The art and practice of landscape gardening

MILNER'S

LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

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THE ART AND PRACTICE OF
LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

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THE

ART AND PRACTICE

OF

Landscape

Gardening.

BY

HENRY ERNEST MILNER, f.l.s., Assoc.M.lnst.C.E.

WITH PLANS AND ILLUSTRATIONS.

Hontton:

OF THE AUTHOR, DULWICH WOOD, NORWOOD, S.E.,

AND

SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT, AND CO.. Limited.
STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LONDON.
1890.

CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS,
CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS.

PREFACE.

My father, the late Edward Milner, as the colleague for many years
of Sir Joseph Paxton, was concerned in all the later achievements of
Landscape Gardening carried out by that distinguished man ; and
from 1850 until 1884 himself designed and completed many of the
finest works of the kind that have ever been produced, not only
in this country, but in various notable places on the continent of
Europe. By this prosecution of his art in such extended practice,
he attained a purely exceptional experience, the opportunity for
which ripened his artistic powers ; and without question he was
enabled to illustrate by his works a steady advance of the art,
which is essentially English. On my part, as the colleague of my
father, and as successor not only to his profession but to many
fruits of his experience, I too have had ample opportunities to
practically illustrate the art that I love and the work that I delight
in. Impelled by that love, I have endeavoured to realise the
principles on which I have been led to base the artistic conceptions
of my work, and the points of practice by which it may be carried
out. I do not intend to advance any fashion, past or present, in
Landscape Gardening, but to set forth my own opinions and my
own practice, however incompletely that may be done.

H. E. M.

Dulwich Wood, S.E.,
June, 1890.

CONTENTS.

I'AGE

PREFACE v

INTRODUCTION i

THE APPROACH 9

SITE OF THE HOUSE AND OF THE GARDENS 15

THE TERRACE 23

ARRANGEMENT AND FORMATION .... . .30

, WORK OF FORMATION 37

PLANTING 45

WATER 61

FOUNTAINS 70

STRUCTURES 73

HOTHOUSES 77

KITCHEN GARDEN 88

PUBLIC PARKS AND CEMETERIES 93

ECONOMIC TREATMENT OF LAND .... . . 100

EXAMPLES OF WORK:

(1) Keszthely 106

(2) Peverey 111

THE ART AND PRACTICE OF

Landscape Gardening.

INTRODUCTION.

To define the properties of an art must always be an opiniative
endeavour, since conceptions of beauty are varied and ever varying,
and the means whereby art can express what is beautiful, appeal —
with their fascination or their fuller force of conviction — rather in the
measure of the recipient's appreciation than of the giver's power.

The function of fine art is to exhibit beauty — that ineffable
beauty which can stir in the human breast emotions claiming
for our better nature kindred with higher things. The architect
rears a temple or a cathedral in which effects of light and the com-
bination of lines create a feeling of awe that compels an ignorant
and careless man to speak in a whisper ; the sculptor or the
painter records in form, or simulated form and colour, that con-
ception of beauty with which the artist has been gifted ; the
composer gives being, by musical tone, to some subtle emotion of
our nature that has yearned dumbly within us, till the touch of
divine genius gives it distinctness of existence. The poet
makes beauty articulate to our reason, seeking that path to the

2 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

heart. But there is another form of art yet. There are expres-
sions of beauty to which we are all subject, and to an appreciation
of which we are most of us educated. We are always under their
influence. In a thousand forms Nature herself puts forward her
charms, and the influence of these is, in degree, upon us all,
arousing emotions, or enriching those we possess. It is difficult to
define the working and result of such emotions ; moreover, the
wealth of their sweetness and grandeur would be lessened could
we impose on ourselves a definite conception of their extent.
Nature appeals to us in multitudinous ways, in particular as well
as in general effect : in the mute appeal of the violet, as well
as in the majesty of the oak ; in light and shade ; in the sheen
of water ; in the infinite variety of the formation of the earth's
surface ; in the disposition of foliage both in colour and outline ;
in combination of different features, and in constant development.
Simply to accumulate and crowd together natural productions,
in themselves beautiful, may give us collections, but not the desired
result. If we endeavour to define the art of landscape gardening,
it may be stated as the taking true cognizance of Nature's means
for the expression of beauty, and so disposing those means artistically
as to co-operate for our delight in given conditions.

It is not the author's intention by this book to give
another history of landscape gardening ; his intention is rather to
record the present development of the art and his own relation
to, and practice of it. The love of natural picturesqueness is
of very modern growth in England. Its rise was coincident with
that of the modern novel in literature, and of genre painting in
art. Little more than a century has, with the aid of conducing
influences, ripened the feeling to a passion. Peace and augmenting
prosperity have been necessary conditions for advancing the art
of gardening in this country, since that time when safety made it

INTRODUCTION. 3

possible for the wealthy to live outside towns in unfortified houses.
Up to the middle of the last century all progress made was in
fetters of artificiality, formal and imitative in respect of the art
features. The garden contiguous to the house was laid out for
utility or for pleasure with a purpose of distinguishing it from the
surrounding scenery ; and it was natural that the same feeling which
gave the character to the house should also prevail in the garden.
Every possible appearance of uniformity was bestowed on the
enclosed ground. Regularity and order contrasted with Nature's
aspect outside. Admiration was courted by means of regu-
larity, and by marking to the spectator the labour, design, and
expense bestowed on the garden. Moreover, in any extension,
duplication of lines was aimed at rather than the introduction of a
new design. But, as the eighteenth century came on, the newer
influences were strengthening ; causes produced effects, which in
their turn became causes of advance, and with the appreciation of
Nature's beauties in scenery, the art that was to minister to the
better feeling became more definite in its tendency, until the present
development of the Art of Landscape Gardening — truthfully and
distinctively styled English — has been reached. Our love of natural
beauty has been greatly fostered by the modern systems of easy
travelling, by peace at home and by the stupendous accretion of
private as well as of national wealth. It is startling to note in
how narrow a strip of our history, these conditions have been
established completely. The Victorian period has these facts on
its records.

Up to the commencement of the eighteenth century, landscape
gardening was mostly the work of architects ; and it was characterised
by formal art features, by intricacy of design in parts, and by
treatment of the ground as a plane surface. That ideal of beauty
resulted in a feeling that Nature had been pushed, and coerced,

4 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

and sometimes dragged to an effect. Nature, it is true, is always
at work, and, as time goes on, clothes a neglected grave with
beauty, or makes an unsightly rubbish heap lovely with her gifts ;
and, in like manner, she gives venerableness to magnificently-
grown trees in stately parks, which compel admiration not entirely
due to the design of the planter. So natural beauty combines
with historical associations to give many old gardens an indescrib-
able charm especially valued in this land. Next, the influence
of pictorial artists was felt. They strove to modify the old con-
strained practice by the imposition of an almost equal artificiality of
picturesqueness. The resulting effect, as now appreciated, at all
events, is a feeling of unrest and stiffness. Nature seems still to
work in fetters. I shall endeavour now briefly to investigate some
of the conclusions which, in my estimation, form bases for a
better practice of the art, the method of which I have sought to
describe in this book.

Water, by its constant gentle action, or by its sweeping directed
force, has, without question, been a principal agent in forming the
natural surface of our earth. It has scooped out valleys and modified
the hills ; in one place leaving their rounded sides and tops covered
with forest, in another bringing down loose earth till the hill-tops
and slopes show clear and perfectly curved outlines ; or, again,
leaving bare the rocks standing out in grand abruptness. With
the subsidence of the water, wide grassy valleys have been formed ;
wherein are seen long vistas of lawn running up till they are lost in
the obscurity of the forest. Then, through the middle of the hollowed
and widening fertile valley, runs the stream, that spreads into the
lake, giving an expression of the water's subsidence in the restricted
action of the stream or the subsided force of the more placid water.
Therefore it is right, in forming a restricted landscape, to bear
in mind Nature's grand agent in the formation of her greater land-

INTRODUCTION. 5

scapes, wherein are presented endless varieties of form, of line,
and of colour, far-stretching even plains rich with herbage, hill-
sides and tops covered with foliage, as well as swelling downs
with their vast sweeping curves. These forms of beauty may exercise
their fascination on the most unlearned, or appeal with augmented
force to the most cultivated human nature. It is the province of
the Landscape Gardener, as I understand the art, to appreciate the
multitudinous means whereby Nature expresses her beauty, and so
to use those means artistically as to arrange their force for pro-
ducing the delightful result he desires to achieve. To servilely
copy Nature's forms is to incur the pettiness of mere reproduction
in little, with the penalty of a falsification. To utilise her means and
to let the spirit of her works influence our art in every practicable
way, is the true practice of the art of Landscape Gardening.

And can we deduce principles of art from the effect of Nature's
picturesqueness, and the details of her action ? A loving student
of her, with an artistic spirit, does derive some principles ; but
he feels more than he can describe of them. He comes to know
the truth that he who feels best the infinitude of Nature's expressions
of beauty, receives their influence without consciousness of the
process. By observation of mankind, he notes how certain mental
processes become active when reason and the finer sympathetic spirit,
that we call feeling, are pleasantly excited by testimony of the eye.
He classifies such phenomena and calls them laws. The artist,
after all, can do little more than generalise the truths in this wise
he thinks he has discovered ; yet they are the means by which he
works, as with a gentle and practised method he designs to bring
the sweet influences to bear, with as little evidence as may be of
the shaping hand. For illustration, I shall very briefly indicate
some such deductions that seem to me to afford guidance for the
artist of Landscape Gardening.

6 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

Nature seldom presents a straight line in any of her forms,
unless in the seeming regularity of an oceanic horizon, or the smaller
line of water surface. A straight line is the product of art, for even
the apparently upright line of the Parthenon columns results from
a delicate curve. Nature presents in her broad effects and gra-
duated detail, an infinity of curvilinear features. There is beauty in
contrast of form ; but appropriateness of natural position is a condition
of its value in the scene. As in Nature, water plays such an im-
portant part in the formation of the land, so in our circumscribed
landscape, the feeling that pervades all Nature should prevail in our
treatment of the ground. A calculated shadow on a lawn is a
resource of value for the artistic use of natural effect. The extended
surface of down land shows exquisite gradation of light and shade ;
but not the true vastness of space to the unpractised vision. The
eye seeks to estimate distant features, and insensibly gains a
standard of measurement from intervening objects, and, when
these are absent, most frequently miscalculates distance. Lines or
objects placed in a direction going from the line of vision, make
the space so marked appear longer, whilst lines running across it,
make the space appear less distant. Grass, clothing the ground
surface, has an expression of stability and repose ; it seems to be
immovable ; and in colour it illustrates the tint of foliage to which it
forms a base and background. Trees and shrubs, by the contrast
of foliage, give variety, and a gradation of colours may promote
the idea of distance. They should clothe the hill-tops and slopes in
masses of irregular outline. A sky-line of trees should not be con-
tinuous, but should be broken. A valley appears deeper by not being
planted, as a hill appears higher than it really is by being planted
to its summit. Single trees emphasize falling ground, and they,
like the shadowy regions of a wood, conduce to a sensation of
mystery, subtly stimulating imagination. They induce an idea of

INTR OB UCTION. 7

possible shelter that bestows pleasurable sensations. Falling ground
appears shorter, whilst level ground at the base of a hill, as also
rising ground, seems longer than it in reality is. The idea of spacious-
ness can be artificially promoted, particularly by the breaking of
continuous lines and hard boundary lines, and by providing various
objects for the eye to count, just outside the direct line of sight.
Vision invariably travels down a hollow, or depression, or through
any opening. Thus the idea of distance may be created, and the
eye be conducted to realise what is desired. By directing the vision
to distant beauties of landscape, they may be brought into the
artist's plan. Trees especially serve to frame a particular view.
In every situation a beyond implies discovery, and affects the imagi-
nation. The area is circumscribed of which we can take cognizance
too readily and completely ; imagination is then confused or frustrated.
The beauty of water, in motion or still, is of universal acceptance.
The created character of a water-feature must be consonant with
the surrounding land ; for fitness to surrounding conditions is a
measure of beauty to both. A lake expresses spaciousness ; but
much of its charm is due to its outline. A river expresses action.
Trees or high banks on the edge of water diminish its extent
when seen from the opposite bank, and make it dull. An opening
in the trees, or the lowering of a high bank, make a gleam of light,
and the length in that direction appears greater. The ground
immediately around a dwelling, forming the artificial base on
which it rests, should be treated formally, and the site and aspect
of the house will, in a measure, determine the relation to it of the
contiguous ground. The approaches should be direct, convenient,
and not strained.

Such deductions as the foregoing may serve to illustrate some
of the resources of the Landscape Gardener, and by their paucity
in relation to the infinite developments of beauty in the nature

8 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

around us, demonstrate the impossibility of defining the range of
this art. Its conceptions are more frequently to be felt than described ;
and the attempt to deduce from them a set of fixed principles
must be as futile as an endeavour to completely systematise the
ever varying yet constant manifestations of beauty that we encounter
in the vast field of Nature's operations which adorn the surface of
our country. Nature is the great exemplar that I follow. The
method I adopt I have endeavoured to describe in the several
divisions of this book.

THE APPROACH.

The approach through an enclosed estate to the house upon it, is
one of the most pressing matters to settle in laying out a residential
property, and this feature often determines the choice of a site for
the structure. The principal points for consideration are, firstly, the
place for entrance from the public road, and next the route thence,
requiring not only artistic treatment but convenience of approach,
and of access to the house, the offices, the stables, kitchen-
garden and the farm, and care that on the route such good views,
or objects of interest that may exist, shall be displayed.

It may be taken as an axiom, that the approach to a house
should always appear to be direct, and any deviation from such
directness should not only arise from, but should also be made to
appear to arise from, some decided obstacle. By direct, is not
meant straight. A curved line of road is generally to be preferred,
because it is more easy of construction, and because more varied
views can be obtained, since it can follow in great measure the
natural contour of the ground. A straight drive should be used
only when an imposing, or somewhat pretentious building is at the
end of it. It is only allowable in flat country, or where some
special object has to be attained. If the ground is very un-
dulating a straight road is out of character with its surrounding.
Of course, when a venerable and stately avenue of old trees has to

c

io THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

be dealt with, a different treatment is taken. Curves should be
long and easy. The side slopes of a curved drive can be more
easily and freely dealt with than the sides of a straight drive,
because they may be steep or flat, as desired. An uniform slope
is unnatural. It is advisable in deep cuttings to bring forward
prominent points which may support planting ; or, if in a suitable
country, rocky promontories may be made or shown ; and between
these projections the spaces should be judiciously excavated, so that
the vision following up the hollows thus made will be carried to
the ground beyond, and the observer will not realise the fact that
an artificial cutting has been introduced.

The natural slope of earth surface varies ; but, as a rule, it is
not wise to make any slope steeper than 2:1, save at exceptional
points, where there is planting or rockwork. At such points of
abrupt declivity the turf should, if necessary, be pegged down.
The gradient of a curved drive can be varied, following within
limits the natural undulation of the ground. It should not be made
with a series of gradients of certain ratio meeting at angles ; but
the gradient should rise or fall imperceptibly, with a line as even,
continuous, and graceful as that of a horizontal drive. At the
entrance from the public road, and also where the route reaches the
house, the gradient should be nearly level, and the line straight, and
it is well to keep the gradient level at crossings, or turns to
various points. The gradient of a good drive should not be steeper
than one in fourteen, though one in nine is a road over which a
carriage may be driven with safety. A drive should not run
parallel to the public road with the mere purpose of lengthening
the course, or seeming to prolong it. When the house is at a
comparatively short distance from the public road, on a much
higher level, and the object is apparent to overcome the difference
of level, then the resource may be adopted. It is to be remarked

THE APPROACH. n

that a curved line looks much straighter on paper than when
worked out on the ground. If there is a continuous gradient on
a continuous curve, with a dip in the gradient beyond which the
drive is again seen, that part of the drive in the hollow should be
either straight, or decidedly curved ; otherwise, when seen from
either end, the line appears to be broken.

A straight approach requires very careful treatment. It is
artificial in character, and requires, as well as admits of, artificial
expression. In undulating or on falling ground it should, if possible,
be made at right angles to the slope of the hill. The gradient
should be very even, and much flatter than that used for a curved
line. Unless it is very even, although a graceful gradient curve
be used, the observer looking up such a drive will imagine it is
not straight. The slopes, both where cut and where artificially
constructed by filling, are better if they are formal and regular ;
not with alternate cutting and filling as on a railway, but with
uniformity of resource.

The width of drives is ruled by the character and importance
of the traffic they are to take. A breadth of nine feet suffices for
the passage of one carriage ; where two carriages may meet, the
road should be fourteen feet wide. The above is a minimum
dimension, such as may be resorted to when the ground is flat,
and on either side of the road is grass, to which a foot passenger
can retire, or on to which even a carriage could in case of need
be turned ; but in ordinary cases it is better to give eleven or
twelve feet for the single drive, and sixteen to eighteen feet for the
double road. Economy sometimes rules in regard to these dimen-
sions. The width of drives is frequently determined not by the
exigencies of the traffic, but by the relatively important character
of the route. Thus a drive to the principal entrance of the house
would be fourteen feet, or sixteen feet or eighteen feet, while that

12 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

to the stables or offices ten feet. Or as at Beechy Lees the drives
are as shown on the sketch I. A drive with a sharp curve must
have a greater width than is necessary in the straight.

As any one enters on an estate from the public road, he always
looks around when just inside the gate, and perhaps, unconsciously,
records an impression. It should be a matter of careful study, then,
to give to the entrance as much realisation and promise of beauty
as may be feasible. The difference between a dusty, untidy road
outside, and the shaded, well-trimmed drive within the gate, should
be made pleasurably apparent ; and, as far as practicable, a view
of the outlying grounds, a stretch of park, or the inner foliage of
a wood should be visible through an opening, or be seen in broad
expanse for the moment as the visitor passes rapidly on. At all
cross roads and turning points, the same inspection occurs, and of
necessity the opportunity is most favourable when the visitor alights
at the entrance to the house, and contemplates the scene — the near
view, or the distant outspread prospect — that he may afterwards look
at so often, but never with more zest than when he receives,
perhaps hardly noting it, his first impression.

Drives that leave the main route for unimportant points, should
be curved as soon as may be convenient, so that the eye may not
be tempted to explore them, and give to them a certain importance
to the detriment of the main drive. It is preferable that the drive
rise gradually to the house throughout its whole course ; but if
that be not practicable, it is important that it should have an as-
cending gradient at least during the last stretch, when the front
entrance is in view. If the natural surface at this point be higher
than the ground level of the house, it should be lowered so that
there may be a rise, however slight, for however short a distance,
at this termination of the road. Until the drive be made thus to
rise, a straight direction should not be adopted, and a direct view

THE APPROACH. 13

of the house should be prevented by planting, or by embankment,
so that the idea that the house is in a low position may not be
aroused. The drive should not skirt the garden, or overlook it.
It is sometimes difficult to comply with the former condition ; but
the latter can generally be met by sinking the carriage way, by
raising a bank along the gardens, vand by planting. At Chatsworth,
though a straight drive, which is much used by the public, skirts
the west garden front, yet it is completely shut off from the
gardens by a high wall retaining the terrace gardens.

The treatment of either end of the main carriage drive is of much
importance. Taking first that nearest the house. The direction
and level of the approach, and the character of the architectural
features, will rule greatly the plan that can be adopted for the
facilities of carriage traffic, which must be provided here. For most
ordinary purposes the turn {see Plan) is sufficient, but examples
of different methods are shown. The gravelled plain in front
of the porch should not be less than thirty-three feet for a small
house ; but forty to sixty feet are requisite where two or more
carriages may stand. It is well at places of importance to arrange
this end of the drive, so that waiting carriages may circulate. There
must be a sufficient space on each side of the porch, and in line
with it, to admit of carriages drawing up close to the door, and
to progress beyond it without too abruptly turning. The entrance
to the gardens should not be from the drive, but from the house,
as, for example, in the turn to a small house. (See Plan.)

In choosing the place for, and forming, an entrance from the public
road (about the artistic effect of which something has already been
said) advantage may be taken of a turn in the highway, if the
position be suitable, so that by adapting the line of the public
road, and continuing it to the entrance gates, much importance
may be given them by making it appear that the highway leads

i4 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

through them. [See Plan, fig. A, and sketches, p. 9.) The entrance
gates may be formed at the junction of two roads as at B ; or
where a cross road — even a minor one — comes on to the main road as
at C, or the entrance can be set back as D ; or as E, where the gates
are set sufficiently back from the public road to allow a carriage to
stand clear. To a straight drive the entrance should be imposing ;
and though any of the forementioned examples may be adopted,
yet it is well that the treatment of this work should be formal in
character. (See Plan, fig. H.) The gates as well as the lodge
should be at right angles to the drive, and belong to it rather
than to the public road. The line of boundary outside the gates
should also be straight for, at any rate, a few feet, before any turn
is begun.

The lodge should be so placed that the windows in the living
rooms command a certain length of both the drive and the public
road.

In placing such an entrance to the estate it is well, if possible,
not to make it at the boundary of the property. One consideration
in fixing the position should be the direction of the principal traffic
likely to pass to it ; the position of the town, the village, the
church, of notable places or objects of interest. It is moreover
advisable to plan the entrance, if it can be, at the foot of a hill
or rise in the public road, and not part way up an ascent, or at
the top of it. A drive that goes off fairly level ground at the
foot of a hill, always promotes a feeling of more repose than is to
be experienced in the positions just mentioned.

The actual work of making drives is dealt with later under the
heading of General Formation.

SITE OF THE HOUSE AND OF THE GARDENS.

There are certain leading considerations that should rule our
determination in choosing the site for either a house or a garden,
which considerations may almost be taken as independent of taste,
and more in the nature of necessary conditions. They may be
defined as (a) aspect — relation to the points of the compass;
{b) prospect — relation to the surrounding view ; (c) natural shelter ;

(d) convenience in regard to the approaches, and in respect of com-
munication with stables and out-offices, as well as with the gardens ;

(e) the levels of the land ; {/) the formation of the subsoil.
Each of these questions will be treated in turn.

(a). — The forms of houses, and the position of the principal rooms
in them, are so varied that it is difficult to put clown a rule that
shall be absolute for all, even in the matter of aspect. In the
southern and midland counties of England, however, there is no
doubt that the main line of the house should be S.E. If the
sides of a house form a square, and the front be to the S.E., it would,
as the sun in summer rises N. of E., and sets N. of W., have
sunlight on all its walls ; whereas if the front of the house
were placed due S., the N. face would lack sunshine, while that
to the S. would probably have too much. The effect of such
conditions on the comfort of the house is enormous and constant,
and should never be undervalued. A house thus placed enjoys

1 6 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

favourable conditions that are important, but are not very readily
recoo-nised. The sun exercises its fullest force between i and 2 p.m.
At that hour the rays fall at an angle on the wall, and so with
an indirect impact that saves much oppressive heat, without undue
loss of illumination ; in fact, the extremes of heat and cold are
modified. In the northern counties, it may be advisable to give
the house a more southern aspect when it is a consideration to
gain full advantage of the shorter period of sunshine, and particularly
when a series of the best chambers have to be brought under the
influence.

(&). — It is of course an important consideration that such beauty
as may be derived from a prospect should be, so far as practicable,
open to the dwellers in the best apartments of the house, and the
position of the apartments may often be ruled accordingly. But
it is not desirable that the aspect of a residence should be
sacrificed to secure such a prospect. If need be, other positions may
be created in the gardens or grounds wherefrom the beauties of
the view may be fittingly contemplated ; but the conditions of
the aspect are fixed in their relation. No doubt all these questions
are matters of compromise in the end, but the steps whereby
such compromise is arrived at must be very warily and advisedly
taken. If it be determined that a fine view may be taken better
from a position in the garden than from the windows, another point
of attractiveness is created. Indeed, in country places especially,
it is a gain to create particular points of interest, such as a fine
prospect, a tennis-ground, a rose garden, an old-fashioned herbaceous
garden with trimmed hedges, or walls covered with climbers, a
(so-called) American garden, a fernery, a lake, etc. Such objects,
beautiful and pleasurable in themselves, yet requiring a slight ex-
cursion to reach them, are less commonplace than the stables, or
even the hothouses, to which the regulated trips are often made.

SITE OF THE HOUSE AND OF THE GARDENS. i7

Even a view, however beautiful, that is lacking in variety of pro-
minent features, becomes tame to the constant onlooker, though to
him who occasionally contemplates it, the effect is fresh and delicious.
When the prospect is simply over a long stretch of even country, the
eye may get tired of it, and welcome the growth of intervening trees
that serve to break up the too regular panorama. When the view
is of a mountainous district, or where the surface is broken by
abrupt hills, its ever-changing colours, its light and shade, under sun
and cloud, destroy monotony. This is the character of extended
scenery to be sought for. Water is always an agreeable feature,
especially when there is some promontory or curved shore to
diversify the regularity of margin.

In the circumscribed area of a park, or a garden, where
the boundary forms our limit of view, there are modes of treat-
ment that may modify or remove the impression of contracted
space. The groups of trees with undergrowth (technically called
"planting"), or even single trees, by the colour of the foliage, and
by the disposing of the boundary plantations, can promote the
idea of spaciousness. Such plantations should not exhibit con-
tinuous lines, unless for some strong reason, such as the creation
of necessary shelter. It is sometimes better even to let in the
view of the neighbouring town or fields. When any object in
itself disagreeable, or by association unpleasant, lies within view of
the house, or of any point near the house that has been made
notable, care must be taken to block out the object by an inter-
mediate group of planting ; in short, a wall, even though it be of
foliage, by too regular form, marks an enclosure too directly, and
militates against the idea of spaciousness and freedom, where
spaciousness and freedom should be most fully expressed. Any
hard formal boundary line, however wide its range may be, is
inimical to proper effect in this sense.

D

iS THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

When we contemplate any landscape, the vision invariably travels
down a hollow or depression, natural or artificial, and the eye
seeks to estimate the most distant features first, then to gain from
intervening objects its measure, or presumed measure, of distances.
Thus the idea of distance can be created and artistically adapted.
In arranging the position of its principal chambers in a house,
it will be well to consider these facts when deciding on the site,
so that, so far as may be practicable, the rooms may be well
appropriate to the available views, or points of vantage in that
respect, existing, or to be created. The eye may be, as it were,
led to realise certain beauties, under the conditions ; but the possi-
bility of such conditions must be considered in choosing the site.
Sometimes the existence of a natural feature — a group of old
trees, or even a single tree — may go far toward determining many
questions of the choice. A venerable tree is a feature in decorative
work, having its fifty or sixty years of priceless value, that must
not be ignored or underestimated, because it may, and should be,
connected with the base of the house, and in such degree with
the house itself, to which, and to the whole design, it brings
by its mere age a characteristic appropriateness of adornment
that is of the highest value. It may be that a site has to be
chosen in this densely-populated land, where the least objection-
able points of view have to be considered rather than natural
beauties of wide prospect. In such circumstances, the site of the
residence should be kept as low as may be, and by raising the
surrounding ground, and by planting, all that is offensive may be
shut out. With every choice a house is well placed on a southern
hillside, preferably on a slight spur, at about one-third distance
from the top, so that shelter may be obtained from the hill, and
by planting above the house.

(c). — The question of natural shelter has an obvious connection

SITE OF THE HOUSE AND OF THE GARDENS. 19

with the particular district selected, and with the winds that
prevail there. The most natural and best protection is found in
a wooded hill. Wind force is more effectually modified and tem-
pered by growing trees than by any other means. If no hill exist,
or the hill be quite bare, planting should be employed. It should
extend, and may be liberally used, on north-eastern, northern,
and north-western sides. In some districts, notably on the
southern coasts, such shelter is to be obtained by planting the
south-western side. Dr. Herbert Watney is of opinion that it
is not conducive to health to have a mass of foliage close to the
house on its south-western side ; but he lays down an opposite
rule in regard to the north-eastern side. It is frequently evident
to any one who stands at the south-western corner of a wood
that the north-eastern wind is tempered by its passage through
the trees, whereas the contrary position, with a south-westerly
wind passing through the trees, gives the watcher a damp and
disagreeable experience. Trees break the force of the wind, in
such circumstances, better than does a brick wall, apart even from
the question of picturesqueness. Trees break and disperse the
waves of wind ; walls divert the wind into draughts.

(d) . — Convenience of approach to a house, and the relation of its
position to high roads and lines for public travelling to necessary,
or valuable, stations, to town or village, and to the distances from
all these, are considerations of serious importance. We may, of
course, make our main drive with proper directness to the house,
and well-planned branching communications with the stables and
offices, through the park or estate ; but the position of all these in
regard to the surrounding conditions of public approaches, must be
an element of action in choice of site, and in modifying the details
of it. More is said on this subject under the head of The Approach.

(e) . — The natural levels of the land, however it may be possible

2o THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

to modify them by art, have a strong bearing on the selection of
a site. The ground level of the house should always be placed
high enough, and yet nothing should be done that may give an
appearance that the structure is "perched up." This is an initial con-
sideration ; and very frequently an error in judgment of this kind
vitiates much of the gratification that is gained by the excellence
of work in other details. The mistake is most frequently made
when dealing with sloping and low ground, and in those circum-
stances should be most guarded against. We should carefully bear
in mind that a house will never look perched up if sufficient
ground base be given to it. The proper effect is gained by an
arrangement of the contiguous surrounding ground-surface ; the
relation of the house to the terrace (which is, in fact, the plateau
of the building, with its graduating outlying features), and an
artistic treatment of these lines in careful avoidance of abruptness.
It is conservative of healthy conditions, as well as more tasteful,
to keep the house, as it were, out of the ground ; and should the
design not include terraced walks, or building constructions connected
with them, yet the effect may, in degree, be obtained by earth-
working. Soil may be taken from the upper side of the house site,
or where the ground requires to be lowered, or where undulations
have had to be created, and thus the material requisite may be
obtained. The ground level of Lord Wolverton's house at Iwerne
Minster, the site of which was of necessity fixed on level ground,
was raised ten feet above the surrounding plain ; then by the
making of a terrace garden, on the southern and eastern sides, and
by graduating the raised ground between the house entrance on
the northern side and the level, the desired effect was created,
for it is not possible to detect that the house has not been built
on a knoll.* In a case where the ground rises steeply, or abruptly,
on one side of the house, and it would be an unduly expensive

SITE OF THE HOUSE AND OF THE GARDENS. 21

work to take away, or utilise by transference, great quantities of the
earth, deep] valleys should be excavated up the steep banks, in proper
places, with calculated irregularity of direction, and the promontories
so created, should be planted with judgment. In suitable geological
positions rocks may be developed, or rockwork used in like manner.
Such hollows fix in the mind the general ratio of the slope. The
base or ground-line of the house should always be level. It frequently
occurs, however, that the ground-line of the offices is at a lower
level. In such case the difference should be marked by low planting.

(/). — With regard to the subsoil, most frequently there is little
room for choice. Much prejudice exists against building a residence
on any but a gravelly or a sandy soil. Where a dwelling-house
has to be erected on a fresh position, a porous soil is to be pre-
ferred ; but in a fully inhabited district, where perfect drainage is
carried out, and the whole site of the structure can be overlaid
with a flooring of concrete, there need not be any fear of building
on clay. In gravelly districts that have been formerly old river
bottoms, especially when near to existing great rivers, or when
they are low-lying, and in similar districts that are thickly in-
habited, it is necessary to adopt precautionary means for preventing
the exhalation of noxious gases through the light soil, from depths
where percolated moisture may be stagnant ; whereas in a moderately
dry clay, although there may be a dampness that can be removed
by efficient drainage, there will not be any harmful vapours.

The site of a house, the design and arrangement of the structure,
the position of its chief entrance and of its principal apartments,
greatly influence judgment as to the position and arrangement of
the gardens. In due course the details of such arrangements will
be more fully treated of.

If we imagine a place that possesses most desirable features, the
site of a dwelling-house should have fine prospects to the south-east,

22 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

and to the south-west. The principal approach and entrance should
be on the north-western face, the offices on the north-eastern side,
the stables and the kitchen garden beyond. The pleasure gardens
should be on the south-eastern aspect, with a continuation towards
the east ; the south-western face might be open to the park. As
one does not exhibit a beautiful vase on the floor, but on a pro-
portionate pedestal, so the house should be made to appear to rest
on some base that may dignify it. That effect is best achieved by
giving straight lines of walk, or slope, wall, or balustrade, according
with the levels of the ground, and with the architectural character
of the house. Such base is called a terrace, and the space enclosed
by the horizontal lines, a terrace garden, described in detail here-
after. The terrace garden is an artificial creation, and should show
in every detail the hand of man, differing in this from the garden
proper, which, though fine in calculated detail of its plan, should
express by its breadth of treatment, but unmistakably, that nature
has triumphed over art, because art has subtly tutored the develop-
ment of nature's overwhelming beauty.

THE TERRACE.

The terrace is not only the narrow strip of raised level ground
placed parallel with the house, or the more stately portion — often
with architectural adornments — that is laid out along the face of
the structure, but must be understood as the whole of the ground
that forms the base, or setting, for the building.

The greatest divergence between the work of English and foreign
landscape gardeners is to be seen in their several methods of dealing
with the ground immediately surrounding the house. In England
we lay down as an axiom that the treatment of ground next the
house shall be artistically formal, with regular lines of turf, slopes,
walks, or beds, all displaying harmony, so far as may be, with the
architectural character of the building. On the Continent they
surround the house with broad, irregularly curved spaces, or walks,
that have nothing in common with the design of the structure. By
one practice the endeavour is to give a base to the building,
and to create on the contiguous ground an expression of kindred
artistic spirit ; by the other the ground is treated as something
apart, and a feeling of unrest is created.

A terrace may have various forms, from the simple walk parallel
with the house, to the more elaborate arrangement shown in
the Plan. The larger, more important and decorated the building,
the more extensive, massive, and ornate may be the terrace.
It should have a definite proportion to the size of the house.

24 THE ARJ AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

That part nearest the house should be level with its horizontal
ground-line. Length of terrace gives importance to a plan. It has
been laid down that the width of the terrace should be equal
to the height of the front of the house, and the rule is right when
applied to many grand buildings ; but for a less pretentious dwelling-
house, which is frequently high in comparison with its length, the
proportion is not fitting. For such a building the width of the grass
might be 10 ft. ; that of the walk, 9 to 12 ft.; and of the grass
thence to the edge of the slope, not less than 6 ft. If beds for
flowers are to be cut on the flat space of grass, the width must
necessarily be greater. The greater the depth of slope, the greater
should be the distance between the edge of the walk and the slope-
edofe. To shorten this distance is one of the commonest mistakes
made ; it creates a sensation of falling off, or insecurity, that is
inimical to comfort. When, however, a dwarf wall or balustrade is
used, the space that would have been laid in grass in this position
should be given to increase the width of the gravel. It is well
to give a slight fall of 1 in. in 10 ft. in the space between the
house and the edge of the slope. In determining the distance that
the slope-edge, or wall, shall be from the building, care must be
taken to avoid cutting off the view beyond. If a portion of the
landscape be thus sacrificed, it may be necessary to form a slope
quite close to the house, and then make the terrace walk on a
lower level beyond. In any case, there should always be a level
space at the top and at the bottom of the slope, which should
extend its length in unbroken line, not following the irregularity
of line that may be formed by the building at its earth level. If
a break of any kind must be made in this continuous line, only
one such interruption should be suffered. The effect of this slope
next the house is to add to its apparent altitude, as the eye in-

THE TERRACE. 25

sensibly estimates the height from the line of gravel below. The
space between the edge of a terrace walk and the upper edge of
its outer slope may not be less than 6 ft., but that between the
bottom of a slope and the edge of a walk may be as little as i ft. 6 in.
Generally slopes should be made in the ratio of 2% to 1, if above
1 ft. 6 in. in depth. In large places, or where importance is required,
and the depth is not less than 3 ft., the slope should be 2l/> to 1 ;
smaller slopes, such as for sunk panels, etc., will not have a ratio
of more than 1% to 1. Terrace slopes should not have a greater
depth than 5 to 6 ft. Where a greater depth is needed, two slopes
should be made with a level width between them of not less
than 4 ft.

The arrangement of parterres in the terrace garden should always
be formal. It will generally be found that there is some detail in
the house itself, or connected with the period of its architecture,
that may be used to characterise the arrangement of walks or beds,
apart from the strict design of terrace walls, steps, or balustrades.
The terrace garden is viewed chiefly from the house, where the
spectator's eye is 5 ft. above the floor-line ; therefore, in designing
the beds for flowers or foliage plants, such beds should not be
placed too near the house ; they should be even in width, with as
few acute angles as possible ; longer than wide, as seen from the
house. If surrounded by gravel, the spaces of bed and of gravel
should be evenly disposed. Besides bedding plants, evergreen dwarf
foliage plants may be largely introduced, and precise designs of
clipped box and yew are not out of place, if the building has a
character that is consonant with such accompaniment. Of foliage
plants, those only should be selected that are dwarf in habit and
grow evenly. The whole arrangement in this position is artificial,
and this is a place where the recurrence to old fashions in gardening

E

26 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

is desirable. Good work of this kind is chiefly shown by attention
to minute details. In contemplating such a formal arrangement
from the house, there are some noticeable effects : the semicircle
—a form frequently adopted — appears flatter than it really is; lines
from the spectator give an expression of length ; cross-lines shorten
the area in appearance. Sunk panels, if adopted, should not be
deeper than i ft. 6 in., and the beds in them should not be near
the edge at bottom of the slope.

Stone steps, used in connection with terrace slopes, should be
made as plain and as solid in appearance as possible. For a
2% to i slope the tread of such would be 14 in., the rise 6 in. ; for
a 2J/2 to 1 slope the tread would be 15 in., with a rise of 6 in. The
best steps -are made of solid Portland, or other, good stone, built
as shown in Plan II. At the Crystal Palace the steps are of
granite. When the lateral extent of the step is too great to admit
of one stretch of stone being used, the joints should be made to
recur alternately, and sub-walls should be constructed to support
the stones at each juncture ; and the walls at each end should be
built wide enough to carry the plinth, or balustrade that contains the
whole flight, as well as the end of each tread. Moreover, there
must not be any joint in the plinth at the angles, but it should
appear in the slope. The nose of the topmost step should be in
line with the upper edge of the slope. The steps and the plinth
should range with the slope. The width of the plinth will vary to
accord with the dimensions of the whole flight, but the ordinary
rule is 1% in. for each foot in the breadth of the flight. For any
ordinary flight of terrace steps, the plinth should be from 3 to
6 in. above the line of the slope, and consequently of the steps.
Vases chosen to ornament the structure should be imposed on
square pedestals situated on the top and at the bottom of the

THE TERRACE. 27

plinth. In selecting such vases, in which flowers are to be planted,
choose those forms that admit of the flowers being placed close to
the edge. The margin of the vase should rather tend inwards than
outwards. It should not form an overhanging lip. In ordinary-
circumstances the plinth should be designed to harmonise with the
architectural style of the house. When the flight is not connected
with a terrace wall, or it stands apart from the slope, there should
not be any balustrade, and ornamentation should be very sparse,
or absent.

When walls are used in connection with terrace gardens, with
or without balustrading, whether they take the place of the slope
or are formed in conjunction with it, they should agree in archi-
tectural character with the house ; and not only that, but be formed
of the like material, so that they may seem closely a part of the
general design. Such walls should never be less than 3 ft. in height
or more than 10 ft., exclusive of the balustrade, which usually is
made 3 ft. high. But there is an exception to this ruling. On flat
ground, for the simple purpose of giving a base-line, or a prominent
demarcation of the formal gardening from the natural, a simple
plinth, 12 to 1 8 in. high, and of equal width, may be used with a
certain effect, as, for example, at Gosforth House. But walls con-
sidered and used simply as retaining walls, not seen from below,
and on which the turf rests, need not follow the architectural cha-
racter of the house. The position of any terrace wall or balustrading
must be very carefully considered, for it is inadmissible that it
should interfere with the view of falling ground beyond it. It
may be advisable to adopt a slope whose lower edge touches a
flat parallel space coinciding with and supported by the top of a
retaining wall. There should always be a level space at foot of
every slope or wall.

28 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

There are two most general forms of terrace walls. One is
parallel with the terrace walk and the line of the house, for which
it seems to constitute a base ; this may or may not be surmounted
by a balustrade. From this terrace there may be steps conducting
to a lower level, perhaps to the pleasure grounds, but possibly to
the second terrace with its formal gardens, whence flights of steps
give access to the naturally-treated landscape gardens. To this
second terrace there is generally a balustrade, which bears the
expression of a boundary. In either case the treatment is archi-
tectural. It is well to remember that an access other than by steps
from the terrace to the gardens should be devised for the possible
use of invalids.

As to dimensions, the following may be generally stated : vertical
walls should have a thickness in cut stone of '35 of the height ;
in brick, '4 of the height ; in dry rubble, *5 of the height. A wall
with a " battered " or sloped front will need less material, and
have strength equal to a vertical wall, both having an equal thickness
of base. Care must be exercised, especially in falling ground, that
the foundations are carried deep enough to prevent sliding. There
must be drainage from the back of walls, either by pipes built
through the structure at proper intervals of distance, or by the
insertion of a porous backing from which pipes to carry off
water communicate. A backing of sods, laid by hand, will prevent
thrust, and admit of a lessened thickness in the wall. The back
of the wall should be left rough in construction. The average
slope of ground is 1^ ft. horizontal to 1 ft. vertical. The weight
of dressed granite is 156 lbs. per cubic foot; sandstone 137 lbs.,
lime concrete 1 19 lbs., cement concrete 137 lbs., brickwork 112 lbs.,
sand 100 lbs., and of clay 119 lbs.

THE TERRACE.

Molesworth .gives the following formulae for retaining walls :

E = Weight of Earthwork per cube yard.
W = Weight of Wall.
H = Height of Wall.
T = Thickness of Wall at top.
T = H x Tabular No.

BATTER OF WALL.

E : W

: 4 : 5-

E : W :

: i : i.

CLAY.

SAND.

CLAY.

SAND.

I in 4

■083

•029

•115

•054

I in 5

•122

•O65

•155

•092

I in 6

•149

•092

•I83

•Il8

I in 8

•I84

•125

•2l8

•153

i in 12 .

•221

•l60

•256

•I89

Vertical .

•3OO

•239

•336

•267

In calculating the strength of surcharged walls, substitute Y for H,
Y being the perpendicular at the end of a line (L = H) measured
along the slope to be retained.

Y= 171 H in slopes of 1 to 1.
= 1-55 H „ i^toi.
1-45 H „ 2 to 1.
1-31 H „ 3 to i.
1 -24 H „ 4 to 1.

An etching is given of the terrace garden at Friar Park, Henley,
the residence of Frank Crisp, Esq. It serves to illustrate what
is meant by a base being made to a house. In this case walks
lead from the forecourt, from the garden entrance, and from the
conservatory, on to an upper terrace, from which walks descend
to a lower terrace garden with its parterre, which, in its turn, gives
place to the flowing lines of the pleasure gardens. In this case a
low moulded plinth is fixed on the top of the grass slope.

ARRANGEMENT AND FORMATION.

The facts and considerations in this chapter are given in relation
to the general plan of a garden. The several matters spoken
of, as Planting, etc., are treated in detail elsewhere in the book.

For arranging the plan of a garden, few rules can be laid down,
but artistic principles must be insisted on. So many considerations
press in to vary design, that arbitrary dealing by imposition of what
may be termed paper designs, however ingenious, is, in its degree,
ill-advised. The detailed plan should spring from the site, as an
adaptation of its natural or created natural features, and should not
be, as it were, forced upon the position, crushing it to an artificial
scheme. To copy simply the design of another place is inadmissible.
Considerations that rule in this connection are almost infinite : extent,
geological formation, soil, existing natural formation or features,
climate and aspect, the display of distant beauty, conformity to out-
side influences, particularly to the requirements of the possessor,
and the expenditure of money that may be made. It is this important
variety of modifying influences, and how they are dealt with, that
gives charm to each new work of landscape gardening, and to the
developments it presents ; just as we contemplate a fresh work of
the kind in pictorial art, and note how the artist has treated the
natural features, the colours and tints, and their modifying juxta-
position on the canvas. The painter, however, may indeed have

ARRANGEMENT AND FORMATION. 31

his rules as to composition, for the use of his colours and the
production of his distances. His picture is not a servile copy of
Nature in its exact details, but an artistic rendering of the effect
of Nature, as seen by his educated eye, and recorded by his skilful
hand. His picture is always viewed from the same point ; but in
the nature-pictures created by the landscape gardener the point of
view is on every side ; there is no back to the canvas. In each
position the object should be one of beauty, of interest, and of
delight, and its relation to other features, and to the whole field
of the spectator's vision, be closely and truly considered. The land-
scape gardener must remember that his colours change and grow ;
he must realise, as he creates his pictures, that in a few years what
now seems like a light green stroke of pigment to the painter —
but a complementary effect — will have become a tall tree, beautiful
in itself, but of altered beauty, either helping or marring the land-
scape. He follows Nature by adapting or garnering her beauties,
and tutoring her, so to speak, to the display of them ; but by follow-
ing Nature is not meant a slavish imitation or reproduction of any
of her particular scenes. Some are unattractive, some very inappro-
priate, all are subject to dissimilar conditions ; and imitation in
Nature, as well as art, produces pettiness. But the spirit of the
beauty of Nature, embodied, as it were, in those of her works or
features that express her majesty, simplicity, peacefulness, sweetness,
refinement, strength, and variety, in form, colour, abundance, or any
of her multifarious aspects of loveliness, should be included and
brought into juxtaposition in an ideal scene, so far as we are able
to promote its natural development. And always be it remembered,

Nature is made better by no mean,
But nature makes that mean.

In forming the surface of the ground, as already pointed out, we
should realise the fact that most of the graceful undulations of fertile

32 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

soil, result from the action of water. Here is a natural agency the
effect of which we may imitate, in modifying the surface in our
circumscribed landscape ; so that our treatment of the ground may be
consonant with what is in reality a pervading expression. In Nature,
straight lines are very rarely found ; straight lines are the production
of art. The terrace, as before explained, and the region immediately
next the house, and indeed, in a less degree, that next any minor
building in the grounds, being by position artificial, should be treated
in a formal manner. This postulate will so far influence our treatment
of the rest of the landscape, that as the house is approached from the
boundaries of the estate, the planting, design and work should become
finer, more intricate, and more careful. Beyond the line of the terrace
wall, slope, or walk, the design of the garden may be naturally treated.
In this position a feeling of freedom should assert itself, and it may
be subtly induced by the undulating ground, with the curved lines of
walk, and planting. From the terrace, walks should not go off in the
same direction, but should, at any rate for some distance, deviate. In
the general arrangement of such walks, the curves should be set out
with broad sweeping lines, the chord of which should be so great, that
each sweep should be hidden from the succeeding bend. A multiplica-
tion of meaningless walks should be avoided, as should be the creation
of anything like the wriggling serpentine lines so often seen in badly
designed villa-gardens. It should be generally apparent that each walk
serves some special object, as the route to some distant point, to
connect two lawns, to approach some particular group of planting, to
reach some point of view, or to provide alternative means of com-
munication at different levels. No doubt the designer will have first
placed the group of planting, the lawn, the access to the view, or the
variation in level, but such a fact must never be obtrusive, and the art
which serves to emphasize the idea that the walk can only go rightly in
one place, must not be apparent.

ARRANGEMENT AND FORMATION 33

It is essential that groups of planting should be, and should appear
to be, rightly placed in the general composition. If there be old single
trees, or groups of trees, on the turf, they should be treated as specimens,
and isolated each on its own mound, and not have little bushes put
about them. There is an expression of affording shelter, whether from
heat or rain, about such objects, and in that way they bestow a pleasing
idea, while they contribute their beauty to the scene. In planting,
variety of outline in the height is almost as desirable as variety of out-
line in the plan. A frequent error in laying out gardens is to make all
the groups of planting assimilate, and all walks and undulations alike in
appearance and outline. That is to be avoided. The proper method
is to make the prominent points high, and to keep the intervening bays
low, both in forming the ground, and in selecting the plants. In setting
out groups of planting, uniformity of curve, and parts of circles should
be avoided. Long bays with the turf running up them should be made ;
the spectator's vision is unconsciously led up them if only for the moment.
As seen from the house, or its terrace, a plantation, which for example
(see Plan, fig. A) may be one skirting the garden, screening it from
observation on the approach, or protecting it from harmful winds, may
be made very effective by marking the outline of the turf with long
bays running up beyond the points, so that the eye cannot follow the
whole outline. An appearance of much greater extent and freedom is
attained. Variety in such designs is essential, and bald uniformity of
parts is to be shunned. There is a killing tameness in such repetition
of parts in the outline as is involved in the recurrent use of circles or
parts of circles, or of egg-shaped figures such as are frequently to be
seen by lines of walk in Continental gardens. These dicta apply equally
to the height of trees, the character of the foliage and the tints, and
especially to the undulations of the made ground, where uniformity
and repetition destroy one of the most exquisite expressions of Nature's
beauty — the wave line of the ground — by rendering it unnatural in form,

F

34 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

burlesque in fact. Variety within limit of the natural means, and of
such aids as art may supply, should indeed be a predominating aim.
To that end to create fresh picturesqueness, to open out fresh views, and
by contrasts of colour, of line, and of level to tempt Nature herself to
exercise her fascinations, so direct on our conceptions, so difficult to bring
into dry definition, is worthy of our best effort. The creation in well-
chosen position of objects of special interest, such as a rose garden,
an herbaceous enclosed garden, an old-fashioned allee of clipped yew,
box, or lime, or a secluded rockery, filled with choice Alpine plants,
through which, breaking by a cascade from the upper ground, a little
stream rushes, and then meanders to the lake below ; or a seat covered
with climbing plants, that perhaps half hide some quaint inscription, or
mark the site of a local legend of old time ; these are all legitimate
means to the same end. But of more consideration than all of them
should be the general appearance of the surrounding ground, which
must compel the conviction that here Nature is but tutored, not
fettered, yet tempted to the expression of her beauties in the freedom
of favouring conditions.

When the lines of distant views are determined, it is necessary
that details be carefully considered, so that no breaks be introduced
in the direct line of sight. In regard to one such view, walks may
be arranged to lead in the direction of the best point for realising
the prospect, and they may curve round this point, sunk below it ;
but the lawn up to that position must be hollowed out, or concave,
so that the eye may be tempted to range up this valley, in the centre
of which, or in the line of sight, there must not be planting, although
there may be planting on either side {see Plan, fig. B) ; or, in another
case, there may be a long stretch of lawn ; in a third, especially
if the view be narrowed to a single object, such as a church spire,
a simple break in the planting, through which the vision will instinc-
tively pierce, will be enough, and the object will appear, as it were,

ARRANGEMENT AND FORMATION. 35

framed by the foreground foliage. If a curve occur in a boundary
walk, an effective treatment is to make a small group of planting
in the centre of the curve, and form a hollow in the ground between
this group and the boundary plantation (as fig. C). The lowering
of the walk may be so made that its depth will provide sufficient
earth for raising the group, as well as the mound next the boundary.
As a matter of fact, it is seldom necessary to bring earth from a
distance for such works in the formation of a garden. In forming
the terrace, when the ground recedes, the surface may be lowered
by increasing the depth of the slope till sufficient earth is provided
for the requisite filling (as fig. D). To raise mounds for planting,
hollowed out pathways in the curves may be made between groups ;
a whole area, as well as the walks, may be lowered when it becomes
necessary to secure soil for an adjacent planting. Sometimes the
boundary fence, or wall, shows objectionably in an opening. In
such case an earth bank, turfed to the summit, may be raised in
front of it, sufficiently high to conceal it altogether (as fig. E).

The lawn is almost the most pervading landscape feature, and
by its beauty it sweetly expresses repose. It is quiescent; it is
never agitated by angry winds ; its charm is modifying, and is an
essential in the nature-picture. The turfed area about a house, and
it may be said all turfed ground within the garden enclosure, is
generally termed lawn ; but the lawn is properly a grassy expanse
in or between woods. The lawn of our garden should so far be
true to the definition that it should present, whenever that is possible,
the appearance of a natural opening, or grassy glade in a wood,
where the sides are closed in by trees, and the distant end is
lost in forest gloom. We may not at first have in our garden
forest trees to shut in this glade ; but we may arrange groups of
planting to border our lawn, and the view may be directed across
the park till a broken and undefined ending is reached. For such

36 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

an effect, plainness and simplicity must characterise the treatment
adopted. Formal beds for flowers or plants, to break the grand
sweep of grass, must be avoided. A lawn should naturally be in
the lower ground ; specimen plants may be planted about the sides,
preferably on the higher ground, so that the eye may be led to
dwell on certain points, and to unconsciously pierce in particular
directions; and particularly in order that the shadow of the trees
or shrubs may fall athwart the grass in due season. But the sweep
of the lawn should be unimpeded and clear, and nothing should
invade its expression of repose. As it is not desirable to have too
spacious an area of turfed ground, lawns will most generally take
the form of vistas, and will serve chiefly to give a background of
rest to the various features displayed.

Excepting formal slopes, all turfed ground, as well as all surface
curves in general formation, must take us from one level to another,
not by one inelegant drop, like the edge of an inverted saucer,
but by a double curve commonly called Ogee {fig. H). It is without
question desirable to have views so arranged that they may illustrate
the extent of the place, and confer, if only by appearance, the
sensation of spaciousness ; but, in regard to the garden proper, it
is most undesirable that its extent should be visible at a glance
from any point. The spectator should receive or retain an idea
of its vastness, by reason of the contrasting treatment of its several
divisions, each insensibly separated from the other, but not screened
off, while every point of view is carefully considered in relation to
the desired effect ; and this effect, as well as that of the house
and its surroundings, must have its artistic and natural relation to
the landscape. Incongruity and inappropriateness are inimical to
harmonious, sweet influences. Things beautiful in themselves are
destructive of beauty when inappropriately placed, and particularly
of that beauty which should come to us in a sweet, indefinable
effluence from a landscape near or far.

WORK OF FORMATION.

The foregoing observations on general formation have related to
the plan. The following concern the practical work for carrying
the purpose into effect.

Firstly, if the general plan showing a proposed arrangement
of the house, its terraces, pleasure gardens, fences, groups of
planting, drives and walks, its kitchen garden, glass-houses, etc.,
be designed for uneven ground, and particularly if an estimate
of expenditure be required, detailed plans must be prepared, showing
the intended levels. If a new place has to be made, it is advisable
to strip the surface soil from the site of the house, and of the
ground immediately around it. Some, if not all this soil should
be run into a convenient heap for future use near the house when
the structure is raised, and if there is any soil not needed for this
position, it will be available for plantations. When the ground is
falling, or uneven, it is advisable to form it roughly about the site
before the builders commence their operations. Builders, when once
they begin, are apt to spread their material over the ground, and
frequently do not remove it till the conclusion of their work. All
trees and plantations that remain close to the building must be
protected. The next operation must be to make some portion of
the approach, preferably only the back road to the house, which
can serve the use of the workmen. Levels of all drives should next

38 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

be taken on numbered pegs, at a minimum distance of 100 ft.
apart, and the gradient line must be marked on the plotted section ;
that will give the depth of cutting or filling, at the position of each
peg. It is profitable if you can so arrange the gradient that
the soil from a cutting is sufficient for all filling required without
length of lead ; yet careful regard must be given to treating the
gradient, so that 'earth may be obtained at any particular point for
raising mounds for planting, or for other purposes. Some difference
in the slopes and gradients for the approach drive, and for the
back drive, should be made ; the former should be flatter and more
finished than the latter. When the levels have been settled the
drain can be put in ; the capacity of the drain must depend on its
length, and on the quantity of water it will have to carry off. If
only surface water from the road is to be conducted, 3 in. pipes
are sufficiently capacious for a distance of 200 yds. ; but for a longer
distance 4 in. pipes are needed. In estimating the quantity of water
that is to be provided for, regard must be given to the surface
drainage which may come on to the road from falling ground above,
unless the general drainage be quite independent.

The drain is best placed in the centre of a road, with gully
holes wherever necessary for the gradient. Drains may, however,
be placed at the sides, and they should be filled up with porous
material. Gully holes on drives should be built in mortar ; though
in garden walks they may be built " dry " — that is, without mortar.
In long drives through parks, drains are frequently dispensed with,
and the water turned on to the grass land at convenient intervals.
On drives, 9 in. gratings and frames are generally sufficient ; for
garden paths, 7 in. gratings are large enough. On perfectly level
roads, or on steep gradients, say from 1 in 10 to 1 in 15, gully holes
should be 25 yards apart ; but on a slight incline they may be as far
apart as 50 yards. On walks they should be more frequent, because

WORK OF FORMATION. 39

the gradients are steeper, and the gravel used being finer, is more
easily displaced by rain ; the walks also intersect, and are more
undulatory. Outlet pipes from gully holes should be fixed at least
6 in. from the bottom, to allow of that space for possible deposit,
which can be cleared out as occasion serves. In forming: either
drives or walks it is best to make the verges or sides first, as a
good line is most readily obtained in this manner. The verge
should be built up with turves laid on edge if the gradient shows
filling. If turves are not available, let the ground be well trodden
till it is solidified. A couple of inches should be allowed for sub-
sequent cutting when the true line of the drive is neatly trimmed.
Care must then be exercised, not only that the true line is cut for
exact width of the drive, but that the cutting is carried to full
depth, and the depression can be filled with stones. At least 6
in. of hard, porous material should be spread over all drives,
and 4 in. on all walks. This covering may consist of broken
bricks, or stones, or coarse gravel, or well-burnt ballast. On that
a coating of stone that has been broken to pass through an inch
ring, or of fine gravel, 3 in. thick on drives, or 2 in. thick
on walks, should be laid. Drives, where two carriages may pass,
must be at least 14 ft. wide ; for one carriage, 9 ft. wide. Walks
should never be less than 5 ft. wide ; ordinarily, they should be
6 ft. wide. A drive of 14 ft. width should round over 3 in. ;
a walk of 6 ft., 2 in. The turf edging should rise 1 in.
above the rolled surface of the road or walk.

The terraces should be formed thus : First strip the soil from
the site. When the filling is over 3 ft. in depth it should be
done in layers, and each layer consolidated. In any case, the ground
should be well rammed as the earth is deposited, and when it is
possible, the ground should be given time to settle before the turf
is laid. All terrace slopes, as they have ordinarily a southern aspect,

4o THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

should have 9 in. of soil on them, to obviate the danger of the
turf " scorching." All slopes and angles must be perfectly formed
to receive the turf. The turves should not be rolled over the
angles, but be laid to, and join, at them, so that a sharp arris be
secured. On the site of any beds for flowers, or foliage plants, the
soil must be of proper quality and sufficient depth, and when de-
posited in solid ground should be drained. Grass is cut into turves
3 ft. long and 1 ft. wide ; they should be about 1 in. thick.
When such turves are rolled up, they will in autumnal and early
spring weather last for several weeks without permanent damage.
Before cutting turves, the grass should be mown, and then well
rolled. As they are relaid, all daisy, plantain, and bad grass roots
should be taken out. Care is required in cutting turves to regulate
the work so that the sections of grass may not be removed, or
accumulated, save as the site is prepared to receive them ; and the
surface made for them should have 6 in. of loam. When the
ground is to be sown instead of turfed, after the site is prepared,
let the sowing be made in springtime, and during showery weather.
A good mixture of seed for a lawn is that recommended by Mr. R.
Thompson, as follows (the kinds of grass are those suitable for
forming a good lawn, and the quantities of seed given are those
required for an acre) :

Lolium perenne tenue . . . . .20 lbs.

Cynosurus cristatus . . . . . 5 ,,

Festuca duriuscula • . . . . 3 „

Festuca ovina tenuifolia . . . . 2 „

Poa nemoralis . . . . . . 2

Poa nemoralis sempervirens . . . 2 „

Poa trivialis. . . . . . . 2 ,,

Trisetum flavescens 1 „

Trifolium repens 6 ,,

Trifolium minus 2 „

45 lbs.

WORK OF FORMATION. 41

The above proportions will be found suitable for the generality
of soils ; but in shady situations to which Poa nemoralis and its
varieties are particularly well adapted, 1 or 2 lbs. of each of these
may be substituted for Trisetum Jiavescens and Festuca tenuifolia ;
whilst in rich heavy soils, 2 or 3 lbs. of Cynosurus cristatus and
1 lb. of Festuca duriuscula may be substituted for Trisetum Jiavescens,
the quantity of Trifolium minus being reduced to 1 lb.

A single tennis lawn should have its level at least 100 ft. long
by 50 wide. It must be well drained. If to obtain this level
place excavation has been made on the upper ground to fill up
the lower, a drain should be carried along the foot of the upper
sloping ground, and be filled in with ballast, in addition to drains
laid across the lawn. The soil laid on the surface of a tennis
lawn or cricket ground should not be too deep or too rich. Six
inches of moderately good soil is sufficient, and, except for light soils,
a thin layer of burnt clay or ashes should be laid 6 in. beneath
the surface stratum, and this layer of ballast should connect with
the drains, so that quick passage of the water is ensured.

For all plantations the sites should be doubly trenched, that is,
dug two spits deep, and the ground beneath broken up. The
difference in growth of trees planted in trenched and untrenched
ground is very conspicuous, and the value of the former is so much
enhanced that in four years the cost of trenching is repaid.
When the planting is to be on a raised mound, first remove the top
spit of soil and place it aside ; next trench the ground from which
it has been taken, and make the mound ; then use the soil reserved
from the upper spit to form the surface and summit of the raised
ground. There are many ways of obtaining earth for such work,
and although some observations on the subject have been made
in treating of the plan, it may be well to enumerate them here.
The object will be to obtain earth for raising the ground, not only

G

42 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

for producing effect, or promoting the growth of plants, but for
hiding boundaries or masking unsightly objects that are irremovable.
Ground that is taken near at hand is most convenient, and it is
cheaper to work it by barrows than to bring it a distance in carts.
Such earth may be obtained from the foundations of the building ;
by lowering the ground at foot of the terrace ; by making the lawn at
lower level ; by lowering the surface between trees or places intended
for single plants, or between larger groups ; by removing ridges ;
by making hollow sunk panels, descending rose gardens ; by lower-
ing the lines of walks in certain places, so that these, in addition to
providing such required earth, may add, by their undulating gradient,
to the beauty of the landscape. Top soil should always be spared,
and subsoil used for general filling, and this last so arranged that
2 ft. of top soil should be available for the planting area.

In lowering a lawn — say i ft. — the method of work should
be what is termed back-handed ; that is to say, the top soil of a
narrow strip across a given area should be taken off and laid aside ;
then a foot deep of the underlying soil should be taken out and
wheeled to the required place of deposit ; then a similar strip
should, in like manner, have the topmost foot of earth taken off
and cast on the already lowered first strip, the new surface of which
being first broken up ; this operation being repeated with each
succeeding strip of the space, till the last is reached, when the
top soil laid aside from the first division can be deposited to make
good the surface. The earth thus gained remains for use.

One inch of rainfall per acre gives 101 tons or 3,630 cubic ft.
of water, which would fill a tank 30 ft. by 12 ft. by 10 ft., yielding
2^ cubic ft., or 15^ gallons per minute, if the rainfall continue
24 hours. The annual rainfall in London averages 26 in., and it is
reckoned that two-fifths of it percolates into the soil. It is by access
of oxygen conveyed by water that plant growth is stimulated, and

c WORK OF FORMATION. 43

rain-drops are highly oxygenated. Plants will not grow in ground
saturated with water from which the oxygen has been more or less
taken up, and drainage is therefore necessary in promotion of vigorous
vegetable growth. Such drainage may be consequent on natural
formation of the ground, or be secured by the removal of obstacles,
or by artificial means. But the cold stagnant water that has, as it
were, served its purpose must be removed, or conducted to where
surrounding conditions admit of its return by evaporation to discharge
its function again in the rainfall. A circulation of warm air follows
the descending rain which percolates charged with many ingredients
for the sustentation of plant life. Water is heaviest at a tempe-
rature of 400 ; heat cannot pass downwards through water ; hence
the saturated ground can only be renovated by sun heat on its
surface, and the dense cold water should find its way from the sub-
soil by drainage, either natural or artificial. In Denmark they practise
a plan of double drainage ; a system of piping serves ordinary pur-
poses near the surface, but these drains communicate with a lower
system, which again is generally conducted to some natural water
storage, the outlets into which are guarded by sluices. In seasons
of drought these sluices may be closed and the water retained. The
soil there is generally light. The, depth at which drain-pipes should
be laid, and the distances at which they recur, must be ruled by the
nature of the soil. In stiff clay they should be placed 3 ft. below
the surface, and 16 ft. apart ; in light soil they may be put at intervals
of 40 ft., but 4 ft. deep. In non-porous soil, cuttings for the drains
should be filled to within 6 in. of the surface with porous material.
All main outfall drains should be laid with a minimum fall of 1 in
500, or 10 ft. 6 in. per mile. Collecting drains should have a minimum
fall of 1 in 250, or 21 ft. per mile. These should enter the main
ducts at an acute angle. In any system of drainage it is desirable
to make wells at convenient places, that may serve as catch-pits,

44 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

and inspection chambers. The direction of main drains should be
as closely as practicable that of the lowland, and side drains should
follow the slope in parallel lines. The outfall of the main should be
above the water level. Ordinarily for a garden the injunctions just
made do not so strictly apply. They are modified by important
considerations. The walks are generally used for lines of main
drainage ; these in most cases traverse ground of steeper inclination
than the open land, and there is an obvious variation in the minimum
ratio of fall as set out above. It is not advisable to take any main
drain nearer to the trunk of an established tree than the limit that
is covered by its foliage, because it is not well to alter its former
water supply.

PLANTING.

The word planting, which means the act or process of planting,
has been adapted with an extended signification in connection with
landscape gardening ; it has been taken to indicate as well the
thing planted, and is so applied in this treatise wherever the context
determines its appropriateness. Planting, in act and in result, is a
feature of paramount importance in the art. The well-directed
practice or the misuse of it is essential to, or fatal to, the development
of those aspects and influences of beauty, which it is the artist's
purpose to conserve, to emphasize, or to induce by natural operation.
It is a principal means in his hand. As a skeleton is clothed in
beauty of line and colour by the flesh, so the undulations and sweet
or grand features of the ground in its formation, are clothed by
the all-pervading colour of the grass, with its delicious expression
of restful quietude ; and thereon Nature lavishes her objects of
infinite variety in form, height, colour, in gradations of tone, and
splendour of contrast — the absolute infinity of curve in detail, which
exercises a subtle charm on us, that would deteriorate could we
define it ; the gradations of the sky-line, the fine irregularities of
line where the lower verge of foliage touches lawn or grass land,
the emphasis of sunshine and of shadow — and her gifts in this wise
are trees and plants. These, then, each beautiful in itself, become
chief means by which the designer works in forming the landscape.

46 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

A hill is made to appear higher if its summit be planted. A grand
irregularity is given to the sky-line. When the hillside is clothed
with foliage, then the variety of form, of colour, of light and shadow,
are brought into play, and should be profoundly studied for the
production of those subtle effects of beauty, the fascination of which
we feel without the care of definition. The infinity of form and of
tint gives variety of effect. If the foliage were so disposed that
formality intruded here, regularity in the height of the trees, similarity
of form, and an appearance of massiveness in the leafy clothing of
the hillside, how wasteful of opportunity for beauty of effect the
planting would appear! When such a regularity in foliage is found,
it should be our object to break up its apparent surface. We
should never create it. The effect may be narrowed to a single
tree. Notice how inferior is the glow of light on an unbroken
mass of leaves, when compared with the same rays falling on a tree
whose boughs are irregularly branched, as is an old oak ; the
illumination touches the tips of the branches, qualifying their tints,
which tints appear varied in half shadow, and that is set off by
the almost gloom of the deep recesses ; indeed, there is an expression
of mystery in the picturesqueness that is presented which augments
the beauty of the object. It is the same when the single tree is
part of a grand assemblage of them, or when he towers above
his compeers. The artist can use the variety of form in various
trees, with the gradations and contrasts of colour they give him in
varying conditions, almost as a painter uses his pigments. When
the hill is grandly irregular in its natural form, then the effects to be
aimed at, in present realisation or in future years, are proportionally
more easy of attainment. The landscape gardener must always have
his vision projected through the coming years that will develop his
scenery by growth ; and he must realise in imagination, as he

PLANTING. 47

contemplates a rugged prospect that he has newly or partially
planted, how it will one day present the

. . . Magnificence of many-folded hills,
And promontories set of solemn pines!

This indispensable looking forward need not impair our present
means of creating beauty. There are shrubs and trees of large size
to be procured that can be carefully transplanted without danger
of loss. When trees of small growth are of necessity used, tempo-
rary plants, acting as nurses, serve not only to promote the growth
of the permanent plants, but also to cover the ground and relieve
the monotony of low planting. Groups of trees on artificial or
natural eminences should be most carefully selected in regard to the
height of their ultimate growth, as well as their outline form at
maturity, their juxtaposition, and the contrasts so to be created in
enhancement of their beauty, not only as individual specimens, but
as component features of the group in which every part has relation
to the whole. One paramount use of planting is to hide what may
be unsightly or incongruous in a prospect; or, by a well -arranged
break in the procession of trees, to admit some beautiful view, or
some appropriate object, such as a church spire, or a glimpse of
water, to the vision of the spectator at a particular point where the
picture presented may be most grateful. Such a picture may be,
as it were, framed in the grand forms of the foreground trees. A
most important use of trees in the general design is to connect the
different parts of it, by continuity of planting and by repetition of
tint and form.

In planting a great place there should be a distinctly apparent
difference between the garden, or the enclosed space round the
house, and the ground beyond that stretches into the park. The

48 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

distinction can be maintained thus : Near the house the planting
should be finer, and of trees and shrubs that are not indigenous :
or, rather, such trees and shrubs may be abundantly used there, to
produce their effect ; for the introduction into a district of plants
not indigenous to it marks an innovation, as it were, and shows the
hand of man. Such plants or trees must be sparingly used, or not
at all, in the park, where an object is to conceal the fact that all
is not due to nature in its local development. Both the character
of the trees and shrubs, as well as the disposing of them, should
not militate against this idea. The plants used in the garden
should be those that in their growth, tint of foliage, and colour of
flower, are delicate, rare, of neat outline, and such as we are
accustomed to connect in idea with the garden. The more
varied sizes of the groups will conduce to a like impression. Such
association of idea with particular plants is necessarily a fanciful
and changing one, because of the frequent introduction of hardy
trees and shrubs from other countries to be naturalised here ; but
it nevertheless plays an important part in landscape gardening.

In the garden we should group the plants with regard to sorts,
to colour, to form, and to size ; but such groups will necessarily
be small, and they should admit of a view of the individual plant.
This particularising of the individual plant differentiates the planting
of a garden from that of the park and plantations beyond. In the
outside plantations, massing takes the place of grouping, as the
effect to be produced is generally realised from a distance, and gives
contrast in colour and shape. In the garden we have, to a certain
extent, a collection of plants; in the park we have plantations. In
the former, a grouping of plants should be made in different positions ;
and though bare repetition, or balanced uniformity, should be sedulously
avoided, yet the several clumps should have an inoffensive relation one
to the other that should illustrate the oneness of the composition.

PLANTING.

49

The old saying, " Plant the hills and bare the vales," is, like
most proverbs, right in the restricted sense of an obvious application.
It holds generally good as coinciding with the natural arrangement
of the formation of the land surface by action of water ; but a place
would appear very dotted and formal if that mode of treatment
only were adopted. If the primal natural operations gave this
formation of the ground, and vegetation was first on the hills, yet,
as the soil washed from the hillsides to the valleys where the rivers
flowed, vegetation soon crept along either side of their course, and
was nourished there. If we copy Nature's operations in this way,
we find her planting on every side — not only on the hills. We
should seize on the spirit of the beauty in ■ her operations, and,
with such license as her developments allow, foster the expression
of her delightful influences, and train them to our use. In the
restricted scenes touched by the landscape gardener, we have, by
the introduction of foreign plants, the power to create, on a small
scale, the beauties of plant life in all temperate climes ; our selection
depending on soil, subsoil, elevation, distance from the sea, and
latitude.

There are three points of importance to be determined in regard to
groups of planting, viz., the site, the ground outline, and the disposing
of the trees and shrubs. The conditions under which the design has
to be created, and applied, vary in almost every case, and no hard and
fast rules can be made for adoption. In one place the artist's design
may be modified by the necessity of creating shelter, in another the
planting may be needed to mask unsightly objects that are near, in
a third to direct the gaze to distant beauties of landscape that may
be brought into the whole effect, like possessions. Each place has its
peculiar considerations. All that can be done here, in this connection,
is to speak in general terms, and to particularise only with certain
groupings that may illustrate the general question.

H

50 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

When the ground is broken or undulating, the advantage should
be seized of marking eminences by planting. Rising ground may be
in appearance raised still higher if we cover it with wood. The trees
should be tallest as they reach the summit. Trees standing singly
mark and emphasize falling ground. Plantations crossing falling
ground generally are inharmonious to the broad effect. The brow
of an eminence should not be seen above trees ; and if the brow forms
a tedious continued line, it should be broken by clumps or large
masses along its range, and by dividing the line into very unequal
parts. Openings thus created may be treated by placing at the sides
of them, at all events not in the line of vision, various small clumps, so
as to train the spectator's glance in the given direction, and to promote
the idea of distance. The outlines of groups in a park should not
be regular, or in a succession of easy sweeps, or form a serpentine
line. They should have strong prominences marked by detached
trees that stand boldly in the group, and they should present deep
recesses. Exactness in outline will not be preserved ; but if the
general features be well set out, natural alterations due to the growth
of the plants will not spoil the effect. In plantations near the eye,
lights and shadows are more apparent than on distant groups of
trees ; the effects are stronger ; therefore dark foliage planted in a
near recess makes it appear deeper still. White foliage, or blossoms,
seem to be nearer to the spectator than they really are. Objects
become fainter in effect as they retire from the eye. A detached
clump, or a single tree of lighter green, will therefore seem to be
further off than an equidistant planting of darker hue. A regulated
gradation of one tint to another will apparently alter the length of
a continuous plantation, according as the gradation commences with
foliage of light or dark green. When a long continuous line of
planting fronting the eye cannot well be broken, because perhaps
it may serve as shelter, or for some other reason, a variation of line

PLANTING. 51

and composition may be given to it by placing light green plants in
graduated tints at certain positions in its course. The effect is to
give the idea of distance at such points, and this effect of expanse
will be still more promoted, if the sky-line of the tree-tops is lowered
with a gentle curve lowest where is the lightest shade of green.
Among the dark-foliaged trees may be particularised the Oak,
Chestnut, Beech, Elm, Austrian Pine, Spruce Fir, Cedar of Lebanon,
Hemlock Fir, Yew, Holly ; among the light green, Plane, Birch,
Ash, Acacia, Lime, Poplar, Willow, Laburnum, Larch, Abies
Concolor, Pinus Insignis, Abies Douglasii, Ccdrus deodara ; among
the red greens are varieties of Maple, the American Oak, Copper
Beech, etc. ; among white greens are Poplars, Sea Buckthorns, etc.

An avenue is the assumptive expression of grandeur — of grandeur
that must be achieved at its starting-point, belong to its course,
and be conspicuous at its ending — an essential feature of its purpose.
It must never be petty or inconsequential in these respects. It
should be planted only when importance is to be given to its line,
and when an imposing ending can be bestowed on it. Its line
should be, if possible, straight, and free from extraneous planting,
unless, indeed, it pass through a wood, and form part of it. Its
trees should be considered as belonging to, and forming part of, the
road. It is essentially a stately feature in its appearance ; and its
purpose should be harmonious with its expression. The mind is
apt to resent a paltry result to such promise as it impressively
gives, if the ending be unworthy of the beginning. When age and
luxuriant growth come upon it, there is a venerableness in its
beauty that is not otherwise obtainable by any like means. It has
a charm and dignity of purpose when young, if well planned, that is
soon apparent. But when ill planned — to conduct the vision or the
footsteps from some point of little importance to a position of less
interest — it bears all the penalty of a wasted resource ; and the mis-

52 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

application of such means reacts on the imagination, and the feeling
of the spectator, with adjusted force. It must be remembered that
an avenue across a park divides it in two parts at that point. It
is not fitting except it proceed from some important entrance on a
side whence no distant views can be spoiled by its introduction.
The width of a grand avenue should be 50 ft. The trees may be,
preferably, Elm, Beech, Oak, Chestnut, and they should not be planted
nearer in precession than 40 ft., unless they be planted at intervals
of half that distance with the purpose of destroying alternate trees,
as their growth makes the removal necessary.

A century ago it was the fashion and practice to make boundary
plantations continuous and unbroken on the verge of an estate.
That is a practice not to be recommended. It is well to place
large masses of foliage towards the boundary, especially if these are
arranged to present winding intervals of turf, and so that endings
and corners be masked ; or such planting may be made only for
effect. But an enclosure pure and simple, even though it be of
leaves, and not a brick wall, gives a shut-in and cramped feeling,
which needlessly militates against expressions of beauty and expanse
that may be deftly gained from outside the boundary line.

Groups of planting in the garden may be more apparently con-
nected with the design than is permissible in the park. The effects
are for nearer contemplation, and are more intricate ; they harmonise
with, but display, the general design. The seeking after natural
formation is restricted, the reproduction of it more in miniature, the
arrangement is more elaborate and precise. Our choicer plants
have to be displayed here to best advantage, and the mean has to
be obtained between a mere collection of rare trees and shrubs, and
such a grouping of them as will produce a harmonious polytonous
effect as a whole. To achieve this, the outline of different groups,
and the position of the plants in them, give us requisite help. By

PLANTING. 53

the outline of a group is not meant a hard artificial boundary, en-
closing an earthen bank on which trees and shrubs are planted ;
but a line to which it is intended that the plants should spread,
covering the earth surface, and such an outline should be graceful,
and give the required filling to the general design, even when the
verge first marked may be overgrown. The outline of such groups
in a garden is to be set out, and to it the ground is generally turfed.
Nothing can be in worse taste, or more in derogation of the pur-
pose of such groups, than to mark the outline with a formal row
of bedding plants, or other stiff edging — a mistake that is frequently
committed. Where low flowering plants are introduced, they should
grow naturally to the edge, and separate plants may be placed
beyond the main group, so as still more to destroy simple formality
of effect in this connection. Formal planting may be introduced
with propriety at the intersection of a walk, or at a point where
there is some artificial combination ; but unless quite appropriate,
its best effect is dearly purchased by the loss of naturalness in ex-
pression that may otherwise be achieved or maintained. When
formal bedding-out is made thus at particular positions, the contain-
ing bed should receive a regular shape, and be made with flat surface,
to distinguish it from the natural grouping. In other regions of the
place, formal arrangement and bedding-out is quite appropriate — on
the terrace gardens and parterres, where plants are brought from
the glass-houses for seasonable growth and decoration, or where
permanent evergreen foliage plants are arranged, for instance. There
is, moreover, the planting of the so-called "American" garden to
be considered, where plants delighting in a peaty soil are grouped
together, such as Rhododendrons, Azaleas, Kalmias, Andromedas, etc.
There is the trim yew-hedge, lined with recesses for vases and for
seats, in close proximity to, or surrounding the old-fashioned her-
baceous garden. Another division is the rock garden, where the

54 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

blossoms of Alpine plants glow in their varied colours. The Pinetum,
where are collections of hardy conifers, each tree rising separately from
the lawn, with a distinctive beauty, which not only charms the eye
but creates a special interest. Then we may, perhaps, consider the
low ground toward the lake, where the planting may be characterised
by introducing a collection of damp-loving plants, beyond which, on
the side of the lake itself, will come the collection of weeping trees,
overhanging the water surface. These are all special positions, and
each has a special planting, and its relation to the whole decorative
effect. The disposition of the plants requires skill. In addition to
the grouping for foliage, colour, and height, which has been insisted
on above, there is another consideration. It is pleasant to find in
a group a collection of various kinds of trees of one species — for
example, of Hollies, having to lighten their effect an undergrowth
of variegated Dogwood ; the vacant spaces in the first instance
can be temporarily filled with common Holly. Or a collection of
Retinosporas may be made, interspersed with Spiraa callosa, etc.

Assuming that the ground for the groups has been raised, as
already recommended, the arrangement of the planting should follow
the indicated level of the bed ; the points should receive prominent
trees, and the lower spaces should be filled with less important
plants, more dwarf in habit. Those trees and shrubs which are
hardy or delicate should be allocated to positions where they may
protect, or be protected. By grouping is not meant a repetition of
planting by threes or fours, but that some trees of the same species
differing in height be planted in juxtaposition to trees of other species
having differing form and colour that may harmonise and at the
same time contrast. Equally, variety in colour is not to be taken
as meaning the repetition of violent contrasts, such as Copper Beech
and Variegated Maple, so frequently planted together, with the
erroneous idea that strong contrast is all that is required. In mass-

1 Sycamore

2 Puins Austriaou

3 Lccrclv

4 Dutch Jbelc Poplar

5 Lombard*/ Poplar

6 Hornbemw

7 English Elrrv

8 Perms bar-ixto

9 Black' Hiduzrv Poplar

10 SUx'crRr

1 1 ucpressus Lawsorawuu

12 Spanish Chestnut

13 Purple Beech

14 Oicnr

15 Acacia.

1G Cedar of Lebanon

1 7 Scarlet/ Oak

18 Common Morse CfiestraiL

19 ffleddschwu

20 Abnorul

22 Welhrmtcnin

23 Tyrus Specie Litis

24 Weeping Willows
2 5 7/////? 7/w

26 />W//

27 Deciduous Cypress

28 /2w

29 Z/Wi/
30

31 Common tic Ihy
32

33 Spruce Ih-

34 #w

35 liver-green Oalo

36 Scarlet Thorn

37 ^

38 Scotch Fir

39 7/77^

40 Mountain Ash

41 J)o(jwoo(L

42 Service ' 'free/

43 Pcruis Pccc-cLscu

44 J&p&y

/

PLANTING. 55

ing tints, attention must be constant to realise the form of the tree
as well as the colour of its foliage, or the trees may carelessly be
so arranged as to present the appearance of strips one beyond
another. The group should rather be divided into considerable
portions, each of a rounded figure, to be filled in with plants that
will give the various tints required, and are of the necessary height.
Contrasting tints, such as dark and light greens, coming together in
large masses of planting, break the surface, so to speak, on which
they meet. An outline which cannot for any reason be varied
sufficiently in form, may be diversified in appearance by clever
management of such shades. Every opposition of shade will vary a
continuous line. When a distinct hollow is apparent between two
clumps of trees, it is sometimes effective to plant the sides of each
group next the hollow with trees of similar kind, so as to create
or suggest an idea that the groups have been separated by the
cause that made the hollow.

In addition to the clumps of planting made for effect in a park,
there are to be considered those that are to have as well a further
use, namely, to afford cover for game. For the flight of a pheasant
these should be placed about 200 yds. apart. Among the trees
should be planted thickly Cotoneaster Simonsii, Rhododendron
ponticum, Scarlet Dogwood, Gorse, Broom, Black Thorn, Snowberry,
Berberis aqiiifolia, Sweet Briar, Box, Privet, Elder, etc. An example
is given showing the arrangement of trees and shrubs in outlying
park plantations (see Plan).

In planting a villa garden there is a different treatment to be
observed from the stocking of a large place. In the small garden it is
generally necessary to secure an immediate effect, with an expression
of completeness that shall appear in winter as well as summer.
Shrubs that are of dwarf habit or of slow growth, if purchased of
sufficient size to break the monotony of low planting, are generally

56 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

expensive, and the choice of sorts is somewhat restricted. Recourse
is therefore frequently had to plants, chiefly evergreen, which, though
looking well for a time, grow in no short period beyond the needs of
a small garden, and by their shade injure the growth of rarer shrubs.
It is, however, mostly necessary to use some fast-growing trees ;
but the best plan is so to arrange the general planting scheme, that
such trees may be cut down and removed after serving their
purpose. There are, however, many plants that attain a great size
with sufficient rapidity, such as Cedrus deodara and Atlantica,
Cupressus Lawsoniana, Thujopsis borealis and dolabrata, Thuja of
sorts, Portugal and common Laurel, Hollies, Limes, Acacia, Beech,
etc., many of which, by constant pruning, may be kept within size
fitting for a small garden.

The moving, or transplanting, of large growing trees is a resource
of great utility, and can be carried out with less difficulty than is
frequently incurred by processes ordinarily employed. Some of the
methods resorted to, in general circumstances, create much of the
difficulty they are designed to overcome ; necessitating the use of
expensive and elaborate machinery, when a much simpler process
will serve. In practice, I adopt the method described later on ; I
have found it easy, inexpensive, expeditious, and successful. With
a staff of 30 men, as many as 20 trees, whose stems average 1 ft. in
diameter at the ground level, with a height of 30 to 40 ft., have
been thus safely removed to new positions, at an average distance
of 100 yards, in one day. The trees were prepared on the previous
day. Trees can be moved in this way over hill and dale, and on to
newly-made mounds, where it would be difficult to employ a tree-
moving machine dragged by horses. In dealing with an estate it is
frequently found that trees have been long planted in belts at the
boundaries ; or they are in the way ; or are wrongly placed ; or,
perhaps, are crowded together, to their detriment. It is necessary

PLANTING.

57

to remove some, and they can be shifted for use elsewhere, instead
of destroying them. They form most valuable features in a newly-
made place, securing immediately effects that would otherwise have
to be long waited for, besides conducing to visible beauty. The
most suitable trees for such removal are Horse Chestnuts, Sycamores,
Maples, Limes, Beeches, Service trees, and Mountain Ash.

The method to be adopted is as follows : Open out a trench
5 to 7 ft. distant from the stem of the tree, such distance depending
on the size of the tree, and dig down, cutting off any of the larger
roots that may be met with, but carefully preserving all the smaller
fibrous roots, following them to their ends and laying them carefully
round the ball of the tree. At a depth of from 3 to 4 ft. begin to
dig nearer the stem, and shape the ball by removing any superfluous,
loose earth at the top and sides, so that the root-ball has somewhat
the appearance of a flat inverted cone. Leave a supporting space
of 2 ft. diameter under the stem, then place matting round the ball,
enclosing the fibrous roots, and rope this round firmly. Next, place
thick planks on each side of the central support. Fix two or three
guide-ropes two-thirds of the way up the stem of the tree. Pull
one of these in the direction of the main planks, and draw the tree
over somewhat, separating it from its supporting base, and at the
same time, push two or three short 6 ft. planks as far under as
possible ; then pull the tree in the opposite direction and repeat the
operation on the other side. The cross-planks are to be lightly
bound together. The tree is then standing on a platform of planking,
which rests, in its turn, on the two main planks first put under.
These latter are the sliding-planks, or rails, on which the short
cross-planks, forming a carriage, slide. Care will be taken that the
sliding-planks are placed in the direction to be traversed, or in the
direction of least difficulty in extricating the tree from its site. A
piece of matting is then placed above the crown of the root, to

58 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

prevent the bark being frayed, and a man, facing the direction in
which the tree has to be moved, and behind the tree, takes a strong
hempen rope in its middle, passes it over the protected stem, and
drawing each end towards him, crosses the ball diagonally, and
carries each rope, with a half-hitch, over the stage of cross-planks,
and delivers an end of the rope to men on either side, who are
awaiting it on the further side of the tree. These men, 10 to 20
in number, take the two ends of the rope and are ready to start.
Planks are, meanwhile, laid from those under the tree to the required
distance, care being taken that each succeeding plank-end is placed,
for a distance of six inches, under the preceding one. These planks
are then wetted and, if the way is uphill, smeared with clay. Two
men hold guide-ropes to steady the tree, and the men on each rope
drag it to the required spot without difficulty. If there are several
trees to be removed, having a stem-diameter of 6 in., with a
ball weighing about a ton, it is easier to move them on a made
sledge, instead of the cross-planks ; but the general operation is
the same. The ground under the new planting site must always
be broken up, and on the arrival of the tree, after the matting
has been removed, the fibrous roots should be spread out, the tree
regulated as to its best side and to its perpendicularity ; and it
should then be well packed with rammed soil, and the ground well
filled in to the new surface. If many roots have been removed,
the tree must be reduced proportionately. As a rule, it has been
found wise to reduce the leaf area from one-fourth to one-third.
Branches should be cut where there is another ready to serve as
a leader in the place of the reduced limb.

It would only be misleading to compile a list of plants suitable
for stocking any and every garden, as each district varies in respect
of its soil, subsoil, climatic influences, nearness to the sea, nearness
to a town, its sheltered or exposed situation, and its latitude. Such

PLANTING. 59

conditions must be duly considered in working out the general
planting arrangement of each place, independently of the grouping
for effect. Nevertheless, it may be found useful to have a list of
trees and shrubs suitable for special districts, and the plants, of
which lists are given, are those that will grow, if not thrive, in

(a) . — Shade, or can be used for undergrowth.

(b) . — Chalky soil.

(c) . — Peaty soil.

(d) . — Exposed situations, or near the sea.

(e) . — Smoky districts, or those in the neighbourhood of towns.

(a) . — Aucuba Japonica, Berberis aquifolia, Bramble, Broom, Box,
Butcher's Broom, Cotoneaster Simonsii, English Yew, Evergreen
Privet, Elder, Holly, Portugal Laurel, Rhododendron ponticum,
Phillyrea, Savin, Scarlet Dogwood, Snowberry, St. John's Wort,
Skimmia oblata, Thuja Wareana, Vinca, Abies pectinata, Abies alba,
Abies Canadensis, Abies nigra, Pinus pumilio, Cephalotaxus Fortunei,
Black Thorn, Hornbeam, etc.

(b) . — Privets in variety, Elder, common, black, and golden, Veronica
Traversii, Currants in variety, Leycesteria formosa, Buddlea globosa,
Berberis aquifolia, Box in variety. Laurel, both Caucasica and rotundi-
folia, Dogwood in variety, Coronilla emerus, Cotoneaster Simonsii,
Thorns in variety, Pinus Austriaca, Pinus nobilis, Daphne pontica
and mezereum, Beech in variety, Yew in variety, Hibiscus Syriacus,
St. John's Wort, Hollies in variety, Poplars, Primus Pissardi, Service
tree, Symphoricarpus racemosus, Larch, Guelder rose, Periwinkle, etc.

(c) . — -Rhododendron, viz. named varieties, seedling varieties of
R. Catawbiense, dwarf varieties, e.g. R. Wilsoni, hirsutum, ferrugi-
neum, myrtifolium, ovatum, and R. ponticum, Kalmia, Andromeda,
Azaleas, both Ghent and pontica, Heaths, Gaultheria, Ledum, Men-
ziesia, Epigoea, American Cranberry, Pernettya, Polygala, Rhodora
Canadensis, Vaccinium, White Cedar, Willow, Birch, Hemlock Spruce.

6o THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

(d) . — Pinus Austi'iaca, P. maritima, P. cembra, P. insignis, P.
pinaster, P. pinaster minor, P. pumilio, P. pumilio uncinatus, Abies
Cephalonica, Abies Hookeriana, Cornish Elm, Wych Elm, Poplars,
Sycamore, Evergreen Oak, Thujopsis borealis, Thujopsis dolabrata,
Cupressus macrocarpa, Aucuba, Escallonia macrantha, Box, English
Yew, Holly, Double Furze, Sea Buckthorn, Juniperus Virginiana,
Euonymus, Phillyrea, White and Spanish Broom, Groundsel tree,
Bay tree, Berberis, Rhamnus alaternus, Privet, Laurustinus, Buddlea,
Spiraea, Currants, Scorpion Senna.

(e) . — Ash, Austrian Pine, Birch, Almond, Service tree, Horse
Chestnut, Plane, Sycamore, Siberian Crab, Laburnum, Tulip tree,
Thorns, Poplar, Willow, Aucuba, Andromeda, Azalea, Berberis aqui-
folia and Darwinii, Box, Broom, Cotoneaster Simonsii, Deutzia,

Dogwood, Elder, Euonymus, Guelder rose, Hibiscus Syriacus, Hollies,
green and Hodgins', Kalmia, Lilac, Laurustinus, Leycesteria formosa,
Philadelpkus, Privet, evergreen, oval-leaved, and Japanese, Pernettya,
Rhododendron, Ribes, Sumach, St. John's Wort, Vinca, Weigela,
Wayfaring tree, Ivies, etc.

/

WATER.

Of all beautiful features in a landscape, none is more attractive than
water ; whether seen from afar, or contemplated near ; in the form of a
running, dimpled stream, or of a broad expanse reflecting the sky and
nearer objects on its placid surface ; when it spreads under the burning
sunlight, when it glitters in the cool moonlight, or when it pulses
and beats the shore, under a wind that bends the plants and trees
on its margin all one way. Its beauty has a fascination of its own.
A river has almost a personality in its district. When our steps
wander, they soon tend to the river or the lake, and on the margin
we seem to come near a friend. Wherever it is possible, and is
fitting to do so, this means of beauty must be conserved and used
by the landscape gardener.

A stream, or other water feature, has relation to the surrounding
land, and its expressive character. A brawling brook, a rushing
stream, leaping over a rocky bed, and foaming over rocky barriers,
or sweeping between them, does not naturally occur in champaign
country, and if artificially created there, is ridiculously unfit, as
incongruous as would be any misplaced artistic feature. Water
adapts itself to its superficial environment, and expresses its beauty
with infinity of conditions. In utilising them, we should imitate the
spirit of beauty in Nature's operations, but not distort her effects.
The placid lake that may be formed on low-lying land, has a beauty

62 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

and fitness there that are equal, in their way, to the charm of a
mountain torrent ; and the fitness to surrounding conditions is the
measure of beauty for both. It would be as utterly wrong to
imitate in a low, flat country the rushing stream that dashes in
cascades over a rocky bottom, as in a mountainous district to work
in simulation of a broad, sleepily-flowing river, which in a level
region, brimming to the grassy verge of the fat meadows through
which it slowly sweeps, is an object of particular charm. Lakes
may, it is true, sometimes be properly formed in high ground, provided
the inclination of the land is wrought to apparently lend itself to such
a formation ; and the question of fitness must be well considered.

The landscape gardener's treatment of a lake or a river differs.
For the former space is necessary, and much of the pleasure de-
rived from the object is due to its outline. This outline is gained
by the arrangement of bays, creeks, and promontories. No figure
perfectly regular should be used, not even a semicircular bay,
which, though beautiful in shape, is not natural. The prevailing
line must be concave. It is indispensable that portions of the lake
and its shore be hidden from the spectator at other points on the
margin. If the lake be large, the end may be turned behind a
wood or a hill, or, failing such natural objects, by interposition of
planting. A vast sheet of water may compel our wonderment, but
the picture none the less is circumscribed, if we are able, to take
cognizance of its features too completely ; our imagination is con-
fused or frustrated. In such circumstances the mind seizes with
avidity and delight on distant but definite objects, such even as a
shore of broken form, or a headland. An artificial lake may be out
of proportion to the size of the estate. If the shore be flat, the
scene may be exceedingly uninteresting. In such case, by raising
opposite banks, by planting trees, or by making constructions, an
effect of proximity may be gained ; for elevation, producing distinct-

M.

i

WATER. 63

ness, gives that result ; a low shore, without trees or other like
features, though it may apparently increase the extent, does so by
the diminution of picturesqueness. In practice, an apparent curved
or bay-like outline may be given to a shore when viewed across a
large sheet of water, by judicious arrangement of planting, and by
irregular height of the banks. The extent of reflecting surface
should be in proportion to the extent of the visible surrounding
ground. If there seem to be too great a surface of water, and the
outlying ground be flat, portions of the distant bank may be raised
and planted ; then the effect will be to give proximity to such
objects, and to proportionally lessen in appearance the abundant
expanse of water. Large trees on the opposite shore of a lake
diminish in degree the apparent extent of the water. It is unwise
to allow any shore, viewed across an expanse of water, large or con-
tracted, to be fringed with trees, because they create a gloomy
impression. If for no other consideration than that of admitting
light, with its effect of freshness, an unbroken fringe of trees should
not be maintained. In such case, the removal of some in particular
situations, with a coincident lowering of the bank, will give an effect
of lengthening the water area. Promontories or projecting points
should be raised above the surrounding level. In forming a bay,
not only should the ground be taken out where the water-line
is formed, but the rising ground inland should be hollowed, and
the surface be given a concave form, gradually diminishing in
extent as it touches the water edge. Views from the house, or from
settled points, should be directed toward the bays, not only because
they give the largest prospect of water surface, or because of the
lower pitch of the intervening ground, but because a bay suggests,
with more or less appositeness, the idea that here was the line of
torrent at the supposed natural formation of the lake, where the land
was by such means denuded of trees. Lakes should be made to

64 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

appear as the remainder and result of such a rush of water ; the
shores and surroundings should all bear the expression of having
been moulded and modified by water action.

Islands serve to give variety to the outline of a lake ; they can
be used to mask the ends, and when they are made by high ground
being left, a vast amount of excavation is saved. An island should
not be placed in the centre of a bay, but to one side of it ; and
there should never be fewer than sixteen feet of water between any
point of an island and the mainland. If a bridge be constructed
from the mainland to an island, it should be at the narrowest point,
and at right angles to the shore. When the surrounding land
surface is undulated, water may enter a lake at its highest point by
a waterfall or cascade, and the outfall may also be formed to rush
over a ledge or brawl over a rocky bottom. There is an expression
of propriety when water enters a lake by river-like means, and
when it comes by a slight cascade, or a series of rapids, into the
placid surface. The verge of water, where planting does not occur,
should be turfed to 6 in. below the water-line. The slope of
the sides immediately below the water-level should be as steep as
i to i, so that, in the event of the water falling, there may not be
a stretch of muddy foreshore laid bare. Water should never be
less than 3 ft. deep, as with less depth than this evaporation takes
place with undue rapidity, the bottom becomes heated by the sun's
rays, and vegetation is inconveniently stimulated. Single trees of
pendulous habit may be planted on the turf, to hang over the
water.

The practical work in making a lake must be well directed and
thoughtfully planned, or vast labour may be wasted. When the
natural soil on the site is not water-holding, or when the level of
the water is to come above the line of water-holding stratum, arti-
ficial means must be used to prevent unintended escape of the water

WATER. 65

by percolation. Even on strong clay lands there are generally at
least 6 in. of surface-soil, which is more or less porous. Lakes
may be made water-holding by use of either cement or " puddle."
If the soil be sandy or gravelly, and no clay is available, and above
all, if a solid foundation can be found, then concrete may be used.
It should be deposited not less than 12 in. thick on the bottom and
18 in. at the sides, and should be composed by mixture of 1 part
of hydraulic lime with 4 parts of broken stone and sand, or 1 part
of Portland cement with 6 parts of broken stone and sand. This
is to be floated with a layer 1 in. in thickness of cement. Before
the concrete is laid, the natural bottom must be worked solid and
firm. The result is disappointing if the deposit be made on filled-
up ground, or on that which is liable to slip, or is otherwise unstable.
When puddle is used, many of the same conditions must be created ;
but there are two ways of using this material. It is made by obtaining
clay, then cutting it and cross-cutting it, pouring water on it, and
working it in a mortar-mill, or by treading, till it is plastic. The
first way of applying the material is this : The ground being excavated
to the required depth, allowing for the puddle that is to be deposited,
the puddle should be laid not less than 1 ft. thick on the bottom
and 18 in. on the sides. As it is laid, it must be well trodden and
rammed till the formation is complete and as homogeneous as possible.
The second method is more satisfactory, where it is available, and
that is when a bed or substratum of water-holding clay underlies the
surface at a moderate depth. The whole lake can then be made
water-holding by means of puddle-gutters {see Plan, fig. A). Such
gutters should be based on the water-holding stratum reached by
cutting through the overlying soil. From that base must be con-
structed the puddle-gutter, or contained wall of puddle, to the height
of at least 1 ft. above the projected water-level. The gutter should
be in no part less than 18 in. thick, and should increase in thickness

K

66 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

in the proportion of i in 6 as it descends. The plastic clay should
be carefully rammed. It may be necessary in some cases to
form such a puddle-gutter all round a lake, but in falling ground
only at the lower end, so as to prevent water escape. Some lakes
may be formed by utilising a natural gully, and throwing a strong
dam across its lower end. Then it is necessary to construct a well-
made and well-based puddle-gutter in the dam. and the clay wall
being amply supported by earth, the surface of the dam may be
treated for picturesque effect by planting or other means. The puddle-
gutter of a dam is best placed in the centre, and the dam itself
should be built up in layers, each one being well rammed and con-
solidated. It should not have a width less than 3 ft. plus the square
of the depth, with slopes on the inside of 2 to 1, and on the outside
of r/3 to 1. It is well to cover the sides of a lake with gravel,
especially during the period of the entry of water, or where there
is danger of a wash. In large lakes of considerable depth, and in
reservoirs, the inner slope should be pitched to prevent wash, and
the water-level should be fully 3 ft. below the top of the em-
bankment. When water enters from a pipe or from any point
above the lake-level, the sides below the inlet should be paved :
that is, an apron 4 to 6 ft. wide should be laid down the
slope. Both the overflow and the emptying pipe, where practicable,
should be preferably built in the solid ground. A type of over-
flow is shown (see Plan, Jig. E). A grating to prevent the escape
of fish or leaves and rubbish through this overflow should be placed
at a short distance down the slope, so that it may not be choked
by accumulation of leaves, etc. ; as they float at the surface of the
water, which rises beneath any such accumulation, and so the desired
level is maintained. In lakes receiving the drainage of large areas,
a storm overflow should be provided ; it may consist of a paved
duct or channel, formed 3 or 4 in. above the level of the normal

WATER. 67

overflow. When forming a lake, the operator should bear in mind
the practicability of introducing either a hydraulic ram or a turbine,
where the useful work it can do may be needed. For example,
a stream that fills a 3- in. pipe with a fall of 6 ft. will force the
delivery of 2,000 gallons of water daily to a point 100 ft. above the
water-level.

A lake may be made in two levels, that are separated by a weir,
which should be constructed at some comparatively narrow place,
over which a bridge can be thrown ; or a cascade can be made at
such point ; or the bridge may be placed where a short river joins
the broader lake area.

In commencing the excavation for a lake, all the soil should
first be removed from the area and be stored in a convenient posi-
tion for use ; or be used at once, in position, to form plantations
connected with the lake. Such soil, so utilised, has not only its
own inherent value, but will give a luxuriant vegetation more
quickly than poorer soil, or soil of lesser depth ; an advantage, in
the special circumstances, often of particular usefulness.

Storage of the water, and maintenance of the proper level, are
important considerations. The average evaporation from a water
surface amounts to about }i in. per day, or about 30 in. in the
year. It is greater from shallow than from deep water, and
naturally more in summer than in winter ; it is greater from running
than from still water.

The mean total annual rainfall in the London district is about
26 in. Heavy rain, falling for 24 hours, yields about 1 in. to the
depth ; but occasionally rain falls that gives 3 in. of depth in 1 hour.
On an average, about three-fifths of the rainfall is available for storage.
It will thus be seen that an extraneous water supply is desirable for
adjustment of the normal level. A method of approximately ascer-
taining the quantity of water available from a flowing stream is

68 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

this : Select some part of it where the cross section is for a given
distance constant. Find the area of this cross section in square
feet. Prepare a float, and start it from the upper end of the
measured space. Count the number of seconds this float occupies
in passing the given distance ; then multiply the number of square
feet by the observed mean velocity in feet per second, and you will
obtain the discharge in cubic feet per second. To find the area of
a pipe, or a channel-way, or the mean velocity, or the quantity dis-
charged (according to Trautwine) when the other two are given :

Area in discharge in cubic feet per second

square feet mean velocity in feet per second.

Mean velocity discharge in cubic feet per second

in feet per second area in square feet.

Discharge in cubic feet mean velocity area of cross section

per second in feet per second of pipe or channel in square feet.

These formulae apply to openings in the" sides of vessels, to
rivers, and to all other channels, as well as to pipes. According
to Hawksley, the formula for the delivery of water in pipes when —

G Number of gallons delivered per hour.

L Length of pipe in yards.

H Head of water in feet.

D Diameter of pipe in inches.

D

The theoretical velocity in feet per second is 8'025\/Head of

water in feet.

A running spring or a stream delivers about as much water
as a pipe having the same area would discharge without extra
pressure, and it is worth while to note that a

WATER.

69

1 in. pipe discharges 3 gallons per minute.

4 „
6 .,

9 »
12 „
18 „

16

5°
112

283
778
x,6oo
4,400

In the treatment of a river, everything that conduces to the
expression of movement may characterise it, whereas placidity, and
the beauty of rest, and finality of boisterous action dignifies a lake.
The shores of a lake are circuitous ; the banks of a river are nearly
parallel. Where one bank retires, the other, if it does not advance,
should at least continue its direction, though the water may be
widened to admit of an island being formed, or where there occurs
a confluent stream. In nature we generally see at a river-bend
some raised ground that has resisted the rush or wearing action of
the stream, and so has diverted its course. In such a place the
stream is generally wider, and the opposite bank washed low.
There should not be bays in the regular line of a river. It is
equally an expression of artificial resource, offensively conspicuous,
to make the line straight or canal-like. The endiner of a river
scene should be hidden, like parts of a lake should be. Bridges
may, of course, be introduced for utility ; but they may also be
contrived to excite the impression of length and extent of the water-
way, by conveying an impression of the impossibility of going
round or of crossing by other means. It is well so to arrange a
bridge that light may be seen beneath it.

FOUNTAINS.

The beautiful forms taken by ejected water, rising in a stately
column, and falling in glittering spray, have a charm of their own that
sometimes is in the nature of a fascination, exercised not only by
the water forms, but appealing to another sense by the melody of
rippling sound. The arrangement is almost purely artificial, and
the resource is most consonant with those parts of the garden
where nature is most directly tutored and linked with the direct
evidences of art. There is great opportunity for variety in design
and application of the beauty of water forms.

Fountain basins differ essentially in their construction from lakes.
A regular form or artistic outline must be given to them, dependent,
it is true, on their position relatively to the house, or to the
surrounding ground, but signalised by its artificial character. The
outline is marked by a stone coping, which should possess archi-
tectural appropriateness to the neighbouring constructions. If the
ground be solid, a brick wall carrying the coping may be built to
a suitable depth, as at the Crystal Palace ; and the bottom of the
basin may be puddled. For small fountains it is usual to form
concrete basins, resting against a surrounding wall of brick, on which
the coping or kerb is imposed. The inside of such basins should
slope from the margin at such an angle that when ice is formed,
as it rises and expands, it may find sufficient room and no damage

FOUNTAINS.

7'

ensue. Generally it is desirable to keep the edging not more than
i ft. above the ground level ; but the coping may be made as high
as 3 ft., if arranged to be consonant with a particular design. On
the parterre in front of the Palace of Count Festetics at Keszthely,
in Hungary, the fountain basins are raised 3 ft. above the general
level, and from each basin radiate walks to similar stone basins made
to contain plants. The effect is good. The drawing {see Plan,
jigs. C to H) presents examples of fountain basins in various styles.

The height to which a jet of water will rise depends on the
force derived from the pressure coming from a head of water placed
in a higher position, the vertical height of the surface of such supply
giving the measure of force to which the jet of water, if directly
connected with the supply, will rise ; but the height of the jet is also
ruled by the size and shape of the nozzle, etc. The height of a jet
is not so great as that of the head, owing to the resistance of the
air ; and the difference between the head and the height to which
the jet rises, increases with the absolute height of the jet nearly
in the ratio of the square of the head, and diminishes with an
increase in the diameter nearly in the inverse ratio to the diameter
of the jet. For instance, with 80 ft. head, and with a jet of 1 in.
diameter, the loss would be about 10 ft., and the height of the jet
70 ft. ; but with a in. jet the loss would be about 40 ft., and
thus the height attained 40 ft. Mr. T. Box is my authority for these

statements, and he has worked out the following formula for the

H2

height of jets with different heads: //= -j- x '0125, in which H = the
head on the jet in feet, /i the difference between the height of head and
height of jet, d the diameter of jet in eighths of an inch. Experiments
also show that with excessive heads an enormous loss takes place.
The quantity of water discharged will vary considerably with the
form of nozzle. Assuming this is of good form, it may be found by
the following rule (Box): G = \/W .xd2* "24, in which H = the head

7-- THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

of water on the jet in feet, d the diameter in eighths of an inch, G the
gallons discharged per minute. Thus, with 80 ft. head and % in. jet,
the discharge is 8*58 gallons per minute ; with y> in. jet, 34/3 ; and
with 1 in. jet, 137 gallons per minute.

Not only do fountain basins admit of varied formation, but the
arrangement of the water display in elevation can be made to assume
ornamental forms. The water forms should accord with the art.
character of the basin. A single jet can only fitly spring from a
circular or regular figure ; while a combination of jets requires to
rise from a surface the outline of which is not only accordant with,
but is calculated to set off the water figures. The author condemns
the practice of allowing jets to arise from a lake, unless, indeed,
that be in form of a basin. A lake should not be made to appear
as if it were artificial, whereas a fountain basin is essentially the
work of man. Moreover, there should be a distinct difference
between an artificial cascade and a natural waterfall. In the former
the water should be made in appearance to descend by steps, whereas
with the latter, it is a main object to make the water come falling
naturally over rock. A sandstone formation lends itself most easily
to the production of this effect, as the rock work can be appropriately
stratified in beds of varying thickness and tint. The rock must not
look like a wall, but the elevation should be recessed ; pockets should
be left for ferns. A " fault " may be made in the strata ; and it is
well in constructing rock work, to inspect and copy some natural
formation of the kind.

t

STRUCTURES.

The word that heads this chapter is intended to refer to a number
of art features that are incidentally introduced into the garden or
the park, such as Seats, Pavilions, Bridges, etc. ; the appropriateness
of which, in their design and for their position, is a consideration of
importance. And besides these there is the question to be treated
of boundary fencing and of divisional fencing, within the limits of
the estate — one of the most difficult details of arrangement in the
whole subject.

The place for a seat should be chosen most carefully, with full
consideration of its aspect, the prospect from its position, and the
influence of its surroundings. The object of raising a seat is for
rest, and so far as the scene can minister to placidity and retire-
ment, it should be made to do so. If the seat be in a pavilion
attached to or near the house, the architectural features of the
structure must be consonant with those of the greater building.
Such architectural seats will almost always be at no great distance
from the house, even when one is placed in an old-fashioned herb
garden. In the landscape garden, where positions with purely-
natural surroundings may be found, the conditions that tempt to rest
and delightful contemplation will most frequently be discovered, and
there the character of the structure should be, almost without variation,
rustic. The first-mentioned seats, temples, or pavilions will be built

L

74 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

of wrought stone or brick ; the rustic seat, when roofed or sheltered,
will be constructed probably of oak or larch posts, with lining of
planed wood or hazel strips. The architectural seats, as expressing
more art, are directly consonant with artificial treatment in the sur-
rounding features ; but the simply rustic seat will be best placed
where nature seems to be least touched by art. In the manufacture
of such seats it is a mistake — none the less because it is common —
to leave the bark on the wood ; and the lining of roofed seats is
too frequently insufficiently permanent. Forethought is valuable in
such cases, and it should be particularly exercised, in regard to the
incidence of wind and dust, in every choice of position. Sometimes
the structure may be yet more elaborated, and may take a chalet
form, as a tea-house, etc., and be worked in pitch pine or other
wood ; but the foregoing remarks as to position and congruous
expression apply with added force. The situation of such a structure
may be more prominent. It may well be placed to overlook a
formal flower garden, a rose garden, or to terminate a straight walk;
or to serve uses near a tennis lawn or other special place.

The design of bridges should be ruled by their apposition to
the surrounding work. If a bridge be connected with a straight
walk or other formal work, it should be of massive construction
with architectural features ; if it occur as part of a winding walk,
crossing a running stream, it is appropriate that it should be given a
picturesque and rustic character. For such a structure peeled oak,
larch, or fir can be well used (see Plate O). One example given in
connection with formal work is that of a bridge over the River
Wye, in the public gardens at Buxton, for the main approach from
the pavilion to the band-stand, and to the gardens generally ; and
the second is a rustic bridge over a narrow arm of the lake at
Keszthely.

Of mere boundary fencing or paling, there is not much to be

STRUCTURES. 75

said here. In the division on Planting some observations are made
as to the proper treatment of this necessary line, and of the trees
that are placed on or near the enclosure. But the intrusion of
fencing for useful purposes — such as the exclusion of cattle or deer
from the garden — within the boundaries of the estate, requires
careful attention. Already, in treating of formation, something has
been said as to the making of the boundary between the garden
proper and the park. There is a difference in quality of tone
between the lawns or trimmed turf of the garden and the pasture
of the park or the fields, that is more or less conspicuous as a line
of demarcation. The coarser grass is apparent, and the effect is
not agreeable. When such a division is close to the eye, that is,
not far from the house, it is preferable to make the difference at
once marked by a boundary of light iron fencing. But when the
landscape, with its features of planting, or distant buildings, cattle
or deer, has to be kept in the entire effect of the picture, artifice
must be used to save the intrusion of a cutting line, distant though
it may be. Though the objects beyond do not belong to the
garden proper, and possibly are not under control of the occupier,
yet they have been made parts of the picture. When the boundary
is sufficiently distant from the sight to make the difference of
colour in the turf not so apparent, though a rigid line of fence
might be noticed ; or when a place is small in extent, and a line
of fencing at right angles to the line of sight would make it appear
smaller still, then a hidden fence may be properly used. The
ordinary devices that may be employed are : a sunken wall, to the
summit of which the ground should be made. The wall should
be not less than 4 ft. high, and there should be a level space at
its foot of not less than 4 ft. The slope of the ground beyond it
should be not less than 2:1; or a bank can be raised on the inner
side of the wall to about a foot above its level. This bank should

76 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

be turfed, and the eye will then be carried over the wall, hedge,
or other intervening object to the prospect beyond (see Jigs. I and E).
The line may be broken by raising the ground in places, by groups
of planting which may be made to extend outside the division
in corresponding positions, and single plants may be employed.
Frequently fencing is required round artificial lakes. In such cases
approaches to the water for cattle drinking must be provided. As a
general rule it is better to make artificial drinking places supplied
from the lake, but apart from it, so that cattle may not come to trample
and damage the edges. Boat-houses are readily made picturesque
features in the landscape. They can be constructed on brick
foundations in wrought wood, varnished or painted. The roof should
be tiled. In more pretentious structures space can be allowed for
a tea-room ; but in any case it is well to provide space in the roof
for the stowage of sails, sculls, ropes, etc. {see Plate R). The
entrance to a boat-house can be from the back or at the side. There
should be platforms not less than 3 ft. wide on two sides of the
interior for embarking or landing ; and it is well to make provision
for slinging the boats in winter to the main beams.

HOTHOUSES.

Two descriptions of glass-houses are commonly used ; one being
for the display of plants, the other for their growth. The usual
name for the first is the conservatory, while those in the second
category are denoted by names signifying the particular use for
which each house is designated. Many palms, tree ferns, camellias, etc.,
usually seen in a conservatory and forming a great attraction,
are tall -growing plants, and require a high roof for their display
and well-doing; whilst fine-foliaged and rapidly growing plants
generally, require the roof to be low, so that they may be near the
glass. We have thus two requirements. The large and permanent
plants thrive best and look best when planted in beds where they
may have an even temperature and moisture to their roots, and
where they may have ample space to grow upwards and spread.
The foliage and choice flowering plants, not usually permanent, are
generally in pots arranged on stages. There results a type of
building having a central part with a high roof, and adjacent
divisions with as low a roof as is consistent with comfort and good
appearance. Conservatories are something more than plant-houses,
and must be spacious in order to provide room for walking and
lounging. We must then consider the conservatory as an adjunct
of the dwelling-house, designed for the showing, under good and
pleasant conditions, those plants placed there permanently and

78 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

those which are being continuously brought there from the growing-
houses, such plants being renewed from time to time as required.
Seeing, then, that the conservatory is an adjunct of the dwelling-
house, and frequently built next to it, it is advisable that the same
feeling pervading the design of the house should influence the
architectural treatment of the glass structure. If, however, the con-
servatory is to be anything more than a mere flower-room, it must
not be an architectural " feature," having high sides and steep roof,
with brick or stone mullions, and an elaborate parapet intended to
hide the glass roof — which it frequently does so effectually that it
deprives the plants of all light. A conservatory may be treated
after this manner only when it is small and unimportant, and when
it may be considered as a vestibule or loggia, in which plants are
placed. But if the structure is intended to be something more than
this, it should, while taking a distinct place in the general composition,
and conforming to the architectural character of the house, yet, by
its very nature, have a distinctive appearance, and proclaim its object
without pretence. Care in the arrangement of the base, the outline
of the sashes, the pediment, the entablature, and the mouldings will,
without injuring its distinctive features, give the conservatory
sufficient connection with the main building to remove all appearance
of an excrescence. It is desirable, if possible, to have an ante-
chamber or corridor between a living-room and a conservatory, as
the damp air of the latter will, unless modified and controlled by
an intermediate space, deleteriously affect the air of the former.

A conservatory is usually constructed two or three steps above
the terrace-level, and, as the stages inside are generally lower than
those of a greenhouse, we have, outside, a 3 ft. or ft- Dase °f
stone or brick, thus leaving, inside, 2 ft. or ft. from . floor to
stage. The staging may be of stone or terra cotta, as well for the
horizontal plant-rest as for the vertical ornamental perforated filling

HOTHOUSES. 79

to support the stage and hide the pipes ; or it may have a slate plant-
rest with iron supports ; or it may have wooden laths with half-inch
spaces between, on which to stand the plants, with upright wooden
supports and lattice work. The height of the cornice or springing
of the roof should be about n ft., with a transom i ft. 6 in. or 2 ft.
below this, allowing an upper light to open for ventilation. The
pitch of the roof is preferably 300, as this angle makes the roof
half a hexagon, and so facilitates the use of a semicircular rib
as a principal, should the design require such construction, and it
is also desirable to have an upper part or lantern with lights
opening for ventilation. Ventilation should be also given at the
bottom by allowing the outside air to pass over the pipes directly
through gratings built in the base of the house, or, better still, by
taking the outside air through an opening into a channel running
inside the pipes, and allowing the air to pass through to the
pipes by regular openings. No horizontal sash-bars should be
fixed at the height of 5 ft. or 51/, ft. from the floor-line, as the line
of sight is thereby cut. The floor of a conservatory can be made
with marble mosaic pavement, or with tiles of subdued colours.
Bright greens and reds should be specially avoided. Pipes below
the floor should be covered with a perforated brass grating, or,
if expense be much considered, by an iron one, care being taken
that the pattern be sufficiently small to prevent the heels of ladies'
boots being caught in it. Assuming a stage to be placed next the glass
sides, the centre may have a tiered stage ; but the space is preferably
occupied by a bed surrounded by marble or stone edging. There
must be a drain-pipe from the bottom of such a bed. It is very
desirable to have space not only for the walk, which should not be
less than 4 ft. wide, but also for chairs, tables, statuary, etc. The back
wall can be built plainly, or, as at Hitherwood, of alabaster, and treated
ornamentally with water pouring from a lion's head into a shell

8o THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

basin ; or it can have a border next it, and be wired for the growth
of climbing plants ; or it can be recessed and lined with tufa,
with pockets of soil for ferns, etc. ; or space may be arranged for
a fountain basin, or for water dripping from the rockwork into a
pool. It is well to avoid as much as possible the employment of
iron in continuous lengths, and the rafters should be moulded with
drips to take away any superfluous moisture. The heating apparatus
can be placed under part of the conservatory, or in an adjacent
building, or, if near, the heating can be connected with that of the
growing-houses. The general details of construction and heating
given for hothouses later on, apply also to conservatory work.

Growing-houses are built for utility rather than for show ; and
therefore it is desirable to construct them with the view of obtaining
best results for the well-doing of the plants. A great deal might
be written about the best pitch for the roof, or the angle which is
made between the roof and a horizontal line drawn from the lowest
point of it. The sun's rays naturally strike the glass with greatest
intensity when it is placed at right angles to them ; but if the sun's
rays strike the glass at any angle between 6o° and 900, only about
2*/2 per cent, is lost, so we have practically a range of 30° on each side
of the perpendicular. The angle at which the sun's rays strike a sur-
face in the same latitude varies considerably in summer and winter.
In summer the angle of the sun's maximum altitude here is 62°, and
in the winter it is 15°. In addition, it is well to remember that
the difference in the length of a sunlight day in midsummer and in
midwinter is 1 7 hours as against 7 hours. The higher the latitude, the
greater should be the pitch of roof ; thus for latitude 50°, the pitch
would be 36°, and for latitude 6o°, 460. In growing-houses, however,
sunlight is not the all-important question. It is desirable that
plants should be as near the glass as possible. A pitch that is
constructionally good, viz., 260 or 6" in the foot is a very good

HOTHOUSES. 3,

inclination. By making a low pitch, the hot air is more evenly dis-
tributed. In houses having a high pitch, the hot air accumulates at
the top of the house, and as the tendency of plants is for the sap
to flow to the spot where the greatest heat exists, the lower portions
of such plants will suffer.

These glass buildings may be divided into two classes, viz., the
lean-to houses and the span-roof houses. The former are mostly
used for vineries and peach-houses, and are the most economical ;
the latter are generally used for stoves, forcing-houses, pits, etc.
Various examples are given, showing the different combinations
alluded to. {See Plan O.) Wood alone is preferable to iron in such
constructions, but a combination of iron and wood is advantageous.
The plates, sills, mullions, rafters, and posts should be constructed of
wood ; but purlins, strengthening tie-rods, bars, brackets, etc., may be
made of iron.

The houses should be built of best yellow or red deal with oaken
sills. This woodwork should be well seasoned, free from defects,
and painted two coats before being fixed, and two after. All joints,
tenons, mortises, should be primed before fixing. Plate glass is
preferable for front lights of a conservatory. The glass for growing-
houses should be best 21 oz. English sheet. The front lights and
the roof lights should be opened by lever simultaneous opening gear.
This gear is constructed by running, through small bearings fixed to
each mullion, a rod, to which are fixed at proper intervals the ends
of elbow joints ; the other ends being attached to the bottom rails
of the lights. When the rod is caused to revolve, the whole of the
elbow joints are straightened and the sashes thus opened. In con-
servatory work, sometimes the vertical sashes are hung from the
top, and sometimes at the sides. They are opened by set-opens,
which are brass or iron arms, having holes, which are dropped on to
vertical pins. Fresh air should be made to enter as near the

82 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

bottom as possible, and pass out as near the top as may be. In
vineries the roots of the vines may be allowed to grow on the
inside or the outside of the houses. As a rule, the front walls of
vineries and peach-houses are. built on arches, so that the roots
may spread in every direction. The greatest care must be taken in
the formation of a vine border. It is well to lay a pavement,
about 4 ft. beneath the surface, of rough material, and from this
take pipes, so that the stratum may be perfectly drained ; then, on
this foundation to fill in a mixture composed of best top spit loam,
of Tj, m- hones, and of soot. The paths inside vineries and peach-
houses are best made of perforated iron. In stoves and growing-
houses make the footways of concrete floated with cement, or of tiles
laid in cement. On falling ground, ranges of hothouses should be
built vertically, and stepped when required ; though the path inside
should be made on the slope, and steps between the houses avoided.

The temperature of hothouses is best attained by employing a
low-pressure hot water apparatus. Its operation is based on the
fact that water is at its greatest density and minimum volume at
39 '2 Fahrenheit. When the temperature is raised above this point,
the volume of water increases and the density decreases ; so that
if we allow a given quantity of hot or cold water to intermingle,
the result of difference in the respective specific gravities will be
that the superheated water will expand and rise, propelling the
colder water, that, having given off its heat, returns to the boiler.
And so two columns of water are employed ; one is maintained
hotter than the other, whilst communication is kept between them,
and circulation by displacement is continually going forward. In a
boiler there are two openings, the one at the top and the other at
the bottom. From the upper opening a pipe is taken, which returns
after a certain distance to the opening in the bottom of the boiler.
From this point another pipe is led, communicating with a water

I

HOTHOUSES. 83

supply cistern. Assuming now that the boiler and pipes are filled
from the supply cistern, which should always be left open, and fire
is applied to the boiler, the heated water in it rises, and passing
by the opening at the top, through the pipes, becomes cold,
and enters the boiler again at the bottom, to be again heated and
passed through the pipes. Air or vent tubes are fixed at the
highest ends of all pipes, so as to prevent the accumulation of air
in them. By hot-water pipes glass-houses are heated, and the heat
is diffused by radiation from the pipe surface. Pipes are generally

3 in., 4 in., or 6 in. in diameter. In ordinary greenhouse work

4 in. pipes are used for both mains and heating pipes. For long
distances 6 in. pipes are required for greenhouses. The connection
from the boiler to the heating pipes may be by 3 in. or even 2 in.
pipes. When speaking of heating pipes, 4 in. diameter is generally-
understood. According to Fawkes, the length of 4 in. pipe required
for 1,000 cubic feet of actual atmospheric contents is:

Greenhouses, conservatories, etc. . 35 to 40 ft.

Vineries . . . . . 45 to 55 „

Plant stoves . . . . . 55 to 65 „

Forcing-houses, etc. . . . 60 to 70 ,,

The boiler house and boiler should be placed, in small ranges, at
the end, and in very long ranges towards the middle, of the houses.
Mains from the boiler should run at a minimum inclination of z/z in. per
9 ft.; but the greater difference we have in the temperature between
the incoming and outgoing water the shorter may be the column of
water to produce circulation, and the higher the column the longer
may be the length of pipe. The main should be kept in trenches
to prevent radiation, and the pipes for heating the different houses
should be taken from the mains at the different points and conducted
where required. The heating pipes, once they rise from the mains,
should never^be allowed to dip. If the pipes must be above the floor-

84 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

line, and there are doorways, a fresh set of pipes should be arranged
between the doorways, otherwise the pipes should be placed below
the floor-line in a trench and covered by a grating when necessary.
Each house should have its own system of heating controlled by
valves from the main. The water should be able to rise to the
highest point of the heating pipes as soon as possible, and will thus
have less opportunity to cool. Pipes are generally in 9 ft. lengths,
with either flange ends, or spigot and socket ends. The first-named
are made tight with vulcanised indiarubber joints between the flanges,
which are bolted together. For the latter the best joint in under-
ground work is the rust joint, wherein the space between socket
and spigot is caulked with rope, and sealed with a mixture of damp
iron filings and sal ammoniac. Above the ground the joints may be
made tight by indiarubber rings. Boilers vary much, according to
different makers. There are very good ones which are most suitable
to the class of work for which they are required. The most
effective boiler is that which has a large surface horizontally above
the flame ; vertical surfaces above the flame are reckoned to have
half the efficiency of the horizontal surface. Horizontal surfaces
below the flame are not valued at all. Every square foot of
effective heating surface is reckoned to heat 40 ft. of 4 in. pipe.
Coke is the best and most economical heating material. If wood
be used, a large grate area is necessary. Clean rain water should
always be used for the boilers. It is advisable in a large range to
have two boilers, connected or disconnected at will, each one capable
of heating the range. It is more economical to have an excess of
boiler power and piping than is theoretically required, and to work
at a low pressure, than to work a smaller system at a high
pressure. Water expands in the boiler about one-thirtieth of its bulk,
so the supply cistern should be fixed a slight distance above the
level of the highest point of the system and connected with the

HOTHOUSES. S5

return pipe near the boiler. The water when cold should always
cover the bottom of the cistern i in., and as this disappears by
evaporation, fresh water should be added. A hundred feet of 4 in.
pipes contain 54'/3 gallons.

Two ranges of hothouses are shown on Plate O. The one is
at Peverey, near Shrewsbury ; the other, at Gisselfeld, Denmark.
On reference to the former, it will be noticed that there is a rancje
nearly 300 ft. long, consisting chiefly of lean-to houses placed
against the southern side of the north boundary wall of the kitchen
garden, with offices, etc., at the back. Beqannino- at the west end
is a projecting span-roof stove, A, with central pit for stove plants,
and a stage all round, and hanging shelf from roof. Under the
stage are six rows of 4 in. pipes, and under the perforated slate
bed of central pit are two rows of 3 in. pipes next the wall. Then
follow three pits, B and C, for melons, cucumbers, peas, etc. The
heating is given by four rows of 4 in. pipes placed next the pit
wall next path, and bottom heat is provided by a flow and return pipe
under the pit. The roof of these pits is wired, and a shelf fixed
against the back wall. These pits are 9 ft. wide, and in front of them
are low frame pits heated by a flow and return 4 in. pipe. The
lights of these last named are movable. Then follows an early
peach house, G, 16 ft. wide, in which a trellis frame is arranged
parallel with the glass and stopping at the path, against which, and
the wired back wall, peach trees are planted. The heating consists
of two 4 in. pipes between the trellis frame and the outside
brickwork, with eight rows of pipes arranged in fours between the
trellis frame and the path. Next comes an early vinery, H, 16 ft.
wide, having a length of rafters of 18 ft., the heating being provided
by eight rows of 4 in. pipes arranged in fours. Then is reached the
span-roof plant house, J, forming the centre of the range. There
are stages next the wall, but the centre is clear for the storage

86 THE ART AND PRACTICE OE LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

and display of the larger foliage plants. Next follow a late vinery,
K, and a muscat house, L, each 16 ft. wide, each heated by six
rows of 4 in. pipes, of which four are 2 ft. from the front and two
of them the same distance from the path. The roofs are wired,
and shelving is fixed against back wall. A late peach house, M,
also 16 ft. wide, succeed, with trellis frame as before described. The
heating consists of eight rows of 4 in. pipes, two rows next the
outside wall, a group of four rows inside trellis frame, and two rows
next the path. We now come to a propagating greenhouse, 9 ft. wide,
with stage heated by a flow and return pipe under same, with shelf
against back wall, with a frame pit, O, 5 ft. wide, in front, similar
to those previously described. P is a span-roof house, with central
stepped stage, with tank under the stages next the walls, and hang-
ing shelf. It is heated by four rows of 4 in. pipes under the
outside stages. The heating is provided by two low-pressure boilers
fixed in boiler house, each capable of heating 3,500 ft. of 4 in. pipe,
and so arranged that they can be worked independently or coupled.

There is a main flow and return pipe laid under the perforated
iron pathway running the whole length of the houses, from which
pipes, controlled by separate valves, are taken to the several
divisional houses. All water gathered from the roof is conducted
to either the tank fixed under the greenhouse, P, stage, or to an
open tank built at back, O ; and pumps connected by lead piping
with these tanks are fixed in each house. The front brick walls
of the vineries and peach houses are built on arches, so that the
roots may penetrate on either side. The front upright lights open
and shut by simultaneous opening gear, as also the top ventilating
lights, which are 2 ft. 6 in. long, in the roof. At the back are to
be seen an open tank, Q, with roof over and enclosed by iron
railing, and, as already referred to, a mushroom house, with slate
shelves resting on brick supports, and heated by a flow and return

HOTHOUSES. 87

pipe, with light and shutter in roof ; the fuel store, S ; the boiler
house, T, necessarily 9 ft. below the ground-line ; the potting shed, U,
with entrance also from the plant house, J, and fitted with bench, pot
rack, bars, etc. ; a fitted office and seed room, V, from which is
entered the fruit room, W, with stages and grape bottle rests on
each side of a central path, having a 4 in. flow and return. There
are "hit and miss" ventilators next the ground-line, and a large
ventilating shaft in the roof. The walls are built hollow, that is, there
is a 214 in. span between the brickwork, and there is a large light
and shutter in roof. Then follow sleeping and mess rooms, X and Y.

In the second example we have a main range of lean-to hot-
houses 150 ft. long, with five span-roof pits in front, each 40 ft.
long, and an orchard house behind, 150 ft. long. The main range
embraces an early vinery, A, a muscat vinery, B, an early peach
house, C, a late peach house, D, and a late vinery, E, with, at back,
a boiler house, F, a fuel store, G, a potting shed, H, an office and
seed room, J, a fruit room, K, a mushroom house, L, and an open
shed, M ; O and P are two stove pits ; Q and R are pine stoves ;
S and T are two propagating greenhouses. The orchard house at
the back of the main range consists of a three-quarter span house,
5 ft. 6 in. wide, with the side lights almost vertical. This house is
so framed that the lights can be taken off in summer. There is a
separate boiler to these orchard houses, owing to the necessities of
the climate. A peculiar feature to be noticed is that the roof and
vertical lights of the main range and pits have double glazing, as
a protection against frost and snow. The roof lights consist of
two framed sashes resting on the main rafters, whilst the double
arrangement of glazing in the front lights is provided by the
additional glazing being fixed on these lights by screws. The
outer glazing is removed in summer.

KITCHEN GARDEN.

The site of a Kitchen Garden must depend chiefly on convenience,
on soil, and on aspect ; while the character of the house generally
determines the extent of the Kitchen Garden and its propinquity.

For a moderate country house, the area would profitably be two
acres enclosed within walls, with space outside the walls and beyond,
for the potatoes and coarser vegetables. This enclosed garden
should also be easily accessible from the house and at a moderate
distance, say between 300 and 500 yds. An ideal site would be on
a hillside, slightly sloping towards the south, to the north-east
or north-west of the house and intervening stabling ; with a
wooded hillside above giving shelter from northerly winds. There
should be, if possible, good communication with the main road.
Water also, preferably that drawn from a river or lake, is a desirable
adjunct. If water has to be forced from springs or a stream at
a lower level, it is good to have it brought to a service reservoir
exposed to the air, with short pipes conducting thence to the houses,
and fixed hydrants. It is all-important, especially in clayey soils, that
the drainage should be perfect. The depth and distance apart of
the drains must depend on the nature of the soil, and if this be
hard and impervious, they should be filled up to within 12 or 15 in.
of the surface with some porous materials. The subsoil should be
improved by trenching, by the addition of manure, lime, or other

KITCHEN GARDEN. 89

chemical ingredients ; besides which, the top soil may be increased
by the addition of soil from outside sources, or if it consist of strong
clay, it can be corrected by the addition of sand or slightly burned
ballast. A good loam is the best, but it is often convenient to have
one part of the garden with stronger soil than the other. The depth
of soil should be not less than 2 ft. 6 in. If the subsoil be not good,
or if it contain, as often happens, too much oxide of iron, the fruit
trees should have a paved space under each, and this must be drained,
to prevent roots from penetrating too deeply. When the required
soil is brought in from an adjacent meadow, the field should not
be stripped, but the surface removed for the depth of one spit in
alternate strips, say 2 ft. wide, and the field should be crossed,
trenched, and manured.

The form of the garden does not in reality make any difference
to the growth of the plants, but it is more easily worked when it
takes a quadrilateral form. Much depends on the aspect of the walls,
for fruit ripening on them. The sun's rays are generally most powerful
between one and two in the afternoon ; the consequence is, that a
wall with a western is warmer than one with an eastern aspect,
though the sun shines on one as long as on the other. To equalise
this the walls are frequently placed with a south-easterly aspect, but
this must depend on the requirements of the place.

A northern boundary wall is generally used on its southern side
for lean-to hothouses, and on its northern for the boiler-house sheds,
the fruit-room, mushroom house, etc. ; but the wall forming the
southern boundary is not so important, for its southern side is outside
the garden, and is more or less liable to be shaded by a screen of
planting.

Speaking generally, the more southerly the latitude of the place,
the more can the line of the walls be turned east of south, so that
the southern wall may come at right angles to the sun at 11 a.m.

N

90 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

The higher the latitude of the place, the more must the aspect be
turned towards the west, so that the southern wall may be turned at
right angles to the sun at one o'clock p.m.

If, however, hothouses are not to be extensively employed, then
it becomes important for the sake of ripening fruit that there should
be a great length of south wall ; and, consequently, a parallelogram
is the best form to adopt, with sides as five to three.

An orchard of standard trees should be contiguous to the kitchen
garden, and the trees should be planted regularly. It is important
that there should be shelter provided when such protection does not
naturally exist. Trees make the best screen, and they should be
planted on the north, north-west, and north-east sides. In a new
plan such a screen might consist of poplar, spruce, sycamore, beech, or
pine, as may be best suited to the district. Various forms of kitchen
garden are shown in examples (see Plan). The borders inside the
walls should be from 12 to 18 ft. wide, falling about 6 in. towards
the walks. They should be from 2 to 3 ft. deep, well drained, and
made with both good top and bottom soil as stated above. If a
layer of material be placed under the soil to prevent roots of fruit-
trees penetrating too deeply, this layer must be drained, so that by
removing the cold stagnant water the soil may be rendered warmer,
and capable of receiving air and water warmed by the sun. The
main paths in a kitchen garden should be made sufficiently wide
to allow the passing of a light cart. The centre walk, leading from
the pleasure ground through the kitchen garden to the hothouses,
may advantageously be bordered with turf, having immediately
beyond a border of herbaceous plants, or of roses or cutting flowers,
and beyond that again espalier trees ; or it may pass under an arch
covered with cordon fruit - trees ; at any rate, it may be made at-
tractive, and not have vegetables too prominent along its course.
A basin forms a pleasant object in the centre of a kitchen garden,

KITCHEN GARDEN. 91

with or without a fountain, and it is certainly most useful, as giving
a supply of aerated water, besides affording a means for the display
of hardy aquatic plants. The walks generally should have a tile
edging. If expense be not a great consideration, labour is
saved and cleanliness promoted if the walks are made of concrete
or asphalte instead of being covered with gravel. The wall
forming the northern boundary will often vary in height according to
the height or extent of the hothouses placed against it. Speaking
generally, the colder the climate the higher should be the walls, for
these accumulate heat in proportion to their height. It must be
remembered that walls not only retain the solar heat, but they afford
shelter, and present a surface on which to train fruit-trees. If
there are not hothouses to be considered, the walls on the north
side may be 12 to 14 ft. high, while the walls on the east, south,
and west sides are 10 ft. high. The south wall may be made the
same height or less. The walls can be built equally well of stone
or brick. The colour should preferably be of a light shade. For
10 ft. walls, 9 in. brickwork with piers every 10 ft. will suffice ; but
14 in. hollow walls are preferable and very little more costly. The
walls, especially if built of stone, should be wired on the side against
which fruit-trees are to be trained. This surface should, of course,
be plane, and the piers, if any, built on the outside of the wall. It
should be remembered that the foundations ought to extend at any
rate 3 ft. beneath the surface of the ground. Copings can be of
stone or brick, or cement, or tiles and bricks, but they should not
project more than 2X\2 or 3 in. beyond the face of the wall. Wide,
permanent copings are not so good as temporary copings. Mr. R.
Thompson writes in the " Gardener's Assistant " that in summer
broad copings prevent the foliage from being moistened by dews,
the beneficial effects of which cannot be compensated by artificial
watering.

92 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

Temporary copings are of great utility, especially during the
prevalence of late spring frosts. The heat accumulated in the
materials of the wall during the day is abstracted whenever the
air is colder than the wall. The cold air coming in contact with
the surface of the wall becomes heated, and consequently lighter ;
it then ascends, and the heat is lost so far as vegetation is con-
cerned. Broad copings obstruct the free ascent of warm air, which
then is longer retained where it is wanted — on the surface of the
wall. The young shoots of vines may often be seen cut off by
frost as far as they have pushed beyond 9 in. coping boards, whilst
all the shoots that are under shelter of the boards are safe.

A very good temporary coping is obtained by building in the
wall pieces of i^in. galvanised iron tubing, about 6 ft. apart, in
which can be placed iron rods projecting 1 ft. beyond the wall,
having a pin at the outer end. On this support, in the spring,
are placed 1 2 in. light boards, which are retained there so long as
necessary. Netting can also be suspended from these rods if it
be required to protect the fruit against frost, birds, or wasps.

Feet.

The sides of a square containing 1 acre are 20871

„ 2 „ 295*16

3 » 36l"5
ti » » 4 4i7'54

Feet. Feet.

Thesides in the proportion of 5 to 3 of a parallelogram are, fori acre, 269-45 x 161 "67

2 „ 38103x228-63

3 » 46670 x 280 02

4 538-90x323-34.

PUBLIC PARKS AND CEMETERIES.

The observations and rules given for the general treatment of
private parks and gardens apply with equal force to the laying out
of public parks and recreation grounds, and of cemeteries. There
are, however, modifications rendered necessary by the special purpose
for which each is intended. Among others is the case where a
generous giver, feeling that open spaces are absolutely necessary,
presents, ere the builder has invaded the outskirts of a town, some
land to be devoted to the public ; and the landscape gardener, in
dealing with such a property, must appreciate the fact that such
land may in a few years prove an intramural oasis ; and he must
so arrange his laying out and planting that these in the future may-
bear witness to his forethought. He will, therefore, know that his
park may be enclosed by houses ; he will arrange for broad gravel
spaces ; for his turfed ground to be unencumbered with overhead
trees ; that the plants themselves shall be such as will live amidst
smoke and dirt, and he will prepare for what elsewhere are pleasant
breezes being converted into biting draughts. In the neighbourhood
of towns, too, one is always liable to the ugliness necessitated by
modern civilisation, such as the railway embankment, the enforced
connection of a park with hospitals, baths, waterworks, etc., or with
a large building scheme. At Preston high railway embankments
cross the middle of the park and form the western boundary.

94 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

Strangers would scarcely notice the railway that crosses the park unless
attention be called to the fact by smoke or noise ; for the line is
so broken by planting and by irregular lines of walk and turf, that
the hard, straight course is quite concealed. Rockwork even has
been introduced to foster the idea that the towering mass is only
one part of an old cliff. The stone of the district is sandstone ; so
various thicknesses and the dip of these strata are so arranged, that
though the lines of rock are constantly broken by turf bays and
planting, an observer of nature will find it difficult to recognise that
his surroundings are the result of labour, so carefully are the different
layers reproduced. At Glossop hospitals and baths formed part
of the noble gift to that town, and they had to be introduced
and made into integral parts of the whole. In the park some
difficulty was created by the existence of a natural ravine with a
stream running in the bottom, and completely cutting the land in
two. The beautiful and natural parts of this ravine were picked
out and made the most of, whilst, in order to convert the parts into
a whole, the sides were in places levelled down and the stream
covered. A park, too, may be made with the primary object of
increasing the value of the surrounding property for building land ;
and, instead of the desire being apparent that adjacent buildings should
be hidden, the object here is rather to furnish an idea that the park
is a larger recreation ground belonging to the individual gardens.
A place of public resort has generally some objects of particular
interest to which prominence can be given and ready access afforded.
Such objects are a winter garden, a pavilion, a band-stand, a shelter
seat, and in a lesser degree cricket, tennis, and archery grounds,
gymnasia, etc. Around the buildings the ground should be treated
formally, and near all points of interest where people will congregate
broad spaces of drive or walk must be given. In fact, the walks
and grassy spaces in public grounds should be wider than those made

PUBLIC PARKS AND CEMETERIES. 95

in private grounds, and the treatment altogether be broader and
simpler. In such places, too, people assemble to see and be seen,
and it is well to have some special promenade, perhaps emphasized
by rows of trees, giving shade, distinctively arranged to serve for a
recognised point of rendezvous. Not that the whole place should
be considered as a tame plain, visible from all sides, but that the
main lines should be drawn with boldness, and a spirit of grandeur
asserted. Yet, away from the thronged walks or drives, special
charms should be created to tempt visitors with new scenes, and
compel them to acknowledge that here is beauty in detail as well
as magnificent conception in mass. The area of a cricket ground
will in itself give a certain aspect of restful quiet ; while broad
spaces of turfed ground, with some trees judiciously planted for
landscape effect, will emphasize the feeling, and will contrast with
the busy world outside as well as will the more secluded winding-
walks and hidden shrubberies.

A plan is here given of the Public Gardens, at Buxton, as
laid out before their pleasantness and appropriateness induced the
authorities to extend them, perhaps unmethodically. Part of the
site had formerly been used as a garden, and the charm of
established trees and water already existed. It will be useful in
illustration of some of the conditions already insisted on, to cur-
sorily describe some of the features of these gardens. The
principal object was to create an attraction to Buxton, that
visitors might be induced to frequent the place, and prolong their
stay. These visitors were frequently suffering from rheumatism, and
to them the renowned springs were beneficial. The place was, there-
fore, enclosed, and admission was by a small payment, in return
for which good music and other entertainments were provided. A
winter garden, about 400 ft. long, was designed, having space for a
concert room, promenade, conservatories, etc., all heated by hot

9 6 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

water. The main entrance was from the public road, at the eastern
end of the winter garden. In front of this, for its whole length,
was made a terrace walk, finishing at the western end in a
Dutch garden, with clipped yew hedges giving sheltered places
for seats, bordered beds arranged for bulbs, flowers, and evergreen
foliage plants in their season. Beyond the terrace walk was a grassy
slope ; on the grass flat between it and the terrace walk vases were
set at intervals. From the central hall of the winter garden a main
walk, 1 8 ft. wide, led to the gardens, crossing the River Wye,
towards which the ground rapidly fell, by a stone and iron bridge.
This walk stopped at a band-stand, from the encircling paths round
which other walks deviated right and left. Plate O shows a sketch
of the bridge here built, and use was made of the falling ground
to take a walk by the river-side, under the side arches of the
bridge. The water-level of the river itself was raised by means of
the stone dam built to represent a natural cascade. From the space
around the band-stand views were obtained within the grounds — on
the north, of the river, with its bridges and ground rising towards
the winter garden ; on the east, of the rose garden, with its spirally
ascending walk, thus showing the beds on the slope ; on the south,
over the lake to the wooded bank beyond ; on the west, of the
grassy expanse through which runs a small stream, spreading into
the lake. A nearly circular walk, with lime-trees planted on each
side, is made round the lawn, and walks are taken off at various
points, each one more or less concealed, and giving access to some
special attraction, either by a rustic bridge crossing the river, giving
a peep of a strong spring of water rushing down in a cascade to
join the stream ; by the formation of a formal garden devoted to
various kinds of peat-loving plants ; by leading past old trees
standing on their grassy mounds and giving shelter ; by displaying
a flower garden, bright with colour, in front of a covered seat,

Raman CathobLc.

PUBLIC PARKS AND CEMETERIES. 97

tempting to cool repose ; or the visitor was tempted to explore and
note the grouping, and foliage, and flowers of the many plants
displayed, each turn of the walk showing fresh beauty.

In a larger park provision has to be made for driving and riding,
and it is advisable for part of the way that the drive and footpath
should be made side by side. Space is saved, and persons walking
or driving have each an opportunity of meeting. The size and
nature of the property, and the purpose for which it will be used,
will determine the class of work that is appropriate ; but the details
already given will suffice for practical work, and I have now rather
concerned myself with the expression of such leading ideas as seem
called forth by the nature of the undertaking.

And if we provide beautiful places for the living, should we not
also prepare for those that have gone before a resting-place, so
fitly termed " God's acre," that may coincide with the pure and
noble emotions stirring within us, not only at the time we are
carrying to their last home the loved ones, but also when we
retrace our steps to place on their grave a memorial of our
affection ? Far too little has been done in this country to alleviate
at the saddest moments of our lives the feelings that almost weigh
us down. A churchyard or a cemetery can, and should, by the
exercise of art, be made as beautiful as possible. The practice
of burying in towns is happily being discontinued, and many of the
old, dank, sad, neglected, and forsaken churchyards are being turned
into new, bright, cheerful, cared-for, and pleasant retreats for the
living, where, with the solemn knowledge of the place in which
they are assembled, visitors may with ennobled feelings contemplate
the various memories that press on them. In a newer cemetery,
how much the more should every effort be made to render the
place beautiful ; and this is right on every ground, both sentimental
and economic. If the cemetery be laid out as a park, access must

o

98 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

necessarily be given to the chapels, to the different portions set apart
for the several creeds, to the mortuary house, etc. The desired
area next the walks or drives can be divided off equally well in
grave spaces whether the roads are straight or curved ; and if, in
process of time, that portion of ground taken up at first by groups
of planting should be required for burying, the trees and shrubs
planted by loving hands at the graves of the departed will serve
to replace an effect at first apparent in the general design.

The chapels should be placed in connection with the ground space
allotted respectively to each creed, and it is simple to mark the
division of such areas by a walk, or, failing that, by mere stones.
It is of the utmost importance that there be very efficient drainage,
especially of the subsoil. If this is wet, main drains should be made
at a depth of 12 ft. from the surface. Except in the first instance,
before the ground is occupied, the ordinary surface drainage is of little
use, as it becomes disturbed ; but the drives and walks should be,
therefore, the more efficiently drained. It is also wise in convenient
places to fill up the main drains to the surface with porous material,
that thus the ground may be kept dry. It is of course necessary that
in wet land there be a good outlet for the main drain. The worst
of all ground is that where there are alternate and uneven layers
of clay and gravel. The best is where a poor, dry, sandy or
gravelly soil is found on slightly rising ground. In public cemeteries
spaces are generally reserved for the Established, Nonconformist,
and Roman Catholic creeds, including special allotments for paupers.
The grave spaces are divided into classes according to their nearness
to the chapels or the main thoroughfares, and the local authorities
impose special regulations for the continuous methodical carrying
out of their rules. A reserve ground, with a hothouse, is usually
provided near the superintendent's lodge for due maintenance of the
embellishment of the place.

PUBLIC PARKS AND CEMETERIES. 99

The plan of a cemetery made for the Corporation of Stoke-upon-
Trent is here given as an example of the manner of laying out
now advocated. The approach is from either end of the ground
from the public road, and lodges are placed at each entrance. The
approach is direct to the two Protestant chapels, which are in this
instance joined by a corridor. Sufficient room is allowed here for
the circulation of hearses and carriages, and these may be driven
to, and pass from, all the principal parts of the cemetery without
disturbing the mourners. In this instance a separate chapel for the
Roman Catholic service was not required, as the town chapel was
not far off. All trees on the property were of course left undisturbed,
and they helped to redeem much of that appearance of newness which
is always, in such cases, associated with young planting. The first
class grave spaces are those nearest to the principal walks ; the second
class are behind them, and along subsidiary walks ; the third class
spaces are apportioned in parts next the boundary. The main drains
were laid from 12 to 14 ft. deep, at intervals of about 150 ft. The
planting was of deciduous and evergreen shrubs, in equal numbers,
chiefly of flowering sorts, with bright blossoms, and on raised mounds.
The ground surface was undulated so that a play of light and shade
might be produced, and the whole work was carried out as though
a garden park were being made.

ECONOMIC TREATMENT OF LAND.

A most important division in the work of a Landscape Gardener
is the economic treatment of land, whereby the money value of it
may be greatly enhanced, as it is made fit for divided residential
settlement. The exercise of sound judgment is as important a pre-
liminary, in devoting an estate, or given portions of a land area, to
building purposes as to the creation of ornamental ground subserving
the purposes of one grand mansion ; or to treatment for agricultural
uses under the best conditions. Fitness of position is a primal
consideration ; that is, the relation of the ground to existing routes
of traffic, high-roads, or railway communications, or the possible
creating and development of such means in the future. The formation
of the ground surface is of serious import in the plan, which
has to deal not only with general effect, but with particular parts,
each part possessing individual features complete in themselves, and,
as it were, isolated in their completeness, yet retaining their relation to
the whole design of which they are to be component parts. There are
statutory obligations to be attended to, involving work not perceptible
on the surface, but which, by its excellence and good engineering,
greatly raises the value of the estate, and is absolutely necessary
to it. But this consideration is paramount : that there should be
made with the greatest care a complete plan of the whole area to be
treated, showing not only the mode of dealing with it as a whole,

ECONOMIC TREATMENT OF LAND.

101

but also how it will be treated in detail, as occasion may serve ; and
that such plan shall be, as it were, a prevailing contract, whereon
the working out of each part is based. Upon the excellence of
such a plan, and the forethoughtful experience with which it is
produced, depends the success of the purpose in view. The money
value of an estate may be frequently more than doubled or trebled
by such treatment in the course of a term of not many years.

When laying out landed property in the vicinity of towns, for
building purposes, there are certain conditions that must rule and
have attention : (a), Drainage and water supply ; approach ;

(c), roads ; {d), proportionate allotment ; (e), return for money
invested ; (/), common rules ; {g), general improvement ; (A), com-
pliance with local regulations.

To treat these in order : (a). The question of drainage must
necessarily be determined by the site, and its propinquity to an
existing drainage system. In the last-named case the connection
is simple, provided care be taken in laying out the roads and the
sites for the adjacent houses, that the levels are rightly maintained.
If no such system exists, the drainage may be made by conducting
pipes to a separate sewage farm ; by dealing with the refuse matter,
and conducting the overflow into a watercourse ; or, as a last resource,
by means of distribution on the land, or by cesspools. The supply
of water also depends on the means available either from an existing
source, from an independent provision, or from wells. Where public
water supply, or gas supply, exist, the pipes are severally laid by
the authorities supplying the same.

(d). The approach to any building estate should be made as
direct as possible, and every advantage should be taken of existing
conditions, such as directing the road into the estate at the foot
of a hill, and leading travellers on by an evidently more easy and
pleasanter way ; by taking advantage of a turn in the public road

io2 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

and arranging the new road into the estate as if this were the con-
tinuation of the main road ; or, if the road into the estate must be
at right angles to the main road, to flatten the corners somewhat
towards the principal direction. Should the estate lie somewhat
back from the* main thoroughfare, it is well to treat the approach to
it, if it be through a narrow strip of ground, in a formal manner,
and not allow the erection of any small houses which may, perhaps,
be appropriate to the available space, but which may, by their small-
ness, convey an impression of littleness, deteriorating the effect of
the whole estate beyond.

(c). The roads themselves will vary with every site. Curved
roads are preferable to straight ones, because a building estate is
generally in the vicinity of a town, and used for residential purposes ;
therefore it is well to mark the difference between straight streets,
and the sweep of a neatly kept road, with its trees spreading over-
head, and hiding from view the number of houses, because by the
curve the houses are more easily hidden from each other, and a
sense of spaciousness is created. Generally, more frontage can thus
be obtained. The roads should have a main drain laid down the
centre of each, depending for its size on the length of road, the.
gradient of it, and the number of houses of which it must take
the drainage. This drain is usually a pipe, with inlets provided at
requisite points, for the general house drainage and for the overflow
from the gully holes. The gradient should be easy and continuous.
After the requisite excavation has been made to acquire the right
gradient-level there should be laid a foundation of stone, brickbats,
chalk, or other hard and sound material, at least one foot thick,
and on this a layer of gravel or broken stone 4 in. thick. The
paths should be raised above the roadway, and have a foundation
layer of 9 in. in thickness, and on this 3 in. of gravel. There
should also be a granite or other hard stone kerb, and paved

ECONOMIC TREATMENT OF LAND. I03

channels to conduct the water to the gully holes. It is economical
that roads be well made and of good width. If it is considered
that an estate will take some time to develop, the centre only of
the road may be finished, and a grassy space left on either side,
till increased traffic necessitates the completion of it. Trees may
be planted on each side by the pathway edge ; but it is recommended
that these be all of one sort, and of a kind suitable to the district.
An ordinary width of road for a moderate estate would be 40 ft.,
which would allow of a roadway 24 ft. wide and two footpaths
each of 8 ft.

[d\ With regard to the proportionate allotment of the various
divisions, no hard and fast rule can be laid down. The frontage
and areas given to each lot must vary, as judgment is affected by
the nearness of the property to a town, or by the quality of the
neighbourhood, and determining the class and value of the house
needed. In larger estates which are, most likely, some distance from
towns, it is wise to set apart, in the first instance, certain areas of
ground, duly divided off, in view of the future development of the
property, as occupation land, which may retain its rustic character
till the area becomes built over. This enables the landowner to
sell smaller portions of land with the houses and, meanwhile, to let
on short leases the adjacent ground, as occupation land, till it is
required for building on.

(e). With regard to the return afforded by the development of
land for building, it would be well, perhaps, to state a typical real
case — not at all an extreme instance :

A piece of land, 30 acres in extent, one mile distant from a town,
has a main road skirting its boundary. The value was ,£100 per
acre, and the land was let for agricultural purposes at £2 \os. per
acre. The drainage and water supplies were connected with those
of the adjacent town. The ground was fairly level, with unimportant

io4 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

views towards the south. The cost of main drainage, of forming
the roads, of erecting oak park paling, 5 ft. high, along each side
of the roads, of planting the ground for effect amounted to ,£2,800.
There became available for building land 26 acres, after deducting
the area of the roads and the ground reserved for common use.
The land was sold at an average of £500 per acre, realising £"13,000.
As the first cost was £3,000, and in addition £"2,800 were spent in
developing the land, a profit of £"7,200 was realised.

In many of our English counties a system of letting the ground
on a 99 years' lease prevails, the landowner meanwhile receiving
ground rents, and these may generally be regarded as of 25 years'
purchase.

(/). — The nature and value of the proposed buildings must, of
course, differ considerably even on different parts of the same estate,
and must be carefully adapted to the respective localities. But when
this has been done, it cannot be too strongly laid down that the
system for each road or locality should be adhered to rigidly ; for
only thus will confidence be inspired in builders or private persons
erecting houses on the estate. When it is settled that the rules
applied to them will be those for their neighbours, and there is
no fear of their property being depreciated by the landowner's
subsequent dealing, then a security of money value is created. A
building line, ruling the distance of structures from the road, should
be fixed ; and rules should be made for determining the site of
stables, so that these may not be a nuisance or interfere with views.
Rules should also be made as to cutting down trees, as to the
maintenance of the common ground, and the preservation of natural,
artistic, characteristic features of the place ; also as to the building
of shops, public-houses, etc.

(g). — It is strongly recommended that plantations should be
formed and trees should be planted. These will assuredly make the

ECONOMIC TREATMENT OF LAND. 105

estate as a whole, and the plots individually, more attractive, besides
serving to shut out the objectionable parts of buildings the one from
the other. If the planting be judiciously arranged, it will prevent
the ungainly effect (but too common on building estates) of each
plot being treated wholly irrespective of those adjoining it, whereas,
by using the planting as a whole, a pleasing, pictorial scene may
be obtained that will add artistically to its present beauty, and, con-
sequently, to its value. It is also advisable on any large building
estate to reserve one or more sites for the erection of a church or
churches, and schools, and parsonage houses. These may profitably
be erected, at any rate in part, as soon as the development of the
estate may justify it, or even before it is actually needed. It is a
powerful incentive to the taking of building land. A church may
be designed so as to be built only in part at first, and enlarged
afterwards by the contributions of residents. The church should
generally occupy a commanding position, and be accessible from all
sides. On large estates it is also advisable to appropriate portions
of the land as recreation ground for the common benefit of residents
on the estate. In fact, on some of the most successful building
estates a central portion has been laid out as a park, to which
residents have access. Such privilege forms a powerful incentive
to many persons to take land, for it formulates the knowledge that
such part cannot be built over, and also allows of smaller plots being
sold without taking land for private recreative purposes.

In addition, there are certain statutory regulations relating to the
width of roads, drainage, water supply, sanitary condition of houses,
etc., which vary more or less in each local government, and must
be complied with.

p

EXAMPLES OF WORK.

(i) KESZTHELY.

Keszthely is a small town in Hungary, at the southern extremity
of the great Platten or Balaton lake. At the western end of the
town stood the old family seat of the Counts Festetics. On the
western side of the Schloss, a small park had been made about
ninety years ago, and many of the trees then planted are now
very finely grown to considerable size. Count Tassilo Festetics
determined to make this place a palatial home, at the same time
maintaining his ancestral castle as far as possible intact. To do
this he caused the present structure to be erected, as it were,
over, and to contain, the old Schloss. The new Palace was
raised from the design of Herr V. Rumpelmeyer, under the
immediate direction of Herrn Haas and Paschkis. It then became
necessary to consider the artistic treatment of the surrounding
land, and the fitting illustration of the grand mansion in its
position. To that end I was asked in 1885 to report upon the
improvement of the grounds. I found that no view of the distant
country could be obtained from any of the principal rooms ; and
that on the eastern or true front, the much used, dusty public
road passed within twenty yards of the building. Beyond this,
the ground sloped gradually down towards the lake, and the whole

EXAMPLES OF WORK. 107

space was occupied by a dilapidated church and small houses of
unpleasant appearance, the nearer of which completely shut off all
view of the beautiful water, and of the distant volcanic hills beyond.
On the northern and southern sides the boundary was very near the
Palace, but could not be extended. On the western, or garden front,
the old neglected park contained stables and outbuildings. Many
fine trees were found on this side, but the ground surface formed
a nearly level plain to within twenty yards of the building, down
to which it sloped. A considerable innovation and alteration
appeared to me to be needed on the northern front. In Hungary
it is very desirable to have rooms on the northern and eastern
sides on account of the summer heat ; in fact, several of the
principal rooms in the Palace are so placed. A plan is given
showing the general arrangement of the grounds that was adopted
near the house.

It will be seen that an imposing arched entrance was built facing
the line of the main street of the town, and that the public road
was turned at right angles to it, till, with a curve, it was made to
reach a distance of 150 yards from the building. Not only was the
disagreeable nearness of the public road with its passing traffic
removed, but a considerable space of ground was rendered available
for private enjoyment. By the removal of a certain number of the
intervening buildings, a grand view of the lake and the hills was
obtained. Where it leaves the direct line of the public street, the new
road was lowered until, by an even gradient of one in twenty-five,
a depth of 15 ft. beneath the new levelled garden enclosure was
reached ; and thus the road, with its passing traffic, was concealed
by being sufficiently sunk, while a wall, with planting on the garden
side, formed the enclosure ; but, as the road became deeper, a
balustrade, surmounting a retaining wall, formed the only boundary.
From the entrance gates the drive now leads to the chief

io8 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

entrances. The ground inside the newly acquired land was laid
out somewhat formally, being intended rather for effect than use.
It was made to include a large fountain with jets in form of
Prince of Wales' feathers, and two flower gardens were enclosed
by yew hedges. The straight walk leading from the principal
Palace entrance terminates in a stone pavilion, of similar style to
the house. In carrying out this part of the work, several trees,
chiefly limes and chestnuts twenty-five to thirty feet high, were
moved in the local manner, namely, by digging all round them
in the early spring, and leaving such a ball that most of the
fibrous root was preserved untouched. On this ball water is poured
till the mass becomes frozen. Then the tree and its heavy ball
is dragged to the spot it is to occupy. Some of the trees moved
a little later by the ordinary English method of digging round
and covering the ball with matting, preserving all exposed fibrous
roots, and then transporting the tree on a table sliding on planks,
gave a better result. By the first method the trees had to be
much reduced in size.

On the northern side the area is very restricted, and, as many
of the principal guest-rooms look out in that direction, the ground
was treated with flowing lines of walks, and with plantations. The
surface was undulated, and treated so as to create an appearance
of space. Raised mounds were formed to receive the flowering
trees and shrubs, and for concealing the boundary. On the
south side of the house, where the space to the boundary is also
very confined, a formal sunk garden was made, and the beds
filled with dwarf conijerce. Beyond this, marble statues alternating
with pyramidal golden yews were placed on the flat at foot of
a grassy slope — the top of which was planted. Thus the adjacent
buildings are completely blocked out.

On this southern side the problems were : (a) to provide a

EXAMPLES OE WORK. 109

main approach from the western park entrance, with easy access
to various points of the house and to the stables ; (b) to give a
base to the building ; (c) to make a formal garden for the display
of fountains, of flowers, and of the sub-tropical vegetation that in
Hungary during summer produces such a glorious effect ; {d) to open
out some views, and show something beautiful beyond. (a) The
first part of the drive from the west, where it enters the park
by a double avenue of limes, was naturally determined by that
fact ; and after crossing a small stream by a bridge, the line
curves easily so as to conserve views of remarkable trees, and of
vistas in the park, and of distant hills, till a sight of the house is
obtained. The drive then leads directly to the formal parterre, of
which it becomes part, and so on to the Palace. At the southern
end of the parterre there is a direct way to the stables. In addition
to the main approach there are several miles of subsidiary drives,
each affording glimpses of varied scenery, or serving some special
purpose — such as a way to the racing stable, to lodges, kennels,
agents' houses, the kitchen garden, etc. (b) Much gravelled space
was required about the Palace to give sufficient room for several
equipages to be present together, and to allow of the many
entrances being used simultaneously ; so that, in considering the
best treatment to be adopted, and to give a base to the Palace,
while making apparent the really long extent of its facade, and
to provide a line on which this should apparently rest, the question
of space had to be taken seriously into account. There is a
terrace drive forty feet wide next the building, terminating at its
southern limit in a large seat or pavilion, and at its northern
extremity narrowing into a drive to the stables. On the western side
of this terrace road, the line is fairly continuous ; and on the side
next the Palace two plots of turf are introduced in the broad
gravelled space between the two wings of the Palace, and in line

no THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

with them, so as to connect these features of the structure, (c) The
lines of drive next the Palace, the main one from the west, and
especially the outline of the south front, helped to determine the
shape of the parterre garden. The chief part consists of two
quadrants, each having near its centre a fountain basin, of which
the stone plinth is yj2 ft. above the general level. In each
quadrant, walks radiate from the fountain basins towards three
other equally raised basins, which are however filled with earth
and planted with palms, ferns, and foliage plants. Between these
lines of walk the spaces are filled with a geometrical design set out
with box edging and coloured gravel walks. On the outer verge
of each quadrant, a small rectangular space is made with beds cut
in the turf, and planted with dwarf rhododendrons, heaths, azaleas,
andromeda, pernettya, etc. The whole of the ground forming the
parterre was lowered an average depth of 3 ft., so as to do away
with the oppressive feeling that the ground was falling on the
Palace, (a) On the eastern side beautiful views were opened out
over the lake to the distant hills, and on the northern side of the
Palace the nearer wooded hills were brought into the picture, and,
by means of planting, the sight was directed to certain points. On
the east, the town had to be blocked out, and on the west the
park was an even plain. From the Palace, the main drive towards
the west passed straight through the middle of the parterre, thus
creating a line of view. At the end of the parterre, where the
drive turns right and left, the line of sight was forced forward by
hollowing out the ground for a considerable width, and depositing
the earth in raised mounds on either side, which mounds were
planted. Trees and plantations were disposed to give length to
this main view just out of the direct line of sight ; and a clear
opening was made for half a mile with an undefined ending in a
wood. On either side of the main line of view other openings

EXAMPLES OF WORK.

1 1 1

were created — one towards a small artificial lake, to which the vision
was carried over a rustic bridge, to where the water entered, tumbling
over a rocky cascade ; another over the half-hidden pleasure gardens,
past a water temple, into one of the glades in the park. The
pleasure gardens were laid out as shown on the plan, beyond the
parterre, and special spots were set aside for roses, American plants
tennis, shaded walks, and an open-air theatre, of which the walls,
divisions, and dressing-rooms were made with hornbeam and privet.
Beyond the pleasure gardens, the ground passes insensibly into
the enclosed park without any break. Here the trees have been
grouped for effect, openings made, and drives formed, to display
the beauty of the place. The kitchen garden and hot houses are
placed on the south side of the pleasure gardens, and are approached
from these, from the park, and also from the outside road. The
water for the Palace and for the fountains was obtained by building
an engine - house near a spring that runs into the Balaton lake,
and by pumping the water to a reservoir built 150 ft. above it
in the hills, distant four miles from the Palace. The water thence
is delivered by gravitation as required.

(2) PEVEREY.

In order to practically illustrate the several works incidental to the
arrangement of a garden or park, I have chosen to give a general
plan and a short description of this place, because there purely
agricultural land had to be transformed into a residential estate.
The landowner, Sir Offley Wakeman, Bart., determined to build a
house on part of his property, and to lay out gardens and a park.
The work is not yet actually completed, but, in order to make
the description more clear, I am assuming that the whole is

ii2 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

finished in accordance with the plan, and I describe the work as it
will appear a little later. The River Perry, running from north-east
to south-west, divides that part of the property dealt with, and the
ground falls gradually towards the river from either side ; that part
to the north having a slope towards the south, the division south
of the river having a slope towards the north. The formation
varies somewhat, but generally on the higher ground it consists of
about a foot of loam on a clay subsoil, whilst on the lower ground
a gravelly or sandy soil is met with. The place is seven miles from
Shrewsbury, and two miles from the railway station at Baschurch.
Before the work was commenced, the land consisted of a number
of fields, opening one to the other, with high hedgerows in which
trees, chiefly oak of medium size, were standing. Mr. Aston Webb,
the architect, and I fixed the site of the mansion about half-way
between the public road, forming the northern boundary of the
property, and the river, on a nearly level plateau occurring in the
southern incline. The aspect of the site is south by east ; very
fine views of distant hilly scenery are obtainable towards the south
and west, and, in a less degree, towards the east. Dotted lines on
the plan show the direction of the principal lines of sight. The
house is built of a rich red sandstone, with the principal entrance
through an enclosed forecourt on the northern side ; the offices are
on the eastern side, the living-rooms on the southern side, the con-
servatory and drawing-rooms on the southern and western sides. The
stables were fixed 100 yds. north-east of the mansion in the direction
of the home farm, and the kitchen garden 300 yds. west of the
mansion on a nearly level piece of ground. Two approaches were
desirable, one from Shrewsbury, and the other from Baschurch.
For the former, advantage was taken of a sudden bend in the public
road to make this apparently lead to Peverey, as shown on the plan,
and for the latter, a slight bend in the public road enabled the

EXAMPLES OF WORK. 113

hedge line to be continued with a somewhat sharper curve towards
the new entrance. Both drives follow the contour of the land
with easy curves and gradients until they meet. From this point
the main drive leads directly to the forecourt entrance, and a second
drive leads to the stables and offices. Additional communication is
also made between the forecourt and stables, and besides that, from
the stables a back service road leads past the home farm, laundry,
etc., to the public road, which it enters at a point just beyond the
Shrewsbury entrance lodge. The ground north of the river was
somewhat bare of trees, so large masses of planting, besides single
trees, have been introduced for effect. A large belt was made
round the exposed sides of the new kitchen garden, to provide
shelter and to hide it from the mansion ; another continuous belt was
planted on raised ground to the north of the pleasure gardens,
to screen those from the north wind and from the drive. On the
southern side of the house a broad terrace walk was formed, supported
by a stone wall 6 ft. high, surmounted by a balustrade, with projecting
bastions, and recessed on its face to give space for seats available from
a walk formed on the lower level. This work was designed by Mr.
Aston Webb. At the eastern end, the terrace walk is narrowed in line
with the projecting wing of the house, and is continued to a diamond-
shaped garden, enclosed and divided up by yew hedges, with se-
cluded walks and spaces for seats, herbaceous borders, etc. From the
northern corner of it, a walk leads to the stables, and from the southern
corner another leads to the pleasure gardens. On the western side of
the house is a shorter and narrower terrace walk, beyond which is
a grassy slope, at the foot of which is a parterre containing flower
beds in geometrical design, and a fountain basin 60 ft. by 40 ft.
There are steps leading from the western end of the main terrace
walk to this lower ground, and also from a walk leading to it from
the forecourt. At the northern end of the western terrace is a turfed

Q

1 14 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

alUe enclosed by a holly hedge, with a group of statuary at the
lower end, and recessed spaces for seats at regular intervals in
the sides. A small lake, wherein bright waterfowl may disport them-
selves among several kinds of aquatic plants, has been formed in
the south-eastern part of the pleasure gardens. The end of the lake
is left unplanted, and the view is thus extended over the park past
an old red-tiled mill to the distant hills. Around the lake, and below
the terrace generally, the area has been treated in the natural
manner. The ground has been undulated, grassy valleys have been
formed between raised mounds planted with varied flowering trees
and shrubs, or with single trees, so that a play of light and shade
is secured. The walks have been undulated in plan as well as
level, and the different parts of the garden are hidden and separated
to such an extent that the whole cannot be seen at once, and the
former plain field-look has been entirely removed. At the same
time a feeling of rest has been made to pervade the whole treat-
ment which is consonant with the stately building, the home of an
old English family. On the south-western side a principal attraction
is the rose garden, in which different kinds of roses are planted
in separate masses. It is made in a spiral form, with the walk
gradually descending towards the centre, so that the beds of roses
are all on a slight slope facing the spectator. This position is much
shut off by planting, and quite hidden from a contiguous walk that
leads more directly towards a covered seat. This is placed at the
extremity of the principal walk made from this point, through the
centre of the kitchen garden, to the middle of the range of hothouses.
A row of standard hollies has been planted on each side of the walk
till the kitchen garden is reached, when a line of espalier fencing,
along which horizontally trained trees have been planted, borders
the walk. In the centre of the kitchen garden is an old dwarfed
oak, round which the walk circles, and other walks are made

EXAMPLES OF WORK. 115

at right angles, having at their ends small water basins to which
the overflow from the hothouse tanks has been conducted. The
walks forming the principal squares of the kitchen garden have
pyramidal fruit - trees planted on their inner sides ; the walls are
planted with suitable trained trees. From the before-mentioned
covered seat a walk is prolonged outside the pleasure gardens across
the park, and, dividing, one branch turns northward, to give a view
of the country and river not obtainable elsewhere, and eventually
joins the drive, whilst the other is continued to the river-side
walk. Only small peeps of the river were obtainable from the
mansion, so in order to bring this water view into the picture, the
river has been widened in places, and the level raised where this
could be readily done and could be most visible from the house
and grounds. A walk has been made by the river-side, which,
starting from the eastern end of the pleasure gardens, crosses the
park and then skirts the water's edge. In this secluded part, which
has been fenced in, places have been reserved for a collection
of bog plants, for a Rhododendron garden, for a bulb garden, and
for a collection of willows, etc. The walk, after crossing a bend of
the river by two rustic bridges, eventually joins the route already
referred to coming from the west end of the pleasure gardens.

In the grounds, lying to the south of the river, and facing the
mansion, many trees in hedgerows running at right angles to
the eye had to be removed, in order to break up these lines
and also to open out views. Of those trees only a few could be
transplanted. Groups of planting have been introduced for general
effect, to lead the eye in the desired directions, and to give
distance by affording so many objects to count just outside the
line of sight ; to give variety in colour, to give masses of wood,
in order to relieve the monotony of the grass land, to provide
cover, and to shut out some adjacent land on which, possibly }

n6 THE ART AND PRACTICE OF LANDSCAPE GARDENING.

objectionable buildings may be raised. All ground was doubly-
trenched previous to being planted, and the whole land drained.
The lines of fencing for dividing off the park into different
holdings were arranged so as to be as little seen as possible,
and therefore are chiefly set out in a direction running from
the eye. The hedges forming the boundaries of the public road

on the southern side of the park were in places removed, so

t

that the line of sight might not be interrupted, and new fencing
was substituted. All fencing was of the usual continuous bar fencing.
The height of the wall on the northern side of the kitchen garden
was determined by that of the hothouses built against it ; the height
on the eastern and western sides is 9 ft. 3 in. to the under side
of the movable coping ; the height of the southern boundary wall is
6 ft. The water supply is provided by an engine pumping river-
water to a reservoir near the home farm, and for the garden supply
an open reservoir has been made from which water gravitates to
given points. The lake is supplied by waste water from this, and
from the house and garden clear water drainage.

CHARLHS DICKENS AND EVANS, CRYSTAL PALACE PRESS.

GETTY RESEARCH INSTITUTE

3 3125 01058 3595