Japanese beetles. The large leaves become
decidedly tattered if such attacks cannot be controlled.
Although they will grow well in an ordinary soil if watered
during periods of drought. Hardy Hibiscus hybrids do especially
well in moist situations and are the perfect answer where con-
ditions are too moist for most other perennials. They attain a
height of four to five feet in most situations but die back to the
ground during the winter. One problem is that under good con-
ditions, they seed themselves in a copious manner and all
volunteers must be discarded if the good named varieties are to
be retained. A number of the newer cultivars are presently
being grown in the nurseries of the Arnold Arboretum, and it is
hoped that in a few years we will have a good display of these
valuable mid-summer flowering plants for visitors to see.
Some of the numerous varieties which are easy to obtain are :
H. ‘Appleblossom’ — crinkly petals which are light-pink mar-
gined with a deeper rose-pink; H. ‘Raspberry Rose’ — flowers
deep rose-pink with a bright red throat; H. ‘Satan’ — flowers a
brilliant fire-engine red; H. ‘Snow White’ — a shorter plant
(about three-and-a-half feet) with pure white flowers; H. ‘Snow
Queen’ — the white flowers have wide, overlapping, crinkled
petals and a deep red throat; H. ‘Super Clown’ — flowers white
and pink; H. ‘Super Red’ — the medium-sized flowers dark red;
H. ‘Super Rose’ — brilliant rose flowers up to ten inches in di-
ameter; H. ‘White Beauty’ — pure white flowers ten inches in
diameter with a red throat. Many other cultivars are on the
market and there will undoubtedly be an upswing in interest in
this group before long.
Hosta — Plaintain-lily
If given a proper location as regards both soil and light, this
can be another large group to delight the gardener who cannot
spend a lot of time pampering his plants. A moderately rich
soil with partial shade (preferably the shade of high trees) is
about all that Hostas require to develop into majestic, eye-
catching specimens. A visit to the Hosta collection in the woods
at the Case Estates can be a rewarding experience as most visi-
tors are unaware of the exciting range of variations in this
group. This special planting is one of the most extensive col-
lections of Hosta in this part of the country.
Low Maintenance Gardening \ 81
As with the Daylily, the most demanding seasonal task with
Hostas is the removal of the scapes once the flowers have gone
by. They not only are unattractive but should not be allowed
to go to seed, as certain named varieties do not reproduce true
to type and the resulting seedlings can be a distinct nuisance.
Nonetheless some of the good cultivars on the market today have
arisen as chance seedlings in just this way. For an interesting
article on this subject and the development of a number of
cultivars see Francis Williams and Her Garden Adventures by
Gertrude C. W’ister, Arnoldia, Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 148—154. 1960.
There is little doubt that most Hosta cultivars are seen to best
advantage if planted singly as specimen plants rather than being
massed. This way the handsome radial symmetry of the indi-
vidual plants can be seen to best advantage. Some of the more
vigorous varieties will eventually occupy up to four feet of
space in the garden and this must be taken into account at
planting time. Some types make excellent ground covers, and
when planted for this purpose the symmetrical effect is sacri-
ficed. H, undulata with its white and green wavy leaves has
been used extensively for this purpose and is often seen growing
in the full sun — a condition not tolerated well by most other
varieties.
The taxonomy of Hosta is confused and synonyms and in-
correct names abound. The following is a list of some of the
best varieties as they appear in the majority of nursery cata-
logs. It should be noted here that they fall into two different
groups, some grown for the interesting leaves only, and others
for their flowers. Plants in this list have been selected to provide
a period of blossom from late June to September. H. ‘Betsy
King’ which was hybridized by Frances Williams is grown main-
ly for its rich purple flowers which appear on twenty-inch scapes
in August. H. fortunei (often listed as H. glauca ) has glaucous,
pale green leaves with lavender-blue flowers on spikes two to
three feet high in August. A number of worthwhile variations
exist and are grown as much for the flowers as for the leaves.
H. ‘Honeybells’ has very fragrant white flowers with violet vein-
in g which appear on forty-inch scapes in late August. The
leaves are light green. H. ‘Royal Standard’ has very sweetly
scented white flowers on two-foot scapes in August and Septem-
ber. It is grown more for the sweet smelling flowers than for
the foliage. H. sieboldiana and its varieties and forms are grown
for the remarkable large heavy-textured leaves. It is one of the
very best of all the plants for semi-shaded to heavily-shaded con-
ditions. One of the most sought after of all varieties is H. siebol-
82 | ARNOLDIA
diana ‘Frances Williams’ sometimes called H. sieboldiana ‘Yel-
low Edge’ or H. sieboldiana aureo-marginata. This form has
lovely round glaucous leaves which are bordered in yellow.
H. undulata has white and green wavy leaves and has been
much used in foundation plantings and as a ground cover. It
blooms in July and forms a plant ten to twelve inches high. H.
ventricosa ( H . coerulea ) is especially valuable for its beautiful
dark violet flowers on spikes three-and-a-half feet high, and for
its deep green leaves. It blooms in late June and early July.
To be continued
Robert S. Hebb
Summary of weather data recorded at the Dana Greenhouses,
January 1971.
January
Precipitation
10.3
Average
Daily Temp.
33.1
Salix lucida with Skunk Cabbage.
Photo: P. Bruns.
\v*A*#SS»i
Arnoldia Reviews
Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles, by W. J. Bean.
The present generation of gardeners has grown up with two
monumental reference works devoted to trees and shrubs: Reh-
der’s “Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs,” a one volume
handbook for identification, and Bean’s “Trees and Shrubs Hardy
in the British Isles,” a two (or three in later editions) volume
compendium of descriptive matter. They are both monuments
to the incredible energies of their respective authors. Both works
were produced as a response to the large number of new woody
plants that were introduced into cultivation from eastern Asia
in the last part of the nineteenth and early part of the twentieth
centuries.
Rehder’s “Manual . . was originally published in 1927 and
issued in a revised edition by its author in 1940. Bean’s “Trees
and Shrubs . . .” was originally published in 1914 in two vol-
umes, went through six editions in the author’s lifetime, and
was last issued three years after his death, in 1949, as a sev-
enth edition in three volumes, edited from the author’s manu-
script. Economic exigencies required that the successive edi-
tions of Bean be issued with a minimum of alteration to the text
of the original volumes, but with the new matter added as a
supplementary volume.
Bean’s “Trees and Shrubs . . .” was always a discursive and
descriptive work. It described the forms cultivated in the British
Isles, but made no real attempt to indicate diagnostic characters
or to provide keys for identification. As such, Bean and Rehder
were complimentary texts, for Rehder’s “Manual . . .”, despite
its cryptic notes on flowering time and hardiness, is essentially
a manual for identification.
For years there have been rumors that there was to be a new
edition of Bean, and at last the first volume of the new edition
is here. While in appearance it resembles the old Bean, there
is much that is new. The entire text has been reset in a more
modern type face. All of the descriptive material has been cast
into one alphabet, and nomenclature and synonymy have been
84
Amoldia Reviews I 85
brought up to date. Many of the species were known to Bean
only as juvenile specimens — the new text brings his observa-
tions up to date by the incorporation of data on mature speci-
mens. As much as possible of Bean’s original text has been
saved; the editing has consisted to a large extent of adding new
observations.
The new seventh edition of Bean’s “Trees and Shrubs Hardy
in the British Isles” seems destined to take its place on the book-
shelves of all who have a serious interest in growing trees and
shrubs in the temperate zones. The editors are to be congratu-
lated on producing a thoroughly up-to-date work that retains the
flavour of the original; and the publisher is to be applauded for
a fine job of book production. The reasonable price of about
twenty dollars per volume is due to financial assistance from
the Royal Horticultural Society and the Nuffield Foundation.
We, the public, must be forever grateful to all concerned.
G. P. DeW.
W. J. Bean, Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles, Lon-
don: John Murray (Publishers) Ltd., 1970. £8 net.
Hortulus, by Walahfrid Strabo, translated by Raef Payne
The book’s white vellum binding and the gold letters Walah-
frid Strabo. Hortulus. 1510/1966 stood out among the dark
volumes on the shelf.
I took it down and opened it to one of the middle pages :
Then my small patch was warmed by winds from the south
And the sun’s heat. That it should not be washed away,
We faced it with planks and raised it in oblong beds
A little above the level ground. With a rake
I broke the soil up bit by bit, and then
Worked in from on top the leaven of rich manure.
Some plants we grow from seed, some from old stocks
We try to bring back to the youth they knew before.
I was in a dry dusty library but suddenly the warmth of the
sun was on my face, I smelled the rich spring scent of manure,
and felt damp crumbling soil between my fingers.
86 | ARNOLDIA
On the left-hand page the poem was in Latin, on the right in
English. Each page was delicately imprinted with a pale green
block print of a plant. I turned a few pages:
You have seen how ivy twines
Its leaves round a lofty elm, from the earth’s bosom
Lapping its supple arms around the whole tree till it finds
A way to the very top, and hides all the wrinkled bark
With a mantle of green —
Who was Walahfrid Strabo? I turned to the front of the book.
In the first twelve pages I found an account of this 9th century
poet and monk by Wilfrid Blunt. The account of his life tells
what is known historically about him, and includes footnotes
of further historical information. Many of his writings were of
religious subjects including a study of the growth of obser-
vances in the Church. His Hortulus seems to have been the
only poem of nature that he wrote. Although the poem was
written in the ninth century the manuscript lay undiscovered
until 1509, when it was found and printed in Vienna in 1510.
It has had an appeal to poets and gardeners ever since, and this
volume includes a discussion of other manuscripts and editions
of the poem which have appeared since medieval days.
After reading Walahfrid’s life I turned again to the poem,
and found, toward the front of the volume, twenty facsimile
pages of the ninth century manuscript of the Hortulus, repro-
duced from La Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana. Even though
I have forgotten the little Latin I knew, these pages, written in
neat Latin calligraphy, produced the same feeling of excite-
ment and history that I get from turning the crackling pages of
an old book.
I turned to the beginning of the English translation and be-
gan to read: “Here begins the Book on the Cultivation of Gar-
dens by Strabus (or Strabo). May it find favor.” I was in a
monastery garden, sharing with a 9th century monk the joys
and sorrows of watching a garden grow. I rejoiced with him at
the arrival of spring:
A purer air was now beginning to herald
Fine weather. Plants stirred in the zephyr’s path
Thrusting out from their roots the slender tips
Which had long lain hidden in the earth’s blind womb,
Shunning the frost they hate. Spring smiled
In the leaves of the woodland, the lush grass on the slopes
And the bright sward of the cheerful meadows.
Amoldia Reviews I 87
When a dry spell threatened I hurried with him to bring
water :
Should a dry spell rob the plants of the moisture they need,
My gardening zeal and fear that the slender shoots
May die of thirst make me scurry to bring fresh water
In brimming buckets. With my own hands I pour it
Drop by drop, taking care not to shift the seeds
By too sudden or lavish a soaking.
Together in the library, surrounded by old books, Walahfrid
and I strolled down his garden path. It was a latchen garden,
as most northern European gardens were in the ninth century.
Tansy, Betony, Celery; he admired each and gave directions
for its use.
At the end of his garden stood the rose and the lily, and with
words of religious mysticism he compared them to the symbols
of the Church:
These two flowers, so loved and widely honored,
Have throughout the ages stood as symbols
Of the Church’s greatest treasures; for it plucks the rose
In token of blood shed by the Blessed Martyrs;
The lily it wears as a shining sign of its faith.
I closed the book and put it back on the shelf. That evening
as I turned the hose on my newly planted beds I thought of the
monk in his monastery garden. Eleven centuries separate us,
but we share the hopes and despairs of gardening.
Some plants we grow from seed, some from old stocks
We try to bring back to the youth they knew before.
H. R. G.
This edition of Hortulus, published by the Hunt Botanical
Library, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, is limited to 1500 copies. It
can be ordered from Stechert-Hafner Service Agency, Inc., Box
2000, 260 Heights Road, Darien, Connecticut, 06820. The price
is $15.00.
Lecture Series: “Meet the Staff”
In the fall of 1968, the Arnold Arboretum instituted a series
of talks by some members of the staff. This spring’s program
will allow five more members of the staff to speak about sub-
jects that interest them and, we hope, you.
Time:
Place :
April 6:
April 1 3 :
April 20:
April 27 :
May 4:
8 P.M., Tuesday evenings: April 6 to May 18,
1971
The Schoolhouse, 133 Wellesley Street, Weston,
Massachusetts
Plant Collecting in New Guinea
Thomas G. Hartley, Ph.D., Associate Curator of
Pacific Botany
A Botanist in Korea, Japan and Hong Kong
Shui-Ying Hu, Ph.D., Botanist
Some Gardens in Southern Spain
Helen Roca-Garcia, A.M., Research Assistant
A Naturalist in the Southeastern United States
Richard Weaver, Ph.D., Assistant Curator
Pruning Practices at the Arnold Arboretum
Robert G. Williams, B.S., Superintendent
Refreshments will be served at 7:30 P.M., and the lecture
will begin promptly at 8. Please park in the areas indicated
near the barn. Limited space makes it necessary to restrict the
size of this group to 30 members.
This series requires a registration fee of $5.00 for Friends of
the Arnold Arboretum*; $10.00 for others. Any member of the
immediate family of a “Friend” may register for these meet-
ings but a registration fee of $5.00 must be paid for each per-
son.
* Information on how to become a “Friend of the Arnold Arboretum”
can be obtained by writing or calling the Arnold Arboretum, Arborway,
Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130. Telephone: 524-1717.
88
B/
r>
ARNOLDIA
Tfoe Arnold Arboretum Vol. 31, No. 3 May, 1971
library
JUL 18 is"
Contents
89 The Fothergillas
RICHARD E. WEAVER
99 Indian Relics of the Arnold
Arboretum
ERNEST J. PALMER
108 Prehistoric Land Use in the
Arnold Arboretum
DENA FERRAN DINCAUZE
114 The Lelacke, or Pipe Tree
HELEN ROCA-GARCIA
121 1970 Lilac Registration
JOHN C. WISTER
JOSEPH OPPE
127 Notes from the Arnold Arboretum
Perennials for Low Main-
tenance Gardening Part III
ROBERT s. HEBB
140 ARNOLDIA REVIEWS
ARNOLDIA is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum
of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Mass. 02130
Published six times a year: on the 15th of January,
March, May, July, September, and November
Subscriptions: $3.50 per year. Single copies, 60 cents
Application to mail at 2nd class postage rates
is pending at Boston, Mass.
On the cover: Lilacs in the Arboretum. Photo: P. Bruns.
The Fothergillas
The variety and abundance of native woody plants has long
impressed visitors to the rich mountain forests and coastal
swamps of the southeastern United States. From this rich and
varied flora have come many of our cultivated flowering trees
and shrubs. Perhaps the most famous of these, famous because
of its history, rarity and beauty, is Franklinia alatamaha, dis-
covered in southeastern Georgia by John and William Bartram
in 1765. Other notable southeastern natives include the Sweet
Shrub or Carolina Allspice (Calycanthus floridus ), the Silverbell
tree (Halesia Carolina ), and several of the Stewartias, Rhodo-
dendrons, and Magnolias. Less well known than these, but un-
deservedly so, are those plants of the genus Fothergilla.
These lovely shrubs are members of the same family as the
Witch Hazel (Hamamelidaceae) and markedly resemble that
plant in their foliage and the shape and structure of the fruits.
The flowers, however, are quite different, at least with casual
inspection. Rather than having the four narrow, yellow or red-
dish petals as in Witch Hazel, the flowers of Fothergilla are
without petals, and even the sepals are greatly reduced. The
conspicuous parts are the 12 to 32 stamens with creamy-white,
narrowly club-shaped filaments and minute yellow or purplish
anthers. The individual flowers are small, less than Vs inch
across, but they are massed in dense, showy spikes which may
be as much as three inches long and one-and-a-half inches broad.
Although such colorful names as “Bottle-Brush Bush,”
“Granny Gray-Beard,” “Spring-Scent,” and “Witch Alder” (the
last the one most commonly used in the technical manuals),
have been applied to these shrubs, none are in general use. As
is the case with the Rhododendrons and the Magnolias, the
scientific name has become the popular name.
Dr. John Fothergill, in whose honor the genus was named,
was a Quaker physician and philanthropist of London who main-
tained a life-long interest in natural history. At Upton, in Essex,
he established an extensive garden in which he grew plants from
all over the world in greenhouses reputed, at the time, to be the
most extensive anywhere. It was as a patron however, that Dr.
89
90 | ARNOLDIA
Fothergill rendered his most important service to eighteenth
century natural history. Among other important contributions,
he subsidized William Bartram’s travels in the southeastern
United States; and Philip Miller’s The Gardener’s Dictionary , one
of the earliest works devoted to gardening and horticulture, was
begun and finished under his patronage.
At present, two species of Fothergilla are recognized, both of
these native to the southeastern United States. F. gardenii (also
known in the past as F. alnifolia or F. Carolina) is restricted in
its natural range to the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains from
northeastern North Carolina to the western panhandle of Florida
and adjacent Alabama. Uncommon to rare in various parts of
this range, F. gardenii is a plant of one of the characteristic
Coastal Plain vegetation types — the pocosin or shrub bog.
Pocosins are low-lying areas, moist but without permanent
standing water, which support a characteristic vegetation com-
posed primarily of broad-leaved evergreen shrubs including
Sweet Bay ( Magnolia virginiana), Bed Bay (Persea borbonia).
Wax Myrtle ( Myrica cerifera) and several species of Holly
(Ilex). The vegetation is dense and frequently covered with a
dense mat of one of the Catbriers (Smilax laurifolia), a com-
bination which discourages exploration. Fortunately for one
interested in collecting it, as I was during my graduate days at
Duke University, F. gardenii generally grows only around the
edges of the pocosins. The peak of flowering in North Carolina,
where it is most abundant, is during the second and third weeks
of April, a time when few other shrubs are blooming. An ex-
ception, unfortunately for the collector, is one of the low Shad-
bushes ( Amelanchier ) which is much more common and which
strongly resembles F. gardenii, especially from a car window.
Fothergilla major (including a plant known in the past as F.
monticola) , in contrast to F. gardenii, is a plant of the south-
eastern highlands. It occurs in scattered localities from north-
western North Carolina and northeastern Tennessee along the
Appalachians into north-central Alabama, with a very few iso-
lated populations in the Piedmont of central North Carolina.
Growing at elevations several thousand feet higher than F.
gardenii, the flowering season of F. major is consequently later,
the peak in North Carolina occurring from late April to early
May. Although F. major is infrequently encountered, it should
not rightly be considered a rare plant since it is usually abun-
dant in the localities where it occurs. The plants spread pro-
fusely by means of underground stems and often form large,
virtually pure stands. F. major is occasionally found in mature,
The F other gillas \ 91
Fothergilla major. Photo: H. Howard.
92 i ARNOLDIA
Fothergilla major in natural habitat near Hillsborough, N.C.
Photo: R. Weaver.
The F other gillas | 93
mesic forests, but its most characteristic habitats are disturbed
areas or dry ridges, areas unfortunately also favored by one of
the more unpleasant residents of the Southern Appalachians.
One of my most vivid memories of those otherwise delightful
summers in the southern mountains is of the day when I dis-
covered that I had been sharing, who knows for how long, the
largest patch of Fothergilla I have ever seen with a four-foot
Timber Rattlesnake. Ever after I entered and explored Fother-
gilla patches with the greatest caution.
The two species of Fothergilla have often been confused by
professionals and amateurs alike. There are, however, several
characters by which they may easily be distinguished. F. major,
or the Tall Fothergilla, is a profusely branched, medium-sized
to tall shrub, usually three to six feet in height but occasionally
becoming nearly twenty feet tall, at least in the wild state. The
flowers appear with the leaves. The leaves are very similar to
those of the common Witch Hazel ( Hamamelis virginiana) , both
in size and shape; the major difference is that the leaves of
Witch Hazel are toothed to the base while those of F. major
are toothed only in the upper two-thirds. F. gardenii, or the
Dwarf Fothergilla, on the other hand, is a low, sparsely branched
shrub, very seldom more than 9J/z feet tall. The flowers appear
before the leaves. The leaves are much smaller and narrower
than those of F. major, and they are toothed only above the
middle, if at all.
There appear at present to be no named horticultural varie-
ties of either of the species of Fothergilla. During the nineteenth
century several varieties of F. gardenii were described from cul-
tivated material in England. These were based on minor char-
acteristics and do not merit recognition as cultivars. There are,
however, two distinct types of F. major. The typical material
has leaves which are distinctly whitish beneath; a form, which
has been called F. monticola, has leaves which are green be-
neath. These types, which grow side by side in the wild, do not
constitute biological species or even varieties but may well be
worthy of recognition as cultivars. In addition to these rather
distinct types, there is considerable clonal variation in shape,
autumnal coloration, and profusion of flowering within the
presently cultivated F. major. A selection program could well
result in the establishment of several superior cultivars.
Although restricted in their natural ranges to the southeastern
United States, the Fothergillas are hardy as far north as New
England, at least one specimen of F. major prospering in the
Arnold Arboretum for the last 95 years. F. gardenii is evidently
94 | ARNOLDIA
the more tender of the two species. The specimens of this
species which have been grown at the Arnold Arboretum have
not thrived, although one has survived for nearly 75 years.
The rarity of the Fothergillas in cultivation is certainly not
due to a lack of desirable characteristics. Although wild speci-
mens bloom sparingly, the cultivated plants at the Arnold Ar-
boretum are covered with spectacular masses of the unusual
“bottle-brush” inflorescences in May. The flowers are decidedly
fragrant, the scent being somewhat difficult to describe but
nevertheless very pleasant. In the fall the shrubs are again a
mass of color, the foliage varying from a brilliant scarlet to a
more subdued russet. F. major, the more desirable of the species,
becomes a dense, well-formed, erect or more or less spreading
shrub; the largest specimen at the Arnold Arboretum is eight
feet tall and about as broad. It is a particularly attractive sub-
ject for specimen planting and would also appear to be suitable
in situations where a tall, informal hedge or barrier is desired.
F. gardenii, a low, spreading shrub, is a fine subject for the
shrub border, at least, in the Northeast, in sheltered spots.
The first recorded collection of a Fothergilla was by Dr. Alex-
ander Garden, a Scottish physician who settled in Charleston,
South Carolina in 1752. Dr. Garden was an avid student of
natural history. He corresponded extensively with the great
naturalists of his time, notably Linnaeus, and he was a good
friend of John Bartram. Fothergilla gardenii was named in his
honor as was the familiar Gardenia. In a letter to Linnaeus
dated May 18, 1765, Garden sent the “characters” of what he
considered to be seven new genera of plants. One of these was
Fothergilla (gardenii) . At a later date, Garden sent specimens
of these plants, both dried and pickled in “spirits of wine.” In a
series of letters from 1765 to 1773, Garden and Linnaeus car-
ried on an argument concerning the classification of Fothergilla.
Linnaeus maintained that it should be classified under Ham -
amelis (Witch Hazel) because of the similarity in the leaves;
Garden persisted in pointing out the numerous differences be-
tween Fothergilla, which he called “Anamelis,” and Hamamelis.
Garden finally won the argument and in a letter to Linnaeus
dated May 15, 1773, he wrote, “I am very glad that the most ele-
gant shrub, called by me Anamelis, has at length obtained its
proper place, for I was much afraid that it must have submitted
to range under the banners of another.” Garden was justifiably
proud of his victory in the argument with the great Swedish
naturalist. In a letter to his friend John Ellis, dated May 15,
1773, he wrote: “You would see by his [Linnaeus] last letter
The Fothergillas \ 95
Fothergilla gardenii Murr. From Tableau ency elope dique et methodique, Botanique, by La-
marck and Poiret. 1799. Drawing by }. E. de Seve.
96 | ARNOLDIA
that I came off conqueror in our dispute about the new genus
Anamelis, on which I plume myself not a little, but his candor
charms me.” Although he alluded to Fothergilla twice in de-
scriptions of Haviamelis virginiana, the common Witch Hazel,
Linnaeus never published a formal description of it. The found-
ing of the genus, and the formal description of F. gardenii , is
attributed to J. A. Murray (1774), a pupil of Linnaeus who re-
vised a portion of his master’s work.
Fothergilla gardenii was evidently already cultivated in En-
gland in 1765, the year of its discovery. It was grown at Kew
Gardens as early as 1789, and seeds were offered for sale by
several nurseries in England and France at the beginning of the
nineteenth century. Although F. major was not formally de-
scribed until 1820, drawings representing this plant, from ma-
terial cultivated in England, appeared as early as 1780. A
Fothergilla, probably F. gardenii, was grown in John Bartram’s
garden near Philadelphia under the name “Gardenia” around
the year 1785, the first record of its cultivation in America.
Herbarium records show that the Fothergillas are rarely cul-
tivated in their native Southeast at present. Their cultivation
in this country appears to be concentrated in the New England
and Middle Atlantic States. Elsewhere, there are a few records
from England, France, Germany, and Switzerland.
Richard E. Weaver
Top: Grandfather Mountain, North Carolina.
Dry, rocky ridges, resembling the favorite habitat of
Fothergilla major. Photo: R. Weaver.
Bottom: Fothergilla major. Photo: H. Howard.
L
Indian Relics of the Arnold
Arboretum*
With more than three centuries of history intervening be-
tween the present and the long period when the Boston area was
occupied by the Indians, it is interesting that evidences of these
earlier inhabitants and examples of their work can still be found
here. For at least half of this historic period it is probable that
no Indians lived here under the primitive conditions of the
stone age, nor were any of the implements made then that we
find on the old hunting and camping grounds. During much of
this time, and especially since the middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury, Indian relics have been collected assiduously; and yet a
diligent searcher even in such a frequented place as the Arnold
Arboretum can still find abundant traces of former Indian oc-
cupancy in the indestructible stone implements made by them
and used in the chase, in war, and in their domestic life.
Beginning with a chance find several years ago I became
interested in looking for Indian evidences here, and by persistent
search carried on at odd times in walks through the Arboretum
I built up an interesting little collection, a part of which is shown
on the accompanying plate.
Aside from the sentimental and romantic interest of these
bits of prehistoric art, their chief value lies in the clues they
give to the life and customs of the people who made them, and
to the sites of habitations occupied long before the coming of
the first colonists. This helps us to reconstruct some picture of
the local conditions in those times and of the significance of the
changes that have ensued.
The variety of artifacts remaining on the site of any prehis-
toric settlement at least in a climate like that of New England,
is naturally limited and includes only objects made from inde-
structible materials, such as stone, or perhaps under more favor-
able circumstances, of shell, bone, or clay in the form of pottery.
* This article first appeared in December, 1934, in the Bulletin of
Popular Information of the Arnold Arboretum.
99
100 | ARNOLDIA
It is also highly probable that in a thickly settled and much
frequented locality such as the Arboretum, most of the larger
and more conspicuous objects originally left on the site would
have been carried away long ago by earlier collectors. But even
with the very limited material that can still be found on these
old camp sites it is possible to learn much about the habits and
culture of the Indians who occupied them, and a number of
deductions can be made about the physical conditions that in-
duced them to select certain places for their camps or villages.
Most of the Indian artifacts that have been found in the Ar-
boretum are of chipped stone, popularly called arrow heads,
although probably only a few of the smaller ones were used for
that purpose. Some of the larger and heavier ones may have
been used for lance or spear heads and others for knives,
scrapers or digging tools. A few of the rougher pieces that show
evidence of chipping were probably unfinished or rejected ob-
jects. Besides the chipped implements, a few pieces have been
found that were fashioned by pecking or grinding into hammer-
stones, celts, scrapers, and other objects, some of them of doubt-
ful use.
Stones accidentally shaped by natural agencies, such as small
round boulders or sharp chips and flakes of the harder rocks,
were no doubt used by the Indians with little or no improvement
on their original condition, and in a few cases it is difficult to
say whether a particular object should be regarded as an Indian
relic or not. The experienced archaeologist can usually dis-
tinguish between even the roughest object of human handicraft
and natural or unworked stones of similar shapes by the fine
chipping or pecking found on the former and because of the
obvious design shown in all the lines of fracture or polishing.
In selecting material for his work, the ancient craftsman,
guided by experiment and experience, used only the best that
was readily available for his purpose, but in emergencies inferior
stones or other materials were sometimes employed. For the
manufacture of chipped stone implements he had to use some
hard fine-grained variety from which small flakes could be struck
off without shattering the whole mass, and points with a keen
cutting edge could only be fashioned from a stone that broke
with a clear conchoid fracture.
Hard stones are abundant in the Boston area, although the
material available here was not as good as that found in other
parts of the country. All the relics found in the Arboretum, with
one possible exception, are made from material which is local or
found in eastern Massachusetts.
Indian Relics I 101
The material most commonly found in the Arboretum collec-
tion is porphyritic basalt or felsite. These two crystalline rocks
without the porphyritic structure, as well as quartz, quartzite,
chert, and argillite or slate, were also used for making projectile
points and cutting instruments. Slate, mica-schist, sandstone,
greenstone and granite furnished material for the pecked or
abraded implements. Porphyritic rocks are those in which crys-
tals, usually either of feldspar or quartz, large enough to be
detected with the unaided eye, are imbedded in a groundwork
or matrix of finer or microscopic crystalline structure. The
felsites are of a light color, usually pink, flesh color or gray;
basalt, or traprock as it is popularly known, is of a dark slate
color or black on fresh fracture, often turning to a lighter color
on weathered surfaces. Both of these classes of rocks are found
in a number of places in the vicinity of Boston, occurring in
dikes and ledges and as loose material derived from them, as
well as in detached masses in glacial deposits. The harder and
finer-grained varieties, either with or without porphyritic struc-
ture, furnished a very satisfactory material for the fabrication
of chipped implements, as is shown by the fine workmanship,
sharp points, and keen cutting edges of some of those found in
the Arboretum. In other cases the material was not of such
good quality, and as a result the fracture was hackly and the
implements thicker and rougher. Quartz is another vein or dike
material found abundantly in this region, both in situ and as
rubble, and also as pebbles or boulders in the glacial drift. When
broken it sometimes produces a very keen cutting edge and it
was highly prized by the Indians for this quality. But it usually
shatters too readily to have been used for any except the smaller
implements. Quartzite, which is also common locally, was used
sometimes for both chipped and abraded implements, but only
the harder and finer-grained varieties could be chipped success-
fully, and most of the points made from this material are rather
rough and crude. A few artifacts of chert have been found, al-
though this material was not abundant nor generally of a good
quality in this vicinity. Slate furnished a very indifferent ma-
terial for chipping, but it was sometimes used, though perhaps
only in emergencies. It was one of the most easily worked
materials for grinding and it was used commonly in this way
for a variety of purposes.
Of about sixty implements, either perfect or broken, in the
collection made in the Arboretum, a little more than half were
probably used as projectile points, either for arrows or spears.
A number of the others, having a sharp edge but often a blunt
102 | ARNOLDIA
or rounded point, may have been used as knives. But in some
cases it is impossible to distinguish definitely between those two
classes of tools, since some of them could have been used for
either purpose. One of the pieces shown in the illustration, No.
2, is a small hatchet or celt. Number 5 is a rather rough piece,
plain on one side and bevelled on the other, that may have been
used as a scraper in preparing buckskin and other hides. There
is at least one other scraper in the collection. The largest
chipped piece so far found, No. 14, measures in its present bro-
ken condition ten centimeters in length and five centimeters in
greatest width. The color of the material was originally black, but
it has been altered on the surface to an ashy gray by long weath-
ering. Small chips struck off accidentally by the tools of the
workmen who unearthed it show that the oxidation has pene-
trated to a depth of about one millimeter. The break is a very
old one, as the truncated end is discolored as completely as the
rest of the surface. This piece may have been used as a digger
or as a skinning knife. Number 16, a drill or reamer, has under-
gone a similar alteration in color from the effects of weathering.
Such drill points are comparatively rare, at least in a perfect
condition, as they are fragile and easily broken. They are sup-
posed to have been hafted and used for drilling holes by being
turned with a swift rotary motion.
Among the arrow points shown in the photograph, Numbers
7, 10, 13, 26, and 27 were probably war points. Three of these
are of the triangular unnotched type and the others have only
a trace of side notches or stem. Such points easily became de-
tached from the shaft and so could not be removed from a deep
wound, which was therefore likely to prove fatal.
Number 29 is a flat piece of slate with rounded ends and
bevelled on either edge following a natural cleavage plane which
may have been ground to a sharp edge to make it serviceable as
a scraper. Another interesting piece, not shown in the illustra-
tion, is a fragment of coarse gritty sandstone eight centimeters
long by about two centimeters in width and a little less in thick-
ness. It is roughly rounded on one side and has a shallow
longitudinal groove on the other. This was used in smoothing
arrow shafts, much as we would use sandpaper today. Number
30 of the illustration is not Indian work, but is a relic of the
white pioneers. This is a gun flint, used in flintlock guns before
the invention of percussion caps. The material is horn flint from
the Cretaceous chalk deposits of England, where the quarrying
and manufacturing of flints both of this sort and for domestic
use with steel and tinder was at one time an important industry.
Indian Relics | 103
Two other specimens of gun flints have been recovered in the
Arboretum.
Most of the relics in the collection were found on the surface
in the cultivated strips and beds where groups of shrubs are
planted, or in the small plots dug up about individual trees and
shrubs where the covering of grass, weeds, and leaves had been
removed so that they could be seen. As the ground is turned up
by the forks of the workmen the implements buried to a shallow
depth are brought to the surface, and after a rain the earth may
be washed off sufficiently for a sharp eye to detect them. Al-
though only a small part of the Arboretum is cultivated in this
way the spots are well distributed, giving a cross-section of the
whole area; this has been sufficient to show that there are certain
localities in which the relics are most abundant. Interpreting
this with some knowledge of the needs of Indian life, and with
allowance for the changes that we know have been made in the
topography in recent years, it becomes possible to locate with
considerable certainty the homes of these first inhabitants of
the Arboretum area.
The most pressing needs of Indian life and the considerations
that influenced them most in selecting sites for camps and vil-
lages were a nearby supply of drinking water, food, and fuel.
They would also want a place that was comparatively open, well-
drained, and as free as possible from rocks and brush that would
have to be cleared away. A situation with a fairly level surface,
near a perennial spring or running brook, shaded by large trees,
and with an unobstructed view for some distance in all direc-
tions, would offer the maximum of advantages.
Any spot offering most of these attractions was almost certain
to have been chosen as a camp site at some time. And if in addi-
tion it were situated on some bay, lake, or navigable stream, af-
fording ready means of travel by canoe and an abundant food
supply, it was quite likely to have been occupied by a permanent
village. Looking over the land today and taking all of the fac-
tors into consideration, the trained eye of the archaeologist can
locate such places, and he can predict with a considerable
degree of certainty that Indian relics will be found there.
While scattered specimens of Indian relics have been found
in a number of places in the Arboretum, the great majority of
them have come from a few limited areas that were evidently
occupied as camp or village sites. Nearly half of the pieces in
the collection were picked up within the space of a few acres
along Bussey Brook near the center of the Arboretum.
A slight rocky elevation, the upper part of which is still
Indian Relics I 105
1. Projectile point ( base and point broken ). Material, basalt-por-
phyry. Top of Peters Hill.
2. Celt. Material, felsite-porphyry. Foot of Hemlock Hill, east end.
3. Knife ? Material, basalt-porphyry. Spring Brook Village site.
4. Arrow point. Material, felsite-porphyry. Spring Brook Village
site.
5. Scraper. Material, chert. Border of meadow, near lindens.
6. Projectile point or knife. Material, quartzite. Hickoi~y group.
7. Arrow point. Material, basalt-porphyry . Top of Bussey Hill.
8. Arrow point. Material, argillite (slate). Along brook northeast
of Administration Building.
9. Knife. Material, felsite-porphyry. Spring Brook Village site.
10. Arrow point. Material, basalt. Spring Brook Village site.
11. Projectile point. Material, basalt-porphyry . Centre Street border.
12. Projectile point. Material, basalt. Upper bench, Spring Brook
Village site.
13. Arrow point. Material, basalt-porphyry. Glacial esker, North
Woods.
14. Knife or digging tool (broken at both ends). Material, chert ?
Meadow near Administration Building.
15. Projectile point. Material, basalt-porphyry. Border of Meadow,
near horse chestnuts.
16. Drill or reamer. Material, chert. Upper bench, Spring Brook Vil-
lage site.
17. Knife. Material, felsite-porphyry. Border of meadow, near
lindens.
18. Projectile point or knife. Material, felsite-porphyry. Border of
former brook along Meadow Road, near corkwood.
19. Projectile point. Material, felsite-porphyry. Spring Brook Vil-
lage site.
20. Knife (point broken). Material, chert. Spring Brook Village
site.
21. Arrow point. Material, basalt-porphyry. Spring Brook Village
site.
22. Arrow point (point broken). Material, chert. Upper bench,
Spring Brook Village site.
23. Knife (point broken). Material, felsite-porphyry. Spring Brook
Village site.
24. Arrow point. Material, basalt. Foot of Hemlock Hill, east end.
25. Knife. Material, quartzite. Hickory group.
26. Arrow point. Material, quartz. Centre Street border.
27. Arrow point. Material, quartz. Centre Street border.
28. Arrow point (point broken). Material, quartz. Foot of Hem-
lock Hill, east end.
29. Knife or scraper ? Material, argillite. Border of meadow, near
lindens.
30. Gun flint. Material, horn flint. Border of meadow, near horse
chestnuts.
106 | ARNOLDIA
covered by a remnant of the native forest of deciduous trees, ex-
tends from the boundary formed by Centre Street towards the
brook. Ledges of Roxbury conglomerate outcrop in many places
at the higher elevations near the street, and farther east the
formation again comes to the surface, crossing the Valley Road
and connecting with Bussey Hill. A perennial spring issues from
the rocks at a point near the road forming a small rivulet that
flows away across the meadow to join Bussey Brook. Towards
the brook and in the triangle formed by the channels of the two
streams the hill flattens out into a comparatively level bench
or small plateau a few acres in extent, which is now occupied
by plantings of various conifers and the juniper group. The
drainage in this triangular area is good; the soil though thin in
places is fertile, and under primitive conditions it was probably
Qovered with open oak or mixed woods. A good outlook could
be had up and down the little valley and across to Hemlock Hill,
while a little farther up, the valley widened into what was evi-
dently a small swamp or bog.
Such a place offered many advantages for a camp or small
village site. The relative abundance of relics and fragments
found here seems to indicate that it was occupied with some
permanency. For even more significant than the finished imple-
ments are the small flakes or spauls of the different varieties of
stone used by the Indians that have been picked up here. These
spauls, having a characteristic conchoid fracture, were struck
off from the small mass of stone in the process of manufacturing
the chipped implements, and they afford an indubitable proof
that such an industry was carried on where they are found.
The location of other Indian camps or lodges at several points
in the Arboretum is indicated by the number of relics that have
turned up. For although a stray arrow or spear may have been
lost almost anywhere on a hunting or foraging expedition, such
an accident could not account for the presence of a number of
relics near one spot, especially when they include implements of
domestic use or spauls. In addition to the Spring Brook Village
site just described, relics have been found in the largest number
along the slopes bordering the low meadow from near the Ad-
ministration Building to the wooded hills beyond the linden and
horse chestnut groups. Until comparatively recent times much
of this low ground was occupied by a shallow lake or bog fed by
several perennial brooks that have now, with one exception,
been obliterated and the water carried under ground through
sewers and conduits. Even now the lower part of this area is
quite swampy and it becomes flooded in wet seasons, with the
Indian Relics I 107
water table near enough to the surface to afford homes for
muskrats, no doubt the direct descendents of those that were
trapped and hunted along with other game by the Indians who
once camped along the borders of the bog and lake.
Another Indian camp seems to have been located on the
ground level at the east end of Hemlock Hill near the South St.
gate and extending across the street. The construction of road-
ways and other changes have obliterated most of this site, but
several relics and fragments have been picked up in a small
cultivated area just within the Arboretum wall and in the nur-
sery across South Street. Scattered relics have also been found
near the top of Peters Hill, on Bussey Hill, in the shrub collec-
tion, on the wooded ridges above the horse chestnuts, and at
-several other places.
People often ask how old these relics are. This cannot be
answered definitely in regard to such relics as those found in the
Arboretum. The hard stones from which most of the chipped
implements were made are practically indestructible or yield
very slowly to the disintegrating forces of time and weathering.
The depth to which oxidation has penetrated some of the speci-
mens indicates a considerable antiquity for them. Perhaps some
of the pieces go back only to the time when the first European
settlers began coming into the country or when the Indians
abandoned their crude stone tools for the more efficient metal
ones obtained by barter from the Europeans; others may have
been made centuries earlier. All that we can say is that they are
very old.
Ernest J. Palmer
Ernest Jesse Palmer (1875-1962) was a naturalist of the old
school. His interests in the aspect of nature were truly catholic.
Despite the fact that his formal education ended with High School,
and despite what we would term “hardships,” he managed to become
well versed in Latin and Greek, English literature, mathematics, eco-
nomics, and poetry, as well as field natural history.
Palmer grew up in Webb City, in the Missouri coal mining country.
At the age of 25 he made contact with the Arnold Arboretum, and
for the rest of his working life was associated in one way or another
with this institution. From 1901-1921 he collected for the Arnold
Arboretum in the Middle West, notably in his home state of Mis-
souri. From 1921 to 1948 he was Collector and Research Assistant,
based in Jamaica Plain. In 1948, at the age of 74, he returned to
his boyhood home in Webb City and continued an active life until
his death at 87.
Prehistoric Land Use in the
Arnold Arboretum
In the thirty-seven years since Ernest Jesse Palmer wrote his
excellent report on “Indian Relics of the Arnold Arboretum”
archaeologists have learned a great deal about Massachusetts
prehistory.
It has been demonstrated beyond doubt that the styles of ob-
jects made by prehistoric men changed through time, as do the
styles of things we make and use now. Through careful excava-
tion of layers of food refuse and discarded tools, archaeologists
have learned the order in which the many recognizable styles
occurred through time. They have learned, also, which styles
of spear points were in use with particular knife forms, or axe
heads, or other tool types. The kinds of tools found together,
the nature of the places where they are found, and the occa-
sional traces of ancient houses and hearths have provided evi-
dence about the way of life of the makers of the various tools.
Human remains in graves with these tools show that the people
who made them were of the same physical type as modern
American Indians.
Physicists have provided archaeologists with a technique for
directly dating organic material associated with prehistoric arti-
facts. The age of organic matter, ideally charcoal, can be esti-
mated from the measurable activity of radioactive carbon iso-
types, the decay rate of which is approximately known. The age
of organic matter thus analyzed is usually expressed as a num-
ber of years before the present, and often converted by simple
subtraction into a date in terms of the Gregorian calendar.
Radiocarbon years as now calculated apparently do not exactly
equate with calendar years (Ralph & Michael 1967); in general,
the older the radiocarbon age the younger it is than the actual
age. Age and date estimates quoted below will be in radiocarbon
years and therefore minimal.
Geologists, zoologists, and botanists who concern themselves
with prehistoric conditions have learned something about old
landforms and ancient animal and plant communities in the
108
Figure I Artifacts
Prehistoric Land Use | 109
Boston area and have made inferences from such evidence about
past climatic changes. It is clear that the Boston landscape,
forest composition, and animal population have changed during
the period of human occupation.
The Arboretum collection of Indian stone tools has been aug-
mented since 1934 by occasional finds made by Palmer and by
Mr. Alfred J. Fordham on the sites Palmer enumerated and by
some pieces recovered from the grounds of the Biological Labo-
ratory adjacent to the Arboretum on South Street.
The oldest tool styles in the collection are represented by the
specimens numbered 6, 12 and 15 in Palmer’s illustration,
which are at least 5500 years old. These were followed 4500
years ago by spearpoints such as those numbered 4, 11 and 25,
and by pieces like Nos. 8, 21, 22 and 26-28 (Ritchie 1969). A
major new style appeared in southern New England about 4000
years ago, of which Figure I No. 1 is a representative. This par-
ticular spearpoint was originally wider, but has been narrowed
by resharpening. By 3400 years ago, knives like No. 2 in Figure
I were in use, with spearpoints like No. 24 in Palmer’s illustra-
tion. Palmer’s Nos. 18 and 20 were made between 3200 and
2600 years ago (Dincauze 1968). Figure I No. 5 is apparently
of the same age, although it is not possible to be certain about
it because of its broken base (Ritchie 1961:35). Number 4 of
Figure I may be less than 2000 years old. Number 3 represents
the last style in stone projectile points in the area; similar points
were made of sheet brass and copper whenever the Indians could
obtain the soft metals from Europeans.
By bringing to the Arboretum collection information obtained
elsewhere (Ritchie 1969; Robbins 1968) we can see that Palm-
er’s Spring Brook Village and Centre Street Border areas were
occasionally occupied by small groups of Indians as early as
the fourth millennium B.C. These areas even now offer some
protection from extremes of winter temperature (A. Fordham,
1
2
110 I ARNOLDIA
personal communication) and Palmer has summarized other
special attractions.
In the second millenium B.C. the Spring Brook, South Street
and Meadow Border areas were foci for Indian activities. At
Spring Brook, finds of stone flakes and unfinished tools indicate
that tools were being made there and suggest that this was a
dwelling area, not simply a camp site for hunters. The perfora-
tor (Palmer’s No. 16) also suggests manufacturing or repair
of domestic equipment, possibly sewing of leather or bark.
Spring Brook Village may have been a winter camp site for one
or two families at many different times. There is no evidence
for the continued use of the Center Street Border area after
2000 B.C.
After 1000 B.C. the Spring Brook camp may have been aban-
doned for the Meadow Border area. It is in the latter vicinity
that tools of the period from 1000 to 600 B.C. were found.
There is no evidence in the collection for any camping activity
in the Arboretum after this period. Of tools which can be con-
fidently dated, only a few projectile points are younger than
600 B.C. Number 4 in Figure I was found on Peters Hill, a good
place from which to watch for game and refit hunting equip-
ment. This knife blade or spearpoint is especially interesting,
as is No. 5, because both were made of cherts which outcrop
in the Mohawk Valley of New York state and are forms more
common there than in Massachusetts. The triangular arrow-
head, No. 3 in Figure I, was also found on Peters Hill, where it
was lost sometime during the last 300 years of Indian hunting
there.
The Palmer-Fordham collection is obviously too small to sup-
port firm conclusions about prehistoric land use in the Arbore-
tum, but it does suggest some interesting hypotheses. It appears
that from a very early time the area was occasionally occupied
by small groups of people who stayed for a number of days or
weeks and carried on normal household activities. Sometime
after 1000 B.C., people gave up living in the area, visiting only
in the course of hunting expeditions. Indian horticulture was es-
tablished in Massachusetts sometime around 1000 A.D., during
the centuries when the Arboretum land was rarely frequented,
so that it appears unlikely that any Indian gardens grew there.
While the earlier Indians were living in the Arboretum area,
the landscape and environment of the Boston area were some-
what different from what we know. The sea-level was many
feet lower when the first campers came, and it continued to rise
toward its present height as the last of the continental glaciers
Figure II Bussey Brook Valley in the Arnold Arboretum , 1908. Photo: T. E.
Marr.
melted, far to the north (Kaye & Barghoorn 1964), In the third
millennium B.C., a large intertidal fishweir was constructed by
the Indians on the mudflats of Back Bay, 20 feet below the tidal
zone of modem Boston (Johnson 1949; Byers 1959:242). As
the sea rose and buried the Back Bay weir, the mouth of the
Muddy River became brackish and tidal. By the time the Indians
gave up living at the Arboretum, the intertidal zone was far up
the Charles River valley, just below its modem location at the
Watertown bridge (Dincauze 1968:9),
Studies of old pollen deposits in southern New England have
shown that during the second and third millennia B.C. the
112 | ARNOLDIA
deciduous forest composition was like that now found only
south of the region, with a greater representation of hickories
than in the forests which stood here in historic times (Davis
1965). Interpretation of this evidence is still debated, but it
appears justifiable to see this period as a time of climatic ame-
lioration, warmer and perhaps somewhat drier than the present
average (Sears 1963). The abandonment of habitation in the
Arboretum occurred at about the same time as the establishment
of the modern forest association, which may indicate some
deterioration of climate. Perhaps harsher winters forced the
Indians to seek more shelter than the Arboretum sites offered.
Deeper snows may have made this rough country inaccessible
in winter. Whatever the reason for the change, abandonment
of upland campsites at this same time has been noted elsewhere.
Several sites in the Charles River basin show use almost con-
tinuously to 1000 B.C. and none later.
For the two thousand years before the English came to cut
hay, the Arboretum land was a swampy backwoods area, home
to muskrats and other wild animals, attracting an occasional
human hunter.
Dena Ferran Dincauze
Dr. Dena Ferran Dincauze is Assistant Curator of North Ameri-
can Archaeology and Thaw Fellow at the Peabody Museum of Ar-
chaeology and Ethnology of Harvard University. A Study of Indian
settlement in the Charles River watershed first brought her to the
Arnold Arboretum. We consider ourselves fortunate to have Palmer’s
work on “Indian Relics ...” brought up to date and placed in its
proper context.
References Cited
Byers, D. S.
1959 The Eastern Archaic: Some Problems and Hypotheses.
American Antiquity, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 233-256.
Davis, M. B.
1965 Phytogeography and Palynology of Northeastern United
States. In The Quaternary of the United States, edited by
H. E. Wright, Jr. and D. G. Frey. Princeton University
Press, 1965.
Dincauze, D. F.
1968 Cremation Cemeteries in Eastern Massachusetts. Papers
of the Peabody Museum, vol. 59, no. 1. Cambridge.
Johnson, F., ed.
1949 The Boylston Street Fishweir, II. Papers of the R. S. Pea-
body Foundation for Archaeology, vol. 4. Andover.
Prehistoric Land Use I 113
Kaye, C. A. and E. S. Barghoorn
1964 Late Quaternary sea-level change and crustal rise at Bos-
ton, Massachusetts, with notes on the autocompaction of
peat. Geological Society of America, Bulletin , vol. 75, pp.
63-80.
Palmer, E. J.
1934 Indian Relics of the Arnold Arboretum. Arnold Arboretum
Bulletin of Popular Information, 4th series, vol. 2, no. 12,
pp. 61-68. Cambridge.
Ralph, E. K. and H. N. Michael
1967 Problems of the Radiocarbon Calendar. Archaeometry, vol.
10, pp. 3-11. Oxford.
Ritchie, W. A.
1969 The Archaeology of Martha’s Vineyard: a framework for
the prehistory of southern New England. Natural History
Press, New York.
1961 A Typology and Nomenclature for New York Projectile
Points. New York State Museum and Science Service Bul-
letin no. 384. Albany.
Robbins, M.
1968 An Archaic Ceremonial Complex at Assawompsett. Mas-
sachusetts Archaeological Society, Special Publication. At-
tleboro.
Sears, P. B.
1963 Vegetation, Climate, and Coastal Submergence in Connec-
ticut. Science vol. 140 no. 3562, pp. 59-60.
The Lelacke, or Pipe Tree
In Le Mans, France, there is a statue of a man with long curly
hair, seated, reading a book. It is a statue of Pierre Belon, a
French naturalist born about 1517, and, as far as we know, the
first European to describe the lilac.
As a young man Pierre Belon studied medicine in Paris, and
after receiving his doctor’s degree he became a pupil of the
German botanist, Euricius (or Valerius) Cordus, and travelled
with him throughout Germany. He returned to France when he
was about 29 years old, and his ability and knowledge attracted
the attention of two Cardinals, Tournon and Chastillon, who
became his patrons. Financed by them the intrepid young man
set out on an extensive journey of scientific discovery to Greece,
Asia Minor, Egypt, Turkey, Arabia, and Palestine. After his
return Belon published in 1553 a full account of his travels.
Writing of the Turkish people’s fondness for flowers, he de-
scribed a bush with flowering branches the length of an arm,
of violet color, which the Turks called Foxtail, the bush which
we now call lilac.
It was only two years later, in 1555, that a Flemish scholar,
Augier de Busbecq, went to Constantinople, sent by the Emperor
Ferdinand I, as Ambassador to Suleiman II, Sultan of Turkey.
Busbecq lived in Constantinople for eight years. When he re-
turned to his home in Vienna he brought with him many plants
from Turkey including the lilac which he grew in his garden.
The Viennese gave it the name Tiirkisher Holunder (Turkish
Elderberry).
Word of the new plant soon reached Italy. A physician of
Siena, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, was publishing a series of com-
mentaries on the first-century writings of Dioscorides (who was
still, in the 16th century, an authority on medicine) and in the
1565 edition of his Commentaries he published a woodcut of a
plant he called “lilac,” and stated that the plant was brought
from Constantinople by Busbecq. The picture, although inac-
curate in showing flowers and fruits on the same branch, was
the first published picture of the lilac. In a later edition of the
Commentaries, in 1598, Mattioli published a more accurate il-
114
Syringa josikaea from Curtis Botanical Magazine, London, 1833.
The Lelacke, or Pipe Tree
115
116 | ARNOLDIA
lustration, after he had received flowering and fruiting branches
from Giacomo Cortusi, head of the Botanic Garden at Padua.
There is no doubt that the new bush proved popular. In 1597
John Gerard, surgeon and gardener (and author of Gerard’s
Herball ) reported it in his garden in England “in very great
plenty,” and by 1601 it was well established in western European
gardens and had escaped and become naturalized.
The white lilac must have appeared about this time; it was
first mentioned by Basil Besler, a German botanist, in 1613, and
its origin is unknown. In 1629 John Parkinson, a writer and
gardener in England, referred to a “Pipe tree ... of a milke
or silver colour, which is a kind of white . : . coming some-
what neare unto an ash-color.”
Lord Bacon, in an essay on gardening written in 1625 re-
ferred to the Lelacke tree. It was also called Laylock, Lilach,
and Pipe-tree. The name lilac may have come from lilaj, the
Turkish name for the indigo plant, or from lilak, meaning
bluish. The Latin name for the lilac, syringa, was used by a
French botanist, Mathieu de l’Obel (Lobelius), in 1576. Alfred
Rehder, an American authority on trees and shrubs, suggested
that the name came from the Greek word syrinx, meaning
“pipe,” referring to the hollow stems of Philadelphus (mock
orange) which were used by the Turks to make pipes. Both the
lilac and the mock orange were originally placed in the genus
syringa and the name pipe tree was used indiscriminately for
both.
It is reasonable to believe that the lilac appeared early in
Spain, as l’Obel wrote of a lilac, Syringa caerula Lusitanica,
Lusitanica referring to the part of the Iberian peninsula now
known as Portugal. It is quite possible that the lilac came to
Spain with the Moors, in fact an Arab botanist, Serapio, men-
tioned ]asminum caeruleum (Blue Jasmine) in the eleventh
century. Later, in the 16th century the name of Jeseminum
caerulium Arabnm appeared as a synonym for the common lilac,
Syringa vulgaris. Many of the features of Moorish gardens in
Spain had their origins in Persia, coming by way of Egypt.
Egypt was conquered by the Persians in 525 B.C. and remained
under Persian domination for about two centuries, during which
time there was a continuous interchange of ideas between the
two cultures. When the Moors went to Spain from north Africa
in the eighth century they took their art and architecture with
them, and it is conceivable that the Blue Jasmine mentioned by
Serapio was brought to Spain at an early date. The Moors, in
their almost eight centuries in the Iberian peninsula, penetrated
Top: Syringa chinensis in the Arboretum.
Bottom: Syringa persica.
118 | ARNOLDIA
into the central and northern areas, where lilacs at present do
grow (such as in the Parque del Oeste, Madrid).
In 1753 Linnaeus standardized the Latin name of the com-
mon blue lilac as Syringa vulgaris and gave its native land as
the Orient, although there was a belief among some botanists
of that day that it came from Persia. It was not until 1828 that
the naturalist Anton Rochel found it growing wild in western
Rumania, and within a few years it was reported growing wild
along the Danube river and in Bulgaria. In spite of this, the
belief that it was from Persia or China continued into the
twentieth century. However in 1903 J. Lochot, who was in
charge of the gardens of the Prince of Bulgaria, wrote of travel-
ling through the Balkans and seeing it growing wild. Three of
the plants collected by Rochel at that time were brought to the
Arnold Arboretum.
The lilac which is referred to as the Persian lilac was first
described by John Bauhin, a Frenchman. He described it in
1619 as a lilac with cut leaves, which he received from a Vene-
tian who grew it in his garden. He gave it the Latin name of
Ligustrum foliis laciniatis. It appeared again in a book pub-
lished in 1627 by an Italian botanist. Prosper Alpinus, who re-
ported that it was sent to Venice by Jerome Capelli. Apparently
Capelli was ambassador to the Sultan, so this lilac also appears
to have been introduced by way of Constantinople.
A Persian lilac with entire leaves was reported in 1660, listed
in a catalog of the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, as J asviinum per -
sicum seu ligustrum persic. (The Jardin des Plantes later be-
came part of the Musee d’Histoire Naturelle.) No record has
ever been found to indicate where this plant came from.
Linnaeus in 1753 based his description of the Persian lilac,
S. persica, on a specimen with entire leaves, and at the time
many botanists included the cut-leaved form and the entire-
leaved one in the same species, since it was recognized that
certain of the plants had both kinds of leaves. Toward the end
of the 1700’s one German writer suggested that the Persian lilac
came from China, by way of Constantinople, later than S. vul-
garis; and in the early 1800’s the belief grew that it was not a
native of Persia, as it was only found there as a cultivated plant.
In 1770 Richard Weston referred to the Persian lilac with cut
leaves as S. persica variety laciniata and finally it was accepted
as such by most botanists. In 1922 a specimen of this plant
was collected in Kansu, China, which had two branches, one
with entire leaves, and one with both cut leaves and entire
leaves. This specimen is preserved in the herbarium of the
The Lelacke, or Pipe Tree | 119
Arnold Arboretum. Mrs. Susan Delano McKelvey in her monu-
mental monograph of the lilac suggested that S. persica with
entire leaves only, is a garden plant, not appearing in the wild.
Many plants were carried from China to Persia: walnuts, grapes,
peaches, and many others, and Mrs. McKelvey suggested that
the cut-leaved type was brought along with them, and that the
form with only entire leaves may have originated in a Persian
garden as a seedling or sport, or was propagated from a branch
or twig which bore only entire leaves.
In the Botanic Garden of Rouen in the 1700’s both the Persian
lilac and the common lilac bloomed simultaneously. In about
1777 a third lilac appeared there, which was later given the
misleading name of S. chinensis. This plant has since proved to
be a hybrid of S. persica and S. vulgaris. Jacques Varin, the di-
rector of the Botanic Garden, for several years sowed the seed
of the cut-leaved Persian lilac, and obtained what he considered
a degenerate variety, unaware that what he really had was a
hybrid.
In America the common lilac was quickly adopted and be-
came quite popular in the eighteenth century. Lilacs were
grown in the garden of the mansion of Governor Wentworth in
Portsmouth, N.H., which is believed to have been planted in
1750. The garden book of Thomas Jefferson written at Shadwell,
Virginia, on April 2, 1767, mentioned planting lilacs and Spanish
Broom, and even earlier Peter Collinson wrote on December 20,
1737, to his botanist friend in America, John Bartram, “I wonder
that thou should be sorry to see such a bundle of white and blue
lilacs . . . But as your neighbours of Virginia, in particular
Colonel Custis at Williamsburgh, who has undoubtedly the best
collection in the country, desired some, I thought possibly you
might want them . . . But does thee know that there is both
blue and purple Lilacs?”
George Washington was fond of lilacs and in 1785 set out
plants along the walks in his garden, and in March, 1792, pur-
chased lilacs from John Bartram to plant on the bowling green.
About 1800 Bernard M’Mahon, Seedsman of Philadelphia,
offered two lilacs, white (S. alba) and purple (S. violacea)
which were in reality forms of the common lilac. Fifteen years
later W. P. G. Barton mentioned lilacs among plants collected
within ten miles of Philadelphia, in a flora of native plants and
others “either naturalized or so commonly cultivated among us
that it has been deemed expedient to introduce them into this
Prodromus.”
The annual catalog of William Price and Sons, Flushing, Long
120 | ARNOLDIA
Island, New York, of 1835, listed eleven lilacs: White lilac, Ditto
extra large. Great white flowered. Blue or purple, Red, Charles
the Tenth superb new, Purple Persian, White Persian, Persian
cut leaved. Large Chinese or Siberian, and Large flowering hy-
brid.
As plant explorers traveled through the world more lilacs ap-
peared. Rosalia, Baroness von Josika, recognized, before 1830,
that a lilac growing in Transylvania was distinct from those
already known, and it later became Syringa josikaea. Robert
Fortune brought back from China Syringa oblata in 1856. Two
Russian explorers, Richard Maack and Carl Johann Maximo-
wicz, independently discovered Syringa amurense in Amur,
eastern Asia, and its variety the Japanese tree lilac (var. ja-
ponica).
By 1889 Parsons and Sons, of Flushing, listed forty-six lilacs,
the price from twenty-five to fifty cents each. A recent catalog
of a Massachusetts grower has seventy-two.
Among the many lilacs grown today, there occasionally ap-
pear individual bushes, or groups of bushes which differ in
color, blossom size, or other characteristics, and each year horti-
culturists present those of the new lilacs which they believe are
worthy of cultivation and whose characteristics will persist.
These are given names by the discoverer and are registered as
new “cultivars.” Along with the new lilacs however the nursery
catalogs continue to list josikaea, amurense, and other old
favorites.
As one drives along the fast-disappearing country roads old
lilacs can be glimpsed among the underbrush at the site of old
farmhouses, recalling Thoreau’s words, “Still grows the vivacious
lilac a generation after the door and lintel and sill are gone.”
Helen Roca-Garcia
1970 Lilac Registrations
During the Fifteenth International Horticultural Congress in
Nice, France, in 1958, the Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural
Foundation, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania
19081, was designated to be the International Registration Au-
thority for Lilacs.
The names of species, hybrids and cultivars published in
“Lilacs for America” in 1953 were accepted as registered. Sub-
sequent registrations were published in Arnoldia (and else-
where) in 1963, 1965, 1966 and 1967.
S II Agincourt Beauty — L. K. Slater, Agincourt, Ontario,
Can. About 1968.*
S I Agnes Smith — O. M. Rogers, Univ. New Hamp-
shire, Durham, N.H.
S I Alexander’s Attraction (EH-G) — J. H. Alexander,
Middleboro, Ma. 1968.
S V Alexander’s Variegated (PR) — J. H. Alexander,
Middleboro, Ma. 1968.
S VII Alice Franklin — F. Barnes, Julian, Calif.
S V Alice Rose Foster (PR) — J. H. Alexander, Middle-
boro, Ma. 1968.
S V Basia (PR) — W. Bugala, New varieties of Syringa
prestonae McK. obtained in the Kornik Arbo-
retum. In Polish, with summaries in English
and Russian. Arboretum Kornickie 15: 61-69.
1970.
* The format of the present list follows that used in “Lilacs for
America” as to the Abbreviations and Symbols.
S — Single flowers D — Double flowers
I — White II — Violet III — Bluish IV — Lilac V — Pinkish
VI — Magenta VII — Purple
If there are no capital letters in parenthesis following the name, the
cultivar is a form of Syringa vulgaris. Cultivars of other species or hybrids
have parenthesis ( ) with two or three capital letters as follows:
(EH-D) — Early Hybrids (S. vulgaris x S. oblata dilatata)
(EH— G) — Early Hybrids (S. vulgaris x S. oblata giraldi')
(JF) — (Josiflexa) ( josikaea X reflexa)
(PR) — (Prestoniae) ( villosa X reflexa)
121
122 | ARNOLDIA
S III
S V
S V
S IV-V
S III
D V
S V
D III
S V
S V
S II
S II-IV
S V
D III
Blue Delight — M. Castle, Rowancroft Garden,
Meadowville, Ontario, Can. 1969.
Bright Centennial — E. Robinson, Gaybird Nursery,
Wawaesa, Manitoba, Can. 1967.
Cynthia — K. Berdeen, Kennebunk, Me.
Danusia (PR) — W. Bugala, see cv. Basia for refer-
ence.
Dappled Dawn (Patent #2614) — C. J. Hauck,
Hauck Botanic Garden, Cincinnati, Oh. 1966.
Diana (PR) — W. Bugala, see cv. Basia for refer-
ence.
Dwight D. Eisenhower — R. A. Fenicchia, Dept.
Parks, Monroe Co., Rochester, N.Y.
Eaton Red — M. Eaton, Glen Head, N.Y.
Elaire Brown Alexander (EH-G) — J. H. Alexander,
Middleboro, Ma.
Elizabeth Files — K. Berdeen, Kennebunk, Me.
Eliose (PR) — J. H. Alexander, Middleboro, Ma.
Esterka (PR) — W. Bugala, see cv. Basia for refer-
ence.
Far Horizon — E. G. Polin, Fultonville, N.Y.
Ferna Alexander (PR) — J. H. Alexander, Middle-
boro, Ma.
Florence — Mrs. Betty Stone, Ashland, Oh.
Goplana (PR) — W. Bugala, see cv. Basia for refer-
ence.
Hagny ( wolfi, X refiexa') — A. Olsen and Prof. K.
Gram, Copenhagen, Denm.
Hazel — Mrs. J. Lyden, North Monmouth, Ma., and
J. H. Alexander, Middleboro, Ma.
Jack Alexander — J. H. Alexander, Middleboro, Ma.
Jaga (PR) — W. Bugala, see cv. Basia for reference.
Jagienka (PR) — W. Bugala, see cv. Basia for
reference.
Jill Alexander (PR) — J. H. Alexander, Middle-
boro, Ma.
Judy’s Pink (EH-D) — R. de Wilde, Doylestown, Pa.
Kum — Bum (tomentella') — Rev. J. L. Fiala,
Media, Oh.
Leone Gardner — Gardner Nursery, Horicon, Wise.
Lillian Davis — Mrs. Betty Stone, Ashland, Oh.
Lynette Sirois — K. Berdeen, Kennebunk, Me.
S V
S V
S V
S II
S V
D VI
S I
D II
S V
D III
S V
S VI
S V
S II
S I
S III
1970 Lilac Registration \ 123
Lustrous — Mabel L. Franklin, Minneapolis, Minn.
Mary Ann Gardner — Gardner Nursery, Horicon,
Wise.
Mary Evelyn White (PR) ■ — - J. H. Alexander, Mid-
dleboro, Ma.
May Day — J. Clarke Nursery, San Jose, Calif. Be-
fore 1967.
Mount Domogled — Robert B. Clark, Monroe County
Park System, Rochester, N.Y.
Mrs. Charles Davis — Mrs. Betty Stone, Ashland,
Oh.
Nike (PR) — W. Bugala, see cv. Basia for refer-
ence.
Old Fashioned — J. Clarke Nursery, San Jose, Calif.
Phyliss Alexander (PR) — J. H. Alexander, Middle-
boro, Ma.
Polly Stone — Gardner Nursery, Horicon, Wise.
Ralph W. Stone — Mrs. Betty Stone, Ashland, Oh.
Rochester — Correction. The 1965 Registration
should read “Grant, Monroe County Park Sys-
tem, Rochester, N.Y.”
Royalty — Listed in 1953 as JF (Josiflexa) and in
1963 was changed to PR (Prestoniae). This
classification is still under dispute; it seems
possible that two different cultivars were sent
out under this name.
Starlight — E. G. Polin, Fultonville, N.Y.
Stropkey Variegated — - J. Stropkey Nursery, Paines-
ville, Oh.
Sweet Refrain — Mabel L. Franklin, Minneapolis,
Minn.
Telimena (PR) — W. Bugala, see cv. Basia for ref-
erence.
Tit Tat Toe — T. A. Havenmeyer and Mark Eaton,
Glen Head, N.Y.
Vivian Christenson (PR) — J. H. Alexander, Middle-
boro, Ma.
Violet Glory — M. Castle, Rowancroft Garden,
Meadowville, Ontario, Can.
White Sands — Gardner Nursery, Horicon, Wise.
Woodland Blue — L. Hancock, Woodland, Nursery,
Mississauga, Ontario, Can.
1970 Lilac Registration | 125
The following cultivars were imported from Russia by the
Arnold Arboretum. The original publications using these names
were discussed by R. A. Howard (Arnoldia 19: 31-35. 1959)
and by R. A. Howard and G. K. Brizicky (Quarterly Newsletter,
AABGA, Issue 64: 15-21. 1965).
S I Galina Ulanova — Kolesnikov, Moscow. 1953.
? II Gotensiia — Kolesnikov or Gromov, Moscow. 1963.
S VI India — Gromov, Moscow. 1955.
D I Ivan Michurin — Kolesnikov, Moscow. 1941.
D V Izobiliie — Kolesnikov or Gromov, Moscow. 1963.
S VII K. A. Timiriazev — ■ Kolesnikov or Gromov, Moscow.
1963.
D IV Kapriz — Kolesnikov, Moscow. 1952 or 1961. See
Brizicky, Quarterly Newsletter, AABGA. Issue
64: 22. 1965.
D I Krasavita Moskvy — Kolesnikov or Gromov, Mos-
cow. 1963.
D V Marshal Vasilevskii — Kolesnikov, Moscow. 1963.
D VI Niebo Moskvy — Kolesnikov or Gromov, Moscow.
1963.
D I? Olimpiada Kolesnikova — Gromov, Moscow. 1955.
D II Pamiat o S. M. Kirove — Gromov, Moscow. 1963.
S VII Pioneer — Gromov, Moscow. 1951.
S ? Sumierki — Kolesnikov, Moscow. 1954.
S VII Zarya Kommunizma — Kolesnikov, Moscow. 1951.
S ? Znamia Lenina — Kolesnikov or Gromov, Moscow.
1963.
The following cultivars were imported from the Komik Ar-
boretum, Kornik, Poznan, Poland, by the Royal Botanical Gar-
den, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, in 1968-69. The cultivar
names attributed to Karpow were developed by Kikolaj Karpow-
Lipski, Chelmza, Poland, between 1948 and 1958. The names
appear to be first used in the Year Book, Kornik Arboretum, for
1968-1969.
D IV Adam Mickiewicz — Karpow. 1958?
D I Anna Karpow — Karpow. 1958?
D VI Bogdan Przyrzykowski — Karpow. 1961.
S V Dr. W. Bugala — Karpow. 1962.
D III Fale Baltyku — Karpow. 1961.
D IV Irene Karpow-Lipska — Karpow. 1958?
S V Jutrzenka Pomorza — Karpow. 1961.
D IV Kobierski — Karpow. 1960.
Syringa vulgaris ‘Rochester’. A single white lilac. Photo: Monroe County
Parks, Rochester, N.Y.
126
ARNOLDIA
D V
S II
S VI
S II
S II
S III
D V
D II
D I
D VI
S III
S V
D V
S III
D III
D V
D IV
S V
S VI
D VI
Konstanty Karpow — Karpow. 1953.
Leonid Leonov — Kolesnikov, Moscow. Before 1959.
Leon Wyczolkowski — Karpow. 1958.
Malachow — Kolesnikov, Moscow. 1955.
Mieczta — Kolesnikov, Moscow. 1941.
Minister Dab Kociol — Karpow. 1961.
Niewinnosc — Karpow. 1960.
Pamiat o S. M. Kirove — Gromov, Moscow. 1955.
Panna Dorota Golabecka — Karpow. 1952.
Piotr Chosinski — Karpow. 1960.
Pol Robson — Kolesnikov, Moscow. 1965.
Pomorzanka — Karpow. 1962.
Prof. Bialobok — Karpow. 1961.
Prof. Edmund Jankowski — Karpow. 1958.
Prof. Hoser — Received at Kornik Arb. about 1930
from P. Hoser of Warsaw.
Prof. Josef Brzezinski — Karpow. 1938.
Prof. Roman Kobendza — Karpow. 1958.
Rozana Mlodosc — Karpow. 1960.
Stefan Makowiecki — Karpow. 1958?
Tadeiszko — Karpow. 1954.
John C. Wister
Joseph Oppe
Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural
Foundation
Swarthmore College
Swarthmore, Pennsylvania
Notes from the Arnold Arboretum
Perennials for
Low Maintenance Gardening
Part III
Iris — Iris, Fleur-de-lis
Irises are similar to Daylilies in that there are so many avail-
able varieties to choose from that one hardly knows where to
begin. For the low maintenance garden the similarity ends
here because the Tall Bearded Iris, the most popular of the
group, cannot be called an undemanding plant. Clumps may
start to degenerate after the third or fourth year and division of
these, preceded by a thorough preparation of the new site, may
be necessary.
The Iris borer, a worm which tunnels into the rhizomes, can
cause serious trouble and is more difficult to control now that
DDT is not used. A short blooming period restricts the use of
irises in most mixed borders, but when planted for mass effects
the results are delightful. When used sparingly in a mixed
border, the leaves of irises form good contrasts to the foliage of
many other types of plants.
According to the Popularity Poll in the October 1970 issue of
the Bulletin of the American Iris Society, some of the best varie-
ties to watch for in catalogs are as follows : I. ‘Stepping Out’ —
this is basically a white flower which is heavily overlaid with
deep blue-purple edges to the flower segments; I. ‘Winter Olym-
pics’ — to date the finest pure snow-white flowered bearded iris;
I. ‘Rippling Waters’ — a blend of pale lavender-blue; I. ‘Esther
Fay’ — a very husky growing variety with pink flowers; I. ‘Dusky
Dancer’ — one of the most popular of the so-called black varie-
ties, the flowers being a deep purple-black; I. ‘Ultrapoise’ — the
most popular yellow; I. ‘Ginger Snap’ — the best brown; and I.
‘Christmas Time’ — snow-white with a fiery red beard.
Of greater value in the low maintenance garden are the less
numerous cultivars of the Siberian Iris, I. sibirica. Many of
these will survive in poor soil, but do better where soil condi-
127
128 | ARNOLDIA
tions are rich and moist, and although they will withstand light
shade, they are at their best in full sun. A few of the good newer
varieties are: I. ‘Gatineau’ — large violet-blue flowers; I. ‘Ruby
Wine’ — bright ruby-red flowers; I. ‘White Swirl’ — satin-white
in abundance; and I. ‘White Magnificence’ — very large white
flowers.
Kniphofia — Torch-Lily, Red-Hot Poker
Kniphofia uvaria is probably the best known species, and al-
though still commonly offered it is not entirely compatible with
New England winters, and its bright red and yellow flowers are
thought to be overly gaudy by many people. This somewhat
unsavory reputation is no longer fully deserved as breeders have
developed new cultivars which are hardier and have a better
range of softer colors.
All Torch-Lilies require sandy, perfectly drained soils. Soggy
conditions are fatal, and although a position sheltered from
the wind should be selected, they should be situated so as to
receive as much direct sunlight as possible. Divisions obtained
from nurseries are usually quite small and it will take a few
years for them to become established. Plants grow from two to
three feet tall, have a somewhat coarse appearance, and are
best seen as single specimens rather than massed.
Some of the interesting new varieties which should be tried
are: K. ‘Earliest of All’ — coral-rose; K. ‘Maid of Orleans’ — pale
yellow; K. ‘Primrose Beauty’ — primrose-yellow; K. ‘Springtime’
— flowers in the upper part of the spike are coral-red, those
below are ivory-white; and K. ‘Summer Sunshine’ — flame red.
Liatris — Blazing Star, Gayfeather
It is rather unusual that a member of the Daisy family should
have flowers which are arranged in a dense spike formation.
These spikes seldom fail to attract attention because the flower
heads at the top open first, and flowering progresses down the
stem rather than up. Exceptions to this are L. scariosa ‘Septem-
ber Glory,’ which produces five-foot spikes of purple flowers
which open all at the same time, and its sport L. ‘White Spire’
which has white flowers. Although all the commonly grown
species produce excellent flowers for cutting purposes, these two
cultivars are probably the best. It should be noted, particularly
with the shorter-growing varieties, that at least one third of the
stalk should be left on the plant after cutting. This will leave
sufficient foliage for the manufacture of food reserves.
Liatris are stiff, upright plants which look best when planted
Notes from the Arnold Arboretum | 129
sparingly rather than as large masses. They will tolerate con-
siderable moisture during the growing season, but soggy soil
conditions during the winter will lead to rapid deterioration of
the clumps. (This is particularly important with L. pycnosta-
chya, L. scariosa, and their several cultivars.) A moderately
fertile sandy soil and a position in full sun are about the only
other requirements for Liatris.
Stems of the taller growing L. pycnostcichya, L. scariosa
‘September Glory’ and L. ‘White Spire’ have a tendency to lean
over under their own weight and require staking. For the low
maintenance gardener, several other species and cultivars which
do not possess this objectionable characteristic can be recom-
mended. L. spicata with purple flowers in August forms fairly
dense clumps with three-foot spikes; L. spicata ‘Kobold’ is only
eighteen to twenty-four inches high, and has dark purple flowers;
L. spicata ‘Silver Tips’ grows to three feet tall with flowers more
nearly lavender in color. L. punctata, the Dwarf Gayfeather
blooms in August and seldom exceeds two-and-a-half feet in
height.
Limonium — Sea-lavender, Hardy Statice
When grouped closely together, plants of Limonium latifolium
will form an attractive and somewhat unusual groundcover.
When grown in the herbaceous border they may be counted
upon to develop into long-lived specimens which will withstand
considerable neglect.
Established plants bear large panicles of numerous small
flowers. These are frequently up to one-and-a-half feet across
and can be used effectively in dried flower arrangements. In
time, a clump may have up to a dozen sprays and form a spec-
tacular canopy nearly a yard wide. Sea-lavender may be used
in much the same way as Gypsophila (Baby’s Breath) to impart
a light, airy effect in the garden, and is an excellent substitute
in areas where Gypsophila does not overwinter well.
It is a fitting subject for gardeners near the sea, and inland
the major requirement is that plants be grown in a light sandy
loam in a sunny position. If planted in a heavier soil, stems will
invariably be weak and require staking.
Limonium latifolium blooms from July through August and
produces bright mauve-lavender flowers. Two cultivars which
somewhat extend the color range are easily available. These are
L. latifolium ‘Colliers Pink’ with pink flowers, and L. latifolium
‘Violetta’ with clear violet-blue flowers.
130 | ARNOLDIA
Lupinus ■ — Lupine
Of the several types of Lupine which are hardy, the strain
known as Lupinus x regalis ‘Russell Hybrids’ is by far the show-
iest. These cannot be recommended for general cultivation in
our area, however, because of their sensitivity to hot summers.
They do best in cool, humid areas such as northern New En-
gland and the Pacific Northwest. It has been said that L. cytis-
oides , the Canyon Lupine from California, might be crossed with
the ‘Russell Hybrids’ to produce a more heat-resistant strain.
Until this is done, or summer hardiness is achieved in some other
way, gardeners in the Boston area and south should probably
avoid Lupines.
Lychnis - — Campion, Catch Fly, Maltese Cross
Although this group produces some of the most vividly colored
flowers of any in the herbaceous border, the so-called perennial
species are quite short lived and are of no value in a low main-
tenance garden. Lychnis coronaria, the Rose Campion, usually
behaves as a biennial and seeds itself in such a copious manner
that it may have some value in certain situations where many
chance seedlings would not look out of place.
Lysimachia — Loosestrife
Most members of this genus would not look well in a mani-
cured formal border, but the somewhat spreading (sometimes
invasive) tendencies of the more commonly grown species may
be a distinct asset in gardens which are to receive minimal care.
They are of easy culture and adaptable to a wide range of
conditions.
Lysimachia clethroides, the Gooseneck Loosestrife, bears
three-foot stalks of white flowers which are both attractive and
interesting because they bend at the top in a somewhat goose-
neck fashion. They last well and can be used for flower arrang-
ing. This is not a plant for confined spaces and it would be
unwise to place choice smaller plants nearby or to expect it to
fit into any ordinary-sized niche in the border. When natural-
ized, or planted in light shade near the base of shrubs, however,
they will be seen to full advantage.
Lysimachia punctata, the Yellow Loosestrife, produces sturdy
three-foot stems which have axillary whorls of bright yellow
flowers over most of their length during June and early July.
It does not spread as rapidly as L. clethroides, and although best
in partial shade, it will tolerate full sun if planted in rich, moist
Notes from the Arnold Arboretum | 131
soil. Another Loosestrife with yellow flowers is L. vulgaris, whose
flowers are borne in terminal panicles during late July and
August. This species will not tolerate exposure to full sun, and
partial rather than dense shade will suit it best.
Sometimes called Creeping Jenny or Moneywort, L. num-
mularia is a European plant now widely naturalized in North
America. Were it not for its overly invasive tendencies, this
would probably be one of our best ground covers, but it should
not be planted where it cannot easily be contained. L. nummu-
laria ‘Aurea’ is sometimes offered in catalogs as an unusual
bedding or ground cover plant. The leaves are a garish yellow,
difficult to combine attractively with other colors.
Lythrum — Purple Loosestrife
Lythrum salicaria, a native of Europe, is now so widely nat-
uralized in our area it is difficult to believe that it has only
recently become such a feature of our landscape. Those who
travel along Route 128 in the Boston area during mid to late
summer cannot fail to notice the vast expanses of rosy magenta
flowers in the low, moist places.
A number of selections have been made from the wild forms.
These are well worth growing, especially in difficult wet areas
in the garden. Lythrum ‘Morden Pink’ is a bud sport which
originated at the Dominion Experiment Station, Morden, Man-
itoba, Canada. The restrained, three-foot plants are excellent
subjects for the border as they flower nearly all summer long.
Flowers are rose-pink. This cultivar is sterile (seeding can be
a nuisance with some varieties), but clumps increase in size
fairly rapidly. Other cultivars include: L. ‘Morden Gleam’ with
deep carmine flowers; L. ‘Morden Rose’ with sparkling deep rose-
pink flowers; L. ‘Robert’ a very interesting two-foot dwarf with
rose-red flowers which, unfortunately, is not as floriferous as the
others; and L. ‘Dropmore Purple’ which has rather poor, muddy,
dark pink flowers if planted in a hot place.
The great value of this group is its hardiness and ability to
survive without much attention for a long period of time. Al-
though they are often used to advantage in moist areas, the
plants will thrive in ordinary border conditions. They will also
tolerate a considerable amount of shade.
Macleaya — Plume-Poppy
Macleaya cordata (listed in many catalogs as Bocconia cor-
data ) cannot be considered for low maintenance plantings where
the soil is rich and shady conditions prevail. Under these cir-
cumstances, Plume-Poppies spread at such a rate that much
132 | ARNOLDIA
time will be spent reducing the size of the clumps. Better results
will be obtained in a sunny position where the soil is of average
to slightly below average fertility. Even then, it must be remem-
bered that this is a large plant which produces spikes fully six
to eight feet tall and clumps three to five feet in diameter. Under
these latter conditions, however, Plume-Poppies should develop
into magnificent, long-lived specimens which should not have
to be disturbed for many years.
The most striking features of the Plume-Poppy are its large,
bold, scalloped leaves which are almost tropical in their effect.
Their appearance is further enhanced by being light green
above and gray-white on the under surfaces, a pleasing combina-
tion when they are blown about by a light wind. Although a
member of the Poppy family, the name may be confusing, as
the flowers bear no resemblance to the true poppies. They are
small, cream-pink to buff colored and appear on elongated
panicles in July and August.
In the border, they must be situated toward the rear where
the leaves will not be as effective as when seen among shrubs
or naturalized in a semi-wild area.
Monarda — Beebalm, Bergamot, Oswego Tea
Although the several leading cultivars of Monarda didyma
are excellent subjects for herbaceous borders they have a shal-
low root system which spreads rapidly. Unless divided at fairly
frequent intervals (at least every third year), plants will de-
generate into rather unkempt clumps with decidedly tatty
foliage.
Monarda didyma ‘Granite Pink’ (a seedling of M. ‘Croftway
Pink’) which was introduced by the University of New Hamp-
shire, is much more compact in habit of growth and should not
require such frequent division. Also, the foliage at the end of
the growing season was far superior to that of other cultivars of
the same age grown at the Arboretum last year. Those who have
given up Monarda may wish to try this relatively new cultivar
which is now easily available.
Monarda will tolerate considerable moisture during the grow-
ing season, but should be in a soil which drains freely during
the winter. This is a member of the Mint family and both the
leaves and the flowers are quite fragrant, the flowers on two-
and-a-half- to three-foot spikes being especially useful in ar-
rangements. Some of the cultivars available are: M. ‘Cambridge
Scarlet’ — - probably the most popular, with bright scarlet-red
flower heads; M. ‘Croftway Pink’ — a clear rose-pink; M. ‘Ma-
Notes f rom the Arnold Arboretum | 133
hogany’ — deep wine-red; and M. ‘Salmon Queen’ — salmon-
pink.
Oenothera — Evening-Primrose, Sundrop
Annuals, biennials, and perennials can all be found in this
large group. Some are rank weeds, others are variously used for
naturalizing, in rock gardens, or in the perennial border. None
of the perennial species are presentable in situations where they
cannot be divided frequently and should not be included in a
planting which is to receive limited attention.
Paeonia — Peony
Peonies are perhaps the most fitting of all the plants dis-
cussed here for the low maintenance garden. The relative ease
of culture combined with an exceedingly long life, great hardi-
ness, and their popularity as cut flowers make them nearly indis-
pensable.
Plants which are to last a long time in one spot (thirty years
and sometimes more) require a deep, rich, well-drained soil.
Plenty of humus should be incorporated at planting time, but
manure should never come in contact with the thick, fleshy root
system. Divisions should contain at least three to five buds
(“eyes”) at the top of the roots, and these should be set about
one inch below the soil line. Deeper planting frequently leads
to poor flowering, or no flowers at all. Late August or early
September is the preferred time for transplanting, and although
a site in full sun is usual, the more delicately colored varieties
can be placed in light shade to keep the flowers from fading;
deep shade should be avoided. Soils of poor fertility which dry
out excessively in the summer months are not suitable as they
produce plants which grow weakly and flower sparsely. Even
in better soils Peonies should be watered freely during periods
of drought.
Larger flowers can be produced if the lateral buds are re-
moved early, but care must be taken not to injure the terminal
bud. Peony flowers come in a number of types as well as colors.
The Doubles last longest, the stamens and sometimes the carpels
being petaloid so that a fully double flower results. The Singles
(Chinese type) have one or several rows of petals which sur-
round a center of numerous yellow stamens. This simpler type
may be preferred by those who find the Doubles to be a bit flam-
boyant. The Japanese type and the Anemones are often lumped
together in catalogs. The former has five or more quite large
petals which surround a center of stamens which bear abortive
134 | ARNOLDIA
anthers devoid of pollen, while in the latter, the filaments of the
stamens are transformed into narrow, incurved, petal-like struc-
tures.
So many varieties are available from specialist nurserymen
that only a few of the better ones can be included here. The
Doubles include: P. ‘Festiva Maxima’ and P. ‘Le Cygne’ - — white;
P. ‘Karl Rosenfeld’ and P. ‘Lowell Thomas’ — red; P. ‘La France’
and P. ‘Albert Crousse’ — pink; and P. ‘Clair de Lune’ — yellow.
The Singles include: P. ‘Pico’ and P. ‘Cygnet’ — white; P. ‘Cham-
plain’ — pink. The Japanese and Anemone types include: P.
‘Nippon Brilliant’ and P. ‘Mikado’ — red; P. ‘Fuji-no-mine’ —
white; and P. ‘Ama-no-sode’ and P. ‘Alstead’ — pink.
New varieties are coming onto the market all the time, and
people interested in this group would do well to join the Ameri-
can Peony Society.
Papciver — Oriental Poppy
Oriental Poppies can now be obtained in such a beautiful
array of colors that it is unfortunate so many people still associ-
ate this group with the old orange-scarlet types. Cultivars with
large flowers, six to twelve inches across, which range in color
from white to pink, red, and near yellow deserve consideration
today. Of these, the white varieties should probably be avoided
as they tend to be rather short-lived, and the flowers often be-
come grey from their own pollen. The so-called yellows are
basically orange with only a faintly yellow tinge. The better
varieties in shades of pink and red include: P. ‘Bonfire’ — bright
orange-red, the petals with a crinkled edge; P. ‘Cavalier’ — an
excellent deep red; P. ‘Cheerio’ — coral-pink with red at the
base of the petals; P. ‘Crimson Pompon’ — deep red, fully
double; P. ‘Doubloon’ — orange, fully double; P. ‘G. I. Joe’
— cerise overlaid with watermelon-red; P. ‘Helen Elizabeth’ —
probably the best of the pinks; P. ‘Salome’ — rose; and P. ‘Spot-
less’ — pastel pink without a black blotch at the base of the
petals.
Oriental Poppies are good subjects for low maintenance gar-
dening as they can be left for five years and often much longer
before division will be necessary. This should only be done for
rejuvenation purposes if the clumps start to degenerate. The
roots are fleshy, and well-drained soils are essential. Plants seem
to succeed equally well in full sun or partial shade and Autumn
(August and September) is the time when divisions should be
made. The foliage of Oriental Poppies disappears during the
summer leaving large gaps in the border. In the author’s garden,
Notes from the Arnold Arboretum | 135
clumps of poppies were planted among a ground cover of Vinca
by previous occupants of the house, an interesting solution to
the problem. Another solution would be to plant annuals which
could take over when the poppies die down.
Phlox — Phlox
Phlox paniculata, the tall summer blooming species, should
not be attempted in the low maintenance garden. Considerable
effort is necessary to keep plants free of mildew, rust, or red
spiders. Spraying every ten to fourteen days during the summer
with a fungicide or miticide is almost a necessity and plants
must be divided every third or possibly fourth year if the clumps
are not to deteriorate. Modern cultivars are available in a range
of very attractive colors, but the faded flower heads must be
removed to ensure a succession of bloom, and if seeding occurs
the resultant plants will have flowers of the common magenta
color.
Although numerous other species are in cultivation, many
require frequent divisions. One of the best is P. stolonifera.
This can be a good ground cover in the shade, but only where
it will have room to spread. Two cultivars are P. ‘Blue Ridge’
and P. ‘Lavender Lady.’ P. subulata, the Moss Pink, will form
a good ground cover in a sunny position if the soil is well
drained. It can also be used as edging on dry walls. Mr. J.
Herbert Alexander of Middleboro, Mass., deserves great credit
for introducing a number of cultivars which are hybrids between
P. subulata and P. nivalis. Some of the better varieties available
from nurseries include P. ‘Alexander’s Beauty,’ P. ‘Alexander’s
Surprise,’ and P. ‘Emerald Cushion’ which are pink. P. ‘Blue
Hills’ and P. ‘Sky Blue’ are violet, and P. ‘Scarlet Flame’ is red.
Physostegia — False Dragonhead, Obedience Plant
One could almost forgive this group for their invasive habits,
were it not for the fact that they also require almost annual
division to maintain any semblance of neatness. As they grow
with relative indifference to wet or dry conditions and will toler-
ate sun or partial shade, they may be of value for naturalizing
in a semi-wild area, but should only appear in herbaceous
borders when time can be devoted to their upkeep.
Physostegia virginiana has rosy lilac flowers, but there are
several cultivars which are more attractive where color is con-
cerned. Physostegia ‘Vivid,’ aptly named, is only eighteen to
twenty-four inches high and has deep rosy-pink flowers. Un-
fortunately this beautiful low-growing variety is as invasive as
136 j ARNOLDIA
the rest. Physostegia ‘Grandiflora’ has bright pink flowers on
five-foot stems. A hybrid between the two has been named P.
‘Rosy Spire,’ with rose-pink flowers in early September on
three-and-a-half-foot spikes. The one cultivar with white flowers,
P. ‘Summer Snow,’ blooms in August, somewhat earlier than the
others.
The common names for Physostegia are of some interest.
False Dragonhead refers to the one-time confusion between this
genus and Dracocephalum (Dragonhead). Obedience plant or
Stay-in-Place, refers to the fact that individual flowers can be
twisted on the stem and will remain at whatever angle they are
placed, a characteristic which fascinates children.
Platycodon — Balloon Flower
Platycodon grandiflorum is the only species, but there are a
few varieties and several cultivars, all of which can be easily
grown and last for many years in a single spot. P. grandiflorum
grows to a height of nearly three feet and produces numerous
two- to three-inch bell-shaped blue flowers from late June to early
September. There are also pink-flowered and white-flowered
forms. In low maintenance situations, P. grandiflorum var.
mariesii which has blue or white flowers may be better. This
does not exceed eighteen inches in height and never requires
the staking which is often necessary for P. grandiflorum. P.
‘Apo-yama’ is a true dwarf with large, violet-blue flowers on very
low six-inch stems.
The roots of Balloon Flowers are thick and fleshy and cannot
tolerate wet ground. A light, well-drained soil of moderate fertil-
ity suits them best, and although the pink varieties will fade
unless planted in partial shade, full sun is perhaps best for the
blue-flowered or white-flowered types. New plants are of rather
slow growth, but well-established clumps may be expected to
thrive for twenty years and longer if they are not disturbed.
Sedum — Stonecrop
Many of the species in this group are of interest to the low
maintenance gardener, but only a few are subjects for the
border, the majority being suited more for the rock garden or
as ground covers in sandy, gravelly soil. One which should have
a home in every herbaceous border, however, is the nearly in-
destructible S. spectabile, the Showy Stonecrop. This forms a
neat, compact mound about eighteen inches high, and produces
numerous flowers in large cymes three to four inches across
from August until frost. Plants will grow in most ordinary soils
Notes from the Arnold Arboretum | 137
provided drainage is good, and although they will tolerate light
shade, a sunny position is desirable.
As with many other groups, the nurserymen have been busy
making selections, and there are a number of desirable color
forms to choose from: S. ‘Brilliant’ perhaps the leading variety,
flowers are raspberry-carmine; S. ‘Carmen’ — - carmine-rose to
red; S. ‘Indian Chief — the pink flowers take on a copper tone
during the cooler days of autumn; S. ‘Meteor’ — wine red; S.
‘Star Dust’ — ivory white flowers on blue-green foliage.
Thalictrum — Meadow Rue
The delicate compound foliage and lacy flowers of the Meadow
Rues can be used to impart a light airy feeling in the border,
and particularly to tone down the heavy effect of a shrubbery.
The flowers, which have no petals, are comprised of petaloid,
,sepals and numerous colored stamens. This somewhat unusual
situation seldom fails to attract attention.
Most species are well adapted to tolerate shady conditions,
but are often grown in full sun in the border if soil conditions
are relatively moist. The taller growing species have sturdy
stems, so staking is seldom required. Established plants should
last in good condition for a number of years, and it is best to
leave them alone until the clumps begin to deteriorate and need
to be divided.
T. aquilegifolium grows three feet tall and flowers profusely
from late May through June. The flowers are lilac-purple, but
there are also white and rose forms. T. dipterocarpum was dis-
covered by E. H. Wilson in Yunnan Province, China, and until
relatively recently was considered the finest of all Thalictrums .
It grows up to five feet tall and the flowers appear in panicles
with violet-tinted sepals, cream filaments, and yellow anthers in
August. There is a white form, T. ‘Album’ and also a double
one, T. ‘Hewitt’s Double.’
T. rocheburnianum is decidedly the most outstanding of the
whole group and probably one of the finest of all herbaceous
perennials. It is now being offered by a few nurseries in the
Boston area, and as it becomes better known it will undoubtedly
become quite popular. This species is hardier than T. diptero-
carpum and produces sturdy stems four to six feet tall with large
masses of lavender-violet flowers with primose-yellow stamens.
The plant is in blossom from mid-July until early September.
Thermopsis — False Lupine
This is another plant which falls into the relatively small
138 | ARNOLDIA
group of perennials which have the ability to survive consider-
able neglect yet thrive for many years. They are extremely
hardy, never invasive, have no insect or disease problems, and
the compound leaves remain in good condition throughout the
growing season. The one disadvantage of the most commonly
grown species, T. caroliniana, is that there may be a tendency
for the stems to droop, and where this happens, staking may be
necessary. All False Lupines do best in full sun, but will tolerate
some light shade.
T. caroliniana is the tallest species. Stems -are up to 4 feet tall
and are topped by twelve-inch spikes of yellow pea-like flowers
in June and early July. Although native to portions of the south-
east United States, it is hardy enough to endure the most rugged
of New England winters. T. montana, a native of the western
Rocky Mountains is a smaller plant, to two-and-a-half feet, and
of value where space may be restricted.
Tradescantia — Spiderwort
Our native Spiderwort, Tradescantia virginiana, has yielded a
number of color forms which are well worth growing if neatness
is not one of the prime considerations when selecting plants
for the garden. In the more tidy formal borders, these plants
must be divided regularly if they are not to become straggly.
They seem to go best in gardens that have a semi-wild appear-
ance and will also do well near the foundations of buildings,
often a difficult place for plants to grow. If one has poor, un-
fertile soil conditions to deal with, T. virginiana and its various
cultivated varieties might be considered.
The following cultivars are a good indication of the range of
colors obtainable in this group: T. ‘Blue Stone’ — deep blue;
T. ‘Iris Prichard’ — white with a flush of blue; T. ‘J. C. Weguelin’
— pale blue; T. ‘Purple Dome’ — vivid rosy purple; T. ‘Red
Cloud’ — rosy red; and T. ‘Snowcap’ — pure white.
Robert S. Hebb
Appendix I
Perennials to Avoid in the Low Maintenance Garden
Plants on this list require division every few years, those marked
with an asterisk may require it annually under most conditions:
(especially A. ‘The Pearl’)
Arabis
Achillea ptarmica vars.
Helianthus
Heuchera
Lychnis
Notes from the Arnold Arboretum | 139
* Aster novae-angliae vars.
Lysimachia
* Aster novi-belgii vars.
(some spp. )
Astilbe
Monarda
Campanula
Phlox
Cerastium
Physostegia
Chrysanthemum maximum
Polemonium
* Chrysanthemum morifolium
vars. Pulmonaria
Doronicum
Solidago
Eupatorium coelestinum
Stokesia
Gaillardia
Tradescantia
Helenium
Veronica
Plants on the following list will become invasive under most condi-
tions and considerable time must be spent keeping them under con-
trol. Some of them have value as ground cover, but not in the low
maintenance perennial border:
Ajuga reptans vars.
Lysimachia nummularia
Cerastium tornentosum
Macleaya cordata (under
Coronella varia (Crown Vetch) some conditions)
Helianthus spp. & vars.
Monarda didyma vars.
Papaver orientate
(some vars.)
Physostegia virginiana
Appendix II
Perennials which do not require frequent division, those marked
with an asterisk resent disturbance:
Aconitum
Geranium (some spp.)
Amsonia
*Gypsophila
Anemone
Hosta
Armeria
Kniphofia
* Asclepias
Liatris
Baptisia
*Limonium
Bergenia
*Lupinus
Caltha
Lythrum
Cimicifuga
*Mertensia
Clematis
*Paeonia
Convallaria
* Papaver
Dicentra
*Platy codon
*Dictamnus
Sedum
Echinops
Thalictrum
*Eryngium
Thermopsis
Euphorbia
Correction
Through error the plant that
: was registered as Malus ‘Prince
Charming’ was referred to as
Malus ‘Pink Charming’ on page
258 of the November, 1970, Arnoldia. We take this opportunity
of stating that the correct name is Malus ‘Prince Charming.’
Arnoldia Reviews
Early American Gardens “For Meate or Medicine,” by Ann
Leighton
Our knowledge of our Colonial heritage is curiously biased.
We know much of politics and colonial dignitaries, of the move-
ments of troops and of taxation, but singularly little of the way
of life that our forebears endured. In particular, we are aware
of few plants and crops raised by those who settled these shores.
And yet, much is recorded. Part of the problem lies in the
fact that the North American Colonies produced no indigenous
books on agriculture before 1710 (The Husbandman’s Guide,
Boston: John Allen, for Eleazar Phillips) and the first writing
on horticulture seems to be a ‘Gardener’s Kalender’ in Tobler’s
Almanack for 1752, printed in South Carolina. The first sep-
arate work on Horticulture seems to be Robert Squibb’s “The
Gardener’s Kalender for South Carolina and North Carolina”
published in 1787 in Charleston.
The historian has to rely upon letters, advertisements and
reports, some now republished, but frequently found in collec-
tions of historical documents not easily discovered by the hor-
ticultural historian. Withal, much has been done. L. H. Bailey
has provided extensive data in the Cyclopedia of American Hor-
ticulture. “Sturtevant’s Notes on Edible Plants” edited by U. P.
Hedrich and published by the New York Agricultural Experi-
ment Station in 1919 is a mine of information and reference.
Ann Leighton has attempted to give us an idea of what
Colonial gardens were like, and what they had in them. Her
book is full of curious information. A little more than half the
book is taken with discussion of garden design, horticultural
authorities, and early New England gardeners and their plants.
The balance of the book is an alphabetical listing of the plants
known to be grown in colonial gardens, accompanied by ap-
propriate “quotes” from Gerard, Parkinson, and Culpepper.
“For Meate or Medicine” is a masterful beginning. There is
140
Arnoldia Reviews I 141
much more to be learned, more sources to be explored, more
plants to be grown, and, no doubt, more books to be written.
G. P. DeW. Jr.
Ann Leighton, Early American Gardens “For Meate or Med-
icine,” Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1970. 441
pages. $10.00.
Gardens, Plants and Man, by Carleton B. Lees
At first glance this appears to be another coffee-table book, a
picture book to be examined once and laid aside. But after an
introduction of delightful colored photographs of meadows and
flower closeups, of tree bark and bare branches against the sky,
one comes upon a series of chapters about the history of gardens.
There is a brief description of gardens of the ancient world,
Egyptian gardens, Roman gardens seen through the eyes of
Pliny in the first hundred years of this millenium, Moorish
gardens, and medieval gardens. There are photographs, and
reproductions of drawings and plans from old books.
The scene then turns to early Italian Rennaissance, with the
gardens of Villa Farnese at Caprarola, the Villa Lante at Bag-
naia, and the Villa d’Este, Tivoli. With original garden plans
and his own photographs the author tells the story of these
three gardens. The chapters which follow tell, in the same
manner, the history of a few of the leading gardens of France
and England: Vaux-le-Vicomte, Versailles, Hampton Court,
Stowe, and others. The last of the series, on United States, deals
primarily with modern gardens.
It is an interesting account of the history of gardens, perhaps
because it is a personal one. These are photographs taken by
Carleton Lees, of gardens he knows.
There follow more pages of pictures, some showing gardens
just discussed, some featuring close-ups of flowers and leaves;
and the reader then arrives at another series of chapters telling
of the men who, since early times, have had an important role
in the development of botany and gardens. The list, of course,
is not complete. No two writers, having to choose from among
many famous names, would agree upon the same ones. But
Theophrastus is there, and Fuchs; Parkinson, Kaempfer, Lin-
naeus and John Bartram; Andre Le Notre, a landscape architect
142 | ARNOLDIA
of the 1600’s is there, and Redoute, a botanical illustrator, and
many more. Although the list is arbitrary it is an interesting
one, and the author has something to say about each.
Some might wish that this volume contained fewer irrelevant
photographs, beautiful though they may be, and instead dealt
with the subjects more completely, and it is unfortunate that
no list of books for further reading is included. The old books
listed in the text are not usually available in public libraries,
and the sampling in this book surely will whet the appetite of
many readers for more. But for the gardener who strives for
beauty in his small backyard, for the armchair gardener, and
for the would-be traveler this is a book which will surely open
new worlds.
H. R. G.
Carlton B. Lees, Gardens Plants and Man, Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1970. 251 pages. $19.95.
Right: Paeonia suffruticosa. Moutan Peony or Tree Peony. The Tree
Peonies bloom in the Arboretum in late May. They have solitary,
single or double flowers of ivhite, pink, red or purple from 6 to 12
inches in diameter borne on plants 4 to 5 ft. high. Cultivated for
centuries in China and Japan they have only recently become
popular in America. Photo: P. Bruns.
Page 144: Prunus subhirtella ‘Pendula’ in the Arnold Arboretum. Photo:
P. Bruns.
Inside back cover: The Arnold Arboretum Lilac Collection in 1915. Photo:
T. E. Marr.
ARNOLDIA is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum
of Harvard U niversity , Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
M H M
ARNOLDrA
AUG 25 1971
NEW YORK
TAMICAL GARDQI
The Arnold Arboretum
Contents
145 Colonial Gardens
RUDY J. FAVRETTI
1 72 Colonial Garden Plants
RUDY J. FAVRETTI
GORDON P. DE WOLF, JR.
250 Additional Sources of Information
Chronologically Arranged
GORDON P. DE WOLF, JR.
256 Notes from the Arnold Arboretum
Propagation of Fothergilla
ALFRED J. FORDHAM
ARNOLDIA is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum
of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Mass. 02130
Published six times a year: on the 15th of January,
March, May, July, September, and November
Subscriptions: $3.50 per year. Single copies, 60 cents
Second-Class Postage Paid
at Boston, Mass.
On the cover: New England Dooryard, probably a Massa-
chusetts scene, 1849. Oil on Canvas, Samuel L. Gerry,
Artist. Courtesy of Old Sturbridge Village, Sturbridge, Mass.
COLONIAL GARD&NS
I The Design of Colonial Gardens
Landscape architects and horticulturists usually extend the
colonial period 64 years to 1840. By including the years from
1620 to 1840 we can tell a more complete story even though
the period isn’t historically correct.
There are several reasons for this. Garden design changed
little until about mid-point in the Greek Revival (12) period.
Then there was great change with the advent of Victorian
architecture and styles.
One reason for such gradual evolution may have been the
limited number of books published on the subject. Most of
those available until after the Revolutionary War came from
England or France. Few were published in the colonies. Sim-
ilarly, there were few nurseries and seed houses until after the
Revolution (17). Another reason may have been the pre-
occupation with protest against restrictive arts and with inde-
pendence.
Actually gardens changed very little during this period even
in Europe. Except for the development of the so-called “natural
style” in the 1700’s, garden design deviated very little from
the Tudor style even in England (5). By extending the colonial
period to 1840, we are able to include the effects of the “natural
style” on the development of American gardens.
The Gardens of Early Plymouth Plantation and Rural
New England
The gardens of the pilgrims were purely a functional out-
growth of their needs. The house and barn formed the focus
and the site was divided into pens and barnyards near the
barn, and the garden was placed near the house. The orchard
and fields were planted where soil and exposure seemed best but
not always near the “homelot”. The plot was studded with sheds,
hayracks, coops, and other necessary appurtenances (20).
145
146 | ARNOLDIA
The size of garden was proportionate to that of the family.
Most of the vegetables needed on a small scale were grown in
the fenced-in garden near the house. These included leeks,
onions, garlic, melons, English gourds, radishes, carrots, cab-
bages and artichokes. A variety of herbs were grown among the
vegetables, the most aromatic grown to one side so as not to
“flavor the soil” (20). Vegetables needed in large quantities like
maize, beans, and pumpkins were grown in fields.
The herbs were used in cooking, medicines, and for fragrance.
A popular dish was a variety of vegetables in a pot stewed with
meat and herbs. Herbs for medicine were harvested and dried
for later use. The herbs for fragrance were hung in rooms,
sprinkled among linens and clothing, or carried in a pocket
(20).
Flowers were grown, too; some just to look at, but most for
utilitarian purposes. Rose petals, for example, were dried for
fragrance. If the lady of the house liked flowers, she often col-
lected violets and mayflowers from the woods and transplanted
them into her garden, for it was she who tended them. Other-
wise, only those flowers needed for food, medicine, fragrance or
dyes were grown.
There was no garden plan as such. In other words, no con-
scious effort was made to plan a garden in today’s sense. The
house and outbuildings were sited according to the topography,
exposure, and needed relationship. Areas related to them were
fenced or penned, and walkways through the gardens were laid
down as direct routes from doorway to outbuilding or as seemed
best for tending the plants.
The plants were planted in no particular order. Tall plants
obscured short plants, flowers were mixed with vegetables, and
among them all were herbs. Some of the vegetables may have
been planted in blocks according to the European practice of
the time. The beds were often raised by building up the soil
and holding it in place by saplings laid on the ground. Great
emphasis was placed on drainage.
The walks were usually tamped soil, sometimes gravel and
occasionally they were surfaced with crushed clam shells. These
walks were just wide enough so a person could walk through the
garden or weed one of the beds from it The main walkway lead-
ing to an outbuilding may have been wider.
The walk and bed pattern was not necessarily symmetrical or
regularly patterned as in the parterre gardens of the merchants
in Boston. Instead, an irregular walk pattern was often the case
and the beds varied in size and shape according to what was
Colonial Gardens | 147
grown in them and how they fit between the functional walks
(1,9,10,16).
The gardens of the Dutch in New York, on the other hand,
were often laid out on a highly symmetrical plan with perfectly
balanced beds on either side of a central walkway with a series
of balanced secondary walks throughout (21).
The Plymouth-type arrangement prevailed throughout the
colonial period and well into the 19th century in agrarian New
England (20). Numerous old farms laid out in the later part
of the 17th century and during the 18th century reflect this
scheme with little variation.
Figure 1 shows one such plan on the Nehemiah Williams Farm
in Stonington, Connecticut. This farm was recently sold after
having been in the same family, handed down from father to
son for nine generations. The plan remained essentially the
same throughout that period. Notice how the buildings were
sited to the northwest of the house to protect it from the prevail-
ing winter winds. The orchard was so located to perform a
similar function and to be handy to the house and sheds.
The gardens were not in one large block as we plant them
today. The south garden, which is on a three to five percent
slope was so placed to capture the warmth of the spring sun for
early crops like peas, lettuce, radishes, carrots, beets, and onions.
The bean garden did not have a southern exposure but it was
protected by two walls, out of the path of the northwest winds,
so that the soil would warm up in time for bean planting which
was later than lettuce and peas. This garden later became a
flower garden.
The two gardens in the front lot were for later vegetables and
second plantings of some of the early ones. Also fruits such as
strawberries, currants, gooseberries and rhubarb were grown
in the front lot garden next to the wall.
Flowers were grown in the dooryard garden to the front, or
south of the house. This garden was in full view of the two front
parlors or chambers, and people approaching these rooms on
special occasions would have passed through them (7). Door-
yard or parlor gardens were very popular in the 17th and 18th
centuries, reaching the height of popularity after the Revolu-
tion.
Dooryard gardens were usually enclosed with wooden fences.
These fences often started at the corners of the house and came
straight forward. In the case of the Williams garden, the fence
went to the stone wall. Where a similar house was close to the
street, the fence would have gone to its edge.
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Colonial Gardens | 149
This plan persisted well into the 19th century as Figure 1 and
the cover indicate.
The Gardens of Merchants and Townsmen
In contrast, the merchants who lived in Boston, New York,
Philadelphia or most other colonial cities and towns had gardens
quite different from those of their brothers in the country.
Their gardens were formal, laid out in a symmetrical pattern
with each side of a central walkway reflecting the other. These
gardens imitated the formal parterre with which many of the
merchants were familiar in their homelands (16, 22).
During the colonial era, great emphasis was placed on siting
the house on a high piece of ground (15, 18). Sometimes the
foundation was purposely built high and the soil dug from the
cellar was mounded around it to form a terrace or a series of
them. Occasionally, additional soil was brought in to complete
a particular terrace plan, but this was not often done. In fact,
it is a characteristic of building in the colonial era to search for
just the right, natural site for the house rather than to change the
topography as we so often do today (15, 23).
The garden was placed near the house. “Have the garden
near the dwelling house because such Beauty and Ornament, the
more they are under constant Inspection, the easier and better
they entertain those two finer senses, Seeing and Smelling”
(15, 18). Some writers of the time suggested an eastern or
western slope for the garden in an attempt to benefit from the
heat generated from the rays of the sun. Many suggested avoid-
ing a southern slope because the sun would be too hot and the
plants would “hang their Heads, to wither away, and die” (15).
Other authors of garden books suggested a southern exposure
to gain maximum benefit from the sun’s rays (4).
Actually, we find that in northern climates gardens were often
sited on a southerly slope, especially vegetable gardens for early
crops. Flower gardens were ideally placed on level spots be-
cause it wasn’t as important to force perennials into bloom and
the annuals couldn’t be planted until late in the spring. In other
latitudes we find gardens at all exposures depending on the site
and philosophy of the owner.
1: This actual plot plan shows a typical layout commonly used
throughout New England in the 17th and 18th centuries. In fact,
similar plans were used well into the 19th century. The walls and
buildings were drawn by the author from aerial photographs sup-
plied by the Tax Assessor’s Office, Stonington, Connecticut.
Fig. 2: — A typical, rural plan showing the layout based on functional needs. Pen and ink, probably Massachusetts or Connecticut, artist
unknown — 1840. Photo: courtesy of Old Sturbridge Village, Sturbridge, Massachusetts.
Colonial Gardens I 151
The gardens were usually enclosed. Rarely do we find records
of a garden without a fence, wall., or hedge around it. These en-
closures were not only to lend privacy to the garden but also to
protect it from the winds (15).
Walls were not used as extensively in America as they were
in England, Holland and other European countries. Certainly
they were important in some cities, especially in the south of
New England (22, 26). But except for a few, it seems that most
of the gardens in New England were enclosed by wooden fences
or hedges (22). Perhaps they were heeding the advice of John
Lawrence who wrote in 1776 that the sun and the wind were
the worst enemies of plants and gardens. “Walls are some de-
fense, where they are tall and the garden little; but otherwise
they occasion great Reverberations, Whilles, and Currents of
wind, so they often do more harm than good. I should there-
fore choose to have the Flower Garden emcompassed [sic] by
hedges .... which after frequent clipping are not only more
ornamental than the best of walls, but by far more useful, and
better defences against the merciless Rage we are speaking of,
both with Respect to the Flowers themselves or the female
Lovers” (15).
In many communities we find early ordinances regulating the
height of fences. Mostly, a higher fence was allowed along the
sides and back of the property with a lower one specified for
across the front. The style and architecture of the fences were
endless ranging from the homely picket fence to a solid board
fence with a slatted, louvered or latticed top (16).
The garden plan within the enclosure was a variation on a
basic theme. It consisted of a central walk usually on axis with
a door of the house (16, 18). Secondary walks radiated from
the central walk, sometimes at right angles and other times at
acute angles. The central walk was terminated by some sort of
feature and often some of the secondary walks were also (See
Figure 3).
These terminal features might have been one or many. Sum-
merhouses, arbors, specimen plants and gates were quite com-
mon while statues, sundials and steps were also popular (13,
16). Sometimes the focus was merely an opening in a fence,
wall or hedge, framing a spectacular or pastoral vista (5).
The length of the garden, its central walk and the complexity
of the secondary walks was directly proportional to the extent of
financial resources of the owner and his love of gardening.
On either side of the central walk and between the secondary
paths were the flower or garden beds. Some were square, others
152 | ARNOLDIA
were rectangular, triangular, or round, depending on the design
of the secondary walk system. It was not at all unusual to find
all of these forms within one garden, especially if it was a large
one (3, 7, 9, 10, 15, 16). The form would “vary according to a
Person’s different Fancies; yet ought to throw the whole into
Variety within Uniformity .... but care must be taken to
contrive it so that it may be easily seen, that the curious Artist
may find Admittance to the Beds in every Part, either by the large
or by lesser Gravel Walks or Paths; so as by the reach of the Arm
every Operation may be performed with Ease” (15).
Oftentimes the wide central walk had one round bed in the
center “filled with some curious Ever-green plant cut pyramidi-
cally or fluited” (15). Sometimes there were a series of circular,
triangular, square or rectangular beds down a very wide central
walk.
Around the outside of the garden and just inside the enclosure
there was often a large bed or border encircling the entire gar-
den. One description of an early garden (2) states that there
were eight square beds in the center with two wide borders
running along the fence, all tied together by a series of gravel
walks between beds “raised by boards.”
This typical pattern, used almost without exception, was im-
posed on every type of site, regardless of the topography. There
are numerous descriptions, drawings, and plans of colonial gar-
dens where the central axis walk plan was imposed on a sloping
site (6, 24, 26, 27). Most of the gardens on old Pemberton
Hill in Boston had this arrangement going up hill from the house,
and the beds were on a series of terraces (24). Philadelphia
had its classic examples, and one of the best garden examples
using this arrangement is on the grounds of the Moffatt-Ladd
House in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. This garden was re-
stored according to an old record made by the Ladds who came to
the house in 1819. It is unique for the set of grass steps which
(combined with an arbor as background) is the focus for the
central path (6).
The arrangement of plants within the garden varied with
the whim of the owner. Sometimes the gardens we have de-
scribed were devoted entirely to flowers. Others combined herbs
with flowers. “In our garden, according to custom of the time,
four beds (of eight) were given to herbs useful in cooking or
for household remedies” (3). Some of the beds were even given
over to vegetables, depending on whether or not the owner had
a special kitchen or vegetable garden elsewhere on the property
(7).
Fig. 3: A typical formal garden
design of the 17th and 18th
centuries. Note the central
axis walk with the secondary
walks radiating from it. Also,
the feature in the center of the
main walk and the outbuilding
as a terminus to one of the
secondary walks. Photo of an
oil painting entitled “View of
the Seat of Colonel Boyd,
Portsmouth, New Hampshire”
— 1774. By permission of the
Trustees of The Phillips Exeter
Academy, Exeter, New Hamp-
shire.
Fig. 4: The V onGlummer
reproduction of the original
Vaughan plan of Mount Ver-
non. This plan shows the
formal design of the Flower
Garden (left) and the Kitchen
Garden (right) on either side
of the park-like bowling green
and serpentine avenues sur-
rounded by trees. Photo:
courtesy of the Mount Ver-
non Ladies Association of the
Union, Mount Vernon, Vir-
ginia.
S !
154 | ARNOLDIA
Fruit trees were often found in the garden and trees in general
were included. Shrubs and roses were placed in the border beds
that encircled the garden (3), but sometimes they were placed
in the beds themselves as shown in Figure 3.
There was no special massing of flowers and herbs for effect.
“In those days a garden was not usually arranged for the effect
as a whole .... each plant was cherished for itself, and was
put where it seemed best for it individually, or often, of course,
where it was most convenient .... four corners of one bed
were filled with fleur-de-lis (iris) white and blue .... and the
corners of another with Sweet Williams” ( 3 ) . The taller flowers
were often planted in the borders around the outside, but some-
times they were planted in the center of the beds with shorter
plants surrounding them.
The massing of plants and the repetition of these masses to
give continuity of design was not a 17th and 18th century prin-
ciple of garden planning. Gardens during that period were tied
together by the system of walks, beds edged with boxwood,
ribbon grass, moss pink (3), pinks ( Dianthus ), lavender
( Santolina ) and germander, or by the enclosure around the
whole garden.
Today some think of the colonial garden plan as being in-
tricate and involved for no real purpose, but as we study it we
find that it was an outgrowth of the times. The involved walk
system was laid down to divide tall flowers from short flowers,
culinary herbs from flowers, and medicinal herbs from vege-
tables. These walks made the beds accessible for cultivation,
admiration and harvesting. And, they felt, why not arrange the
walks and beds in an interesting pattern if you have to have
them? Then the whole had to be fenced for protection against
the unwanted glances, wind and roving animals. What a good
place to grow tall plants — the fence gave them background and
support if needed and the plants softened the high, harsh fence
or wall. A perfect solution for the times!
Fig. 5: This reproduction of a 1792 painting of Mount Vernon shows th
planting of trees on either side of the approach avenues and th
Mansion. Note also the design of the courtyard immediately ii
front of the Mansion. Photo: courtesy of the Mount Verno:
Ladies Association of the Union, Mount Vernon, Virginia.
Fig. 6: This companion 1792 painting of Mount Vernon, East Front
shows the barely visible forms of deer ( foreground ) and th
fence built to confine them. Photo: courtesy of the Moun
Vernon Ladies Association of the Union, Mount Vernon, Virginii
156 | ARNOLDIA
What about herb gardens? Some twentieth century gardeners
think of colonial gardens only in terms of herbs, probably be-
cause herbs are so popular in culinary art today and we are
generally familiar with them. But, during the colonial period,
unless one was engaged in the growing of herbs for sale, as the
Shakers ( 1 ) and some others were, most people did not have a
garden set aside especially for them. These plants, as previously
mentioned, were grown among the flowers and vegetables or in
a portion of the kitchen garden (7, 16, 20).
Country Estates on the Outskirts of Town
The gardens described were laid out on the smaller, tighter
sites along the streets of cities and towns. This does not imply
that all city lots were small for some were of several acres (26).
But they were often narrow and the parterre plan lent itself well
to this shape of lot. Even people of limited financial resources
used a similar but small version of either the Plymouth type or
(more often) the parterre type of garden plan (23).
In the early 18th century, Joseph Addison, Alexander Pope,
and Sir Richard Steele wrote satire about the rigid, formal gar-
den filled with topiary and enclosed by a wall. Addison revised
his own planting to “run into as great a wilderness as their
natures will permit” (25). Bridgeman, a leading landscape
architect of the period, was greatly influenced by their satire,
banishing sculpture and elaborate design in favor of bits of
woodland in the landscape (10). William Kent emerged to fame
eliminating walled enclosures and substituting ha-ha walls to
separate areas inconspicuously.
This so-called “natural style” was carried to its heights by
Lancelot “Capability” Brown and others in the 18th century
(14). In fact. Brown’s gardens are often characterized as “a
round lake, an open lawn, and a copse of trees”. This influence
was felt in the colonies by the wealthy plantation and estate
owners. By the late 1700’s, most wealthy properties covering
vast acreage, whether in Virginia, Philadelphia, along the Hud-
son River, or in New England, were designed or “layed out in the
natural style”.
New England, while not entirely so, was most conservative
with this style, probably because the various skills necessary to
run the household were housed under one roof because of cli-
mate, rather than strung out as they were at Mt. Vernon, Monti-
cello, and in other southern estates. For this reason, an arrange-
ment of buildings pulled close together lent itself better to the
formal plan than to the “natural style” (23).
Colonial Gardens I 157
New England was not without its “natural” gardens, however.
Numerous estates surrounding Boston, for example, were laid
out in this manner (24). And Samuel McIntyre suggested such
a plan for the Elias Haskett Derby Mansion in Salem, Massa-
chusetts (16). Theodore Lyman’s “Waltham House” purchased
in 1795 “arranged the grounds with .... noble trees, lake,
gardens, terraces, lawns and a deer park” (24).
In fact, at least one garden in New England was revamped
according to the style of the day. Miss Susan Quincy, in her
Memoirs, tells how President Quincy changed the plan on the
Quincy Estate, “being a great lover of nature. Obstructions to
views were removed; walls and fences leveled; lawns with trees
and shrubs judiciously disposed, replaced the court-yard and
gardens; and the approach to the house turned through an
avenue of elms, a third of a mile in length . . . .” (24).
Mount Vernon is one of the best authentic examples of an
estate that combined both the “natural style” and the parterre
plan (See Figure 4). Approaching the Mansion is the Serpen-
tine Avenue encircling the bowling green. Note how the avenue
is heavily planted with trees (See also Figure 5). Some of the
original trees are still growing along this approach (11).
On either side of the tree-lined avenue and bowling green are
the parterred flower and kitchen gardens (6), both the same
size and shape, differing only in detailed interior arrangement.
Actually, the whole plan approaching the Mansion is symmetri-
cal in design, though informally planted.
Between the Mansion and the Potomac River, however, is a
broad expanse of lawn, a ha-ha wall (see upper right of plan in
Figure 4) and a copse of trees on the east front of the Mansion
(see Figure 6). This illustration shows that George Washing-
ton even included a “Deer Park” like so many of the estates in
England. Washington wrote in 1792, “I have about a dozen deer
(some of which are the common sort) which are no longer con-
fined in the Paddock which was made for them but range in all
my woods and often pass my exterior fence” (2). Several early
gardens in this country had deer parks, among them the “Wal-
tham House” Estate of Theodore Lyman (24) and the Robinson
Estate, built in 1750, and opposite the present West Point Acad-
emy on the Hudson River (21). Deer in the landscape made
these seats more “natural”.
Thomas Jefferson’s plan also gets away from the formal, par-
terre layout, but it, too, is symmetrical immediately in front of
the house (see Figures 7 and 8). His plan has an informal
walkway which he called the “Round-about” and it was bounded
158 | ARNOLDIA
by flower borders. These have been restored according to his
plan (See Figure 8). Near the house are circular beds which
were planted in 1807 (19).
The plan for “Solitude”, the seat of John Penn in the Phila-
delphia area, shows an arrangement that would have pleased
William Kent and Capability Brown. On this estate were a ha-ha
wall, irregular flower gardens, a vista south of the house, and a
clump of trees to the east (26).
Along the Hudson River there were many estates (Philipse
Manor, Van Cortlandt Manor, and the estates of the Livingstons
and the Van Rensselaers, among others) landscaped in the
“natural style” and less symmetrical than Mount Vernon, prob-
ably because of the more varied topography, but still with the
parterre garden near the formal Mansion House (21).
Conclusion
It is safe to say that the gardens of the colonial period were
planned according to the way of life of the owners. In rural
agricultural areas the gardens were of the Plymouth type, laid
out between functional walks and paths, but not rigidly formal
in pattern as the parterres of the city merchants, tradesmen, and
professionals.
When the influence of the natural style, carried to its height
by Capability Brown, reached this continent, the owners of the
large estates and plantations were affected by it, but they re-
tained the formal parterre plan for gardens near the house.
On the smaller city sites that did not lend themselves to the
development of lakes, copses of trees and expanses of lawns
laid out to imitate nature, the rigid parterre plan remained until
well into the 19th century.
Fig. 8: The restored flower beds and borders at Monticello as they look
today. Photo: courtesy of the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Founda-
tion.
'ig. 7: Thomas Jefferson’s plan of the “Round-about Walk”, flower
borders ( dotted lines') and beds (circles). The flower beds were
laid out and planted in 1807 and the winding walk and flower
borders in 1808. Courtesy of the Thomas Jefferson Memorial
Foundation.
160 ARNOLDIA
II How to Create or Restore
a Colonial Garden
In historic preservation, the creation or restoration of early
gardens should be a subject of major concern. Often the grounds
and gardens are overlooked, but fortunately this is becoming less
true as we progress through the century.
For many it is hard to know what type of garden plan to use,
where to put the garden, how to enclose it, how large it should
be, whether to include vegetables and herbs as well as flowers,
and how to go about installing the garden generally. It is best
to hire professional assistance in the person of a landscape archi-
tect who is sympathetic towards the area of historic preserva-
tion and restoration. But sometimes funds do not permit this
type of consultation and an individual or committee is appointed
to develop the plans.
Naturally, the first thing to do is research the site, the people
who lived there, and the records. Leave no stones unturned
because the more you can find the better and more individualis-
tic the garden will be.
It matters not what area you research first. Let us start with
the people who lived in the house: what they did; when they did
it; if there were several families, find data on each and deter-
mine which one or which period you will represent. An example
of this is the research that went into the garden the author de-
signed for the Noah Webster House. Naturally we knew about
the famous linguist, but he didn’t live there after he became
famous. So the obvious question was: what did his parents do?
They were farmers, not wealthy, but of moderate means. The
architecture of the house was simple, not elegant, further point-
ing to the fact that the garden should be small and simple and
not contain unusual plants such as a vast array of tulips that
had to be imported. Instead, the garden should contain plants
needed for everyday sustenance.
Sometimes in researching the people who live in a house, you
find facts that pertain directly to gardens. The garden at the
Salem Towne House at Old Sturbridge Village contains many
fruit trees because Mr. Towne experimented with fruit and
actually developed a new variety of apple called the “Porter”.
These details lend interest and individuality to a garden.
Garden of the Standish House at Plimouth Plantation with Pot Mall
gold, cabbage, carrots, red kidney beans, watermelons and muskmelot.
Photo: courtesy of Plimoth Plantation.
162 J ARNOLDIA
Written and published records could shed much light on the
gardens of a particular site. Probate inventories often mention
orchards, walls and gardens, and some have been known to have
plans attached. Some probate records name fruit trees by variety.
But even if the inventories or wills contain no mention of
gardens, they give you an idea of the relative worth of the person.
This is invaluable information because it offers guidehnes con-
cerning a size for the garden and the elegance of the proposed
plan.
Deeds can offer garden information. The author recently came
across one deed that mentions “the southwest corner of the gar-
den west of the dwelling house” as the beginning of a boundary.
Upon investigating the site, the exact dimensions of the garden
were determined with relative ease.
Diaries, journals, letters and personal documents usually
contain a wealth of information. One has only to read the
diaries of George Washington and Thomas Jefferson to get a
clear picture of gardening and agriculture. Lesser known men
and women kept records, too, on such facts as when flowers came
into bloom, when seeds were planted, and how and when walks
were laid. Account books, while they contain only facts and
figures, are invaluable because in them are such items as hstings
of seeds bought, crops harvested, tools purchased, and materials
bought to combine with herbs for household remedies.
Personal letters written from husband to wife, sister to sister,
brother to brother, reveal much because it was the custom of
the day to speak of plants in bloom in the garden, the change
of season and its effect on the garden, what was harvested, and
much more.
Town histories sometimes have descriptions of a garden or
a site, but quite often contain sketches of houses showing their
gardens and fences. It was in Caulkins’ History of Norwich,
Connecticut that we learned about some ordinances controlling
the height of fences during the colonial period. John Warner
Barber wrote “Historical Collections of Every Town . . . .” on
many states in the early 19th century. His engravings of each
town show gardens in some cases, fence styles, street tree ar-
rangements, and many other details.
News articles and advertisements are helpful, especially in
developing a list of plants. Many state and local historical
societies have collections of early newspapers and broadsides.
Articles sometimes appear commemorating a particular indi-
vidual and sometimes his house and grounds are mentioned.
J
Garden of the Winslow House at Plimoth Plantation, Plymouth, Ma *.■
Pumpkins in the foreground. Photo: courtesy of Plimouth Plantation. :1
164 | ARNOLDIA
Old essays, speeches, and pamphlets are invaluable. The archives
of horticultural societies are full of this type of information.
The author relies heavily on paintings for information on the
design of gardens. These works often suggest a fence style or
garden arrangement typical of a particular town or region. We
are aware of some murals that show village scenes that can be
identified and many of these illustrate gardens.
One is not often lucky enough to find a plan. How many
people make a plan today? Not many. The same was true in
early times and many of the plans that were made have been
lost. But do not overlook this aspect of research; sometimes
the files of historical societies contain them. Even if it is not the
plan of the site in question, if it is in the same region or area you
might get some ideas.
While word of mouth is not considered as reliable a source as
the written word, you should consider it. On asking a member of
the ninth generation of the Nehemiah Williams family if there
ever had been a garden in front of the old house and if there
were had it been fenced as most of them had been, he responded
in the affirmative. Upon probing the site, we found the stub of
a stone fence post that had broken off, proving that there was a
fence there.
Probing the site itself often reveals much information. It is
good to do this late in the fall when the tall grass has died down
or early in the spring before it starts to grow. Then you can see
the lay of the land. Sometimes you will find the remains of an
old walk, and depressions on either side will suggest that there
were beds there. Sometimes there are mounds instead of de-
pressions suggesting that the beds were raised.
Areas enclosed by walls or plants suggest that the enclosure
was either a pen or a garden of some sort. One walled enclosure
we found, family tradition says, was a children’s play yard laid
out to confine toddlers so they wouldn’t stray into the woods.
An odd arrangement of trees or shrubs, having no meaning
today, with careful study might suggest a garden plan. Large
shrubs and small trees around the outside of an area with a de-
pressed or raised spot in the central portion most certainly sug-
gests a garden.
Sometimes removing soil from these depressed or raised areas,
or from around walls or house foundations will bring plants to
life. Many times seeds that haven’t been planted in years will
germinate because they have been preserved in the depths of the
soil. These may not necessarily date to the colonial period, but
they might suggest how a present-day garden evolved.
Colonial Gardens | 165
Should There Be a Garden ?
Sometimes there were no flower gardens because only vege-
table gardens were planted, and flowers and herbs needed for
food, fragrance and medicine were grown among them. Maybe
there were a few flowers by the front door and some herbs by
the kitchen, and that is all. This is where research about the
people who occupied a given house may cast light on whether
or not there should be a garden and what type.
If you are thinking of a garden for your own home, there are
two ways to approach the problem. If you are a purist and want
things just as they were then, proceed as suggested. But if you
do not really like to garden and cannot afford to hire a gardener,
then perhaps just some fruit trees surrounding the property,
some shade trees along the road, some lilacs at the comer of the
house and near the shed, and some herbs by the back door will
suffice, preserving the character of the site and yet not creating
a burden on you.
If you have reproduced a site, or even if you have an old one
and are not a purist, why not plan as our forefathers did —
basing the plan on function: a dooryard garden near the front
door to create an interesting entrance space, some trees to pro-
vide shade and define the front yard, some herbs by the back door
and a little lawn for recreation, with a vegetable garden (if you
want one) to the rear. This will satisfy your needs and, after all,
that’s how they planned in the colonial era.
166 I ARNOLDIA
Examples of Authentic
Colonial Gardens in l\[au England
Connecticut
Henry Witfield House (17th century), Guilford
Welles-Shipman House, Glastonbury
Isaac Stevens House, Wethersfield
Joseph Webb House, Wethersfield
Hatheway House, Suffield
Tappan Reeves Law Office, Litchfield
Noah Webster House, West Hartford
Maine
Longfellow House, Portland
Massachusetts
Whipple House, Ipswich
Pliny Freeman Farm, Old Sturbridge Village, Star bridge
Salem Towne House, Old Sturbridge Village, Sturbridge
Fitch House, Old Sturbridge Village, Sturbridge
Gardens at Plimoth Plantation, Plymouth
Mission House, Stockbridge
Coffin House, Nantucket
New Hampshire
Moffatt-Ladd House, Portsmouth
Rhode Island
The Garden at Shakespear’s Head, College Hill, off of
Benefit Street, Providence
Governor Stephan Hopkins House, Benefit Street, College
Hill, Providence
Smith’s Castle, Cocumscussoc, U.S. 1, Wickford
Vamum Gardens, East Greenwich
“White Hall”, Middletown
Wanton-Lyman-Hazard House, Broadway Street, Newport
Colonial Gardens I 167
III Authentic Plants for Colonial Garden Design
People interested in colonial buildings and the grounds that
surround them are excited to see that so many buildings and
sites of this period are being carefully restored. Within recent
years, restorers have used greater care in architectural restora-
tions and have furnished buildings in an authentic manner.
Generally, this has not been true concerning the grounds. It
is disappointing to see careful restorations ending with the four
outer walls and no care given to making the grounds equally
authentic. In one sense, this is betraying the viewer who ex-
pects a thorough and accurate representation of the period.
There are many carefully restored houses that have founda-
tion plantings surrounding them. These are entirely wrong for
they represent the period from about 1850 to post World War
II and certainly not the colonial period. Within these plantings
one finds Forsythia, not even introduced into England from the
Orient until 1844 (27); Japanese Yews, introduced into America
from Japan in 1861 (27); Pfitzer Juniper, introduced in 1901
(27); Pachysandra, introduced in 1882 (27); and Spirea van-
houttei, whose first documented date in America is 1866 (27).
Certainly, the way in which plants are used around structures
of the colonial period makes these buildings more authentic,
real, and alive.
It is the purpose of this article to present a documented list
of authentic plants for the colonial period. Many lists exist but
few are documented and it is possible to find errors and mis-
interpretations that have been perpetuated for over fifty years.
Hopefully, this article will eliminate some of these errors.
In discussing the design aspects of the colonial era, we usually
deal with the years from 1620 to 1840 (6, 6a) because design
did not change drastically during this period. But in consider-
ing the plants, many nurseries and seed houses were estab-
lished after the Revolutionary War (14, 15), and many plants
were imported (14); so we define the colonial period in its true,
historical sense, 1620 to 1776, recognizing that there was a
settlement in Jamestown, Virginia as early as 1607.
Plants in the Colonial Period
Although nurseries and seedhouses were few, research in this
168 | ARNOLDIA
era reveals that there were many plants available. Many of them
were brought over from Europe with the settlers, others were sent
for (14, 15), and there was a great deal of trading and exchange
of slips, cuttings, and seeds from person to person. The state-
ment is often made by individuals and committees in charge of
restoring old gardens and grounds that the kinds of plants avail-
able were limited. This is not true as the following list shows.
Perhaps there were fewer varieties and spectacular colors, but it
was still easy to provide a “splash” of color during the summer
months.
The most common annuals during the colonial period were
Four-O’Clocks in all the colors available today; Balsam, in red,
white, purple, blush or pink, singles and doubles; the several
Amaranthus in the following list; Globe Amaranth, or Gom-
phrena, in purple or red, and white; Batchelor’s Buttons in white,
blue, purple and red; and Calendulas in yellow and orange (1).
Of the biennials, Sweet Williams were used extensively, in fact
so much so that they divided the shorter and narrower leaved
ones into a different common group called “Sweet Johns” (19).
Hollyhocks were plentiful, both singles and doubles “in several
colors” (17). Believe it or not, two of the most popular garden
flowers were Buttercups (Fair-Maids-of-France) (5), and Dan-
delions (5, 8, 9). From these early gardens, these two flowers,
among others, escaped from cultivation into the wild.
Three flowers used little today were very common during this
period. Cowslips or Oxslips (Primroses) gave a great deal of
color to the gardens of our early settlers and so did the Clove-
Gilliflowers, Pinks or Dianthus. Another common inhabitant
of the garden was Feverfew or Featherfew. All of these flowers
and others are mentioned in the attached list.
Having listed a dozen or so of the most common flowers dur-
ing the colonial era, how do these compare with what one au-
thority considers the leaders of today? (21)
Petunia — We have found no mention of this flower in the
early garden books. Perhaps it was grown in the early gar-
dens but the literature does not identify it as such. The
name Petunia is a South American aboriginal name said to
have been applied to tobacco (3). It is possible that
Petunias are called tobacco or Nicotiana in some of the
early books.
Zinnia — These are listed quite frequently in the literature
of the late 18th century but not during the early writings.
It appears that they were just being introduced around the
Colonial Gardens | 169
turn of the century (1800). Reds and yellows would be
appropriate for that period ( 1 ).
Mangold — The French Marigold ( Tagetes patula ) was
used extensively quite early in the colonial period, but it ap-
pears that the African Marigold ( Tagetes erecta ) was not as
common until around 1800 or later. The tiny, dwarf
varieties that are so commonly used today would not be ap-
propriate in an authentic restoration.
China Aster — Contrary to earlier lists, this plant was used
during the colonial period, but it wasn’t used as commonly
as those flowers listed above. It seems that the most com-
mon varieties were single (5).
Sweet Pea — These were probably used throughout the
colonial period, but we have not found a reference to them
before the 1700’s.
Snapdragon — Although these do not appear to have been
among the most common annuals, they were used very
early and the most popular colors were “red, white, purple,
and variable” (1).
Larkspur — These were used very early, but were not
called Larkspur until late in the period. Earlier they were
called Larks Heels or, rightly so, Delphiniums.
Morning Glory — There seems to have been practically
every color imaginable (red, white, purple, dark blue, and
striped) (5) with the exception of today’s popular
“Heavenly Blue”.
ibliography
1. Andrews, Edward Deming and Andrews, Faith. Shaker Herbs
and Herbalists. Berkshire Garden Center, Stockbridge, Mass.
1959.
2. Annual Report, Mount Vernon Ladies Assoc, of the Union. Mt.
Vernon, Virginia. 1964.
3. Bray, Mary Mathews. My Grandmother’s Garden and an An-
cestral Orchard. Richard G. Badger, Printer, Boston, Mass.
1931.
170 | ARNOLDIA
4. Cobbett, William. The American Gardener. C. Clement, Pub-
lisher, London. 1821.
5. Downing, Andrew J. A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of
Landscape Gardening. C. M. Saxton Co., New York. 1957.
pp. 1-40.
6. Dudley, A. T. The Moffatt-Ladd House. Published by Colonial
Dames in New Hampshire, pp. 14-16.
7. Earle, Alice Morse. Old Time Gardens. Macmillan Co., New
York. 1928.
8. Earle, Alice Morse. Sun-Dials and Roses of Yesterday. Mac-
millan Co., New York. 1902.
9. Favretti, Rudy J. Early New England Gardens, 1620-1840. Old
Sturbridge Village, Sturbridge, Mass. 1962.
10. Favretti, Rudy J. New England Colonial Gardens. Pequot
Press, Stonington, Conn. 1964. pp. 4-5.
11. Fischer, Robert B. The Mount Vernon Gardens. The Mount
Vernon Ladies Assn, of the Union, Mount Vernon, Virginia.
1960.
12. Hamlin, Talbot. Greek Revival Architecture in America. Dover
Publications, Inc., New York. 1944. p. xv.
13. Howells, John Mead. The Architectural Heritage of the Merri-
mack. Architectural Book Publishing Co., Inc., New York.
1941.
14. Hussey, Christopher. English Gardens and Landscapes, 1700-
1750. Country Life, London. 1967.
15. Lawrence, John M. A. A New System of Agriculture. London.
1776.
16. Lockwood, Alice B. Gardens of Colony and State, Volume I.
Chas. Scribner & Sons, New York. 1931. pp. 20-21, 26-251.
17. Manks, Dorothy S. How the American Nursery Trade Began.
Handbook, Origins of American Horticulture, V. 23, No. 3.
1967. pp. 4-11.
18. M’Mahon, Bernard. The American Gardeners Calendar. Phila-
delphia. 1806. pp. 67-72.
19. Nichols, Frederick D. and Bear, James A. Monticello. Thomas
Jefferson Memorial Association. 1967. pp. 53-64.
20. Rutman, Darrett B. Husbandmen of Plymouth. Beacon Press,
Boston. 1967.
21. Schermerhorn, Richard, Jr. Homes and Gardens of Old New
York. United States George Washington Bicentennial Com-
mission, Washington, D.C. 1932. pp. 33-44.
22. Schurcliff, Arthur A. Mount Vernon and Other Colonial Places
of the South. United States George Washington Bicentennial
Commission, Washington, D.C. 1932. pp. 11-20.
23. Schurcliff, Arthur A. Gardens of Old Salem and the New Eng-
land Colonies. United States George Washington Bicen-
tennial Commission, Washington, D.C. 1932. pp. 45-53.
24. Slade, Daniel D. The Evolution of Horticulture in New England.
Knickerbocker Press, New York. 1895. pp. 114-137.
Colonial Gardens j 171
25. Stroud, Dorothy. Capability Brown. Country Life, London.
1957.
26. Wheelwright, Robert. Gardens and Places of Colonial Phila-
delphia. United States George Washington Bicentennial
Commission, Washington, D.C. 1932. pp. 21-32.
27. Wilder, Marshall P. The Horticulture of Boston and Vicinity.
Tolman & White, Printers. Boston. 1881.
Rudy J. Favretti
Associate Professor of
Landscape Design
University of Connecticut
Storrs, Connecticut
Acknowledgements
Without the help of many people, this compilation would not have
been possible. Special thanks go to Miss Etta Falkner, Research
Librarian, Old Sturbridge Village; Mrs. Fayre Nason, Librarian,
Worcester County Horticultural Society; Mrs. Muriel Crossman,
Librarian, Massachusetts Horticultural Society; Mr. Abbott Lowell
Cummings, Assistant Director of the Society for the Preservation of
New England Antiquities; the Boston Athenaeum; and the staff of
Mr. John Alden, Keeper of Rare Books, Boston Public Library.
The author’s wife, Joy, gave invaluable assistance in the compila-
tion of the lists.
COLONIAL GARD&H PLANTS
I Flowers Before 1 700
The following plants are listed according to the names most
commonly used during the colonial period. The botanical name
follows for accurate identification. The common name was
listed first because many of the people using these lists will have
access to or be familiar with that name rather than the botanical
name.
The botanical names are according to Bailey’s Hortus Second
and The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture (3, 4). They are
not the botanical names used during the colonial period for
many of them have changed drastically.
We have been very cautious concerning the interpretation of
names to see that accuracy is maintained. By using several
references spanning almost two hundred years (1, 3, 32, 35)
we were able to interpret accurately the names of certain plants.
For example, in the earliest works (32, 35), Lark’s Heel is used
for Larkspur, also Delphinium. Then in later works the name
Larkspur appears with the former in parenthesis. Similarly, the
name “Emanies” appears frequently in the earliest books.
Finally, one of them (35) lists the name Anemones as a
synonym.
Some of the names are amusing: “Issop” for Hyssop, “Pum-
pions” for Pumpkins, “Mushmillions” for Muskmellons, “Isquou-
terquashes” for Squashes, “Cowslips” for Primroses, “Daffadown
dillies” for Daffodils.
Other names are confusing. Bachelors Button was the name
used for Gomphrena globosa, not for Centaurea cyanis as we use
it today. Similarly, in the earliest literature, “Marygold” was used
for Calendula. Later we begin to see “Pot Marygold” and “Calen-
dula” for Calendula, and “Marygold” is reserved for Marigolds.
The name “Cowslips” for Primroses can be confusing for in some
parts of the world that is the name used for “Marsh Marigolds”,
Caltha palustris.
“Winterberry” was a name commonly used for Chinese Lan-
172
Colonial Gardens I 173
terns (a modern common name), and “Alkekengi” was also used
for this plant. But one must be careful in reviewing the litera-
ture because Ilex verticillata and Ilex glabra might also be called
Winterberry. “Gilliflowers” is a name used for Dianthus and
Stock, but there was also an apple by this name.
In parts of Virginia, the name “Ivy” is used in reference to
Mountain Laurel, Kalmia latifolia (5). Jefferson used the name
“Puckoon” to refer to Bloodroot, or Sanguinaria canadensis (5).
In some parts of Connecticut, the name “Ox-eye Daisy” was and
is used for Black-eyed Susan, Rudbeckia hirta, but in most places
“Ox-eye Daisy” refers to Chrysanthemum leucanthemum. In a
village within a town in Connecticut, Daylilies ( Hemerocallis
fulva ) are called Wash-House Lilies, not Daylilies.
Unfortunately these common names were used freely, perhaps
more so than the botanical names, such as they were. For this
reason, the “unraveling” of lists in old books and the compila-
tion and documentation of new lists becomes necessary.
Wherever possible we have worked from primary sources.
Where these were not available, we have used reliable secondary
sources. The numbers in parentheses after each plant refer to
the references in the bibliography from which they were derived.
These lists have not been presented as complete and final
compilations. We consider that an entire lifetime could be de-
voted to documenting the plants of the colonial period and then
the list would not be complete.
The reader should be aware that most of the early gardeners
who kept notes or wrote books were either wealthy or experi-
menters in the field of horticulture. For this reason, many of the
species that seem unusual today were probably unusual then and
for that reason should be used with restraint. Also, other plants
may not have been used freely. Barberry, which was once com-
monly grown, was outlawed in Massachusetts in 1754 because
it was suspected as an alternate host for wheat rust (2).
Furthermore, plants such as Kalmia latifolia, Mountain Laurel,
were detested by farmers because they were poisonous to live-
stock (36).
Some readers will be disappointed that varieties of fruits and
vegetables are not listed. This was not within the scope of this
article. Such listings may be found in numerous books on
garden and fruit culture, one early one being McMahon’s
Garden Calendar by Bernard McMahon, published in Phila-
delphia in 1806. For the period this book had a large printing
and is available in most horticultural libraries. The Worcester
County Horticultural Society also has a list of available varieties
(44) from their experimental orchard.
174 | ARNOLDIA
Aconitum, Wolfsbane (21, 32, 35) Aconitum napellus L.
Native of Germany, France and Switzerland. Cultivated in
England in 1596 by Gerarde. Cultivated for its showy blue-
purple flowers and the medicinal properties of its poisonous
roots.
Winter Aconite (32) Eranthus hymalis (L.) Salisb.
Native of Italy, Silesia, and Switzerland. Cultivated in Eng-
land in 1596 by Gerarde. Desired for its yellow flowers in early
spring.
Alkekengi, Winterberry (21, 32) Physalis alkekengi L.
Native from southern Europe to Japan, but now adventive or
naturalized in many parts of the world. Cultivated in England
at least by 1597. Originally grown for the fruits which were
used medicinally. More recently the fruits with their inflated
orange calyces have been used in winter bouquets.
Amaranthus, Flower Gentle, Joseph’s Amaranthus tricolor L.
Coat, Tricolor (32, 35)
Found throughout the tropics, probably native in Asia. Culti-
vated by Gerarde in 1596. “The chiefest beauty of this plant
consisteth in the leaves and not in the flowers; for they are small
tufts growing all along the stalk, . . . every leaf is to be seen
parted into green, red, and yellow, very orient and fresh . . .”
(31).
Amaranthus, Great Flower Amaranthus caudatus L.
Gentle, Love-Lies-Bleeding (32, 35)
Native in the tropics. Cultivated by James Sutherland in
1683. . . the flowers stand at the toppes of the stalke and
branches more spread at the bottome into sundry parts, the
middle being longest, and usually when it is in the perfection
hanging down like a tassell ... of a more excellent scarlet
red colour . . .” (33).
Anemone, Windflower (32), Anemone coronaria L.
Emanies (35) Anemone hortensis L.
Native of southern Europe and the Mediterranean region.
Cultivated in England in 1596, according to Gerarde, for their
showy flowers.
Armeria, Sweet John, Dianthus barbatus L.
Sweet William (32, 35)
Native in Europe and Asia, south to the Pyrennees. Culti-
vated by Gerarde in 1596. . . the common Sweet William
. . . has long been cultivated in the Gardens for Ornament, of
which there are now great Varieties which differ in the Form
and Colour of their Flowers, as also in the Size and Shape of
their Leaves; those which have narrow Leaves were formerly
titled Sweet Johns by the Gardeners, and those with broad
Leaves were called Sweet Williams . . .” (30).
Colonial Gardens I 175
I
Asphodell (21, 32) Asphodelus albus Miller
Asphodeline luteus L.
Both are native of the Mediterranean region and were known
to Parkinson in 1640 (33).
Aster, Starwort (32) Aster tradescantii L.
Aster amellus L.
Aster tradescantii L. is a North American plant cultivated by
the younger Tradescant as early as 1656. Aster amellus L. is
native in southern Europe and Asia. Cultivated by Gerarde in
1596.
Balsam (32, 35) Impatiens balsamina L.
Native in Southeast Asia. Parkinson grew it by 1629 from
seeds sent from Italy, and Gerarde had it in 1596. “. . . the
Japanese use the juice prepared with alum, for dying their nails
red . . .” (31). There is also a European species with small
flowers which was early confused with our native Impatiens
capensis Meurburgh.
Bachelor’s Button (26). Gomphrena globosa L.
Centaurea cyanus L.
According to P. Miller this name was applied to Gomphrena
globosa. “. . . by the Inhabitants of America ...” (30).
Centaurea cyanus “. . . is called Bachelor’s Buttons in York-
shire & Derbyshire, but this name is given to many other
flowers . . (30) as, for example, double flowered forms of
Achillea ptarmica L.
Beare’s Ears (32) — See Primrose
Bellflower (21, 32, 35) the Great Campanula pyramidalis L.
Steeple, or Chimney Bellflower.
Native of Southern Europe. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596.
“. . . This plant is cultivated to adorn Halls and to place be-
fore the Chimnies in the Summer . . .” (30).
Peach-leaved Bellflower Campanula persicifolia L.
Native of Eurasia. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. “. . .
of this there are the following varieties, viz. the single blue, and
white Flower, which have been long here; the double Flower of
both Colours, which have not been more than twenty Years in
England, but have been propagated in such Plenty, as to have
almost banished those with single Flowers from the Gardens.
. . .” (30).
Great Bellflower, Great or Campanula trachelium L.
Nettle-leaved Throatwort, Canterbury Bells.
Native in Europe. “. . . The Varieties of this are, the deep
and pale blue; the white with single Flowers, and the same
Colours with double Flowers . . . those with single Flowers do
not merit a Place in Gardens . . .” (30).
176 | ARNOLDIA
Creeping Campanula Campanula rapunculoides L.
Native in Europe and Asia Minor. Resembling C. trachelium.
Cultivated in 1683 by James Southerland. . . Sometimes
grown in Gardens, where it speedily becomes a weed” (7).
Blew Bindweed, Convolvulus (32, 35) Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth
Native of the Old World Tropics, but now widely distributed.
There are many forms in cultivation — such as cv. ‘Scarlet
O’Hara’. “. . . It . . . was cultivated before 1596 by Gerarde,
but perished before it ripened its seeds . . . This species is
now rarely met with in our gardens . . .” (31).
Bloodroot (22) Sanguinaria canadensis L.
Native in eastern North America. . . Cultivated in Eng-
land in 1680 by Mr. William Walker ... in St. James Street
not far from St. James Palace . . .” (31). “This strange Cel-
andine hath a fleshie roote, full of a yellow juyce, smelling
strong like the ordinary, from whence rise onely three large
blewish greene leaves, cut in after the manner of Vine leaves,
without any foote stalke under them, or with very short ones,
from among which rise a short reddish foote stalke, with a
white flower on the toppe of it like unto the flower of Sow-
bread. . . (33).
Calendula (22, 32, 35, 40) Calendula officinalis L.
Pot Marigold. . . Native of France, in the vineyards of
Italy, in the corn fields of Silesia, in orchards, gardens, and
fields; flowering most part of the summer. Parkinson informs us
that he received the seed of the single Marigold from Spain,
where it grows wild, ‘by Guillaum Boel, in his time a very
curious and cunning searcher of simples.’ It was however
cultivated by Gerarde in 1597, and probably much earlier. . . .
It has . . . been cultivated time out of mind in kitchen gardens
for the flowers, which were dried in order to be boiled in broth:
from a fancy that they are comforters of the heart and spirits.
. . . According to the observation of Linnaeus, the flowers are
open from nine in the morning to three in the afternoon. This
regular expansion and closing of the flowers attracted early
notice, and hence this plant acquired the name of Solsequia
and Solis sponsa. There is an allusion to this property in . . .
Shakespeare —
‘The Marigold, that goes to bed wi’ th’ sun
And with him rises weeping,’
. . . Golds or Gouldes is a name among the country people not
only for this, but for Chrysanthemum segatum , any sort of
Hawkweed, and in short for most yellow flowers of the syngene-
sia class. . . . The varieties are supposed to have been origin-
ally obtained from the seeds of the single sort, but most of
these differences continue, if the seeds are properly saved; but
the two childing [bearing additional small heads around the
base of the main head] Marigolds, and the largest double, are
subject to degenerate, where care is not taken in saving their
No. 1—5 Amaranthus cvs. No. 6, 7 Heliochrysum spp. No. 9 Anter
naria. From Paradisi in Sole by John Parkinson. London, 1629.
178 | ARNOLDIA
seeds. The best way to preserve the varieties, is to pull up all
those plants, whose flowers are less double, as soon as they
appear, and to save the seeds from the largest and most double
flowers; the childing sort should be sown by itself in a separate
part of the garden, and the seeds saved from the large centre
flowers only, . . (31).
Campanula — see Bellflower
Canterbury Bells (32, 35)
In the time of Parkinson (the 1600’s) this referred to
Campanula trachelium L. (see Bellflower). C. medium L.
which we know as Canterbury Bells was at this time called
Coventry Bells. “Doubles” at this time almost surely referred to
the double-flowered forms of C. trachelium, since double-flow-
ered forms of C. medium were not common even in 1800.
Candytuft, Purple Candytuft (21, 35) Iberis umbellata L.
Native of southern Europe. This seems to have been the
commonly cultivated Candytuft of this period. It was grown
by Gerarde in 1596, and was given nearly a page in Parkinson’s
Paradisus . . . (32).
Cardinal Flower (21, 32) Lobelia cardinalis L.
Parkinson grew it in 1629. . . grows naturally by the Side
of Rivers and Ditches in great Part of North America, but has
been many Years cultivated in the European Gardens for the
great Beauty of its scarlet Flowers . . (29).
Centaury (21, 32, 35) Centaurea centaurium L.
Native in Spain and Italy. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596.
. . stands in the List of medicinal Plants of the College, but
is very rarely used; the Root is reckoned to be binding, and
good for all Kinds of Fluxes, and of great use to heal Wounds.
. . .” (30).
Centaurea — See Centaury or Cornflower
Celandine Poppy, Common or Chelidonium majus L.
Great Celandine (22)
Native in Europe and northern Asia. . . flowering from
may to july, during which time it is in the greatest perfection
for use. . . . The juice of every part of this plant is very acri-
monius. It cures tetters [Herpes] and ringworms. Diluted
with milk it consumes white opaque spots on the eyes. It de-
stroys warts, and cures the itch. There is no doubt but
a medicine of such activity will one day be converted to more
important purposes . . .” (31).
Chequered Lily (32, 35) Fritillaria meleagris L.
Native in most of Europe. . . Gerarde calls it Turkey-hen
or Guinea-hen flower, and Checkered Daffodill. The curious and
painful herborist of Paris, John Robin, sent him many plants for
his garden where they prospered (as he informs us) as in their
Colonial Gardens I 179
own native country. . . . Some call it, says Parkinson, Nar-
cissus Caparonius from the first finder Noel Caparon, an Apothe-
cary then dwelling at Orleans, but shortly after murdered in
the massacre of France . . . The country people about Bislip
call the flowers Snake-heads. . . (31).
Chinese Lantern — See Alkekertgi
Clove-Gilliflower Dianthus caryophyllus L.
(21, 26, 32, 34, 35, 40)
Native from southern Europe to India. . . grow like unto
the Carnations, but not so thick set with joynts and leaves: . . .
the flowers are smaller, yet very thick and double in most
. . (32). Parkinson described 29 varieties.
Colchicum, Meadow Saffron Colchicum autumnale L.
(21, 32, 33).
Native in Central and Southeastern Europe. “. . . Mr, Miller
observed it in England in great plenty, in the meadow's near
Castle-Bromwich in Warwickshire, the beginning of September;
and says that the country people call the flowers Naked Ladies,
because they come up without any leaves (They give the same
name to Hepatica, and indifferently to any plant, which has
flowers on naked scapes, appearing at a different time from the
leaves.) . . (31). Parkinson described a double flowered
variety (32).
Columbine (21, 32) Aquilegia vulgaris L.
Temperate Europe and Asia. “There are many sorts of Colum-
bine as well differing in forme as colour of the flowers, and of
them both single and double carefully nursed up in our Gar-
dens, for the delight both of' their forme and colours. . .
(32).
. . The root, the herb, the flowers, the seeds have been
recommended to be used medicinally, on good authority; but
this plant is of a suspicious tribe, and Linnaeus affirms as of
his own knowledge, that children have lost their lives by an over
dose of it. The virtues ascribed to a tincture of the flowers, as
an anti-phlogistic, and for strengthening the gums, and deterg-
ing [cleansing] scorbutic ulcers in the mouth, appear to be
better founded; the tincture being made with an addition of the
vitriolic acid [sulphuric acid], and differing little from our
official tincture of roses . . (31).
Cornflower, Blew Bottle, Centaurea cyanus L.
Com Centaury (21, 32, 35)
Native in most of Europe. “. . . It is a common weed among
corn [grain], flowering from June to august, the wild flower is
usually blue, but sometimes white or purple. . . . Dr. Stokes
informs us, that it is called Bachelor’s-buttons in Yorkshire and
Derbyshire: but this is a name given to many other flowers. In
Scotland it is called Blue Bonnetts. . . , The expressed juice
of the neutral florets makes a good ink; it also stains linen of a
beautiful blue, but the colour is not permanent in any mode
180 | ARNOLDIA
hitherto used. Mr. Boyle says that the juice of the central florets,
with the addition of a very small quantity of alum, makes a last-
ing transparent blue, not inferior to ultramarine. . . .” (31).
Crocus (21, 32, 35, 40) Crocus vernus (L.) All.
(C. purpureus Weston)
Native of the mountains of southern and central Europe.
Parkinson listed some 29 garden varieties (32).
Crown Imperial (21, 32, 35) Fritillaria imperialis L.
Native from Iran to the Himalayas. “. . . This grows natur-
ally in Persia, from whence it was first brought to Constantin-
ople, and about the Year 1570, was introduced to these Parts of
Europe, . . .” (30). “. . . Gerarde had great plenty of it in
his garden in 1596, he calls it a rare and strange plant. Parkin-
son (in 1629) had not observed any variety in the colour of
the flowers. Lobel, however, enumerated many varieties. . .
(31). It is worth noting that by the time of Miller (1759) at
least twelve garden forms had been recognized.
Daffodill (21, 26, 35), Daffadown Dillies, Narcissus sp.
Trumpets, Poets, Doubles, Multiples
Common Jonquil Narcissus jonquilla L.
Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. Native in southern Europe
and Algeria.
Curtis Primrose Peerless Narcissus X bifiorus Curtis
Narcissus, Pale Daffodil
Probably a hybrid between N. poeticus and N. tazetta.
Poetic, Poets, or White Narcissus, Narcissus poeticus L.
Pheasant’s Eye
Native of southern Europe. Cultivated in England by 1570
according to L’Obel.
Polyanthus Narcissus Narcissus tazetta L.
Gerarde grew it in 1596. Native from the Canary Islands to
Japan. “. . . Clusius observed it at the end of january 1565 in
Spain and Portugal and at the begining of february at Gibraltar
. . .” (31).
Rush-Leaved Daffodil, Narcissus triandrus L.
Angels-Tears
“. . . Clusius says that a French herbarist, namer Nicolas le
Quelt or Quilt, who searched the Pyrenees and Spain every year,
introduced it in 1599 . . .” (31).
Sweet-scented Narcissus, Narcissus odorus L.
Campernelle Jonquil (N. Calathinus L.)
Native in France and Spain. “. . . Clusius first observed
them in flower in april 1595, in the garden of Theodoric Clutius
or Cluyts, prefect of the Academic Garden at Leyden . . .” (31 ).
Colonial Gardens I 181
Wild or Common Daffodil Narcissus pseudonarcissus L.
Native in western Europe from Belgium to Portugal, natural-
ized in Scandinavia and central Europe. Parkinson (32) listed
many varieties, several of them double. This is the common
wild English Daffodil.
Daisy, Great Daisy Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L.
(21, 26, 34), Common Oxe-Eye
Native throughout Europe. A common weed of fields. A
double flowered form was known to Parkinson.
Perennial or Common Daisy Beilis perennis L.
Native over much of Europe. “. . . the common Daisy,
. . . grows naturally in Pasture Land in most Parts of Europe,
and is often a troublesome Weed in the Grass of Gardens, so is
never cultivated. . . . The Garden Daisy is generally supposed
to be only a Variety of the wild Sort, which was first obtained
by Culture. This may probably be true, but there has not been
any Instance of late Years of the wild Sort, having been altered
by Culture; for I have kept this wild Sort in the Garden upward
of thirty Years, and have constantly parted the Roots, and
raised many Plants from Seeds, but they have constantly re-
mained the same; nor have I ever observed the Garden Daisy to
degenerate to the wild Sort, where they have been some Years
neglected, though they have altered greatly with regard to the
Size and Beauty of their Flowers. . . .” (30).
Datura — See Thornapple
Daylily (40), Hemerocallis lilio-asphodelus L.
Yellow Asphodel Lily, emend. Hylander (H. flava L.)
Liriconfancie, Yellow Day Lily
Red Asphodel Lily, Hemerocallis fulva L.
Orange Day Lily
Hemerocallis lilio-asphodelus L. is a native of Eastern Asia,
H. fulva is known only in cultivation. “. . . These Lilies, says
Gerarde, do grow in my garden, and in the gardens of herbarists
and lovers of fine and rare plants . . .” (12). Parkinson and
Miller both note that while H. fulva sets no seed, and the flowers
last for but a single day, H. lilio-asphodelus does set seed and the
individual flowers last for more than one day. Miller further
notes of the seeds of H. lilio-asphodelus that “. . . if sown in
Autumn, the Plants will come up the following Spring, and
these will flower in two Years; but if the Seeds are not sown till
Spring, the plants will not come up till the year after. . . .”
(30). We now know that H. fulva is a triploid, and hence sterile,
and that it is not known in a wild condition — though allied
diploids are found in China.
Dead Nettle (32), Lamium purpureum L.
Red or Purple Dead Nettle or Archangell.
182 | ARNOLDIA
White Archangell Lamium album L.
Native in Europe. In the time of Parkinson (1640) esteemed
for medicinal uses.
Delphinium — See Lark’s Spur
Dittany — See Fraxinella
Dianthus — See Clove-Gilliflower
Digitalis, Foxglove (21, 32) Digitalis purpurea L.
Native in western Europe. Yields a powerful drug, poisonous
in large doses. At this period used as a diuretic.
Dogtooth Violet (21, 32, 35) Erythronium dens-canis L.
Native in central Europe. . . The sorts of Dens Caninus
do grow in divers places; some in Italy on the Euganean Hills,
others on the Apenine, and some about Gratz, the chiefe City
of Stiris, and also about Bayonne, and in other places. We
have had from Virginia a root sent unto us, that we might well
judge, by the forme and colour thereof being dry, to be . . .
the root of this, . . . which the naturall people hold not onely
to be singular to procure lust, but hold it as a secret, loth to
reveale it. . . (32).
Elecampane (22, 26) Inula helenium L.
Probably native in Central Asia, but now widely naturalized
in western Asia, Europe, North America and Japan. . . The
root is esteemed a good pectoral, and a conserve of it is recom-
mended in disorders of the breast and lungs, as good to promote
expectoration. An infusion of it fresh, sweetened with honey,
is said to be an excellent medicine in the hooping cough. A
decoction of it, applied outwardly, is said to cure the itch.
Bruised and macerated in urine, with balls of ashes and whortle-
berries [Vaccinium spp.], it dyes a blue colour. . . .” (31).
Emanies — See Anemone
English Daisy (32, 35) — See Daisy
Epimedium, Barrenwort (32) Epimedium alpinum L.
Native in southern Europe. . . This rare and strange
plant (says Gerarde) was sent me from the French King’s
herbarist, Robinius, dwelling in Paris, at the sign of the black
head, in the street called Du bout du Monde. I planted it in my
garden, but it was dried away with the extreme heat of the sun,
which happened in the year 1590, since which time it bringeth
seed to perfection. . . .” (31).
. . The Roots if planted in a good Border, should be every
Year reduced, so as to keep them within Bounds, otherwise it
will spread its Roots and interfere with the neighboring
Plants . . .” (30).
Colonial Gardens ] 183
Feverfew (32, 35), Chrysanthemum parthenium (L. )
Fether-Few (26, 34) Bernh.
Native in Europe. . . It grows naturally in Lanes, and
upon the Side of Banks, in many Parts of England, but is
frequently cultivated in the Physic Gardens to supply the
Markets, . . . the whole Plant has a strong unpleasant Odour.
The Leaves and Flowers of this are used in Medicine, and are
particularly appropriated to the female Sex, being of great
Service in all cold flatulent Disorders of the Womb, and hyster-
ick Affections, procuring the Catamenia, and expelling the Birth
and Secundines. . . (30).
Four-o-clocks — - See Marvel-of-Peru
Foxglove — See Digitalis
Fraxinella, Dittany (21, 32, 35) Dictamnus albus L.
Native from southern Europe to northern China. . . There
are three Varieties of this Plant, one with a pale red Flower
striped with purple, another with a white Flower, and one with
shorter Spikes of Flowers; but as I have observed them to vary
when propagated by Seeds, so I esteem them only seminal
Varieties. . . . This is a very ornamental Plant for Gardens,
and as it requires very little Culture, so deserves a Place in all
good Gardens . . .” (30).
. . It is held to be profitable against the stingings of Ser-
pentes, against contagious and pestilent diseases, and to bring
down the feminine courses, for the pains of the belly, and the
stone, and in Epilepticall diseases, and other cold pains of the
brains; the root is the most effectual for all these, yet the seed
is sometimes used. . . (32).
Fritillaria — See Chequered Lily and Crown Imperial
Geranium, Cranesbill (32) Geranium sanguinium L.
Native from southern Scandinavia to Portugal and Greece.
. . Petals obcordate, very large, pale red, with deeper veins,
hairy at the base. The whole plant frequently turns red or
purple after flowering. . . . Flowering most parts of the Sum-
mer, and often introduced into gardens as an ornamental plant.
. . .” (31).
Long-Rooted Cranesbill Geranium macrorrhizum L.
Native from south-eastern France to Italy, Austria and the
Balkans. “. . . The whole plant, when rubbed, emits an agree-
able odour. . . . Cultivated in the Botanic Garden at Oxford
in 1658 . . .”(31).
Tuberous-rooted Cranesbill Geranium tuberosum L.
Native in southern Europe “. . . the root is tuberous and
round like unto the root of the Cyclamen or ordinary sowerbread
184 | ARNOLDIA
almost, but smaller, and of a dark russet colour on the outside,
and white within, which doth encrease underground, by cer-
tain strings running from the mother root into small round
bulbes, like unto the roots of the earth chestnut . . (32).
Herb Robert Geranium robertianum L.
Native throughout Europe and temperate Asia. Naturalized
in the United States. “. . . the whole is beset with pellucid
hairs. ... It has a disagreeable rank smell when bruised . . .
A decoction of Herb Robert has been known to give relief in
calculous cases. It is considerably astringent, and is given to
cattle when they make bloody water or have the bloody flux.
. . .” (31).
Germander (16, 17) Teucrium chamaedrys L.
Native in southern and central Europe, the Near East, and
Morocco. “. . . The Chamaedrys or Germander has been es-
teemed chiefly as a mild aperient and corroborant: and was
recommended in uterine obstructions, intermitting fevers, rheu-
matism and gout. Of the last mentioned complaint the Emperor
Charles the Fifth is said to have been cured, by a vinous decoc-
tion of it, with some other herbs, taken for sixty successive
days. . . .” (31 ).
Gladiolus, Corn Flag (21, 32, 35) Gladiolus sp.
There are at least two “hardy” gladioli which have been culti-
vated since before the time of Gerarde (1596). They are native
in southern and eastern Europe. They are probably not hardy
in the United States north of Virginia.
French Corne Flagge Gladiolus communis L.
In this the pedicels of the tubular flowers twist so that the
florets form a single line of flowers one above the other.
Italian Corne Flagge Gladiolus communis L.
This plant is similar, but the flowers flair open and are
arranged in two ranks, one on each side of the rhachis.
Corne Flagge of Gladiolus byzantinus Miller
Constantinople
The flower has larger florets than the other two; brought into
cultivation by 1629.
Globe Amaranth (32) Gomphrena globosa L.
Native in tropical Asia. “. . . It was cultivated in 1714 by
the Dutchess of Beaufort; but was not common in the English
gardens till 1725. It was raised first in Holland about 1670.
“. . . The flowering heads are beautiful, and if gathered before
they are too far advanced, will retain their beauty several
years . . .”(31).
Grape Hyacinth, Faire Haird Muscari comosus (L.) Miller
Iacinth (Gerarde), Great Purple Faire Haired
Iacinth (Parkinson)
Colonial Gardens I 185
Native of western Europe and North Africa. . . The
flower stalk rises about a foot (or eighteen inches) in height,
round, upright, smooth, glaucous green. The lower half is naked,
but the upper part has a loose raceme of flowers, frequently for
a foot in length. The lower flowers are farther asunder, before
they flower they are upright, but whilst they flower, and after-
wards, they stand out horizontally, on pedicels half an inch in
length; their colour is a yellowish green, with blue or purple at
the end, these are fertile. The upper ones are smaller, barren,
stand upright, form a corymb, and are blue or violet, as are also
their long pedicels. . . . Gerarde, who cultivated it in 1596,
calls it Faire haired Iacint; Parkinson, Great purple Faire
haired Iacinth; . . . It is distinguished more by its singularity
than its beauty, . . .” (31).
Great Grape-flower Muscari botryoides (L.) Miller
(Gerarde), Side-Coloured Grape Flower (Parkinson)
Native in southern Europe. . . where it is once planted
in a garden, it is not easily rooted out. . . . There are three
varieties of this, one with blue, another with white, and a third
with ash-coloured flowers . . . Parkinson enumerates three
varieties the white, the blush-coloured and the branched: the
first is frequently imported with other bulbs from Holland; the
last seems to be a curious variety and was obtained, according to
Clusius, from the white . . .” (31).
— — Blew Grape Flower Muscari racemosum (L. ) Miller
Native of the south of Europe, in com fields. “. . . It was
cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. He calls it Blew Grape-flower;
and Parkinson, darke blew Grape-flower. . . . This is much
more common in our gardens than the botryoides, and flowers in
april and may. . . (31).
Ground Ivy, Ale-Hoof (22) Nepeta hederacea (L. ) Trev.
( Glechoma hederacea ) (4)
Native from western Europe to Japan. Extensively natural-
ized in the eastern United States. “. . . It gradually expels
plants which grow near it, and thus impoverishes pastures.
The leaves were formerly thrown into the vat with ale to clarify
it, and to give it a flavour. ...” (31). “. . . Ground Ivie
brused and put into the eares, taketh away the humming and
noise of ringing sounds of the same, and is good for such as are
harde of hearing. . . .” (27).
Hellebore, Black Helleborus or Helleborus niger L.
Christmas Rose (1, 32, 35)
Called “the black flower at Christmas” by William Hughes in
The Flower Garden and Compleat Vineyard (1683). Native in
central and southern Europe. . . Most, if not all the Helle-
bores produce very powerful effects when used medicinally.
. . . Although many writers consider this root as a perfectly in-
nocent and safe medicine, yet we find several examples of its
poisonous effects; it should, therefore be used with proper cau-
186 | ARNOLDIA
tion. It seems to have been principally from its purgative
qualities that the ancients esteemed this root such a powerful
remedy in maniacal disorders . . (31).
Hepatica, Liverwort (21, 32, 35) Hepatica nobilis Miller
Native in temperate Europe. “. . . These Plants are some of
the greatest Beauties of the Spring; their Flowers are produced
in February and March in great Plenty, before the green Leaves
appear, and make a very beautiful Figure in the Borders of the
Pleasure Garden, especially the double sorts, ...” (30).
“. . . The double kinde likewise hath been sent from Alphonsus
Pantius out of Italy, as Clusius reporteth, and was also found
in the Woods, near the Castle of Starnberg in Austria, the
Lady Heusenstain’s possession, as the same Clusius reporteth
also . . .” (32).
Herb Robert — See Geranium
Hollyhock, Garden or Althaea rosea (L. ) Cavanilles
French Mallow. (21, 22, 26, 32)
Native in China. “. . . The great tame Mallow which
beareth the beyondsea or winter rose, hath great round rough
leaves . . . The stalke is rounde, and groweth sixe or seven
foote high or more: it beareth fayre great flowers of divers
coloures, in figuere lyke to the common Mallowe or Hocke: but a
great deale bigger, sometimes single, sometimes double . . .”
(27). “. . . The colours of their flowers being accidental, and
the double flowers being only varieties which have risen from
culture, I have not enumerated them here, but shall only men-
tion the various colours which are commonly observed: these are
white, pale, red, deep-red, blackish-red, purple, yellow and
flesh colour. Besides these, I many years ago saw some plants
with variegated flowers, in the garden of the late Lord Burling-
ton in London, raised from seeds which came from China. . . .”
(31).
Hyacinth, Jacinth, Blue- Endymion ncmscriptus (L.) Garcke
bell (21, 26, 35) ( Scilla nonscripta (L.)
Common Hyacinth, Harebell Hoffmansegg and Link)
Native in western Europe. “. . . It adorns our woods, cop-
pices, and hedge-rows, with its flowers in the spring months
. . .”(31).
Garden Hyacinth Hyacinthus orientalis L.
Native from Greece to Syria and Asia Minor. “. . . It is very
abundant about Aleppo and Bagdat, where it flowers in Febru-
ary. Lepechin found it not only with purple, but with yellow
flowers in Russia. With us it flowers in March and April; and
was cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. Probably earlier, since
neither he nor Parkinson speak of the Hyacinth as a flower then
new in cultivation . . .” (31). “. . . the roots of Hyacinthe
boyled in wine and dronken, stoppeth the belly, provoketh
urine, and helpeth much agaynst the venomous bitings of the
field Spidder ...” (27).
Colonial Gardens | 187
Iris (21, 34, 35, 40) Iris sp.
Flag, “Blue and Varied” (35, 40) Iris pumila L.
Native from Central Europe to Asia Minor. Cultivated by
Gerarde 1596. . . There are many varieties of this sort, with
white, straw-coloured, pale blue, blush-coloured, yellow-variable,
blue-variable, and other colours in the flowers, which are now
in great measure neglected . . (31).
Florentine Iris, Iris germanica L., var.
White Flower de Luce florentina (Ker. ) Dykes
Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. . . It resembles I. ger-
manica very much, but differs in having the petals white and
entire . . (31).
Flower de Luce Iris germanica L.
“This Flower de luce ... is most common in gardens . .
(32).
Great Turkie Flower de Luce, Iris susiana L.
Chalcedonian Iris, Mourning Iris
Probably native in Lebanon. . . It takes the name from
Susa in Persia. Clusius informs us that this magnificent Iris
was brought from Constantinople to Vienna and Holland in
1573. In 1596 it was cultivated by our Gerarde . . (31)
Hungarian Iris Iris sibirica L.
The small variable Hungarian Iris of Clusius (32).
Persian Iris Iris persica L.
Native in Asia Minor. . . Cultivated here in the time of
Parkinson (1629), who remarks that it was then very rare, and
seldome bore flowers . . . Like the Hyacinth and Narcissus it
will blow within doors in a water-glass, but stronger in a small
pot, of sand or sandy loam, and a few flowers will scent a whole
apartment . . .” (31).
Yellow Flagg, Skeggs, Lugs Iris pseudacorus L.
Native in Europe, North Africa and Syria, “the root of this
water Flagge is very astringent, cooling and drying thereby
helping all Laskes and Fluxes, whether of Blood or Humors
. . (33).
Yellow Flower de Luce Iris variegata L.
Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. Considered to be one of the
parents of the I. germanica group. “. . . This yellow variable
Flower de luce loseth his leaves in winter, contrary to all the
former Flower de luces . . .” (32).
Lark’s Spur, Lark’s heel, Delphinium consolida L.
Delphinium (21, 32, 35), Lark’s Claw, Lark’s Toes,
Wild or Corn Lark’s Spur.
Native in Europe and western Asia. “. . . The expressed
juice of the petals, with the addition of a little alum, makes a
good blue ink . . .” (31).
188 | ARNOLDIA
Upright or Garden Lark’s Spur Delphinium ajacis L.
Native in Mediterranean region. . . The seed of the gar-
den Larckes Spurre drunken is very good agaynst the stinging
of Scorpions, and in deede his vertue is so great against their
poyson, that the only herbe throwen before the Scorpions, doth
cause them to be without force or power to do hurte, so that
they may not move or sturre, until this herbe be taken from
them . . (27).
Leucojum, Autumnal Snow-drop Leucojum autumnale L.
Native in the Mediterranean region.
Summer Snow-drop, Great Late- Leucojum aestivum L.
flowering Bulbous Violet.
Native in Central and Southern Europe.
Lily (26) Lilium sp.
Common White Lily (32) Lilium candidum L.
Native from southern Europe to Southwest Asia. “. . . The
water of the flowers distilled ... is used ... of divers
women outwardly, for their faces, to cleanse the skin, and make
it white and fresh . . .” (32).
— — Martagon Imperiale (21, 32, 35)
Native from southern Europe to Japan.
Gerarde as Martagon Imperiale.
Lilium martagon L.
Cultivated in 1596 by
j
Spotted Martagon of Canada (32) Lilium canadense L.
Native from Quebec to Virginia. “. . . This, says Parkinson,
was brought into France from Canada by the French colony
[sic], and thence unto us, in 1629 ... It is found in other
parts of North America; for Catesby says it was sent to Mr.
Collinson from Pennsylvania and flowered several years in his
garden . . (31).
Lily-of-the-valley Convallaria majalis L.
Native through Europe and Asia. . . Camerarius setteth
downe the manner of making an oyle of the flowers hereof,
which he saith is very effectual to ease the paine of the Gout,
and such like diseases, to be used outwardly, which is this;
Having filled a glasse with the flowers and being well stopped,
set it for a moneths space in an Ants hill, and after being
drayned clear, set it by to use . . .” (32).
Linaria — See Toad-flax
Lungwort (32), Cowslips of Pulmonaria officinalis L.
Jerusalem
Native from Central and Northern Europe to the Caucasus.
. . It is much commended of some, to be singular good for
ulcered lungs, that are full of rotten matter . . (32).
No. 1—5 Dianthus spp. No. 6-8 Beilis perennis cvs. No. 9,
Globularia spp. From Paradisi in Sole by John Parkinson. London, 162
190 | ARNOLDIA
Lupine (21, 32, 35) Lupinus perennis L.
Native from Maine to Florida. . . It is native of Virginia
and other parts of North America; and was cultivated in the
botanic garden at Oxford in 1658 . . (31).
White Lupine Lupinus albus L.
Native in the Levant, “doth scoure and cleanse the skin from
spots, morphew, blew marks, and other discolourings thereof,
being used either in a decoction or ponther . . .” (32).
Great Blue Lupine Lupinus hirsutus L.
Cultivated by Parkinson in 1629. Native in southern Europe.
“. . . The pods are large, almost an inch broad, and three
inches long . . (31).
Mallow, French — See Hollyhock
Marigold (32, 35) Marygold, Tagetes patula L.
French Marygold, Flos Africanus, Flos
Africanus Multiplex (21, 35)
Native in Mexico. “Dodoneus . . . affirms that it
grows spontaneously in Africa, and was first brought into
Europe by the Emperor Charles V after his expedition against
Tunis. But that was in the year 1535; and Fuchsius in 1542,
figures the plant under the name of Tagetes indica: it has never
been found in Africa. Hernandez mentions it in his history of
Mexico; and the variety figured by Dillenius, which flowered in
the Eltham garden in 1727, was produced from Mexican seeds
... it was common with us in Gerarde’s time . . . 1597
. . .” (31).
Aztec Marigold, African Marigold Tagetes erecta L.
Native in Mexico. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. “. . .
Parkinson remarks that the flower is of the very smell of new
wax, or of an honie combe, and not of that poisonfull sent of the
smaller kindes . . .” (31).
Marvel-of-Peru (21, 26, 32, 35) Mirabilis jalapa L.
Native in tropical America. “. . . These . . . are very
ornamental plants in the flower garden during the months of
july, august, and September, . . . the flowers do not open till
towards the evening whilst the weather continues warm, but
in the moderate cool weather, when the sun is obscured, they
continue open almost the whole day ... It was cultivated
here by Gerarde many years, as he says, before the publication
of his Herbal in 1597 . . .”(31).
Meadow Rue, Feathered Columbine Thalictrum flavum L.
(1, 32), Common Meadow Rue
Native in Europe and temperate Asia. “. . . A cataplasm
made of the bruised leaves is a slight blister, and has been known
to give relief in the Sciatica. The root dyes wool yellow; . . .”
(31). The name “Feathered Columbine” is used now for the
Colonial Gardens I 191
Thalictrum aquilegifolium L.s another European species. How-
ever it seems that this did not come into cultivation in England,
at least, before 1731.
Monarda, Blue (40), Monarda fistulosa L.
Purple Monarda, Wild Bergamot
Native from Quebec and Ontario to Florida and Texas.
. . Cultivated in 1656 by Mr. John Tradescant, jun. . .
(31).
Morning Glory — See Blew Bindweed
Mullein, Verbascum (21, 32, 35), Verbascum thapsus L.
Great Mullein or Aaron’s Rod
Native in most of Europe and western Asia, widely natural-
ized on dry soils, gravel banks, or pastures and the like in
eastern North America. It was a common plant in fields around
Boston by 1824. . . The leaves and whole herb are muci-
laginous, and recommended as emollients both internally and
externally. A pint of Cow’s Milk with a handful of leaves,
boiled in it to half a pint, sweetened with sugar, strained and
taken at bed-time, is a pleasant emollient and nutritious medi-
cine for allaying a cough, and more particularly for taking off
the pain and irritation of the piles . . (31 ).
——Moth Mullein Verbascum blatiaria L.
Native in temperate Europe eastward to western and central
Asia, also in North Africa.
Nasturtium, Indian Cress, Great Indian Tropaeolum majus L.
Cress (21, 32, 35)
“. . . The flowers are frequently eaten in salads; they have
a warm taste like the garden cress, and hence the plant has its
common name of Nasturtium; they are likewise used for garnish-
ing dishes. The seeds are pickled, and by some are preferred to
most pickles for sauces under the false name of capers . .
(31).
Nigella, Fennel Flower (21, 32, 35) Nigella damascena L.
Native in southern Europe. “. . . It was cultivated here in
1570, as appears from Lobel . . " (31 ).
Nonesuch — See Rose Campion
Pansy, Heart’s Ease (3, 26, 32) Viola tricolor L.
Native in northern and central Europe. . . Linnaeus re-
marks the black line which sometimes appear on the petals;
and gave occasion to Milton’s expression of ‘Pansies streackt
with jet’ ... It has ever been a favorite flower with the
people . . (31).
Pelletory, Paritary (32, 35) Parietaria officinalis L.
Native in eastern and central Europe. . . The dried herbe
Paritary made up with honey into an electuarie, or the juice of
192 | ARNOLDIA
the herb, or the decoction thereof made up with Sugar or Hony,
is a singular remedy for for any old continuall or dry cough.
. . . (33).
Peony (21, 26, 32, 34), Male Peony Paeonia mascula
Female Peony P. officinalis L. (L.) Miller
Native in southern Europe. “There are two principall kinds
of Peonie, that is to say, the Male and the Female. Of the Male
kind I have only known one sort, but of the Female a great
many; . . . The Male his leaf is whole, without any particular
division, notch or dent on the edge, . . . The Female of all
sorts hath the leaves divided or cut on the edges . . .” (32).
Poppy, French Poppy, Field Poppy Papaver rhoeas L.
(21,26,32,35)
Native in Europe, Asia, and North Africa, occasionally found
as an escape in eastern North America. “. . . There are several
Varieties of this with double Flowers cultivated in Gardens;
some of them have white Flowers, others have red Flowers
bordered with white, and some have variegated Flowers; . . .”
(30). The red double-flowered form was cultivated by Parkin-
son in 1629.
White Poppy, Black Poppy, Papaver somniferum L.
Opium Poppy
Native in Greece and sub-tropical Asia, occasionally escaped
from cultivation in eastern North America. “. . . It is not un-
known, I suppose to any, that Poppie procureth sleepe, for which
cause it is wholly and only used, as I think: . . .” (32).
Primrose, Cowslip (21, 26), Bear’s Primula vulgaris Hudson
Ears (21, 32)
Native in Europe, Asia Minor, and North Africa. Flowering
peduncle lacking or very short. “. . . I . . . call those only
Primroses that carry but one flower on a stalk, be they single
or double . . .” (32).
— — Bear’s Ears Primula auricula L.
Native in the Alps. . . From Gerarde’s herbal it appears
that the Auricula was cultivated in 1597 ... to enumerate all
the diversities of this plant would be almost endless; for every
year produces vast quantities of new flowers . . (31).
Cowslip, Paigle Primula veris L.
Native in Europe and temperate Asia. “. . . The fragrant
flowers make a pleasant wine, approaching in flavour to the
Muscadel wine of the South of France. . . (31).
Ranunculus (21, 32, 35), Ranunculus asiaticus L.
Crowfoot (32, 35)
Native in southwestern Europe and southwestern Asia.
“. . . Mr. Miller says it was originally brought from Persia; but
Colonial Gardens I 193
since it has been in Europe, many new varieties have been
obtained from seeds . . .” (31). It was cultivated by Gerarde
in 1696; Parkinson listed eight varieties in 1629.
— — Grassy Crowfoot Ranunculus gramineus L.
. . Parkinson figures it with double flowers, but describes
it with semi-double ones only . . . that with single flowers was
cultivated by Gerarde in 1596 . . (31).
Fair Maid of France, Ranunculus aconitifolius L.
Aconite-leaved Crowfoot
Native in Central Europe, from Spain to Jugoslavia. . .
The double-flowering variety has been obtained by seeds, and
is preserved in many curious gardens for the beauty of its
flowers. It is by some gardeners called Fair Maid of France
. . . Gerarde in 1597 ‘it groweth in the gardens of Herbalists,
and lovers of strange plants, whereof we have good plentie,
...’”(31).
— Bulbous Crowfoot Ranunculus bulbosus L.
Native in Europe and Western Asia, naturalized throughout
much of North America. “. . . The flowers are sometimes
double . . . Like most Crowfoots it possesses the property of
inflaming and blistering the skin; . . . According to Hoff-
mann, beggars make use of them to blister their skins with a
view to exciting compassion . . .”(31).
— — Yellow Batchelor’s Buttons Ranunculus acris L.
The garden form is of apparently obscure origin. “. . . It is
frequent in gardens with a double flower, among other her-
baceous perennials, under the name of yellow Batchelor’s But-
tons . . .” (31).
Rocket, Dames Violet (32, 35) Hesperis matrionalis L.
Native in Europe and in Western and Central Asia. “. . .
The Garden Rocket with purple flowers was formerly in greater
plenty in English gardens than at. present, having been long
neglected because the flowers were single, and made but little ap-
pearance: however, as they have a. very grateful scent, the plant
is worthy of a place in every good garden . . . Gerarde in 1597
speaks of it as being then sown in gardens for the beauty of
the flowers. And Johnson adds (1633) that by the industry of
some of our florists, within two or three years hath been brought
unto our knowledge a very beautiful kind of these Dames Violets,
having very fair double white flowers. . . (31).
Rose Campion, Maltese Cross Lychnis chalcedonica L.
(21, 32, 35) Nonesuch, Flower of Constantinople,
Flower of Bristow, Flower of Bristol.
Native in Russia. “. . . Cultivated in 1596 by Gerarde. In
his time it was common in almost every garden; but he does not
mention any of the varieties. Parkinson in 1629 and Johnson
in 1633 have the varieties; but the latter says that ‘the white
194 | ARNOLDIA
and blush single and the double one are not to be found but in
the gardens of our prime Florists’ . . (31).
Scabiosa, Sweet Scabious (35) Scabiosa atropurpurea L.
Native in Southern Europe. . . The sorts of Scabious
being many, yeeld not flowers of beauty or respect, fit to be
cherished in our garden of delight; and therefore I leave them
to the Fields and Woods, there to abide. I have only two or
three strangers to bring to your acquaintance, which are worthy
this place . . .” (32).
Sea Holly (32) Eryngium maritimum L.
Native on the coasts of Europe from the Baltic to the Black
Sea. “. . . By old English writers it is called Sea Holly, Sea
Holme, and Sea Hilver. . . .” (31).
Sensitive Plant (35) Mimosa pudica L.
Native in tropical America. “. . . Parkinson calls it Mimick,
Mocking or Thorny Sensitive Plant or shrub, and says that he
saw a living plant of it in a pot at Chelsey in Sir John Davers
garden, where divers seeds being sown about the middle of May
1638 and 1639, some of them sprang up to be near half a foot
high. . . .” (31).
Snapdragons (21, 32) Antirrhinum majus L.
Native in the Mediterranean region. “. . . There is some
diversity in the Snapdragons, some being of a larger, and
others of a lesser stature and bigness; and of the larger, some
of one, and some of another colour . . (32).
Star of Bethlehem, Ornithogalum umbellatum, L.
Ornithogallum (32, 35)
Native in the Mediterranean region. Naturalized in eastern
North America from Newfoundland to Nebraska southward to
North Carolina and Mississippi. “. . . The ordinary Star of
Bethlehem is so common, and well known in all countries and
places, that it is almost needless to describe it. . . .” (32).
Stock-Gilliflower, Wall- Matthiola incana (L.) Robert Brown
flower (21, 26. 34, 35)
Native in southern Europe, Asia Minor, and North Africa.
“. . . The Stock-Gilliflower is of very long standing in the En-
glish Gardens. Johnson [1633] gives a figure of the double stock,
which was not in Gerarde’s original work, and observes that
many and pretty varieties of it were kept in the garden of his
kind friend Master Ralph Tuggye at Westminster; we may con-
clude, therefore that double Stocks [Brompton Stocks] were not
known in Gerarde’s time (1596) . . .” (31).
Strawflowers, Everlastings (32) Helichrysum stoechas (L.)
DeCandolle
Native in southern Europe “. . . the whole Plant is very
woolly, the Flowers terminate the Stalks, in a compound Corym-
Marigold spp. From Paradisi in Sole by John Parkinson. London, 16 S
I
I
I
I
196 | ARNOLDIA
bus; ... If these are gathered before the Flowers are much
opened, the Heads will continue in Beauty many years, espe-
cially if they are kept from the Air and Dust . . .” (30).
American Everlasting,
Cudweed (31 )
Anaphalis margaritacea (L.)
Bentham
Native in North America. “. . . A decoction of the flowers
and stalks is used in America, to foment the limbs, for pains
and bruises . . .”(31).
Sunflower (21)
Helianthus annuus L.
Native in Western North America. “. . . sometimes the
heads of the Sun-flower are dressed, and eaten as Hartichokes
are, and are accounted of some to be good meat, but they are too
strong for my taste . . .” (32).
Sweet John — See Armeria
Sweet Peas, Perennial (35) Lathyrus latifolius L.
Native in southern Europe. “. . . It is a showy plant for
shrubberies, wilderness quarters, arbours, and trellis work; but
too large and rampant for the borders of the common flower
garden . . .” (31).
Sweet William — See Armeria
Thornapple (32), Jimson Weed Datura stramonium L.
Native in tropical Asia, widely naturalized in North America.
“. . . That it is a native of America . . . we have the most
undoubted proofs, . . . Kalm says that it grows about the
villages and that this and the Phytolacca are the worst there
. . .”(31).
Toad Flax, Wild Flax (35) Linaria vulgaris Miller
Europe and western Asia, naturalized in the United States.
“. . . In Worcestershire it is called Butter and Eggs. Gerarde
names it Wild Flaxe, Tode Flaxe, and Flaxweede. . . . The
juice mixed with milk, is a poison to flies . . .” (31).
Tomato (21, 32. 35) Lycopersicum esculentum Miller
Native in Peru and Ecuador “. . . In the hot countries
where they naturally grow, they are much eaten of the people,
to cool and quench the heat and thirst of their hot stomachs
. . . we only have them for curiosity in our gardens, and for
the amorous aspect or beauty of the fruit . . .” (32).
Tulips (21, 32, 35), Tulipa gesneriana L.
“Doubles and Singles” Tulipa clusiana DeCandolle
Native in Asia Minor. “. . . Conrad Gesner first made the
eastern Tulip known by a description and figuers ... he tells
us that he first saw it in the beginning of april 1559 at Augs-
bourg, in the garden of John Henry Harwart. . . . Balbinus
asserts that Busbequius brought the first Tulip roots to Prague,
whence they were spread all over Germany . . . the Tulip
Colonial Gardens I 197
was cultivated in England by Mr. James Garret, in 1577 . .
(31). “Broken” types were commonly requested. These, it will
be recalled, are the result of a virus infection.
Valerian (26, 19), Official or Valeriana officinalis L.
Great Wild Valerian
Native in temperate Europe and Asia. “. . . It is well known
that cats are much delighted with the roots. Dr. Stokes informs
us that rats are equally fond of them, and that rat-catchers em-
ploy them to draw the rats together . . .” (31).
Red Valerian Kentranthus ruber (L.) DeCandolle
Native in Central and Southern Europe, North Africa and
Asia Minor. “Gerarde says it grew plentifully in his garden,
being a great ornament to the same, and not common in En-
gland. Parkinson, that it grows in our gardens chiefly, for we
know not the natural place of it . . .” (31).
Violets (17, 18), Sweet Violets Viola odorata L.
Native in most of Europe, Asia Minor and North Africa.
“. . . The Garden Violets (for the wild I leave to their owne
place) are so well known unto all, that either keep a garden, or
have but once come into it, that I shall (I think) but lose labour
and time to describe that which is so common . . .” (32).
. . The flowers of violets, taken in the quantity of a dram or
two, act as a mild laxative . . . The syrup is very useful in
chemistry, to detect an acid or an alkali; the former changing
the blue colour to a red, and the latter to a green . . .” (31 ).
Wallflowers (26, 35), Keiri Cheiranthus cheiri L.
Probably native in the Eastern Mediterranean region. “. . .
the common Wall-flower ... is common on old walls and
buildings in many parts of England. It is one of the few flowers
which have been cultivated for their fragrancy time immemorial,
in our gardens . . .”(31).
Yarrow (39) Achillea millefolium L.
Native in Europe and Western Asia. Naturalized in North
America. Common in fields and pastures around Boston by
1824. “. . . The inhabitants of Dalekarlia mix it with their ale,
instead of hops, in order to increase the inebriating quality of the
liquor ... an ointment is made of it for the piles and it is
reckoned good against the scab in sheep . . .” (31).
Yucca (32) Yucca gloriosa L.
Native along the coast from North Carolina to Florida. “. . .
First cultivated in Europe by John Gerarde, who had it from the
West Indies, ‘by a servant of a learned and skilful Apothecare of
Excester, named Master Thomas Edwards’. Parkinson adds,
that Gerarde kept it to his death, but that it perished with him
who got it from his widow, intending to send it to his country
house. Gerarde sent it to Robin at Paris, and Vespasian the son
of old Robin sent it to Master John de Franqueville, which plant
was flourishing in Parkinson’s Garden when he published his
Paradisus in 1629 . . .” (31).
Colonial Gardens I 199
II Herbs, Aromatic , Culinary , and Medicinal , before 1700
Alkanet, Bugloss (32) Anchusa sempervirens L.
Native in southern Europe, Cultivated in Britain for many
years.
Angelica (26, 32) Angelica archangelica L.
Native in Europe and Asia. Cultivated in Britain in 1568.
Anise (22, 26) Pimpinella anisurn L.
Native from Greece to Egypt. Cultivated in Britain in 1551.
Basil (21, 32, 35) Ocimum hasilicum L.
Native in the Old World tropics. Cultivated in Britain in
1596.
Balm, Baum (32) Melissa officinalis L.
Native in the Mediterranean region. Cultivated in Britain
by 1596.
Bee-flower (32) Ophrys apifera Hudson
Native in Britain. Collected, but probably not cultivated, as
a source of Salep.
Borage (26, 32) Borago officinalis L.
Native in Europe and North Africa. Long cultivated in
Britain.
Burnett (22, 32) Sanguisorba officinalis L.
Native in Europe and Asia. Both long used in Britain.
Caraway (32) Carum carvi L.
Native in Europe. Long cultivated.
Catnip, Catmint (32) Nepeta cataria L.
Native in Europe and west and central Asia. Long cultivated.
Chamomile (26, 32) Anthemis nobilis L.
Native in western Europe, North Africa and the Azores. Long
cultivated.
Chervil (22, 32)
Native in eastern Europe,
Cultivated in Britain in 1597.
Chives, Cives, Chibbals (26)
Native in Europe and Asia.
Clary (22, 26)
Native in southern Europe.
Anthriscus cerefolium (L.)
Hoffman
and southern and central Asia.
Allium schoenoprasium L.
Cultivated in Britain in 1597.
Salvia sclarea L.
Cultivated in Britain in 1562.
Jo. 2 Helianthus annuus. No. 3 Calendula officinalis. From Paradisi in
e by John Parkinson. London, 1829.
200 | ARNOLDIA
Comfrey (22) Symphytum officinale L.
Native in Europe and Asia. Long cultivated.
Coriander (22, 26, 34) Coriandrum sativum L.
Probably native in the eastern Mediterranean region. Long
cultivated.
Castmary, Bibleleaf (32) Chrysanthemum balsamitaL.
Native in western Asia. Long cultivated.
Cress (32) Lepidium sativum L.
Native in western Asia. Long cultivated.
Dill (26, 32) Anethum graveolens L.
Native in Europe. Cultivated in Britain in 1597.
Dock (32), Patience Dock, Rhubarb Rumex patientia L.
Native in Europe, western Asia and North Africa. Cultivated
in Britain in 1597.
Fennel (26, 32) Foeniculum vulgare Miller
Native in the Mediterranean region. Long cultivated.
Flax (39) Linum usitatissimum L.
Origin unknown. Long cultivated.
Houseleek (4) Probably Sempervivum tectorum L.
Origin unknown. Naturalized all over Europe. Long culti-
vated.
Hyssop, Isop (32, 34, 35) Hyssopus officinalis L.
Native in southern Europe and western Asia. Cultivated in
Britain in 1596.
Lavender (21, 22, 26, 32, 34, 35) Lavandula officinalis Chaix
Native in the Mediterranean region. Cultivated in Britain
in 1568.
Lovage (26) Levisticum officinale K. Koch
Native in southern Europe. Cultivated in Britain in 1596.
Licorice, Liquorice (26, 32, 39) Glycyrrhiza glabra L.
Native in the Mediterranean region. Cultivated in Britain
in 1558.
Madder (39) Rubia tinctorum L.
Native in the Mediterranean region. Cultivated in Britain
in 1597.
Marjoram, Sweet (21, 32, 35, 39) Majorana hortensis Moench
Native in Europe. Long cultivated.
Mints, Garden Mints (26, 32, 38)
Native in Europe. Long cultivated.
Colonial Gardens [ 201
——Corn Mint Mentha arvensis L.
— .—Horse Mint Mentha longifolia Hudson
(M. sylvestris L.)
— — Pennyroyal (22, 26, 32, 35, 39) Mentha pulegium L.
— - — Peppermint Mentha piperata L.
——Spearmint (22, 32) Mentha spicata L.
(M. viridis L.)
Mustard (32) Brassica nigra (L.) K. Koch
Naturalized throughout south and central Europe. Long
cultivated.
Parsley (26, 32) Petroselinum crispum (Miller) Nymann
var. latifolium (Miller) Airy-Shaw
Native in southern Europe. Long cultivated.
Purslane (22, 32, 34, 39) Portulaca oleracea L.
A cosmopolitan weed of warm climate. Cultivated in Britain
in 1562.
Rhubarb (32) Rheum rhaponticum L.
Native in Siberia. Cultivated in Britain in 1629.
Rosemary (21, 22, 26, 32, 34, 35) Rosmarinus officinalis L.
Native in southern Europe. Long cultivated.
Rue (26, 32) Ruta graveolens L.
Native in southern Europe. Long cultivated.
Saffron (26, 39) Crocus sativus L.
Probably native in Asia Minor. Long cultivated.
Sage (21, 22, 26, 32, 34, 35) Salvia officinalis L.
Native in the Mediterranean region. Cultivated in Britain
in 1597.
Santolina, Lavender Cotton (22, 32)
Santolina chamaecyparissus L.
Native in the Mediterranean region. Cultivated in Britain
in 1596.
Savory, Summer (26) Satureja hortensis L.
Savory, Winter S. rnontana L.
Native of Europe. Cultivated in Britain in 1562.
Skirret (26, 32) Sium sisarum L.
Native in eastern Asia. Cultivated in Britain in 1597.
202 I ARNOLDIA
Sorrel (22, 39) Rumex acetosa L.
Native in the North Temperate Zone. Long used.
Southernwood (21, 22, 26) Artemesia abrotanum L.
Native in Europe. Cultivated in Britain in 1596.
Sweet Cicely (26) Myrrhis odorata (L.)
Scopoli
Native in Europe. Cultivated in Britain in 1597.
Tansy (22, 26, 32) Tanacetum vulgare L.
Native in Europe and Asia. Long cultivated.
Tarragon (32) Artemesia dracunculus L.
Native in Europe. Cultivated in Britain in 1596.
Thyme, Time (22, 26, 32) Thymus serpyllum L.
Native in northern Europe. Long cultivated.
Garden Thyme Thymus vulgaris L.
Native in southern Europe. Cultivated in Britain in 1596.
Tobacco (32) Nicotiana tabacum L.
N. rustica L.
Native in tropical America. Introduced to Britain by 1570.
Woad (39) Isatis tinctoria L.
Native in central and southern Europe. Cultivated since pre-
historic time.
Yarrow (39) Achillea millefolium L.
Native in Europe and western Asia. Long cultivated.
Colonial Gardens | 203
III Vegetables and Field Crops Before 1 700
Artichoke (5, 26, 32, 34) Cynaria scolymus L.
. . In some parts it is eaten raw in its wild state, by the
common people, and surely, must be a most wretched food. It
is said to dye a good yellow: and the flowers are used instead of
rennet to turn milk for cheese . . . We learn from Turner that
the Artichoke was certainly cultivated in England in 1551. We
probably had it sooner.” (31).
Artichoke, Jerusalem (32) Helianthus tuberosus L.
Cultivated in England at least by 1617. . . We in England,
from some ignorant and idle head, have called them Artichokes
of Jerusalem, only because the root, being boiled, is In taste like
the bottom of an artichoke head; the Franks brought them first
from Canada into these parts . . . [they] . . . are by reason
of their great increasing, grown to be so common here with us
at London, that even the most vulgar begin to despise them,
where as when they were first received among us, they were
dainties for a queen . . (32).
Asparagus, Sperage (22, 32, 39) Asparagus officinalis L.
. . The first shoots or heads of Asparagus are a Sallet of
much esteem with all sorts of persons, as any other whatsoever,
being boiled tender, and eaten with butter, vinegar, and pepper,
oyl and vinegar, or as every ones manner doth please; and are
almost wholly spent for the pleasure of the palate. It is
specially good to provoke urine, and for those that are troubled
with stone or gravel in the veins or kidneys, because it doth a
little open and cleanse those end parts . . (32).
Barley (22, 39) Hordeum vulgare L.
. . The ancients fed their horses with barley, as we do
with oats. It was eaten also in bread by the lower sort of people;
and the Gladiators were called Hordearei, from their feeding on
this grain . . .” (31).
Beans, French or Kidney Beans, Phaseolus vulgaris L.
(5, 22, 23, 24, 34, 39)
Cultivated in England in the time of Gerarde 1596. . .
The Garden Beans serve (as I said before) more for the use of
the poor than of the rich. I shall therefore only shew you the
order the poor take with them, . . . They are only boyled in
fair water and a little salt, and afterwards stewed with some
butter, a little vinegar and pepper being put into them, and so
eaten . . . The Kidney Beans boyled in water, husk and all,
onely the ends cut off, and the string taken away, and stewed
with butter, are esteemed more savory meat to many mens
palates, than the former, and are a dish more often times at
rich mens Tables than at the poor.” (32).
No. 1
um.
r
Lilium martagon. No. 2 Lilium canadense. No. 3 Lilium pom-
From Paradisi in Sole by John Parkinson. London, 1629.
204 | ARNOLDIA
Beans, Scarlet Phaseolus coccineus L.
Cultivated in 1633 by John Tradescent. . . The Scarlet
Beane riseth up with sundry branches twining about stakes that
are set for it to runne thereon, still turning contrary to the
Sunne, having three leaves on a foote stalke, . . . the flowers
are for fashion like unto the rest, but are many more set to-
gether, and of a most orient scarlet color: the Beanes are larger
than the ordinary kinde, and of a deepe purple turning to be
blacke when is ripe and drie; . . (33).
Beets (22, 32) Beta vulgaris L.
. . The roots of the Roman red Beet being boyled, are
eaten of divers while they are hot with a little oyle and vinegar,
and is accounted a delicate sallet for the winter; and being cold
they are so used and eaten likewise. . . .” (32).
Buckwheat (23) Fagopyrum esculentum Moench
. . it is now generally sowen in most of these Northerne
Countries, where for the use and profit is made of it many fields
are sowen there with, . . . and will not refuse to grow in an
hungry ground, but is held generally to bee as good as a dung-
ing to the ground where on it is sowen, the straw thereof also
being turned in thereto . . .” (33).
Cabbage (5, 26, 32, 39) Brassica oleracea L. var.
capitata L.
“. . . They are most usually boyled in poudered beef broth
until they be tender, and then eaten with much fat put among
them ... In the cold Countries of Russia and Muscovia, they 1
pouder up a number of Cabbages, which serve them, especially
the poorer sort, for their most Ordinary food in winter; and
although they stink most grievously, yet to them they are ac-
counted good meat . . .” (32). . . The Savoy Cabbage, one
is of a deeper green coloured-leaf, and curled when it is to be
gathered . . .” (32).
Carrot (5, 22, 32, 34, 39) Daucus carota L.
“. . . The carrot hath many winged leaves ... of a deep
green colour, some where of in autumn will turn to be of a
fine red or purple (the beauty whereof allureth many Gentle-
women oftentimes to gather the leaves, and stick them in their
hats or heads, or pin them on their arms instead of feathers
. . .)” (32).
Cauliflower (34), Cole-flower Brassica oleracea L. var.
botrytis L.
“. . . The Cole-flower is a kind of Cole-wort, whose leaves
are large, and like the cabbage leaves, but somewhat smaller,
and indented about the edges, in the middle whereof, sometimes
in the beginning of Autumn, and sometimes much sooner, there
appeareth a hard head of whitish yellow tufts of flowers, closely
thrust together, but never open, nor spreading much with us,
which then is fittest to be used, . . . this hath a much
Colonial Gardens I 205
pleasanter taste than either the Cole-wort, or cabbage of any
kind, and is therefore of the more regard and respect at good
mens tables” (32).
Corn (5, 39) Triticum sp.
One of the most confusing common names in English is
“corn”. In Britain, and in colonial times in America, the name
was a general term for Field grains, most generally wheat. Zea
maize in the time of Parkinson was Indian or Turkie Wheat, or
Maiz.
Cucumber, “Cowcumbers” Cucumis sativus L.
(5, 21, 22, 32, 34, 39)
Cultivated in the time of Gerarde, 1566. “. . . Some used to
cast a little salt on their sliced Cowcumbers, and let them stand
half an hour or more in a dish, and then powr away the water
that cometh from them by the salt, and after put vinegar, oyl,
etc. thereon, as every one liketh . . .” (32).
Dandelion (22) Taraxacum officinale Weber
“. . . There are four or five Species of this Genus, which
grow naturally in the Fields, so are not cultivated in Gardens;
but some People in the Spring gather the Roots out of the Fields,
and blanch them in their Gardens for a Sallad Herb; however,
as they are not cultivated, I shall forbear saying any Thing more
of them, than that they are very bad Weeds both in Gardens and
Fields, so should be rooted out before their Seeds are ripe, . . .”
(30). “. . . Early in the spring, whilst the leaves are hardly
unfolded, they are no bad ingredients in salads. The French
eat the roots, and the leaves blanched, with bread and butter.
Its diuretic effects have given it a vulgar name, not only in
England, but other European nations. . . .” (31). “. . . it
wonderfully openeth the uritoric parts, causing abundance of
urine, not only in children whose meseraical veins are not
sufficiently strong to containe the quantitie of urine drawne in
the night, but that then without restraint or keeping it backe
they water their beds, but in those of old age also upon the
stopping or yeelding small quantitie of urine, . . .” (33).*
Endive (5, 26, 32) Cichorium endivia L.
Cultivated in 1562. “. . . Endive being whited . . . usually
being buried a while in sand, ... is much used in winter as
a sallet herb, with great delight; . . .” (32).
* It is at least of interest to realize the bed-wetting was a problem in
the time of the Pilgrims! It is also amusing to contemplate the reticence
of botanical writers. I was curious about the “vulgar name”, but found
floras in English silent on the subject of other common names for Dande-
lion though Fernald does record the French-Canadian “Pissenlit”. In a
Dutch compendium of common names for plants in European languages
I found that it was (or is) “Piss i’ bed”, or “Piss th’ Bed”. I was even more
amused to find that our Horticultural Secretary, Mrs. Walsh, could confirm
that her father, who was born in Scotland, had used this name when she
was a child.
206 | ARNOLDIA
Succory, Chicory (32). Cichorium intybus L.
. . Although Succorie be somewhat more bitter in taste
than the Endives, yet it is often times, and of many eaten green,
but more usually being buried a while in sand, that it may grow
white, which causeth it to lose both some part of the bitterness,
or also to the more tender in the eating; . . (32).
Garlic (5, 32, 34) Allium sativum L.
“. . . It being well boyled in salt broth, is often eaten of
them that have strong stomachs, but will not brook in a weak
and tender stomach . . .” (32).
Gourds (35) see also Melon, Cucurbita lagenaria L.
Pumpkin, and Squash Lagenaria vulgaris Ser.
“. . . fruit shaped like a bottle, with a large roundish belly
and a neck, very smooth, when ripe of a pale yellow colour,
some near six feet long, and eighteen inches round; the rind
becomes hard, and being dried, contains water . . . The
Arabians call the bottle Gourd Charrah. The poor people eat it
boiled, with vinegar; or fill the shell with rice and meat, and
thus making a kind of pudding of it. . . .” (31).
Hemp (39) Cannabis sativa L.
“The Manured Hempe (which is of so great use, both for
linnen cloath and cordage) is as I sayd of two sorts, male and
female ... to shew you the manner of steeping, drying, beat-
ing, and clensing hereof, to be made into cloth or cordage, is not
my purpose or pertenent for this work; besides that, it would
take up too much roome and time; it is familiarly known to
every country housewife almost . . (33).
Hops (34, 39) Humulus lupulus L.
“The young shoots are eaten early in the spring as asparagus,
. . . The herb will dye wool yellow. From the stalks a strong
cloth is made in Sweden . . .” (31). “. . . The ale which our
forefathers were accustomed onely to drinke, being a kinde of
thicker drinke than beere (caused a stranger to say of it . . .
there is no drinke thicker that is drunke, there is no Urine
cleerer that is made from it, it must needes be therefore that
it leaveth much behind it in the belly) is now almost quite left
off to be made, the use of Hoppes to be put therein, altering the
quality thereof, to be much more healthfull, or rather physicall,
to preserve the body from the repletion of grosse humors, which
the Ale engendered . . (33).
Indian or Turkie Come, Maize (33). Zea mays L.
Cultivated in England in 1562. . . is cultivated in North
America and Germany . . . The most common colour is a
yellowish white; but there are some with deep yellow, others with
purple, and some with blue grains; in Italy, Germany, and
North America it is the food of the poor inhabitants. The Corn
is ground to flour, and the poorest sort of people in America
. . . make their bread of this flour; . . . this grain seldom
No. 1 Iris susiana No. 2, 3 Iris germanica cv. No. 4 Iris pumila. Fra
Paradisi in Sole by John Parkinson. London, 1629.
I
I
208 | ARNOLDIA
agrees with those who have not been accustomed to eat it;
however, in times of scarcity of other grain, this would be a
better substitute for the poor than Bean flour . . (31).
Leeks (26, 32, 35) Allium porrum L.
Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. . . The old world, as we
find in Scripture, in the time of the children of Israel’s being in
Egypt, and no doubt long before, fed much upon Leeks, Onions
and Garlick boyled with flesh; and the antiquity of the Gentiles
relate the same manner of feeding on them, to be in all coun-
tries the like, which howsoever our dainty age now refuseth
wholly in all sorts except the poorest; . . .” (32).
Lettuce (5, 21, 32, 34) Lactuca sativa L.
Mentioned by Turner in 1562. “. . . All sorts of Lettice are
spent in Sallets, with oyl and vinegar, or as everyone please,
for the most part, while they are fresh and green, or whited, as
is declared in some of the sortes before, to cause them to eat the
more delicate and tender. They are also boyled, to serve for
many sorts of dishes of meat, as the Cooks know best . .
(32).
Melon (5, 24) Citrall or Citrullus lanatus
Turkie Melon, Watermelon (Thunberg) Mansfield
Cultivated in 1597 by Gerarde. “. . . This fruit should be
eaten by Europeans with great caution; when taken in the heat
of the day, whilst the body is warm, colics and other bad
consequences often insue; and it is well known that persons
are much troubled with worms, at the time this fruit is in
season . . .” (31).
Musk Melon (22, 32, 34, 39) Cucumis melo L.
“They have been formerly only eaten by great personages,
because the fruit was not only delicate but rare; and therefore
divers were brought from France, and since were nursed up by
the Kings or Noblemens Gardiners only, to serve for their Mas-
ters delight; but now divers others that have skill and conve-
niency of ground for them, do plant them and make them more
common” (32).
Oats (22, 39) Avena sativa L.
"The meal of this grain makes tolerable good bread, and is
the common food of the country people in the north [of Britain].
In the south it is esteemed for pottage, and other messes, and
in some places they make beer with it.” (31).
Onion (5, 15, 26, 34, 39) Allium cepa L.
“. . . Onions are used many wayes, as sliced and put into
pottage, or boyled and peeled and laid in dishes for sallets at
supper, or sliced and put into water, for a sawce for Mutton or
Oysters, or into meat roasted being stuffed with Parsley, and so
many ways that I cannot recount them, . . .” (32).
Garden Primroses. From Paradisi in Sole by John Parkinson. Lond ,
1629.
210 | ARNOLDIA
Parsley (5, 22, 26, 32, 39) Petroselinum crispum (Miller)
Nym.
“Parsley is much used in all sorts of meats, being boyled,
roasted, fryed, stewed, and being green, it serveth to lay upon
sundry meats, as also to draw meat withall . . (32).
Parsnip (5, 22, 32, 34) Pastinaca sativa L.
“The Parsnep root is a great nourisher, and is much more
used in this time of Lent, being boyled and stewed with butter,
than in any other time of the year; yet it is very good all the
winter long. . . .” (32).
Peas (5, 22, 32, 34, 39) Pisum sativum L.
“Pease of all or the most of these sorts, are either used when
they are green, and be a dish of meat for the table of the rich as
well as the poor, yet every one observing his time, and the
kind: the fairest, sweetest, youngest, and earliest, for the better
sort, the later and meaner kind for the meaner, who do not give
the dearest price: or Being dry, they serve to boyl into a kind of
broth or pottage, wherein many do put Tyme, Mints, Savory, or
some other such hot herbs, to give it the better rellish, and is
much used in Town and Country in the Lent time . . .” (32).
Pumpkins (5, 32, 39) Pompions Cucurbita pepo L.
Cultivated before 1570 according to L’Obel. “. . . They use
likewise to take out the inner watery substance with the seeds,
and fill up the place with Pippins [apples], and having laid on
the cover which they cut off from the top, to take out the pulp, .
they bake them together, and the poor of the City, as well as
of the Country people, do eat thereof as of a dainty dish . . .”
(32).
Potato (5, 32, 39) Solanum tuberosum L.
These and the sweet potato Ipomoea batatas are much con-
fused in early accounts, however they seem to have been culti-
vated in Virginia in 1609. They are said to have been introduced
into Ireland either in 1565 by Hawkins or 1584 by Sir Walter
Raleigh. Gerarde had the potato in his garden in London in
1597. “. . . Potatoes are said to have been introduced into
New England by a colony of Presbyterian Irish who settled in
Londonderry, New Hampshire, in 1719, but cultivation did not
become general for many years . . .” (20).
Radish (5, 22, 32, 34, 39) Raphanus sativus L.
“Raddishes do serve usually as a stimulum before meat,
giving an appetite there unto; the poor eat them alone with
bread and salt . . .” (32).
Rampion (32) Campanula rapunculus L.
Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. Native in Europe from the
Netherlands southwards. “. . . The fleshy roots are eatable,
and are much cultivated in France for salads. Some years past
it was cultivated in English gardens for the same purpose, but
No. 1 Carum cavi. No. 2 Ipomoea batatas. No. 3 Solanum tuberosn.
No. 4 Helanthus tuberosus. From Paradisi in Sole by John Parking
London, 1629.
212 | ARNOLDIA
is now generally neglected . . . The roots are eaten not only
raw in salads, but boiled like Asparagus. They were boiled
tender, and eaten cold with vinegar and pepper in the time of
Parkinson . . (31).
Rye (22, 39) Secale cereale L.
“Rye is of a more clammy substance than Wheate, and
neither is digested so quickly, nor nourished so well, yet is ac-
counted to be next in goodnesse unto Wheate, especially if the
corne [grain] be sweet and good, and the bread well fermented
and baked, . . (33).
Spinach (5, 32) Spinage Spinacia oleracea L.
“Spinage is an herb fit for sallets, and for divers other pur-
poses for the table only; for it is not known to be used physically
at all. . . .” (32).
Squash (39), Summer Squash Cucurbita pepo L. var.
melopepa (L.) Alef.
“The word “squash” seems to have been derived from the
American aborigines and in particular from those tribes occupy-
ing the northeastern Atlantic Coast . . . The distinctions be-
tween the various forms of cucurbits seem to have been kept in
mind by the vernacular writers, who did not use the words
pompion r pumpkin] and gourd, as synonyms . . . The word
“squash” in its early use, we may conclude, applied to those
varieties of cucurbits which furnish a summer vegetable and
was carefully distinguished from the pumpkin ... At the I(
present time, the word squash is used only in America, gourds,
pumpkins, and marrows being the equivalent English names,
and the American use of the word is so confusing that it can
only be defined as applying to those varieties of cucurbits which
are grown in gardens for table use; the word pumpkin applies to
those varieties grown in fields for stock purposes; and the word
gourd to those ornamental forms with a woody rind and bitter
flesh, or to the Lagenaria . . .” (20),
Succory, See Endive
Turnip (22, 26, 32, 39) Brassica rapa L.
“Being boyled in salt broth, they all of them eat most kindly,
and by reason of their sweetness are much esteemed, and often
seen as a dish at good men’s tables: but the greater quantity of
them are spent at poor men’s feasts. . . .” (32). Turnips are
said to have been introduced into England from Holland in
1550. They were reported to be in cultivation in Massachusetts
in 1629.
Wheat (22, 39) Triticum aestivum L.
Wheat was an unimportant grain in England as late as the
reign of the first Elizabeth. It was ordered, from England, by
the Plymouth Colony in 1629. By that time it seems to have been
widely grown in England in many varieties.
No. 1 Petroselinum hortense. No. 2 Apium graveolens. No 3 Foer
culum vulgare. No. 4 Anethum graveolens. No. 5 Myrrhis odorata. No.
Anthriscus cerefolium. From Paradisi in Sole by John Parkinson. Lo
don, 1629.
i
214 I ARNOLDIA
IV Shrubs, Trees and Vines Before 1700
Althea, Shrub Mallow (22, 35) Hibiscus syriacus L.
Hibiscus mutabilis L.
Parkinson illustrates (but does not discuss) an Althea frutex
which seems to be Hibiscus syriacus. His Althea arborescens
Provincialis seems to be Hibiscus mutabilis and his Althea
frutex flore albo vel purpureo seems to be a mixture of the two
species.
Arbor-Judae (35), Judas Tree (25, 43), Sallad Tree (23)
Cercis siliquastrum L.
possibly also Cercis canadensis L.
. . The wood of the Tree is very beautifully veined with
black and green, and takes a fine polish . . (30). Miller, in
1759, says of C. siliquastrum, . . The pods are gathered and
used with other raw vegetables by the Greeks and Turks in
salads, to which they give an agreeable odor and taste. The
flowers are also made into fritters with batter and the flower-
buds are pickled in vinegar” (20). Of Cercis canadensis Sturte-
vant says “. . . The French Canadians use the flowers in salads
and pickles . .
Arborvitae (21, 23, 32, 35) Thuja occidentals L.
“Being reckoned the most durable wood in Canada, inclosures
of all kinds are scarcely made with any other wood; especially
the posts which are driven into the ground. The palisades round
the forts are made of this wood . . . Clusius says that he first
saw this tree in the Royal Garden at Fontainebleau, whither it
was sent from Canada as a present to Francis the First . . .”
(31).
Bayberry, Wax Myrtle (23, 43, 4) Myrica cerifera L.
Myrica pensylvanica Loisel.
Newfoundland to North Carolina. Myrica cerifera is found
from Delaware to Florida and M. pensylvanica from Newfound-
land to North Carolina. “. . . Candles of this kind do not
easily bend or melt in summer, as common candles do; they
burn better and slower, nor do they cause any smoak ... A
soap is made in which has an agreeable scent, and is excellent
for shaving . . .” (31).
Bladder-nut (35) Staphylea pinnata L.
“. . . The Nuts are in loathsome and overturning their
stomakes that eate them, although Scaliger commendeth them
. . . , but wee will give him leave to please his palate, and
stomacke with them, and will not envy the good he shall get by
them, we never yet could learne that they were accepted among
our people, except with some strong clownish stomacke, which
can almost digest an horse naile . . (33).
Colonial Gardens I 215
Box, English (32, 34, 35) Buxus sempervirens L.
“The Boxe tree ... is found with us in many woods, and
wood grounds among other sorts of trees, it is also planted in
divers Orchards or house backe sides, where it never groweth
high, but serveth as a bush to dry Linnen on . . .” (33).
“It was second to the Yew with us in former times for the
purpose of being clipped into the shape of animals . . . The
branches were in request among our ancestors for decking up
houses; they are still seen among other evergreens in churches
at Christmas, and in some countries they are borne by atten-
dants at funerals . . .” (31).
“. . . The low or dwarf Box is of excellent use to border up
a knot or the long beds in a Garden, being a marvelous fine
ornament thereunto, in regard it groweth low, is ever green, and
by cutting may be kept in what manner every one please, . .
(32).
Cherry, Wild or Choke (43) Prunus virginiana L.
“Wood, in his New England Prospects, mentions choke cher-
ries and says they are very austere and as yet “as wilde as
Indians.” . . . (20).
Cytissus, Spanish (21, 32), Spanish Broom Spartium junceum
. . They groweth naturally in many places of France,
Spain and Italy, we have it as an ornament in our Gardens,
among other delightful plants, to please the senses of sight and
smelling ...” (32). “. . . It appears from Turner’s Herbal
that it was cultivated here in 1562 by Lord Cobham . . .”(31).
Dogwood, Flowering (43) Cornus florida L.
Native in North America. “. . . There is a variety of it with
a rose-coloured involucre, which was found wild in Virginia by
Banister, and afterwards by Catesby . . .” (31). Introduced
into England in 1739 by Philip Miller or perhaps earlier by
Fairchild. Cultivated in Virginia between 1712 and 1719.
Cornelian Cherry, Cornel (24, 25, 32, 40) Cornus mas L.
• • by reason of the pleasantnesse in them when they are
ripe, they are much desired . . . They are also preserved and
eaten ...” (32). “. . . Formerly it was cultivated for the
fruit, which was used to make tarts, and a rob de Comis was
kept in the shops . . .” (31).
Red Osier (43) Cornus stolonifera Michx.
Silky Dogwood (43) Cornus amomum Miller
Both valued for the red winter color of the young shoots.
Fir (32, 35) Picea abies L. Karsten
“. . . The Firre tree groweth naturally higher than any other
tree in these parts in Christendom where no Cedars grow, and
even equalling or over-topping the Pine . . .”
216 | ARNOLDIA
Gelder or Guelder Rose (21, 32, 34) Viburnum opulus L. var.
roseum L.
The sterile form . . is generally called Sambucus rosea:
In English, The Elder Rose, and more commonly after the
Dutch name, the Gelder Rose. . . (32).
Hackberry, Common (43) Celtis occidentalis L.
Hemlock (22) Tsuga canadensis L. Carr.
Honeysuckle, French, Red-satin Flowers (21, 32)
Lonicera periclymenum L.
L. caprifolium L.
Honeysuckle, Coral (43) Lonicera sempervirens L.
Hypericum, St. John’s Wort (21) Hypericum perforatum L.
“The common people in France and Germany gather it with
great ceremony on St. John’s day, and hang it in their windows,
as a charm against storms, thunder, and evil spirits; mistaking
the meaning of some medical writers, who have fancifully given
this plant the name of Fuga Daemonum, from a supposition
that it was good in maniacal and hypochondracal disorders
. . .” (31).
Jasmine Jasminum officinale L.
. . Gerard cultivated this shrub in 1597. He says it was
then common in most parts of England, being used for arbors
and to cover banqueting houses in gardens . . .” (31).
Jasmine, Carolina (40, 43) Gelseminum sempervirens L.
Aiton fil.
. . groweth in Virginia as Master Tradescant, who saw it
there doth affirme, and from him I have a plant risen of the
seed. [It] was never mentioned by any before, and but that
Master Tradescant is confident to call it a Jasmine, and there- J
fore I am content to put it with the rest to give him content,
I would be further informed of it my selfe, before I would
certainly give it my consent . . .” (33).
Juniper, Savin — see Savin tree or bush
Juniper, Red Cedar (23, 24, 43) Juniperus virginiana L.
“. . . this tree is much used for wanescotting rooms, making
escritoirs, cabinets, etc., cockroches and other insects disliking
the smell of it . . .” (31).
Laburnum (17, 19) Laburnum anagyroides Medic.
“. . . There is no use hereof in Physick with us, nor in the
natural place of the growing, save only to provoke a vomit,
which it will do very strongly . . (32).
From A Nievve Herball by D. Rembert Dodoens, tr. by Henry lie.
London, 1578.
Colonial Gardens I 217
Lantana (26) Lantana camara L.
Cultivated probably for summer bedding. It was cultivated
in 1691 in the royal garden at Hampton Court. (31).
Larch (32, 35) Larix decidua, Miller
. . The coles of the wood hereof (because it is so hard
and durable as none more) is held to be of most force being
fined, to cause the iron oare to melt, which none other would
do so well . . (32).
Lilac, Pipe tree ■ — see Syringa
Linden, Lime (17) Tilia europaea L.
Although a hybrid, it does produce some viable seed. Culti-
vated at least as early as 1562. . . The coles of the wood are
the best to make gunpowder and being handled, and quenched
in vinegar, are good to dissolve clotted blood in those that are
bruised with a fall . . (32).
ficaTritiana3fiue Capitata.
Braffica Pompeiana,aut Cypria
218 | ARNOLDIA
. . . “The most elegant use to which it is applied is for carv-
ing. Many of Gibbons’s beautiful works in Lime tree are dis-
persed about the kingdom in our churches and palaces; . .
(31).
Locust (40, 43) Robinia pseudo-acacia L.
. . Native of North America, where it grows to a very
large size, and the wood is much valued for its duration. Most
of the houses which were built at Boston in New England, on
the first settling of the English, were constructed of this tim-
ber . . (31).
Magnolia, Sweetbay (23, 24, 43) Magnolia virginiana L.
“. . . in American this tree is known by the names of White
Laurel, Swamp Sassafras, and Beaver Tree. It has the last
name, because the root is eaten as a great dainty by Beavers;
and this animal is caught by means of it . . .” (31).
Maple, Red (43) Acer rubrum L.
. . This sort was cultivated in 1656 by Mr. John Trades-
cant, jun. ... It is propagated with us for the sake of the
scarlet flowers, which come out early in the spring. In Penn-
sylvania, where it grows in the swamps, the natives use it for
almost all sorts of wood-work; with the bark they dye a dark
blue, and make a good black ink . . .” (31).
Mezereum (Chamelaea) (21, 23, 24, 32) Daphne mezereum L.
Gerarde cultivated it in 1596. . . The branches make a good
yellow dye . . . The berries when swallowed prove a powerful
poison . . . There are two principal varieties of the Mezereum;
one with a white flower succeeded by yellow berries; the other
with peach-coloured flowers and red fruit; the latter has some-
times flowers of a much deeper red. There is also a variety with
variegated leaves . . (31).
Mock Orange Philadelphus coronarius L.
Lilacs, Mock Oranges, and some Jasmines were confused at
this period. Mock Orange was Syringa flore albo simplici
(Syringa with single white flowers), the single white pipe-tree.
The double white pipe-tree or Syringa Arabica flore albo duplici
(Syringa of Arabia with double flowers) is Jasminum sambac
the Arabian Jasmine. The Lilacs were called Lilac sive syringa
. . . Mock Orange was cultivated by Gerarde in 1596.
Oak, White (25) Quercus alba L.
. . Acorns were dried and boiled for food by the Nar-
ragansetts. Oak acorns were mixed with their pottage by the
Indians of Massachusetts. Baskets full of parched acorns, hid
in the ground, were discovered by the Pilgrims December 7,
1620 . . (20).
It was not cultivated in England until 1724.
Oak, Red (23, 25) Quercus borealis Michx. fil.
“. . . The red oak is of little value for fuel or for most pur-
Colonial Gardens I 219
poses as timber . . , But, like some individuals in a higher
field in creation, it compensates in some measure for its com-
parative uselessness, by its great beauty . . Emerson, G. B.,
Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts.
Oak, Scarlet (43) Quercus coccinea Muench.
Periploca (32) Asclepias syriaca L.
Virginia silk (17) Wisanck Milkweed, . . I know not of
any in our Land hath made any tryall of the properties hereof.
Captain John Smith in his book of the discovery and description
of Virginia, saith, that the Virginians use the roots hereof . . .
being bruised and applyed to cure their hurts and diseases.”
(32).
Philadelphus — see Mock Orange
Pine (17) Pinus sp.
It is likely that individual trees of various species were
allowed to persist around the homesteads and in pastures.
Pipe tree — See Syringa, Mock Orange, or Jasmine
Poplar (34) Populus alba or
P. nigra
Both species were used at this period for timber.
Privet (25, 32) Ligustrum vulgare L. and
var. italicum (Miller) Vahl
. . In point of utility and ornament few shrubs exceed
the common privet. Its chief use is to form such hedges as are
required in dividing gardens for shelter or ornament, and for
this the Italian or Evergreen Privet is usually preferred. It is
one of the few plants that will thrive in the smoke of Lon-
don . . (31).
Pyracantha (32, 35) Pyracantha sp.
Cultivated by Parkinson in 1629. . . it is preferred with
divers as an ornament to a garden or orchard, by reason of his
ever green leaves, and red berries among them . . (32).
■ Red-bud — - see Arbor- Judae
Rose (32, 42) Rosa sp. & cvs.
Many roses were cultivated, too many to deal with here. The
reader should refer to Rose of Sharon — see Althea.
| Saint John’s Wert — see Hypericum
Sassafras (25, 43) Sassafras albidum (Nutt.)
Nees.
. A decoction of Sassafras with sugar was sold in coffee-
houses at the end of the last century, under the name of
Bochet . . (31 ).
220 | ARNOLDIA
Savin Tree or Bush, Savine (32) Juniperus sabina L.
Cultivated in 1562 according to Turner . . . “It is planted
in out-yeards, bush-sides or void places of Orchards, as well, to
cast cloaths thereon to dry, as for medicines both for men and
horses : being made with an oyle, it is good to annoint children’s
bellies for to kill the worms . . (32).
Service Tree or Sorbus (32, 35) Sorbus torminalis Crantz
. . the fruit of this tree is in some round like an apple,
and in others a little longer like a pear, but of a more pleasant
taste than the ordinary kind, when they are ripe and mellowed,
as they used to do both with these kinds and with Medlars . .
(32).
Smoke Tree, Venice sumacke Cotinus coggygria Scopoli
“. . . The wood is yellowish, and serveth to give a yellow
dye: but the leaves and young branches, doe Dye a blacke
colour; and with the barke they Tanne leather . . .” (33).
Spicebush (43) Lindera Benzoin Blume
“Native of Virginia; whence it was sent by Banister to Comp-
ton Bishop of London, and cultivated in his garden at Fulham
in 1688 . . .” (31).
Spiraea (21, 35), Spiraea Frutex Spiraea salicifolia L.
“It appears from Rea’s Flora that the common Spiraea Frutex
was cultivated here in 1665 . . .” (31).
Sweet Gum (43) Liquidambar styraciflua L.
Cultivated by Bishop Compton in 1688. “. . . from between
the wood and the bark issues a fragrant gum, which trickles
from the wounded trees, and by the heat of the sun congeals
into transparent drops, which the Indians chew as a preser-
vation to their teeth . . . The Bark is also of singular use to
the Indians for covering their huts . . .” (31).
Sycamore (43) Platanus occidentalis L.
Cultivated in England in 1640 by John Tradescant junior.
“. . . the English Americans call it Button-wood ... or Water
Beech ... It grows mostly in low places. ... It is easily
transplanted to drier places, if the soil be good, ... it is
planted about houses and in gardens to afford a pleasant shade
in the hot season . . .” (31).
Syringa, Pipe Tree (see also Philadelphus )
“Gerarde and Parkinson cultivated the blue and white Lilac
under the name of Pipe Tree or Privets. The former says, ‘I have
them growing in my garden in great plenty’ 1597 — Mattiolus’s
figure [1598?] is engraved from a drawing which was taken
from a plant brought over from Constantinople by Augerius de
Busbeke, who during seven years was Ambassador to the Sultan
Soliman from the Emperor Ferdinand I. . . .” (31).
From the Herball by John Gerarde. London,
Colonial Gardens [ 221
Syringa, Persian (43) Syringa persica L.
“It appears from the Catalogue of the Oxford garden that it
was cultivated here in 1658 . . (31).
Trurnpetcreeper (43) Campsis radio arts Seem.
Cultivated in England in 1640. “. . . This never bore flower
with mee, nor any other that hath it in our country that I could
heare of: but in the naturall place, as also beyond the sea, at
Rome, and other warme countries it beareth a great tuft of
flowers together . . .” (33).
Tulip tree (43) Liriodendron tulipifera L.
Cultivated by Bishop Compton at Fulham in 1688.
Virginia creeper (26) Parthenocissus quinquefolia
(L.) Planch.
Cultivated by Parkinson in 1629.
Witch-hazel (43) Hamamelis virginiana L.
Native in Eastern North America. Introduced into England
by Peter Collinson in 1736.
I Seringa alba.
White Pipe.
2 Syringa carulea.
Blew Pipe.
222 | ARNOLDIA
V Fruits and hints Before 1700
Almond (32, 35) Prunus dulcis (P. Miller)
D. A. Webb
(P. amygdalus Batsch.)
Native in western Asia. Phillip Miller knew 3 varieties in
1743, The Common, the Sweet with Tender Shells, and the
Bitter.
Apple (5, 8, 34, 35, 39, 42) Hybrid derivations from
Malus pumila Miller.
Native in Europe and western Asia. Apple seeds were intro-
duced by the first Colonists, and gave rise to “American”
cultivars. Although the art of grafting was known, apples were
commonly propagated by seed for the next two hundred years.
The Hon. Paul Dudley of Roxbury, who was Chief Justice of
Massachusetts, published in 1734 a paper in the Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London entitled: “Some
Observations on the Plants of New England . . in which he
comments “Our apples are without doubt as good as those of
England, and much fairer to look to; . . . A good apple tree
with us will measure from six to ten foot in girt . . (13).
Apricot (5, 32, 34, 35) Apricock, Abricot Prunus armeniaca L.
Native in western Asia. As late as 1743 there were only
about eight varieties of Apricot in cultivation in Great Britain.
Barberry (32, 35) Berberis vulgaris L.
Native in Europe. “. . . grows naturally in the hedges in
many parts of England, but is also cultivated in gardens for its
fruit, which is pickled and used for garnishing dishes . .
(30). “The fruit is used for pickling and for preserving; a
decoction of the berries sweetened is deemed useful as well as
pleasant in fevers . . (30).
Cherries (32, 34, 35, 38, 39) Sour Cherry Prunus cerasus L.
Native in southeastern Europe and western Asia. . . Fran-
cis Higginson writing in 1629, after naming the several other
fruits then under cultivation in Massachusetts, notes that the
‘Red Kentish’ is the only cherry cultivated. ... As early as
1641, a nursery had been started in Massachusetts and was
selling among other trees those of a cherry. . . . These early
plantations of cherries in New England were undoubtedly grown
from seed; ... at least, the records make mention of seeds
and not of trees . . (14). f
Currants (32, 35, 39) Ribes Ribes sylvestre Mert. et Koch
Native in western Europe. “There is little of interest or of
profit to the pomologist in the history of the currant in America.
The earliest English settlers in Massachusetts, . . . brought
Colonial Gardens I 223
this fruit to the new country. Probably the sorts brought were
the Red and White Dutch, and the fact that after those hundred
years we still grow these varieties is significant, there have been
few attempts to improve the currant in America . . (19).
Elderberry (34) Eldern Sambucus canadensis L.
Native in eastern North America.
S. nigra L.
Native in Europe and western Asia. The berries were used
for making wine and pies.
Fig (5, 32, 35, 40) Ficus carica L.
Native in western Asia. “. . . in 1629 one Mistress Pearce,
of Jamestown, an honest, industrious woman, had gathered
from her garden in one year ‘neere an hundred bushels of excel-
lent Figges’ . . .” (19).
Filbert (32, 35, 39) Filbeards Corylus avellana L.
Native in Europe. P. Miller in 1743 recognized five sorts
growing in England. European forms have not done well in this
country except in the Northwest.
Gooseberry (5, 32, 34, 35, 39, 42) Ribes grossularia L.
Native in Europe eastward to the Caucasus. . . The
Gooseberry of history is well grown only in the Old World. Early
settlers in America from England and Holland tried its culture
here but the hot dry American summers parched and withered
both fruit and foliage. Moreover, it was subject to a native
mildew which, before preventive and remedial sprays were in-
troduced, made short work of European Gooseberries in Ameri-
ca. A few of the several hundred varieties grown in Europe
vicariously grow in favored gardens in northeastern United
States and adjacent parts of Canada . . .” (19).
Grapes (34, 35, 39, 42) Vitis vinifera L.
Probably native in the Caucasus. There were many attempts
to grow foreign grapes in New England. John Winthrop,
Governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, had planted a vineyard
in one of the islands, known as Governor’s Garden, “in Boston
Harbor before 1630. Vine-planters were sent to this colony in
1629. There were plantations at the mouth of the Piscataqua
in Maine as early or before Winthrop’s plantings were made
... if grapes were grown, or wine made from the foreign
grape, no great degree of success was attained. Wine was made
in plenty from the wild grapes in all of the New England
colonies so that it was not because of Puritanical prejudices
against wine that the grapes were not grown . . (15).
Hazelnut, Hazel (5, 34) — See Filberts
Hawthorn, Oxycantha Crataegus oxycanthoides Thuill.
C. monogyna Jacq.
Planted for hedges — - a double-flowered cultivar was avail-
able for ornamental planting.
224 | ARNOLDIA
Medlar (32, 34, 35) Mespilus germanica L.
Native from southeastern Europe to Persia. “These fruits are
permitted to remain upon the trees till October, when they will
begin to fall; at which time they must be gathered when dry,
and laid by in a dry place, until they become soft, and begin
to decay, which is commonly about a Month after they are
gathered, when they will be fit to be eaten; before which they
are so very harsh, that it is almost impossible to eat them.”
Miller P., Gardener’s Dictionary Ed. 4, 1743.
Mulberry (32, 35) Morns nigra L.
“. . . is very common in most gardens, being raised for the
Delicacy of its fruit . . . Morus alba L. is commonly cultivated
for its leaves to feed silk-worms . . .” (30).
Nectarine (5. 32, 34, 35, 39) Prunus persica (L.)
Batsch. var.
nectarina (Alton) Maxim.
“. . . they have been with us not many years. . . . we at
this day doe know five several sorts . . .” (32).
Orange, (32) Seville or Sour Orange Citrus aurantium L.
Native in southern Asia. First plantings in South Carolina
made before 1577. It is well known that oranges in small
quantities have been grown for many years in South Carolina
and Georgia, particularly on certain islands adjacent to the
coast. It is therefore interesting to know that Bartholome
Martinez in a letter to the King dated at Havana, February 17,
1577, stated: ‘And what may be truthfully told to your Majesty
is that in Santa Elena [Parris Island, South Carolina] I planted
with my own hands grape vines, pomegranate trees, orange and
fig trees; wheat, barley, onions, and garlic.’ Martinez had lived
in Santa Elena until 1576. His garden therefore was planted
before 1577, the date of his statement.
It is clear from this evidence that citrus fruits were intro-
duced into several sections of the southeastern United States
in the latter part of the sixteenth century. (Webber, H. J. &
Batchelor, L. D. The Citrus Industry ).
Peach (8, 32, 34, 35, 39) Prunus persica L.
“Of peaches in the New England colonies, we need say but
little. Except in favored parts of Connecticut and Massachu-
setts, this fruit was little grown in these northern colonies. It
is not at all probable that New England Indians ever planted
peaches and for a generation after the whites came the struggle
for the necessities of life kept them from indulging in so great
a luxury as a peach-orchard. Strong drink was commonly used
by the Puritans as by the Churchmen in Virginia and peach-
brandy would have been as acceptable but it was easier to
produce cider, and rum from the West Indies could be had with
little trouble. Still, peaches were sparingly grown in the New
England colonies.
“The Massachusetts Company in 1629 sent peach-pits, along
Colonial Gardens I 225
with seeds of other fruits, to be planted by the colonists. Twelve
years later George Fenwick, Saybrook, Connecticut, writes to
Governor Winthrop that he is ‘prettie well storred with chirrie
& peach trees’. Justice Paul Dudley, who seems to have been
the leading horticulturist in Massachusetts in his time, writes
in 1726: ‘Our Peaches do rather excel those of England, and
then we have not the Trouble or Expence of Walls for them;
for our Peach Trees are all standards and I have had in my
own Garden seven or eight Hundred fine Peaches of the Rare-
ripes, growing at a Time on one Tree.’ From another statement
made by Justice Dudley we learn that peaches were still being
grown from the stone and may assume that budding was not
known, or so careful a horticulturist as our author would have
mentioned it. He says: ‘Our Peach Trees are large and fruitful,
and bear commonly in three Years from the Stone. I have one
in my Garden of twelve years growth, that measures two Foot
and an Inch in Girt a Yard from the ground which, two Years
ago, bore me near a Bushel of fine Peaches.’ (16).
“In the voyages undertaken for exploration and commerce
soon after the discovery of America by Columbus the peach was
introduced in America by the Spanish; for soon after permanent
settlement had been made in the South the settlers found this
fruit in widespread cultivation by the Indians and its origin
could only be traced to the Spaniards who early visited Florida
and the Gulf region. William Penn wrote as early as 1683 that
there were very good peaches in Pennsylvania; ‘not an Indian
plantation was without them.’ The abundance of this fruit was
noted by all the early travelers in the region from Pennsylvania
southward and westward . . .” (18).
Pear (5, 8, 32, 34, 35, 39), Peare Pyrus communis L.
Native in Europe and western Asia. “He T Justice Dudleyl
says: An Orange Pear Tree grows the largest and yield the
fairest Fruit. I know one of them near forty Foot high, that
measures six Foot and six Inches in Girt, a Yard from the
Ground, and has borne thirty Bushels at a Time: and this year
I measured an Orange Pear, that grew in my own Orchard,
of eleven Inches round the Bulge. I have a Warden Pear Tree,
that measures five Foot six Inches round. One of my Neighbors
has a Bergamot Pear Tree that was brought from England in a
Box, about the Year 1643, that now measures six Foot about,
and has borne twenty-two Bushels of fine Pears in one Year.
About twenty years since, the Owner took a Cyon, and grafted
it upon a common Hedge Pear; but the Fruit does not prove
altogether so good, and the Rind or Skin, is thicker than that
of the Original.” (17).
Plum (5, 8, 32, 34, 35, 39, 42) Prunus domestica L.
Native in Europe and western Asia. “In Massachusetts some
plums were planted by the Pilgrims, for Francis Higginson,
writing in 1629, says: ‘Our Governor hath already planted a
vineyard with great hope of increase. Also mulberries, plums,
raspberries, corrance, chestnuts, filberts, walnuts, smalnuts,
hurtleberries.’ The plums were Damsons, as a statement is
made a little later that the ‘Red Kentish is the only cherry and
226 | ARNOLDIA
the Damson the only plum cultivated.’ A further reference to
this plum is made by John Josselyn, when, writing of a voyage
to New England in 1663, he says, “The Quinces, Cherries,
Damsons, set the dames a work, marmalad and preserved
Damsons is to be met with in every house.’ (18).
“In 1797 there is the following concise account of the plums
cultivated in New England.
‘The better sorts which are cultivated are the horse plum, a
very pleasant tasted fruit, of large size; the peach plum, red
toward the sun, with an agreeable tartness; the pear plum,
so-called from its shape, which is sweet, and of an excellent
taste; the wheat plum, extremely sweet, oval, and furrowed in
the middle, not large; the green-gage plum, which is generally
preferred before all the rest.’ . . .” (18).
Pomegranate (5, 39) Punica granatum L.
Native from southeastern Europe to the Himalayas. Pome-
granates do not survive outdoors north of Washington. The
First greenhouse in New England seems to have been that of
Andrew Faneuil in the early 1700’s, so it is unlikely that any
planting of pomegranate in this area before that was successful.
However, two or three varieties were known in England, so it is
likely that some colonists may have tried to raise plants from
seed.
Quince (5, 10, 34, 35, 39) Cydonia oblonga Miller
Native in central Asia. “. . . Our fruit-trees prosper abun-
dantly, Apple-trees, Pear-trees, Quince-trees, Cherry-trees, Plum-
trees, Barberry-trees. I have observed with admiration that
the Kernels sown or succors planted produce as fair and good
fruit without grafting as the Tree from whence they were
taken . . .” (22).
Raspberries (32, 39) Rubus idaeus L.
Native through much of the North Temperate Zone. . .
The Raspis berries is of two sorts, white and red, not differing
in the form either of bush, leafe or berry, but onely in the colour
and taste of the fruit . . .” (32).
Strawberries (5, 26, 32, 39, 42) Fragaria virginiana
Duchesne
The common native strawberry was mentioned by the early
European explorers and pioneers on our Atlantic seaboard. (19).
Fragaria chiloensis, one of the parents of the modern culti-
vated strawberries did not arrive in Europe from Chile until
1712.
Walnuts (32) Juglans regina L.
Native from southeastern Europe to China. “. . . as there
do not perhaps exist . . . , south of the Hudson river, ten
European Walnut trees . . .” Juglans nigra L. “. . . These
nuts are sold in the Markets of New York, Philadelphia, and
Baltimore, and served upon the tables.” Hillhouse, S. L. (Trans.)
Michaux, F. A. The North American Sylva. 3 vols. Paris. C.
D’Hautel. 1819.
Colonial Gardens | 227
VI Flowers, 1 700 to 1776
Aster, China (40) Callistephus chinensis (L. )
Nees.
Native in China and Japan. Sent by French missionaries to
Paris, grown in England about 1731.
Aster, Stokes (40) Stokesia laevis (Hill) Greene
Native in North America from South Carolina to Louisiana.
Introduced to England by James Gordon about 1766.
Balsam, Double (5) Impatiens balsamina L.
Double-flowered forms were not known in 1640 but were so
common as not to be of exceptional note in 1759.
Bearberry (24) Arctostaphyllos uva-ursi L.
Native in the Northern Hemisphere. Discovered in Britain
before 1700 and noted in America by Kalm in 1750.
Bedstraw, Yellow (23) Galium varum L.
Native throughout Europe. Cultivated in England in 1597.
Bee Balm (23, 40) Monarda didyma L.
Native from New York to Michigan, south to Georgia and
Tennessee. Cultivated in England by Peter Collinson in 1755.
Bent Grass (24) Agrostis tenuis Sibthorp
(and perhaps other species)
Native in Europe. Long cultivated in pastures.
Black-eyed Susan (40) Rudbeckia hirta L.
Native in North America from western Massachusetts to
Illinois south to Georgia and Alabama. Cultivated in Britain in
1732 by James Sherard.
Bouncing Bet, Soapwort (40) Saponaria officinalis L.
Native in Europe. Long cultivated.
Carnation, Clove Pink (5) Dianthus caryophyllus L.
Native in southern Europe. Cultivated in England in 1597.
Catchfly, Morning Campion, Red Campion (22)
Melandrium rubrum (Weigel)
Garcke ( Lychnis dioica L.)
Native in Europe, western Asia, and North Africa. Culti-
vated in Britain in 1633.
Catchfly (23) Viscaria vulgaris Bernh.
( Lychnis viscaria L.)
Native in Europe and western Asia. Cultivated in Britain
in 1644.
228 I ARNOLDIA
Cat-tail (23, 46) Typha latifolia L.
Widespread in the northern Hemisphere. Long used in rural
crafts.
Cockscomb (5, 40) Celosia argentea L. var.
cristata (L. ) Kuntz.
Native in the Asiatic tropics. Cultivated in Britain in 1597.
Columbine (40) Aquilegia canadensis L.
Native in North America from Newfoundland to Wisconsin
south to Georgia and Tennessee. Cultivated in England before
1640 by John Tradescant, Senior.
Coreopsis, Tickseed (40) Coreopsis lanceolata L.
Native in North America from Virginia to Wisconsin, south
to Florida and New Mexico. Cultivated in Britain in 1725.
Creeping Jenny, Creeping Charley, Moneywort (40)
Lysimachia nummularia L.
Native in Europe and western Asia. Cultivated in England
in 1597.
Evening Primrose (24) Oenothera biennis L.
Native throughout the United States. Originally cultivated at
Padua in 1619, and in England in 1629.
Fall Daffodil (40) Stembergia lutea (L.) J. A.
and J. H. Schult.
Native in southern Europe. Cultivated in England in 1597.
Foamflower (40) Tiarella cordifolia L.
Native from New Brunswick to Michigan, south to North
Carolina and Tennessee. Cultivated in Britain in 1731.
Galax (40) Galax aphylla L.
Native from Virginia and West Virginia, south to Georgia and
Alabama. Cultivated in Britain in 1751.
Golden Ragwort (40) Senecio aureus L.
Native from Maryland to Missouri, south to Florida and
Arkansas. Cultivated in England in 1759.
Hydrangea (40) Hydrangea arborescens L.
Native from New York to Missouri, south to Georgia and
Oklahoma. Cultivated in England in 1736 by Peter Collinson.
Inkberry (40) Ilex glabra (L.) Gray
Native from Nova Scotia to Florida and Louisiana. Culti-
vated in Britain in 1759.
Iris, Dwarf (5) Iris pumila L.
Native from central Europe to Asia Minor. Cultivated in
Britain in 1596.
Colonial Gardens I 229
Lizard’s Tail (40) Saururus cemuus L.
Native from Rhode Island and Quebec to Kansas, south to
Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1759.
Lunaria, Moonwort, Honesty Lunaria annua L.
Native in southeastern Europe. Cultivated in Britain in
1596.
Maidenhair Fern (24) Adiantum pedatum L.
Native from Quebec and Minnesota, south to Georgia and
Louisiana. Cultivated in England by John Tradescant the
younger before 1640.
Mallow, Rose (40) Hibiscus moscheutos L.
Native from Maryland to Indiana, south to Florida and Ala-
bama. Introduced to the Jardin des Plantes in Paris in 1644.
Meadow Rue (40) Thalictrum aquilegifolium L.
Native in Europe and Asia. Cultivated in England in 1731.
Pea, Beach (23, 24) Lathyrus japonicus Willd.
var. glaber (Ser. ) Femald
( Pisum maritimum L. in part)
Native from Labrador to New Jersey, inland to the Great
Lakes.
Periwinkle (5, 41, 40) Vinca minor L.
Native in Europe. Long cultivated.
Phlox (23, 24) Phlox paniculata L.
Native from New York to Iowa, south to Georgia and Arkan-
sas. Cultivated in England in 1732 by James Sherard.
— Phlox maculata L.
Native from Quebec to Minnesota, south to Tennessee and
Missouri. Cultivated in England in 1759.
Phlox Carolina L.
Native from Maryland to Indiana, south to North Carolina
and Alabama. Cultivated in Britain before 1728.
Pinks, Grass (40) Dianthus plumarius L.
Native in southeastern Europe. Cultivated in Britain in 1629.
Poppy, Oriental (40) Papaver orientate L.
Native in the eastern Mediterranean region. Cultivated at
Paris about 1700 and in England before 1714.
Poppy, Prickly (5) Argemone mexicana L.
Native in the American tropics. Cultivated in Britain in 1592.
Snowdrop Galanthus nivalis L.
Native in central, southern, and eastern Europe. Long cul-
tivated.
230 I ARNOLDIA
Sweet Pea, Annual (5) Lathyrus odoratus L.
Native in Italy. Cultivated in Britain in 1700.
Trollius (5) Trollius europeus L.
Native of Europe. Cultivated in England in 1581.
Turtlehead Chelone glabra L.
Native from Newfoundland to Minnesota, south to Georgia,
Alabama and Missouri. Cultivated in Britain in 1730.
Chelone obliqua L.
Native from Maryland and Tennessee, south to Florida and
Mississippi. Cultivated in Britain 1732.
Veronica (40) Veronica maritima L.
Native in central Europe and northern Asia. Cultivated in
England by Mr. Hugh Morgan in 1570.
Virginia Bluebells (5) Mertensia virginica (L.) Pers.
Native from New York to Minnesota, south to South Carolina
and Arkansas. Cultivated in England in 1699.
Whitlow Grass (23) Draba verna L.
Native in Europe, Asia and North Africa. Long common as a
garden weed.
Mai us Armenia
Colonial Gardens I 231
I
VII Vegetables, 1700 to 1776
Broccoli (5) Brassica oleracea L. var.
botrytis L.
Native in Europe. Apparently originating in England (Eu-
rope? ) sometime after 1680.
Cayenne Pepper (5) Capsicum, frutescens L.
var. longum Bailey
Probably native in tropical America. Cultivated in England
in 1656 by John Tradescant, Junior.
Celery (5) Apium graveolens L. var.
dulce (Miller) Persoon
Native in Europe. Apparently celery was not developed until
after 1640.
Cotton (23) Gossypium herbaceum L.
Cultivated in Virginia as early as 1621, but not an important
crop until much later.
Lentils (5) Lens culinarius Medic.
Native in southern Europe.
Okra (23) Hibiscus esculentus L.
Native in the Old World Tropics, known in cultivation in
Britain in 1692.
Peas, Black Eyed or Cow Peas (5) Vigna sinensis (L.) Savi
Probably native in the Old World Tropics. Introduced in
1776.
Pepper, Guinea — See Cayenne Pepper ( 23 )
Pepper Grass, Garden Cress (5) Lepidium sativum L.
Native in western Asia. Long cultivated.
Rape (5) Brassica napus L.
Known only in cultivation. Long cultivated.
Scurvy Grass (5) Cockle aria officinalis L.
Native throughout the Arctic and boreal regions. Long
known as an antiscorbutic.
Sorrel, Garden (5) Rumex acetosa L.
Native in Europe and America. Long known as a salad herb.
Vetch, Tares Vicia sativa L.
Native in Europe and Asia. Long cultivated as a stock food.
Yams (23) Dioscorea alata L.
Native from India to Malaya. Long cultivated in the tropics.
row A Nievve Herball by D. Rembert Dodoens, tr. by Henry Lyte.
hdon, 1578.
232 I ARNOLDIA
VIII Shrubs, Trees and Vines, 1700 to 1 776
Acacia, Egyptian (43) Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
Probably native in Mexico or the West Indies, but now ex-
tensively naturalized in tropical areas. First cultivated in the
garden of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese (The Farnese Palace)
in 1611.
Alder (5) Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.
Native in Eurasia.
Amorpha, Bastard Indigo (5, 10) Amorpha fruticosa L.
Native in eastern North America from southern Pennsylvania
to Florida, west to Louisiana and Kansas. Sent to England by
Mark Catesby in 1724.
Andromeda (23) Leucothoe racemosa (L.) Gray
Native in eastern North America from Massachusetts to
Florida. Noted by Peter Kalm in 1750, but previously cultivated
by Peter Collinson in England in 1736.
Aralia or Devil’s Walking Stick (43) Aralia spinosa L.
Native in North America from New Jersey to Iowa, south to
Florida and Texas. Sent by Rev. John Banister from Virginia
to Bishop Compton in England and cultivated by him in 1688.
Arrow-wood (43) Viburnum dentatum L.
Native of North America from Massachusetts south to Florida
and Texas. Cultivated in England by Peter Collinson in 1736.
Ash, American or White (10) Fraxinus americana L.
Native in North America from Quebec and Minnesota to
Florida and Texas. Raised in England from seeds sent from
New England in 1724 by Mr. Moore [? Robert More of Shrews-
bury?].
— — Ash, European (23) Fraxinus excelsior L.
Native in Europe. Long cultivated in Britain for timber and
fuel.
Azalea, Flame (40, 43) Rhododendron sp.
Azaleas of the section Pentanthera which are native in east-
ern North America seem to have been much confused at this
period.
Rhododendron calendulaceum (Michx.) Torr. was the most
desired, with its deep red flowers, but R. periclymenoides
(Michx.) Shinners (R. nudiflorum'), R. prionophyllum (Small)
Millais, (R. roseum), R. canescens (Michx.) Sweet, and R.
atlanticum (Ashe) Rehder seem all to have been cultivated.
One or more was cultivated in England by Peter Collinson in
1734. R. calendulaceum was not surely known in cultivation
before 1806.
Colonial Gardens I 233
Azalea, Indica (43) Rhododendron indicum Sweet
Known, but not cultivated in England in 1759; not surely
introduced to cultivation in England until 1808. Probably
introduced to Charleston, S.C., by Andre Michaux between 1787
and 1796.
Azaleas, Swamp White. (43) Rhododendron viscosum
(L. ) Torrey
Native in eastern North America from Maine to Tennessee.
Cultivated in England in 1734 by Peter Collinson.
Beautyberry, American (43) Callicarpa americana L.
Native in North America from Maryland south to Florida
and Texas. Sent by Mark Catesby from South Carolina to
Phillip Miller in England in 1724.
Beech, American (40, 43) Fagus grandifolia Ehrh.
Native in eastern North America from Prince Edward Island
and Ontario to Florida and Texas. Introduced into cultivation
in England in 1766 by the nursery firm of Kennedy and Lee.
Beech, European. Fagus sylvatica L.
Native in Europe. Long used and cultivated for timber and
food.
Birch, Black (23, 24) Betula lenta L.
Native in eastern North America from Maine to Georgia.
Cultivated in England by Phillip Miller in 1759.
Birch, River (43) Betula nigra L.
Native in eastern North America from southern New En-
gland to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England by Peter
Collinson in 1736.
Bittersweet, American (43) Celastrus scandens L.
Native in eastern North America from Quebec and Manitoba
south to Georgia and Louisiana. Cultivated in England in 1736
by Peter Collinson.
Black Gum, Tupelo, Black Tupelo, Sour Gum ( 10, 40, 43)
Nyssa sylvatica Marshall
Native in eastern North America from Maine to Florida,
Texas and Mexico. It was cultivated in Britain in 1750 by
Archibald, Duke of Argyle.
Broom, Scotch (40) Cytisus scoparius (L.)
Wimmer
Native in Europe, long known and cultivated for a variety
of purposes.
Buckeye, Sweet (10) Aesculus octandra Marshall
Native in eastern North America, from Pennsylvania and
Iowa south to Georgia. Cultivated in England in 1764 by Mr.
John Greening.
234 | ARNOLDIA
Burning Bush (10) Euonymus atropurpureus , Jacq.
Native in eastern North America from Ontario and Montana
south to Alabama. Cultivated in England in 1756 by Messrs.
Lee and Kennedy.
Butchers Broom (43) Ruscus aculeatus L.
Native in southern Europe.
Butternut (23, 43) Juglans cinerea L.
Native in eastern North America from New Brunswick to
North Dakota and south to Georgia. Cultivated in England by
John Tradescant, Junior, in 1656.
Button Bush (43) Cephalanthus occidentalis L.
Native in eastern North America from Nova Scotia to Florida
and Mexico. Cultivated in England in 1735 by Peter Collinson.
Carolina Allspice, Sweetshrub (10, 40, 43)
Calycanthus floridus L.
Native in eastern North America from Pennsylvania and
Ohio to Florida and Mississippi. Introduced into cultivation in
England by Mark Catesby in 1726.
Cassine, Cassioberry, Yaupon (5, 10, 40, 43)
Ilex vomitoria Aiton
Ilex cassine L.
Native of eastern North America, from southeastern Virginia
south to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England before 1700.
Cassioberry is more properly a common name of Ilex cassine
L. It is native on the coastal plains from North Carolina to
Florida and Louisiana. Seed was sent to England in 1726 by
Mark Catesby.
Catalpa, Southern Catalpa (5, 10, 25, 40, 43)
Catalpa bignonioides
Walter
Native from Georgia and Florida to Mississippi. Sent to En-
gland by Mark Catesby in 1726.
Cedar, Atlantic White (23, 24, 43) Chamaecyparis thyoides
(L.) BSP.
Native in eastern North America from Maine to Florida and
Mississippi. Cultivated in England by Peter Collinson about
1736.
Chaste Tree (40) Vitex agnus-castus L.
Native in southern Europe and Western Asia. Cultivated in
England in 1570 and recorded in Virginia by 1762.
Cherry Laurel (40) Prunus caroliniana (Miller)
Aiton
Native from South Carolina to Texas. Introduced into En-
gland about 1750 by Phillip Miller. Probably introduced to
cultivation in Charleston by Mark Catesby about 1725.
From the Herball by John Gerarde. London, 1597.
t Tmonumas.
Male Peionie.
236 | ARNOLDIA
China-berry, Fruit of China, Bead Tree (10, 43)
Melia azedarach L.
Native in southern Asia. Cultivated in England in 1656.
Said to have been introduced to Charleston, S.C., by Andre
Michaux between 1787 and 1796.
Chinquapin (5) Castanea pumila (L.) Miller
Native in eastern North America from Massachusetts to
Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1699 by the
Duchess of Beaufort.
Chokeberry, Red (10, 40, 43) Aronia arbutifolia (L. ) Ell.
Native in eastern North America, from Nova Scotia to Texas.
Mentioned by Josselyn in 1673 and cultivated in England by
the Earl of Clarendon in 1700.
Clematis, Virgin’s Bower (40, 43) Clematis virginiana L.
Native from the Gaspe Peninsula to Manitoba and south to
Georgia and Louisiana. Cultivated in England in 1767 by James
Gordon.
Clethra, Sweet Pepper Bush (5, 25, 40, 43) Clethra alnifolia L.
Native in eastern North America from Maine south to Florida
and Texas. Introduced into cultivation in England about 1730.
Coffee-bean, Kentucky or Kentucky Coffee Tree (10, 43)
Gymnocladus dioica (L. )
K. Koch
Native in North America from central New York to South
Dakota, south to Tennessee and Oklahoma. First cultivated in
Europe at Paris, cultivated in England by Archibald, Duke of
Argyle in 1748.
Coralberry (40) Symphoricarpos orbiculatus
Moench.
Native in North America from Pennsylvania to Colorado,
south to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1730.
Cornel, White (10) Comus alba L.
Native in northeastern Asia. Cultivated in England by Phillip
Miller in 1759.
Cowberry or Lingon (23, 24) Vaccinium vitis-idaea L.
This is the common name of the plant which has probably
never been cultivated in this country.
Cranberry (23) Vaccinium oxycoccus L.
This fruit was much esteemed in the Philadelphia market at
the time of Kalm’s visit. Not cultivated, however, until about
1802.
Colonial Gardens I 237
Crabapple, Wild Sweet Crabapple, Anchor Tree ( 10, 43)
Malus coronaria (L.) Miller
Native in North America from New York to Wisconsin and
south to Tennessee. Cultivated in England in 1724.
Crape-myrtle, Common ( 10, 43, 45) Lagerstroemia indica L.
Native in China. First introduced into Europe in 1747.
Cultivated in England in 1759 by Hugh, Duke of Northumber-
land. Introduced to Charleston by Andre Michaux between
1787 and 1796.
Cross-vine (40, 43) Bignonia capreolata L.
Native in eastern north America from Maryland to Illinois
south to Florida and Louisiana. Cultivated in England in 1730.
Cypress, Bald or Deciduous ( 10) Taxodium distichum (L. )
Richard
Native in North America from New Jersey to Illinois, south
to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1640 by John
Tradescant, Senior.
Cyrilla, Swamp (43) Cyrilla racemiflora L.
Native in eastern North America from Virginia to Florida
and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1765 by John Cree.
Elder, American (5, 23, 43) Sambucus canadensis L.
Native in eastern North America from Cape Breton Island
and Manitoba to Georgia and Louisiana. Cultivated in England
in 1768.
Elder, Box (43) Acer negundo L.
Native in North America from western New England and
Minnesota south to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England
by Bishop Compton in 1688.
Elm, American (23, 25, 43) Ulmus americana L.
Native in North America from the Gaspe to Saskatchewan,
south to Florida and Texas. Introduced into cultivation in
England in 1752.
Elm, Winged (43) Ulmus alata Michx.
Native in North America from Virginia west to Illinois,
southward to Florida and Texas. Possibly cultivated here, but
not introduced to England until 1820.
Emerus (5) Coronilla emerus L.
Native. Cultivated in England in the time of Gerarde 1596.
Fringe Tree (10, 40, 43) Chionanthus virginica L.
Native in North America from New Jersey and Ohio south
to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1736 by Peter
Collinson.
238 [ ARNOLDIA
Fern, Sweet (43) Comptonia peregrina (L.)
Coulter
Native in North America from Cape Breton Island to Manito-
ba, south to Georgia and Tennessee. Cultivated in England in
1714 by the Duchess of Beaufort.
Flowering Almond, Dwarf (25) Prunus glandulosa Thunberg.
var. sinensis (Persoon)
Koehne fil.
Native in east Asia. Introduced into cultivation in England
in 1687 according to Rehder.
Fothergilla, Dwarf (43) Fothergilla gardenii Murr.
Native from North Carolina to Florida and Alabama. Cul-
tivated in England in 1765.
Franklinia (10, 25, 43) Franklinia alatamaha Marshall
Discovered in Georgia in 1765. It was grown by John Bar-
tram in his botanical garden, but not used extensively in garden
plantings at this period.
Golden Rain Tree (43) Koelreuteria paniculata , Laxmann
Native in China, Korea, and Japan. Cultivated in England
in 1763.
Grape, Muscadine, Scuppernong (43) Vitis rotundifolia Michx.
Not surely cultivated before 1850 but the fruit likely collected
from the wild throughout the period.
Groundsel Tree (40) Baccharus halimifolia L.
Native in North America from Massachusetts south to Flor-
ida, Texas, and Mexico. Cultivated in England in 1688 by
Bishop Compton.
Haw, Black, or Blackhaw Viburnum (5, 10, 43)
Viburnum prunifolium L.
Native in North America from Connecticut and Kansas,
south to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1731.
Hawthorn, Cock-spur or Haw (5, 23) Crataegus crus-galli L.
Native in North America from southeastern Canada west to
Minnesota, south to South Carolina and Texas. Cultivated in
England in 1691 by the Honorable Charles Howard.
Hawthorn, or May (10) Crataegus oxycantha L.
Native in Europe and North Africa. Long cultivated.
Hawthorn, Washington Thorn (10, 40, 43)
Crataegus phaenopyrum (L.f. )
Medic.
Native in North America from Pennsylvania and Missouri to
Florida. Cultivated in England in 1738.
Colonial Gardens I 239
Hickory, Scaly-bark Cary a ovata (Miller) K. Koch
Native in North America from Maine to Nebraska south to
Florida and Texas. Cultivated in 1629.
Hickory, Shellbark (10) Cary a laciniosa Loud.
Native from New York to Nebraska, south to Alabama and
Louisiana. Not surely cultivated before 1804.
Holly, Evergreen Ilex aquifolium L.
Ilex opaca Aiton
The European Holly was repeatedly imported to America but
with little success. American Holly was cultivated in England
by 1744.
Holly, Swamp or Possum haw (40, 43) Ilex decidua
Walter
Native in North America from Maryland and Kansas south
to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in Britain in 1760 by Archi-
bald, Duke of Argyle.
Honey Locust (10, 23, 40, 43) Gleditsia triacanthos L.
Native in North America from New York and South Dakota
to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1700 by Bishop
Compton.
Honeysuckle, Tartarian (43) Lonicera tartarica L.
Native in Southern Russia. Cultivated in England in 1752.
Honeysuckle, Wild or Pinxterbloom azalea — See Azalea,
Flame.
Hornbeam, American (43) Carpinus caroliniana Walter
Native from Nova Scotia to Minnesota south to Florida and
Texas. Not introduced into England until 1812.
Horse Chestnut (32, 35) Aesculus hippocastanum L.
“. . . The Horse-chestnut was brought from the northern
part of Asia into Europe about the year 1550, and was sent to
Vienna about the year 1558. [From Vienna it migrated into
Italy and France: but it came to us from the Levant imme-
diately. Gerard, in his herbal, speaks of it only as a foreign
tree. In Johnson’s edition of the same work, it is said, ‘Horse-
chestnut groweth in Italy, and in sundry dry places of the East
Countries; it is now growing with Mr. Tradescant at South-
Lambeth.’ Parkinson says ‘our Christian world had first the
knowledge of it from Constantinople.’” (31). Introduced to
Philadelphia by John Bartram in 1746.
Horse Chestnut, Dwarf; Red Buckeye (10, 40, 43)
Aesculus pavia L.
Native in North America from Virginia south to Florida and
Louisiana. Cultivated in England in 1712.
240 | ARNOLDIA
Hydrangea, Smooth (10, 43) Hydrangea arborescens L.
Native in eastern North America from southwestern New
York to Missouri, southward to Florida and Louisiana. Culti-
vated in England in 1736 by Peter Collinson.
Inkberry (43) Ilex glabra (L.) Gray
Native in eastern North America from Nova Scotia to Florida.
Cultivated in England in 1759.
Ironwood or Hop Tree (10) Ostrya virginiana (Miller)
K. Koch
Native from Nova Scotia to Manitoba, south to Georgia and
Oklahoma. Cultivated in England in 1692.
Ivy, English (23, 25, 40, 43) Hedera helix L.
Native in Europe. Cultivated from ancient times. Reported
in cultivation in North America by Kalm in 1750.
Juniper (24) Juniperus communis L.
Native in Eurasia and North America. Cultivated in England
in 1560.
Juniper, Chinese (45) Juniperus chinensis L.
Native in China, Mongolia, and Japan. Cultivated in En-
gland by 1767.
Laurel, or Ivy, or Mountain Laurel Kalmia latifolia L.
(5, 10, 23, 43)
Native from New Brunswick to Ohio, south to Florida and
Louisiana. Introduced to England by Peter Collinson in 1734.
Rhododendron maximum L.
Native from Nova Scotia to Ohio, south to Georgia and Ala-
bama. Introduced to England in 1736 by Peter Collinson. It
did not flower there until 1756.
Leatherwood (23, 24) Dirca palustris L.
Native from New Brunswick to Minnesota, south to France
and Louisiana. Introduced in Britain by Archibald, Duke of
Argyle, in 1750.
Leucothoe (10) Leucothoe axillaris (Lam.)
D. Don
Native in eastern North America from Virginia to Florida
and Mississippi. Cultivated in England in 1765 by John Cree.
Linden, American (23, 24, 40, 43) Tilia americana L.
Native from New Brunswick to Manitoba south to Alabama
and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1752.
Loblolly Pine (40, 43) Pinus taeda L.
Native in eastern North America from New Jersey to Texas.
Cultivated in England in 1736.
Colonial Gardens I 241
Locust, Pink or Rose Acacia Locust (40, 43) Robinia hispida L.
Native from Virginia and Tennessee southward. Cultivated
in England in 1758.
Magnolia, Southern or Carolina Laurel Magnolia grandiflora L.
(5, 10, 40, 43)
Native in eastern North America from North Carolina to
Texas. Sent to England before 1737 by Mark Catesby.
Maple, Norway (43, 45) Acer platanoides L.
Native in Europe. Not cultivated in England until 1724.
Introduced by William Hamilton of Philadelphia after the
Revolutionary War.
— - — Maple, Silver (10, 43) Acer saccharinum L.
Native in North America from New Brunswick to Minnesota
southward. At this period much confused with Sugar Maple.
Said to have been introduced in England in 1725.
Maple, Sugar (10, 43) Acer saccharum Marshall
Native in North America from the Gaspe to Manitoba, south
to Georgia and Texas. Silver and Sugar Maple were distin-
guished by Humphrey Marshall in 1785. Said to have been
cultivated in England in 1735.
Mespilus, Snowy (10) Amelanchier stolonifera
Weigand
Native in eastern North America from Newfoundland to
Ontario south to Virginia. Based on the description of culti-
vated plants this probably was the species cultivated in En-
gland as early as 1746.
Mimosa (40) Albizia julibrissin Dur.
Native from Persia to China. Cultivated in England in 1745.
Nannyberry or Sheepberry (10, 43) Viburnum lentago L.
Native in North America from Quebec to Colorado south to
Georgia. Cultivated in England in 1761.
Moosewood (10) Acer pensylvanicum L.
Native from Quebec to Manitoba south to Georgia and Ten-
nessee. Cultivated in England in 1755.
New Jersey Tea (5) Ceanothus americanus L.
Native in eastern North America from Quebec and Mani-
toba south to Florida and Alabama. Cultivated in England
before 1713 by Bishop Compton.
Oak, Black ( 10, 43) Quercus velutina Lam.
Native from Maine to Nebraska, south to Florida and Texas.
Oak, Blackjack (10, 43) Quercus marilandica Muench.
Native from Pennsylvania to Nebraska, south to Florida
and Texas.
242 | ARNOLDIA
■ Oak, Chestnut (10) Quercus prinus L.
Native from Maine to Indiana, south to Georgia and Mis-
sissippi. Cultivated in England in 1730.
Oak, Live (10, 40, 43) Quercus virginiana Miller
Native from Virginia to Texas and Oklahoma. Cultivated in
England in 1739.
Oak, Southern Red (43) Quercus falcata, Michx.
Native from New Jersey to Illinois, south to Florida and
Texas. Cultivated in England in 1763.
Oak, Water (10, 43) Quercus nigra L.
Native from Delaware to Kentucky south to Florida and
Texas. Cultivated in England in 1739.
Oak, Willow (40, 43) Quercus phellos L.
Native from Long Island to Missouri, south to Florida and
Texas. Confused at this time with Live Oak.
Olive, Russian, or Oleaster (43, 47) Elaeagnus angustifolia L.
Native from Southern Europe to central Asia. Cultivated in
England in 1633.
Pagoda tree, Japanese (43) Sophora japonica L.
Native in China and Korea. Cultivated in England in 1753.
Paper Mulberry, Common (43) Broussonetia papyrifera (L.)
Vent.
Native in China and Japan. Cultivated in England in 1759,
by Hugh, Duke of Northumberland. Female trees reported to be
cultivated by 1768. Male trees said to have been introduced
to New York by Andre Parmentier between 1824 and 1830.
Pawpaw (10, 43) Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal
Native from New Jersey to Nebraska, south to Florida and
Texas. Cultivated in England by Peter Collinson in 1736.
Pea-shrub, Siberian (43) Caragana arborescens Lam.
Native in Siberia and Manchuria. Cultivated in England
in 1756.
Pecan, Mississippi Nut (10) Carya illinoensis K. Koch
Native from Indiana to Iowa, south to Alabama, Texas and
Mexico. Introduced into England about 1766. Cultivated by
William Prince of New York in 1772.
Persimmon (23, 40) Diospyros virginiana L.
Native from New England to Kansas, south to Florida and
Texas. Cultivated in England in the time of Parkinson (1633).
Pine, Virginia Scrub ( 10, 40, 43) Finns virginiana Miller
Native from New Jersey and Ohio south to Georgia and
Arkansas. Introduced into England before 1739.
I
Colonial Gardens | 243
Pine, White, or Weymouth Pine ( 10, 40) Pinus strobus L.
Native from Newfoundland to Manitoba, south to Georgia
and Tennessee. Cultivated in England by the Duchess of
Beaufort in 1705.
Plum, Cherry, or Myrobalan Plum (10, 43) Prunus cerasifera
Ehrh.
Native in western Asia. Cultivated in England by 1600.
Plum, Damson (10) Prunus insititia L.
Native in western Asia and Europe. Cultivated since pre-
historic times.
Poison Oak ( 5 ) Rhus toxicodendron L. or
Rhus radicans L.
Native over most of eastern North America. Cultivated in
England in 1640.
Poplar, Eastern Cottonwood (43) Populus deltoides Marshall
Native from Quebec to Manitoba, south to Florida and Texas.
Cultivated in England before 1750.
Poplar, Lombardy (43) Populus nigra L. var.
italica, Moench.
Native in Europe. Cultivated in France in 1749 and in
England in 1758. Introduced by William Hamilton of Phila-
delphia in 1784.
Potentilla (23) Potentilla fruticosa L.
Native throughout the northern hemisphere. Cultivated in
England in 1700.
Red Bay (40, 43) Persea borbonia (L.)
Sprengel
Native from Delaware south to Florida and Texas. Culti-
vated in England in 1739.
Rose, Cherokee (40) Rosa laevigata Michx.
Native in China. Introduced to the United States before
1780.
Rose, Scotch (40) Rosa spinosissima L.
Native in Europe and western Asia. Cultivated before 1600.
Rose, Wild, or Swamp Rose (10, 43) Rosa palustris
Marshall
Native from Nova Scotia to Minnesota, south to Florida and
Arkansas. Cultivated in England in 1726.
Shadblow, Service or Shad-bush (10, 40)
Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic.
Native in North America from Maine to New York, south to
Georgia. Quite possibly cultivated, but the plant carrying this
!
i
244 I ARNOLDIA
name in cultivation in Europe was probably A. stolonifera (see
Mespilus, Snowy).
Silver bell, Carolina or Snowdrop Tree (10, 25, 40, 43)
Halesia Carolina L.
Native from Virginia to Missouri, south to Florida and Texas.
Cultivated in England by John Ellis in 1756 from seeds sent
by Dr. Alexander Garden.
Sourwood (40) Oxydendron arbor eum (L.) DC.
Native from Pennsylvania to Indiana south to Florida and
Louisiana. Cultivated in England in 1752.
Spiraea, Hardhack (43) Spiraea tomentosa L.
Native from Prince Edward Island to Ontario, south to North
Carolina. Cultivated in England in 1736 by Peter Collinson.
Stewartia (40, 43) Stewartia malachodendron L.
Native from Virginia to Arkansas, south to Florida and
Louisiana. Cultivated in England in 1743.
Stewartia, Mountain (43) Stewartia ovata (Cav.)
Weatherby
Native from Virginia and Kentucky, south to Georgia and
Alabama. Cultivated in England in 1785.
Sumac, Fragrant, or Pole-cat Bush (40, 43) Rhus aromatica
Aiton
Native from Quebec to Kansas, south to Florida and Texas.
Cultivated in England in 1772.
Sweet Gale (10, 23, 24) Myrica gale L.
Native to Eurasia and North America. It has many folk
uses in Europe.
Thorn, Great-fruited or Large-berried (10)
Crataegus punctatus Jacq.
Native from eastern Canada to Iowa, south to Kentucky.
Cultivated in Britain in 1746 by Archibald, Duke of Argyle.
Trefoil, or Hop-tree (10) Ptelea trifoliata L.
Native from Virginia south to Florida and Texas. Sent to
England from Virginia by Rev. Banister in 1704.
Umbrella Magnolia (5, 25) Magnolia tripetala L.
Native from Pennsylvania to Missouri, south to Georgia
and Arkansas. Cultivated in England in 1752.
Viburnum, Maple Leaf Viburnum acerifolium L.
Native from Quebec to Minnesota, south to Georgia and
Tennessee. Cultivated in England in 1736 by Peter Collinson.
Willow, Virginia, or Sweet Spire ( 10, 43) Itea virginica L.
Native from Pennsylvania to Missouri, south to Florida and
Colonial Gardens \ 245
Texas. Cultivated in Britain in 1744 by Archibald, Duke of
Argyle.
Willow, Weeping (10, 40, 43) Salix babylonica L.
Native in China. Alleged to have been introduced to En-
gland by Alexander Pope about 1730.
Willow, Yellow (10) Salix alba L. var.
vitellina (L.) Stokes
Native in Europe. Long cultivated for basket-making.
Winterberry or Swamp Red-berry Bush Ilex verticillata (L.)
(10,40,43) Gray
Native from Newfoundland to Minnesota, south to Georgia
and Tennessee. Cultivated in England in 1736 by Peter Col-
linson.
Wintersweet (43) Chimonanthus praecox (L.) Link.
Native of China. Introduced into England by Benjamin
Torin in 1771, or perhaps a little earlier.
Wisteria, American (40, 43) Wisteria frutescens (L. )
Poiret
Native from Virginia, south to Florida and Alabama. Intro-
duced in England in 1724 by Mark Catesby.
Witherod (43) Viburnum cassinoides L.
Native from Newfoundland to Ontario, south to Alabama
and Tennessee. Cultivated in England in 1761 by Mr. James
Gordon.
Yew, English Yew (5, 10, 43) Probably Taxus baccata L.
Native in Europe and Western Asia. Cultivated since ancient
times.
Gentlewomen if the ground be not too wet may doe themselves
much good by kneeling upon a cushion and weeding. The Art of
Simpling, by William Coles, London, 1656.
246 I ARNOLDIA
IX Fruits and Fluts, 1 700 to 1 7 76
Blackberry (23, 38) Rubus sp.
Fruits of various species of Rubus were collected from plants
growing spontaneously in hedge-rows. Blackberries were not
cultivated until 1832.
Chestnut (5) Castanea dentata
(Marshall) Borkh.
Native from Maine to Minnesota, south to Florida and Mis-
sissippi.
Chestnut, French (5) Castanea sativa Miller
Native in southern Europe, western Asia and North Africa.
Cultivated by Thomas Jefferson in 1773.
Crab Apple Malus angustifolia (Aiton) Michx.
Native from Virginia to Florida and Mississippi. Introduced
into cultivation in Britain in 1725.
Cranberry (23) Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton
Newfoundland to Minnesota, south to North Carolina and
Arkansas. Fruit collected in the wild from early colonial times,
but not cultivated until about 1820.
Currant, European Black (24) Ribes nigrum L.
Native in Europe and northern and central Asia. Long cul-
tivated.
Mulberry, White (5, 41, 43) Morus alba L.
Native of China and Japan. Cultivated in America about
1660.
— - — Mulberry, Red Morus rubra L.
Native from Vermont to South Dakota, south to Florida and
Texas. Cultivated in Britain in 1629.
Olive (5) Olea europaea L.
Native in the Mediterranean region. Cultivated in South
Carolina in 1775.
Colonial Gardens I 247
Bibliography
1. Abercrombie, John. The Gardener’s Daily Assistant. London.
1786.
2. American Garden Milestones. Flower Grower Magazine. V. 46,
No. 12. New York. Dec. 1959. p. 24.
3. Bailey, Liberty Hyde. The Standard Cyclopedia of American
Horticulture. The Macmillan Co. New York. V. I, II, III. 1933.
4. Bailey, Liberty Hyde and Bailey, Ethel Zoe. Hortus Second.
The Macmillan Co. New York. 1947.
5. Betts, Edwin Morris. Thomas Jefferson’s Garden Book. The
American Philosophical Society. Memoirs. V. XXII. Phila-
delphia. 1944.
6. Bourne, H. The Florist’s Manual. Monroe and Francis, Pub-
lishers. Boston. 1833.
7. Clapham, A. R., Tuton, T. G., and Warburg, E. F. Flora of the
British Isles. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. 1952.
8. Favretti, Rudy J. Early New England Gardens, 1620-1840. Old
Sturbridge Village, Sturbridge, Mass. 1962.
9. Favretti, Rudy J. New England Colonial Gardens. Pequot Press.
Stonington, Conn. 1964.
10. Fisher, Robert B. The Mount Vernon Gardens. The Mount Ver-
non Ladies’ Association. Mount Vernon, Va. 1960.
11. Fogg, John M. Common Weeds from Europe. Published in
Origins of American Horticulture, A Handbook. V. 23, No. 3.
Brooklyn Botanic Garden. New York. Autumn, 1967.
12. Gerarde, John. Herball (Or Generali Historic of Plantes ). Lon-
don. John Norton. 1597.
13. Hedrick, U. P. A History of Horticulture in America to 1860.
Oxford University Press. New York. 1950.
14. Hedrick, U. P. et al. The Cherries of New York. Ann. Rep’t.
N. Y. Agr. Expt. Sta. No. 22, Vol. 2, Pt. II J. B. Lyon Co.
Albany, N. Y. 1915.
15. Hedrick, U. P. et al. The Grapes of New York. Ann. Rep’t.
N. Y. Agr. Expt. Sta. No. 15, Vol. 3, Pt. II. J. B. Lyon Co.
Albany, N. Y. 1908.
16. Hedrick, U. P. et al. The Peaches of New York. Ann. Rep’t.
N. Y. Agr. Expt. Sta. No. 24, Vol. 2, Pt. II. J. B. Lyon Co.
Albany, N. Y. 1917.
17. Hedrick, U. P. et al. The Pears of New York. Ann. Rep’t. N. Y.
Agr. Expt. Sta. No. 29, Vol. 2, Pt. II. J. B. Lyon Co. Albany,
N. Y. 1921.
18. Hedrick, U. P. et al. The Plums of New York. Ann. Rep’t.
N. Y. Agr. Expt. Sta. No. 18, Vol. 3, Pt. II. J. B. Lyon Co.
Albany, N. Y. 1911.
19. Hedrick, U. P. et al. The Small Fruits of New York. Ann. Rep’t.
N. Y. Agr. Expt. Sta. No. 31, Pt. II. J. B. Lyon Co. Albany,
N. Y. 1925.
20. Hedrick, U. P. (ed.) Sturtevant’s Notes on Edible Plants. Ann.
Rep’t. N. Y. Agr. Expt. Sta. No. 27, Vol. 2, Pt. II. J. B. Lyon
Co. Albany, N. Y. 1919.
21. Hughes, William. The Flower Garden and Compleat Vinyard.
3rd edition. London. 1683.
248 | ARNOLDIA
22. Josselyn, John. New England Rarities. London. 1673.
23. Kalm, Peter. Travels in North America , The America of 1750.
Dover Publications. New York. V. I. 1964.
24. Kalm, Peter. Travels in North America, The America of 1750.
Dover Publications. New York. V. II. 1964.
25. Kammerer, E. L. What Woody Plants Were Used in American
Colonial Gardens. Morton Arboretum Bulletin, Lisle, 111. V.
22, No. 2, Feb. 1947.
26. Lawson, William. The Country Housewife’s Garden. London.
1617.
27. Lyte, H. (Trans.) R. Dodoens, A. Niewe Herbal . . . London.
Gerard Dewes. 1578.
28. Manks, Dorothy S. How the American Nursery Trade Began,
published in Origins of American Horticulture, A Handbook.
V. 23, No. 3. Brooklyn Botanic Garden. New York. Autumn
1967. p. 4.
29. Manks, Dorothy S. Early American Nurserymen and Seedsmen,
published in Origins of American Horticulture, A Handbook.
V. 23, No. 3. Brooklyn Botanic Garden. New York. Autumn
1967. p. 75.
30. Miller, Phillip. The Gardener’s Dictionary, ed. 7. London.
1759.
31. Miller, Phillip. (Thomas Martyn, ed.) The Gardener’s Diction-
ary. London. 1797—1804.
32. Parkinson, John. Paradisi in Sole, Paradisus Terrestris. London.
1629.
33. Parkinson, John. Theatrum Botanicum . . . London. 1640.
34. Platt, Sir Hugh (Knight). The Garden of Eden. 5th ed. Lon-
don. 1659.
35. Rea, John (Gent. ) Flora: Sev De Florum Cultura. London. 1665.
36. Richardson, Josiah. The New England Farrier and Family Phy-
sician. Exeter, N.H. 1828. pp. 56 and 379.
37. Rockwell, Fred F. and Grayson, Esther C. The Complete Book
of Annuals. American Garden Guild and Doubleday and Co.,
Inc. Garden City, New York. 1955. p. 181.
38. Sargent, C. S. Extracts from General Washington’s Diary Re-
lating to Trees and Plants (Handwritten Manuscript). Bos-
ton Athenaeum.
39. Slade, Daniel P. Evolution of Horticulture in New England.
Knickerbocker Press. New York. 1895.
40. Taylor, Raymond L. Plants of Colonial Days. Colonial Williams-
burg. 1968 edition.
41. Thompson, Homer C. Vegetable Crops. 4th edition. McGraw
Hill Book Co., Inc. New York. 1949.
42. Wilder, Marshall P. The Horticulture of Boston and Vicinity.
Tolman and White. Boston, Mass. 1881.
43. Williamsburg: Authentic Plant Materials for Gardens of Colonial
Williamsburg. Williamsburg Garden Symposium Mimeo-
graph. Williamsburg, Va.
44. Worcester County Horticultural Society: List and Order Sheet
of Scions for Grafting. Worcester County Horticultural
Society, 30 Elm Street, Worcester, Mass.
Colonial Gardens I 249
45. Wyman, Donald. Introductory Dates of Familiar Trees, Shrubs
and Vines. Origins of American Horticulture, A Handbook.
V. 23, No. 3. Brooklyn Botanic Garden. New York. Autumn
1967. p. 87.
46. Wyman, Donald. Shrubs and Vines for American Gardens. The
Macmillan Co. New York. 1949.
47. Wyman, Donald. Trees for American Gardens. The Macmillan
Co. New York. 1951.
Rudy J. Favretti
Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr.
250 I ARNOLDIA
Some Additional Sources of Information
Chronologically Arranged
The great value of a library is that it preserves the records
of the work of one generation so that subsequent generations
may benefit from them. Interest in the cultivated plants of the
American colonies is not new. Records of the plants cultivated
by the Indians were made by the first explorers of our continent.
Travellers and residents throughout the colonial period recorded
information on the plants that were under cultivation. The
newspapers in the colonies carried advertisements of plants and
seeds offered for sale. In recent years biographies of early hor-
ticulturists and botanists have added much to our knowledge.
The following list of book titles does not pretend to be com-
plete. Indeed, many important titles, published in the nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries have been omitted. However, in
conjunction with the lists of titles given in the preceding articles,
the inquiring reader can make a beginning on the study of the
cultivated plants of the colonial period.
1588 Harriot, Thomas. A Brief e and True Report of the New Found
Land of Virginia . . .
London.
Frankfort am Maine: I. Wechel. 1590
1608 Smith, John. A True Relation of such Occurance and Acci-
dents of Noate as hath hapned in Virginia . . .
London: J. Tappe
1611 Lascarbot, Marc. Histoire de la Nouvelle-France . . . (ed. 2)
Paris.
1612 Smith, John. A Map of Virginia, with a Description . . .
Oxford: J. Barnes.
1614 Smith, John. A Description of New England . . .
London: H. Lownes.
1624 Smith, John. General Historie of Virginia, New England, and
the Summer Isles
London: I. D. and I. H. (1626, 1632)
1630 Higginson, Francis. New England’s Plantation
London: T. C. and R. C. for M. Sparke.
1634 Wood, William. New England’s Prospect
London: Tho. Cotes, (ed. 2, 1635)
1636 Sagard-Theodat, Gabriel. Histoire du Canada
Paris.
1637 Morton, Thomas. New English Canaan
Amsterdam: Jacob Frederick Stam.
1650 Williams, Edward. Virginia . . . (ed. 2)
London: T. H. for J. Stephenson.
Colonial Gardens I 251
1654 Johnson, Edward. A History of New England . . . [Wonder
Working Providence of Sions Savior in New England ]
London: Nath. Brooke. [1653]
1655 Hartlib, Samuel. The Reformed Virginian Silkworm . . .
London: G. Calvert.
1656 Tradescant, John (Jr.). Museum Trade scantianum . . .
London: John Grismond.
1670 Denton, Daniel. A Briefe Description of New York . . .
London: John Hancock.
1672 Josselyn, John. New England’s Rarities Discovered . . .
London: Giles Widdowes.
1674 Josselyn, John. An Account of Two Voyages to New En-
gland . . .
London: Giles Widdowes.
1682 Ash, Thomas. Carolina, or a Description of the Present State
of that Country
London.
1682 Wilson, Samuel. An Account of the Province of Carolina . . .
London: G. Larkin for F. Smith.
1683 Penn, William. Letter from William Penn to the Committee
of the Free Society of Traders.
London: Andrew Sowle.
1703 La Hontan, Armand Louis, Baron de Nouveaux. New Voyages
to North America . . . [Engl. Trans.]
London: H. Bonwicke, T. Goodwin, M. Wotton & B. Tooke.
1709 Lawson, John. A New Voyage to Carolina ...
London.
1710 Anon. The Husbandman’s Guide
Boston, Mass.: John Allen for Eleazor Phillips, (ed. 2, 1712)
1714 Lawson, John. The History of Carolina . . .
London: W. Taylor and F. Baker
1724 Jones, Hugh. The Present State of Virginia
London: J. Clarke.
1731— Catesby, Mark. Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the
43 Bahama Islands
London: The Author. (Ed. 2, 1754, Ed. 3, 1771)
1737 Brickell, John. The Natural History of North Carolina . . .
Dublin: J. Carson.
1742 Golden, Cadwallader. Plantae Coldenhamiae
Uppsala.
1751 Bartram, John. Observations . . .
London: J. Whiston and B. White
1758 Le Page du Pratz. Histoire de la Louisiane . . . (3vols.)
Paris: DeBure. (English ed. in 2 vols., London: T. Becket and
P. A. DeHondt. 1763)
1758 Pullein, Samuel. The Culture of Silk: or an Essay for the
Use of the American Colonies
London: A. Miller.
1759 Acrelius, Israel. Description of the Farmer and Present State
of New Sweden (English trans. publ. in Memoirs of the
Pennsylvania Historical Society, Philadelphia, 1874)
Stockholm: Harberg & Hesselberg
252
ARNOLDIA
1760- Jefferys, Thomas. The Natural and Civil History of the
61 French Dominions
London.
1763 Catesby, Mark. Hortus Britanico-Americanus . . .
London: W. Richardson and S. Clark.
1765 Smith, Samuel. The History of the Colony of Nova-Caesaria,
or New Jersey
Burlington, N.J.: J. Parker.
1766 Eliot, Jared. Essays upon Field-Husbandry in New En-
gland . . .
Boston: Edes and Gill (“The Foregoing essays were first
printed in New London and New York; ...” between
1748 and 1759)
1770- Kalm, Pehr. Travels into North America . . . (Trans, fr. the
71 Swedish ed. of 1753—61)
London: Warrington.
1775 (?Mallat, Robert X. ?) American Husbandry (2 vols.)
London: Bew.
1778 Carver, Jonathan. Travels Through the Interior Parts of
North America . . .
London.
1782 Crevecoeur, Michel Guillaume St. John de (St. John, J. Hector,
pseud.). Letters from an American Farmer . . .
London: Thomas Davies and Luckyer Davis.
1785 Cutler, Manasseh. An Account of some of the Vegetable Pro-
ductions Naturally Groiving in this Part of America, Botan-
ically Arranged. Memoirs of the American Academy . . .
1 : 396^93.
1785 Marshall, Humphrey. Arbustrum Americanum: The American
Grove . . .
Philadelphia: J. Crukshank.
1784— Belknap, Jeremy. History of New Hampshire ( Forest Trees
92 and other Vegetable Productions in vol. 3:96—127)
Philadelphia: Robert Aitken.
1787 Squibb, Robert. The Gardener’s Calendar for the State of
North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia
Charleston.
1789 Anburey, Thomas. Travels Through the Interior Parts of
America (2 vols.)
London: William Lane.
1790 Deane, Samuel. The New England Farmer ; or Georgical Dic-
tionary . . .
Worcester and Boston: Isaiah Thomas.
1791 Bartram, William. Travels through Carolina, Georgia, Flor-
ida . . .
Philadelphia: James and Johnson.
1792 Eddis, William. Letters from America . . .
London: The Author
1792 Imray. Description of the Western Territory of North America
London.
1794 Williams, Samuel. Natural and Civil History of Vermont
( Forest Trees, Esculent and Medicinal Vegetables pp. 67—71)
Walpole, New Hampshire: Isaiah Thomas and David Carlisle.
Colonial Gardens I 253
1796 Dabney, John. An Address to Farmers ... To which is
added an appendix containing the most approved methods
for the management and improvement of tillage.
Salem, Mass.: J. Dabney.
1799 Marshall, Charles. An Introduction to the Knowledge and
Practice of Gardening . . . (1st American ed. from the
2nd London ed. )
Boston: J. Nancrede.
* * *
1849 Darlington, Wm. Memorials of John Bartram and Humphrey
Marshall . . .
Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston.
1879 Pickering, C. Chronological History of Plants: . . .
Boston.
1895 Slade, D. D. The Evolution of Horticulture in New England
New York and London: Putnam’s Sons.
1927 Woodward, C. R. The Development of Agriculture in New
Jersey, 1640-1880
New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 451.
1933 Gray, L. C. History of Agriculture in the Southern United
States to 1860
Washington: The Carnegie Institution of Washington.
1933 Hedrick, U. P. A History of Agriculture in New York
Albany, N.Y. : New York State Agricultural Society.
1958 Bartram, W. (edited by Harper, Francis) Travells
New Haven: Yale University Press.
1961 Frick, G. F. and Stearns, R. P. Mark Catesby, The Colonial
Audubon
Urbana, 111.: University of Illinois.
1963 Berkeley, E. and Berkeley, D. C. John Clayton, Pioneer of
American Botany
Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina.
1964 Allen, M. The Tradescants, Their Plants, Gardens, and Mu-
seum, 1570—1662
London: Michael Joseph.
1969 Berkeley, E. and Berkeley, D. C. Dr. Alexander Garden of
Charles Town
Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina.
Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr.
2 Cast /men Equina cum flore,
Horfe Cheftnnt tree in floure.
Above and right from the Herball by John Gerarde. London, 1597.
$ 3 Sjrixga ^4rdica»
Arabian Pipe.
Notes from the Arnold Arboretum
Propagation of Fothergilla
By Seed
There is little latitude in collection time of Fothergilla seeds.
In the Boston area the fruits ripen about mid-September. They
consist of capsules which shrink as they dry and bring pressure
to bear on the seeds within. Finally, with a sharp snapping
sound, the smooth, shiny seeds are ejected. By this dispersal
adaptation the seeds are propelled away and will not be in
competition with the parent plant. Scattering commences about
mid-September and in a few days all are dispersed. To harvest
the seeds one must watch the fruits carefully, and when they
have turned from green to gray-brown, gather them just before
they pop. After collection the capsules are placed in a warm, dry
location in a container such as a paper bag fastened at the
opening with a paper clip. If not confined, the seeds will be
strewn all over the area as they are dispelled. In a few days the
seeds will have popped and can be separated from the capsules
by screening.
Seeds of Fothergilla major and F. gardenii have proved to be
doubly dormant (two year seeds) and pretreatment must be
done in two stages. To be prepared for germination they require
warm fluctuating temperatures followed by a period of cold.
Pretreatment may be done in polyethylene plastic bags which
have the property of being air-permeable yet vapor-proof, mak-
ing them ideal for seed stratification.
The stratification medium can be composed of one-half sand
and one-half peat moss mixed together and dampened. Empha-
sis is placed on the word “dampened” for a wet soggy medium
could exclude sufficient oxygen. In proportion the medium
should be two or three times the volume of the seeds. The
seeds are combined with the medium and the mixture is placed
256
Arboretum Notes | 257 \
in the polyethylene bag which is bound with a rubber band «
making it vapor proof. ■
For the warm period of stratification the unit is placed in a
location such as a greenhouse bench, window sill or similar site
where the day and night temperature will fluctuate. However,
direct sun should be avoided for it could lead to a detrimental i
build-up of heat. Fothergilla major seeds have required excep- I
tionally long periods of warm stratification with 12 months
being optimum. After warm treatment they are transferred to !
a 40° refrigerator for 3 months. This satisfies the cold require-
ment and the seeds are ready to be sown. A high percentage of
germination can be expected in about 2 weeks. Fothergilla J
gardenii has germinated well after 6 months of warm pretreat-
ment followed by 3 months at 40°. An alternative procedure to
prepare Fothergilla seeds would be to sow them out-of-doors. In j
this case seeds sown in autumn of 1971 would be expected to
germinate in spring of 1973.
|
Layering
Layering provides a simple and reliable method which enables j
an amateur to produce plants of Fothergilla. Any branch pliable j
enough to be bent to the ground is suitable for layering. Fairly
large sized branches can be used and they will lead to faster
production of flowering specimens. A favorable time to layer is
early spring before the plant comes into leaf. A narrow trench
3 or 4 inches deep and a foot or so long is excavated where the '
branch arches down to the soil. Place the branch in the trench
in such a manner that the last foot or so can be bent to a vertical
position. In the area of the bend, remove a 4- or 5-inch slice ■
from the lower part of the branch. Next peg the branch down
firmly in the area of the cut with a large wire staple made from
a coat hanger or other wire and refill the trench. Filling the
trench and placing a stone on the surface of the soil is satis-
factory. The branch tip is next brought to a vertical position and j
staked so it will remain that way. After two growing seasons the
layer will have sufficient roots to be severed from the parent 1
plant. j
Division
Fothergilla plants can be increased by division. To do this,
select a portion of the plant with stems that seem separable.
With a spade or mattock, cut it away making certain to retain as
many roots as possible.
FothergiUa seedlings two months old. These seedlings did not survive
the first winter. Photo: Alfred Fordham.
Grafting
FothergiUa species can be propagated by grafting in winter
using established understocks of Hamamelis virginiana. This
practice is unjustified, however, for FothergiUa roots well from
cuttings. Shoots arising from the understocks of grafted plants
can create a nuisance which is averted when propagants are on
their own roots.
Cuttings
Both species of FothergiUa root weU from softwood cuttings. Ci
In the Boston area a favorable time to take cuttings has been in
the past about the third week in June. Cuttings can be treated i,
with any of several available root-inducing substances contain- f,
ing IBA at the rate of 8 m. to a gram of talc. jj
Arboretum Notes I 259
Although Fothergilla cuttings form roots readily the resulting
plants may have trouble surviving the first winter. When
transplanted after rooting they go into a dormancy from which
they never recover. Such loss can be avoided if the cuttings are
not disturbed after they have rooted. At the Arnold Arboretum
we accomplish this by filling plastic flats with a medium con-
sisting of one half sand and one half horticultural grade Perlite.
The cuttings are inserted and the units are placed either under
mist or in polyethylene chambers. Either has been satisfactory
for propagating Fothergilla. When rooted, the cuttings are left
in the flats and hardened off. In the autumn the flats of dormant
cuttings are transferred to our cold storage unit which is
maintained at about 34°. In February or March, depending on
convenience to the work schedule, the flats are returned to a
warm greenhouse. When new growth appears the cuttings are
moved to peat pots if they are to be planted out in spring or to
two-quart containers in which they can be grown for the first
year.
Alfred J. Fordham
Correction
Through error the Table of Contents for the January issue of
Arnoldia lists the author of the article “Robert Fortune and the
Cultivation of Tea in the United States” as Robert Gardener.
The correct name of the author is William Gardener.
i
Pirus.cije^eacetm,
I
i
Detail from New England Dooryard
(see front cover).
From A Niewe Herball by D. Rembert Dodoens, tr. by Henry Lyte.
•ndon, 1578.
ARNOLDIA is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum
of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
ARNOLDIA
The Arnold Arboretum
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LIBRARY
OCT 1 197)
NEW YORK
BOTANICAL GARDEN
Contents
261 An Informal History of Bonsai
CHARLES R. LONG
274 Bonsai: Nature in Miniature
DONALD M. VINING
284 Plants in Early Japanese Poetry
SALLY LINDFORS SULLIVAN
294 Notes from the Arnold Arboretum
294 Japanese Theory — American
Practice
CONSTANCE E. DERDERIAN
297 Propagation of Some Aged
Bonsai
ALFRED J. FORDHAM
302 ARNOLDIA REVIEWS
ARNOLDIA is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum
of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Mass. 02130
Published six times a year: on the 15th of January,
March, May, July, September, and November
Subscriptions: $3.50 per year. Single copies, 60 cents
Second-Class Postage Paid at Boston, Mass.
Cover: Sandstone islets with Pinus thunbergii. In foreground is Pinus
densiflora. Photo: E. H. Wilson, Japan, 1914.
An Informal History
of Bonsai
One of the few positive aspects of human warfare is the in-
evitable blending of cultures which takes place immediately upon
the cessation of hostile activities. For a short but crucial period
the victor is exposed to the best and worst of the former enemy,
and vice-versa. In the wake of World War II American society
has responded with elan to this exposure and to the widest
possible variety of things Japanese. Typical of this has been
the popularity of the shibui object, understated elegance in
home design, house furnishings, and gardens, and a renewed
interest in oriental arts and crafts.
Immediately after the close of hostilities in 1945 a flood of
occupation forces, and, a bit later, trade representatives, began
short tours of duty in Japan. In the ten years between 1945
and 1955, hundreds of thousands of Americans spent time in
Japan. Persons from every walk of American society enjoyed
this cross-cultural experience, one which formerly had been
confined to diplomats, businessmen and the affluent. (In fact
even through the war years Japan and the Japanese remained
a sort of abstraction to the bulk of the American population.)
Among those multitudinous aspects of Japanese culture which
remained in mind was the feeling conveyed to the westerners
by those small, carefully trained but artless and natural ap-
pearing trees contained by glazed or unglazed pottery contain-
ers — the bonsai.
Americans, who will celebrate the 200th anniversary of their
country’s founding in 1976, were faced with the living cultural
artifacts of a nation which, although like the Americans in
having been the result of wave after wave of migrations, had
nearly 2,000 years of in situ cultural history. Indeed some of
the bonsai were twice as old as the American nation! Little
wonder that popular authors referred to the “mysterious” culture
techniques, since bonsai were another facet of the “inscrutable”
261
262 | ARNOLDIA
orient! In addition to age which never fails to intrigue Ameri-
cans, the living trees, many of which only simulate age, also
convey other admirable qualities which would entrance les
nouveaux venus of every age — endurance, natural beauty and
understated strength.
Although many treasures were destroyed during the war, and
many living gardens and bonsai were lost for lack of care and
watering, one can only wonder at the large number of very old
trees which survived. And, unlike other works of art, living
treasures required great care after substantial initial investment.
Since the importation of living plants involves permit procedures
of some complexity very few bonsai came to the United States
in the postwar years. However, the small trees are such an
ubiquitous part of Japanese life that it is safe to say that tens
of thousands say, enjoyed, and cherished the idea of bonsai.
There were several day-to-day indications that bonsai had
captured the American imagination. Christmas cards printed
in Japan for Americans featured a dwarf tree motif. In the
mid-1950’s American florist and gift shops blossomed with
non-living dwarf trees concocted from driftwood or weathered
branches topped with a flattened gray lichen to simulate foliage.
A species of Filago, a flat perennial herb of the Composite fam-
ily, was imported from India at this time for similar use. These
“ming” trees were American equivalents of similarly artificial
trees popular among the Chinese for household decor often
fashioned from carved semi-precious stones. One of the earliest
popular articles entitled “How to Make a Tree” [living] appeared
in the March 1950 issue of American Homes Magazine. A flood
of publications to follow in the 1960’s would demythologize the
art for the American public. The strong economic bonds be-
tween the United States and Japan has allowed the initial cul-
tural flow to continue through the 1970’s. As more Americans
were able to visit Japan and bonsai materials began to be ex-
ported local groups were formed particularly in California
where many Americans of Japanese ancestry were leaders in the
foundation of the California Bonsai Society in 1950. Later a
national organization, the American Bonsai Society, with nu-
merous affiliates, was organized in 1967.
Before we look at the early movement of bonsai in the West
or at the earliest examples from China perhaps we should con-
sider the development of the art in Japan, the country with the
earliest leading exponents in modern times, the coiners of the
term itself (derived from the Chinese word pen tsai ), and the
“ Stories of Ladies” by Chin Ying ( Ming Period 1368-1644 ) Top: Terrace
scene with screen, lacquer table, small potted tree. Bottom: Garden with
potted plants and small trees. An aptly named era ( Ming means bright ),
it was an era of native rule first in Nanking then in Peking. Fogg Art
Museum, Oriental Dept., Harvard University.
264 ( ARNOLDIA
country which has the largest current number of practitioners.
(An early use of the word bonsai appears in the Seiwanmyoen -
Zushi published in Osaka in 1875.) For, as we shall see, while
many styles of training trees and schools of culture have de-
veloped into cults in Japan, and while the culturing of the trees
there is centuries old, there is evidence that the art was flourish-
ing in China before the Sung Period (960-1279).
The introduction of Buddhism to Japan about 550 is very
important in considering the history of bonsai for it was in the
centuries immediately after that the cultural flowering of China
during the T’ang period (618-906) flowed to Japan. Zen
Buddhism was to become a popular religion and forever after
to touch the weft of Japanese life. With Zen comes the perfec-
tion of the miniature and the associated ideals of self discipline
and the emulation of Nature. Potted trees kept small could
serve as objects of contemplation as well as decoration. Within
the temples small landscapes and gardens were used symboli-
cally to represent Horai-san, the sacred Taoist mountain of
eternal youth. Trees and shrubs in the ground were pruned for
natural effects so that via miniaturization a natural contem-
plative scene could be achieved. Pen tsai may have originated
from transferring small trees from small landscape dramas
and/or by artful pruning of larger potted trees used as relief
against the traditional oval, rectangular and square motifs of
courts, furniture and most man-made construction. Strong cul-
tural exchanges between Japan and China began early — during
the Fujiwara Era (794-1192). Earlier the Japanese had been
awed by the wealth and sophistication of the Chinese Court.
The customs and religion of China were adopted in part by the
ruling classes of Japan.
Among early Japanese art works still extant which show
dwarf trees is the scroll Tsurezure Gusa by Kenko Yoshida
(1283-1351) and the fifth part of the twenty-scroll Kasuga
Gongen Kenki by Takakone Takashima executed in 1309. Much
later, in 1890, Tomioka Tessai (1837-1924) painting in a style
reminiscent of earlier Chinese artists of the T’ang Period (618-
906) produced a scroll depicting two trees in the natural style.
In the Japanese literary realm the earliest reference to bonsai
occurs in a document dating to 1095 in which the cultivation
of bonsai is related as an elegant activity for the samurai. Thus,
only four hundred years after Buddhism was made a part of the
state religion (in 685), the technique of bonsai cultivation
received official approbation for the ruling class. In his collec-
tion of essays entitled Tsurezure Gusa, Kenko Yoshida criticized
Unsigned work from the Sung Period (960—1279). Pinus sp., p’en tsai on
garden table. The Sung was a time characterized by a rise in commercial-
ism and education. The Sung artists depicted the nouveau riche of their
time. From The Pageant of Chinese Painting. Otsuke Kogeisha, Tokyo,
1936.
the bad taste of enjoying deformed trees and disproves that this
form was preferred by those of his time. In the Noh drama
Hachi-no-ki of the Muromachi Period (1334-1573) the author
Zeami (1363-1443) develops a story about the fifth ruler of the
Kamakura government who, wandering as a monk, is welcomed
to the humble house of a discredited samurai. The latter is
willing to sacrifice a cherished bonsai to warm the visitor. As
a consequence the official is restored, and three flowering trees,
266 | ARNOLDIA
the apricot, cherry and pine, are established as bonsai favorites
— as these were made as gifts from the ruler to the filial servant.
There is also the legend of Hikozaemon Okubo, an elder states-
man, in the government of the third Tokugawa Shogun, Iemitsu
(1623-51), who threw down his most cherished bonsai while
admonishing his ruler. In modern times post-World War II
Prime Ministers have been bonsai enthusiasts following the lead
of Count Okubo of the 17th century and Kujoji Itoh of the late
19th century.
Records from the Edo Period (1615-1868) testify to the
vogue of potted trees, and of such a kind as to rival the tulipo-
mania of the 17th century Europe or the pteridomania of Vic-
torian times. According to the knowledgeable Chuzo Onuki
prices for potted trees went beyond bounds: “As an example,
according to a publication of this period named Koshienyawa,
certain trees were bought and sold at exhorbitant rates according
to the number of buds growing on them.”
Variegated forms of plants requiring potted culture became
very popular at this time and aided the focus on the use of pots
for trees and shrubs.
In the late 19th century the Meiji Restoration marked the
beginnings of modem Japan. The country was opened to world
trade and industrialization. Urban centers were born. Also at
this time the influence of the literati painters, an aesthetic
movement in the arts which interpreted nature in terms of
human values and which was influenced by earlier Chinese art,
was being felt. Small potted trees were natural objects for the
expression of the Nanga forms and tastes. Although this school
was centered in Kyoto and Osaka, the traditional cultural capi-
tals of Japan, by the time of the turn of the century, members
of the new political and cultural class centered in Tokyo were
vying with each other in garden-making and bonsai culture.
(This forms a parallel with the rivalries among the nouveau
riche of New York society at about the same time.)
The early 20th century saw the formation of bonsai promo-
tion groups with publications, auctions and exchanges. In
October, 1927, bonsai from the Imperial Household Collection
were exhibited at the public ceremonies held to honor the
accession of Emperor Hirohito. This symbolic act reinforced
in the public’s mind the beauty and desirability of bonsai just
as the Emperor Meiji’s encouragement of the art had fueled
the fad in an earlier era.
Perhaps one of the best sources for the verification of craft
or custom is the record of the early travellers. In the case of the
An Informal History of Bonsai | 267
Orient, which was truly opened to the West only during the 19th
and 20th centuries, these records are a staple of historical
research.
Among those curious and delightful accounts of Japan pub-
lished early in this century, the daily record kept by Marie
Slopes is one to read. Her observations rendered the incongruity
of upper class life in Japan as measured against that which she
knew in England: “He has also a fine collection of dwarf trees,
and I watched one of his gardeners pruning a mighty forest of
pines three inches high, growing on a headland jutting out to
sea in a porcelain dish.” This and other observations of the
home of Count Okuxna contain a subtle humor which as we look
back on the Victorian parlor clutter and love of the material,
sound outrageously judgmental. We must assume that Miss
Stopes found the typical English drawing room of her day as
incongruous. Later during a short illness, while describing the
simple beauty of her room appointments, Miss Stopes mentions
“a little bent and twisted tree” which grew in “a flat earthenware
bowl.”
'When one thinks of travellers in the modem sense, Robert
Fortune of the mid- 1800’s serves as a model. He travelled far
and seemed to miss nothing along the way. But this detailing
which in other men might be cause for skepticism has been
largely verified by later visitors. Fortune’s observations are most
important since he was looking for plants to send back to
England, and searched out nurseries and gardens. Cultivation
of Acorus was observed using porcelain pots, and which with
the addition of rocks containing mineral crystals formed an
imitative landscape (the modem, term in Japanese is senkei ).
Fortune characterizes the garden containing these as haring “a
novel and striking effect.” This early phrase contains much of
the essence of bonsai. He goes on: “In Japan, as in China,
dwarf plants are greatly esteemed; and the art of dwarfing has
been brought to a high state of perfection.”
In the fall of 1843, Fortune visited Ning-po, continuing his
voyage up the eastern coast. In visits to gardens of some of the
Mandarins in this city he noted dwarf trees. Among these were
also trees formed to resemble animals — ■ a form of oriental
topiary. The presence of bonsai in China at this time may be
explained as indigenous. Trading from the east coast to Japan
had been common for a thousand years, which may be another
way in which dwarfing of trees became common in geographical
regions of both countries. Fortune also observed culture tech-
niques for dwarf trees and commented on the species used by
268 | ARNOLDIA
the Chinese. Fortune’s acute observations on technique, long
overlooked in the West, could be a succinct vade mecum for
any fancier.
In the introduction to the narrative of the U.S. Expedition
to Japan, Francis Hawks mentions the wonderful dwarfing skills
of the Japanese: “. . . may be seen, in the miniature gardens
of the towns, perfectly mature trees, of various kinds, not
more than three feet high, and with heads about three feet in
diameter. These dwarfed trees are often placed in flower pots.
Fischer says that he saw in a box four inches long, one and a
half wide, and six in height, a bamboo, a fir, and a plum tree,
all thriving, and the latter in full bloom.”
In the West little notice of bonsai was taken until the London
Exhibition of 1909 when an exporter, Mr. Sato, brought a dis-
play collection from Japan. Later he held private showings in
New York. This entrepreneurial activity may have been spurred
by plants presented as gifts to officials by the Japanese, or by
individual specimens brought back by devotees of the grand
tour. Previous to this in the United States Leonard and Compa-
ny of Boston had a four-day auction of over 450 plants imported
by Yamanako and Company. These plants were advertised as
“3 year acclimated” and were sold in antique Chinese and
Japanese containers. In 1911 the Ernest Francs collection came
to New York (now at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden) and in
1913 a collection of dwarf trees was exported to the United
States for Ambassador Larz Anderson (later given to the Arnold
Arboretum in 1937).
Many of the imported trees were doomed, since the literature
available in western languages was sparse until the postwar
period. (The stringent Federal Horticultural Board Embargo
earlier in the century had dampened the enthusiasm for plant
importation.) Short general articles appeared in the Gardeners’
Chronicle of America in 1922, in the Journal Horticole et de
Viticulture de Suisse in 1909 and in the Tribune Horticole in
1932. A perceptive article on the Larz Anderson Collection
written by Elinor Guthrie appeared in the June 1937 issue of
House Beautiful.
Information on techniques of growing were not readily avail-
able to the Wegt until the mid-1950s and later. The charge of
some popular writers that the techniques of dwarfing “have
been clothed in secrecy by the orientals” is unfair. The lack
of competent translated works was the real brake on popular
acceptance by the gardening public.
But to turn to the third geographical area of interest in the
“ The Drooping Pine” by Li Shih Hsin ( Yuan Dynasty 1280-1368'). From
the collection of Mr. S. M. Siu of Hong Kong, in “Chinese Ancient Paint-
ings Collected by S. M. Siu.”
history of bonsai, we come to China. Bonsai are closely asso-
ciated with Japan in the American mind. Many Japanese
authors trace the word itself to growers in Azakusa Park in the
mid- 19th century of Japan. However we call them, bonsai or
pen tsai, it has become clear that the growing of small trees in
pots has a long history in Japan and China. Further, it seems
that the recent history of Japan and its close contacts with the
United States has strongly influenced writers of popular works
whose access to information on Chinese customs has been more
limited.
[V I4' ^ ^ [V r-,» oV^Ci <&
/v a^?Rl®r ip* ^r.7^ ,^~ Wo* .^j>- A "£ q. *p»-
Old tree, by an artist named Li Tang, the Southern Sung Dynasty (12th-
13th century). From The Pageant of Chinese Painting, Otsuke Kogeisha,
Tokyo, 1936.
The best evidence of Chinese antecedents for bonsai conies
from scrolls and screens preserved to this day. For example
from the Sung Period (960-1279) we have an unsigned work
with figures seated about a table and a bonsai ( Pinus sp.) in
the lower left foreground [see The Pageant of Chinese Painting ].
Other paintings from the Sung Period include Lady at a Dress-
ing Table and Children Playing with Tops on a Garden Terrace
by Su Hon-ch’en active about 1124-1162 AD.
From the Ming Period (1368-1644) there is an anonymous
work which includes a bonsai as an interior feature of a
household [see Masterpieces of Sung, Yuan, Ming and Ch’ing
Painting], A work by Ch’on Ying depicts large artfully trained
trees in porcelain tubs flanking a stair (a work executed in
Japan), and those of another work by the same artist show a
tree kept small but with roots in the ground. Those in the small
tubs are certainly bonsai in the modern sense.
The Ming paintings Stories of Ladies executed by Chin Ying
are delightful vignettes of court life. Two of these depict bonsai
which modern fanciers would be proud to own. The first shows
a terrace scene where a lady is busying herself at a long lacquer
table in front of a large screen; on the terrace and used by the
artist as a focal counterpoint is an unmistakable bonsai. An-
An Informal History of Bonsai | 271
other scene shows a garden with mother, maids and children;
on a table are three bonsai in the modem sense along with a
bowl of potted bulbs.
Another Ming work by Tu Ling Nei-shih describes a terrace
scene with a bonsai as a table ornament.
One of the best depictions of a bonsai of any age is that
executed by Li Shih Hsin of the Yuan Dynasty (1280—1368).
Called the Drooping Pine it is now in the collection of Mr. S. M.
Siu of Hong Kong. Mr. Siu, a distinguished collector of art, has
given permission to reproduce the photo of his treasure.
In the Ching Period (1644-1911) the artist Erh-Ch’i depicts
a truly modern bonsai planted in a tray with rocks.
Due to the turbulence of Chinese political life in the late 19th
century and after the death of the Empress T’zu-Hsi, evidence
of bonsai as a Chinese garden art is sparse in western sources.
However, Fortune’s observations combined with much later
observers gives us confidence that bonsai continued as a part
of Chinese culture into modern times. Dr. F. A. McClure, noted
botanist and teacher in China, reported on A National Art Club
Exhibit of Chinese Table Plants and Paintings in 1930. Among
those exhibited were species of Casuarina, Paeonia, Juniper and
Buxus : “dwarfed in what is known in the West as the Japanese
style.” In the notice of an exhibition he refers to these “dwarfed
plants and miniature landscapes” or “this peculiar form of
Chinese art.” Modem Chinese bonsai fanciers such as Mr. Wu
Yee-sun of Hong Kong continue this time-honored art whose
continued existence on the mainland is problematical.
There have been many reasons advanced to account for the
popularity of small, trained, potted trees. The earliest records
of potted trees are found in references to the ruling classes of
China and Japan. At the courts in early cities, in temples and
monasteries, men confined in restricted space needed reminders
of nature. The trees may have carried religious sentiment but
later became popular as ornamental objects. As cities became
larger the need was even more pressing among those who could
afford the art, especially in the river and coastal cities where
rapid growth and agricultural needs denuded the natural vege-
tation. The merchant class emulated the hobbies of the ruling
families. In modem times with mega-urbanization the culti-
vation of dwarf trees has been espoused by individuals from
every social level, and, in many parts of the world.
The origins of bonsai may very well be traced to the T’ang
Period of China. Verification in works of art go back to the
Sung Period but it must be remembered it was only at that time
An Informal History of Bonsai \ 273
that artists depicted the courts, homes and gardens as a common
theme. The custom, among many others, was adopted in Japan
possibly as early as the Fujiwara Period (794-1192). The art
has been in continual practice in both China and Japan for over
1,000 years and in Japan it is considered as an art on the same
level as painting and sculpture. In the West the custom has
become widespread only within recent memory.
It is difficult to define the appeal of these demanding tree
forms. Perhaps the one common denominator which explains
the lure of bonsai is their expressiveness of freedom. As man
sees himself crowded by burgeoning populations and a rapidly
narrowing ratio of square footage per person, the bonsai be-
comes symbolic, as it did in another context for the Buddhists,
of a long- abandoned, far distant better time when man was a
natural phenomenon in and not above nature.
Charles R. Long
For further reference see:
Itoh, Yoshimi, Bonsai Origins , Bonsai: Vol. 3, no. 1, 3-5. Spring
1969.
Onuki, Chuzo, Bonsai, Tokyo, Jitsugyo No Nihon Sha, 1964.
Fortune, Robert, Yedo and Peking. A Narrative of a Journey to
the Capitals of Japan and China, London, John Murray, 1863.
Yee-sun, Wu, Man Lung Garden Artistic Pot Plants, Hong Kong,
Wing Lung Bank Ltd., 1969.
Yee-sun, Wu, Public Lecture on Artistic Pot Plants — Bonsai,
University of Hong Kong, Feb. 10, 1971. (Copy available at
Library of Arnold Arboretum and Library of the Massachu-
setts Horticultural Society.)
Ming Huang Peeping at Bathing Court Attendants. Anonymous. From
Masterpieces of Sung, Yuan, Ming, Ch’ing Painting, compiled by The Fine
Arts Academy, Tokyo, 1931.
Bonsai: Nature in Miniature
The 1914 Arnold Arboretum expedition to Japan led by Ernest
H. Wilson produced, among other things, some excellent photo-
graphs which clearly show the natural inspiration for many of
the forms of bonsai — that most specialized kind of Japanese
horticulture. Pictures such as these can help put the hobbyist
in touch with the source of his art and can be of particular
importance to bonsai enthusiasts who wish to follow the Jap-
anese models for bonsai but who do not have the experience
of the Japanese landscape. The first part of this article is
devoted to the relationship between nature and bonsai, and the
last part of the article will relate some specific bonsai styles to
such scenes as Wilson photographed in Japan in 1914.
A bonsai is a conscious attempt to suggest a natural scene.
The first bonsai — and still the ideal of bonsai — were a part
of nature. They were naturally dwarfed old trees dug and
brought home to grow in containers in the collector’s garden.
Though the trees were of interest in themselves, their real beauty
lay in their capacity to suggest the total landscape from which
they had come. The gnarled and bleached old tree, potted and
growing in the serenity of a garden, not only gave evidence of
its struggle to survive but also suggested by its form the cliffs
to which it had clung, the valley below the cliffs, the river in
the valley, and perhaps the wind which had so tortured its
branches.
All of the forms of bonsai have a natural model. Each dif-
ferent kind is intended to take the viewer back to the great tree,
the forest, or the island-dotted vista which inspired it. If a
particular creation cannot transport the viewer into the total
landscape, it is esthetically less than it should be.
As the practice of the art of bonsai has spread from Japan to
other parts of the world, its direct connection with the landscape
which inspired its traditional forms has lessened. Although this
separation has been remedied somewhat by relying on native
plants and landscapes for inspiration, especially in semi-tropical
and tropical areas, most bonsai hobbyists still prefer to emulate
the classical styles and scenic compositions of the Japanese.
274
Bonsai: Nature in Miniature I 275
Fig. 1. Pinus parviflora. Slopes of Adzuma-san. Uzen Province. Photo: E. H. Wilson,
1914.
Bonsai: Nature in Miniature | 277
The result is that many bonsai are created in the image of other
bonsai, copies of copies, and not in response to an immediate
environment.
Photographic studies of the Japanese landscape can help the
bonsai enthusiast recapture the source and spirit of his art and
understand that the rules of bonsai are derived from nature —
that, in fact, faithfulness to a natural model is the first rule of
bonsai. Without a knowledge of the natural model, the bonsai
hobbyist is likely to be a technician bound by convention. With
a knowledge of the natural model, he has a context in which he
can understand the “why” of the techniques he has learned.
This will give him a basis to make his own judgements with
confidence, and show him what a large range the bonsai artist
has for expression if nature is his teacher and he has eyes to see.
Single Trees as Models
The most basic style of bonsai is the formal upright. A bonsai
trained in this style has a perfectly vertical trunk with clouds
of foliage sweeping alternately left, right, and to the rear. The
three Japanese white pines ( Pinus parviflora ) in Fig. 1 are
good examples of the kind of trees which a bonsai in the formal
upright style means to suggest. The trees tower over the land-
scape, each magnificent in its own right.
In contrast to the formality of the pines in Fig. 1, the Pinus
thunbergii in Fig. 2 is more sinuous and graceful though no less
impressive as a single tree. These qualities in a bonsai would
classify the tree as an informal upright. The growing top of
the tree is more or less directly above the base of the tree
(upright), but the curving lines of trunk and branches are
“informal.”
Multiple Trees and Forest Plantings
Bonsai plantings which contain more than two trees are
called Yose-ue. Look again at Fig. 1. The relative heights of
the three trees and their place in the composition of the photo-
graph could serve as a model for a Yose-ue planting and suggest
such a landscape as Wilson saw.
A group planting, however, need not suggest an entire land-
scape. The three Japanese red pines ( Pinus densiflora) in
Fig. 3 are more impressive planted together than either one
would be alone. Two or three small trees which are undistin-
guished by themselves may look quite handsome in composition.
Visable proof of the age of the trees in the photograph is supplied
by the vestiges of dead limbs which project from the trunks.
Fig. 2. Pinus thunbergii. Village of Shitogo behind Yakushima.
Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1914.
Fig. 3. Pinus densiflora with torii at base of Kirishima. Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1914.
Top: Fig. 4. Pinus densiflora forming pure woods. Northern slopes of
Fuji-san, Yoshida, Shruga Province. Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1914.
Bottom: Fig. 5. Remarkable cliffs of gray sandstone with Pinus thunbergii,
near Matsushima. Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1914
280 | ARNOLDIA
Such remains of dead limbs, called jin, are often left or created
on bonsai to enhance the illusion of age.
Wilson’s photograph of a Japanese red pine forest (Fig. 4)
contains two of the elements which one expects to find in a
bonsai forest planting — the illusion of depth and triangular
groupings of the trees. Depth in the photograph is an illusion
too. The trees in the background are not small; they are simply
farther away from the photographer than the trees in the fore-
ground. That same illusion of depth can be created in a bonsai
forest planting by placing the tallest trees toward the front of
the container and sharply decreasing the height of the trees
toward the rear of the planting.
Nature arranged this forest, and the bonsai hobbyist can take
a lesson from the triangular scheme of composition which ap-
pears in the photograph. The tallest tree is forward in the
composition and forms a triangle with the tall trees on the left
and right of the main tree. Other trees in the picture fill in
between the principal trees and form triangular sub-groupings
with the ones on the left and right, uniting the entire composi-
tion.
Islands and Rocky Cliffs
Ishi-tsuki is a style of bonsai which combines plant material
and stones into compositions which present a miniature land-
scape, the rocks serving as landscape features as well as the
container for the plants. Two of the most popular features of
the terrain to reproduce are rocky cliffs and small islands.
Fig. 5 shows a group of sandstone cliffs at a seashore. The
photograph is a good guide for selecting the appropriate material
to reproduce the scene as a bonsai composition. The rocks have
a vertical orientation and are angular but smooth — evidence
of the work of waves. The plant material is sparse, weathered,
and tenacious. Notice the Japanese black pine {Finns thun-
bergii ) clinging to one of the cliffs as if it had been planted
there and trained by some bonsai master. The composition
would be displayed in a shallow, water-filled tray — a bonsai
sea.
The photograph of the island (Fig. 6) as an ishi-tsuki model
is equally instructive. The stone used to represent the island
Fig. 6. Pinus parviflora. Lake Towada, Northern Hondo.
Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1914.
I
Fig. 7. Larix gmelini showing effects of strong winds from Sea of Okhotsk.
Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1914.
1
282 | ARNOLDIA
should be horizontally oriented and rough-textured in contrast
to its placid sea. The plant material can be copious, varied, and
lush. Since the silhouette of the composition is important, the
“trees” on the island should have an open appearance so that
each is distinct against the background of sky and water. Orna-
ment is appropriate in such a composition; the small house in
the picture is a pleasing addition to the scene.
Special Landscapes
The trees which grow in winds blowing constantly from one
direction reflect that pressure in their shapes. The grove of
Dahurian larches (Larix gmelini ) in Fig. 7 clearly show in their
wind-swept branches the direction of the prevailing winds. This
is one way in which nature contorts her natural forms, and is
the inspiration for the wind-swept style of bonsai. A bonsai in
this manner is trained so that its trunk and branches sweep in
one direction, bent by the pressure of an imaginary, but con-
stant, wind.
Conclusion
Although a grove of American beeches can be as instructive
to the bonsai hobbyist as a grove of Japanese red pines and the
coast of Maine as suggestive of scenic bonsai as Japan’s Inland
Sea, it is nevertheless valuable to examine the wellsprings of
the art of bonsai. Such an examination can help to recouple
the link between nature and bonsai. That done, the hobbyist
can hopefully see new forms and material around him. Or, if
he chooses to follow the Japanese models, he can do it with
understanding. Either way his art will be less detached, less
artificial, and nearer to the goal of nature in miniature.
Donald M. Vining
The Japanese garden of Johonet C. Wicks, Durham, N.H. Photo: P. Bruns.
?IMH5
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Plants in Early Japanese Poetry \ 285
No matter what the motive — religious, horticultural or ar-
tistic — - the Japanese have always treated plants with a special
reverence. An intense appreciation of plants is evident in the
magnificent Japanese gardens, Shinto shrines, paintings, and
especially in Japanese poetry. From the earliest Japanese writ-
ings to the present day, in fact, plants are the most dominant
single motif in all of Japanese poetry. To appreciate the re-
markable continuity of this traditional subject, it is valuable to
look at plants as they first appeared in Japanese literature. The
two oldest extant Japanese books, the Kojiki and the Manyoshu,
can tell us a great deal about the early attitudes towards, and
uses of, certain plants.
The Kojiki, completed around 720 A.D., is Japan’s earliest
“Record of Ancient Matters.” It is a compilation of myths,
legends and songs as well as an “official” genealogy which
established exactly who was related to the Emperor for the pur-
pose of providing correct favors from the throne. The Man-
yoshu, completed about 780 A.D., only sixty years after the
Kojiki, is Japan’s earliest anthology of purely Japanese poetry.
Both books contain court poetry as well as poetry and songs that
obviously have a humble origin.
Plants are referred to in three important ways in these books :
first, as useful objects in eighth century culture in Japan; sec-
ond, as analogies to describe human feelings or beauty; and
third, as a source of comfort and wisdom.
Useful plants.*
Aside from providing food, plants also supplied eighth cen-
tury Japan with a wide variety of useful items. Cryptomerias
were used for building boats ( Kojiki II: 102: 5). Countryfolk
used the thick leaves of the evergreen Castanopsis cuspidata as
“bowls” for rice (Manyoshu II: 141-2). A very large oak,
Quercus acutissirna, provided elegant leaves which were used
* Japanese, Latin, and English names are identified in a list at the
end of this paper.
“Branch of Flowering Plum.” Japanese Kakemono painting by Jakuchu
(ca. 1713—1800). Photo: Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University.
286 | ARNOLDIA
as cups at banquets ( Kojiki II: 102: 5). The cups from the
acorns of this same oak provided a greyish dye for clothing
( Manyoshu MXVIII: 4106—9). Another dye was obtained from
the juice of the atane plant ( Kojiki 27: 21-25). Several textiles
were woven from plant fibres. For instance:
Under silken curtains.
The fluffy ones,
Under covers of MUSI fibres,
The soft ones,
Under cover of TAKU fibres,
The rustling ones,
You will embrace
With your arms
White as a rope of TAKU fibres.
(Kojiki 28: 19—29)
Taku refers to the fibres made from the tree popularly known
as the paper mulberry, Broussonetia papyrifera, which is not a
mulberry but is in the mulberry family, and has had a long
history of material use for humans. In ancient times a partic-
ularly strong paper made from its bark was used for deeds in
China; in modern times it is used for stencils because of its
capacity for holding the necessary wax material. Strong, thin,
and flexible rope and textile fibres can also be made from the
bark. Taku fibres are still used as comfortably warm and flexibly
sturdy lining material for silk, hence making it possible to wear
quite delicate-looking silks in the worst of winters. The paper
mulberry, however, is not particularly attractive and has an
aggressive growth habit. The Japanese consider it a rather
unaesthetic weed. Hence, though they might use its bark for
strong white paper to write a poem to a pine or cherry tree, the
paper mulberry itself has probably never been considered the
subject for such a poem, much less a plant for anyone’s garden.
Its usefulness is its only merit.
Plants used as analogies to describe human feelings or beauty.
Most of the poetic similes and metaphors that appear in the
Kojiki and Manyoshu are related to specific plants. For ex-
ample :
Her teeth were white
Like SIPI acorns, like water-chestnuts.
(Kojiki II: 101: 32, 33)
Plants in Early Japanese Poetry \ 287
Or, in reference to the “pepper plant”:
Beneath the fence
Grows a pepper plant.
It bums the mouth;
Like this sting, I will not forget,
But will smite them relentlessly!
Kojiki II : 52: 32—38)
And again, in reference to this period’s ideally docile wife :
Your head drooping,
Like the lone reed of Susuki grass
On the mountainside.
( Kojiki I: 27: 39-41)
The conventional Japanese epithet for the young wife is, in fact,
that she is ‘like the young grass” ( Kojiki I: 27: 46, 47). The
susuki grass, or Miscanthus sinensis, is an autumnal flower that
grows profusely on the mountainsides in the warmer regions
of Japan. Like the ideal Japanese wife of this period, the susuki
is not particularly elegant, but is very graceful when it flowers
and “droops” itself on the mountainsides. Willow trees and
bamboo stems also have a pliant gracefulness which can be used
in poetry to describe the ideal wife :
Beauty was hers that glowed like autumn
mountains
And grace as of the swaying bamboo stem.
( Manyoshu II: 217—9)
The ideal concubine, on the other hand, is described in terms
of the tatibana (wild orange) tree:
Its upper branches
Are withered by the birds’ nesting;
Its lower branches
Are withered by the people’s plucking
But the three-chestnut
Middle branches
Like these best branches
Is the ruddy maiden . . .
( Kojiki II: 102: 6-19)
Often certain plant images are used to glorify the Emperor.
For instance, when a mistress of the court is about to be executed
for having let a leaf fall into a cup being presented to the Em-
peror, she saves herself by comparing the grandeur of the tall
Albizia julibrissin. Photo: P. Bruns
elm tree with the stature and divine generosity of the Emperor:
Its upper branches
Spread out over the heavens :
Its middle branches
Spread out over the eastern lands :
Its lower branches
I Spread out over the rural regions.
The leaves at the tip
Of the upper branches;
Touch down
On the middle branches;
The leaves at the tip
Of the middle branches
Touch down
On the lower branches;
Drop, as floating oil
J Into the beautiful jeweled cup
Presented
By the girl of Mipe.
( Kojiki III : 133: 35—54 )
I
Plants in Early Japanese Poetry | 289
Plants as a source of comfort and wisdom
Nature is never seen as a threatening or malicious force in
the Kojiki and the Manyoshu. Plants are treated with a sense
of affinity and awe. In both the Kojiki and the Manyoshu, for in-
stance, we find poems addressed directly to solitary pine trees.
A young hero in the Kojiki is on his way to a decisive encounter
with a great white boar; he sings, perhaps wistfully, for he will
need help of some kind in this endeavor:
0 lone pine,
Were you a man,
1 would give you a sword to wear,
I would dress you with clothes,
O lone pine
— O my brother!
( Kojiki II : 86: 13-23)
This sense of kinship with the pine tree grows into veneration
in the Manyoshu. A certain prince admires the age and con-
stancy of the evergreen :
O solitary pine, how many
Generations of man have you known?
Is it because of your great age
That the passing winds sing in so clear a tone?
(Manyoshu VI: 1042)
Veneration for an aging parent is often expressed through
images related to the longevity of the conifers :
Flourish, my noble mother
Like the pines and junipers.
(Manyoshu XIX: 4169-70)
About the most treacherous natural event in the Manyoshu is
when the autumn leaves, which are nonetheless flying about
magnificently (Manyoshu II: 135-7), prevent the poet from
seeing his wife’s home. The events most often remembered by
a surviving spouse are the moments shared with nature, when
they went to look at the elm trees in autumn (Manyoshu II:
210-2) or were “Bedecked with flowers in spring” (Manyoshu II:
196-8). A dead husband or wife may be remembered by certain
flowers in a garden:
The fringed pink in my garden
Which my beloved planted
For her remembrance in autumn-tide
Has all come out in bloom.
(Manyoshu III: 464)
290 | ARNOLDIA
It is significant that plantlife is seen, without exception, as a
constant source of comfort and concern.
When so little of his life remained,
He asked, ‘Are the bush-clovers
Yet in flower?’ — Alas, my master!
(Manyoshu III: 455)
Certain plants take on symbolic meanings which need only
be mentioned in the poetry in order to conjure up specific associa-
tions. For instance, a Lady writes to her lover:
The silk-tree that blooms in daytime
And sleeps the love-sleep at night.
Your lady should not see alone.
Look well on this, my slave!
( Manyoshu VIII: 140-1)
This silk-tree is the highly treasured Albizia julibrissin. It is a
graceful tree, whose twice-compound leaves grow in such a way
that there is never an odd number of leaflets on any rhachis.
As the poem states, the tree blooms in the daytime; at night the
leaves fold up, two by two, signifying couples sleeping together.
Each season brings the delights of new sensations which are
linked with certain plants. Early spring is celebrated with poems
welcoming the plum blossom. The plum tree’s rough, rugged
trunk and angular branches have blossoms that look strikingly
fragile in comparison, especially since they often bloom while
snow is still on the ground.
When with the first month comes the spring,
Thus breaking sprays of plum-blossoms,
We’ll taste pleasure to the full.
( Manyoshu V: 815)
The luscious and thick-smelling cherry blossoms appear later
in the spring. Cherries are dazzling when in bloom, but the
flowers fall quickly; hence the Japanese poems about cherry
trees often express a certain melancholy.
I thought I would wear it
When the spring came —
Alas, my ‘cherry flower’
Is fallen and gone!
( Manyoshu XVI: 3786-7)
Plants in Early Japanese Poetry [ 291
The apotheosis of plant appreciation is the following poem about
autumn from the Manyoshu :
The flowers that blow
In the autumn field
When I count them on my fingers.
There they are —
The flowers of seven kinds.
The ‘tail flowers,’ the flowers
Of the kuzu vine and patrinia,
The fringed pink, and the agrimony,
And last the blithe ‘morning face.’
(Manyoshu VIII : 1537-8)
The ‘tail flower’ is the Miscanthus sinensis; its color is generally
yellow, with some white and purple. The Kuzu vine, or Pueraria
lobata, is a creeping vine with reddish-purple flowers. Patrinia
scabiosaefolia is a yellow wildflower, often as tall as three to
four feet. The ‘hemp agrimony,’ or Eupatorium chinense var.
simplicifolium, is a member of the chrysanthemum family,
though its flowers are generally smaller than the normal chry-
santhemum. It has a particularly strong, pungent odor, often
used for rich perfumes. By simply fisting certain plants the
poet has created for the Japanese reader many sights, smells
and connotations related to autumn.
The Kojiki and Manyoshu mark the beginning of a long poetic
tradition which focussed its thoughts and feelings on plantfife
and the changing of the seasons. This tradition is not confined
to poetry, though Japan’s poetry developed a few centuries before
her painting. In this tradition we see the Japanese poet at one
with his natural environment and with the plants that grow
in it.
Sally Lindfors Sullivan
Acknowledgments
Dr. S. Y. Hu, Arnold Arboretum, provided much ethnobotani-
cal information, particularly about the paper mulberry and
hardy silk-tree. Also thanks to: Dr. E. A. Cranston and Dr. E.
Bruce Brooks, Department of Far Eastern Languages, Harvard
University; Pat Shen, Museum of Fine Arts; Louise Cort, Fogg
292 j ARNOLDIA
Art Museum; S. Sutton and E. Bernstein, Arnold Arboretum;
K. Roby, Gray Herbarium; George E. Potter, Harvard-Y enching
Institute; Dr. Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr., Arnold Arboretum.
Bibliography
— Kojiki, translated by Donald L. Philippi, Princeton Uni-
versity Press, University of Tokyo Press, 1969.
Manyoshu, Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai Translation,
Columbia University Press, New York, 1965.
Ball, Katherine M., “Decorative Motives of Oriental Art, Part II:
The Plum Blossom,” Japan, date uncertain, ca. 1919,
pp. 13-19.
JAPANESE, LATIN, AND ENGLISH NAMES OF PLANTS
IN EARLY JAPANESE POETRY
Cryptomerias — Cryptomeria japonica (L.F.) D. Don = Sugi.
Castanopsis cuspidata (Thunberg) Schottky = Tsubura-jii
Quercus acutissima Carruthers = Kashiwa
Atane — Rubia cordifolia L. var. munjista Miq. = akane
Musi — = mushi = Boehmeria nivea Gaudichaud = Ramie
Taku — Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) Vent,
Pine — = matsu
Cherry — = sakura
Sipi — = shii = Mateba-shii. = Pasania edulis Makino or
Tsubura-jii = Castanopsis cuspidata (Thunberg) Schottky
Water-chestnut — = Hishi = Trapa japonica Flerov. or = shiro-
guwai = Eleochoris dulcis (Burman f. ) Trin.
Pepper plant — = hajinami = Asakuran zansho = Zanthoxylum
piperatum DC. forma inerme (Makino) Makino
Susuki grass — Miscanthus sinensis Anderss.
Tatibana — = Tachibana = Citrus tachibana (Makino) T.
Tanaka
Three-chestnut — = mitsu-gure probably = Kuri = Castanea
crenata Sieb. and Zucc.
Fringed pink — = nadeshiko = Dianthus superbus L.
Bush-clover — Lespedeza spp. = hagi
Plants in Early Japanese Poetry | 293
Silk tree — Albizia julibrissin Durazz. = Nemu-no-ki
Plum tree — = ume = Prunus mume Sieb. & Zucc.
Morning face — = asagao = Ipomoea nil L.
Tail flower — = susuki = Miscanthus sinensis Anderss.
Kuzu — = Kudzu = Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi
Patrinia — = Omina-eshi = Patrinia scabiosaefolia Fisch.
Agrimony — = Hiyodoribana = Eupatorium chinense L. var.
simplicifolium (Makino) Kit am.
Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr.
George E. Potter
E. Bruce Brooks
The art of dwarfing trees, as commonly practised both in
China and Japan, is in reality very simple and easily understood.
It is based upon one of the commonest principles of vegetable
physiology. Anything which has a tendency to check or retard
the flow of the sap in trees, also prevents, to a certain extent,
the formation of wood and leaves. This may be done by grafting,
by confining the roots in a small space, by withholding water, by
bending the branches, and in a hundred other ways, which all
proceed upon the same principle. This principle is perfectly
understood by the Japanese, and they take advantage of it to
make nature subservient to this particular whim of theirs. —
Robert Fortune in “Three Years’ Wanderings in the Northern
Provinces of China.” V. 2. 1847 .
Notes from the Arnold Arboretum
Japanese Theory — American Practice
Mrs. Constance E. Derderian is Honorary Curator of Bonsai
at the Arnold Arboretum, is a director of the American Bonsai
Society, and has worked with bonsai for many years. She has
studied at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden with Frank Okamura,
Kan Yashiroda, Lynn Perry, and others. In 1967 her studies
took her to Japan where she had the opportunity to study with
Kyuzo Murata. Mrs. Derderian is a leading authority on Bonsai
in the northeastern part of the United States, and is well known
throughout the country. She writes, lectures, and teaches
classes in bonsai.
In 1969 Mrs. Derderian was asked by the Arnold Arboretum
to direct and carry out a program of pruning and re-potting
the Larz Anderson collection of bonsai. Mrs. Derderian de-
scribes below one of the incidents which took place during the
delicate operations. Ed.
For many years I have been interested in the bonsai of the
Arnold Arboretum. Now I had been asked to do the job of
pruning and re-potting the collection. I was apprehensive, but
I wanted above all to help the Arboretum care for its bonsai.
Fortunately Robert Hebb, Assistant Horticulturist, and Henry
Goodell, Head Pruner and Assistant Superintendent, were as-
signed to help me. We worked in the greenhouse by the desk
of Alfred Fordham, Propagator, so the bonsai were not aban-
doned to a total stranger.
The first of the five large Chamaecyparis presented a prob-
lem immediately. The tree is about three and one-half feet tall
and the root ball, out of the container, measured about twenty
inches in width and twelve to fourteen inches in depth. The
trunk had split vertically at the base, severing the lowest branch
on the right. The split began above the branch and extended
down to the soil. When the tree was moved the branch wobbled
badly. Bob and Hank both said it would have to be cut off! I
couldn’t bear it. The branch had such interesting form and was
definitely alive and in good health. We called A1 over and I
explained the theory of cutting pie-shaped wedges from the soil
ball of old bonsai in order to renew the roots. I suggested that
294
we cut a wedge but begin the cuts at either side of the split
at the base of the trunk. Then there would be a possibility of
taking the roots which were feeding that branch. The result
would be a 175 year old bonsai in half an hour.
The problem was that although I knew the theory well I had
never had an opportunity to practice it. This was a larger wedge
than was recommended. If it were too large we risked killing
the large tree. If too small a wedge were taken, or there were
not enough root structure, the branch would be lost. After a
discussion the unanimous decision was to test the theory. I
marked the wedge and began to cut, but the huge root ball was
too much for me. Bob took over and neatly and carefully, with
a very thin root-saw, cut the wedge away from the root ball.
We had cut away as small a wedge as we dared but after it was
cut it looked huge! Two years before while in Japan I had
bought a very handsome old bonsai container, not because I
had a use for it, but because it was beautiful. It was perfect for
the new tree. In my excitement I knocked it off the table and
it shattered. We had to use a shorter container which was too
296 | ARNOLDIA
heavy for the graceful lines of the branch, and too narrow to
allow proper placement, but it was all we had.
We potted up the “tree” and Hank went to work skillfully
smoothing up the ragged edges of the split and carving out the
soft spots. There was only a narrow strip of living tissue con-
necting branch and root so it was important to leave as much
support as possible. The part of the main trunk which was still
attached was cleaned and allowed to whiten like the broken
parts of trees in nature. Hank also made a crutch from pruned
materials to use Japanese style to support the extending part of
the branch.
We had done all we could at that time. We offered the mis-
fortune of the broken container to the evil gods, and put the
new-old bonsai into the care of the greenhouse staff.
Two years later the larger tree is thriving. The smaller tree
is beginning to fill out and makes one of the most interesting
trees in the collection. The theory which I had learned in Japan,
plus American knowledge of growing plants, had worked to-
gether to save both the old tree and its branch.
Constance E. Derderian
Correction
The caption for the picture of Syringa chinensis which appears
on page 117 of the May issue of Amoldia should read “Syringa
chinensis at Highland Park, Rochester, New York.”
Propagation of Some Aged Bonsai Plants
The Arnold Arboretum bonsai, some of the oldest and largest
specimens of bonsai in the United States, were imported more
than half a century ago. Through the years changes have taken
place in the characteristics of the plants, and early in 1969 it
was decided to have a program of renovation.
The ensuing alterations of Chamaecyparis pisifera ‘Squarrosa’
(Moss cypress) and the C. obtusa cultivars (Hinoki cypress)
led to the removal of excess parts which provided propagating
material. Ordinarily propagation of these subjects would have
been done in autumn, but pruning the bonsai took place in
March so the cuttings were processed at that time.
Chamaecyparis pisifera ‘Squarrosa’ ( Moss cypress ). A Fixed
Juvenile.
When plants are grown from seeds, characteristics which ap-
pear on the young seedlings often differ greatly from those
which are found later in the plant’s life. In the case of conifers,
the first or juvenile growth is gradually replaced by mature
growth thereby leading to a normal plant. The interval between
the advent of maturity and the time of flowering and fruiting
has been termed the “adolescent phase”. These stages represent
the normal course of events in the development of conifers.
However, in some conifers particularly in the genera
Chamaecyparis and Thuja the juvenile to adult transition may
fail to take place and some plants remain in the juvenile phase.
These have been termed “fixed juveniles”. Plants which remain
physiologically juvenile also retain a trait associated with the
seedling stage — the ability to root readily.
Chamaecyparis pisifera ‘Squarrosa’ is a fixed juvenile. The
cuttings taken from our 75 year old bonsai plant, which is 30
inches tall, rooted easily. When propagating conifers at the
Arnold Arboretum cuttings of large size are preferred. Figure 1
illustrates plants which arose from rooted cuttings of our
75 year old C. pisifera ‘Squarrosa’. They have grown but little
since being potted and the multi-branched framework which is
evident was present when the cuttings were made. Each cutting
consisted of at least several years’ growth.
Thirty cuttings were divided into two equal lots. These were
inserted in a polyethylene plastic propagating chamber. A
297
298 | ARNOLDIA
medium consisting of one-half sand and one-half Perlite was
used. Lot #1 was treated with a root-inducing substance con-
taining 0.8% indolebutyric acid in talc with the fungicide Thiram
added at the rate of 15%. Lot #2 was treated with a liquid
formulation of indolebutyric acid plus napthalene acetic acid
at the rate of 5,000 ppm each. In both cases 87% of the cuttings
produced excellent root systems.
Chamaecyparis obtusa ( Hinoki False Cypress )
Seven unnamed cultivars of Chamaecyparis obtusa from the
original Larz Anderson gift are in the Arboretum’s bonsai col-
lection. They range in age from 105 to 230 years.
When raised from seeds Chamaecyparis obtusa has given rise
to numerous dwarf and slow growing forms. The Arboretum’s
bonsai plants are not typical of the species and must have
originated as seedling mutations or from propagules of such
mutations.
Figue 2 shows rooted cuttings of Chamaecyparis obtusa
which were started in March of 1969. They, too, were made
from multibranched cuttings consisting of several years’ growth.
The following table shows two methods by which the cuttings
from three plants were treated together with percentages of
success.
AA Accession Number
Treatment
% of Rooting
122-69
Lot #1
HRC*
72
Lot #2
245TP**
48
124-69
Lot #1
HRC
80
Lot #2
245TP
90
133-69
Lot #1
HRC
76
Lot #2
245TP
59
*HRC — Powder formulation of 0.8% indolebutyric acid in talc with
the fungicide Thiram added at the rate of 15%.
* *245TP — Powder formulation of 245-trichloropenoxypropionic
acid at the rate of 1,000 ppm in talc.
Alfred J. Fordham
Notes | 299
Fig. 1. Plants of Chamaecyparis pisifera ‘Squarrosa’ propagated from a
75-year-old bonsai. The multi-branched framework which is evident was
present when the cuttings were made. Photo; Alfred J. Fordharn.
Plants of Chamaecyparis obtusa var. rooted from multi-branched cuttings
consisting of several years’ growth. Photo: Alfred J. Fordham.
Dr. Donald Wyman Receives Scott Award
The following news release from Swarthmore College will be
of interest to the readers of Amoldia:
June 1, 1971
Donald Wyman, honored as “a man whose devotion to horti-
culture has been absolute” is the recipient of The Arthur Hoyt
Scott Garden and Horticulture Award of $1,000 and a round
medal with a man cherishing and cultivating the ground on
one side and the tree of life on the other. The Scott Award was
accorded Dr. Wyman by a special committee chaired by Swarth-
more College President Robert Cross.
Dr. Wyman, Horticulturist Emeritus of the Arnold Arbo-
retum of Harvard University, has continued his horticultural
activities since his retirement from the Arboretum last year.
He is the author of five books, three of which have become
standard reference works: Shrubs and Vines for American Gar-
dens; Trees for American Gardens; The Arnold Arboretum
Garden Book; Ground Cover Plants; and The Saturday Morning
Gardener. In addition, in 1970 he published a garden encyclo-
pedia, and he has contributed more than 1000 articles on woody
plants to major horticultural publications of the U.S. and
Europe.
In his career of advancing knowledge of horticulture, Dr.
Wyman has served as president and director of the American
Horticultural Society and of the American Association of Botan-
ical Gardens and Arboreta. He has been a director of the Ameri-
can Institute of Park Executives and trustee of the Massachu-
setts Horticultural Society, of which he is now an honorary
trustee. He has lectured widely and is the recipient of numerous
other American and European Awards, including the Veitch
Memorial Medal of the Royal Horticultural Society of Great
Britain in 1969 and the George Robert White Medal of Honor of
the Massachusetts Horticultural Society last year. Dr. Wyman
graduated from Pennsylvania State College in 1926, and re-
ceived his M.S.A. and Ph.D. in horticulture from Cornell Uni-
versity.
300
Notes | 301
The Scott Award was founded in 1929 by Owen Moon, class
of 1896, in memory of Arthur Hoyt Scott, owner of the Scott
Paper Company and a Swarthmore graduate of 1895, who be-
came treasurer of the American Peony Society and later a
founder and treasurer of the American Iris Society. Given 17
times since 1930, the last time in 1970 to Dr. Aubrey Hildreth,
the Award is designed to promote a deeper consciousness and
love and a greater knowledge of plants, flowers, and gardening.
In Moon’s terms it is awarded by a committee chaired by the
College President and composed of one representative each from
the Horticultural Societies of Pennsylvania, New York, and
Massachusetts, a nationally known garden or nature organiza-
tion, a nationally known flower society, an editor in the general
Philadelphia area, and two persons appointed by the Chairman.
The medal is usually presented at the Commencement exercises
of the College, although Dr. Wyman will not be able to attend.
The Arthur Hoyt Scott Foundation, which has offices at
Swarthmore, maintains an extensive flower and tree collection
on the campus.
Correction
The caption for the cover of the March issue of Amoldia
should read, “Forsythia ovata at the Arnold Arboretum.”
Arnoldia Reviews
Ecological Studies. Analysis and Synthesis, edited by J. Jacobs,
Munich; O. L. Lange, Wurzburg; J. S. Olson, Oak Ridge; W. Wieser,
Innsbruck.
Vol 1. Analysis of Temperate Forest Ecosystems, edited by
David E. Reichle.
Vol. 2. Integrated Experimental Ecology. Methods and Results
of Ecosystem Research in the German Soiling Project, edited
by Heinz Ellenberg.
A new series of concise books will attempt to provide prompt
world-wide information on approaches to the analysis of eco-
systems and their interacting parts. Ecological studies will bring
together methods or techniques of sampling and investigation
and present results as well as hypotheses. Analysis will include
biological, physical and chemical approaches while Synthesis
will draw together scattered and new information to answer or
clarify specific questions.
The two initial publications are part of the International Bio-
logical Program, a cooperative effort on behalf of the world’s
scientists to understand, through research and synthesis, the
basic processes of environmental systems which support life on
this planet.
Volume 1, Analysis of Temperate Forest Systems, is a collec-
tion of well-edited and coordinated papers presented at a work-
shop-seminar held in Gatlinburg, Tennessee, in 1968. The ob-
jectives of this meeting were to summarize much of the existing
data and to establish a conceptual framework for the analysis
of an ecosystem while emphasizing the temperate deciduous
forest. Eighteen papers by authors from nine countries are
grouped into six basic topics, an analysis of an ecosystem;
primary producers; consumer organisms; decomposer popula-
tions; nutrient cycling and hydrologic cycles. Well-selected bib-
liographies accompany each paper.
As an appendix the series editor has presented a geographic
index of world ecosystem. The ecosystem outline ordination is
slightly modified from that of the UNESCO Committee on Clas-
sification and Mapping. The end-papers are useful additions to
the book. Inside the front cover is a map rendition in color, after
Leith, of the predicted annual fixation of carbon for the land
302
Reviews I 303
masses and oceans of the world. The map inside the back cover
is printed in black and white, with symbols and numbers mod-
ified from Bazilevich et al showing the continental ecosystem
patterns and the reconstructed organic carbon in the live bio-
mass prior to the Iron age.
Volume 2, Integrated Experimental Ecology, is subtitled
“Methods and Results of Ecosystem Research in the German
Soiling Project,” Soiling is an area of forest and grassland near
Gottingen, Germany. The research was begun in 1966 as one of
the pilot projects of the IBP and involved scientists in a variety
of disciplines. As the studies continue at the present time this
series of papers by 33 German scientists represents a progress
report and an opportunity to examine and compare the methods
being used.
Both volumes are technical publications not designed for the
browser. They are excellent summary publications of the meth-
ods of modem ecological studies and as such are fundamental
for students investigating undisturbed units of vegetation. There
is no indication of the eventual scope or duration of the series
but one hopes that all of the work of the IBP program can be
incorporated in this series for comparison with these excellent
volumes on the temperate forest biome.
R. A. H.
Edited by David E. Reichle, Analysis of Temperate Forest Eco-
systems. New York: Springer- Verlag. 1970. 304 pages, 91
figures. $15.20.
Edited by Heinz Ellenberg, Integrated Experimental Ecology.
New York: Springer-Verlag. 1971. 214 pages, 53 figures. $16.80.
Flora of New Zealand, Vol. 2. Indigenous Tracheophyta. Mono-
cotyledones except Graminaea, by Lucy B. Moore and Elizabeth
Edgar.
New Zealand, although a small country, has a flora of great
biogeographical interest and it is a pleasure to see in print the
second volume of “Flora of New Zealand”, making now available
a modem floristic treatment of all, except the grasses, its in-
digenous vascular plants. On the death in 1957 of the late Dr.
H. H, Allen, for many years director of Botany Division, Depart-
304 | ARNOLDLA
ment of Scientific and Industrial Research (D. S. I. R.), and
prime mover behind the flora project. Dr. Lucy Moore of
D. S. I. R. saw through the press the whole of volume 1 (dicoty-
ledons and pteridophytes). She and her colleague, Dr. Elizabeth
Edgar, have successfully produced an interesting and useful
treatment of the monocotyledons.
The classification is based on that of Hutchinson and, apart
from the grasses, there are included 22 families of monocots,
the largest by far being the Cyperaceae with 167 species. For
each genus and species there is a description and notes on dis-
tribution and for each species reference to the place of publica-
tion and citation of the most important synonyms. There is also
a great deal of interesting information in notes, often lengthy,
which might have been set in something larger than 6pt type.
Reading these requires some concentrated effort. There are only
43 figures, 18 of these orchids drawn by Bruce Irwin, but the
number of text figures and the rather extensive use of small
type probably were dictated by the desire to keep the size, and
price, down to a level at which the book could be readily avail-
able to students.
In addition to the keys, descriptions (based in general on both
living and dried material), glossary and corrigenda to volume 1,
there is a continuation from that volume of “Annals of Taxo-
nomic Research on New Zealand Tracheophyta”, a cross indexed
(by family and by author) bibliography of New Zealand sys-
tematic botany. Another valuable part of the book is an an-
notated list of chromosome numbers of native New Zealand
plants.
The book has been nicely produced by the Government Printer
and is well-bound with maps on both front and back end papers.
In the preface it is noted that in 1965 the Botany Division
library received from the New Zealand state lottery, the “Golden
Kiwi”, a grant of NZ£24,000 for the purchase of botanical peri-
odicals, a truly enlightened use of lottery proceeds. The authors
and the Government of New Zealand deserve congratulations on
the production of this book.
E. A. S.
Lucy B. Moore and Elizabeth Edgar, Flora of New Zealand, Vol.
2. Wellington: Government Printer, 1970. NZ $4.50.
ARNOLDIA is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum
of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
RARY
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ARNOLDIA
The Arnold Arboretum Vol. 31, No. 6 Nov. 1971
Contents
307 The Director’s Report
349 Birds in the Arnold Arboretum
RICHARD E. WEAVER
368 Notes from the Arnold Arboretum
Weather Station Report
ALFRED J. FORDHAM
369 Arnoldia Reviews
ARNOLDIA is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum
of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Mass. 02130
Published six times a year: on the 15th of January,
March, May, July, September, and November
Subscriptions: $3.50 per year. Single copies, 60 cents
Second-Class Postage Paid at Boston, Mass.
Cover: Sand Pear (Pyrus pyrifolia). Photo: P. Bruns
Opposite: Road to Bussey Hill. Photo: P. Bruns
The Director’s Report
The Arnold Arboretum during the fiscal year
ended June 30, 1971
It is generally difficult to say exactly when a botanical gar-
den begins, for desires, ideas, plants, financial support and
personnel are needed and each may be equally critical to its
development. We mark the establishment of the Arnold Ar-
boretum in 1872, when James Arnold, a merchant of New
Bedford, Massachusetts, left one twenty-fourth part of his
estate to the care of his executors. His gift, accepted as a trust
by the officers of Harvard College, was the foundation of the
Arnold Arboretum.
We are planning to mark 1972 as the Centennial Year of
the Arnold Arboretum. A special program is planned for the
spring, but noteworthy activities and meetings are scheduled
throughout the year. The development of this program has
occupied much of our time and energies, from changes on the
grounds and in the living collections to special publications and
much correspondence with possible participants.
We sincerely hope that many friends and colleagues, repre-
senting horticulture and botany, will join us in 1972 to share
in an appreciation of the Arnold Arboretum.
Community and Professional Service
An arboretum is a conspicuous part of a community. It may
be only a geographic area of green leaves and colorful flowers
in proximity to the congestion of bricks and concrete, or con-
trastingly, through its staff it may serve a significant role in
the welfare of the community associated with it. For all of
its 100 years the Arnold Arboretum has been an oasis in the
community of Boston. Always open to the public, it is indeed a
place for many people to visit during the spring when the
307
Viburnum sieboldii. Photo: P. Bruns
308 | ARNOLDIA
plants are in flower or in the fall when the autumn color of
the foliage makes it equally attractive.
The public service offered by the staff throughout the year
may be less obvious. There are contributions in the many
identifications of plant materials; the multitude of questions
answered of a horticultural or scientific nature; the classes,
lectures and tours; the collections it shares; and the pages of
printed material in its own publications or in newspapers and
other journals which are professionally as well as popularly
valued by the recipients.
Two aspects of a growing service are worthy of mention in
detail — the poison plant information service and the consulta-
tion offered ecology-minded citizens and organizations.
Boston, like other major cities, has a cooperative Poison Cen-
ter operated in one of the city hospitals on a twenty-four-hour
basis. Calls from citizens which concern the ingestion of or
exposure to plant materials of a possible poisonous nature are
referred to the Arboretum office during the normal working
hours and to specific staff members at their homes at other
times. On the average a dozen calls a day are received through-
out the year. The task of identifying and evaluating the plant
from the description given over the telephone by an anxious
mother is indeed a challenge. While most calls involve non-
toxic plants, there are serious situations demanding emergency
treatment. The call from the emergency room of a hospital re-
quires quick access to a taxonomist who may, in turn, refer to
appropriate library volumes kept near the telephone. A few
years ago all of the calls to the Arnold Arboretum were from
Metropolitan Boston. Now, however, the long distance calls,
even from out of state hospitals, are more frequent.
The phenomenal increase in the concern over the quality of
our environment and the appearance of our cities and neigh-
borhoods has been accompanied by the participation of many
citizens and the financial support of their activities through fed-
eral, local and private funds. Soon every group faces the prob-
lem of what to do beyond the obvious picking up of debris. Al-
most everyone knows that a vacant lot can be made into a park,
but how is the soil to be treated? What plants will grow there?
How should they be placed? What subsequent maintenance is
necessary? What are the best erosion control plants? Where
can the needed plants be bought? Ultimately the questions be-
come “Will you teach our group?” and “Do you have surplus
plants we can have for our project?”
The Director’s Report \ 309
The most important item that the Arnold Arboretum has to
offer an organization or individual is information. The mem-
bers of our limited staff do have the qualifications needed in a
large number of horticultural and botanical areas. However, it
must be a matter of policy that we cannot organize groups of
people, cannot direct all, cannot finance any, and can supply
relatively few plants. Rather we work with established organiza-
tions, providing advice as to the practicality of their proposals,
providing demonstrations and education within the Arnold Ar-
boretum on the proper method of dealing with their problems,
and then allowing the members of the organization to carry
out their work. This help is given free of charge. In a few cases
organizations have chosen to retain a member of the staff to
assist them in more detail on his own time and terms.
During the year 1970-1971 members of the staff of the
Arnold Arboretum have worked with the following organiza-
tions:
Parks and Recreation Department, City of Boston
The Mayor’s Office of Cultural Affairs
School Department — teacher training and program de-
partment
Conservation Commission
Boston Redevelopment Authority
“Summerthing” Program
Metropolitan District Commission
Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority
Brookline Conservation Commission
Cambridgeport T.R.E.E., Inc., Cambridge Model Cities
Program
Harvard University, Department of Buildings and Grounds
Tufts University, Department of Buildings and Grounds
Boston College, Department of Buildings and Grounds
Regis College, Science Teachers’ Workshops
Massachusetts Horticultural Society, “Bloom-in” program
APACA Roxbury-Dorchester Beautification Committee
Lower Roxbury Community Corporation
DARE (A “Halfway House” program for Boston teenagers)
Roosevelt Towers Residents’ Committee, Cambridge
Delle Avenue Residents’ Committee, Mission Hill area,
Boston
Friends of the Boston Public Garden
Traphole Brook Protective Association
Town of Weston
Massachusetts Tree Wardens’ Association
310 | ARNOLDIA
Children’s Museum
Community Economic Development Program, East Boston
Several of these are self-supporting organizations. Some are
community-organized groups which contribute or seek their
own financing. One group has a renewable grant from the
Federal Department of Health Education and Welfare. Three
groups are actually beautifying vacant land or areas owned
by Harvard University in their neighborhod.
It is clear that there is a desperate need for horticultural ad-
vice in the community which neither city nor private profes-
sional talent can meet. It is also clear that the Arboretum staff
cannot do much more than it is doing currently, due to limita-
tions in the number of its staff. In fact, if we are to continue
or to increase our activities and contacts with the public sector
of our society, it will be necessary to have a staff member with
the clear sole responsibility of coordinating these activities
with limited active participation in the work.
Horticulture
The word rejuvenation must characterize our efforts on the
grounds of the Arboretum in Jamaica Plain and in Weston dur-
ing the past year. The horticultural staff planted 371 speci-
mens on the grounds in the fall of 1970 and an additional 501
were placed in the spring of 1971. These included 168 taxa
new to our collections. The seasonal weather extremes were
not severe in contrast to previous years and the collections are
growing well. The planning, however, is mostly for the future
appearance of the living collections.
An automatic irrigation system has been installed in the
lawn in front of the Administration Building and in the newly
regraded area to the south of it. Additional magnolias have
been added to the collections in these areas and the badly dam-
aged plants of Prunus sargentii were removed and replaced with
smaller specimens. The hillside seen immediately upon en-
trance to the grounds has been planted with daffodils and
scillas for naturalizing and more plantings are anticipated to
increase the attractiveness of this area.
During the winter a large number of old stag-headed trees in
the area of the Leitneria swamp were removed and a part of
the area cleared will be used to bring together representative
taxa of Hamamelis. The areas where we maintain collections
of Buxus, Cytisus, Erica, Calluna and prostrate Junipers were
expanded to receive additional plants. The rockery which had
Bonsai House. Photo: Alfred Fordham
been damaged by fire was cleared and protected by being en-
larged and some replanting was completed. The sequential
display planting of azaleas along Meadow Road has also been
improved. After regrading, with relocation and replanting of
many specimens, the area was given a heavy application of
wood chip mulch. Wood chips from our own operations or
acquired from other sources have proven to be the most effective
mulch material currently available. A new and generous supply
of animal manure has been obtained from a local stable and
used judiciously.
The collection of dwarf conifers below the Dana Greenhouses
required considerable attention. At the time of the original plant-
ing, it was expected that the individual specimens would in-
crease in size, but some cultivars far exceeded expectations in
their spread. Duplicate specimens were placed elsewhere on
the grounds now that they are larger in size and less apt to be
stolen. Through the efforts of Mrs. Derderian, about one third
of the bonsai collection was repotted.
An aerial bucket, mounted on a special truck body, which
had been on order for over a year, was finally delivered. The
effectiveness of our pruners in this expensive piece of equip-
ment indicates that it was well worth the investment. On the
negative side, extensive damage was experienced from rabbits
and other rodents during the past winter. The use of chemicals
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Spring in the Arnold Arboretum. Photos: P. Bruns
314 | ARNOLDIA
as repellents on what seemed to be susceptible shrubs only
stimulated the animals to attack other plants. Damage was
heavy on species of Chaenomeles, Malus, Cotoneaster, Hama-
melis and Ulmus.
Fires from vandalism fortunately constituted only a nui-
sance. Although fifteen fires occurred which could not be
handled by our own staff and required the fire department, only
two were classed as severe in their damage to plantings or to
soil surfaces. A theft of four specimens from the bonsai col-
lection on a summer evening proved to be the work of juveniles.
Through the alertness of a staff member and the cooperation
of a detective agency the plants were located. Two were dead
from neglect or improper care, but the two most valuable older
plants from the Lars Anderson collections could be saved.
Court action has not been completed.
One section of the Arboretum known as the South Street
tract is low land with a pond of immediate interest as a wild-
life area, which was reserved for future expansion of the col-
lections after improvement in drainage, contouring and fenc-
ing. The area has been mentioned in previous reports when
it was considered by city committees for school locations or
recreational playgrounds. In 1959, as the result of an election,
the land was to be taken by eminent domain proceedings, but
the necessary legal action was never completed. In May of this
year two small children were drowned when they fell from a
raft they had constructed with material from a dump on ad-
jacent city-owned property. There was considerable unfavorable
newspaper publicity, reporting comments of local politicians.
After serious consideration the pond was filled during the sum-
mer.
The record-keeping system was developed to reveal more
readily information on the status of individual genera within
our collections. The system shows in a tabular form the addi-
tions or losses within generic groups over a period of time.
There was the usual continuing effort to maintain labels on all
of the plants on the grounds of the Arboretum and to have all
specimens accurately plotted on maps and recorded in card
files. The extra effort devoted during the spring to having the
records brought up to date anticipated the incorporation of our
data within the inventory of the Plant Records Center. This
center, sponsored by the American Horticultural Society, is de-
veloping a data bank on the holdings of the major botanic gar-
dens and arboreta within North America. Our participation
The Director’s Report | 315
will permit us to receive computerized print-outs of the inven-
tory of the Arnold Arboretum at moderate cost and will elim-
inate the need for laboriously compiled catalogs.
The horticultural staff was involved in four flower show ex-
hibits during the year. Mr. Fordham prepared an exhibit of
fruits, seeds and seedlings, with information on methods of
propagating or germinating such material, for an exhibition in
Horticultural Hall in Boston and for the Spring Flower Show
of the Worcester County Horticultural Society. A display of
mulching materials and methods of composting vegetable ma-
terial formed an exhibit at the City of Boston “Summerthing
Bloom-in” held on the Fenway. The largest effort was an ex-
hibit entitled “The Story of Forsythia” which covered 700 square
feet at the 1971 Spring Flower Show of the Massachusetts Hor-
ticultural Society. Gold was the pervading color of this anni-
versary show. The plants selected were forced into bloom ex-
hibiting the various kinds of forsythia. A table display of litera-
ture and herbarium specimens was manned by the staff as an
information booth. Although the exhibition was executed with
satisfactory results, it was obvious to the staff that we do not
have the facilities to attempt again an exhibit of such magni-
tude.
Duplicate or supply plants from the nursery areas were again
offered to the Department of Buildings and Grounds at Harvard
as required by the indenture. The remaining material was
given to members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, spe-
cial selections to Weston High School, Jamaica Plain High
School, Wellesley College, the University of Rhode Island, the
University of Massachusetts, the Massachusetts Audubon So-
ciety, Channel 2 WGBH auction, and to civic beautification
groups. There were ten groups concerned with city improve-
ment that received plant materials for their local projects.
There are problems in distributing surplus materials : the
safety of the nursery must be considered, the material must be
apportioned fairly, and it must be delivered in such a manner
that it will survive. We do not have the staff to dig, ball, and
assemble the material to be collected, nor can we permit indi-
viduals to help themselves. Miss Nancy Page, a Mercer Fellow,
has served as a coordinator between the Arboretum staff and the
interested groups. With the help of Mr. Kinahan, superinten-
dent at Weston, and Mr. Vining, another Mercer Fellow, dem-
onstrations were given on the methods of digging, balling,
burlapping, pruning, replanting, watering, and general after-
316 | ARNOLDIA
care. Then the volunteers were permitted to prepare and re-
move the plants. Subsequent visits to the areas where these
plants were taken revealed that the materials were used ef-
fectively and that approximately 99% success has been ob-
tained in establishing these gift plants.
The greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum are used for work
in plant propagation, both for the maintenance of the living
outdoor collections and for basic or experimental research of
the staff. There are no display collections offered to the public
within the greenhouses and the few general collections main-
tained are associated with teaching programs. At the present
time there are the following diverse assemblages being used by
the staff in their own research : Dr. Weaver is growing Lisian-
thius, Calolisianthus, and other members of the Gentianaceae.
Dr. Wood has many plants from southeastern United States to
provide descriptive and illustrative material for his generic
flora project. Dr. DeWolf is attempting to establish new clones
of Ceratiola and Gardoquia. Dr. Howard has many plants from
mountain vegetation of the Greater and Lesser Antilles, includ-
ing material recently obtained of Solarium lobulatum, a species
never known in flower or fruit. Dr. Elias has material of Ha-
melia associated with his monograph. Dr. Schubert continues
her interest in Dioscorea material from Mexico. Mr. Sousa-
Sanchez has brought taxa of Lonchocarpus into flower from
seed. The tolerance of the propagator to this usurpation of
space is much appreciated.
The Centennial program of the Arnold Arboretum is planned
to include the distribution of plant materials. Mr. Fordham and
his staff verified a survey of the living collections to determine
the condition of the plants which supplied the holotype speci-
mens for taxa described by Sargent, Wilson and Rehder. A
listing of 71 of these has been distributed to botanical gardens
and arboreta, offering to them propagating material, i.e. bud-
wood or scions, of type plants for their collections. The propa-
gation staff has also grown specimens of twelve rare or un-
usual taxa of educational or teaching value to be offered to
universities or colleges with strong departments of botany or
horticulture. Another group of plants, more ornamental in na-
ture, will be offered to garden clubs and horticultural organiza-
tions in New England. Finally, we plan to send a small plant
by mail to all members of the Friends.
In addition to these special projects, the regular work of the
propagating staff proceeded. Requests were received for ma-
terials from our collections from twelve countries, and 169 ship-
Uf
Alfred Fordham’s Fall Class at the Arboretum. Photo: P. Bruns
ments of 800 taxa were made. We received, by our request,
or in exchange, 253 shipments of 1214 taxa from 31 countries.
Material received as seed included 694 taxa. Much of this was
grown only for experimental data on germination, for cytological
or morphological information, or for herbarium specimens. To
insure the continuity of our living collections 193 taxa were
propagated to provide additional specimens for the living col-
lections.
Education
The members of the Arboretum staff who are members of
the Faculty of Arts and Sciences are available to offer formal
courses within the Harvard curriculum and to guide the pro-
grams of graduate students. In this capacity Dr. Wood offered
318 | ARNOLDIA
a course in elementary plant taxonomy and Dr. Howard an ad-
vanced class. Dr. Schubert is supervising the research graduate
studies program of Mr. Mario Sousa-Sanchez. Drs. Howard,
Nevling and Wood participated in a new cooperative course
offered in the Department of Biology to acquaint new graduate
students with the various research fields and experimental pro-
grams of the department. Dr. Howard’s class made a field trip
to Southern Florida during the Thanksgiving vacation week.
Several staff members made presentations as part of a weekly
seminar in systematic botany held in Cambridge. In addition,
Dr. Howard taught the systematics portion of a tropical botany
institute sponsored by the University of Miami with the coop-
eration of the Fairchild Tropical Garden. He also presented
lectures and conducted a field trip for the summer program in
Marine Science offered by Cornell University at the Isles of
Shoals off Portsmouth, New Hampshire.
Throughout the year, but especially during the summer
months, the Arboretum has offered employment to high school
and college students. Due to more stringent wage controls re-
quired by the U.S. Government, this program, which had been
informal and educational, was jeopardized. Accordingly, a new
emphasis was placed on the training aspects of the opportunity
by a careful selection of candidates who were bona fide stu-
dents of botany or horticulture. The students are apprentices
to staff members and receive several hours of formal instruction
in the course of the week. Students were accepted during the
past year from Antioch College, Belmont Hill School, Harvard
College, Norfolk County Agricultural High School and Smith
College.
Andrew C. Robinson was the winner of the Arnold Arboretum
Award for Botanical and Horticultural Excellence for 1971,
given each year to a senior student in a high school near the
Arnold Arboretum. Although Andrew lives in Arlington he
has been a special student at Jamaica Plain High School. Dur-
ing the year Andrew visited the Arnold Arboretum frequently.
He hopes to have his own greenhouse business in ornamental
plants after he finishes his schooling at the University of Mas-
sachusetts.
The informal education program at the Arboretum is open
to members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum at special
rates and to the general public. Classes during the past year
included practical gardening, ecology, pruning, techniques of
bonsai, and the evaluation of horticultural materials.
Syringa chinensis f. xnetensis. Photo: P. Bruns
320 | ARNOLDIA
Two displays open to the public were staged in the auditori-
um of the Administration Building. One consisted of photo-
graphs, specimens, and books connected with the work of
Charles Sargent and his staff and was associated with the publi-
cation of Sargent’s biography by Stephanne Sutton. The second
exhibit was a display of posters from foreign countries con-
cerned with conservation, wild flower protection and ecology.
The exhibition material was a part of the Saving the Flora of
Europe exhibit shown in Glasgow, Scotland, during the pre-
vious year. This display requested by the Arnold Arboretum
will be sent to other American institutions for display during
the fall and winter.
The Arnold Arboretum sponsored a conference on Rock Gar-
den plants and a series of horticulture tours which visited
places of special interest in New England. We particularly
appreciate the kindness of individual Friends who permitted
these groups to visit their private homes and gardens. Several
other plant societies have held regional meetings at the Arnold
Arboretum in Jamaica Plain or in Weston.
The staff receives many requests for speakers and as many
as possible are accepted on individual option. Over 100 garden
clubs, horticultural organizations and conferences had staff
members as speakers during the year. When talks are given
during normal working hours, a contribution to the educational
work of the Arnold Arboretum is requested. Each speaker has
the opportunity of stressing the Arboretum activities even
though a talk on a specific topic is requested. We are pleased
with the number of organizations that have scheduled visits
to the Arboretum following the talk of a staff member. Lec-
tures given to universities and colleges are usually without re-
muneration, but serve to communicate the professional work
of the individual.
The activities of the staff with the community projects are
casual or organized efforts at instruction. We have participated
in training programs for science teachers of the Boston school
system in ecology as well as special plant maintenance oriented
instruction for teachers of specific schools.
Herbarium
The largest percentage of increase in the herbarium of the
Arnold Arboretum occurred in that portion housed in Jamaica
Plain consisting of plants under cultivation in various parts of
the world. The herbarium of cultivated plants now contains
145,989 specimens and the total herbarium holdings is
Part of an exhibit of Sargentiana associated with the publication of S. B.
Sutton’s book Charles Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum.
S. B. Sutton
Photos: P. Bruns
322 | ARNOLDIA
935,839 sheets. Specimens were collected from plants growing
on the grounds and from new additions to the living collec-
tions, to supplement existing records, making certain that as
many taxa as possible are represented by flowers, fruits, and
material displaying winter condition. Additional lots of speci-
mens of cultivated plants have been received from Florida,
Pennsylvania and Louisiana within the United States and from
the West Indies, South Africa and New Caledonia. Many of
these were obtained in exchange, but the amount of material
sent to us for identification also increased. A survey of the
plants cultivated in the Boston Public Garden and on the
Boston Common has been completed. Specimens were collected
and a list of determinations was supplied to the Friends of the
Public Garden. The Boston Department of Parks and Recrea-
tion is now preparing new labels to be placed on these plants.
An index, supported by herbarium vouchers, has been started
of the plants commonly cultivated within the City of Boston.
It is hoped that an evaluation of plant tolerance and per-
formance under these environmental conditions will permit
some comparative observations when new materials are tried
in the community-cooperative programs.
Four separate floristic studies involve several members of
the herbarium staff. The areas are southeastern United States,
the State of Veracruz in Mexico, the Lesser Antilles, and Hong
Kong and the New Territories. Staff members continued the
field work associated with each of the projects and progress is
apparent in each. The bibliography of the publications of the
staff and the students offers a survey of individual research
projects that have been completed and published during the
year.
Library
The increasing costs of books and services associated with
the libraries is becoming of great concern. The members of
the Arboretum staff represent many areas of specialized inter-
est and in the past we have attempted to have a representation
of books pertinent to these interests for reference and for teach-
ing purposes. Publications from foreign countries may once
have been considered reasonable in price, but at the present
time the price per page of many foreign publications exceeds
that of American periodicals and books. Within certain areas
of knowledge the association of the libraries of the Gray Her-
barium and the Arnold Arboretum in Cambridge has permitted
The Director’s Report | 323
a coordinated acquisition program. In areas of forestry, world
floras, or horticultural publications for deposit and use in
Jamaica Plain, the responsibility is that of the Arnold Arboretum
staff alone. A careful study is in order to determine the cov-
erage of library materials desirable. A few volumes are re-
ceived annually from publishers as review copies and such
reviews are published in Arnoldia. A few periodicals are re-
ceived in exchange for the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum or
for Arnoldia. The largest number of acquisitions, however, re-
mains by direct purchase.
The total holdings of the library of the Arnold Arboretum in
volumes and pamphlets was 79,741 on June 30, 1971. This is
a net increase of 2,093 items during the fiscal year. Microfiche
reproductions are purchased jointly with the Gray Herbarium
and twenty-one herbaria or rare volume microfiche were ob-
tained. The binding of periodicals is a recurring expenditure,
but during the year we have increased our attempts to recon-
dition or repair older volumes which show the signs of age or
deterioration. A total of 1,100 volumes were bound in the past
year and a special gift was gratefully accepted to further this
program during the next year.
Shelf listings have been renewed in the library in Cambridge
and were begun for Jamaica Plain. A reorganization of the
American periodicals was completed in Jamaica Plain where
the map collection was also catalogued for the first time.
A Xerox 720 copy machine was leased for general coopera-
tive use in the Harvard University Herbaria. This has reduced
the number of library volumes which were formerly sent out
for copying or on interlibrary loan. The volume of copy service
to our scientists and to other libraries has increased due to the
added convenience, but this effort is largely self-supporting
through fees.
Miss Stephanne Sutton is undertaking a biography of Joseph
Rock who collected plants for the Arnold Arboretum in Asia.
Many of Rock’s letters, field notebooks and photographic nega-
tives were the property of the Arnold Arboretum. Upon his
death, however, materials of his estate were widely scattered.
Miss Sutton visited the Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh,
Scotland, and several locations in Hawaii to study materials
held there. She was able to purchase on our behalf the papers
of Rock bequeathed to his nephew in Austria. These manu-
scripts and letters will be incorporated in the Arnold Arboretum
library after they have been catalogued.
324 | ARNOLDIA
Case Estates
The Case Estates in the geographic center of the town of
Weston is an important area in the function of the Arnold Ar-
boretum. Many of the materials propagated in the greenhouses
in Jamaica Plain are moved to Weston as young plants to per-
mit their development before selections are made of specimens
to be incorporated in the main collections. These nursery areas,
therefore, are in a state of change almost every season. In con-
trast are the permanent plantings in Weston. These in part are
display plantings designed to enhance the appearance of the
grounds for the local residents. They serve as well in the
teaching programs conducted in Weston. The entire area is
used by Weston schools in their science programs.
The display beds of mulching materials were reworked when
the wooden edging required replacement. A variety of materials,
steel, aluminum, brick and plastic are now used as edging or
dividers for the study of their comparative values.
Mr. Pride has personally developed an extensive rock garden
in the area around the Red Schoolhouse, which serves, as its
name implies, as a teaching area. Miss Marion Case, from
whom the property derives its name, had such a garden for the
students of the Hillcrest Garden training program, but only a
rock-lined pool and some Italian tiles remained as evidence of
the former garden. This area, avowedly experimental, draws
considerable attention. A dry stone wall was built by the staff
and special plantings were made in an adjacent area.
The town of Weston has a sewage problem and had proposed
a treatment plant as one solution. As the Case Estates area
requires irrigation of the trees and shrubs, and additional mulch-
fertilizer material is always useful, we felt some cooperative
arrangement would dispose of the effluent and sludge on our
collections. Regrettably, the proposal was not approved by
Commonwealth of Massachusetts authorities. It was necessary,
therefore, to begin a program of extending irrigation lines
through the property, particularly to nursery areas. We have
also secured a supply of sewage sludge from Regis College for
use experimentally on a quarter-acre nursery bed. Initially, a
cover crop of buckwheat will be used in repetition to measure
preliminary effects.
The course in practical gardening conducted by Mr. Hebb
was asked to give its special attention to the perennial garden
in Weston. With a devotion and efficiency that is greatly ap-
preciated but must be seen to be believed, this group began the
Perennial Garden at the Case Estates. Photo: P. Bruns
The Director’s Report | 325
tremendous task. Old and overgrown plants were removed.
Designs were drawn up and new plants obtained and planted.
The rejuvenated beds have been attractive this spring and
forecast the improvements possible in this area and the use-
fulness of volunteer help.
The Staff
We can report two promotions within the staff. Mr. Robert
Williams as superintendent of buildings and grounds received
an appointment without limit of time. Mr. Michael Canoso,
formerly Senior Curatorial Assistant, has been given a new
title and responsibilities as the Manager of the Systematic Col-
lections.
Dr. Kenneth R. Robertson and Dr. Stephen A. Spongberg
joined the staff as assistant curators to work with Dr. Carroll
E. Wood on the Flora of the Southeastern United States project.
Mr. Jack Link has been appointed assistant horticulturist to be
in charge of the records and mapping of the living collections.
Mrs. Sheila Geary was appointed assistant librarian in charge
of the library in Jamaica Plain, replacing Miss Jean Caldwell.
fifSI/i
|p * jv,. i
mm
An important facet, as well as a very pleasant one, of our work
at the Arboretum is the collection of specimens from the different
trees and shrubs on the grounds. Pieces are cut from the plants,
pressed between pages of newspaper as shown in these pictures,
and dried as soon as possible. An effort is made to collect at dif-
ferent times of the year so that we have representative material
from all stages of growth — winter twigs, unfolding leaves, mature
leaves, flowers, and fruits — of the various plants. After these
specimens have been dried and mounted on stiff paper they become
part of the permanent record of the plants we have grown here.
Duplicate specimens are exchanged with other institutions, and as a
result we have been able to build up a representative collection of
plants cultivated around the world.
These pictures show some aspects of a typical day’s collecting.
The participants are Richard Weaver, one of our Assistant Curators,
Ida Hay, our Herbarium Assistant, and Jeanne Leavitt, a student from
Antioch College who spent two terms at the Arboretum on a work-
study program.
Photos: P. Bruns
328 | ARNOLDIA
Staff Honors
We are exceedingly pleased to report the special honors and
awards received by members of the staff.
Dr. Lily May Perry was awarded the degree of Doctor of Sci-
ence, honoris causa by Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Sco-
tia, with the citation stating that Dr. Perry “has devoted her
life to solving the mysteries of plant relationships, and has be-
come an authority on the vascular plants of South East Asia.”
Dr. Carroll E. Wood, Jr., was honored by Roanoke College,
Salem, Virginia, with its medal to alumni in recognition of dis-
tinctive service and professional achievement.
Dr. Donald Wyman received the Arthur Hoyt Scott Garden
and Horticultural award at the Commencement exercises of
Swarthmore College. A citation noted him as “a man whose
devotion to horticulture has been absolute.”
The George R. Cooley award made annually for the best sci-
entific paper presented during the meetings of the American
Society of Plant Taxonomists was given to Dr. Lorin I. Nevling,
Jr., and Dr. Thomas Elias for their joint paper on the genus
Calliandra.
Professional Appointments
The services and participation of staff members in profes-
sional organizations are extracurricular, but are significant con-
tributions to our profession. Many are term appointments, but
some are of longer duration and have been mentioned in pre-
vious reports and so continue through this year. Some new
appointments include the following:
Dr. Gordon DeWolf. Editorial and Publication Committee of
the American Horticultural Society. Director and Vice Presi-
dent, Traphole Brook Protection Association, Inc. Member of
the Council, New England Botanical Club.
Dr. Thomas Elias. Member of the Council, New England
Botanical Club.
Dr. Richard A. Howard. Chairman, Cumulative Index Com-
mittee, American Horticultural Society. Scientific Advisory
Committee, Pacific Tropic Botanical Garden. Advisor, Horticul-
tural Committee of the Garden Club of America.
Mr. Robert Long. Chairman, Oberly Memorial Award Com-
mittee, Agricultural and Biological Subsection, Association Col-
lege and Research Librarians. Chairman, Secretariat, Confer-
ence of Botanical and Horticultural Libraries. Public Relations
Committee, New England Library Association.
Viburnum plicatum ‘Mariesii’
Photo: P. Bruns
7 T- -r-
' V , V,' *1^11 ■
mtmm.
Photographing a sequence in the Arboretum centennial film.
Hibiscus syriacus ‘Meehani’ shown in above film sequence.
Photos: P. Bruns
The Director’s Report | 331
Mr. George Pride. Trustee of the Worcester County Horticul-
tural Society. Director, American Rock Garden Society.
Mrs. Helen Roca-Garcia. Member of the Natural Science
Committee, Nantucket Maria Mitchell Association.
Meetings
Meetings of national professional societies are usually held
annually and those of international societies at longer intervals.
It is of benefit to the staff personally and to the Arboretum when
members can attend. Two international meetings were sched-
uled during the year which were of interest to the staff. Dr.
Schubert was an invitational speaker at the first international
symposium on Dioscorea, held in Mexico. The genus Dioscorea
has been the subject of much of her research. Mr. Pride at-
tended the International Rock Garden conference in England.
He is a director of the American Rock Garden Society.
The Arboretum was represented by other staff members at
the two meetings of the American Institute of Biological Sci-
ences held in Indiana in September and in Canada in June,
the American Horticultural Congress, the American Association
of Botanic Gardens and Arboreta, the International Plant Propa-
gators’ Society, and the American Rhododendron Society. Drs.
Howard and Wood presented papers in symposia at these meet-
ings and Drs. Nevling, Elias and Mr. Fordham offered con-
tributed papers in open sessions.
Mr. Long represented the Arnold Arboretum and its library
at the Conference of botanical and horticultural libraries in
New York and at meetings of librarians in Madison, Wisconsin,
and Portsmouth, New Hampshire.
Travel and Exploration
The travel of the staff in the course of the year appears to be
extensive and is profitable to the organization. There are op-
portunities for special expeditions to specific areas seeking cer-
tain groups of plants. Travel to scientific meetings or even va-
cation travel often permits some collecting of herbarium ma-
terial, the acquisition and preservation of material for special
studies, and always the opportunity to take photographs of aid
in teaching and lecture programs.
Dr. Nevling spent part of each summer season covered by
this report in Mexico gathering materials and data for the
floristic project undertaken cooperatively with the National
University of Mexico. Dr. Hu spent several months in Hong
Kong where her work toward a flora received the cooperation
332 | ARNOLDIA
of the staff of Chung Chi College. Dr. Howard and Dr. Weaver
made a special trip to the Lesser Antilles and the islands of St.
Vincent and St. Lucia with the goals of climbing the Soufriere,
Morne Garu and Morne Gimie. The cooperation of Messrs.
McConnie and DeFrietas of the Department of Agriculture on
St. Vincent made the trips successful. The help of members
of the Bilharrzia project of the Rockefeller Foundation on St.
Lucia is also acknowledged with gratitude. While attending a
meeting of the Scientific Advisory Board of the Pacific Tropical
Botanical Garden on Kauai in Hawaii, Dr. Howard was able
to renew his observations on the bauxite rehabilitation project
that concerned him several years ago. Mr. Fordham was able
to visit and exchange materials with the Arboretum of the Uni-
versity of Manitoba and the Experiment Station at Morden
while enroute to the meeting of the International Plant Propa-
gators’ Society. Associated with vacation travel, Dr. Wood ob-
tained kodachrome pictures of vegetation in Mexico and Europe,
as did Mr. Pride in Ecuador and the Gallapagos Islands and
Mrs. Roca-Garcia in Spain.
Mercer Fellows
The Mercer Fellowship program is designed to permit indi-
viduals to work with our collections of living plants, herbarium
specimens or books. Many applicants wish to have the oppor-
tunity of working with an individual staff member to learn a
technique or to have informal guidance in developing a skill
or a research project. Although no formal call for applicants
has ever been distributed, the awards and opportunities are be-
coming well known and this year applications far exceeded the
funds and the number of people we could house suitably.
Mercer Fellows for all or part of the year and their origin and
project area included the following:
Harmony Clement (Massachusetts) — Development of hor-
ticultural meetings
Nancy Page (California) — City beautification programs
Christian Puff (Austria) — Nodal and petiolar anatomy
Mario Sousa-Sanchez (Mexico) — - Monographic studies of
Lonchocarpus
Leslie Joan Spraker (Indiana) — Horticultural writing
Donald Vining (Georgia) — Horticultural writing and plant
propagation
Ivey Woodworth (Massachusetts) — City beautification and
recreation programs
The Director’s Report | 333
Rhododendron sp. Photo: P. Bruns
Friends of the Arnold Arboretum
The Friends of the Arnold Arboretum is an informal group
of people who by annual contributions or occasional large gifts
support the activities of research, display and education, which
are the functions of the Arnold Arboretum. Membership is open
to all who wish to join and the group increased to over 1500
during the year.
The endowment of the Arnold Arboretum has been accumu-
lated from gifts and bequests of former Friends. The gifts of
the present membership are essential, not only to meet rising
costs, but to undertake special projects. Special gifts from the
Friends have, at their request, been used to support work on
the grounds, including the care of the Rhododendron collections,
the bonsai and dwarf conifers, the development and mainte-
j*' --
W?
A group of volunteer workers planting spring-flowering bulbs at the
Arboretum. Photo: P. Bruns
The Director’s Report | 335
nance of a narcissus collection, travel for staff members for
plant exploration and introduction, the binding of books in the
library, aid in the development of community projects and aid
in special publications. Gifts for such restricted use are ac-
cepted if they are within the interests and abilities of the staff.
The unrestricted gifts from the Friends are of great value as
they allow the funds to be used where most needed for equip-
ment, supplies, or labor. Gifts are tax-deductible within the
usual Federal regulations, however, few people realize this is
almost uniquely an American privilege and practice.
Friends receive the issues of Amoldia published bimonthly.
The Arnold Arboretum collections are theirs to visit and enjoy.
The members of the staff are ready to aid as they can in special
problems or requests of the Friends. Members of the Friends
receive special publications according to their generosity, but
all have the opportunity of special prices for lectures, classes
or tours.
The Friends organization promises to be more active and
involved during the coming Centennial Year program. Rear
Admiral Harry Hull, U.S.N. (Ret.), of Manchester, Massachu-
setts, has accepted the position of executive chairman of the
Centennial program. Committees are being formed to assist
and participate in the programs planned.
Gifts and Grants
The Arnold Arboretum was the beneficiary of bequests from
the estates of Mrs. Homer Sweet and Dr. Helen M. Scorgie.
Mrs. Sweet was a former member of the Committee to Visit the
Arnold Arboretum. Her bequest was increased with a special
gift from the New England Section of the Women’s Farm and
Garden Association. The income of this gift will be used in
association with the activities of the Arnold Arboretum in
Weston and on the Case Estates.
Dr. Helen Scorgie, formerly of Harvard, Mass., was an active
member of the New England section of the American Daffodil
Society. She was responsible for the development of the exhibit
of classified varieties of narcissus maintained on the Case
Estates. Her gift was specified to be used to maintain and
enhance this display area.
Gifts of plants, books and materials of value to the collections
of the Arnold Arboretum have been received from many indi-
viduals. We are particularly grateful to Mr. and Mrs. Donald
Smith, Mr. Joel Spingarn and Mr. Layne Ziegenfuss for material
of dwarf conifers which have added materially to our collection
336 | ARNOLDIA
of named and selected clones. A special generous gift was
received from Dr. George R. Cooley to assist in a program of
rebinding library volumes.
The work of Dr. Carroll Wood and his staff toward a generic
flora of the Southeastern United States has been supported by
a grant from the National Science Foundation. A renewal of
the current grant for the fourth year has been received. Miss
Stephanne Sutton received awards from the American Philo-
sophical Society and the Ella Lyman Cabot trust for her work
toward a biography of Joseph Rock.
Publications
Dr. Bernice Schubert continued to serve as editor of the
Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. The four issues comprising
volume 52 involved 667 pages with 31 articles by 38 authors.
Ellen Bernstein, editorial assistant, is preparing a 50-year index
to authors and titles. This will be available to subscribers as a
special publication during the year.
A review of the increased costs of publishing and distributing
the numbers of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum indicated
that our subsidy of this publication was excessive. The Journal
is used in exchange for other publications, but a comparison
of the subscription prices would suggest incorrectly that the
exchange was markedly in our favor. To place a more accurate
value on the Journal and help to meet the ever increasing costs
of publication, the price per volume was increased to $16.00
for the next year.
In October of 1970 Mrs. Helen Roca-Garcia accepted the
editorial responsibilities for Arnoldia. Miss Pamela Bruns con-
tinued with the responsibility for the illustrations and the lay-
out. An editorial board of Dr. DeWolf, Dr. Howard and Mr.
Pride was appointed to assist in manuscript selection. Volume
30 of Arnoldia contained 260 pages of text and ten pages of
index.
One special publication was issued by the staff during the
year. A colorful booklet “The Arnold Arboretum: The First
Century” was written and compiled by Stephanne Sutton with
illustrations by Pamela Bruns. It was designed by Christopher
Reed and printed by the Nimrod Press. The booklet of 72 pages
includes eight pages of color illustration, a foreword by Walter
Muir Whitehill, and an afterword by Dr. Howard.
The Board of Overseers Committee to Visit the Arnold Arboretum
To aid the University in its supervision of the administration
Planting spring-flowering bulbs. Photo: P. Bruns
of the Arnold Arboretum, the alumni-elected Board of Overseers
appoints one of its members as chairman of a committee to
examine the activities of the staff and the condition of the col-
lections. The committee is selected by the chairman and mem-
bers represent special qualifications in areas of horticulture or
botany, publications, community affairs or education. One
member is usually a resident of the town of Weston, the location
of the Case Estates, and the chairman of the Boston Department
of Parks and Recreation is an official member. The committee
338 | ARNOLDIA
meets once or more each year and observes the Arnold Ar-
boretum in its three locations and many activities. Ultimately
a report from the chairman is given to the President and Fellows
of Harvard as the trustees of the Arnold Arboretum. The com-
mittee, individually and collectively, is of great help to the staff.
Their service on the committee and to the Arnold Arboretum
is appreciated.
The Visiting Committee during the academic year 1970-71
included :
George Putnam, Chairman, Boston, Mass.
George R. Clark, Vice-Chairman, Philadelphia, Pa.
Mrs. George L. Batchelder, Beverly, Mass.
Mrs. Ralph Bradley, Canton, Mass.
Mr. Frederick D. Brown, Webster, Mass.
Mrs. Paul Cabot, Needham, Mass.
Mrs. Bruce Crane, Dalton, Mass.
Dr. John Creech, New Carrollton, Md.
Mr. Joseph Curtis, Commissioner, Boston Parks and Recreation
Dept.
Mrs. F. Stanton Deland, Jr., Chestnut Hill, Mass.
Mrs. Dudley B. Dumaine, Weston, Mass.
Mr. William Flemer, III, Princeton, New Jersey
Mrs. Irving Fraim, Waltham, Mass.
Mrs. Julian W. Hill, Wilmington, Delaware
Mr. Henry Hosmer, Boston, Mass.
Mr. Seth Kelsey, Stamford, Conn.
Dr. Russell E. Larson, University Park, Penn.
Mr. Milford R. Lawrence, Falmouth, Mass. Deceased
Mrs. John Lockwood, Bedford, New York
Mr. R. Henry Norweb, Jr., Mentor, Ohio
Mrs. Richard W. Pratt, Chestnut Hill, Mass.
Mrs. Donald Ross, Montchanin, Delaware
Mrs. W. Davis Taylor, Westwood, Mass.
Mrs. Julian Underwood, South Dartmouth, Mass.
Mrs. G. Kennard Wakefield, Milton, Mass.
Mr. Nathaniel Whittier, Medfield, Mass.
Mr. Roger C. Wilkins, Avon, Conn.
Mrs. John G. Williams, Gladwyne, Penn.
Richard A. Howard, Director
Visitors attending Conservation exhibition. Photo: P. Bruns
Bibliography of Published Writings of the Staff,
July 1, 1970— June 30, 1971
*Bogle, A. L., The genera of Molluginaceae and Aizoaceae in the
southeastern United States, Jour. Arnold Arb. 51 : 431^162.
1970.
DeWolf, G. P., Jr., (with M. Silber), Yews in fact and fiction,
Arnoldia 30: 139-147. 1970.
Suburban economics, Arnoldia 30: 175-179. 1970.
Notes on the history of tea, Arnoldia 31: 20-23. 1971.
The political limits of environmental quality, Landscape
Arch. 61: 125. 1971.
(with R. Hebb), The story of Forsythia, Arnoldia 31: 41-
63. 1971.
Key to Forsythias, Arnoldia 31: 67, 68. 1971.
A pesticide table, Am. Hort. Mag. 50: 27-29. 1971.
— Service justifies public support, Arb. & Bot. Gard. Bull. 5:
47, 48. 1971.
* Includes publication of work done by former staff members while
in residence.
340 | ARNOLDIA
Elias, T. S., Notes on the genus Galipea (Rutaceae) in Central
America, Jour. Arnold Arb. 51: 427^30. 1970.
Morphology and anatomy of foliar nectaries of Inga and
Pithecellobium (Leguminosae), (Abstr. ), Am. Jour. Bot. 57:
744. 1970.
Taxonomy of the genus Hamelia (Rubiaceae), (Abstr.),
Am. Jour. Bot. 57: 751, 752. 1970.
(with L. I. Nevling), Calliandra, pollinia and systematic
implications, (Abstr.), Am. Jour. Bot. 57: 753. 1970.
The correct name for the genus Cusparia (Rutaceae), Tax-
on 19: 573-575. 1970.
(with L. I. Nevling), Calliandra haematocephala, history
and taxonomy, Jour. Arnold Arb. 52: 69-85. 1971.
: *!'» -4?$
- * ; i
■ — The genera of Fagaceae in the southeastern United States,
Jour. Arnold Arb. 52: 159-198. 1971.
_ — The genera of Myricaceae in the southeastern United
States, Jour, Arnold Arb. 52: 305-318. 1971.
— (with L I. Nevling), Calliandra haematocephala, Calif.
Hort. Jour. 32: 61-65. 1971.
Fordham, A. J., Production of juvenile shoots from root pieces,
Int. PI. Prop. Soc. Comb. Proc. 19: 284-287. 1969.
— . — ___ Acer griseum and its propagation, Int. PI. Prop. Soc. Comb.
Proc. 19: 346-349. 1969.
— — Temperature and Forsythia buds, Horticulture 49: 16, 17.
1971.
— — • — Climate at the Arnold Arboretum, Arnoldia 30: 186-193.
1970.
— _ — , — Cold damage to Forsythia buds, Arnoldia 31: 64-67. 1971.
*Green, P. S., Notes relating to the floras of Norfolk and Lord Howe
Islands, Jour. Arnold Arb. 51: 204-220. 1970.
Hartley, T. G., Additional notes on the Malesian species of Z an-
thoxylum (Rutaceae), Jour. Arnold Arb. 51 : 423-426. 1970.
Hebb, R. S., Spring planting program, Arnoldia 30; 155-158. 1970.
— ■ Autumn interest, Arnoldia 30: 168-173. 1970.
— Plant registrations, Arnoldia 30: 251-260. 1970.
• — — - — Perennials for low maintenance gardening, Arnoldia 31 :
24-35, 70-82, 127-139. 1971.
(with G. P. DeWolf, Jr.), The story of Forsythia, Arnoldia
31: 41-63. 1971.
Top and left: Grounds crew working at the Arboretum. Photos: P. Bruns
The Director’s Report [ 343
Howard, R. A., A change in Arnoldia, Arnoldia 30: 1. 1970.
The “alpine” plants of the Antilles, Biotropica 2: 24-28.
1970.
The summit forest of Pico del Oeste, Puerto Rico, in H. T.
Odum, A tropical rain forest, Chapter B-20, B: 325-328. 1970.
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
Foreword, in Sutton, Charles Sargent and the Arnold Ar-
boretum, xi-xvii. 1970. Harvard University Press.
Plant registration activities, Arb. & Bot. Gard. Bull. 5: 20.
1971.
Polygonaceae. In: Edwin A. Menninger. Flowering Vines
of the World. Hearthside Press, N.Y. 278-282, 353. 1970.
Afterword, in Sutton, The Arnold Arboretum: the first
century, 69-71. 1971.
The Director’s Report, The Arnold Arboretum during the
fiscal year ended June 30, 1970, Arnoldia 30: 201-246. 1970.
The botanical gardens and arboreta of the United States,
Act. Mus. Silesiae, Ser. Dendrol. 2: 131-139. 1970 (1971).
Botanicke zahrady a arboreta Spojenych statu (preklad),
Act. Mus. Silesiae, Ser. Dendrol. 2: 139-146. 1970 (1971).
— Some observations on the nodes of woody plants with
special reference to the problem of the ‘split-lateral’ versus the
‘common gap,’ Bot. Jr. Linn. Soc. Suppl. 1: 195-214. 1970.
The ‘alpine’ plants of the Antilles, in adaptive aspects of
insular evolution, 24-28. 1971. (Ed.) W. Stern, Washington
State Univ. Press.
Hu, S. Y., The Orchidaceae of China, I. Quart. Jour. Taiwan Mus.
24: 69-103. 1971.
*Kazmi, S. M. A., Bibliography on the botany of West Pakistan and
Kashmir and adjacent regions. 1. Taxonomy, 136 pp. 1970;
II. Paleobotany, phytogeography, cytology and palynology.
100 pp. 1970; III. Morphology, anatomy and ecology, 87 pp.
1971. Field Research Projects, Coconut Grove, Miami, Fla.
A revision of the Boraginaceae of West Pakistan and
Kashmir, Jour. Arnold Arb. 50: 133-184, 367-402, 499-520.
1970. 51: 110-136, 334-363. 1971.
*Miller, N. G., A new species of Parietaria (Urticaceae), from north-
eastern Mexico, Jour. Arnold Arb. 50: 529-533. 1970.
The genera of the Cannabaceae in the southeastern United
States, Jour. Arnold Arb. 50: 185-203. 1970.
The Polygalaceae in the southeastern United States, Jour.
Arnold Arb. 51: 267-284. 1971.
Nevling, L. I., Jr., Saxifragaceae. In: Edwin A. Menninger. Flow-
ering Vines of the World. Hearthside Press, N.Y., 313-316.
1970.
(with T. Elias), Calliandra haematocephala, history and
taxonomy, Jour. Arnold Arb. 52: 69-85. 1971.
(with T. Elias) Calliandra, pollinia and systematic impli-
cations, (Abstr. ), Am. Jour. Bot. 57: 753. 1970.
(with T. Elias), Calliandra haematocephala, Calif. Hort.
Jour. 32: 61-65. 1971.
Pride, G. H., Dr. Robert A. Griesbach, Hemerocallis Jour. 25(2):
25-26. 1971.
'onifer Collection. Photo: P. Bruns
Dana Greenhouses and Nursery area. Photo: Alfred Fordham
Robertson, K. R., Chromosome numbers in phanerogams, Ann. Mis-
souri Bot. Gard. 57: 383, 384, 1970 (1971).
Roca-Garcia, H., The cork trees, Arnoldia 30: 161-167. 1970.
Weeds: A link with the past. 3. Tansy, Arnoldia 31: 37-38.
1971.
The Lelacke, or pipe tree, Arnoldia 31: 114-120. 1971.
Schubert, B. G., Desmodium, in: Correll & Johnston. Manual of
the vascular plants of Texas, 855-869. 1970.
A new species of Desmodium from Africa, Kew Bull. 25:
61-63. 1971.
The Director’s Report | 345
Sorensen, P. D., The Dahlia: An early history, Arnoldia 30: 121-
138. 1970.
Sousa, M., Ecologia de las Leguminosas de Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz,
An. Inst. Biol. Univ. Nat. Auton. Mexico, Ser. Bot. 39: 121-
160. 1968.
Spongberg, S., The Staphyleaceae in the southeastern United States,
Jour. Arnold Arb. 52: 196-203. 1971.
(with F. J. McCormick and J. R. Bozeman), A taxonomic
revision of granite outcrop species of Minuartia ( Arenaria ),
Brittonia 23: 149-160. 1971.
Sutton, S. B., Actinidia chinensis, the Kiwi fruit, Arnoldia 30: ISO-
185. 1970.
Charles Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum, 382
pp. 1970. Harvard University Press.
The Arnold Arboretum: The first century. 72 pp. 1971.
Arnold Arboretum.
van der Schijff, H. P., (with L. Snyman), The morphology and
germination of seed of Elephantorrhiza elephantina. Jour.
Arnold Arb. 51: 114-128. 1970.
Weaver, R. E., Jr., The Fothergillas, Arnoldia 31: 89-97. 1971.
Wood, C. E., Jr., Some floristic relationships between the south-
ern Appalachians and western North America, in: Perry C.
Holt (ed.). The Distribution History of the Biota of the
Southern Appalachians Part II. Flora. Research Div. Monog.
2: 331-404. 1971. Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ. Black-
burg, Va.
Wyman, D., One hundred shrubs, three feet or less in height, Am.
Nurseryman 133 (11): 8, 9, 61-71. 1971.
Horticulture at the Arnold Arboretum, 1936-1970, Ar-
noldia 30: 81-91, 1970.
— Metasequoia after twenty years in cultivation, Jour. Roy.
Hort. Soc. 95: 445-451. 1970.
The best flowering shrubs, Am. Nurseryman 132 (7): 10,
11, 60-67. 1970.
The heathers, Am. Nurseryman 133(9): 10, 11, 81-84.
1971.
The Preston lilacs, Am. Nurseryman 132(11): 10-12.
1970.
Tree peonies in the Arnold Arboretum, Am. Nurseryman
132(9): 8-10, 56-59, 1970.
The white fir, Horticulture 48: 44, 45. 1970.
Wyman’s Gardening Encyclopedia, 1222 pp. 1971. Macmil-
lan Co.
346 I ARNOLDIA
Staff of the Arnold Arboretum
1970-1971
Richard Alden Howard, Ph.D., Arnold Professor of Botany, Professor
of Dendrology and Director
Karl Sax, S.D., Professor of Botany, Emeritus
Donald Wyman, Ph.D., Horticulturist, Emeritus
Ellen Bernstein, M.A., Editorial Assistant
Pamela Anne Bruns, B.A., Artist and Art Editor of Arnoldia
Michael Anthony Canoso, M.S., Manager of the Systematic Collec-
tions*
Constance Elizabeth Derderian, Honorary Curator of the Bonsai Col-
lection
Gordon Parker DeWolf, Jr., Ph.D., Horticulturist
Heidi Elisabeth Duda, S.M.L.S., Cataloger *
Thomas Sam Elias, Ph.D., Assistant Curator
Alfred James Fordham, Propagator
Sheila Geary, B.F.A., Assistant Librarian
William Ed Grime, B.A., Curatorial Assistant *
Thomas Gordon Hartley, Ph.D., Associate Curator
Ida Hay, B.A., Herbarium Assistant
Robert Stephen Hebb, B.S., Associate Horticulturist
Shiu-Ying Hu, Ph.D., Botanist
Thomas Matthew Kinahan, Superintendent, Case Estates
Jack Link, B.S., Assistant Horticulturist
Charles Robert Long, M.A., S.M.L.S., Librarian*
Lorin Ives Nevling, Jr., Ph.D., Curator and Supervisor of the Her-
baria*
Dulcie Alicia Powell, M.A., Botanist
George Howard Pride, M.A., Associate Horticulturist
Kenneth R. Robertson, Ph.D., Assistant Curator
Helen Roca-Garcia, M.A., Research Assistant and Editor of Arnoldia
Bernice Giduz Schubert, Ph.D., Curator and Editor of the Journal
of the Arnold Arboretum
Stephen Alan Spongberg, Ph.D., Assistant Curator
Karen L. Stoutsenberger, B.A., Botanical Illustrator
Stephanne Barry Sutton, A.B., Honorary Research Fellow
Richard E. Weaver, Jr., Ph.D., Assistant Curator
Robert Gerow Williams, B.S., Superintendent
Carroll Emory Wood, Jr., Ph.D., Curator
* Appointed jointly with the Gray Herbarium.
Children playing in the Arboretum — early spring.
Photo: P. Bruns
Birds in the Arnold Arboretum
In the first published account of the birdlife of the Arnold
Arboretum, in 1895, C. E. Faxon made the following observa-
tion: “Although the suburbs of Boston are peculiarly well fitted
for the abode of a great variety of birds, the continual encroach-
ment of urban conditions will eventually make such a place as
the Arnold Arboretum a precious spot for the city bird-lover
who is obliged to look near at hand for the enjoyment of his
favorites.”
Mr. Faxon’s prediction has been largely correct. In spite of
its increasingly urbanized surroundings and large number of
visitors, the Arnold Arboretum has remained a viable bird sanc-
tuary from the time of its founding. However, truly natural
habitats are rare in the Arboretum now, and as a consequence
the resident birds are those which prefer an open or disturbed
habitat, or those which can tolerate or even prosper under the
presence of man. Still, the Arboretum provides a wide range
of semi-natural habitats, as well as a varied and abundant food
supply, a combination which attracts large numbers of migrants.
Although the fauna is hardly an exceptional one, birds of various
species are relatively numerous throughout the year, and some
of the summer residents are among our most attractive and
desirable songsters.
During the wintertime, the regularly maintained feeder at
the side of the Administration Building is visited by several
species of birds, much to the delight of those of us who work
here. Blue Jays, Black-capped Chickadees, Slate-colored Jun-
coes, and White-crowned Sparrows may be seen in fair numbers
nearly every day, and Downy Woodpeckers, Cardinals and
Ring-necked Pheasants are not uncommon. The ubiquitous
“city birds” (Pigeons, Starlings, and English Sparrows) are con-
spicuous throughout the Arboretum, as are Crows and Blue
Jays. Increasing numbers of Robins and Mockingbirds spend
the winter here, especially in the more sheltered areas, and
Mallards and Black Ducks are frequently seen on the ponds and
brooks. If one is willing to wade through the frequently heavy
349
Cedar Waxwin.gs in crabapple tree. Drawing by P. Bruns
350 | ARNOLDIA
snowdrifts, Hemlock Hill is one of the best places in the Arbo-
retum in which to observe winter birdlife. Although it has been
culled from time to time, and plantings have been made in a
few areas, the forest here approaches a primeval condition.
Hemlock Hill is an isolated, sheltered haven for birds which
prefer coniferous forests, and on most days it is alive with
constantly moving flocks of Chickadees and their attandant
Nuthatches, both the White-breasted and Red-breasted species.
The colorful Cedar Waxwings are among the more delightful
winter visitors in the Arboretum. They pass through irregularly
during the year, but at this season when the resident bird
population is a relatively dull one, their arrival is a welcome
event for the bird-watcher and casual visitor alike. Waxwings
are particularly attracted to the fruits of the crab apples, hollies,
and junipers, and a flock alighting on a fruit-laden tree, accom-
panied by a constant high-pitched, wheezy twittering, is unlikely
to pass unnoticed.
Because of the influx of a large number of migrants, mostly
of species that do not take up residence, springtime is the most
exciting time for observing birdlife in the Arboretum. Although
a few species, notably the Fox Sparrow, arrive in February, new
birds are not conspicuous until mid-March. By then, the male
Red-Wings are noisily choosing nesting sites in the meadow in
anticipation of the arrival of their mates a few weeks later. At
about the same time, the first metallic twangs of the Purple
Grackles, larger and somewhat less desirable relatives of the
Red-Wings, may be heard.
During April, the bird population does not change appreciably,
although winter visitants such as the Slate-colored Juncoes head
north and Phoebes and Brown Thrashers arrive. By early May,
however, the migrants start coming through in large numbers.
Warblers of several species are conspicuous because of their
bright colors and songs remarkably loud for such small birds.
During May of 1971, Palm Warblers were common in the shrub-
by areas, and Hemlock Hill was virtually alive with flocks of
Blackburnians, Black-throated Greens, Black and Whites, Cape
Mays, and Parulas. Myrtle Warblers were common throughout,
but they seemed to prefer the Conifer Collection.
At about the same time, the resident birds settle in for the
summer. The Mimic Thrushes (not to be confused with the
true Thrushes) are well represented among the Arboretum’s
summer bird fauna, all three eastern North American species
being present. All are large and conspicuous with the ability
to mimic the calls of other bird species. The best mimic, the
Birds in the Arnold Arboretum I 351
Mockingbird, is the least common of the three. It is primarily
a bird of southeastern United States where it is in many places
one of the most common of the avian species. In the spring
of 1971 a nest was found in the Arboretum for the first time. A
pair of Mockingbirds raised at least two young in a small
American Holly tree near the Bonsai House, and several sur-
prised visitors to the Bonsai House were dive-bombed by the
irate birds.
The repertoire of these large gray, black, and white birds is
incredible. One evening in southern Pennsylvania I heard a
Mockingbird mimic with remarkable accuracy the songs of 23
different species of birds at one sitting. The phrases of the song
are repeated numerous times, and a single concert may proceed
without prolonged interruption for nearly an hour. Unfortu-
nately these birds sometimes choose to sing at times when they
are not exactly appreciated. Trying to sleep with a Mockingbird
sounding off right outside one’s bedroom window at 3:00 A.M.
can be a most frustrating experience.
The Brown Thrasher is much more common than the Mock-
ingbird, but as a mimic it is far inferior. The song has as
pleasing a quality as that of its more talented relative, but is
of shorter duration and the phrases are repeated only once or
twice. Looking like a large and ungainly, long-beaked, long-
tailed, yellow-eyed Wood Thrush, with which It is frequently
confused, the Brown Thrasher is one of the Arboretum’s most
conspicuous summer birds. The Catbird, the third of the Mimic
Thrushes, is about as common as the Brown Thrasher, but
because of its smaller size, drab coloration, and secretive habits,
it is less conspicuous. Its mewing call, usually made from a
low, concealed perch, is the source of its common name. In
contrast to its relatives, the mimicking abilities of the catbird
are poorly developed, and the mimicked phrases are seldom
repeated.
Of the several warblers that are summer residents in the
Arboretum, only the Yellow Warbler is common and conspicu-
ous. The male is our only predominantly yellow bird. As these
warblers prefer open shrubby areas, the Arboretum is a perfect
place for them. During the spring of 1971, several pairs took
up residence in the shrub collection and the lilacs, and the loud,
clear “sweet-sweet-mary-mary-sweet” of the males was to be
heard throughout the day in these areas.
Four members of the Blackbird Family are common summer
residents in the Arnold Arboretum — the Red-Wing and the
Purple Grackle, mentioned earlier, the Cowbird, and the Balti-
Yellow Warblers are the most common of the three species of Warblers
which presently nest in the Arnold Arboretum.
Photo: Henry G. Daniels. Courtesy Massachusetts Audubon Society
Birds in the Arnold Arboretum | 353
more Oriole. The male of the last is one of our most brightly
colored birds and is easily seen, even though the species shows
a distinct preference for the taller shade trees. The rattling
chatter, made in flight, and the clear, flute-like whistles of the
Orioles are familiar sounds here in the early summer. Although
not as elaborate as those of some of its tropical relatives, the
hanging basket-like nest of the Baltimore Oriole is still one of
the most remarkable to be built by any of our native birds.
Equally remarkable, but in a much different way, are the
nesting habits of the Cowbird. This rather unattractive bird is
a parasite, much like the completely unrelated Old World
Cuckoos. Rather than raising its own young as a respectable
bird would do, the Cowbird lays its eggs in the nests of other
species, and then forgets about them. Particularly if they are
of a smaller species, the offspring of the “foster parents” suffer
at the expense of the young Cowbirds, frequently unable to
compete for food and ultimately being forced out of the nest.
Three species of Flycatchers have nested in the Arboretum
during the past several years. The Robin-sized Crested Fly-
catcher is rare and not easily seen. The call and the habits of
the Eastern Phoebe are more distinctive than its plumage. These
drab-colored birds give the general impression of being nervous
and high-strung, constantly wagging their tails while at rest
and making frequent short, darting flights in pursuit of insects.
The somewhat plaintive call sounds very much like the bird’s
common name. The Eastern Kingbird is the most conspicuous
of the Arboretum’s Flycatchers. Although its plumage is not
brightly colored, the bird’s white belly and terminal tail band
are strikingly contrasted with the dark upper parts. Like the
Phoebe, and most other Flycatchers for that matter, the King-
bird makes short, darting flights from an exposed perch in
pursuit of insects. However, its normal manner of flight, with
stiff, jerky wingbeats, is distinctive, as is its habit of hovering
awkwardly in grassy areas, presumably to gain a vantage point
for its insect-catching forays in the absence of a suitable perch.
The Scarlet Tanager is the only representative of a large,
primarily tropical family to be found among the New England
bird fauna. Tanagers as a group are colorful birds, and our
native species is no exception. Although they are among the
most common birds in Eastern deciduous forests. Scarlet Tan-
agers are somewhat secretive and not often seen.
The Yellow-shafted Flicker is the largest of the several Wood-
peckers in the Arnold Arboretum, and the one most frequently
seen in the summertime. It is also the only native Woodpecker
354 | ARNOLDIA
which commonly descends to the ground, where it hops about
somewhat clumsily in search of ants. In flight the Flicker is
unmistakable. The white rump patch is very conspicuous, and
it is our only large bird with a “roller-coaster” flight.
Sparrows and finches are well represented among the summer
birds in the Arboretum, and two are of particular note. The
Indigo Bunting, a bird of fence rows and other sparsely wooded
areas, finds numerous ideal habitats here. Although the male
is a brilliant blue color when seen by reflected sunlight, in
silhouette or among foliage he appears merely as a nondescript
dark bird, and therefore not particularly conspicuous. The loud
and varied song of these small birds, however, is one of the
most frequently heard on summer days in the Arboretum.
The Rufous-sided Towhee or Chewink, a larger, long-tailed
member of the Finch Family, is also common in the Arboretum.
These black, white, and rusty-red birds prefer dense brush and
are most often seen (or heard) scratching around among fallen
leaves. The call, the familiar, slurred “chewink” and the song,
“drink-your-tea” or “tow-hee” are the sources of both of the bird’s
common names.
As the summer wears on, the birds become less and less
conspicuous. With the moult of their breeding plumage, they
become more secretive and the songs practically cease. The
Grackles and the Red-Wings have already gone south by the
end of summer, and the waves of mostly dull-colored migrants
signal the beginning of autumn.
Changing Bird Populations in the Arnold Arboretum
Observations on the birdlife of the Arnold Arboretum have
been recorded since the early days of the institution’s existence.
The first published account, by Mr. C. E. Faxon in 1895 (Garden
and Forest 8: 292, 293. 1895), listed 50 species of birds as
breeding residents on the grounds at Jamaica Plain. Records
since then have shown marked changes in the composition of
the resident bird fauna. From 1939 to the present, the Chil-
dren’s Museum (Jamaica Plain) Bird Club, under the leader-
ship of Miss Miriam Dickey, presently of the Massachusetts
Audubon Society, have made regular bi-monthly walks in the
Arboretum. For the period 1968-1970, this group recorded a
total of 36 species seen on a nest or with young, and 6 addi-
tional species whose behavior and numbers indicated that they
also nested here. My own observations in 1971 have added
Birds in the Arnold Arboretum ] 355
two species to the list of breeding residents. Thus the number
of species nesting in the Arnold Arboretum has decreasd dur-
ing the last 75 years, and the change has not only been a quanti-
tative one. As certain species ceased to nest in the Arboretum,
others moved in to take their place, but the influx of new species
has not kept pace with the departure of the others. A compari-
son of the breeding residents in 1895 with those in the period
.1968 -1971 is made in Table 1.
During the last decade, the decline of several bird species has
received considerable attention throughout the United States.
The reasons for this decline are for the most part numerous and
complex, but among them the toxic effects of pesticides have
received the most study and publicity. The most effective pes-
ticides, and those that have been most extensively used for a
long period of time are a class known as chlorinated hydrocar-
bons — DDT, Dieldrin, Chlordane, etc. These compounds de-
compose slowly, and when they are concentrated in the body
tissue (mostly fatty tissue) of birds calcium metabolism is
impaired. Since the chlorinated hydrocarbons are not soluble
in water, they cannot be concentrated in plant tissues. Seed-
eating birds, therefore, are not affected, but insectivorous and
carnivorous species have suffered greatly.
Of the birds that have ceased to nest in the Arnold Arboretum
during the last 75 years, most are of the insectivorous species.
The Warblers in particular have declined. In 1895 nine species
nested here while only three do so at present. Flycatchers and
Thrushes have also been disappearing. These groups are on
the decline in many areas, particularly urbanized ones. Pesti-
cides have certainly been responsible to some degree. However,
insectivorous birds rarely show the type of reproductive failure
attributed to pesticides that has been so well documented in
the decline of Hawks and their relatives. Therefore other fac-
tors are involved. Urban conditions and civilization in general
pose insurmountable problems to many bird species. Nesting
sites are destroyed and the habitat generally becomes unfavor-
able. Predators — cats, dogs, squirrels, and man — become
more numerous, and introduced bird species compete for food
and territory.
The decline of certain of the birds which formerly nested in
the Arboretum has been well documented and is well under-
stood. Barn Swallows, Bobolinks, and Vesper Sparrows have de-
creased with the agriculture on which they are dependent.
Bluebirds suffered heavy mortality during unusually severe
v At
Birds in the Arnold Arboretum | 357
Southern winters in the 1940’s and 1950’s. Suitable nesting
sites, especially with the heavy competition by English Sparrows
and Starlings, have become increasingly rare, further hasten-
ing their decline. Bobwhites have suffered from over-shooting
and severe winters. It is thought that native Bobwhites are
now extinct in Massachusetts, and that the birds which are
occasionally seen have been stocked.
Although land use in the Arnold Arboretum has changed
markedly since 1895, practices here do not appear to have
significantly affected the composition of the resident bird fauna.
There are still relatively undisturbed habitats available, and
spraying with chlorinated hydrocarbons has been discontinued.
The reasons for the change must largely be looked for in the
Arboretum’s increasingly urbanized surroundings, as well as in
changing natural and man-influenced conditions throughout the
Eastern United States.
The appearance of new species of nesting birds in the Arbore-
tum since 1895 has been a mixed blessing. The several species
of alien birds — Ring-necked Pheasants, Pigeons, Starlings, and
English Sparrows — are a conspicuous element among the
newcomers. The last three are omnivorous, aggressive, and re-
markably prolific and thus able to outcompete many native
species for food and nesting sites. The phenomenal increase in
the distribution and numbers of these aliens since their intro-
duction has been in part responsible for the decline of several
of our most attractive native birds. A recent book, entitled “The
Alien Animals,” by George Laycock (The Natural History Press),
documents the introduction of these and other imported species
and their effect on the native fauna. Much of the following in-
formation has been taken from this fascinating book.
Although efforts had been made as early as 1730, the Ring-
necked Pheasant, a native of China, was successfully intro-
duced into the United States in 1882. Judge Owen N. Denny,
then the American consul in Shanghai, shipped a number of
these birds to Oregon in that year, and most of the Pheasants
in this country are derived from that stock. Though Pheasants
regularly breed in the Northeast, the young birds suffer in
particularly damp springs, and many nests are destroyed dur-
ing the hay-cutting season. Therefore regular stocking is re-
quired to keep up that population.
The English “Sparrow,” a native of the Old World, is related
to the Weaver Birds of tropical Africa and Asia rather than to
the true Sparrows. This noisy, gregarious bird has been car-
ried by man to most of the temperate areas of the world. Eng-
pair of Mockingbirds nested in the Arboretum for the first time on record
wring the summer of 1971. This nest was their second of the season,
hotos: Top: Richard Weaver
Middle and bottom: P. Bruns
358 | ARNOLDIA
lish Sparrows were introduced into a number of cities in the
United States and Canada during the 1850’s and 1860’s, pri-
marily by bird lovers who thought that they would be a wel-
come addition to the fauna. By 1890 they had multiplied
enormously, becoming serious pests in many areas, and efforts
were already underway to eliminate them. The Sparrows’ ag-
gressive tendencies were apparent from the beginning. In his
monumental series on the life histories of North American birds,
the noted ornithologist Arthur Cleveland Bent wrote the fol-
lowing:
Many years ago, when I was a small boy, probably in the
late 1860’s or early 1870’s my uncle, who lived next door
to us in Taunton, Massachusetts, was the first to intro-
duce English Sparrows into that immediate vicinity. He
built a large flying cage in his garden that was roofed
over, covered with netting on four sides, and well supplied
with perches and nesting boxes. Here the sparrows were so
well fed and cared for that they soon began to breed. It
was not long before the cage became overcrowded, and he
ordered the coachman to put up numerous nesting boxes
all over the place and to liberate the sparrows. They soon
filled all the new boxes, and also drove away the purple
martins, tree swallows, and house wrens from all the old
boxes.
The Starling has not been as widely introduced throughout
the world as the English Sparrow, but in the United States it
has been equally successful. Starlings had been released in
this country numerous times during the nineteenth century,
but the first successful introduction is thought to have taken
place in 1890. In that year, Mr. Eugene Scheifflin, a drug manu-
facturer, released a number of these birds near Central Park
in New York City. They nested the same year they were re-
leased, and the first known native-born Starlings in the United
States were raised under the eaves of the American Museum of
Natural History. By 1925 Starlings were the most common
birds in New York City, and they had extended their range
throughout the nation east of the Mississippi River.
Mr. Scheifflin’s interest in Starlings can be traced to his hob-
bies — the study of birds and the study of Shakespeare. In
what must be a unique instance in the history of American
ornithology, he decided to combine his hobbies by introducing
into the United States every bird mentioned by Shakespeare.
Brown Thrashers are among the most common and conspicuous summer
birds in the Arboretum.
Photo: Allan D. Cruickshank. Courtesy Massachusetts Audubon Society
360 | ARNOLDIA
The Starling qualified since it was mentioned once in Henry IV.
The ancestry of the pigeon goes back to the Rock Dove of
temperate Europe and Asia. These birds have been domesti-
cated for nearly 5000 years and during that time a large num-
ber of unusual forms have appeared. Feral pigeons soon revert
to their historic form and coloration, but they seldom desert
the haunts of man. Although they have long been a nuisance
in cities around the world, pigeons were and still are valued by
man for their homing instincts and show qualities. They
probably arrived in the United States with the first settlers, and
are undoubtedly here to stay.
These alien birds have been so common and conspicuous
throughout most of our lifetimes that it is hard to imagine what
it was like without them. Other species among the newcomers
are native to the United States but only recently have extended
their ranges northward into New England. The Cardinal was al-
most unknown in Massachusetts 20 years ago, but it is now
a fairly common permanent resident. The Mockingbird falls
into the same category, the first nest in the Arboretum having
been recorded this past spring.
With the decline of several of the insectivorous bird species,
omnivorous species, which are as a group relatively immune to
pesticides, have appeared to take their place. Pigeons, English
Sparrows, and Starlings are the most conspicuous examples of
these, but Purple Grackles and Mourning Doves, both native
species, are also now nesting in the Arboretum.
Hawks, Owls, and other carnivores have suffered from the
effects of pesticides more than any other groups of birds. Hawks
in particular are on the decline throughout the United States.
Thus it is surprising that Miss Dickey found Red-tailed Hawks
and Sparrow Hawks, as well as Great Homed Owls, to be prob-
able nesters in the Arboretum. An abundant food supply, in
the form of English Sparrows, Chipmunks, and Gray Squirrels,
is likely the attraction. If birds so sensitive to the effects of
civilization as these do actually nest here, the decline in our
resident birds may be nearing an end.
Richard E. Weaver
Birds in the Arnold Arboretum I 361
Table 1
Breeding residents in the Arnold Arboretum
1895
1968-1971
Based on i
the observations
Based on
of C
. E. Faxon
various sources
Mallard Duck
X
Black Duck
X
Red-tailed Hawk
X*
Sparrow Hawk
X*
Bobwhite
X
Ruffed Grouse
X
Ring-necked Pheasant
X
Spotted Sandpiper
X
Common Pigeon
X
Mourning Dove
X
Yellow-billed Cuckoo
X
Black-billed Cuckoo
X
Great Horned Owl
X*
Chimney Swift
X
X
Ruby-throated Hummingbird
X
Yellow-shafted Flicker
X
X
Downy Woodpecker
X
X
Eastern Kingbird
X
X
Crested Flycatcher
X*
Eastern Phoebe
X
X
Least Flycatcher
X
Wood Pewee
X
Barn Swallow
X
Blue Jay
X
X
Common Crow
X
X
Black-capped Chickadee
X
X
White-breasted Nuthatch
X
House Wren
X*
Catbird
X
X
Mockingbird
X
Brown Thrasher
X
X
Robin
X
X
Wood Thrush
X
X
Veery
X
Eastern Bluebird
X
Cedar Waxwing
X
Starling
X
Yellow-throated Vireo
X
Red-eyed Vireo
X
X
Warbling Vireo
X
X
Black and White Warbler
X
Golden- winged Warbler
X
Yellow Warbler
X
X
Black-throated Green Warbler
X
Not actually seen on nest or
with young, but behavior indicat-
ing a nest in the vicinity.
362 I ARNOLDIA
Chestnut-sided Warbler
Prairie Warbler
Ovenbird
Maryland Yellow-throat
American Redstart
English Sparrow
Bobolink
Red-Wing
Baltimore Oriole
Purple Grackle
Eastern Cowbird
Scarlet Tanager
Cardinal
Rose-breasted Grosbeak
Indigo Bunting
Purple Finch
Common Goldfinch
Towhee
Vesper Sparrow
Chipping Sparrow
Field Sparrow
Song Sparrow
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X X
nnnnrinnnnnn rS n rS
Birds in the Arnold Arboretum
Table 2
Birds, both resident and transient, seen in the
Arnold Arboretum by the Children’s Museum Bird Club
during the period 1939-1968
♦Double-crested Cormorant
Great Blue Heron
Little Green Heron
Black-crowned Night Heron
♦American Bittern
♦Canada Goose
Mallard
Black Duck
Wood Duck
♦Common Merganser
♦Goshawk
Sharp-shinned Hawk
Cooper’s Hawk
Red-tailed Hawk
Red-shouldered Hawk
♦Broad-winged Hawk
♦Rough-legged Hawk
♦Osprey
♦Duck Hawk
♦Pigeon Hawk
Sparrow Hawk
♦Ruffed Grouse
♦Bob-white
Ring-necked Pheasant
♦Semipalmated Plover
♦Killdeer
♦American Woodcock
Spotted Sandpiper
Solitary Sandpiper
♦Lesser Yellow-legs
♦Semipalmated Sandpiper
Great Black-backed Gull
Herring Gull
Ring-billed Gull
Rock Dove
Mourning Dove
♦Yellow-billed Cuckoo
♦Black-billed Cuckoo
♦Barn Owl
Screech Owl
♦Great Horned Owl
♦Snowy Owl
♦Barred Owl
* Whip-poor-will
Nighthawk
Chimney Swift
Ruby-throated Hummingbird
*Phalacrocorax auritus (Lesson)
Ardea herodias (Linnaeus)
Butorides virescens (Linnaeus)
Nycticorax nycticorax (Gmelin)
*Botaurus lentiginosus (Montagu)
*Branta canadensis (Linnaeus)
Anas platyrhynchos (Linnaeus)
Anas rupripes Brewster
Aix sponsa (Linnaeus)
*Mergus merganser Cassin
* Accipiter gentilis (Wilson)
Accipiter striatus (Wilson)
Accipiter cooperi (Bonaparte)
Buteo jamaicensis (Gmelin)
Buteo lineatus (Gmelin)
*Buteo platypterus (Vieillot)
* Buteo lagopus (Gmelin)
*Pandion haliaetus (Gmelin)
*Falco peregrinus Bonaparte
*Falco columbarius (Linnaeus)
Falco sparverius (Linnaeus)
*Bonasa umbellus (Linnaeus)
*Colinus virginianus (Linnaeus)
P hasianus colchicus (Gmelin)
*Charadrius hiaticula Bonaparte
*Charadrius vociferus Linnaeus
*Philohela minor (Gmelin)
Actitis macularia (Linnaeus)
Tringa solitaria Wilson
*Totanus flavipes (Gmelin)
*Ereunetes pusillus (Linnaeus)
Larus marinus Linnaeus
Larus argentatus Couses
Larus delawarensis Ord
Columba livia livia (Gmelin)
Z enaidura macroura (Linnaeus)
*Coccyzus americanus (Linnaeus)
*Coccyzus erythrophthalmus
(Wilson)
*Tyto alba (Bonaparte)
Otus asio (Gmelin)
♦Bubo virginianus (Gmelin)
*Nyctea scandiaca (Linnaeus)
* S tix varia varia Barton
*Caprimulgus vociferus Wilson
Chordeiles minor (Forster)
Chaetura pelagica (Linnaeus)
Archilochus colubris (Linnaeus)
♦ Infrequent or no longer seen
363
In the wintertime. Black-capped Chickadees are frequent visitors to the
bird feeder beside the Administration Building. Photo: Frank H. Wood.
Courtesy Massachusetts Audubon Society
364 ARNOLDIA
Belted Kingfisher
Yellow-shafted Flicker
*Pileated Woodpecker
Yellow-bellied Sapsucker
Hairy Woodpecker
Downy Woodpecker
* Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker
Eastern Kingbird
Northern Crested Flycatcher
Eastern Phoebe
Wood Pewee
Tree Swallow
*Bank Swallow
Rough-winged Swallow
Barn Swallow
Blue Jay
Common Crow
*Fish Crow
Black-capped Chickadee
White-breasted Nuthatch
Red-breasted Nuthatch
Brown Creeper
House Wren
Mockingbird
Catbird
Brown Thrasher
Robin
Wood Thrush
Hermit Thrush
Swainson’s Thrush
Grey-cheeked Thrush
Eastern Bluebird
Golden-crowned Kinglet
Ruby-crowned Kinglet
Cedar Waxwing
"‘Northern Shrike
Starling
*White-eyed Vireo
Solitary Vireo
Red-eyed Vireo
*Philadelphia Vireo
Warbling Vireo
Black and White Warbler
*Golden-winged Warbler
*Brewster’s Warbler
Nashville Warbler
Orange-crowned Warbler
Parula Warbler
Yellow Warbler
Magnolia Warbler
Cape May Warbler
Black-throated Blue Warbler
Myrtle Warbler
Black-throated Green Warbler
Blackburnian Warbler
Megaceryle alcyon (Linnaeus)
Colaptes auratus Bangs
*Hylatomus pileatus (Bangs)
Sphyrapicus varius (Linnaeus)
Dendrocopus villosus (Linnaeus)
Dendrocopus pubescens
( Swainson)
*Picoides arcticus (Swainson)
Tyrannus tyrannus (Linnaeus)
Myiarchus crinitus (Bangs)
Sayornis phoebe (Latham)
Contopus virens (Linnaeus)
Iridoprocne bicolor (Vieillot)
*Riparia riparia (Linnaeus)
Stelgidopteryx ruficollis
(Audubon)
Hirundo rustica Boddaert
Cyanocitta cristata (Linnaeus)
Corvus brachyrhynchos Brehm
*Corvus ossifragus Wilson
Parus atricapillus (Linnaeus)
Sitta carolinensis (Latham)
Sitta canadensis Linnaeus
Certhia familiaris Bonaparte
Troglodytes aedon
Mimus polyglottos (Linnaeus)
Dumetella carolinensis (Linnaeus)
Toxostoma rufum (Linnaeus)
T urdus migratorius Linnaeus
Hylocichla mustelina (Gmelin)
Hylocichla guttato Bangs & Penard
Hylocichla ustulata (Tschudi)
Hylocichla minima (Baird)
Sialia sialis (Linnaeus)
Regulus satrapa Lichtenstein
Regulus calendula (Linnaeus)
Bombycilla cedrorum Vieillot
*Lanius excubitor Vieillot
Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus
* Vireo griseus (Gmelin)
Vireo solitarius (Wilson)
Vireo olivaceus (Linnaeus)
*Vireo philadelphicus (Cassin)
Vireo gilvus (Vieillot)
Mniotilta varia (Linnaeus)
*Vermivora chrysoptera (Linnaeus)
*V ermivora leuchobronchialis
(Brewster)
Vermivora ruficapilla (Wilson)
Vermivora celata (Say)
Parula americana (Wilson)
Dendroica petechia (Gmelin)
Dendroica magnolia (Wilson)
Dendroica tigrina (Gmelin)
Dendroica caerulescens (Gmelin)
Dendroica coronata (Linnaeus)
Dendroica virens (Gmelin)
Dendroica fusca (Muller)
Birds in the Arnold Arboretum I 365
* Yellow-throated Warbler
Chestnut-sided Warbler
Bay-breasted Warbler
Blackpoll Warbler
Pine Warbler
Prairie Warbler
Palm Warbler
Oven-bird
♦Norther Water-thrush
♦Louisiana Water-thrush
Yellowthroat
♦Yellow-breasted Chat
♦Hooded Warbler
Canada Warbler
♦Wilson Warbler
American Redstart
House Sparrow
♦Bobolink
Eastern Meadowlark
Red-Wing
♦Orchard Oriole
Baltimore Oriole
Rusty Blackbird
Common Grackle
Brown-headed Cowbird
♦Western Tanager
Scarlet Tanager
Eastern Cardinal
Rose-breasted Grosbeak
Indigo Bunting
♦Evening Grosbeak
Purple Finch
♦Pine Grosbeak
♦Common Redpoll
Pine Siskin
American Goldfinch
♦Red Crossbill
♦White-winged Crossbill
Rufous-breasted Towhee
Savannah Sparrow
Vesper Sparrow
♦Lark Sparrow
Slate-colored Junco
Tree Sparrow
Chipping Sparrow
Field Sparrow
White-crowned Sparrow
White-throated Sparrow
Fox Sparrow
♦Swamp Sparrow
Song Sparrow
♦Snow Bunting
*Dendroica dominica (Linnaeus)
Dendroica pennsylvanica
(Linnaeus)
Dendroica castanea (Wilson)
Dendroica striata (J. R. Forster)
Dendroica pinus (Wilson)
Dendroica discolor (Vieillot)
Dendroica palmarum
Seiurus aurocapillus (Linnaeus)
* Seiurus noveboracensis (Gmelin)
* Seiurus motacilla (Vieillot)
Geothlypis trichas (Swainson)
*Icteria virens (Linnaeus)
*Wilsonia citrina (Boddaert)
Wilsonia canadensis (Linnaeus)
*Wilsonia pusilla (Wilson)
Setophaga ruticilla (Linnaeus)
Passer dome sticus (Linnaeus)
*Dolichonyx oryzivorus (Linnaeus)
Sturnella magna (Linnaeus)
Agelaius phoeniceus (Linnaeus)
* Icterus spurius (Linnaeus)
Icterus galbula (Linnaeus)
Euphagus carolinus (Muller)
Quiscalus quiscula
Molothrus ater ater (Boddaert)
*Piranga ludoviciana (Wilson)
Piranga erythromelas Vieillot
Richmondena cardinalis
(Linnaeus)
Pheucticus ludovicianus
(Linnaeus)
Passerina cyanea (Linnaeus)
!>Hesperiphona vespertina (W.
Cooper)
Carpodacus purpureus (Gmelin)
*P inicola enucleator (Muller)
*Acanthis flammea (Linnaeus)
Spinus pinus (Wilson)
Spinus tristis (Linnaeus)
*Loxia curvirostra Brehm
*Loxia leucoptera Gmelin
Pipilo erythrophthalmus
(Linnaeus)
Passerculus sandwichensis
(Wilson)
Pooecetes gramineus (Gmelin)
*Chondestes grammacus (Say)
Junco hyemalis (Linnaeus)
Spizella arborea (Wilson)
Spizella passerina (Bechstein)
Spizella pusilla (Wilson)
Z onotrichia leucophrys (Forster)
Z onotrichia albicollis (Gmelin)
Passerells iliaca iliaca (Merrem)
*Melospiza georgiana (Latham)
Melospiza melodia (Wilson)
*Plectrophenax nivalis (Linnaeus)
366 I ARNOLDIA
Above: Fringe Tree (Chionanthus virginica)
Right: View near Hickory Collection.
Photos: P. Bruns
Notes from the Arnold Arboretum
Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Report
July 1, 1970 to June 30, 1971
Average temperature for the year: 50.1°
Snowfall during the winter of 1970-71 : 53.6 inches
Precipitation: 43.44 inches
Warmest Temperature : 101° on July 26, 1970
Coldest Temperature: -9° on January 19, 1971
Avg. Max. Avg. Min. Avg. Extreme Extreme Precipi-
Temp. Temp. Temp. Max. Min. tation
Jul. 70
87.2
64
75.6
101
54
3.08
Aug.
70
86.5
61.6
74
99
52
6.31
Sept.
70
75.6
53.8
64.7
94
42
2.59
Oct.
70
65.2
43.3
54.3
84
25
2.81
Nov.
70
52.2
36.5
44.4
65
17
4.54
Dec.
70
37.1
19
28
61
8
6.13
Jan.
71
33.1
11.2
22.2
47
-9
1.81
Feb.
71
37.8
21.3
29.6
53
-1
5.02
Mar.
71
45.4
28
36.7
65
20
2.93
Apr.
71
55.9
35.5
45.7
76
27
2.75
May
71
67.3
46.4
56.9
84
38
4.07
June
71
82.8
55.9
69.4
95
41
1.40
Alfred J. Fordham
CORRECTION
The caption under the photograph of Fothergilla plants on
page 258 of the July issue of Amoldia should read “cuttings”
not “seedlings.” The photograph was taken by Heman Howard.
368
Arnoldia Reviews
Methods of Hydrobiology, by Jurgen Schwoerbel
The author of this work defines hydrobiology as a part of
biology concerned with the fife of organisms in water and does
not admit it as a separate discipline. However he then limits
his consideration to the methods of study of the ecology of ac-
cumulations of fresh water in lakes, ponds, or even holes in
trees as well as to standing, running or underground waters.
The emphasis in the volume is on the methods of possible study
ranging from the type of equipment to procedures and to tech-
niques of analysis and of calculation. Comparisons and evalua-
tions of each topic are made freely and frankly. Although this
book is directed to the professional scientist involved in studies
of fresh water in the field, a student familiar with the vocab-
ulary of hydrobiology will find in it much of value. The reader
without this knowledge must recognize that this is not an
elementary textbook nor a book for the identification of pollut-
ing organisms.
This is the first English edition of a work published originally
in German. Following the text are appendices describing the
methods of preservation and fixation of aquatic organisms and
the techniques for the culture of such forms of life. A list of
firms which make hydrobiological apparatus includes only com-
panies in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. The references
supporting the text are listed in an appendix and arranged ac-
cording to the chapters. They may be referred to in the text
or be supplementary suggestions. Referencs are given to papers
published as recently as 1967, a remarkable feat for a translated
volume. As might be expected the majority of the references
are to papers published in the German language. As western
hemisphere authors and publications are not cited frequently
this volume is a useful reference to European literature and re-
search.
R. A. H.
Jurgen Schwoerbel. Methods of Hydrobiology. Freshwater
Biology. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1970. 200 pages, 100 fig-
ures. $8.00.
369
370 | ARNOLDIA
The Story of the Royal Horticultural Society,
by Harold R. Fletcher
There is an old saw to the effect that those who will not learn
from history are doomed to repeat it. We horticulturists are
fortunate that we have The Story of the Royal Horticultural
Society to instruct us. This great society, founded in 1804, has
seen gardening fashions come and go. It has survived financial
disaster. It has endured wars and rumours of wars. Begun and
served by the elite of British horticulture, it has come to have
one of the largest general memberships of any horticultural
society. Its publications set the standards against which all
horticultural literature is to be judged. Its exhibitions are the
envy of other societies. Its awards to plants, to exhibitors, and
to horticulturists take pride of place before all others.
Service to Horticulture is perhaps the unwritten motto of
the Society. From the beginning the Royal Horticultural So-
ciety was active in the propagation of knowledge about plants
— and in the importation and dissemination of new kinds of
plants from abroad. John Reeves and Robert Fortune intro-
duced Chinese plants. David Douglas explored the American
West Coast. Thomas Knight grew exotic plants, and bred new
varieties of fruits at home. A series of conferences, on orchids,
primulas, chrysanthemums, dahlias, daffodils, conifers, to name
only a few, have given occasion to survey the state of knowledge
of taxonomy, nomenclature, culture, and breeding of many
horticultural groups. The examinations for the National Diplo-
ma in Horticulture, and the resultant training programs at
Kew and Wisley, and elsewhere, have done much to maintain
the high standards of competence associated with British gar-
deners.
Dr. Harold R. Fletcher, late Director of the Royal Botanic
Garden, Edinburgh, has completed the task so ably begun by
Mr. A. Simmonds, and has given us a masterly, and very read-
able survey of the history not only of the Royal Horticultural
Society, but also of horticulture in Britain.
G. P. DeW., Jr.
Harold R. Fletcher, The Story of the Royal Horticultural Society,
1804-1968 , London: Oxford University Press, 1969. 564
pages. £5.25
Reviews | 371
The Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 1670-1970, by Harold R.
Fletcher and William H. Brown
The Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, had its beginning in
a Physic Garden, established in a garden plot in the grounds
of Holyroodhouse by two Edinburgh physicians, Andrew Balfour
and Robert Sibbard. Its original purpose was to provide dem-
onstration materials for medical classes in the University. After
many years, and numerous vicissitudes it was finally estab-
lished on a portion of its present grounds about 1822. Through-
out its history it and its staff have been involved with teaching
— first with the teaching of material medica to medical stu-
dents, and most recently with the teaching of plant taxonomy.
In the early part of this century, the Royal Botanic Garden,
Edinburgh, was much involved with plant introduction from
eastern Asia, especially from the Himalayas and China. Pri-
mulas, lilies, and rhododendrons, particularly, have been the
forte of the garden and its staff. The names of George Forrest,
the collector, and Bailey Balfour and William Wright Smith,
the taxonomists and Directors, are inextricably intertwined. In
recent years Peter Davis has taught us much about the flora
of Turkey.
As with the Story of the Royal Horticultural Society, H. R.
Fletcher and W. H. Brown have built upon foundations laid by
their predecessors and given us a most readable and detailed
story of the triumphs and tribulations that have made the
Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, the outstanding institution
that it is today.
G. P. DeW., Jr.
Harold R. Fletcher and William H. Brown, The Royal Botanic
Garden, Edinburgh, 1670-1970, Edinburgh: H. M. Stationery
Office, 1970. 309 pages. £3 12s od [£3.60] net.
372
ARNOLDIA
Above: Spiraea nipponica
Top Left: Bladdernut (Staphylea sp.)
Bottom Left: Asiatic Sweetie af (Symplocos paniculata)
Photos: P. Bruns
ARNOLDIA is a publication of the Arnold Arboretum
of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, U.S.A.
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