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KING’S COLLEGE LONDON

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SYDENHAM SOCIETY

INSTITUTED

MDCCCXLIII

KING'S COLLlGl HCbH I A L

MEDICAL SCHOOL

LONDON

M DCCCXLV.

ANIMAL CHEMISTRY

PHYSIOLOGY AND PATHOLOGY OF MAN

DR. J. FRANZ SIMON

FELLOW OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY AT BERLIN

ETC. ETC.

TRANSLATED AND EDITED BY

GEORGE E. DAY, M.A. & L.M. Cantab.

LICENTIATE OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS.

IN TWO VOLUMES

YOL. I.

LONDON

PRINTED FOR THE SYDENHAM SOCIETY

MDCCCXLV.

PRINTED BY C. AND J. AD LARD,

BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.

EDITOR’S PREFACE.

I have much pleasure in presenting to the members of
the Sydenham Society a translation of Simon’s ‘ Chemistry
of Man/1 a work that obtained for its author a European repu-
tation, and is universally regarded as by far the most complete
treatise that has yet appeared on Physiological Chemistry.
Until I became acquainted with this work in 1843, I enter-
tained the idea of publishing a text-book of medical chemistry
with the view of attempting to supply a deficiency in the medical
literature of this country, which, I doubt not, has been felt by
many of my brethren as much as by myself. But a careful
perusal of the f Chemistiy of Man’ convinced me that I should
be doing better service to the profession by undertaking a
translation of that work than by the publication of a separate
treatise. Impressed with this feeling I wrote to the author, who
immediately offered me all the assistance in his power, and
promised me a considerable amount of original matter. I regret
to say that his early and unexpected death in the autumn of
the same year rendered this promise of comparatively little
value. I have, however, freely availed myself of the permission
granted me by the Council of the Sydenham Society to insert
such additions as the progress of chemistry, since the original

1 Physiologische und pathologische Anthropochemie mit Beriicksichtigung der
eigentlichen Zoocheinic. Berlin, 1842.

EDITOR’S PREFACE.

publication of the work, has rendered necessary. These inter-
polations, with the exception of one class, are distinguished by
being included in brackets. I refer to the chemical essays of
Simon, written with the view of filling up occasional deficiencies
in his f Chemistry of Man/ and published in his f Beitrage zur
physiologischen und pathologischen Chemie imd Mikroskopie.'
This exception was made at the request of Dr. Simon, and
its expediency and fairness is unquestionable. The ‘ Chemistry
of Man’ was preceded by a volume entitled 1 Chemistry of the
Proximate Constituents of the Animal Body/ which, being in
fact a distinct work, (containing upwards of 500 closely printed
pages,) it has been deemed unadvisable to translate in its
original form. A brief Introduction,1 in a great measure
based upon it, has been drawn up by myself, with the view of
facilitating the perusal of the work to those who have not paid
much attention to the recent progress of organic chemistry ;
and having written it with this object, I have intentionally
excluded many topics which some of my readers may consider
should have found a place there.

The following sketch of the life and writings of the Author,
brief though it be, cannot be read without interest. It affords
a striking illustration of the results that combined energy and
talent are capable of evolving.-

Franz Simon was the son of a surgeon residing at Frankfort
on the Oder, and was born on the 25th of August, 1807.
He distinguished himself at a very early age as a skilful
apothecary ; and, in volume 32 of ‘ Braude's Archiv/ we find
his essay on the preparation and properties of tinctures, to
which one of the Hagen-Buchholz prizes was awarded in 1829.
Even in this essay we can trace the germs of some of his future
speculations in physiological chemistry. The following year he

1 In the compilation of the Introduction I am likewise much indebted to Lehmann’s
1 Manual of Physiological Chemistry and to Mulder’s ‘ Chemistry of Vegetable and
Animal Physiology.’

EDITOR’S PREFACE.

vii

obtained the first prize (the gold medal) for his essay on the
best method of preparing infusions and decoctions (Brande’s
Archiv, vol. 35)., a treatise equally remarkable for the extreme
accuracy and care with which his experiments were conducted,
and for the judgment displayed in his conclusions. In the
year 1832 Simon came from the Rhine, where he had been
practising as apothecary in different towns (Cleve, Diisseldorf,
Coin, and Deutz,) to Berlin, where he passed his examination
as apothecary with the highest credit, and where, in addition
to the practical department of his profession, he attended
lectures on chemistry and pharmacy. He now published a
small pamphlet entitled ‘ A brief Examination of Professor
Kranichfeld’s Treatise on the necessity of a Fundamental
Knowledge of Pharmacy in relation to sound Medical Practice/
one of the most argumentative and powerful replies that
Kranichfeld’s absurd and unfounded accusation against the
German apothecary system elicited. From this period till the
year 1838 he devoted himself to study, having, with this view,
given up his public pharmaceutical avocations in the year 1835.
He attended, for six terms, lectures at the High School of Berlin,
on natural history, physics, mathematics, history, and philosophy;
he likewise published, conjointly with Dr. Meklenburg, a tabular
view of chemistry (Berlin, Hirschwald.) Most of his leisure
time at this period was devoted to toxicology, a subject on
which he and his friend Dr. Sobernheim published a treatise
which is regarded throughout Germany as the standard work
on everything connected with poisons and poisoning. Some
of the most important original investigations on which this
work was based were originally published in Poggendorff’s
Annalen, vol. 40.

On the 3d of October, 1838, Simon received the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy for his celebrated thesis ‘ De Lactis
Muliebris ratione chemica et physiologica/ which, in the course
of the same year, was published, with considerable additions, in

V1U

EDITOR’S PREFACE.

the German language (Die Frauenmilch, u. s. w. Berlin,
Forstner, 1838), and fully established his reputation as one of
the most successful investigators of the age in the departments
of organic chemistry and microscopy. It was regarded by
Berzelius and others of our first chemists as the most perfect
work on the subject of which it treats.

In 1839 his tabular f View of the Mineral Springs of Europe,
arranged with especial regard to their chemical composition
and their physical and chemical characters’ (Die Heilquellen
Europas, u. s. w., Berlin, Forstner,) made its appearance, a work
of very considerable labour, in which he collected and systema-
tically arranged no less than 1045 analyses of European mineral
waters ; and in 1841 we find him an extensive contributor to
Dr. Nicolai’s f Manual of Medical Jurisprudence,’ having, in
fact, executed the whole of the chemical and toxicological portion
of the work. About this time the first part of the f Chemistry
of Man’ appeared; it was not, however, completed till the
summer of 1842, in consequence of Simon’s determination to
render the work as rich as possible in original analytical obser-
vations. With this view he was a constant attendant at
Schonlein’s clinical class, where his chemical services were
highly valued, as manifested by the frequent reference made
to them by that distinguished physician in his published Clini-
cal Lectures. Scarcely had Simon concluded the ‘ Chemistiy
of Man’ before he entertained the idea of editing a quarterly
periodical devoted to his favorite pursuits, physiological and
pathological chemistry. It appeared under the title of ‘ Beitrage
zur physiologischen und pathologischen Chemie und Mikro-
skopie, in ikrer Anwendung auf die praktische Medizin.’ He
lived to edit only three numbers. The fourth (edited by bis
friend Dr. Minding) contained the melancholy tidings of his
death, which took place at Vienna on the 23d of October 1843,
after an illness of only four weeks. Though no longer amongst
us, the good that he did died not with him ; his works, no

EDITOR’S PREFACE.

less than his example, have stimulated others to follow in his
track, and to build upon the solid basis that he has left them.
Even the very periodical that he commenced so shortly before
his death is still conducted (under a different title) by an able
chemist, and is producing results worthy of its original founder.

I gladly avail myself of this opportunity of expressing my
obligations to the Council of the Sydenham Society for the
promptitude with which they accepted my suggestion respecting
the expediency of publishing an English edition of this work,
and for intrusting me with the editorship of it ; to one of that
body, Mr. Ancell, I am very deeply indebted for the kind and
valuable assistance that he has afforded me in the preparation
of this volume for the press. Amongst the many other friends
to whom my acknowledgments are due, I must especially men-
tion Dr. Allen Thomson, Dr. Percy, Dr. Wright, and Dr.
Golding Bird.

G. E. D.

Southwick street, Hyde Park.

AUTHOR’S PREFACE.

The completion of the ‘ Chemistry of Man’ has been una-
voidably delayed beyond the time at which it was advertised
to appear, in consequence of the large number of original ana-
lyses that I found it requisite to institute. As, however, these
analyses materially increase the value of the work, I trust
that my apparent procrastination will be readily forgiven.
The present volumes comprise physiological and pathological
chemistry. They treat of the physical and chemical relations
of the fluid and solid portions of the human body in a state of
health, and of the modifications they experience in different dis-
eases. Moreover, in every instance, the chemical examination
of the fluids and solids of the lower animals is appended to
each chapter. The order in which the various matters treated
in these volumes are discussed must be regarded rather as natural
than physiological. After the circulating fluids, viz., the blood,
lymph, and chyle, with which I commence, — I treat of the
secreted and excreted fluids, as, for instance, those of the cliy-
lopoietic system, of the female breast, of the mucous membranes
and skin, of the kidneys, &c. : next in order, I take the fteces
and vomited matters. I then consider the various tissues that
enter into the composition of the animal body, as, for instance,
the bones, muscles, skin, and glands ; and I conclude with a
description of various solid and fluid morbid products, such

AUTHOR’S PREFACE.

as calculi, tubercular and carcinomatous matter, dropsical
effusions, &c.

I have made myself practically conversant with the most
approved methods of analysing the different fluids and solids
described in this work ; and, as far as my resources permitted,

I have endeavoured to determine the various physical and che- .
mical modifications they undergo in the course of different dis-
eases. My attention has been especially directed to the study
of those fluids that are of the greatest importance to the
practical physician. Within the space of a few years I have
made about 170 quantitative analyses of various animal matters,
of which the very large majority refer to human blood, milk,
and urine, and on which I lay the foundation for the patholo-
gical chemistry of those fluids. In fact, without these analyses
it would have been impossible to publish a work worthy of the
name of ‘ The Chemistry of Man for the essays of Andral
and Gavarret on the Blood, and of Becquerel on the Urine, did
not appeal’ until I had made considerable progress in my work.

I have deemed it, in every case, my duty to incorporate the
results of other chemists with my own, and if, in any instance,

I have failed in acknowledging the sources from which my
statements have been drawn, the fault is one of inadvertence,
not of design. All purely physiological matter, not bearing
directly on chemistry, has been omitted ; but microscopic in-
vestigation, especially in those instances in which it strengthens
the evidence of experimental chemistry, has been deemed legi-
timately deserving of a place in this treatise.

My views regarding the metamorphosis of the blood, and its
relation to nutrition and animal heat, were first communicated,
at Erlangen in the autumn of 1840, to the medical and chemi-
cal section of Associated Naturalists ; and my subsequent re-
searches into the chemical constitution of the blood and urine
confirm my belief in their general accuracy. These views may
be summed up in the following terms : The blood is subjected

AUTHOR’S PREFACE.

to a continuous metamorphosis, which may he regarded as the
expression of its vitality. The nutrition of the peripheral sys-
tem is effected by the liquor sanguinis, not by the blood-cor-
puscles. The liquor sanguinis affords nutriment to the cells
and organs, which possess an inherent power of selecting proper
material, or of forming it from non-homologous matter, at the
same time secreting the products of decomposition. The prin-
cipal nutritive matters in the liquor sanguinis are albumen,
fibrin, and fat. The chief products of this metamorphosis are
the extractive matters and lactic acid, which occur in the ex-
cretions, especially in the urine. Urea, bilin, and carbonic acid
are either not products of the metamorphosis of the blood during
the act of nutrition in the peripheral system, or at most they
are only in part formed by it. They must he regarded as pro-
ducts of the vital energy of the blood-corpuscles, which, doubt-
less, possess the same power of attracting nutriment, and of
throwing off decomposed products, as other living cells. The
proper nutriment of these corpuscles is oxygen, albumen, and
probably also fat, which are furnished them by the liquor san-
guinis. The most important products of their metamorphosis
are carbonic acid, urea, fibrin, extractive matters, and very pro-
bably some of the constituents of the bile. The leading and
most important object of this vital energy of the blood-corpus-
cles is the production of animal heat, without which every
function of the organism, nay even life itself, would be instan-
taneously annihilated. The production of animal heat is due
to the combination of oxygen with the carbon of the globulin
the principal products of this reaction are carbonic acid and
urea, or uric acid, (which is excreted as a substitute for urea in
most of those classes of animals in which elliptic blood-corpus-

1 [Simon’s views respecting the production of animal heat approximate closely
to those expressed by our countryman, Mr. Ancell, in his 11th lecture on the
blood. See Lancet, 1840, vol. i. p. 829, or Dr. Posner’s German edition of the col-
lected lectures, p. 200.]

AUTHOR’S PREFACE.

cles occur.) The urea excreted may thus be regarded as a
measure or equivalent of the auimal heat developed.

The production of blood-corpuscles and the formation of blood
are intimately connected with nutrition : when the food is too
scanty and insufficient, the amount of blood, and especially of
blood-corpuscles, is diminished ; when the nutriment is proper
and abundant, the reverse takes place. In the former case, there-
fore, the vital energy is depressed, the secretions and excretions
are diminished, and the animal heat sinks ; while in the latter
case exactly the reverse is observed. In the normal state there
is an equilibrium preserved between the production and con-
sumption of blood-corpuscles. The food is prepared, and to a
certain extent assimilated, before it enters the blood. The vital
energy of the blood-corpuscles continues even during a perfect
abstinence from food, and carbonic acid and urea continue to
be formed, although their amount gradually diminishes in a
direct ratio with the diminution of the blood -corpuscles.

Moreover, the amount of carbonic acid and the formation of
urea are lessened by a torpid, and increased by an excited cir-
culation ; and in proportion to the amount of corpuscles and
to the rapidity of the circulation, so much the higher is the
animal temperature. Thus in birds we observe a high tem-
perature, and the reverse in the amphibia. In chlorotic, and
also in very aged persons we find a low temperature, and a
diminished excretion of urea, while in inflammatory diseases,
and after prolonged corporeal exertion the temperature rises,
and there is either a relative or an absolute increase of urea;
in the former case, even in the absence of all nitrogenous food.
The capillary and cutaneous systems tend to regulate an ex-
cessive rapidity of the circulation, and to prevent the animal
heat from exceeding a certain limit.

If we only knew whether, and in what manner, the pulmo-
nary exhalation is changed in various diseases, (especially in rela-
tion to the amount of carbonic acid contained in it,) whether

XIV

AUTHOR’S PREFACE.

the carbonic acid always increases relatively with the urea, or in
certain cases with the uric acid, and if further, we possessed
experiments illustrative of the effects of diseases, and of varied
diet on the bile, we should then have a more solid basis than
we now occupy, on which to found our chemical inquiries,
while the acquisition to the science of medicine would be po-
sitive and incalculable. The questions here involved must,
however, unfortunately, at the present time, be regarded as
unanswerable. We cannot doubt that the pulmonary exhalation
does vary, under different circumstances, in the amount of car-
bonic acid; for instance, more carbonic acid is exhaled during
prolonged corporeal exertion than when the body is in a state
of repose ; although, as far as I am aware, no experiments on
this subject have yet been instituted.1 We have, however, con-
clusive evidence that the amount of urea is increased under
these circumstances.

On the other hand, in the researches of Trommer regarding
the passage of sugar into the portal blood of horses, this sub-
stance could not be detected in the chyle nor in the arterial or
venous blood, which renders it more than probable that the
liver not only serves the purpose of modifying the composition
of the blood, but likewise effects the object of altering or re-
moving abnormal substances from it that have been absorbed
by the mesenteric veins. Hence this organ appears, in a cer-
tain degree, to take a share in the process of digestion, an
opinion supported by Berzelius. Future investigations re-
specting the functions of the liver may lead to very important
results, and throw much light on many of the most obscure
departments of physiology.

Although very little has yet been done in physiological and
pathological chemistry, the rational physician, who ventures to
cast aside the trammels of dogmatism and empiricism, cannot,

1 [The experiments of Scharling on this subject were made after the publication
of the ‘ Chemistry of Man.’ A brief notice of them is given in p. 129 of this volume.]

AUTHOR’S PREFACE.

for an instant, doubt that pathology, therapeutics, and diag-
nosis, are only safely based on chemistry, physiology, and morbid
anatomy: he cannot entertain a doubt that the same chemistry
with which he scans the changes in crude inorganic matter,
will likewise enable him, if not at present, yet surely at some
future period, to detect the variations in the composition of the
animal fluids and solids, some of which are dependent on phy-
siological, others on pathological causes, and will throw a new
light on the normal functions of the organism, as well as on
the various processes of disease.

After contemplating the dependence of vital manifestations
on the unceasing metamorphosis of the animal body, and the
secretions and excretions as its products ; after glancing at the
physical and chemical modifications that these secretions and
excretions undergo in numerous pathological conditions, and
observing how these changes affect the structure and chemical
conditions of the different organs, we can no longer entertain
a doubt that all morbid phenomena are accompanied by me-
tamorphoses in the organism, different from those that occur
in the normal condition. But it will require an immense number
of analyses in order to ascertain and determine these modifi-
cations, to express them in definite terms, to connect them
duly with functional distin’bances in the organism, or with
other symptomatic phenomena, and, finally, as far as possible,
to endeavour to discover their origin. In such researches
the mere chemist can do little : in order to produce results really
serviceable to science, physiology and pathology are as essential
as chemistry itself, and no one can hope to advance this de-
partment of scientific inquiiy who does not include, in his own
person, the chemist, the physiologist, and the pathologist.

Every science is slowly and gradually developed. Physio-
logical and pathological chemistry forms no exception to this
rule : it is still a mere infant science, that has scarcely attained
a self-dependent existence. The reader must therefore not

XVI

AUTHOR’S PREFACE.

require of this work more than the present state of the science
will enable me to present him with. He will find in it che-
mical facts which the physiologist and pathologist may render
of further service : the few scattered ideas concerning the me-
tamorphosis of the blood, and the probable connexion between
various diseases and certain modifications in the composition
of the different animal fluids, may serve as connecting links for
further investigations.

The materials for my analyses have been chiefly derived
from the Charite (hospital) of this city, from some of the public
cliniques, from private practice, and from the royal veterinary
school. I gladly avail myself of this opportunity of publicly
expressing my thanks to Drs. Schonlein, Wolff, and Romberg,
as well to Professors Gurlt and Hertwig, and the other pro-
fessional friends who have favoured me with their advice and
assistance. I must likewise express my obligation to Dr.
v. Belir, who assisted me for a considerable time in my re-
searches on the urine.

That this work may succeed in encouraging a taste for a
department of science, whose cultivation and further develop-
ment is, at the present time, imperatively demanded by the
medical public, is the most sincere wish of

The Author.

Berlin, April 1842.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.

By Dr. Day.

Page

I. Mineral Constituents.

Class 1. Constituents useful by their physical properties . . 1

2. Constituents useful hy their chemical properties . . 2

. 3. Incidental constituents . . . . .3

II. Organic Constituents.

Class I. Nitrogenous constituents :

1. Protein ....... 5

2. Albumen . . . . . . .15

3. Fibrin . . . . . . .18

4. Casein ....... 19

5. Pepsin . . . . . . .22

6. Ptyalin . . . . . . .24

7. Gelatin — chondrin and glutin . . . .25

8. Pyin ....... 29

9. Extractive matters . . . . . .30

10. Colouring matters . . . . . .39

a. Of the blood . . . . . . ib.

b. Of the bile . . . . . .43

c. Of the urine . . . . .45

11. Bilin . . . . . . . . ib.

12. Urea . . . . . . . .49

13. Uric acid ....... 53

14. Hippuric acid . . . . . .61

15. Uric oxide . . . . . . .62

16. Cystin . . . . . . .64

Class II. Non-nitrogenous constituents :

1. Animal sugars . . . . . .65

a. Sugar of milk . . . . . . ib.

b. Diabetic sugar . . . . . .66

xviii

CONTENTS.

2. Saponifiable fats

a. Fatty bases

Glycerin .

Oxide of cetyl
Cerain .

b. Fatty acids . . .

Margaryl and its oxides — stearic and
Oleic acid

Butyric and its allied acids
Cerebric and oleophosphoric acids

3. Non-saponifiable fats :

a. Cliolesterin ....

b. Serolin ....

4. Organic acids :

a. Lactic acid ....

b. Oxalic acid ....

c. Acetic acid ....

margaric acids

CHEMISTRY OF MAN.

CHAPTER I.

On the proximate analysis of compound animal substances

CHAPTER II.

The circulating fluids — the blood ....

The general physical relations of the blood.

Microscopic analysis of the blood ......

The general chemical relations of the blood.

The general chemical relations of the blood-corpuscles

„ „ „ colouring matter of the blood

„ „ ,, nuclei of the blood-corpuscles

„ „ „ plasma (liquor sanguinis)

The retardation or prevention of coagulation ....
Acceleration of the coagulation ......

On the chemical physiology of the blood.

On the formation of the blood ......

On the forces that circulate the blood .....

On the process of respiration ......

Absolute quantity of expired carbonic acid ....

Relations of the constituents of the expired air to the theory of respiration
Respiration of the foetus and of animals ....

On the metamorphosis of the blood .....

Page

70
ib.
ib.
ib.

71
ib.

75
81

85
ib.

100

102

107

112

ib.

114

115
117

118

122

123

128

131

136

139

CONTENTS.

On animal heat ......

xix

Page

142

Metamorphosis of the blood in the nutrition of the organism

147

Active metamorphosis of the blood

•

152

Special chemistry of the blood.

Proximate constituents of the blood

166

On the methods of analysing the blood

167

Analysis of coagulated blood ....

•

190

On the healthy blood in relation to physiology.

On the distinctive characters of arterial and venous blood

192

Properties of the blood of the vena portaj ; its comparison with arterial blood

201

Properties of the blood of the hepatic vein ; its comparison with the blood of
the vena portae ........

208

Properties of the blood of the renal veins ; its comparison with the blood
the aorta .......

213

Comparison of venous blood with the blood of the capillaries

217

Review of the modifications and changes that the blood undergoes in
course of the circulation .....

tlie

218

On the absolute composition of healthy venous blood

227

On the differences of the blood dependent on sex

234

„ „ „ on constitution

236

„ „ „ on temperament

ib.

tt tt tt on clgC . .

•

ib.

ON DISEASED BLOOD.

The pathological chemistry of the blood

239

Andral and Gavarret’s method of analysis

240

On the effect of repeated venesections on the blood

248

First form of diseased blood : hyperinosis

250

Blood in inflammatory affections generally

251

,, metrophlebitis puerperalis

252

„ phlegmasia alba dolens

253

„ carditis .....

254

„ bronchitis .....

255

„ pneumonia .....

258

„ pleuritis .....

266

„ angina tonsillaris (amygdalitis)

268

„ hepatitis and lienitis ....

ib.

„ peritonitis .....

269

„ nephritis and cystitis ....

273

„ rheumatismus acutus ....

ib.

„ erysipelas .....

277

„ phthisis tuberculosa ....

279

„ febris puerperalis ....

282

„ eclampsia .....

ib.

„ carcinoma medullare colli uteri

284

CONTENTS.

Second form of diseased blood : hypinosis

Blood in typhus abdominalis
„ febris continua ,

„ variola and varioloid disease

„ rubeola

,, scarlatina

„ febris intermittens

„ haemorrhagia cerebralis

Third form of diseased blood : spanaemia

Blood in anaemia and liydraemia
„ carcinoma

,, scrofulosis

,, chlorosis

„ scorbutus

„ morbus maculosus Werlbofii (la

„ hemorrhages
„ purpura baemorrbagica

„ typhus peteehialis putridus (yellow fever, plagi

Fourth form of diseased blood: heterochymeusis

1. Blood containing urea ; uraemia

Blood in morbus Briglitii .

„ cholera

2. Blood containing sugar : melitcemia

Blood in diabetes

3. Blood containing bile-pigment : cholcemia

Blood in icterus

4. Blood containing fat : piarhcemia

5. Blood containing pus : pyolicemia

6. Blood containing animalcules

nd-scurvy)

SUPPLEMENT TO THE BLOOD.

Blood during pregnancy . . . v

Menstrual blood .....

Lochial discharge .....

Blood of animals .....

The lymph
The chyle

Page

286

288

295

298

300
ib.

301

302
306

308

309
ib.

310

315

316

317
319
ib.
321
ib.
ib.
325
327
ib.
329
ib.

332

333
335

335

337

338

339

350

354

• I

CHEMISTRY OF MAN.

INTRODUCTION.

The proximate constituents of the animal body may be divided
into two great classes, the mineral and the organic ; each of
which admits of several sub-divisions.

I. MINERAL CONSTITUENTS.

The Mineral Constituents may be advantageously classed in
three groups, comprising, i, Those which are of service in the
animal body, in consequence of their physical properties ; n,
Those which effect important objects in the system by their
chemical actions; and m, Those which, being only incidentally
present, may be eliminated without exerting any unfavorable
effect on the economy.

CLASS I. CONSTITUENTS USEFUL BY THEIR PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES.

1. Water. This substance is so universally diffused, and its
uses are so obvious as to render any observations unnecessary.

2. Phosphate of lime, in the importance of its physical proper-
ties to the animal organism, undoubtedly ranks next to water.
Phosphate of lime or, as it is often termed, bonc-eartli, consists
of 8 eq. of lime and 3 eq. of phosphoric acid; its empirical formula
therefore is 8 Ca O + 3 PO ; but there can be no doubt that

MINERAL CONSTITUENTS.

it is a compound of two tribasic phosphates of lime, namely
2 Ca O, TIO, P05 + 2 (3 Ca O, POr). It consists of 5P55
parts of lime, and 48-45 of phosphoric acid. It occurs in bone,
blood, milk, mine, feces, &c.

3. Carbonate of lime forms the principal part of the skeleton in
the invertebrata ; it also occurs in greater or less proportion in
the bones of the higher animals and man, in the urine of the
graminivora, and in certain morbid concretions. It contains
56'29 parts of lime and 43' 71 of carbonic acid.

4. Phosphate of magnesia is very frequently associated with
phosphate of lime. In a crystalline state its formula is PIO,
2 Mg O, P05 + 2 HO + 12 HO. (Graham in Phil. Trans. 1837.)
It occurs in bone, blood, milk, shell of eggs, urine of man and
carnivora, intestinal concretions, feces, &c. After the removal
of the water of crystallization it consists of 36-67 parts of mag-
nesia, and 63-33 of phosphoric acid.

Phosphate of magnesia and ammonia, or, as it is frequently
termed, ammoniaco -magnesian phosphate, is a perfectly distinct
salt. Like the former, it is a tribasic salt, of which the 3 atoms
of base are, 1 atom of oxide of ammonium, and 2 atoms of
magnesia, with 12 atoms of water of crystallization, 10 of which
may be expelled without any loss of ammonia. Its formula
therefore is NH4 O, 2 Mg O, P05 + 2 HO + 10 HO. Crystals
of this salt have been observed in the excrements in typhus and
other diseases ; it is also present in certain states of the urine,
and is a frequent constituent of urinary calculi.

5. Fluoride of calcium occurs in the animal organism in very
minute quantity. It is much more abundant in fossil than in
recent bones.

CLASS II.

CONSTITUENTS USEFUL BY THEIR CHEMICAL
PROPERTIES.

1. Hydrochloric acid exists in the digestive fluid of man, of
the mammalia generally, and of birds. It has been detected
by Lehmann in morbid saliva.

2. Hydrofluoric acid has only been detected in the gastric se-
cretion of birds.

3. Chloride of sodium exists in the blood, gastric juice, urine,
bone, cartilage, &c.

INCIDENTAL.

4. Carbonate of soda is a very common ingredient in the ash
of animal substances; in most cases it is derived from com-
pounds of soda with organic acids, especially lactic acid. It
is also found in the urine of the graminivora.

5. Phosphate of soda occurs in the blood, lymph, chyle, bile,
milk, and. urine. Its formula is HO, 2 Na O, PO. + 24 HO.
On the addition of muriate of ammonia to a solution of this
salt, we obtain the “ sal microcosmicus ” of the older chemists,
which is found in considerable quantity in decomposed animal
fluids; its formula is HO, NII4 O, NaO, PO.+8 HO. The
recent investigations of Enderlin tend to prove that the phos-
phate of soda that most commonly occurs in the animal fluids
and tissues, contains 3 atoms of soda, and may be represented
by the formula 3 Na O, PO,.

6. Chloride of calcium is found in the gastric juice and saliva.

7. Chloride of iron (apparently the proto-salt) occurs in he
gastric juice.

8. Iron is found in considerable quantity in hcematin, the prin-
cipal colouring matter of the blood ; also in lymph, chyle, black
pigment of the eye, hair, &c. In what state it exists, whether
as a peroxide or protoxide, or either, is not known. It is also
found in lesser proportion in bile, urine, sweat, milk, &c. In
some of these fluids it is stated to exist as a phosphate.

CLASS III. INCIDENTAL CONSTITUENTS.

1. Chloride of potassium is found in almost all the animal fluids.

2. Alkaline sulphates occur in small quantity in most of the
animal fluids, in the blood, milk, urine, and sweat. Mitsclierlicli
could not detect any alkaline sulphates in the saliva, and
Lehmann has recently shown that they do not exist in the bile,
although they may be produced in the ash.

3. Carbonate of magnesia has been found in alvine concre-
tions, urinary calculi, &c., in man and the mammalia. It
occurs in considerable quantity in the urine of the graminivora,
and is a constituent of the shell of the egg. Berzelius suggests
the probability of magnesia being contained in bone, not as a
phosphate but as a carbonate, and that the phosphate of mag-
nesia is produced during analysis.

4. Manganese has been found in the hair ; it has also been

4 ' MINERAL CONSTITUENTS.

detected in human gall-stones, (in one instance there was found
as much as 03-1 of the protoxide of manganese,) and traces of
it have been observed in the urinary calculi of the graminivora.

5. Silica has been found in small quantity in the enamel of
the teeth, in bone, urine, urinary, intestinal, and biliary calculi,
hair, and saliva. It is found in considerable quantity in the
excrements, the amount varying with the nature of the food.
In the sheep the excrements have been observed to contain as
much as 6-02 of silica.

6. Alumina. Traces of this substance were detected by
Vauquelin, in human bones; it has been found in considerable
quantity in fossil teeth and horns. The circumstance of its
being an occasional constituent of intestinal concretions coincides
with Lehmann’s experiments, in which he found that when
alumina was introduced into the system, it was carried off by
the faeces.

7. Arsenic was recently stated by Orfila to be a normal consti-
tuent of human hone. This opinion has, however, since been
withdrawn, and there is little doubt that there was some fal-
lacy in his experiments.

8. Copper is considered by Devergie, Lefortier, and Orfila, to
be a normal constituent of all the soft parts, as well as of the
blood of healthy persons. Devergie2 analysed the viscera of
five persons and found it in every instance. It has also been
found in the sweat.

9. Lead has been found by these chemists in the same cases
as copper.

10. Ammoniacal salts. In the blood, lymph, chyle, and milk,
there are no appreciable ammoniacal salts. They have been
observed in some cases in the sweat, and they occur in a small
proportion in the urine.

1 The notation g represents per centage.

3 These observations have recently been confirmed by M. Barse, who succeeded in
finding both copper and lead in the bodies of two persons to whom they could not
have been given for poisons. It seems from the analyses of Signor Cattanci that
neither of these metals exists in the bodies of new-born children or infants ; and
Bossignon has recently pointed out the sources from which the bodies of adults pro-
bably derive their copper. He has found this metal in gelatin, chocolate, bread,
coffee, sugar, &c.

PROTEIN.

II. ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

The Organic Constituents may be arranged in two principal
groups, the former embracing the nitrogenous, the latter the
non-nitrogenous matters. In the nitrogenous group we have
protein, and its various modifications — gelatin, bilin, and the pro-
ducts of its metamorphosis — luematin, urea, uric acid, &c. : in
the non-nitrogenous we place the animal sugars, fats, lactic and
acetic acids, &c. &c.

CLASS I. NITROGENOUS CONSTITUENTS.

1. Protein.

Under this head we shall consider three very important com-
pounds which are formed in the vegetable kingdom, and which
are also found to constitute the greater part of the animal body.
These are Albumen, Fibrin, and Casein. Two most important
discoveries have recently been made regarding these substances.
The first is the discovery made by Mulder that albumen, fibrin,
and casein are nothing more than modifications of one com-
pound to which he has given the name of Protein, (from
7TfW7£uw, I am first,) which may be regarded as the commence-
ment and starting-point of all the tissues : the second is, that
protein, in every respect identical with that which forms the
basis of the three aforesaid animal principles, may be obtained
from similar elements in the vegetable kingdom. When the
newly-expressed juices of vegetables are allowed to stand, a
separation takes place in a few minutes. A gelatinous preci-
pitate commonly of a green tinge is deposited, and this, when
acted on by liquids which remove the colouring matter, leaves
a grayish white substance, which has been named vegetable fibrin.
It separates from the vegetable juice in which it was originally
dissolved exactly as fibrin does from blood.

When the clarified juice of nutritious vegetables, such as
cauliflower, asparagus, mangel- wiuzel, or turnips, is made to boil,
a coagulum is formed which it is absolutely impossible to dis-
tinguish from the substance which separates as a coagulum,
when the serum of blood, or the white of an egg, diluted with
water, is heated to the boiling point. This is vegetable albumen.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

Vegetable casein is chiefly found in the seeds of peas, beans,
lentils, and similar leguminous seeds. Like vegetable albumen,
it is soluble in water, but differs from it in this, that its solution
is not coagulated by heat. When the solution is heated or
evaporated, a skin forms on its surface, and the addition of an
acid causes a coagulum just as in animal milk.

“ The chemical analysis of these three substances has led to
the very interesting result that they contain the same organic
elements united in the same proportion by weight ; and what is
still more remarkable that they are identical in composition with
the chief constituents of blood, animal fibrin and albumen.

They all three dissolve in concentrated muriatic acid, with the
same deep purple colour, and even in their physical characters
animal fibrin and albumen are in no respect different from ve-
getable fibrin and albumen. It is especially to be noticed, that
by the phrase identity of composition we do not here imply
mere similarity, but that, even in regard to the presence and re-
lative amount of sulphur, phosphorus, and phosphate of lime, no
difference can be observed.” 1

When animal or vegetable albumen, fibrin, or casein is to be
used for the extraction of protein in a state of purity, the fol-
lowing steps are to be taken. The selected substance is suc-
cessively washed with water, alcohol, and ether, for the purpose
of removing extractive matter, fat, and soluble salts. It is then
treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, which extracts the phos-
phate of lime and any other insoluble salts that may happen to
be present. We now dissolve it in a moderately strong solution
of caustic potash, and keep the solution for some time at a tem-
perature of 120°, whereby the sulphur and phosphorus that are
present form phosphate of potash and sulphuret of potassium.

The protein is then to be thrown down from the solution, after
filtration, by acetic acid, which must be added only in very slight
excess, as otherwise the precipitate would be redissolved. It
must then be collected on a filter and carefully washed till every
trace of acetate of potash is removed.

In this state it occurs in the form of grayish white gelatinous
flocks, which, when dried, become hard and yellow, and give an
amber-coloured powder. It is insoluble in water, alcohol, and

' Liebig’s Animal Chemistry, translated by Gregory; p. 47.

PROTEIN.

ether, anti is devoid of odour and taste. It readily absorbs
moisture, and swells up, but regains its original form upon being
heated to 212°.

Mulder lias analysed protein from animal and vegetable albu-
men, from fibrin, and from cheese or casein ; Scherer has analysed
it from animal albumen and fibrin, from the crystalline lens,
from hair, and from born; and Dumas from animal albumen
and casein.

The formulse which these chemists have assigned to it approxi-
mate closely to each other, although they are not absolutely
identical. As Mulder’s original formula has been confirmed by
the recent investigations of Schroder and Yon Laer, we shall adopt
it as the correct symbol of the composition of this substance.
According to this view the composition1 of an atom of protein is
represented by the formula C40 Hal N. ()12. Its atomic weight
is 5529-5, oxygen being 100, and its symbol is Pr. It burns
when exposed to the air, without leaving any ash. When boiled
for a considerable time in water, with free exposure to the air,
protein becomes slowly oxydised. We shall revert to this sub-
ject presently.

Protein combines both with acids and bases. It dissolves
in all very dilute acids, and forms with them a kind of neutraf
compound, which is insoluble or nearly so when there is an
excess of the acid present. Hence if sulphuric, hydrochloric,
or nitric acid be added to a solution of protein in a dilute acid,
the protein is precipitated in an insoluble state ; if however the
excess of acid is removed by careful washing, the precipitate
becomes again dissolved. Acetic acid aud tlie ordinary (tribasic)
phosphoric acid constitute an exception to this rule as they dis-
solve protein in all proportions. Protein may be precipitated
from any of its acid solutions by ferrocyanide and ferridcyanide
of potassium, by tannin, by anhydrous alcohol, by various me-
tallic salts, and by the alkalies.

The Metamorphoses of Protein, a. Sulphuric acid and
protein. On the addition of concentrated sulphuric acid to
protein or to any of its modifications (albumen, fibrin, or

1 Liebig’s formula for protein is C<8 lln8 N6 Ou. The numerical results afforded
by these formulae approximate very closely. See Appendix I, Note 1.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

casein) a gradual swelling ensues, and the substance assumes
a gelatinous appearance. On the addition of water it con-
tracts, and it is found to be perfectly insoluble in that fluid.
It must be collected on a filter and boiled in water as long
as a solution of baryta indicates that any sulphuric acid is
being given off : it must then be heated with alcohol, and
dried at a temperature not exceeding 260°. This is sulpho-
proteic acicl. It appears as a yellow mass, is not easily pul-
verized, and is insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether, but dis-
solves in potash and ammonia. The salts of silver, copper,
lead, and iron yield precipitates with the alkaline solutions of
this acid. Its formula is C^H^, N5 012, SO^.

On the cautious addition^ of dilute sulphuric acid to an
acetic acid solution of protein, we obtain Mulder’s sulpho -bi-pro -
laic acid, which is then thrown down as a flocculent precipitate.
After washing it, and drying it at a temperature not exceeding
260°, it assumes a white appearance, and may be easily pulve-
rized. With the alkalies it forms solutions from which many
of the metallic salts throw down insoluble compounds. Mulder
considers that it is composed of two atoms of protein, two of
water, and one of sulphuric acid ; hence it may be expressed
by the formula C30 He„ N10 024 + H2 02 + S03.

If protein (or any of its modifications) be boiled in dilute
sulphuric acid, a beautiful purple tint is evolved.

(3. Hydrochloric acid and protein. Midder has formed a hydro-
chloro-proteic acid in the same manner as the sulpho-proteic
acid. Its formula is C80 Hfi2 NI0 034 + H2 O , + II Cl. When
protein is boiled in strong hydrochloric acid the solution is at
first yellow, but it gradually merges into a blue tint. This
change of colour does not occur if the atmospheric air is ex-
cluded.

y. Nitric acid and protein. On the addition of nitric acid to
protein or to any of its modifications, nitrogen and a little nitric
oxide are evolved, oxalic acid and nitrate of ammonia are formed,
and there remains undissolved a bright yellow matter, which on
being dried assumes an orange tint, and which is known as
Xantho-proteic acid. It is devoid of smell and taste, although
it slightly reddens moistened litmus paper. It is insoluble
in water, alcohol, and ether. It dissolves in strong mineral
acids, but is precipitated on the addition of water ; with the

PROTEIN.

alkalies it forms dark red soluble salts, and metallie salts throw
down yellow precipitates. In a state of combination, the for-
mula for this acid is CL H04 N, O. : when free it contains

two atoms of water.

The changes which occur in
be illustrated by the equation-

1 At. Protein . . C40 H3I N5 019

2 At. Nitric acid . N2 O10

1 At. Water . . HO

C40 ^3S ^7

the production of this acid may

3 At. Oxalic acid . C6 09

1 At. Nitrogen . . N

2 At. Ammonia . II6 N2

1 At. Hydrated xantho-
proteic acid . . C34 H,6 N4 0, ,

C40 H33 ^7 Om

g, Chlorine and 'protein. On passing a current of chlorine gas
through a solution of any of the protein-compounds, (albumen,
fibrin, or casein,) a white flocculent precipitate is thrown down.
After washing it, and carefully drying it at a temperature of
212°, Mulder deduced from it the formula C40 II31 Nr 0I9 + Cl 03.
He termed it chloro-proteic acid. It appears from his investi-
gations that the protein remains unchanged, but that a portion
of the water is decomposed, and that its oxygen combines with
chlorine to form chlorous acid (Cl O.) while its hydrogen com-
bines with another portion of chlorine to form hydrochloric
acid (H Cl) which remains in solution in the water.1

When ammonia is added to the chlorod-proteic acid, the
latter substance dissolves, and gives off a large amount of nitro-
gen. The solution must be evaporated to dryness, and then
treated with warm water, which takes up a portion of the residue.
On the addition of alcohol to this aqueous solution, a precipitate
is thrown down, while muriate of ammonia remains in solution.
This precipitate is composed of a substance of great physiolo-
gical interest. Its formula2 3 is C40 H31 N. Ol5 + HO. Mulder
originally termed it oxyprotein, but he has recently given it the
more descriptive name of tritoxide of protein , without however
intending to imply anything more than that it contains three
atoms more oxygen than protein. There is another and, in

1 That this compound is a chlorite of protein and not a chloride of tritoxide of

protein seems certain from its analogy with a corresponding compound of gelatin.

3 See Appendix I, Note 2.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

theory, a simpler method of obtaining this compound. When
fibrin or albumen of inflamed or healthy blood, of serum of the
blood, or of hen’s eggs, is boiled with water, after four hours’
boiling, principles are always obtained which are soluble in water,
wdiilst the greater part remains undissolved. On repeating the
ebullition every four hours with fresh water, fresh quantities of
soluble matter are extracted, the insoluble portion becoming
poorer in carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, but richer in oxygen,
until the composition is finally constant. Moreover, the portion
of albumen or fibrin soluble in water when evaporated, extracted
with alcohol, and treated with cold water, is almost entirely so-
luble in it, and likewise contains less carbon, hydrogen, and
nitrogen, but more oxygen than protein. The substances taken
up by the alcohol are merely products of decomposition of the
soluble portion of the fibrin or albumen. It is, moreover, the
decomposition of this portion that gives rise to the ammonia
that is produced on distilling albumen or fibrin with water.

The soluble matter taken up from the fibrin or albumen by
prolonged ebullition is in every respect identical with the trit-
oxide of protein which we have already described ; it exists
moreover ready-formed in the huffy coat of the blood. From
whichever of these sources we procure it, whether from cliloro-
proteic acid, from albumen or fibrin, by prolonged ebullition,
or from the buffy coat of the blood after a comparatively short
ebullition, it possesses the same properties. It is soluble in cold
water, but not in ether, alcohol, essential or fat oils ; it has nei-
ther an acid nor alkaline reaction. It is always precipitated in
the same manner from its aqueous solution by diluted nitric,
sulphuric, hydrochloric, neutral and basic phosphoric, and tannic
acids; by solutions of chlorine, bichloride of mercury, neutral and
basic acetate of lead, nitrate of silver, sulphate of zinc, and
peroxide of iron. It forms with metallic oxides a class
of double salts, which are composed according to the formula

(C„ H31 N5 0la + MO) + (C40 h31 n5 015 + I10).

Tritoxide of protein is not precipitated by dilute acetic acid,
neutral salts of potash and soda, chloride of barium, hydrochlo-
rate of ammonia, nor by that very delicate test for protein, fer-
rocyanide of potassium. It dissolves gradually in solutions of
potash, soda, and ammonia. When thoroughly dried, it occurs
as an amber-coloured powder. Nitric acid converts it into

PROTEIN.

xantho-proteic acicl, a change which is not produced by the action
of that reagent upon chlorod-proteic acid.

Let us now revert to the undissolved residue, which ultimate-
ly assumes a uniform composition expressed by the formula1
C H NO.. It is this which is first formed from protein by
the influence of the oxygen of the atmosphere. The other sub-
stance (tritoxide of protein) originates from it by the addition
of another equivalent of oxygen. In this respect albumen and
fibrin give different results. Albumen, without going through
this preparatory change like fibrin, is at once converted into trit-
oxide of protein by ebullition, the insoluble portion which re-
mains being unaltered albumen.

From the composition of this insoluble portion it has received
the name of binoxide of protein. It exists ready formed in the
buffy coat of the blood. Yon Laer has obtained it from hair
in the following manner. The protein is first thrown down
by the addition of a little acetic acid to a solution of hair in
potash. On the addition of a larger proportion of free acid,
after the removal of the protein, another substance, previously
in a state of solution, is thrown down. This is the binoxide of
protein. Von Laer describes it as a bright yellow precipitate.
After being carefully washed and dried it forms a black, glossy
resinous mass, which on being pulverized forms a dark amber-
yellow powder.

It is insoluble in water and alcohol, but dissolves perfectly
in dilute acetic, hydrochloric, nitric, and sulphuric acids. It
does not assume so strong a yellow colour as protein, when
treated with nitric acid.

Ferrocyanide and ferridcyanide of potassium, and acetate of
lead precipitate it from its acid solutions. It is soluble in potash
and ammonia.

If the binoxide of protein be treated with chlorine there is
formed, at a loss of one atom of nitrogen, and a gain of three
of oxygen, a new substance C40 H31 N, 017, to which no name
has yet been assigned.

In order to obtain these products of oxidation of protein by
boiling fibrin in water, it is essentially necessary that there
should be free access to the atmospheric air.

1 See Appendix I, Note 3.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

Tlie products of the oxidation of protein occur constantly in
the blood ; they are formed in the lungs from fibrin, a sub-
stance which has been shown by Scherer to possess the pro-
perty of absorbing oxygen when in a moist state. The fibrin,
oxidised in the lungs is, according to Mulder, the principal, if
not the only, carrier of the oxygen of the air ; it is especially
this substance from which the secretions are formed.

In inflammatory conditions, a considerably larger quantity
of protein in an oxidised state, is contained in the body, than
is found in a normal state.1

These compounds (or at least one of them) are also found in
pus, the substance termed pyin being in reality tritoxide of pro-
tein ; in false membranes, in cooked meat, and in vitelline sub-
stance ; in the last-named substance we meet with a sulphuret
of the binoxide of protein.

Mulder has recently obtained a third oxide of protein, repre-
sented by the formula C10 H31 N. Oao, by boiling yeast in water.
It occurs in a state of solution.

1 The examination of the foregoing facts leads to some very important conclusions.
We see, for instance, that, by the ebullition of meat, protein is converted into two
oxides, and is thus no more presented to the organism as a means of nutrition in the
form of protein, but one part is converted into binoxide, which is hard and sparingly
soluble, while another portion is changed into the soluble tritoxide, and occurs in
broth, extract of meat, &c. According to Mulder, the interior of roasted meat un-
dergoes a change analogous to that which is produced by ebullition. As the effects
of ebullition upon albumen ditfer from those on fibrin, in evolving only the tritoxide
of protein, boiled albumen must be perfectly distinct from boded or roast meat as a
means of nourishment.

The process of inflammation also appears essentially as a higher grade of oxida-
tion. The albumen of the blood, which furnishes only tritoxide by ebullition, pro-
bably takes no part in the change : we may conclude that it is effected by the fibrin
alone, which, as we know, absorbs oxygen from the air, and is with so much compa-
rative facility converted into binoxide and tritoxide of protein- During the height
of inflammation, there is a great excess of the oxides of protein in the blood ; in a
state of health they are, doubtless, present, but in much smaller proportions. Between
these extremes there may be many intermediate states induced by different disor-
ders. Respiration “may consequently be regarded as a true oxidation of the blood,
or rather of the protein ; and in inflammation, in which the blood contains a greater
quantity of binoxide and tritoxide of protein than in the healthy state, this body
becomes more thoroughly oxidised. Hence it occurs that, in the acceleration of the
act of respiration, in fevers, for example, inflammation so easily supervenes after any
violent or sustained efforts. Every paroxysm of fever must necessarily cause the
formation of a greater quantity of oxidised protein in the system, and every augrnen-

PROTEIN.

c. Potash and protein. On the addition of protein to a concen-
trated solution of potash, and submitting the mixture to ebulli-
tion decomposition takes place, and a crystalline substance, two
distinct extractive matters, and formate and carbonate of am-
monia are produced. After the alkaline solution has been neu-
trahzed as completely as possible by sulphuric acid ; the formic
acid may be removed by gentle distillation.

On evaporating the mixture to about one tliird of its volume,
the greater part of the sulphate of potash will separate in a
crystalline state.

After its removal, the fluid which is of a reddish brown
colour must be reduced to the consistence of an extract, and
then treated with boiling alcohol, which will take up everything
except any sulphate of potash that may have escaped previous
removal. As the alcoholic solution cools, enythroprotid is depo-
sited, in the form of a reddish brown extract. It is readily solu-
ble in water, and in boiling, but not in cold, alcohol ; and it is
precipitahle from its aqueous solution by the salts of lead, silver,
and mercury, of a rose-red colour : it is also precipitahle by
tannic acid. From an analysis of the combination of erythro-
protid with oxide of lead, Mulder has estimated its composition1
at C13 Hg N 04.

Subsequently to the deposition of erythroprotid, leucin se-
parates in a crystalline state. It occurs in brilliant plates or
scales, somewhat resembling cholesterin. It cranches between
the teeth, is inodorous and tasteless, and sublimes unchanged

tation in the amount of oxidised protein must produce inflammation, which may in
its turn determine fever. Hence also it happens that stimulating foods and drinks,
which quicken the respiration, or cold air, which introduces more oxygen into the
lungs, often give the first impulse to the development of inflammation in the organism.
The huffy coat is formed when the oxides of protein predominate in the blood ; when
they accumulate in any particular part of the system, local inflammation is the result.
In the latter case, morbid products, e.g. false membranes, &c., are evolved, which
are found on analysis to he in a great measure composed of oxidised protein. Now
inflammation must be combated by endeavouring to diminish the quantity of the
tritoxide of protein, and to hinder its formation in the lungs. Venesection proves
antiphlogistic by directly diminishing the tritoxide of protein : increased secretion
of the alimentary canal indirectly produces the same effect by accelerating the change
of substance in the body, and consequently also the consumption of a greater quan-
tity of protein and its oxides.

1 See Appendix I, Note 4.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

at about 340°. It contains no water of crystallization. It is
soluble in water and in alcohol, but not in etber : its formula1
is C12 II 1C1 N 04. According to Mulder it must be regarded
as an integral constituent of protein. It combines with nitric
acid and forms a crystalline acid to which the term nitro-leucic
acid has been given.

We shall have occasion to revert to leucin in our observa-
tions on gelatin.

Protid is the term applied to the extractive matter that re-
mains in solution after the removal of the erythroprotid and
leucin. It is of a bright yellow colour, easily pul veriz able, and
soluble in water and alcohol without colouring them. It is pre-
cipitable by the basic acetate of lead, but not by any other me-
tallic salts nor by tannin. The salts of lead serve to distinguish
it from erythroprotid. If a mixture of these two substances be
dissolved in water, the latter is precipitated by the neutral, the
former by the basic acetate of lead.

Its formula2 is C„ II NO .

The action of caustic potash on protein is evidently very com-
plicated. Mulder endeavours to show by the following formula
how these metamorphoses may occur.

2 At. Erythroprotid

• c26

H,6

®10

At. Protein

• O80

H62

N10 024

2 At. Protid

• ^26

h18

At. Water

2 At. Leucin

• ^24

h24

4 At. Ammonia .

h12

2 At. Carbonic acid

. C2

1 At. Formic acid

. C2

C80

H71

N,„ 033

08o

ii71

N10 033

According to Liebig, protein is produced by vegetables alone,
and cannot be formed by animals, although the animal system
has the power of converting one modification of protein into
another ; it is never found as protein , in nature ; but occurs in
the shape of albumen, fibrin, or casein, both in vegetables and
animals. These modifications of protein are employed in the
formation of the different tissues, each of which bears a simple
relation to that substance, as will be seen by the following
table: —

• 1 See Appendix I, Note 5.

2Ib. Note 6.

ALBUMEN.

Albumen of the blood

Albumen of the egg

Fibriu

Casein

Globulin

Muscular flesh

Arterial membrane

Mucus

Chondrin

Horny tissue

Gelatinous tissue

= 10 Pr + S2 P

= 10 Pr + S P

= 10 P?+ S

= 15 Pr + S

= Pr + 1 1 0 + H

= Pr + 2 HO

= Pr + 3 HO

= Pr + 4 HO +2 0

= Pr + N Hs + 3 O

= 2Pr + 3NH3+H0-f7 0.

We do not mean to assert that these formulae represent the
actual constitution of the respective tissues, but only that they
give the proportion of elements actually present, and show how
they might give rise to those tissues. Some of these tissues con-
tain protein, or at least yield it by the action of potash, whilst
others, as for instance the gelatinous tissues, although doubtless
derived from protein compounds, do not contain it, and conse-
quently cannot yield it.

Diagnosis of protein. Its insolubility in water, alcohol, and

ether, and its precipitation from an acid solution by the ferro-
cyanide and ferridcyanide of potassium are sufficient.

2. Albumen.

This important modification of protein forms the white of
eggs, and occurs in large quantity in all the animal fluids that
contribute to the nutrition of the organism. It is also found in
most of the animal solids, and in nearly all morbid products.
We have already adverted to its existence in the vegetable
kingdom.

Albumen is naturally soluble in water, and it is found dis-
solved in the serum of the blood, in vegetable juices, &c. But
when it has once been submitted to a certain degree of tem-
perature, or to the action of various chemical reagents, it assumes
the coagulated state, and becomes insoluble in water.

Soluble albumen. Soluble albumen may be obtained in a
solid form by evaporating to dryness, at a temperature not ex-
ceeding 120°, the serum of the blood, or white of egg. The dry
mass is yellow, partially transparent, hard, and tough ; it must

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

be reduced to a fine powder, and treated successively with ether
and alcohol. By these means we succeed in removing nearly
all foreign bodies from the albumen, which when dried exhibits
a white or pale yellow colour, is devoid of taste and odour, and
presents a neutral reaction. If perfectly dry, albumen in this
state may be exposed to a temperature of 212° without passing
into the coagulated condition. When digested in cold water,
it gradually STvells up, and finally dissolves, forming a mucilagi-
nous, colourless, and insipid fluid, which on being heated to 140°
begins to give indications of coagulating : if the solution is
very dilute, the temperature may be raised to 165° with the
occurrence of this change, and when present in very small
quantity the albumen may not separate till the fluid boils, or
even until the ebullition has been prolonged for a short time.

When albumen is analysed, it yields the same results as
protein in regard to carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen,
but it also contains a small quantity of phosphorus and sulphur,
(less than 1 ° together,) which are absent in protein. According
to Mulder’s analyses, i the albumen of eggs may be represented
by the formula C400 H310 NJ0 O140 SP + or 10 P^ + SP, which, as
we shall presently see, is identical with the formula for fibrin.

The albumen of the blood differs from this, in containing one
additional atom of sulphur ; its formula is 10 Pr 4- S„ P.

Most of the chemical observations on protein apply equally
to albumen, and therefore without entering into any description
of the various chemical changes that occur upon the addition of
reagents, we shall simply notice the physical appearances pre-
sented on the application of the ordinary tests.

Albumen is precipitated from its fluid solutions by all the
ordinary acids, with the exception of acetic, tartaric, and phos-
phoric (tribasic) acids; which not only do not precipitate
it, but check the ordinary precipitation induced by heat. It
is precipitated from its solution in these acids by ferrocya-
nide and ferrideyanide of potassium, the former of which
yields a white, and the latter a yellow, precipitate. These pre-
cipitates are soluble in alkalies but not in acids. When
these two substances are used as tests, their action may be im-
peded by the presence of free soda or its carbonate; the addition

1 See Appendix I, Note 7.

ALBUMEN.

of a few drops of acetic acid is therefore always advisable in
this case. Bichloride of mercury, and nitrate of the black
oxide of mercury throw down whitish precipitates. Either of**
these tests will detect the presence of ^ part of dry albumen.
Precipitates of various colours and appearances are thrown down
by sulphate of copper, nitrate of silver, the acetates of lead,
protochloride of iron, alum, tannin, creosote, alcohol, &c.

The precipitates which the metallic salts throw down with
albumen are usually mixtures of two distinct substances, one a
compound of albumen with the acid, the other a compound of
albumen with the metallic oxide ; the former is usually some-
what soluble, the latter insoluble.

The alkalies and then’ carbonates form soluble compounds
with albumen, and frequently require to be neutralized before
the ordinary tests can be efficiently used.

The tests in most general use are heat, and nitric acid.
When they both produce turbidity or a precipitate, the existence
of albumen may be considered as proved.1

Coagulated albumen. Coagulated albumen may be obtained
by submitting the white of egg or the serum of the blood to a
temperature of from 160° to 180° ; 167° according to Simon.

The coagulated mass must be then rubbed in a mortal’, and
successively digested in watei*, alcohol, and ether, until all
substances soluble in those fluids are removed : it must then be
carefully dried.

When obtained in this manner, it usually contains from
1 to 2§ of phosphate of lime, an earth which soluble albumen
seems to have the power of dissolving.

In order to obtain it free from this impurity, the following
process may be employed. Coagulate albumen with dilute
hydrochloric acid, wash the precipitate with 'water acidulated with
the same acid, and then add so much cold water as may suffice
to dissolve it. On the addition of carbonate of ammonia, co-
agulated albumen is separated as a flocculent, white precipitate.
To remove any fat that may be present, it should be digested
in hot alcohol or ether.

When dry, it is yellow and transparent ; it swells upon being
placed in water, but is only very slightly soluble in it. In its
ordinary chemical relations it resembles protein.

1 An apparent exception in tlie case of the urine will be subsequently noticed.

2 '

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

Albumen always contains more or less salts, phosphate and
sulphate of lime, chloride of sodium, and probably some lactates.

•Their amount is variously estimated by different chemists : the
average is about 4 to 8§.

In the albumen of the egg Mulder found 032, and in
that of blood, 042 of sulphate of lime.

The development of the young animal in the egg of the
bird during incubation affords a striking illustration of the
physiological import of this substance. It is easily shown that
the egg contains no nitrogenous compound except albumen.
The albumen of the yelk has been proved, by the analyses of Bence
Jones and Scherer, to be identical with the albumen of the
white ; and in addition to this the yelk only contains a yellow
fat with traces of iron. Yet we see in the process of incuba-
tion, during which no foreign matter, except atmospheric
air, can be introduced, or can take any part in the development
of the animal, that feathers, claws, blood-corpuscles, fibrin,
cellular tissue, and vessels are produced.

Diagnosis of albumen. It coagulates at 167°. It is not
precipitated by acetic or dilute sulphuric acid, and from these
acid solutions it is precipitated by ferrocyanide of potassium.
Corrosive sublimate and nitric acid throw down copious de-
posits.

3. Fibrin.

This modification of protein occurs in two forms, dissolved
and coagulated. The former occurs in blood, lymph, chyle,
juices of plants, &c., as long as these fluids form a part of the
living organism ; on their withdrawal from the influence of the
vital force, the fibrin speedily coagulates. It is found in both
these states in the animal and vegetable kingdoms.

The best method of obtaining it for chemical examination is
either by briskly stirring newly-drawn blood with a little bun-
dle of twigs, or else by shaking it in a stoppered bottle with a
few bits of lead or tin. The fibrin adheres to these substances
in the form of a nearly colourless coagulum. This must be
washed in cold water till it ceases to give off any colour what-
ever ; it must then be treated with boiling ether, in order to
remove the fat which is always associated with it.

When dried, it assumes a pale yellow colour, is devoid of

FIBRIN.

taste and odour, and is insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether.
When placed in water it sinks ; it speedily absorbs a portion
of the fluid, swells up, assumes its original bulk, and increases
its weight threefold.

The composition of fibrin is represented by the formula1
C..0 HS10 N„ 0,„ SP, or 10 Pr + SP.

The observations which have been made respecting the action
of acids and alkalies on protein apply equally to fibrin.

Fibrin is stated to have the power of decomposing binoxide of
hydrogen catalytically with the evolution of oxygen and heat.
According to Scherer this action is induced by fresh fibrin
from any source, but not by boiled fibrin. This power is not
possessed by albumen.

A concentrated solution of nitrate of potash dissolves humid
fibrin in the course of twenty-four hours, and gives it the pro-
perties of albumen. (Denis.) This observation requires further
confirmation ; it has failed in the hands of Simon and other
chemists, and it is not impossible that the phenomena described
by Denis were due to the presence of some uncombined potash.

The average quantity of fat associated with fibrin was found
by Simon to vary from 2 to 4£, which agrees closely with the
results of other observers.

Fibrin always contains a certain amount of salts, especially
of the phosphate and sulphate of lime : the former seems to be
chemically combined with it. The amount, according to Simon,
lies between F5 and 2£.

Diagnosis of fibrin. Fibrin is distinguished by its spontaneous
coagulation, by its insolubility in water, alcohol, and ether, and
by its precipitation from acid solutions by ferrocyanide and
ferrideyanide of potassium.

4. Casein.

This substance constitutes the most important ingredient in
the milk of the mammalia. We have already shown that it
also exists in vegetables.

Casein may be obtained with facility by either of the following
methods.

1 See Appendix I, Note 8.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

a. Evaporate milk to clryness in the water-bath ; triturate
the solid residue and treat it with boiling ether, as long as it
gives off any butter. When this ceases to be the case, remove
the butter, and evaporate off the ether ; dissolve the residue in
water, and filter. On the addition of alcohol to the clear filtered
fluid, the casein is separated and thrown down. In order to
remove any sugar of milk that may be entangled with the
casein, the precipitate may be redissolved in water, and again
thrown down by alcohol ; if it be now collected and dissolved in
water, it affords a tolerably pure solution of casein.

b. Casein may also be obtained by the addition of sulphuric
(or any other) acid. Sulphate of casein is precipitated, which
must be carefully washed in water, freed in the ordinary manner
from butter, &c. and then digested with carbonate of lime. By
careful and, if necessary, repeated filtration we obtain a clear
solution, which however is not free from lime.

A solution of casein prepared according to either of these
methods is possessed of little flavour; on the application of
warmth it evolves a milky odour, and during evaporation it
becomes covered with a skin or film, which on being removed
is speedily renewed. This skin is due to the action of oxygen,
for it does not form in an atmosphere of carbonic acid.

By a continuance of the evaporation we ultimately obtain a
residue of dry casein. It appears as a brittle yellow substance.
It does not admit of being perfectly dissolved in water, in con-
sequence of a portion of it having assumed an insoluble condi-
tion during evaporation.

According to Mulder1 casein is represented by the formula
C,ooH3}0 N50 0120 S or 10 Pr + S.

The action of milk in the nutrition of young animals proves
that casein is capable of being converted into albumen, and
fibrin ; while the production of milk in an animal fed on albu-
men or fibrin shows that these substances may be reconverted
into casein.

The alkalies exert a similar solvent power over casein as over
protein and its other modifications. The metallic salts also
form similar double compounds. It differs from albumen, in
being precipitated by all acids. The latter reagents must be

1 See Appendix I, Note 9.

CASEIN.

applied cautiously, as casein is soluble in au excess of many
acids.

On tbe addition of ferrocyanide or ferridcyanide of potassium
to a perfectly neutral solution of casein, a slight precipitate is
observed ; if the solution is alkaline there is no perceptible effect,
but if it is first rendered acid by a little acetic or dilute sul-
phuric acid, a copious precipitate is thrown down by both tests.

The casein of cow’s milk is thoroughly precipitated by the
mucous membrane of the calf’s stomach ; on the addition of this
reagent to woman’s milk, imperfect coagulation sometimes oc-
curs ; in other cases no apparent action is produced ; the coagu-
lation is never perfect. In this case the mucous membrane of
the child’s stomach produces a more energetic effect than that
of the calf. If a quantity of potash or ammonia be added to
the milk, sufficient to give it a decidedly alkaline reaction, no
coagulation is effected.

Rochleder has recently attempted to show that pure casein
is a substance nearly insoluble in water ; that the so-called
soluble casein is a combination of casein with potash, soda,
or lime ; and that the coagulation of the soluble casein by acids
is nothing more than a separation of the casein, resulting from
the combination of the acid with the base of the casein com-
pound. In this manner, he explains how solutions of potash
prevent coagulation, when added in very small quantity to milk,
and why (especially in warm weather) very slight causes are
able to produce a coagulation of the milk ; as only the smallest
quantity of lactic acid is required to be formed, in order to
neutralize the minute traces of soda, which are able to retain
in a state of solution an enormous quantity of casein.

Coagulated casein is found in the milk, constituting the walls
of the butter-vesicles. For the purpose of chemical investiga-
tion, it is best obtained by the addition of anhydrous alcohol
to a solution of casein. When dried, it is hard, yellow, and
transparent. In its chemical relations it closely resembles coagu-
lated albumen.

The amount of ash left after the incineration of casein seems
to vary considerably. Mulder estimates it at 3'82, and Simon
at 7£, in the casein of cow’s milk. In casein from the milk of
woman, Simon estimated it at 5|j. llochlcder, whose experi-
ments were made under the direction of Liebig, found that pure

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

casein left only 0-3§. The ash contains phosphoric, carbonic,
hydrochloric, and sulphuric acids, in combination with lime,
and traces of magnesia and iron.

Diagnosis of casein. Casein may be distinguished from albu-
men by its not coagulating at 167°, and by the skin which
forms on its surface drning evaporation. It is precipitated by
all dilute acids, and redissolves in an excess of the test. It
is thrown down from its acid solutions by ferrocyanide and
ferridcyanide of potassium. Casein of woman’s milk is less
perfectly thrown down by dilute sulphuric, lactic, and hydro-
chloric acids, than the casein of cow’s milk.

Simon has obtained a modified form of casein from the crys-
talline lens,1 from tubercle, pus, and saliva.

It may be recognized as casein by the diagnosis which has
been given, but it differs from human casein in its thorough
precipitation by all acids ; and from the casein of human and
cow’s milk by its greater solubility in hot alcohol of 0-915 — 0-925.

The globulin of Berzelius, which together with hcematin forms
the blood- corpuscles, is considered by Simon as a peculiar form
of casein. Very little is known regarding it, further than that
it is a protein-compound. Mulder2 represents it by the formula
15 Pr + S.

It must not be confounded with Lecanu’s globulin, which
is merely impure hsematin mingled with some albumen.

Pepsin, Ptyalin, Chondrin, Glutin, Pyin.

5. Pepsin. This name (from ttsttchc, digestion) was given by
Schwann, to a substance which constitutes the most essential
portion of the gastric juice. The following directions for the
preparation of pepsin are taken from Vogel’s essay on the sub-
ject ; they correspond in nearly every respect, with the method
which was given by Wasmann, who has the credit of first obtain-
ing it in an isolated state. The glandular membrane of the
fresh stomach of the hog, is separated, and after being cut into
small pieces, is treated with cold distilled water; after twenty-
four hours’ immersion, the water is poured off, and a fresh quan-
tity added. This operation is repeated for several days, until

1 See Appendix I, Note 10.

2 lb. Note 11.

PEPSIN.

a putrid odour becomes perceptible. The aqueous infusion
tlius obtained is precipitated with acetate of lead, which causes
a white flocculent deposit, containing the pepsin mixed with
much albumen ; this precipitate is diffused through the water,
and must be decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen. When the
liquor is filtered, the solution contains pepsin and acetic acid,
while coagulated albumen and sulphuret of lead remain on the
filter. In order to obtain solid pepsin, the filtered liquid is
evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, at a very moderate
temperature (according to Wasmann, not higher than 95°), and
absolute alcohol is then added to it. After some time a whitish
bulky precipitate is formed, which is to be dried by exposure
to the air ; it then constitutes a yellowish viscid mass of a pecu-
liar animal odour, and a disagreeable taste. Pepsin thus ob-
tained has an acid reaction, because it always contains a small
quantity of acetic acid. This is most efficaciously removed by
heating the pepsin for some hours in a salt-water bath ; by
which means a white powder, soluble in water and possessing
no acid reaction, is obtained. The action of a high temperature
injures the digestive power of pepsin, but does not affect its
chemical composition.

From Vogel’s analysis1 of this substance, it appears that it
may be very nearly represented by the formula C4S H32 N8 O10.
On comparing this with Liebig’s formula for protein, it appears
that pepsin may be formed from protein by the subtraction of
two atoms of water, and the addition of two atoms of nitrogen.

The most remarkable property of pepsin is the power which
its aqueous solution, when slightly acidulated, possesses of dis-
solving the protein-compounds. A solution containing only
55^55 part of pepsin, and slightly acidulated, will dissolve coagu-
lated albumen in six or eight hours. This property is appa-
rently destroyed by the alkalies.

Sulphuric, hydrochloric, and nitric acids, when added in very
small quantity to a solution of pepsin, throw down white flocculi,
which redissolve in an excess of the test : on the addition of
still more acid the precipitate again occurs.

Acetic acid throws down a precipitate which redissolves in an
excess of the test ; no second precipitate is thrown down by the
addition of more acetic acid.

1 See Appendix I, Note 12.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

Pepsin is thrown down from its aqueous solution by bichloride
of mercury, acetate of lead, the sulphates of iron, sulphate of
copper, and perchloride of tin. Perrocyanide of potassium
throws down no precipitate from an acidulated solution of pepsin.

Pepsin, which is precipitated from a concentrated aqueous
solution by anhydrous alcohol, is said to lose its digestive power.

According to Liebig, pepsin as a distinct compound does not
exist ; he ascribes the solvent power of the gastric juice to the
gradual decomposition of a matter dissolved from the mem-
brane, aided by the oxygen introduced in the saliva. (Animal
Chemistry, p. 109 et seq.)

Diagnosis. Pepsin is soluble in water, insoluble in absolute
alcohol and ether ; it is known by its precipitation by dilute
acids, by the precipitate being redissolved in a slight excess of
the test, and by the non-occurrence of a precipitate on the ad-
dition of ferrocyanide of potassium to the acid solution. It is
further distinguished from albumen by its being precipitable by
acetic and dilute hydrochloric acids.

6. Ptyalin. This term has been applied to a peculiar animal
matter that exists in the saliva. The following is the best me-
thod of obtaining it. Fresh saliva must be neutralized with
acetic acid, and then evaporated on the water-bath ; the residue
must be extracted first with alcohol,1 and then with spirit. The
ptyalin will remain undissolved amongst the protein-com-
pounds, and must be extracted from them by the addition of
water, in which it is readily soluble, and with which it forms a
viscid fluid. The evaporation of this aqueous solution yields
ptyalin free from all animal matters, but containing a trace of
salts. When dry it is colourless, transparent, and brittle, devoid
of odour, but with rather a sickly taste.

It is readily soluble in water, but is insoluble in alcohol and
ether. It is precipitated from its aqueous solution by alcohol,
but not by the mineral acids, metallic salts, acetic or tannic
acid.

Our knowledge of this substance is by no means accurate ;
no analysis has ever been published, and there is no doubt that

1 The term spirit is used to denote alcohol of spec. grav. -833, which contains
about 85g of anhydrous alcohol; by alcohol, anhydrous alcohol of spec. grav. '792 is
implied.

GELATIN— CHONDRIN.

fill the animal fluids yield an extract to water, which strongly
resembles, if it be not altogether identical with, ptyalin.

Diagnosis. Ptyalin may be distinguished from the protein-
compounds by its indifference to ferrocyanide of potassium ; and
from pepsin by its non-precipitation by dilute acids.

7. Gelatin — Chondrin and Glutin. Under the term gelatin
we include the organic tissue of bone, cartilage, sinew, ligament,
skin, cellular tissue, and serous membrane. All these substances
dissolve by long continued boiling in water, and the solution on
cooling assumes a consistent gelatinous mass. It is represented
in various degress of purity by glue, size, and isinglass. Gelatin
does not exist as gelatin in the animal tissues, but is formed
from them by the action of boiling water. Muller has shown
that there are two (if not three) distinct forms of gelatin. To
that which is obtained from the permanent cartilages, the cornea,
fungous bones, &c. the term chondrin is given, while glutin in-
cludes those forms of gelatin which are obtained from skin,
serous membrane, hoof, bone, tendon, fibrous and spongy carti-
lage, cartilage of bone, &c. As chondrin and glutin differ not
only in the sources from which they are derived, but also in
many of their chemical characters, we shall consider them
separately.

Chondrin is most easily obtained by boiling any of the per-
manent cartilages, as for instance those of the ribs, larynx, or
joints, for about twenty-four hours, in water : the solution must
then be strained, in order to remove any coagulated matters, and
allowed to gelatinize ; it must then be dried at a low heat.

In this state it is hard and brittle, colourless and transparent.
It sinks in cold water, and swells very much, without dissolving.

Scherer has deduced from his analyses the following formula1
for chondrin, Cia H4n Ne O40, which corresponds numerically
with Pr + 4 Ii0 + 0.2.2

Its formula, according to Mulder, is C320 H2fl0 N40 OI40 S, or
20 (C1G H13 N2 07) + S. When burned it leaves about 4£ of
phosphate of lime.

Chondrin is precipitated from its solution, and not redissolved in
an excess of the test, by acetic acid, tannin, the neutral and basic

1 See Appendix I, Note 13. •

2 Deduced from Liebig's formula.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

acetates of lead, sulphate of iron, chlorine, iodine, and bromine.
The following substances also give well-marked precipitates,
which are, however, soluble in an excess of the test, alum, sulphate
of copper, nitrate of silver, percliloride of iron, and nitrate of the
protoxide of mercury. Creosote produces an immediate tur-
bidity, and renders a solution of chondrin gelatinous in the
course of twelve hours. Alcohol throws down chondrin from
a concentrated solution, in the form of a white, viscid, and
tenacious mass. Ferrocyanide and ferridcyanide of potassium
throw down no precipitates when added to an acid solution of
chondrin.

Glutin may be obtained in a state of purity from common
glue, of which it forms the chief ingredient. On placing glue
in cold water it absorbs moisture, and swells into a tremulous jelly,
but does not dissolve. The cold water must be changed as long as
it continues to take up anything from the glue. The glue, after
undergoing this purification, must be heated till it is perfectly
fluid, and then strained through a cloth or coarse filter. It ge-
latinizes on cooling, and when dried represents pure glutin. In
its physical characters it is nearly identical with chondrin, but
is usually rather more coloured. It is represented by the for-
mula1 C13 H10 N„ 05. (Mulder.) Scherer assigns to it the
formula Cg6 Hg9 Nls 03fi, which is numerically equal to
2 Pr + 3 NI-I3 + HO + 70, but recent investigations tend to show
that this formula gives an excess of hydrogen. When burned,
glutin leaves a slight ash, consisting chiefly of phosphate of lime.
By long continued boiling, glutin loses its power of gelatinizing ;
in this state its ultimate composition may be represented by the
formula C52 H41 Na 091 or 4 (C13 HI0 N„ OJ + IIO. In other
words, it appears to be changed into a compound, in which four
equivalents of glutin are united with one of water. If a stream
of chlorine be passed through a solution of glutin, a compound
of chlorous acid and glutin is obtained, which is analogous in
type with the preceding substance. It is represented by the
formula 4 (C13 II]0 N2 OJ + Cl O,,. This is the compound re-
ferred to in the note to page 9.

The most important test for gelatin (either glutin or chondrin)
is tannin, which will precipitate it when diluted 5000 times.

1 See Appendix I, Note 14.

GLUTIN.

Three different compounds of glutin and tannic acid1 have been
discovered, and submitted to analysis ; they are, however, indi-
vidually of no particular importance in a physiological point of
view. The extreme facility with which tannin precipitates ge-
latinous matters gives a clue to the medicinal action of astringent
drugs on the human organism. They at once form insoluble
compounds, (for tannin acts similarly on the protein-compounds,)
and do not enter the blood ; and this is the reason of their being
comparatively innocuous. According to Mulder a less amount of
tannin than is contained in one ounce of cinchona bark would,
if conveyed directly into the blood, cause instantaneous death.

Acetic acid produces a slight turbidity, which speedily dis-
appears on the addition of an excess of the test. Alum either
produces no visible effect, or else throws down a very slight
precipitate, which soon disappears, and the other salts, which
have been mentioned as reagents for chondrin, yield no (or at
most, very slight) precipitates with glutin. Alcohol and creosote
act much the same as on chondrin, and no precipitate is occa-
sioned by the ferrocyanide or ferridcyanide of potassium.

On boiling glutin in an excess of caustic alkali, till ammonia
ceases to be developed, sugar of gelatin (glycicoll) and leucin
are produced in the ratio of four parts of the former to one of
the latter. In order to separate these substances, the alkaline
solution must be saturated with sulphuric acid, evaporated to
dryness, and the residue boiled with alcohol. The leucin being
more soluble in alcohol than the glycicoll may be extracted from
the evaporated alcoholic solution by cold alcohol; the glycicoll
will remain in an impure condition in the residue.

On treating glutin with concentrated sulphuric acid a colour-
less fluid is obtained, which, after prolonged boiling and satu-
ration with carbonate of lime, yields, in addition to certain un-
investigated compounds, leucin and glycicoll. This method is
stated by Mulder to yield a less quantity of glycicoll, in pro-
portion to leucin, than the former.

Glycicoll crystallizes in colourless prisms from a solution in
alcohol, and in rhombs from a spirituous solution. These crystals
possess a very sweet taste, are perfectly neutral, resemble
cholesterin in their appearance, dissolve in 414 parts of water
and in 931 of alcohol.

1 It must be remembered that tannin and tannic acid are synonymous terms.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

The composition of glycicoll is represented by the formula'
CH Hy N2 07 or C8 H7N2 05 + 2 H0.

It is worthy of remark that on subtracting an equivalent
of grape or diabetic sugar from two equivalents of gl}rcicoll, we
obtain the elements of two equivalents of urea :

2 (C. H9N2 07) — C12 H10 O10 = 2 (C2 H4 N. OJ

The origin of glutin in the animal organism is still unknown.
As no traces of it have ever been discovered in the vegetable
kingdom, we cannot suppose that (like protein) it arises from
that source. In all probability it is formed by the action of
alkalies on protein ; since we know that protein, submitted to
such influences, yields products which in their chemical compo-
sition approximate closely to glutin, and that the blood is suffi-
ciently alkaline to effect such, or similar, modifications.

In the hair, we find, associated with bisulpliuret of protein
Pr + 2 S, a connecting tissue, C13 H]0 N;) 05, which differs from
glutin, C13 H]0 N„ O,, simply by one atom of nitrogen.

Moreover protid, C13 Hg N 04, and erythroprotid, C13 Hh N O.,
nearly resemble glutin in their composition, and both glutin and
the protein-compounds yield leucin when treated with caustic
potash. These facts render it in the highest degree probable,
that glutin is formed in the organism, from the decomposition
of protein by alkalies ; much as protid and erythroprotid are
produced in the laboratory. A reference to the symbolical
illustration in page 14, will show that with every two equiva-
lents of ammonia that are developed, there are produced one
equivalent of protid, C13 Hg N 04, and one of erythroprotid
C13 He N 05. If we add to each of these the elements of one
equivalent of ammonia, we obtain

C1B H12 N2 04 and C13 IIU Na 0„

It only remains for us to assume that the oxygen which is con-
tinually acting on the blood in the lungs, yields three equiva-
lents of oxygen to the former, and one to the latter of these
substances, and we have from the protid,

C i3 H 12 N, 04 + 03 or C 13 H 10 N„ 05 + 2 HO ;

and from the erythroprotid,

c..H11N,g?+0 or ClsH„N,Os + HO;

that is to say, glutin and water may be supposed to be formed

' See Appendix I, Note 15.

PYIN.

from protid and erythroprotid by the ammonia, which the
alkali .of the blood evolves from the protein-compounds, with
the cooperation of the oxygen of the atmosphere, in the lungs.1
In the present state of organic chemistry, it is impossible in
most cases, to state with certainty how changes such as these
take place ; we can only indicate the possible, and the most
probable methods. That the gelatinous tissues are evolved from
protein-compounds, in some manner or other, cannot admit of
a doubt. From what other source can they be derived in the
chick, but from the protein-compounds of the egg ?

That chondrin and glutin, the two principal forms of gelatin,
are closely allied to protein, is sufficiently clear. They will
not however yield protein, when acted on by potash ; neither
do they produce a purple colour with hydrochloric acid. Con-
sequently they do not contain protein. Hence it is that ani-
mals fed exclusively on gelatin, die with the symptoms of star-
vation, for the gelatin cannot yield albumen, fibrin, or casein ;
and the animal system, although it has the power of converting
one protein-compound into another, does not possess the power
of forming protein from substances which do not contain it.
Consequently blood cannot be formed from gelatin, and the
animal soon dies. The probable uses of a mixed gelatinous
diet for convalescents, are pointed out by Liebig in his ‘ Animal
Chemistry/ pp. 98-9.

Diagnosis. Chondrin and glutin may be recognized by
their property of gelatinizing on cooling, and by the energetic
action of tannin on their solutions. Ferrocyanide of potassium
added to an acidulated solution of these substances, serves to
distinguish them from the protein-compounds; and either acetic
acid or alum will suffice to distinguish chondrin from glutin.

8. Pyin. This term was applied by Giiterbock to a pecu-
liar substance which occurs in pus, and which he isolates in
the following manner. He precipitates the pyin, together with
albumen, from pus, by the addition of strong alcohol. The

' The recent investigations of Enderlin, showing that there is no free alkali in the
blood, but that its alkaline reaction is due to tribasic phosphate of soda, tend to throw
considerable doubt on the ingenious hypothesis of Mulder, given in the text. It must
also be remembered that leucin, protid, and erythroprotid have never yet been detected
in the animal organism.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

precipitate is treated with water, which dissolves the pyin : any
albumen that may be dissolved at the same time, can be coagu-
lated by heat, and removed by filtration ; and in this manner
a tolerably pure solution of pyin is obtained. Yogel did not
succeed in obtaining it ; and from Simon’s researches it would
hardly appeal’ to be a constant constituent of pus, and purulent
sediments.

Pyin is soluble in water and aqueous alcohol, but not in
alcohol of ’865, or stronger. It does not coagulate on boiling.
When thoroughly dried it forms a gray powder, which does not
admit of being perfectly redissolved in water. Acetic acid,
tannin, and alum throw down precipitates, which are insoluble
in an excess of the test. Ferrocyanide of potassium does not
precipitate a solution of pirne pyin; but on the addition of a
little hydrochloric acid, a precipitate appears, which immediately
vanishes on the addition of a little more of the acid. Accord-
ing to Mulder, it is identical with tritoxide of protein.

Diagnosis of pyin. Pyin maybe recognized by its reactions
with acetic acid and alum. It may be distinguished from the pro-
tein-compounds (albumen, fibrin, casein,) in the same manner
as pepsin and glutin. It differs from pepsin, by its acetic-acid
precipitate not re-dissolving in an excess of the test, and from
glutin and chondrin, by a similar behaviour on the part of the
alum precipitate.

9. Extractive Matters.

After the removal of the protein-compounds from the animal
fluids, there still remain certain salts, (lactates, chlorides, phos-
phates, and sulphates,) together with organic nitrogenous matter,
which after evaporation remain as an amorphous mass. It is to
this organic nitrogenous matter, after the salts have been re-
moved by their appropriate solvents, that the term extractive
matter is applied. It is as generally diffused over the whole
system as the protein-compounds ; we meet with it in blood,
bile, milk, urine, mucus, pus, and all the soft tissues, and most
abundantly in muscular flesh. Hence the extractive matter of
flesh merits especial attention. The extractive matters from
other sources, as from blood, urine, milk, &c., will be subse-
quently noticed, and their leading characters contrasted with
those of our standard extractive matter, the extract of flesh.

EXTRACTIVE MATTERS.

For the purpose of thoroughly examining the extract of flesh
in all its chemical hearings, Simon experimented on eight
pounds of the thickest part of a leg of pork, which he freed as
much as possible from sinew, fat, cellular tissue, and every-
thing that was not absolutely muscular flesh. It was then cut
in small pieces, and cold water was poured over it. After being
allowed to stand in water for some time, it was removed and
boiled three successive times in fresh water. These boilings were
collected, and a little fat skimmed off. The cold water in which
it was first placed, was then boiled and mixed with the rest.
The whole was then filtered, and appeared as a light yellow
fluid, with a strong smell and taste of broth. This fluid was
evaporated to the consistence of a thin syrup. After cooling, it
did not gelatinize, and contained no glutin, or at most, a mere
trace.

Alcohol was added to this thin syrup, until all the constituents
insoluble in spirit, appeared to have separated, and deposited
themselves at the bottom.

"We thus separate the extractive matter into two distinct
parts, one, soluble in water, but not in dilute alcohol, the other
soluble in the latter menstruum.

The former, when evaporated at a gentle temperature is of
a brownish yellow colour, and is tolerably firm, tenacious, and
tough ; it is termed water-extract.

The latter must be evaporated to the consistence of an
extract, and treated with from twelve to sixteen times its
volume of absolute alcohol. The mixture must then be heated,
and well shaken, so as to mix the alcohol with the deposited
portion as thoroughly as possible. The alcoholic solution clears
on standing, and assumes a yellow colour. It must be
removed from the insoluble residue, and gently evaporated to
a clear brown syrup, which after cooling and standing for
some time assumes a solid form ; it dissolves freely both in
water and absolute alcohol. By repeatedly treating the
insoluble residue with hot absolute alcohol we remove all that
is soluble in that fluid, and there is left a tolerably firm, tough,
brown extract, which is soluble only in aqueous alcohol, and to
which the term spirit-extract is given. We distinguish the
portion which is soluble in absolute alcohol by the term alcohol-
extract.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

The extractive matter is thus separated into three distinct
parts : these are —

A. That which is soluble in water, hut not in dilute alcohol :
water-extract.

B. That which is soluble in water and spirit, but not in an-
hydrous alcohol : spirit-extract.

C. That which is soluble in water, in spirit, and in anhydrous
alcohol : alcohol-extract.

A. The water-extract contains :

a. Constituents precipitable by tannic acid :

(a) A matter not precipitable by neutral acetate of

lead, but by basic acetate of lead and bichloride
of mercury.

(b) A matter precipitable by neutral and basic acetates

of lead, and by bichloride of mercury.
j3. Constituents not precipitable by tannic acid :

acetate of lead, or bichloride of mercury, but by
basic acetate of lead.

( d ) A matter freely precipitable by basic acetate of

lead, and very slightly by neutral acetate of lead,
and bichloride of mercury.

(e) A matter precipitable by neutral and basic acetates

of lead, but not by bichloride of mercury; the
Zomidin of Berzelius.

B. The spirit- extract contains :

a. Constituents precipitable by tannic acid:

(a) A matter not precipitable by neutral or basic acetate

of lead, but by bichloride of mercury.

( b ) A matter not precipitable by neutral acetate of

lead, or bichloride of mercury, but by basic
acetate of lead.

of lead, but not by bichloride of mercury.

/3. Constituents not precipitable by tannic acid :

{d) A matter rather indifferent towards reagents.

(e) A matter discovered and described by Clievreul ;
Kreatin.

EXTRACTIVE MATTERS.

C. The alcohol- extract contains :

a. Constituents precipitable by tannic acid:

(«) A matter precipitable by basic acetate of lead, and
bichloride of mercury, but not by neutral acetate
of lead.

(. b ) A matter precipitable by basic acetate of lead, and
by an excess of bichloride of mercury, but not
by neutral acetate of lead : it is crystalline.

(3. Constituents not precipitable by tannic acid :

( c ) A matter precipitable by basic acetate of lead, but
not by neutral acetate of lead, or bichloride
of mercury.

The substances A a, A b, B a, &c., must be regarded as
the proximate constituents of the three groups of extractive
matters.

We shall arrange them in two classes, according as they are
or are not precipitable by tannin.

Constituents of the extract of flesh, precipitable by tannin.

A a exists in very small quantity in the water-extract :
it may be distinguished from the protein-compounds by its
indifference towards ferrocyanide of potassium ; from pepsin and
pyin, by its indifference to dilute acids; and from cliondrin and
glutin by its aqueous solution, not gelatinizing on cooling.

A b may be distinguished in the same manner as A a,
from the protein-compounds, pepsin, &c.i It differs from A a
in being precipitated by protochloride of tin. When isolated
it is tolerably soluble in alcohol, although that fluid will not
extract it directly from the water-extract.

Ba occurs in minute quantity in the spirit-extract. It
may be distinguished from the preceding compounds by its
solubility in spirit, and by its reaction with the acetates of
lead.

These three substances, A a, A b, and B a, differ so slightly in
their reactions with various tests, that we may conclude that
in all probability they are merely modifications of one and the
same matter.

1 The same observation applies equally to all the following constituents of extractive
matter.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

B b may be distinguished from the preceding compounds
by its indifference towards bichloride of mercury.

Be is freely precipitated by the addition of sulphate of
copper, but the deposit which is of a brownish colour, readily
dissolves in an excess of the test. If just a sufficient quantity
of the solution of sulphate of copper to dissolve the precipitate
be added, and heat applied, a green precipitate forms, and the
supernatant fluid is likewise green. Alum, cautiously added,
throws down a brownish yellow flocculent precipitate, which
dissolves in an excess of the test. Infusion of galls, added in
small quantity scarcely produces any turbidity in a solution of
this constituent, but when added freely, a copious precipitate
is deposited, which disappears on the application of heat, but
returns as the solution cools. Be may be distinguished from
A a, and A b, by its indifference towards bichloride of mercury ;
from B a, and BA, by its behaviour with neutral acetate of lead,
and sulphate of copper.

C a is precipitable by protochloride of tin. This, to-
gether with the reactions it displays towards bichloride of
mercury and infusion of galls, and its solubility in anhydrous
alcohol, is sufficient to distinguish it from any of the preceding
constituents.

The characteristics already mentioned are sufficient to
distinguish C b.

Constituents of the extract of flesh not precipitable by tannin.

Ac is remarkable for its indifference towards reagents.
The only important tests have been already mentioned.

Ad is freely precipitated by bichloride of platinum ;
moreover the precipitate thrown down by basic acetate of lead
is increased by heat.

Ae ( zomidin ) yields a very copious green or grayish
green deposit, on the addition of acetate of copper. This pre-
cipitate does not dissolve in an excess of the test, but dissolves
freely in acetic acid : on boiling this precipitate in caustic
potash it is rendered brown, while the supernatant fluid assumes
a faint purple red tint. Infusion of galls renders a solution of
zomidin slightly turbid, and after some hours a few flocculi are
deposited, possibly in consequence of the existence of some
impurity in the zomidin.

EXTRACTIVE MATTERS.

Berzelius considers that the savour of boiled and roasted
meat depends on this constituent.

Brf yields a yellow precipitate to bichloride of plati-
num, a white deposit to the acetates of lead, and its solution
is rendered slightly turbid by infusion of galls : the turbidity
however disappears on the application of heat.

Be ( kreatin ) is distinguished from all the preceding sub-
stances by its property of separating in rectangular crystals, and
by its indifference towards the ordinary reagents.

C c yields a copious white precipitate (which soon darkens)
to nitrate of silver, and a chocolate-brown deposit to a solution
of iodine.

There can be no doubt from the recent investigations of
Mulder, that the binoxide and tritoxide of protein occur in
the constituents of the water-extract, and are probably identical
with some of them.

The relative proportions of water-, spirit-, and alcohol- extract
in flesh, blood, urine, and milk, appear to fluctuate. Simon
found that, in the extractive matter of flesh, the water-extract
predominates, while he could only obtain a very small amount
of spirit-extract ; in the extractive matter of blood, the water-
extract is also the most abundant, but here the amount of
alcohol-extract is less than that of spirit-extract ; in the ex-
tractive matter of urine, the water-extract was the most scanty,
and the alcohol-extract the most abundant ; and in the ex-
tractive matter of milk, the alcohol-extract was the least of the
three.

Extractive matter of blood. Simon gives the following
directions for the exhibition of the extractive matter of blood.
A quart of blood is heated to the boiling point, and a sufficient
quantity of water is then added to reduce it to a thin pulta-
ceous state. After standing for some time, it is strained, and
the red fluid which passes through is again boiled. In this
manner we obtain a clear yellow fluid, which no longer becomes
turbid on the application of heat. On evaporation, this fluid
assumes a dark green colour ; and on further concentration to
the consistence of a syrup, it changes to a brown tint. At the
same time a film forms on the surface, which leads to the con-
clusion that a caseous matter (in this case globulin) is present.
The extract exhibits an alkaline reaction.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

When the extract has been reduced to the consistence of a
syrup, it is treated with alcohol of '833, which throws down a
copious brown precipitate. The clear alcoholic fluid is removed
and evaporated. It forms a brown extract, which is devoid of
the aromatic odour that is perceptible in the spirit-, and alcohol-
extract of flesh. The residue is evaporated to the consistence
of a thin extract, and then treated with absolute alcohol, which,
when evaporated, leaves a very small amount of alcohol-extract.

Water-extract of blood. It is of a dark brown colour, and
possesses a strong taste of salt. Its reaction is slightly alkaline,
and there is nothing remarkable about its odour. On incine-
ration it leaves an alkaline ash, which effervesces on the addi-
tion of an acid.

The following are its most important chemical relations.

Acetic acid produces a turbidity which only disappears in a
great excess of the test : ferrocyanide of potassium throws down
a slight precipitate from the clear acid fluid, consisting of
albumen.

Neutral and basic acetate of lead produce a copious brown
precipitate ; bichloride of mercury, even in excess, produces no
apparent change. Infusion of galls induces merely a slight
turbidity.

Spirit-extract of blood is of a dark brown colour, and a
strongly salt taste. During evaporation it becomes covered with
a coating of salts ; and, after a certain degree of concentration, it
solidifies, in consequence of the amount of the salts. It leaves
a porous coal, which does not very easily burn to a white ash.
This ash is strongly alkaline, and effervesces briskly on the
addition of an acid.

The aqueous solution of the spirit-extract has a very feeble
alkaline reaction.

Acetic acid produces a slight turbidity, which disappears on
the addition of a considerable excess of the test.

Neutral and basic acetates of lead and infusion of galls pro-
duce copious precipitates ; bichloride of mercury effects no
apparent change.

Alcohol-extract of blood. When the alcohol in which this
substance is contained is evaporated to the consistence of an
extract, and then warmed with ether, we obtain a greenish
brown matter, which, after the evaporation of the ether, is

EXTRACTIVE MATTERS.

soluble in water. Its amount is very minute ; it has a feeble,
alkaline reaction, and possesses a very disagreeable and nau-
seous taste. It is precipitated by perchloride of tin and
nitrate of silver, but not bv neutral or basic acetate of lead,
bichloride of mercury, or infusion of galls.

Extractive matter of urine. The urine must be evaporated
in order to precipitate the salts as much as possible, and then
placed in a freezing mixture for the same purpose. When it
is reduced to the consistence of a thick syrup, alcohol of ‘833
must be added to it as long as any additional precipitate is
thrown down. This precipitate consists of salts, and contains
hardly any extractive matter ; it must be separated from the
supernatant fluid, washed with alcohol of -833, dissolved
in water, and precipitated again by alcohol. In this manner
the spirituous solution assumes a yellow colour, while the salts
are rendered colourless. By the evaporation of this yellow
spirituous solution we obtain the water-extract of urine. It
exists in very minute quantity. Infusion of galls produces
hardly any marked effect, neither does bichloride of mercury ;
neutral and basic acetates of lead yield a copious precipi-
tate.

Spirit-extract of urine is obtained by evaporating the
spirituous solution to the consistence of a thick extract ; it is
then treated with a little anhydrous alcohol, and subsequently
with ether. By shaking, and the application of a gentle warmth,
the ether assumes a yellow colour, and a light brown matter
separates ; this must be washed in ether, and then treated with
absolute alcohol, which throws down a brown extractive matter,
while the alcohol assumes a nearly similar tint. This precipi-
tate must be washed with absolute alcohol, dissolved in water,
and evaporated. Its ash contains a considerable amount of
chlorides. Infusion of galls, bichloride of mercury, and neutral
acetate of lead do not affect its solution, but basic acetate
of lead throws down a copious precipitate.

Alcohol-extract of urine is obtained by the evaporation of
the brown alcoholic solution referred to a few lines back. On
the addition of anhydrous alcohol it is reduced to a yellow fluid,
from which urea separates on slow evaporation. After the
removal of this substance, we have the substance known as
alcohol-extract of urine. Infusion of galls, bichloride of mer-

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

cury, ancl neutral acetate of lead do not influence its solution;
it is, however, precipitated by basic acetate of lead.

Extractive matter of milk. For the purpose of investi-
gating the properties of this substance, Simon evaporated a
quart of woman's milk (partly colostrum and partly during the
early weeks of lactation) to about eight ounces, and he then
removed the casein and butter by the addition of alcohol. After
filtration, some water was added; the fluid was again evapo-
rated to a residue of a few ounces, treated with alcohol of -833,
and allowed to rest for some time. Sugar of milk of a sbghtly
yellow colour was deposited, and the supernatant fluid bad
nearly the same tint. The latter was evaporated on the water-
bath to the consistence of a syrup, and then treated with
anhydrous alcohol, which reduced nearly the whole syrup to a
solid consistence, while the alcohol above it, which contained the
alcohol-extract, was hardly tinged yellow. The precipitate which
is thrown down by the anhydrous alcohol contains the spirit-
extract, and the water-extract is contained in the yellow-coloured
sugar of milk.

The water-extract of milk is obtained by treating the pre-
cipitated sugar of milk with water, and allowing it to stand,
well covered, for some days. In this manner we obtain a yellow,
almost clear, and viscid fluid, standing above the white sugar
of milk. On removing this fluid, and allowing it to evaporate
spontaneously, a fresh quantity of sugar of milk is deposited ;
in fact, it appears impossible to remove all traces of this consti-
tuent of the milk from the water-extract. Alcohol throws down
a yellow, glutinous, tough extract, which exhibits a feeble
alkaline reaction towards litmus paper. This is the water-
extract. When burned, it leaves a porous coal, from which a
white alkaline ash, containing carbonates, may be obtained
without much difficulty.

It is precipitated from its solution by infusion of galls, basic
and neutral acetates of lead, but not by bichloride of mercury.

The spirit-extract of milk is obtained from the precipi-
tate which was thrown down by the anhydrous alcohol ; it
must be dissolved in a little water, and treated with alcohol of
•833, which usually causes the separation of a little sugar of
milk. The spirituous solution must now be evaporated to a very
small residue, and some distilled water added, which produces

COLOURING MATTERS.

a considerable turbidity, and ultimately causes a slight white
precipitate. The nature of this precipitate remains doubtful.
The spirit-extract is thrown down from its solution by infusion
of galls and basic and neutral acetates of lead, hut not by
bichloride of mercury.

The alcohol-extract of milk is obtained by the evapora-
tion of the yellow anhydrous alcoholic solution that has been
already referred to. It exists in very minute quantity, is of a
yellow colour, and is not materially affected by infusion of galls,
basic or neutral acetates of lead, or bichloride of mercury.

Ptyalin and pyin may be regarded as water-extracts of saliva
and pus.

10. Colouring Matters.

I. THE BLOOD.

a. Hcematin. This colouring matter is inclosed in thin sacs
or vesicles, composed of a protein-compound, globulin : these
vesicles exist in countless numbers in the circulating fluid, and
are termed blood-corpuscles.

It has been generally assumed that this pigment exists in two
distinct chemical states in arterial and venous blood, having in
the former an excess of oxygen, in the latter an excess of carbon
or carbonic acid. Mulder has, however, shown that its ele-
mentary composition is the same, whether obtained from arterial
or from venous blood, and that it may be represented by the
formula1 C44 H22 N3 06 Fe. Its composition seems likewise to
be identical in all vertebrated animals.2

Various methods have been proposed for the exhibition of
pure hsematin. The following, adopted by Simon, is perhaps
the simplest. Whipt and thoroughly dried blood must be
pulverized, and its fat removed by repeated extraction with
ether. It must then be boiled with anhydrous alcohol, and
during the process of ebullition a quantity of sulphuric acid, di-
luted with cold alcohol, must be added, sufficient to communicate

1 See Appendix I, Note 16.

2 Lecanu examined liamiatin from human blood, and from that of the ox, domestie
lien, duck, frog, carp, and mackerel. The only difference was in the proportion of
peroxide of iron left when the hannatin was incinerated.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

a marked acid taste to the mixture. In this manner a blackish
brown solution of sulphate of hsematin is obtained, which must
be saturated with carbonate of ammonia. If the mixture be
allowed to stand for some time, the sulphate of ammonia may-
be separated by filtration ; the greater part of the alcohol must
then be removed by distillation. This part of the process re-
quires much caution, and the distillation must be conducted
very gently, as the action of the fluid is often violent. The
hsematin, which is ultimately precipitated, must be carefully
washed with water, in order to remove any traces of sulphate of
ammonia. It must then be dried on the water-bath, pulverized,
and treated with ether as long as it continues to communicate
a dark tint to that menstruum. The ether takes up a certain
amount of hsemaplisein associated with fat. The hsematin must
be boiled in distilled water, as long as it continues to give off
salts and alcohol-extract, and then in alcohol, till everything
soluble in that fluid is removed. The substance that is left may
be regarded as pure hsematin.

We can only isolate it in this coagulated and insoluble con-
dition. In the blood-corpuscles it exists in a state of solution.

When obtained by the process that we have just described,
it is of a blackish brown colour, is devoid of taste and odour,
is insoluble in water, ether, fatty and ethereal oils, and in bi-
sulphuret of carbon. It is usually stated to be insoluble in
alcohol, but, according to Simon, boiling alcohol takes it up
slightly. It is freely soluble in alcohol acidulated with sulphuric,
hydrochloric, nitric, or acetic acid, and communicates a tint to
that menstruum varying from a brown to a light red, according
to the strength of the solution. On the addition of water the
hsematin gradually precipitates. Hsematin dissolves freely in
water or alcohol rendered alkaline by ammonia, potash, or soda :
but the alkaline reaction is not in any degree neutralized by
the hsematin. On the application of a strong heat hsematin
swells up, gives off an animal odour, and burns with a clear
flame. It leaves a voluminous coal, which is ultimately reduced
to a dark red ash. When heated in a test tube it develops
ammonia, and gives origin to a reddish empyreumatic oil.

Mulder has carefully examined the action of chlorine on
hsematin. He found that if a current of chlorine be transmitted
through water containing hsematin in suspension, the iron leaves

COLOURING MATTERS.

the other elements, and forms a chloride of iron, while the
atom of metal thus removed is replaced by six atoms of chlorous
acid, and a compound is formed, which is represented by the
formula C44 HM N3 06 + 6 Cl 03.

During this process the red colouring matter is destroyed,
and the new compound appears as a white flocculent precipitate.
It must not, however, be assumed from this experiment that the
red colour of the blood is dependent on the iron, for that con-
stituent may he removed from the licematin without materially
affecting its tint, as may be shown in the following manner.
Let some dried blood be mixed with concentrated sulphuric
acid, and after standing for some days let water be added.
Hydrogen gas is evolved by the action of the acid on the
dried blood, and sulphate of the protoxide of iron is formed.
If the blood, after this process, be carefully washed, a mixture
of alcohol and sulphuric acid will extract from it red lnematin
in combination with sulplioproteic acid, hut perfectly free
from iron. Van Goudoever has deduced the following formula
for this compound :

C8) H.? Ne 022, S03=C44 H22 N3 06 (the organic part of hannatin,)

+ C40 H3j N5 0,2, SO.) (sulplioproteic acid,)

+4 HO.

Although this experiment affords conclusive evidence that
the red colour of the hoematin is not dependent on the iron,
yet this metal is very firmly combined with the four organic
elements of this constituent. Well prepared lnematin may be
submitted for several days to the action of dilute hydrochloric
or sidphuric acid, without the iron diminishing in the slightest
degree.

Hsematin treated in this manner, left after incineration
9-49j of peroxide of iron,1 the amount that is always yielded
by well-purified lnematin.

Peroxide Metallic
of Iron. Iron.

In 100 parts of lnematin from human blood, Lecanu found . 10-00 = 6-93

» .. from blood of ox „ „ . 12-85 = 8-90

» » from arterial blood of ox, Mulder found, 9-G0 = 6-66

» .. from venous blood of ox „ „ . 9-82 = 6-75

» .. from blood of ox, Simon found . 11-50= 7-97

» » from blood of sheep, Mulder found . 9-30 = 6-45

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

The condition in which the iron exists in haematin (whether
as an oxide,1 a carbonate, a carburet, or in the metallic state)
has long been disputed.

The probability of its existence in a metallic state is strongly
supported by the evolution of hydrogen that occurs when the
clot is digested in sulphuric acid, and water is added; and
Mulder suggests that this metal probably exists as an integral
constituent of haematin, in just the same manner as iodine occurs
in sponge, sulphur in cystin, or arsenic in the kakodyl series.

Numerous attempts have been made with the view to ascer-
tain the proportions in which haematin and globulin combine,
but the results have been very discordant. According to
Berzelius, the haematoglobulin of human blood contains 100
parts of globulin, and 5'8 of haematin. Simon found the ratio
to be 100 of globulin to 6'5 of haematin in the blood of a healthy
young man, and 100 of globulin to 5'3 of haematin in the healthy
blood of a stout girl. In disease, the variations are much
greater. Simon has found as the limits 8-5 and 3-3 of haematin,
corresponding to 100 of globulin.

Regarding the origin of haematin, it must clearly be
generated in the organism, since it does not exist in the
vegetable kingdom. Mulder conceives that it is generated
from the normal constituents of the blood in the course of
the circulation. Its destination also is obscure. In common
with all the constituents of the body, it must be generated,
consumed, and reproduced ; but in respect to the actual
metamorphoses that 'it undergoes in the organism, or their
object, we are perfectly in the dark. Mulder suggests that the
products of the decomposition of haematin may possibly be
traced to the bilifulvin of the bile.

Diagnosis. Haematin may be known, both in its coagulated
and soluble state, by its colour. When combined with
globulin, in the blood-corpuscles, it may be recognized by the
microscope. In its coagulated state it may be recognized by
its insolubility in water, alcohol, and ether.

b. Hcemaphcein. This term is applied by Simon to the brown
colouring matter which seems to be associated with haematin in

1 Iron is not separated from lnematin by ammonia, potash, or soda ; nor is its pre-
sence indicated by tannin or ferrocyanide of potassium, reagents which arc so capable
of detecting the presence of oxide of iron in ordinary cases.

COLOURING MATTERS.

the blood of the vertebrata, and is apparently identical, or
nearly so, with the yellow colouring matter described by
Sanson.1

It may be distinguished by its solubility in water, alcohol,
and ether, and by the intense brown-red colour that it com-
municates to its alcoholic solution. When exposed to heat on
a platinum spatula, it does not melt, but develops ammoniacal
vapours, burns with a clear flame, and leaves a very trifling ash,
which is perfectly free from peroxide of iron. Marchand
remarks that hsemaphaein is nothing more than htematin
modified by an alkali, just as O’Shaughnessy’s subrubrin, and
Golding Bird and Brett’s chlorolmmatin and xanthohmnatin
are products of the action of nitric acid on heematin.2

c. Hcemacyanin, or a blue colouring matter, has been detected
by Sanson in healthy blood, by Lassaigne aud Lecauu in the
blood of icteric patients, and by Chevreul in the bile. Simon
never succeeded in detecting it. For the method of isolating
it, and for a description of its chemical characters we must
refer to Sanson’s paper. It is sufficient to remark that it is
described as being insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether, but
slightly soluble in boiling alcohol, from which, however, it
separates on cooling. On the addition of ammonia to its
alcoholic solution, a green colour is evolved, but on the addition
of au acid, the blue colour is restored. It contains no iron.

II. THE BILE.

a. The most important colouring matter of the bile is that
to which it owes its characteristic brownish yellow tint. It is
termed cholepyrrhin by Berzelius, and biliphmn by Simon.
We shall adopt the latter term. On the gradual addition of
nitric acid to a fluid that contains this substance in solution,
a very characteristic series of tints are evolved. The fluid
becomes first blue, then green, afterwards violet, and red, and
ultimately assumes a yellow or yellowish brown colour.

1 Journal de Pharmacie, Aout 1835, p. 420.

2 The discovery of the true nature of subrubrin is due to Drs. Brett and Golding
Bird, who showed that it is merely haematin mixed with a little albumen. Their
chlorohamiatin is haematin partly oxidised by nitric acid, as Marchand observes ; and
their xanthohaematin is at present supposed by Dr. G. Bird to be identical with some
of the products of the oxidation of protein recently described by Mulder.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

All attempts to isolate this substance from the bile, by
chemical means, have failed ; it is apparently decomposed by
the processes that are adopted in the analysis of this compli-
cated fluid. We sometimes, howevei’, find it deposited in the
form of a yellow powder, in the gall-bladder, or concreted, with
a little mucus, constituting a biliary calculus.

In this manner we have an opportunity of examining its che-
mical reactions. Biliplnein is of a bright reddish-yellow colour,
and is only slightly soluble in most fluids ; it is devoid of taste
and odour, and yields ammonia on dry distillation. Water
takes up au extremely minute trace of biliplnein, just sufficient
to communicate a faint yellow tinge. Alcohol dissolves more
than water, but only a very inconsiderable quantity. Its best
solvent is a solution of caustic potash or soda, both of which
are more efficient than ammonia. On exposing this solution
to the atmosphere, oxygen is absorbed, and the yellow colour
becomes gradually green. On the addition of an acid to this
yellow or green solution, there is a precipitation of green flocculi
which possess all the properties of chlorophyll, or the green
colouring matter of leaves. In this state it is termed biliverdin
by Berzelius. It is no longer biliphsein (or cholepyrrin), but a
product of its metamorphosis.

The colouring matter of the bile may be separated from a
composite animal fluid, by evaporation to dryness; by successive
extractions with alcohol of ‘845, ether, and water; by dissolving
the colouring matter in a solution of potash, and then precipi-
tating it, as biliverdin, by hydrochloric acid.

Diagnosis. The action of nitric acid affords a certain test
of the presence of biliphsein.

b. After the separation of the biliphsein, by conversion into
bihverclin, another colouring matter remains, to which Berzelius
has given the name of bilifulvin. It is a double salt of lime
and soda, combined with an organic nitrogenous acid, to which
the term bilifulvic acid has been applied. When isolated, this
acid is insoluble in water and in alcohol, and separates in pale
yellow flocculi when it is precipitated from an aqueous solution
of its salts by a stronger acid. Whether bilifulvin is an actual
constituent of the bile, or whether it is a mere product of meta-
morphosis, is unknown.

COLOURING MATTERS.

III. THE URINE.

a. Uroerthyrin. In certain pathological conditions (espe-
cially in intermittent fevers) the urine possesses an intensely
red colour, and deposits a dark red precipitate. Proust, who
was the first that carefully examined this class of sediments,
discovered in them a peculiar acid, to which he gave the name
of rosacic acid. He subsequently found that this acid was
merely a compound of uric acid with a red colouring matter.
This red colouring matter has been observed by Landered in
the sweat from the axillary region of a girl with fever.

In order to isolate this pigment, we must boil a sediment
of this nature in spirit, which will take up the colouring matter
and a little uric acid. This uric acid must be removed by con-
centration and cooling, and then by evaporation to dryness, we
obtain uroerythrin. It yields a vividly scarlet powder, is devoid
of odour, possesses but little taste, and is tolerably soluble in
water and spirit : these solutions are faintly acid.

b. The blue and black pigments that have been described
by various authors (Braconnot,1 Spangenberg,2 Granier and
Delens,3 Marcet, Prout,4 &c.) and have received the names of
cyanurin and melanurin, are not of sufficient importance to
require any observations.

11. Bilin.

Bilin is the name given by Berzelius to the substance which
he considers as the principal and most important constituent
of the bile.

The following is the most simple process for its exhibition :5

Acidulate perfectly fresh filtered ox-gall with a few drops of
acetic acid, and precipitate it with neutral acetate of lead. The
bilifellinic acid, which still remains in solution, must then be
precipitated, as a plastery mass, by basic acetate of lead, and
the filtered or decanted liquid, in which there is usually a little

1 Ann. de Chem. et de Phys. t. xxix, p. 252.

3 Schweiggcr’s Journal, t. xlvii, p. 487.

3 lb. t. xxiii, p. 262.

1 Medico-Chirurgical Transactions of London, v. xii.

■* Lehmann, Lehrbuch der Physiologischcn Chcrnie, t. i, p. 309.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

bilifulvin, must be decomposed by an excess of carbonate
of soda. The precipitate is then to be extracted with absolute
alcohol, and the soda carefully precipitated from this solution
by dilute sulphuric acid. On evaporating the alcoholic solu-
tion to dryness, we obtain hi fin.

The composition of bilin is not accurately determined. It
is easy to show that it contains nitrogen, by heating it with
an alkali, in which case it develops ammonia. Lehmann always
found traces of sulphur in it.

Bilin forms a gummy, pale yellow mass, which when quickly
dried and pulverized, yields a white powder, devoid of odour
and possessing a singular sweetish-bitter taste, most perceptible
at the base of the tongue and on the posterior fauces. Berzelius
suggests that the sweetness may be owing to the admixture of
a little glycerin.1 It is freely soluble in water and in alcohol,
but not in ether ; in fact it may be precipitated by ether from
its alcoholic solution. When recently prepared, it is perfectly
neutral. Heated to 212°, it begins to swell ; at a higher tem-
perature it becomes brown, develops a peculiar odour, and
when inflamed, burns with a bright clear flame, leaving a
porous ash.

An aqueous solution of bilin is not affected by acids, nor by
earthy or metallic salts ; neither does chlorine seem to induce
any peculiar change. A concentrated solution of potash sepa-
rates an oleaginous tough mass, (a compound of bilin and
potash,) which is soluble in water and in alcohol.

Bilin is remarkable for the facility with which it undergoes
metamorphoses. An aqueous or alcoholic solution in vacuo
soon assumes an acid reaction. Its decomposition is accelerated
by warmth, by the presence of organic matters, as mucus, & c.,
and more especially by the action of the mineral acids.

Metamorphoses of Bilin. Bilin and hydrochloric acid. On
digesting bilin with dilute hydrochloric acid, five distinct sub-
stances are ultimately obtained, three of which are insoluble in
water, and have received from Berzelius the names of fellinic
acid, cholinic acid, and dyslysin; the remaining two being

1 As the bile contains oleate, margarate, and stearate of soda, there is no difficulty
in accounting for the presence of glycerin.

BILIN.

soluble in water, viz. taurin ancl hydrochlorate of ammonia.
— The evaporation of an aqueous solution of the above mix-
ture leaves as a residue a crystalline mass of taurin and hydro-
chlorate of ammonia; the latter may be removed by alcohol of
•838, and the taurin may then be recrystallized from a solution
in hot water.

Taurin forms colourless regular six-sided prisms, terminated
by four- or six-sided pyramids. It is hard, craunches between
the teeth, has a cooling taste, but is neither bitter nor salt, dis-
solves in about sixteen times its weight of water at 60°, and is
more soluble at a higher temperature. It is very slightly solu-
ble in alcohol. It is dissolved without decomposition in con-
centrated sulphuric and nitric acids, and gives no reaction with
the ordinary reagents. Its composition is represented by the
formula C( N H7 O10. Hence, as Lowig remarks, it may be
regarded as a combination of binoxalate of ammonia and water,
for C4 N H. 0IO = 2 C2 03+N H3 + 4 IIO.

On treating the resinous mass, which is insoluble in water,
with alcohol, dy sly sin is left, and the two acids are dissolved.
Dyslysin dissolves with some difficulty in boiling alcohol, and
falls again on cooling as an earthy powder. It has not been
further investigated.

Cholinic and fellinic acids are associated in the alcoholic
solution. In many respects they closely resemble each other :
they are almost insoluble in water, they dissolve in all propor-
tions in alcohol, and they form nearly similar compounds with
the alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides. Their salts of am-
monia and baryta, however, differ in several respects, and by
means of these reagents we can isolate the acids. If we evapo-
rate a solution of their ammoniacal salts, cholinate of ammonia
separates as a white soapy mass, while fellinate of ammonia
remains in solution, and appears after due evaporation as a soft,
greasy, yellowish substance.

When an aqueous solution of cholinate of ammonia is decom-
posed by hydrochloric acid, cholinic acid separates in light
white flocculi, which after drying form a brown pulvcrizable
mass. It is only slightly soluble in ether. The cholinate of
baryta is almost insoluble in alcohol.

Fellinic acid may be exhibited in a similar manner. It sepa-
rates from its solution in snow-white flocks, and after drying

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

forms a white, earthy, inodorous and bitter mass, which fuses
at 212° without decomposition. In boiling water it undergoes
fusion, and dissolves to a small extent ; in this respect it differs
from cholinic acid, which fuses but is wholly insoluble in hot
water. It is soluble in ether, and its baryta salt dissolves
freely in alcohol.

Fellinic and cholinic acids possess the property of combining
and forming acid compounds with undecomposed bilin, to
which Berzelius has given the names of bilifellinic and bilicho-
linic acids.

Bilifellinic acid apparently exists as such in fresh bile : it
may be obtained either from bile after the removal of mucus,
colouring matters, and other acids, by neutral acetate of lead,
or from pure bilin.

In either case we add a solution of basic acetate of lead,
which throws down a flocculent precipitate which soon collects
into a soft, tenacious, plastery mass. The salt of lead must be
decomposed by carbonate of soda, and the soda-salt in its turn,
by sulphuric acid : we thus obtain a very soft, almost oily,
yellow mass, from which the free sulphuric acid must be
removed by carbonate of lead, and free fellinic and cholinic
acids, by ether. We then obtain bilifellinic acid in the form
of a thick syrupy fluid soluble in every proportion of water,
and possessing a bitter taste. If this acid be digested with
oxide of lead, or decomposed by basic acetate of lead, a plastery
bilifellinate of lead is again precipitated, while at the same
time pure bilin is found in the supernatant fluid. Hence it
appears that bilin combines with fellinic acid in more than one
proportion. Bilicholinic acid appears to resemble bilifellinic
acid in almost eveiy respect.

A mixture of these two bilin-containing acids constitutes
Demarfay’s choleic acid,1 and forms the principal part of
Thenard’s biliary resin. (Berzelius.)

On cooling bilin in a solution of caustic potash till ammonia
ceases to be developed, we obtain, on evaporation, a clotty
matter, which, when dissolved in water and treated with
acetic acid, precipitates a peculiar acid, the cholic acid of
Gmelin. It forms fine silky acicular crystals, of which the taste

1 This substance is described in tlie chapter on the Bile.

UREA.

is at once sharp and sweet. It is slightly soluble in cold,
but more so in hot water ; it dissolves readily in alcohol : its
solution reddens litmus. Most of the cholatcs are soluble, and
possess a sweetish taste. Dumas assigns to this acid the
formula1 C44 H36 OI0.

There is no subject in the whole domain of animal chemistry
that is more perplexing and intricate than the bile and its
constituents. In the preceding pages we have adopted the
views of Berzelius, but upon this point (cholic acid) he is very
undecided. In the edition of his ‘ Animal Chemistry/ pub-
lished in 1840, he states that he conceives it probable that
cholic acid is produced by bilin alone, and that any fellinic or
cholinic acids that may be simultaneously present take no part
in the metamorphosis. In his article ‘ Bile, ’ in Wagner’s
‘ Handworterbuch/ published two years later, he states that
bilin in a state of purity undergoes only a very slight change
by boiling with hydrated potash, and that he could not convert
it into cholic acid in that manner. Cholic acid certainly does
not pre-exist in the bile.

Diagnosis of bilin. Bilin may be detected by its peculiar
taste. It is distinguished from the previous substances by its
solubility in water and absolute alcohol, and by its insolubility
in ether. Although absolutely pure bilin is said by Berzelius, to
be unaffected by metallic salts, basic acetate of lead and per-
chloride of iron throw down white precipitates from an
aqueous solution ; the latter, on the application of warmth,
assumes a cinnamon tint : these reactions are probably owing
to the presence of bilifellinic acid.

12. Urea.

Urea forms the principal constituent of the solid residue
of normal human urine. It is found in considerable quantity
in the blood after extirpation of the kidneys, also in certain
pathological conditions in which the renal functions arc not
properly discharged, as in diabetes, cholera, ischuria, and
Bright’s disease. That it does exist in healthy blood as a
constant, although very minute constituent, has also been
recently proved by Marchand and Simon, ltees has detected

1 See Appendix I, Note 17.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

it in the liquor amnii and in milk ; Kiihn and Lehmann in
bile and biliary concretions ; Golding Bird in sweat ; Wright in
saliva, Maclagan in the serous effusion into the ventricles in cer-
tain forms of fever ; and various chemists in dropsical fluids, &c.

Urea may be obtained from urine in a state of purity by
any of the following methods.

a. The urine must be evaporated to the consistence of a
syrup, and mixed when quite cold, with an equal volume of
pure nitric acid of specific gravity l-42. If the evaporation
has been carried sufficiently far, the whole will form a thick
crystalline mass, consisting of a compound of nitric acid and
urea, which is sparingly soluble in nitric acid. All increase of
temperature must be carefully avoided lest the nitric acid
with the aid of heat, acting on the chlorides in the urine,
should develop chlorine and nitrous acid, both of which, as we
shall presently show, act powerfully in destroying urea. The
impure crystals of nitrate of urea are to be carefully washed in
dilute nitric acid, strongly pressed between folds of blotting paper,
dried on a porous tile, redissolved in warm water, and neu-
tralized with carbonate of lead. The residue after evaporation,
must be treated with alcohol. In this manner we obtain an
alcoholic solution of urea, from which sulphuretted hydrogen,
and animal charcoal, will suffice to remove any traces of lead
and colouring matter ; after due evaporation it will yield crystals
of nearly pure urea.

b. O. Henry mixes the urine with basic acetate of lead,
and then adds sufficient sulphuric acid to convert all the
acetates into sidphates. After filtration through animal charcoal
the fluid will yield on evaporation crystals of nearly pure urea.

c. Berzelius recommends that the alcohol-extract of urine
should be dissolved in water, treated with animal charcoal,
filtered, and warmed to about 120°, and that then as much
oxalic acid should be added as the warm fluid will dissolve.
Crystals form of sparingly soluble oxalate of m’ea, which must
be dissolved, filtered through animal charcoal, recrystallized,
and decomposed by carbonate of lime.

Urea may also be obtained artificially by the decomposition
of certain cyanates. The following is the best method for
obtaining it in this manner on a large scale. Twenty-eight
parts of ferrocyanide of potassium, and 14 of peroxide of

UREA.

manganese, arc to be thoroughly mixed, and heated on an iron
plate to a dull red heat. The mixture smoulders into a brown
mass which contains cvanate of potash, carbonate of potash, and
sesquioxide of manganese. When cold it is to he repeatedly
digested in cold water, and the solution mixed with 205 parts of
crystallized sulphate of ammonia dissolved in water. Sulphate
of potash and cyanate of ammonia are formed ; and this latter
substance, on the application of a slight heat, is converted into
urea. Sulphate of potash usually separates at once, in crystals ;
but, without stopping to remove them, we may evaporate the
fluid on the water- hath to dryness, and remove the urea by a
small quantity of water. On evaporating this aqueous solution
to dryness, the urea may he extracted with boiling alcohol of
80 or 902, whilst the sulphate of potash remains undissolved.
The alcohol is allowed to evaporate, and the urea separates
from it in crystals. In this manner a pound of ferrocyanide of
potassium will furnish one third of a pound of pure urea.

The composition of urea is represented by the formula1
C, H4 N2 0„. It contains a larger proportion of nitrogen
(46-7282) than any other organic compound.

Urea when pure and in crystals is white and transparent :
when deposited from a concentrated hot solution it is in the
form of fine silky needles, but by very slow or spontaneous eva-
poration it separates in colourless flattened four-sided prisms of
specific gravity T35. It is soluble in its own weight of cold,
and in every proportion of hot water ; in 4-5 parts of cold, and
in 2 parts of boiling alcohol ; it is slightly soluble in ether,
about 1 part in 60, at a temperature of 62°.

It deliquesces in a very moist atmosphere only, and even then
its chemical properties remain unchanged. In dry air it is per-
fectly permanent. It fuses at 250° into a colourless liquid, and
is decomposed by a higher temperature into ammonia, cyanate
of ammonia, and dry solid cyanuric acid. A concentrated watery
solution may be boiled and preserved for a long time without
any change, but if albumen, glutin, mucus, or especially ferment,
should be present, it is speedily converted into carbonate of
ammonia. Tbe possibility of this transformation is obvious
from the formula

C, H, N, O, (urea) +2 HO = 2 (CO„ NIIJ.

1 See Appendix T, Note 18.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

With most concentrated acids it gives crystalline salts, espe-
cially with nitric and oxalic acids. It is not precipitated from
its aqueous solution by metallic salts, ferrocyanide of potassium,
or tannic acid. With hyponitrous acid it is instantly decom-
posed into nitrogen and carbonic acid gases, which are evolved
in equal volumes ; with chlorine it forms hydrochloric acid, ni-
trogen, and carbonic acid. These decompositions are rendered
obvious by the formulae

C2 II4 N2 02 + 2N03 = 4N + 2C02-f 4HO

C2 H4 N2 02 + 2H0 + 6Cl=2N + 2C02 + 6HCl.

Compounds of urea. Nitrate of urea is obtained by the
direct addition of nitric acid in excess, to a concentrated solu-
tion of urea. Its formula is C„ H4 N„ 0o + N0. + HO. It
most commonly crystallizes in large colourless leaves, but some-
times in small solid prisms. It dissolves in eight parts of cold,
but more freely in hot water. It is sparingly soluble in nitric
acid, with which it may he boiled without decomposition. This
salt effloresces with great rapidity.1 100 parts of nitrate of
urea correspond to 48-945 of urea, (llcgnault and Percy.)

Oxalate of urea is obtained by the mixture of concen-
trated hot solutions of urea and oxalic acid. Its formula is
C2H4 N3 0„ + C2 03 4- HO. It crystallizes in long slender plates
or prisms, as the fluid cools, since it is much less soluble in cold
than in hot water.

At a temperature of 61° water dissolves only 4-372, and
alcohol 1-62, of the oxalate of urea. Oxalic acid displaces
nitric acid from its combination with urea. 100 parts of oxalate
of urea correspond to 62‘564 of urea. (Berzelius.)

Sulphate of urea may be obtained by the double decomposition
of oxalate of urea and sulphate of lime.

1 Nitrate of urea, when heated to about 316°, decomposes, and disengages a con-
siderable quantity of carbonic acid and nitrous oxide, in the exact proportion of two
volumes of the first to one of the latter; the residue consists of free urea and of
nitrate of ammonia. Nitrate of ammonia and urea crystallize successively out of an
aqueous solution of the residue. These changes are shown by the formula
4 (C2 II4 N2 02, N05, HO) = 4 CO + 2 NO+2 (C2 H4 N2 Oa)+3 (NII3, NOs, IIO).

The nitrate of ammonia subsequently changes into water and nitrous oxide, and
the urea into carbonic acid and ammonia.

During the decomposition of the nitrate of urea a new acid is formed in extremely
minute quantities. It crystallizes in grayish white brilliant lamellae, reddens litmus
paper, and is very slightly soluble in water, w-hich allows of its being separated from
urea and nitrate of ammonia. Pelouze has assigned it the formula C., II3 N2 0 ,.

URIC ACID.

.53

Hydrochlorate of urea has been formed by the direct combi-
nation of dry urea with hydrochloric acid gas. It is a very
unstable compound, and when exposed to the air dissolves into
a very acid liquid, from which hydrochloric acid is disengaged.

Lactate, hippurate, and urate of urea have been described
by Cap and Henry ; who in fact assert that in human urine the
urea exists as a lactate. Pelouze has, however, disproved the
existence of all these compounds.

Prout has examined certain compounds of silver and lead, in
which the urea seems to combine with the oxides of those metals
as bases. They are of no importance in a practical point of view.

The presence of urea modifies the solubility and crystalline
form of certain salts ; it causes common salt to crystallize in
octoliedra, instead of in cubes ; but it has been observed that if
these octohedra are dissolved in pure water they recrystallize in
cubes. This peculiarity affords a common microscopic test for
the presence of urea.

Diagnosis of urea. Urea is distinguished by its solubility in
water and in alcohol, and by its behaviour with nitric and
oxalic acids.

13. Uric acid.

Uric acid is a constituent of the urinary secretion in appa-
rently all classes of animals ; it is found in man and the car-
nivora, in graminivora (Fownes),1 in birds, amphibia, serpents,
insects, and mollusca. It is the most common ingredient (in
combination with a base) of urinary calculi and gouty concre-
tions; it has been detected in the saliva (Wright), in sweat
(Wolf),2 and on the surface of ulcers in arthritic persons
(Schonlein.)

Uric acid may be obtained in a state of purity, by the fol-
lowing process, from the excrement of the boa constrictor, 3

1 London and Edinburgh Phil. Mag. xxi, p. 139.

2 Dissertatio sist. casum Calculositatis ; Tubing. 1817.

J The excrements of the boa constrictor have been found by Prout to yield more
than 90g of uric acid. (Annals of Philosophy, t. v, p. 413.) The excrements of the
rattlesnake have been examined by Simon. He found in 100 parts of the dried
residue — free uric acid, with a little fat and extractive matters, 56-4 ; urate of am-
monia, 31 "1 ; urate of soda, with some chloride of sodium, 9‘8 ; urate of lime, 1*4 ;
phosphate of lime, 1*3. Although we have retained the term “excrements” in ac-
cordance with popular usage, the substance is in reality the urine of the serpent.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

which contains a very large proportion of uric acid and urate of
ammonia. To powdered boa constrictor’s excrement add an
equivalent proportion, or slight excess, of caustic potash. (We
assume that the excrement is entirely urate of ammonia in this
calculation.) Boil in water (in the proportion of lib. of ex-
crement to 2 quarts of water) till the mass is reduced to dif-
fused gelatinous floccules, which speedily settle, leaving a dark-
brown supernatant fluid. Remove this fluid by decantation or
filtration, and wash the urate of potash, which is collected, with
cold water. It must then be heated in water, and more caustic
potash must be added, till the solution becomes clear. While
still hot it must be poured into dilute hydrochloric acid, and
allowed to stand. In this manner piu’e crystals of uric acid
will be obtained.1 The slight excess of caustic potash used in
the first instance seems to keep the colouring matter in solution.

Uric acid is represented bythe empirical formula2 C5 IIo Nn 03,
or CI0 II( N4 06, or C10 H4 N4 06; it is highly probable that
it contains one atom of water in this state, and may be consi-
dered as a hydrate, C10 N( II3 ()r + HO.

Uric acid crystallizes in fine scales of a brilliant white colour
and silky lustre, is tasteless, inodorous, heavier than water,
almost insoluble in cold, and very slightly soluble in boiling
water.3 It is insoluble in alcohol and ether. It dissolves in
dilute nitric acid, with the evolution of equal volumes of car-
bonic acid and nitrogen : on evaporating the solution a pink
tint is produced, which, on the addition of ammonia in excess,
changes to a purple-red colour. This is a characteristic test of the
presence of uric acid. Boiled with peroxide of lead in water it is
decomposed into oxalic acid and allantoin, and urea is separated.

Several of the compounds of uric acid, with the alkalies and
alkaline earths, are of practical importance.

Urate of potash is a frequent constituent of urinary calculi :
it may be obtained by boiling urate of ammonia with potash.
On cooling, the urate of potash yields a mass of very minute aci-

1 The various forms under which uric acid crystallizes are noticed under the head
of Urinary sediments.

2 See Appendix I, Note 19.

3 According to Liebig, uric acid requires 15,000 parts of cold, and 1,932 parts of
boiling water, for its perfect solution. It dissolves in all alkaline fluids, in solution
of phosphate of soda and of borax, but not in solutions of the bicarbonates of potash
or of ammonia.

URIC ACID.

cular crystals, or else separates in granules or scales. It dissolves
in 140 parts of cold, and in 85 parts of boiling water.

Urate of soda may be obtained in a similar manner, or by
boiling uric acid in a solution of borax. It is far less soluble
than the former salt ; one part of it requiring for its solution
372 parts of cold, and 124 parts of boiling water. In other
respects it closely resembles it. It occasionally constitutes a
very peculiar stellar form of deposit in the urine. Liebig has
shown that uric acid dissolves with great facility in a solution
of common phosphate of soda, that the fluid from being al-
kaline becomes acid, and that there are formed a urate of soda,
and an acid phosphate of soda. It is in this condition that he
supposes uric acid to exist in the urine.

Urate of ammonia, in a state of purity, invariably crystallizes
in needles, but if a little chloride of sodium be added to its so-
lution we no longer obtain, on evaporation, a crystalline acicular
deposit, but the peculiar amorphous form in which urate of am-
monia occurs in urine. On the addition of chloride of sodium
to water, in the proportion of 2‘59 to 1000, the solubility of
urate of ammonia is increased in the proportion of 1000 to 450,
or is more than doubled. (Dr. Bence Jones, in Trans, of the
Medico-chirurgical Society, 1844.)

According to Liebig, this salt requires for its solution 172 7
parts of cold, and 243 parts of boiling water.

Urate of magnesia may be obtained by the addition of sul-
phate of magnesia to a boiling saturated solution of urate of
potash. On cooling, and after the fluid has been allowed to
stand for some time, urate of magnesia is deposited in fine
needles of a silky lustre, and arrayed in stellar groups. At
212° these crystals lose 5 atoms of water. Urate of magnesia
dissolves in 3593 parts of cold, and 263 parts of boiling water.

Urate of lime forms white glittering needles or leaves, which
dissolve pretty readily in hot water, but are thrown down again
on cooling.

Diagnosis of uric acid. Uric acid is distinguished by the
form of its crystals under the microscope, by its insolubility in
water and in alcohol, and by its behaviour towards nitric acid
and ammonia.

The Metamorphoses of Uric Acid. Allantoin. One part
of uric acid is boiled in 20 parts of water, and freshly prepared

5f>

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

peroxide of lead is gradually added to tlie boiling liquid, as long
as its colour is observed to change. The hot liquid is then
filtered and evaporated till crystals begin to form on its surface ;
on cooling they form in considerable quantity, and constitute
allantoin or allantoic acid, while urea remains in the mother
liquid, and oxalate of lead on the filter.

The following symbolical representation may elucidate this
decomposition.

1 At. Uric acid . C10 H4 N4 Os

2 At. Peroxide of lead 04 Pb2

7 At. Water . H7 07

C10 Hn N4 Ol7 Pb2

1 At. Allantoin . C4 II3 N2 03

1 At. Urea . C2 H4 N2 02

2 At. Hydrated ox-
alate of lead1 C4 H4 012 Pb2

C,0 H,j N4 0,7 Pb2

It is on this reaction that Liebig founds his theory of uric
acid. He considers it to contain ready -formed urea and a hy-
pothetical substance, for which he proposes the term uril Ub or
cyan- oxalic acid.2

For 1 At. Uric acid (C10 FI4 N4 06)— 1 At. Urea (C2 H4 N2 02) = 2 (C4 N02) —2 Ul.

Hence the rational formula for uric acid appears to be —

1 At. Uric acid (C10 H4 N4 O0) = 2 Ul + 1 At. Urea (C2 H4 N, 02).

In the production of allantoin from uric acid, the urea is
supposed to be set free, whilst the uril combines with oxygen
and water in order to form oxalic acid and allantoin.
The change may be illustrated in the following manner :
2U1 = C8 N204 = C4 04 + C4Ns.

By the addition of 2 at. oxygen to the former term, C4 04,
we obtain 2C2 03 (oxalic acid), and by the addition of 3 at.
water to the latter, C4 N„, we obtain C4 H3 N„ O , (allantoin.)

This substance allantoin, or as it is frequently termed allantoic
acid, occurs ready formed in the allantoic fluid of the calf, from
which it crystallizes spontaneously on cooling, when the fluid
has been evaporated to one fourth of its volume. It then re-
quires to be purified by recrystallization.

The crystals are colourless and transparent, tasteless and

1 2 At. Hydrated oxalate of lead = 2 (Pb 0, C2 03, 2 HO)

= C4 H4012 Pb2

2 This name is suggested by its constitution ; for 1 at. Uril = C4 N02 = C2 02, Cy,
a formula that represents oxalic acid in which an equivalent of oxygen is replaced by
one of cyanogen.

ALLOXAN.

inodorous, and exert no action on vegetable colours. They are
usually prisms of the right rhomboid system, have a glassy lustre,
and at 68° are soluble in 160 times their weight of cold, but
in a much less quantity of hot water: they dissolve in hot alco-
hol, but recrystallize as it cools. At a high temperature allan-
toin is converted by the caustic alkalies, and also by most concen-
trated acids (with the exception of nitric acid) into ammonia and
oxalic acid. This change may be illustrated by the formula

1 At. Allantoin
3 At. Water .

c4 H3 Na o3

h3 o3

2 At. Oxalic acid
2 At. Ammonia

• C4 06
Hs n2

c4 h6 n2 o6

c4 Ha N2 06

If we compare the composition of allantoin with that of uric
acid and urea, we find that these substances bear a highly inte-
resting relation to each other ; if we add to one atom of uric
acid, one atom of urea and one atom of water, we obtain a
formula exactly corresponding with that of allantoin.

1 At. Uric acid . . Cl0 1I4 N4 06

1 At. Urea . . . C2 H4 N2 02

1 At. Water . . HO

Cl2 H9 N6 09 = 3 (C4 H3 N2 03)
i. e. = 3 At. Allantoin.

“ According to this,” as Liebig observes, “ it is evident that
the product of the secretion of the non-respiring foetus of the
cow is, in a certain sense, identical with the products secreted
by the kidneys of the breathing animals. Urea represents
carbonate of ammonia from which the elements of two atoms
of water have separated ; allantoin represents oxalate of am-
monia, from which the elements of three atoms of water have
separated.”

We now proceed to the consideration of a few of the most
important products of nitric acid with uric acid.

Alloxan. One part of dry uric acid is gradually added to
four parts of nitric acid of spec. grav. 1‘42 — L5, by which it
is dissolved with effervescence, and the production of heat.
The whole liquid is soon converted into a solid crystalline mass
of alloxan. Its formula is C8 Ht N,, 010. It is very soluble
in water, reddens vegetable colours, and causes a purple stain
on the skin. Its formation may be explained in the following
manner. We have already shown (see Urea,) that urea is con-

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

verted by hyponitrous acid into water, carbonic acid, and
nitrogen. Hence, if we suppose that tlie 2 atoms of uril
(bearing in mind that uric acid = 2U1. + 1 at. urea,) take up
the 2 at. of oxygen, which the nitric acid has given off in the
formation of hyponitrous acid, and 4 at. of water, we obtain
the formula of alloxan, for

2U1 (= C8 N2 OJ+4HO+2 O = C8 Il4N,2O10.

Parabanic acid is obtained by treating one part of uric acid,
or one part of alloxan in eight parts of nitric acid, evaporating
to the consistence of a syrup, and allowing it to stand for some
time, when it yields colourless crystals which may be purified
by recrystallization. Its formula is Ce Nn 01 + 2H0.

It is formed by the action of hyponitrous acid on the urea
of the uric acid ; the 2 at. of uril take up 4 at. of oxygen, and
2 at. of water, and yield 2 at. of carbonic acid, and 1 at. of
hydrated parabanic acid : thus

2U1 + 2H0 + 40==2C0,, + (C6 N2 04 + 2H0.)

Or it may be regarded as produced by the action of oxygen on
alloxan, for

C8 H4 N3 0w+20=2C0. + 2H0 + (Ca N, 04 + 2H0.)

Oxaluric acid is obtained by boiling parabanic acid in a solu-
tion of ammonia. If the mixture be evaporated and allowed
to cool, crystals of oxalurate of ammonia will separate them-
selves. On the addition of an acid to a concentrated solution
of this salt, oxaluric acid is separated as a crystalline powder.
Its formula is C6 H3 Nn 07 + H0. It is formed by the addi-
tion of 2 at. of water to the constituents of parabanic acid : it
contains further the elements of 2 at. of oxalic acid, and 1 at.
of urea, and by boiling in water is completely decomposed into
free oxalic acid, and oxalate of urea.

Liebig observes that “ when uric acid is subjected to the
action of oxygen, it is first resolved into alloxan and urea ; a
new supply of oxygen acting on the alloxan causes it to resolve
itself either into oxalic acid and urea, or into oxaluric and
parabanic acids, or into carbonic acid and urea,” (Animal
Chemistry, p. 137.) The reactions which we have already
given are sufficient to explain this statement. We have
shown that — •

Uric acid = 2 U1 + urea, and alloxan = 2 U1 -f- 02 + 4 HO ;
consequently,

Uric acid + Oa + 4 IIO = alloxan -f- urea.

MUREXAN.

Moreover,

Alloxan = urea + C6 08 (see tlieir respective formula:) ;
therefore,

Alloxan -f- 0 = urea + C6 09 = urea -(- 3 at. oxalic acid,
and

Alloxan + 04 = urea + C6 0,,= urea + 6 at. carbonic acid.

Also,

Ailoxan -f 02 = parabanic acid + 2 HO + 2 C02
= oxaluric acid -(- 2 at. carbonic acid.

Hence,

Uric acid 4 HO 4- 03 = 2 at. urea + 3 at. oxalic acid.

Uric acid + 2 HO -f- 0 , = 2 at. urea -j- parabanic acid 2 at. carbonic acid.

Uric acid + 4 HO + 04= 2 at. urea ~(- oxaluric acid 4- 2 at. carbonic acid.

Uric acid 4- 4 HO -f- 06 = 2 at. urea 4- 6 at. carbonic acid.

These formulae express laws of much importance in urinary
pathology ; they show us that if an abundant supply of oxygen
be given to the uric acid, carbonic acid and urea may be ob-
tained ; if a smaller quantity, oxalic acid and urea ; and if none
be given the acid remains unchanged.

Murexid [Purpurate of ammonia .) The best method of exhi-
biting this substance is to evaporate a solution of iiric acid in
dilute nitric acid, until it acquires a flesh-red colour : after it
has cooled to 160° a dilute solution of ammonia must be added,
till the presence of free ammonia is remarked by the odour.
The solution is then to be diluted with half its volume of boiling
water and allowed to cool : it crystallizes in short four-sided
prisms, two faces of which reflect a green metallic lustre.
It is insoluble in alcohol ; sparingly soluble in cold, but
more readily in boiling water, on the cooling of which it
crystallizes unchanged. It is soluble in caustic potash with a
beautiful indigo-blue colour, which disappears with the evolu-
tion of ammonia on the application of heat. The difference
between the views of Prout and Liebig regarding this substance
is, that the latter considers it a distinct principle, while the
former regards it as a combination of a peculiar acid (purpuric)
with ammonia. Prout’s view has been strongly confirmed by
the researches of Fritzsche, which are published in the Transac-
tions of the Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburgli, for 1839.

The formula assigned to this substance by Liebig and Wohler
is Cw H6 Ns 08. Fritzsche gives it the formula C16 II Nfi On, or

CI6 H4 n5 oI0+nh4o.

Murexan or purpuric acid is prepared by dissolving murexid
in caustic potash by the aid of heat, which is to be applied till

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

the blue colour disappears : dilute sulphuric acid is then to be
added in excess. It falls in crystalline scales of a silky lustre ;
is insoluble in water and dilute acids, but is taken up by
ammonia and the fixed alkalies.

If a solution of murexan in ammonia be exposed to the air,
it acquires a purple-red colour and deposits crystals of murexid :
with an excess of ammonia it again becomes colourless, and is
then found to contain oxalurate of ammonia.

Its formula, according to Liebig and Wohler, is C0 H4 N,, Or ;
according to Eritzsche it is C16 H4 Ns O10.

The substances which have been described are only a few of
the products of nitric acid on uric acid ; they have been selected
as having a more practical bearing than the others. The fol-
lowing table exhibits the principal results of Liebig and Wohler's
admirable paper on this subject.

[a) On treating uric acid with cold concentrated nitric acid,
we obtain alloxan, C8 H4 N, O10 or 2Ul + 02 + 4IION
(i b ) On treating uric acid with cold dilute nitric acid, we obtain
alloxantin, C8 H5 O10, or 2U1 +0+ 5 HO.

uric acid, C8 H7 N3 014 S2.

(d) On treating thionuric acid, or tliionurate of ammonia, with

hydrochloric, or sulphuric acid, we obtain uramil,
C8 H5 N3 0(i, or 2Ul + NH3 + 2HO.

(e) On treating alloxan with sulphuretted hydrogen, we ob-

tain first, alloxantin, and subsequently dialuric acid,
C8 H4 N2 08, or 2UI + 4HO.

(/) On warming uric acid in eight parts of nitric acid we ob-
tain parabanic acid, Cfi 04 + 2H0.

((/) On boiling parabanic acid in ammonia, oxalurate of ammo-
nia is generated, from which we can obtain oxaluric
acid, Cfi N2 H3 0, + HO.

( h ) On the addition of an alkali to a concentrated solution of

alloxan, we obtain alloxanic acid, C8 II, N, ()-f2H0.

(i) By the precipitation of a solution of alloxan with boiling

acetate of lead, we obtain mesoxalic acid, C, O .

(j) By heating a solution of alloxan with ammonia, we obtain

mycomelinic acid, C8 II N4 Or.

(Ic) On heating uramil with dilute sulphuric acid, wc obtain
uramilic acid, C,. Hln N, 0,_.

' 10 5 i.i

HIPPURIC ACID.

(/) On warming uric acicl with nitric acid and saturating it
witli ammonia, we obtain murexid, C12 H6 Ns 0B.

(in) On dissolving murexid in caustic potash and adding dilute
sulphuric acid, we obtain murexan, Cc II. N„ O..

14. Hippuric Acid.

Hippuric, or urobenzoic acid, is an ordinary, although not a
constant, ingredient of the urine of the graminivora. It has
been observed by Lehmann, Ambrosiani, and Reich, in the
urine of diabetic patients, and Bouchardat has found it in the
same secretion in certain anomalous cases to which he has ap-
plied the term “ liippurie.” Liebig has recently asserted that
it is a constant ingredient of healthy human urine; and even
if this statement be too general, there can be no doubt that it
does veiy frequently occur in minute quantity in this secretion.

Hippuric acid is readily obtained by evaporating the urine
of the horse or cow to about one tenth of its volume, and adding
sufficient hydrochloric acid to give it a decidedly acid reaction.
Yellow or brown crystals of hippuric acid are almost immedi-
ately deposited, which must be collected, dissolved in a hot
solution of carbonate of soda, and filtered through animal char-
coal. By the addition of hydrochloric acid to this solution,
(which must be concentrated, if requisite,) we obtain tolerably
pure crystals of hippuric acid.

This acid forms long transparent four-sided prisms, acumi-
nated at the extremities; it is destitute of odour, and has a
faintly bitter, but not an acid taste. It dissolves in about 400
parts of cold water, and in a much larger proportion in hot
water, from which it recrystallizes on cooling. It is freely
soluble m alcohol, less so in ether. A cold aqueous solution
strongly reddens litmus. At a moderate heat, hippuric acid
melts (without yielding water) into a colourless oily fluid, which,
on cooling, solidifies into a crystalline milk-white mass. At a
higher temperature the acid undergoes decomposition, and yields
a crystalline sublimate composed of benzoic acid and benzoate
of ammonia, while, at the same time, some red oily drops are
produced, which develop a peculiar odour, resembling that of
the Tonquin bean. Hydrocyanic acid is subsequently formed,
and the previous odour is replaced by a bitter-almond smell.
The action of perchloride of iron on this acid is worthy of
notice. On the addition of this reagent to a solution of hip-

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

puric acid, a well-marked yellow colour is produced; no such
change is effected on the addition of this test to a solution of
uric acid. On its addition to a solution of hippurate of potash,
a copious orange- coloured deposit is thrown down, which, on
the application of heat, forms a red resinous mass, soluble in
alcohol, but insoluble in water; when added to a solution of
urate of potash, a precipitate is likewise thrown down, which
is at first of a brownish red colour, but rapidly becomes yellow.

The composition of this acid is represented by the formula1
C18 H8 NT). -f IIO. In its physical characters it strongly re-
sembles benzoic acid, and there can be no doubt that these two
acids have been often confounded : there is, moreover, a close
analogy between them. They both belong to the benzoyl series,
although the exact place of hippuric acid cannot be at present
assigned to it with certainty. Oxidising agents (as nitric acid,
or sulphuric acid and binoxide of manganese) convert hippuric
into benzoic acid ; and a similar change occurs in the urine if
it be kept for any time. Conversely, benzoic and cinnamic
acids are converted in the organism into hippuric acid.2

Hippuric acid forms soluble cry stalliz able salts with the
alkalies and alkaline earths.

Diagnosis. Hippuric acid may be distinguished by its crys-
talline form, its solubility in alcohol, its behaviour when heated,
and its reaction with perchloride of iron. Nitric acid will suffice
to distinguish it from uric acid.

15. Uric Oxide.

Uric oxide, xanthic oxide, urous acid. This substance is a
very rare ingredient in vesical calculi. It was discovered by
Mai’cet, who gave it the name xanthic oxide ; it has since been
met with by Laugier, Stromeyer, and Dulk, and it is said to
have been recently detected in guano, by Unger.

Urinary calculi which contain this ingredient are dissolved
in caustic potash ; the uric oxide is precipitated from the filtered

1 See Appendix I, Note 20.

2 Erdmann has sometimes found hippuric, and at other times benzoic acid, in the
urine of the same horse. In all probability an excess of nourishment favours the
production of this acid, for the urine of well-fed horses usually contains hippuric
acid, while only benzoic acid can be discovered in the urine of horses employed for
agricultural purposes : sometimes, however, the latter contains hippuric acid on some
days and not on others, without any perceptible cause. For Liebig’s theory of the
origin of hippuric acid, see ‘ Animal Chemistry,’ pp. 82, 140.

URIC OXIDE.

solution by a stream of carbonic acid. It forms a white pre-
cipitate, which, when dried, constitutes a pale yellow hard mass.
It is represented by the formula1 C)0 II4 N4 04. It differs
from m’ic acid in containing two atoms less oxygen, hence
the name of uric oxide. It dissolves in the alkalies, in small
quantity in hot water, hydrochloric and oxalic acids, it is in-
soluble in alcohol and ether, and produces no effect on test
paper. It dissolves also in concentrated sulphuric acid with a
yellow colour, and no precipitate is caused by the addition of
water to the solution. It is soluble in hot nitric acid without ef-
fervescence,2 and more slowly than uric acid. On carefully eva-
porating this solution, a lemon-yellow residue is left, which is
not reddened by the vapour of ammonia, but which is dissolved
with a reddish yellow colour by caustic potash, and leaves, on
evaporation, a red residue. Muriate of ammonia throws down
a yellow precipitate from the potash solution. Uric oxide
differs from uric acid in being insoluble in a dilute solution of
carbonate of potash ; by this property these two substances
may be separated from one another when they occur together.

Dulk conceives that he has effected the metamorphosis of
uric oxide into uric acid. The yellow nitric-acid solution of
m-ic oxide was evaporated on a watcliglass to a thick consist-
ence. After a few days, small, hard, and transparent crystals
appeared. A little of the portion which remained fluid, when
heated on a platinum spatula over the flame of the spirit-lamp,
assumed a blood-red tint, and in a few days the fluid which
remained in the watchglass, exposed to the atmosphere, under-
went a similar change of colour. He considers the small crystals
which were formed to consist of alloxantin ; and, in support of
his view, he alleges the following facts. Cold water poured
over them assumes a red tint, but does not dissolve them ; they
are, however, perfectly soluble in boiling water, and, on the
addition of ammonia to a hot concentrated solution, a reddish
colour manifests itself, which disappears on cooling. On con-
centrating a portion of the solution to a few drops, mixing it
with nitric acid, and then adding ammonia, a greenish salt
separated itself.

Lehmann instituted a series of experiments with the view of

1 See Appendix I, Note 21.

J Dulk states that, in Ins case, the uric oxide did slightly effervesce.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

obtaining uric oxide from uric acid by the action of deoxidising
agents, but be failed in bis attempt.

16. Cystin.

Cystin, cystic oxide. Cystin is an occasional constituent of
urinary calculi, and is sometimes found as a crystalline deposit
in tbe urine. It may be obtained by dissolving a portion of
one of these calculi in caustic potash, and adding acetic acid to
tbe boiling solution. As the fluid slowly cools, tbe cystin sepa-
rates in six-sided, colourless, transparent scales. It may also
be obtained in crystals from a solution in caustic ammonia, if
left to evaporate slowly. Tbe scales are then thicker, and may
be considered as regular six-sided prisms.

Cystin has an extraordinary composition. It contains
25 -5§ of sulphur. Its formula1 is C6 IIfi N 04 S„.

It has neither an acid nor alkaline reaction ; when heated,
it does not melt ; takes fire with a blueish flame, and gives off
a very characteristic odour; is very slightly soluble in water,
and quite insoluble in alcohol ; dissolves in dilute sulphuric,
nitric, hydrochloric, phosphoric, and oxalic acids, the saturated
solutions yielding, on gentle evaporation, salt-like compounds
of cystin and the acid ; these compounds separate in diverging
crystalline needles, which have an acid taste, and are not very
durable. Cystin dissolves readily in the fixed alkalies, and forms,
on evaporation, granular crystals. It dissolves in caustic
ammonia, but does not combine with it. Carbonate of ammonia,
is the best reagent for throwing it down from its acid solutions,
as it does not dissolve cystin. It may be removed from an
alkaline solution by acetic, citric, or tartaric acid, with none of
which it enters into combination : acetic acid is generally used.

Diagnosis of cystin. Cystin may be recognized by the
peculiar crystalline form2 (six-sided plates) in which it separates
from its solutions ; by its insolubility in water and alcohol ; by
its behaviour towards acids ; and by its peculiar odour on
burning. Its crystalline form and its behaviour towards acids
distinguish it clearly from uric acid : these tests, as well as its
solubility in hydrochloric and oxalic acids distinguish it from
uric oxide.

1 See Appendix I, Note 22.

2 I once observed an amorphous deposit of urate of ammonia yield, on the addition
of acetic acid, perfectly regular hexagons. This form is also depicted by Rigby, in
his work on Dysmenorrhcea.

ANIMAL SUGARS.

CLASS II. NON-NITROGENOUS CONSTITUENTS.

1. Animal Sugars.

a. Sugar of milk is an integral constituent of the milk of
the mammalia, and is a very rare ingredient of any other fluid.
It has never been detected with certainty in the blood ; although
Simon was led to believe, from the taste, and the carbonization
with sulphuric acid, that he had once separated it from calves'
blood. Prout once found it in the liquor amnii of a cow, but
this is the only instance in which it has been detected in that
fluid. A more remarkable case is recorded by Roller, 1 who
removed a milky-looking fluid from between the tunics of the
testicle, which contained sugar of milk.

Sugar of milk may be obtained by evaporating whey to the
consistence of a syrup, and setting it aside for some weeks in
a cool place. Granular crystals of sugar of milk will be spon-
taneously deposited. In order to procure them in a state of
purity they require several solutions and recrystallizations.

Sugar of milk is white, and crystallizes in right four-sided
prisms usually terminated by four-sided pyramids, which are
semi-transparent, and have a spec. grav. 1’543. It dissolves in
5 or 6 parts of cold water, and in 2-5 parts of boiling water,
without forming a syrup. A solution communicates a more
decidedly street taste to the tongue than the crystals them-
selves. Sugar of milk is unaltered by the air, loses nothing
at 212°, and is insoluble in alcohol and ether. At a high
temperature it fuses, swells up, and develops a sweetish but
very pungent odour. It burns with a palish blue flame, and
leaves after incineration, an ash consisting of the carbonates,
sulphates, and phosphates of lime and potash, amounting to
about ‘lg of the sugar. According to Simon, the sugar of
woman’s milk does not melt on being exposed to a high tem-
perature, but only becomes tough and fibrous.

By digestion in dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, or in

1 This fluid contained in 1000 parts: Butter 16-49 — casein 20-31 — sugar of milk
31"50 — chloride of sodium 2-78 — lactate of soda 0-74 — sulphate of potash 1-51 — sul-
phate of soda 0-37 — carbonate of lime 0-38 — carbonate of magnesia 0-47 — phosphate
of magnesia 0-89. (Wagner’s Handworterbuch, t. i, p. 25.)

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

acetic or citric acid, sugar of milk becomes converted into sugar
of grapes. By nitric acid it is decomposed into mucic,1 oxalic,
saccliaric, and carbonic acids.

On the addition of casein, animal membrane, diastase, &c.
to a solution of sugar of milk, lactic acid is formed and the
fluid begins to ferment.

Crystals of sugar of milk may be represented by the formula
C,„ H,,, 0Io. At a temperature of 212° the crystals lose ll-9§,
or two equivalents of water. Consequently the formula for
anhydrous sugar of milk is C13H)0O10.

(3. Diabetic sugar exists in the blood and urine, and occa-
sionally also in the sweat2 of persons suffering from diabetes.

It may be obtained by adding basic acetate of lead to the
urine, filtering, precipitating any excess of lead by sulphuretted
hydrogen, evaporating, extracting the syrupy residue with
alcohol, and allowing the alcoholic solution to crystallize. It
requires several crystallizations to obtain the sugar in a state of
purity. Diabetic sugar usually crystallizes in wart-like knots, or
plumose groups, of minute, rhombic, transparent crystals. It is
white, devoid of odour; in sweetness and in solubility in water3
it ranks between cane sugar and sugar of milk. It is more
soluble in dilute alcohol than sugar of milk, but is insoluble in
absolute alcohol and ether.

Diabetic sugar in a crystalline state is represented by
the formula C H, O, ; in this condition it contains
two equivalents, or 9" of water, so that its correct formula is
CM HI2 013 + 2H0. It is identical in its chemical compo-
sition with sugar of grapes.

Diabetic sugar forms a beautiful crystallizable compound
with chloride of sodium. On saturating diabetic urine with
common salt, and leaving it to spontaneous evaporation,
crystals three fourths of an inch in diameter may be ob-
tained. They are not very regular in their form, but most of
them are six-sided double pyramids. These crystals are hard,
easily pulverizablc, transparent, of a combined saltish and sac-

1 It is worthy of remark that sugar from different sorts of milk yields varying quan-
tities of mucic acid.

2 A. case in which sugar was detected in the sweat of a diabetic patient is recorded
by Nasse, Rhein. Corresp. Blatt. 1842. Nr. 6.

3 Simon found that one part of diabetic sugar dissolved in l-3 of water at 53°.

ANIMAL SUGARS.

cliarine taste, ancl dissolve in about 3 7 parts of cold water,
and slightly in alcohol. The formula for this combination is

C18 Hw 019, 2 HO + C12 Hia 0lt, NaCl.

Tests for Diabetic Sugar.1 a. Hunef eld’s test. Place 4 oz.
of the suspected urine in a glass exposed to the sun’s rays,
and add about 6 drops of a tolerably strong solution of chromic
acid. In a few minutes if sugar be present, the mixture,
previously orange red, becomes brownish, and soon after as-
sumes a bistre-brown colour. These changes take place much
more quickly if the mixture of urine and chromic acid be
gently warmed before exposure to light.

This test depends for its action upon the deoxidizing power
of the sugar, by which the chromic acid is reduced to oxide of
chromium ; for, after warming the mixture, the addition of a
few drops of liquor potasses produces a copious deposit of the
green oxide.

There is an important objection to this test which renders all
its indications liable to serious fallacy, depending upon the fact,
that all urine containing a normal proportion of colouring
matter deoxidizes chromic acid ; and consequently urine, whether
saccharine or not, will partially convert this acid into the oxide.
This change certainly does not occur so readily in non-saccha-
rine urine as in a diabetic state of that fluid, but still is suffi-
ciently marked to prevent Hunefeld’s test being regarded in
any other light than a fallacious one.

b. Dunge’s test. Allow a thin layer of the suspected urine to
evaporate on a white surface, as the bottom of a white plate,
and, whilst warm, drop upon the surface a few drops of sulphuric
acid, previously diluted with 6 parts of water. With healthy
urine, the pari touched with the acid becomes merely of a pale
orange colour, from the action of the latter upon the colouring
matter of the urine ; whilst if sugar be present the spot becomes
deep brown, and soon black, from the decomposition of sugar
by the acid, and consequent deposition of carbon. This test is
stated to be so delicate, that 1 part of sugar dissolved in 1000

1 The following observations are principally taken from an excellent paper, by Dr.
G. Bird, on the detection of a diabetic state of the urine, in the London Medical
Gazette for 1843. We have omitted to notice the test afforded by the rotatory
power of a solution of sugar on a ray of polarized light, as it has been shown by
Dr. Leeson to afford very fallacious results. Memoirs of the Chemical Society, Part 7.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

of urine can be readily detected ; and even when mixed with
2000 parts the indications arc tolerably distinct.

According to Dr. G. Bird, the presence of albumen causes the
acid to yield a tint nearly resembling that produced by sugar.

c. Moore’s test depends on the conversion of diabetic sugar
into brown melassic (or perhaps sacchulmic acid) under the in-
fluence of a caustic alkali. Place in a test tube about two
drachms of the suspected urine, and add nearly half its bulk of
liquor potasses. Heat the mixture over the spirit-lamp, and
allow it to boil for a minute or two ; the previously pale urine
will become of an orange-brown or even bistre tint, according
to the proportion of sugar present. This reaction has been long
known, but Mr. Moore deserves the credit of bringing it pro-
minently forward.

cl. Trommer’s test. Add to the suspected urine contained
in a large test tube, a few drops of a solution of sulphate of
copper ; a very inconsiderable troubling generally results, pro-
bably from the deposition of a little phosphate of copper.
Sufficient liquor potasses should then be added to render the whole
strongly alkaline ; a grayish green precipitate of hydrated oxide
of copper falls, which, if sugar be present, wholly or partly re-
dissolves in an excess of the solution of potash, forming a blue
liquid, not very unlike the blue ammoniuret of copper. On
gently heating the mixture nearly to ebullition, the copper falls
in the state of suboxide, forming a red and copious precipitate.
If sugar is not present, the copper is deposited in the form of
black oxide.

This test is founded on a fact long known, but not previously
applied to the detection of sugar, of the power possessed by
some organic matters of reducing oxide of coppei’, as well as
some other oxides, to a lower state of oxidation. It certainly
is the most delicate of all the chemical tests hitherto proposed
for the detection of sugar in the urine, and will readily detect
it in diabetic urine, even when very largely diluted.

It is important in using this test that no more of the solution
of sulphate of copper be used than is sufficient to afford a de-
cided precipitate on the addition of the liquor qiotasses. If
this precaution be not attended to, a part only of the black oxide
■\vill be reduced to red suboxide, unless a very large quantity of
sugar is present, and thus the indications afforded by this test
will be rendered indistinct.

FATS.

e. Fermentation test. The development of the vinous fermen-
tation on the addition of a little ferment or yeast to a fluid, has
long been applied as a test for the detection of sugar. It was suc-
cessfully employed by Professor Leopold Gmelin of Heidelberg 1
for the detection of sugar in the animal fluids after the inges-
tion of amylaceous food. Dr. Christison has the merit of
particularly suggesting the application of fermentation for the
discovery of a diabetic state of the urine.

When a little yeast is added to healthy urine exposed to a
temperature of about 80q, no other change occurs for some
time, except the development of a portion of carbonic acid me-
chanically entangled in the yeast. When sugar is present in
the mine thus treated, it soon becomes troubled, a tolerably
free disengagement of bubbles of carbonic acid takes place, and
a frothy scum forms on the surface of the fluid, which evolves
a vinous odour. These changes take place with great rapidity,
even when the quantity of sugar present is very small. If the
evolved carbonic acid is collected, the quantity of sugar in the
mine may be determined by measuring it, as a cubic inch2 of
the gas very nearly corresponds to a grain of sugar.

In the absence of a mercurial trough, the carbonic acid may
be determined by the increase of weight3 of Liebig’s bulb-appa-
ratus, charged with a solution of potash.

f. Test afforded by the growth of the torula. If urine
containing the smallest proportion of sugar be exposed for a few
horn’s to a temperature above 70°, and a drop taken from the
surface be examined under the microscope, numerous veiy mi-
nute ovoid particles will be discovered. In the course of a few
horns more they become enlarged, and appear as distinct oval
vesicles, which rapidly become developed into that species of
confervoid vegetation, to which the term torula has been applied.

2. Fats.

Under the name of “fats,” we include various non-nitro-
genous compounds, which are insoluble in water, but soluble
in hot alcohol and ether.

1 Rechcrclies Experimentales sur la Digestion. Paris, 1826. Part I, p. 202.

2 100 cubic inches of carbonic acid gas correspond with 106'G grains of diabetic
sugar.

3 100 grains of carbonic acid indicate 225 grains of diabetic sugar. The gas must
be passed through a tube containing chloride of calcium.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

Some of these fats possess the property of being decomposed
by strong bases, especially by the alkalies, and by oxide of lead ;
in this case one of the two principal constituents separates
itself, while the other (an acid) combines with the base, forming
a soap with the alkalies and a plaster with oxide of lead.
Hence it follows that those fats which, on account of this pro-
perty, are termed saponifiable, are, like the salts, formed of an
acid and of a base ; these acids and their bases being themselves
the oxides of compound radicals, probably of hydro-carburets.

There are other fats which cannot be decomposed in this
manner : they are termed non-saponifiable fats.

We shall commence with the consideration of the former
class, the saponifiable or true fats.

a. Fatty Bases. We are acquainted with three bodies, oxides
of different radicals, which act the part of bases in the animal
fats. These are glycerin, the oxicle of cetyl, and cerain : the
first of these three is the most widely distributed, and forms
the base of the fats of the human body ; the oxide of cetyl exists
in spermaceti, and cerain in bees’ wax. We shall restrict our
remarks to glycerin.

Glycerin 1 is separated from the fats by the act of saponifica-
tion, when the acid with which it was combined enters into
combination with the new base. The best method of obtaining
it in a state of purity is to boil an animal fat with oxide of
lead. The salt of lead which is formed is insoluble in water,
(it is, in fact, a plaster,) while the glycerin remains in solution.
After removing any excess of lead by a current of sulphuretted
hydrogen, we must evaporate the fluid in vacuo over sulphuric
acid.

The glycerin, prepared in this manner, is a clear uncrystal-
lizable fluid, of spec. grav. I- 28, of a yellowish colour, devoid
of odour, of a marked sweet taste, very soluble in water and
alcohol, but insoluble in ether. It burns with a clear blue
flame. It is considered as the hydrate of an oxide of a radical,
glyceryl (Cfi H?), which has not yet been isolated. Its compo-
sition is expressed by the formula- C6 H7 Or + HO. Stenhouse

1 This substance, glycerin, is united in each fat with a different acid, and hence the
fats may be considered as salts of glycerin.
s See Appendix I, Note 23.

FATS.

assigns the formula C , II, O, or C:) Ha + O, and Redtenbacher
C6 H1 O, +4 HO, to this substance. At an elevated tempera-
ture, a portion of the glycerin is distilled without change, while
the rest is converted into empyreumatic oils, acetic acid, and
combustible gases, leaving a carbonaceous residue.

Diagnosis. Glycerin may be recognized by its taste, by its
solubility in water and alcohol, but not in ether, by the absence
of crystallization, and by the strong white precipitate which is
formed upon the addition of nitrate of mercury.

(3. Fatty Acids. We shall now proceed to consider the fatty
acids, which, in combination with glycerin, constitute the various
fats and oils. Two simple fats, stearin and margarin, and a
simple oil, olein, until their respective acids, the stearic, margaric,
and oleic, are especially deserving of notice.

The researches of Redtenbacher, Varrentrap, and Bromeis,
have shown that the two former of these acids are in reality
constituents of the same radical, in different stages of oxidation.
This radical is termed margaryl, and its constitution is expressed
by the formula C34 H33.

In addition to these acids, we find certain fatty acids in
butter, which, in combination with glycerin, form distinct fats.
Fremy has likewise described a peculiar acid of this nature as
existing in the brain, to which he has given the name cerebric
acicl. We omit the consideration of various other fatty acids,
which are only met with in particular animals and in the vege-
table kingdom.

a. Margaryl and its oxides — stearic and margaric acids. On
saponifying mutton-fat with potash, dissolving the soap which
is thus formed in six parts of hot water, and then adding
forty-five parts of cold water, and allowing the solution to rest
at a temperature of 60°, we obtain, after some little time, a
lamellar precipitate of bistearate of potash, mixed with him nr -
garate, and a little oleate of the same base. On neutralising the
free potash in the supernatant fluid with an acid, and proceeding
as before, we obtain a precipitate of the margarate and stearate
of potash. After this process has been repeated several times,
nothing but oleate of potash remains in solution. The preci-
pitates must be washed, dried, and dissolved in boiling alcohol.
On cooling, the stearate of potash, which is the least soluble,

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

separates first, mixed with a small quantity of the margarate.
The more frequently the solution is repeated the more certain
are we that ultimately the whole of the margarate will be re-
tained in solution.

The pure stearate of potash is decomposed by warm dilute
hydrochloric acid ; and the stearic acid which precipitates is to
be washed in water and dissolved in boiling alcohol, from which
it crystallizes, on cooling, in white brilliant scales. By the
same process the margaric acid is separated from the pure mar-
garate of potash. Margaric acid is obtained most easily from
human fat, which contains a very large amount of margarin.
Stearic acid melts at 158°. The specific gravity of the acid in
its solid state is 1-01. It is perfectly insoluble in water, but
dissolves readily in ether as well as in boiling alcohol, in which,
on cooliug to 122°, crystals begin to form. Its solution exhibits
a mild acid reaction towards litmus ; in the solid form it burns
with a clear flame, like wax.

The leading difference between margaric and stearic acids
is the greater fusibility of the former, which becomes liquid at
140°. Its crystals assume an acicular form, and are smaller
and less brilliant than those of stearic acid.

Stearic acid is represented by the formula1 C68 H60 0_. In
its crystalline state it is combined with 2 atoms of water (forming
the hydrate of stearic acid), which it gives up on uniting with
a base.

Margaric acid is represented by the formula C34 HJ3 03. The
hydrate contains only 1 atom of water.

The radical of these two acids, mar g aryl, is represented by
the formula C34 H33 (m)

Hence, margaric acid = M + O ,
and stearic acid = 2 M + 05

If we treat stearic acid for some time with nitric acid at a
temperature of 212°, it becomes completely converted into
margaric acid.

A similar, although not so perfect an effect is produced by
sulphuric and chromic acids.

The stearic and margaric are very weak acids ; at an elevated
temperature they have the power of expelling carbonic acid

1 Sec Appendix I, Note 24.

FATS.

from its combinations ; most of the other acids, however, de-
compose their salts. The alkaline and neutral stearates and
margarates are soluble in water ; the acid salts (for there are
bi- and even quadri-stearates of potash and soda) are not
soluble in this fluid, neither are the salts formed with other
bases. The stearates of baryta, strontia, and lime are white,
insipid, and inodorous powders. The neutral stearates of potash
and soda occur in many of the animal fluids, especially in the bile.

We have already observed that most of the fats are formed
by a combination of stearic and margaric acids with glycerin.
The bistearate of glycerin, or, as it is usually termed, stearin,
is best obtained from mutton suet, either by washing it with
ether as long as anything is dissolved, or by mixing up melted
suet with six times its volume of ether, and subjecting the
mass, when cold, to strong pressure. In both these processes
the olein, which is fluid at the ordinary temperature, is removed,
and the stearin remains behind, although seldom in a state of
purity. Stearin melts at 144°. It is insoluble in water, and
only dissolves in alcohol with the aid of heat. It dissolves
very readily in boiling ether ; but, as the ether cools, nearly
the whole of the stearin is again precipitated, and at 59° it
only retains the one hundred and twenty-fifth part of its weight
in solution. It is also soluble in the fatty and volatile oils,
and in pyroacetic spirit. The stearin, after being melted down,
and allowed to reassume its solid form, appears as a white,
semitransparent, uncrystalline mass, not unlike wax. Acids
and bases convert it into stearic acid and glycerin. The for-
mula for stearin is CH3 II H1 017 ; it is equivalent to

1 Atom of glycerin . . C6 H7 05 -i

2 Atoms of stearic acid . C136 HI32 O10 !■= C142 H141 On

2 Atoms of water . . H2 02 J

The bimargarate of glycerin, or margarin, is obtained by
submitting to spontaneous evaporation the ethereal solution
from which the stearin has been separated. The flocculi of
margarin that separate themselves must be freed from olein by
pressure. Margarin melts at 118°. Its solubility in ether is
much greater than that of stearin ; at 74° it is perfectly soluble
in 5 parts of ether. It is nearly as soluble in alcohol at the
ordinary temperature as at the boiling point. In other respects
it closely resembles stearin.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

The formula for margarin is C7(j II70 0I2, corresponding with

1 Atom glycerin . . . C6 II7 05 -i

2 Atoms margaric acid . . C70 H67 0G !• = C76 H75 012

1 Atom water . . . H 0 J

b. Oleic acid. This acid is obtained from the oleate of
potash; which is produced during the preparation of the stearate
and margarate of potash; and remains in solution. It must
be separated by the addition of a mineral acid; and then well
washed and shaken in hot water. It is an oily fluid; of a clear
yellow colour; and does not assume a solid form until it is
cooled several degrees below the freezing point of water. At
about 19° or 20° it congeals into white acicular crystals. It
is very acid; and has a rancid odour and taste. Its specific
gravity is 0898. It is not soluble in water, but dissolves in
alcohol in all proportions, and the spirituous solution acts freely
on litmus paper. It combines with stearic and margaric acids
in all proportions, and the perfect separation of the acids in
such cases is not very easy. Its composition, according to
Varrentrap, is represented by the formula CH H 04 + H0.

Oleic acid may be distilled in vacuo without undergoing any
change ; but if atmospheric air be admitted, a small portion
only passes over unaltered, while the greater part is decom-
posed, and some carbon remains in the retort.

2 Atoms hydrated oleic acid, C88 II80 O10, produce

{1 At. sebacic acid C10 Hg 04
3 At. carbonic acid C3 06
Hydrocarburet C71 H71
Residual carbon C4

Sebacic acid was formerly considered as a product of the
destructive distillation of all fatty bodies, but it has been shown
by Redtenbacher to arise only from oleic acid. Oleic acid
removes carbonic acid from bases. The oleates do not crys-
tallize ; those which are soluble appear as soft, easily fusible
bodies, and are more soluble in alcohol than in water. The
oleates of potash and soda, if treated with a sufficient quantity
of water, become reduced to binoleates, and a portion of the
base is freed. The oleate, as well as the stearate of soda,
exists in the bile. The binoleate of glycerin, usually termed
olein, exists in small quantity in the various solid fats, but
forms the principal mass of the liquid fixed oils. It exists as an
oleaginous fluid, and varies in some respects, especially in regard

FATS.

to the point of fusion in the fats of different animals. Chcvreul
describes the olein of human fat as a colourless oil, devoid of
odour, and of a sweetish taste, which retains its fluid state at
25°. At a lower temperature it assumes a crystalline acicular
form. Its specific gravity at 59° is 0-913. One hundred parts
of boiling alcohol dissolve 123 of olein; when the solution
cools to 170°, it becomes turbid. It is readily soluble in ether,
but perfectly insoluble in water. It burns with a clear flame.
It dissolves camphor, phosphorus, selenium, the ethereal oils,
benzoic and many other organic acids. Its composition is re-
presented by the formula Cg4 H87 015, and is composed of

1 Atom glycerin . . C6 H7 05 -i

2 Atoms oleic acid . Cg8 H7B 08 >= C94 II87 015'

2 Atoms water . . H2 02 J

c. Butyric and its allied acids. Butter contains four volatile
acids, which stand in a very simple relation to each other,
namely, butyric acid — C8 H8 04, caproic acid = C12 HIO 04,
capryllic acid = C16 II 16 04, and capric acid = C20 H20 04.
Butter sometimes affords, instead of butyric and caproic acids, a
distinct acid, vaccinic acid, which appears to be equal to the
sum of those two acids, minus 1 atom of oxygen, and is very
readily decomposed into them. Two of these acids, the capryllic
and vaccinic, were discovered only a few months ago, by Lerch,
a German chemist. The following is the method that he gives
for their separation :

“ Fresh butter is completely saponified with potash in a still,
the soap decomposed in the vessel with dilute sulphuric acid,
the head then luted on, and the aqueous liquid drawn off to
within a fourth. Fresh water is then added to it, which is
again distilled off, and this operation continued as long as the
water which passes over possesses any acid reaction. In this
manner the volatile fat acids are carried over just as the essen-
tial oils ; the action of the atmosphere is moreover entirely ex-
cluded. From four to five pints of a milky liquid are obtained
from a pound of butter, on the surface of which float drops of
oil and particles of hard or smeary fat. The distilled water is
immediately saturated in the receiver with barytic water, and
allowed to stand well closed till the end of the distillation. When
the distillation is finished, the still is cleansed, and the liquid
saturated with barytic water, evaporated in it, with the head on.

7 6

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

to about the twentieth part, and the still hot concentrated ley
then reduced to dryness in a retort.

“ The saline mass obtained in this manner consists of two por-
tions, one easy, the other difficult of solution. The more so-
luble portion consists, according to circumstances, of butyrate
and caproate of baryta, or solely of the barytic salt of vaccinic
acid ; but in this case there is little or no butyric or caproic
acid present. The portion difficult of solution consists of the
baryta salts of two distinct acids, which Chevreul described to-
gether as caprate of baryta. The more insoluble portion
amounts to about the twentieth part of the soluble, and the en-
tire mass to about the tenth part of the saponified butter. To
separate the different salts, the residuary saline mass is boiled
with about 5 or 6 parts of water ; one portion dissolves, the other
remains behind. The solution of the readily soluble salts is set
aside to crystallize ; if, on the first crystallization, the crystals
which separate have the appearance of benzoate of lime, and do
not effloresce, i. e. if they are caproate of baryta, the butyrate of
baryta has still to be sought for in the solution ; but if nests of
small crystals form, which quickly effloresce, and resemble nests
of the native carbonate of lime, it is vaccinate of baryta, and it
is then unnecessary to look for butyrate and caproate of baryta.

“ The circumstances under which butter contains vaccinic acid
or butyric and caproic acids are not known. The butter of
1842, and likewise that of the following winter, contained, in
several experiments, not a trace of any other easily soluble salt
of baryta than the vaccinate ; while the butter in the summer
of 1843 contained no vaccinic acid, but only the other two.

“ The soluble saline mass, containing the butyric and caproic
acids is dissolved in water and evaporated to crystallization, in
order to separate them. Long silky needles, aggregated in
bundles, separate even in the first crystallizations •, and if the
solution has been sufficiently concentrated, nearly the whole of
the caproate salt is deposited. The entire solution solidifies to
a paste of minute needles, which are separated by pressure from
the mother-ley, and purified by recrystallization. The remaining
ley is now allowed to crystallize spontaneously, which is best
eflected by exposure to the sun ; at first a little caproate of ba-
ryta still separates, the form of the crystal then changes, laminae
of mother-of-pearl lustre make their appearance, and all the

FATS.

subsequent crystallizations are nearly pure butyrate of baryta,
which is purified by recrystallization.

“ The saline mass of difficult solution is dissolved in just so
much boiling water as is requisite for complete solution, and is
filtered while hot. During the cooling, the liquid becomes filled
with minute scales of caprate of baryta, of a fatty lustre, which
subside in the form of a crystalline precipitate. The decanted
mother-ley is again evaporated one fourth, when a fresh quan-
tity of caprate of baryta separates. This salt is purified by re-
crystallization. The mother-ley now contains the capryllate in
solution ; it is evaporated by exposure to the sun, when the salt
separates in minute granules and verrucous masses, which are
obtained pure by recrystallization.

“ This is the best method of separating these salts from each
other ; an absolute separation is impossible, for there always re-
main mixed crystals and leys, which in small quantities are not
worth while working.”1

The butyrate of baryta is much the most soluble of these
salts, requiring only 2’77 parts of water. On decomposing it
by adding dilute sulphuric acid to its solution we obtain butyric
acid, in the form of a colourless or faintly yellow oleaginous
fluid.

Butyric acid possesses an unpleasant odour, which calls to
mind at the same time that of acetic acid and of rancid butter.
It is soluble in eveiy proportion in water and alcohol, and more
soluble in ether than the other acids of the same group. Its
specific gravity is 0963 at 59° ; it evaporates easily in the open air,
boils under ordinary pressure at about 327°, and distils without
undergoing any perceptible alteration. Its vapour is inflam-
mable, and burns with a blue flame. A continued cold of 4°
does not produce any change in the state of the butyric acid ;
its taste is strongly acid and burning ; it attacks and disorga-
nizes the skin in the same manner as the strongest acids.

The chemical relations of this acid have been made an object
of especial research by Chevreul, Pelouze and Gelis, and Lercli ;
and numerous butyrates and butyric ether have been formed,
and submitted to careful investigation and analysis.

1 Ann. der Chem. und Pharm. xlix, p. 212, as translated in Number 45 of the
Chemical Gazette.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

The only compound of butyric acid that concerns us at present
is the butyrate of glycerin, or butyrin, the essential fatty matter
of butter. In order to isolate butyrin from the various com-
pounds with which it is associated in butter, we must adopt the
following method. Purified butter must be kept for some days
at a temperature of about 66°. At that temperature olein and
butyrin are liquid, while the solid stearin forms a mass by
degrees, so that the liquid portion may be decanted off. On
this decanted oily matter its own bulk of absolute alcohol must
be poured, the mixture must be left for twenty-four hours, and
the temperature be regulated to 66°. On distilling off the al-
cohol from this alcoholic solution a residue of butyrin is left,
mixed with a little olein. A slightly acid reaction is usually ob-
served, in consequence of the decomposition of a little of the
butyrin into butyric acid. This may be removed by digesting
the butyrin in a mixture of magnesia and water. A butyrate
of magnesia, soluble in water, is formed, and the butyrin may
then be obtained perfectly neutral. The removal of all traces
of olein from butyrin is nearly impossible.

Butyrin occurs as a colourless oil, which solidifies at 3.2°, is
soluble in cold alcohol, but not in water, is devoid of odour,
and produces no effect on litmus. In a warm atmosphere it
speedily decomposes, and yields butyric acid. M M. Pelouze
and Gelis have recently shown that by a peculiar process of
fermentation butyric acid may be obtained from sugar. They
recommend the following as the best process for obtaining the
largest possible amount of butyric acid from this source.

“ A small quantity of casein is mixed with a solution of
sugar, indicating 10° on the saccharometer, and sufficient chalk
to saturate the whole of the butyric acid which subsequently
forms. This mixture is left at a constant temperature of from
77° to 86°. It soon undergoes very considerable alterations ;
the fermentation, at first viscous, subsequently lactic, gradually
becomes butyric. These decompositions are sometimes successive,
sometimes simultaneous, without its being possible to regulate
their course. The disengagement of gases becomes more abun-
dant, and analyses show that a period arrives when the free
hydrogen amounts to a third of the volume of the carbonic
acid. At this period the butyric fermentation is in all its
vigour ; when at last, at the end of some weeks, all disengage-

FATS.

ment of hydrogen has ceased, the operation is at an end, and
the solution then contains only butyrate of lime.”

The composition of butyric acid, its proportion which
amounted in several experiments to above the third of the
weight of the sugar, the liberation of free hydrogen, and of
carbonic acid (independent of that which is disengaged from
the chalk,) admit of our supposing that, under the prolonged
influence of ferments, sugar is decomposed in the following
manner :

Grape-sugar. Butyric acid.

C12 H14 014 = C8 H7 03 + HO + 4 C02 + 8 H + 2 HO.

This formula is merely intended to exhibit the final result,
for several chemical processes i precede the formation of butyric
acid.

By combining the butyric acid formed in this manner with
glycerin, they obtained a fatty matter that seemed in all
respects identical with butyrin, as described by Chevreul.

Fibrin yields butyric acid as one of the products of its
decomposition : the other products of its putrefaction are

albumen, carbonic and acetic acids, and ammonia. It may like-
wise be obtained by heating this substance with potash at a tem-
perature of from 320° to 356°. A small quantity of a volatile
fatty acid forms, which remains in combination with the potash,
whilst ammonia and other volatile products are disengaged.
This acid has not yet been analysed, but it seems to possess all
the properties of butyric acid. (Wurtz.)

Caproic acid is obtained from the caproate of baryta, which
crystallizes in long silky needles, aggregated into bundles.

It is an oily limpid liquid with the odour of sweat, and a
sharp acid taste. Its spec. grav. is 0-922 at 72° ; it evaporates
in the open air ; its boiling point is above 212°, and it is soluble
in 96 parts of water at 440,6. It dissolves in alcohol and
ether.

1 It is well known that if a small quantity of casein be introduced into a solution
of cane-sugar or sugar of milk, lactic acid begins very soon to be formed. The
butyric acid maybe supposed to be formed in the following manner:

20 eq. of lactic acid (Clao IIlao Ol20) = 15 eq. of butyric acid (Clao H120 O60) + 60 0.

These 60 eq. of oxygen decompose 6 eq. of lactic acid, and we have —

6 (C6 H6 08) + 60 O = C36 H36 Oo0 = 3 C02 -f 12 II -f 24 HO
when the carbonic acid is exactly three times the volume of the hydrogen produced.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

Capryllic acid, at the ordinary temperature, forms a smeary
mass ; below 50° it crystallizes in needles, which are of difficult
solution in water, have an acid and acrid taste, and a peculiar
disagreeable odour. The baryta salt separates from hot solu-
tions in brilliant laminse, but on spontaneous evaporation in
white granules. It is anhydrous, is not affected by exposure
to the air, does not fuse at 212°, and is very sparingly soluble
in water.

Capric acid resembles capryllic acid in its properties. The
baryta salt crystallizes from hot solutions in minute fatty
needles and scales, and on spontaneous evaporation likewise in
scales, arranged in dendritic groups ; it is veiy difficult of
solution, is anhydrous, and is not affected by exposure to
the air.

Vaccinic acid. Vaccinate of baryta separates in nests of
crystals, which have already been described ; they contain
water of crystallization, effloresce very readily in the air,
become very similar in appearance to chalk, and diffuse a
strong odour of butter, while pure caproate and butyrate of
baryta do not effloresce in the least, and have scarcely any
odour. Vaccinate of baryta is soluble in water to about the
same extent as butyrate of baryta; the saturated solution is
thick like oil. When vaccinate of baryta is dissolved in
water, and again evaporated in a retort, it crystallizes from the
solution unaltered; but if the crystals are exposed for some
time to the air, they at last lose nearly all their odour, and
no longer when dissolved crystallize on evaporation, but in
their stead crops of caproate and butyrate of baryta are ob-
tained. The same happens when a solution is exposed to the
air for any length of time, or boiled in an open dish. No
baryta separates in this change, no acid vapours are given off,
and the solution remains perfectly neutral. Vaccinic acid
therefore saturates exactly the same amount of baryta as the
two acids which have originated from it ; the relative quantity
of the caproate and butyrate of baryta formed is proportionate
to the atomic weights of these two salts. If vaccinate of
baryta is decomposed by sulphuric acid, with free access of ah’,
and the separated acid removed by distillation, saturated with
baryta, and set aside to crystallize, a mixture of caproate and
butyrate of baryta only is obtained. On adding some solution

FATS.

of silver to a solution of vaccinate of baryta, a white caseous
precipitate is formed, which is soon reduced, and smells strongly
of butyric acid.

Vaccinic acid has, therefore, evidently the same capacity of
saturation as caproic and butyric acids together, but probably
contains less oxygen.

In all probability these acids form compounds with glycerin,
and exist in butter as distinct fats.

The brain contains several distinct fats which have been
examined by different chemists (Kuhn, Couerbe, Fremy,) and
found to contain phosphorus and sulphur. Couerbe has given
to these the names of eleencephol, cerebrot , cephalot, and
stearaconot. Cephalot is the only one that is saponifiable,
and which, therefore, comes under the category of the true fats.
Its fatty acid is unknown; in fact the whole subject of the
brain-fats requires an entire revision.

Fremy1 has described two fatty acids that exist in the brain
in combination with soda, to which he has applied the names
of cerebric and oleophosphoric acids.

Of the bodies just described, those which act the part of
bases, never occur naturally in an isolated state ; and those
which act as acids, very seldom. Butyric acid occasionally
exists in a free state in the urine, and, according to Gmclin,
in the gastric juice, and occasionally in the cutaneous trans-
piration. Lecanu states that the margaric and oleic acids
exist in a free state in the blood. Some of the fatty acids, as
already observed, exist in the bile and in the cerebral matter,
in combination with soda, but they are most commonly found
united with glycerin.

The contents of the cells of ordinary adipose tissue are a
mixture of stearin, margarin, and olein ; and the marrow of
the bones has a very similar composition. The relative propor-
tions of these three substances varies in the fat of different
animals, which is the reason of the different consistence of
various fats. The more olein present, the softer and more
liquid will the fat be : and those fats in which the olein forms
the principal ingredient are called oils. Those of a mean con-
sistence are most properly termed fats, while the harder ones

1 Annales tie Chimie, 1841.

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

are known as suet. Stearin is the pi’incipal constituent of suet ;
margarin of fat or lard. Human fat affords a good illustration
of the proper fats. It solidifies at 62° ; but the consistence is
not constant even in the same person — for instance, the fat of
the kidneys is perfectly solid at 62°, while the fat of the sub-
cutaneous tissue remains fluid as low as 59°.

The non-saponifiable fats.

a. Cholesterin is a normal constituent of the bile, of the
brain, and of the spinal cord. It has been found by Lecanu,
Denis, Boudet, Marchand, and Simon, in the blood ; by
Fromherz and Guggert in the vernix caseosa ; by Breschet,
Wohler, and Marchand in hydrocele ; by Stromeyer in an
encysted tumour in the abdomen of a woman ; by Breschet
and Barruel in the ovary and testicle in a diseased state ; by
Caventou in an abscess of the tooth; by Lassaigne in a scirrhous
structure in the mesocolon ; by Guggert in fungus medullaris ;
by Marchand in medullary sarcoma ; and by Drunty in a vesical
calculus extracted from a dog. It sometimes exists in a state
of solution, while in other cases it floats on the surface, either
in the form of brilliant scales, or of solid masses. It has
never been found in any of the plants which are used for food;
but Dumas has found a substance of a similar composition in
the resin of the pine.

In order to obtain it from biliary calculi, we must first treat
these with boiling water, then triturate, dry and pulverize the
residue, treat it with boiling alcohol, filter it while still hot, and
allow it to cool very gradually. The cholesterin separates itself
in the form of white, sparkling, transparent scales. These
should be collected in a filter, again dissolved in hot alcohol,
and allowed to recrystallize. In this state it will be tolerably
pure. Berzelius recommends the previous addition of a few
drops of caustic potash or ammonia, in order to saponify any
stearic or margaric acid that may be present.

In order to obtain it from the brain, that organ must first
be deprived of all its wrater, by being finely triturated and then
placed upon the water-bath. This being fully accomplished it
must be treated with ether, and afterwards with boiling alcohol,
until these fluids cease to abstract anything moi'e. As the
alcoholic solution cools, a white powder is precipitated. By

FATS.

gently distilling the ethereal solution, a residue remains, from
which cholesterin may be taken up by boiling alcohol ; on
mixing the two alcoholic solutions, evaporating to one fourth,
and allowing the mixture to cool, a portion of the fat separates
in the form of a white powder, which consists not merely of
cholesterin, but also of a substance which is insoluble in cold
ether, the cerebrot of Couerbe. If, therefore, we treat this fat
with ether, the cholesterin dissolves, while the cerebrot remains
unacted on. By evaporation we obtain the cholesterin in a
crystalline state, and by dissolving it in boiling alcohol and
allowing it to recrystallize on cooling, we obtain it in a state
of purity.

On slowly cooling its alcoholic solution, cholesterin crystal-
lizes in delicate white nacreous scales. It is devoid of taste
and smell, is insoluble in water, but dissolves in alcohol and
in ether. According to Chevreul, 100 parts of boiling alcohol
of 0-816 dissolve 18 of cholesterin ; if alcohol of 0-840 be used
only 11-24 pails are taken up : on cooling, the greater part is
deposited. Kuhn states that 1 part of cholesterin is soluble
in 12'1 of ether at 32°, in 3-7 parts at 59°, and in 2-2 parts of
boiling ether. Cholesterin is perfectly neutral, of about the
same specific gravity as water, and at 280° melts into a colour-
less fluid without undergoing any decomposition. Crystallized
cholesterin contains about 5 -22 of water. It burns with a clear
flame, like wax, and one of its most striking characteristics is,
that it is not affected by a solution of caustic potash.

Its composition is represented by the formula C37 II , , O.

b. Serolin. This name was given by Boudet to a fatty
matter which he discovered in the blood. It has been more
recently found and described by Lecanu and Sanson. In order
to exhibit it, blood must be first evaporated to dryness on
the water-batli, and the residue treated with water as long
as anything continues to be taken up. It must then be dried,
pulverized, treated with boiling alcohol, and filtered while hot.
On cooling, the alcohol deposits this fat in flocculi. It must
be collected on a filter, and washed with cold alcohol. Boudet
assigns the following characteristics to serolin. It forms flocks
of a fatty nacreous appearance, is perfectly neutral, and melts
at 97°. On exposing it to a higher temperature, a portion
is distilled unchanged, while another part is decomposed into

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

ammoniacal vapour. In water it is perfectly insoluble, in hot
alcohol of -833 it is only slightly soluble, and separates on cool-
ing into its original flocculent appearance, since cold alcohol
exerts no solvent influence over it. It dissolves readily in ether.
It does not form a soap with caustic potash. Lecanu describes
the serolin obtained from human serum, as a white, but not
nacreous, substance, which melts at 95°, is soluble in ether, but
not in watery alcohol.

It may be distinguished from other fats by its insolubility in
cold alcohol ; from cholesterin, by its lower point of fusion.

Diagnosis. The different fats and fatty acids are distin-
guished by their fusing points, and by their varying degrees of
solubility in alcohol and ether.

Lactic, Oxalic, and Acetic Acids.

1. Lactic acid is regarded by most chemists as a constituent
of almost all the fluids of the animal body.

The following is the method recommended by Mitscherlich,1
for the exhibition of pure lactic acid. Sour whey must be
evaporated to about one sixth of its volume, and filtered ; the
phosphoric acid precipitated by lime, and any excess of lime
separated by oxalic acid.

After filtration, the liquid must be evaporated to the consis-
tence of a thick syrup, and the lactic acid extracted with
alcohol. The alcohol must be removed by evaporation, and the
residue dissolved in water mixed with carbonate of lead. In
this manner a solution of lactate of lead is obtained, which,
after filtration, must be decomposed by sulphate of zinc.
Sulphate of lead is immediately precipitated, and lactate of
zinc remains in the solution, which must be filtered and evapo-
rated to incipient crystallization. In this manner we .obtain
crystals of lactate of zinc, a salt only slightly soluble in cold
water. Lactic acid may be obtained by converting the lactate
of zinc into a lactate of lime or baryta, carefully removing the
base by the addition of sulphuric acid, and cautious evaporation.

Pure lactic acid is a colourless liquid, soluble in every pro-
portion in water and alcohol, of a purely acid taste, and so
strong and biting as to be almost insupportable. Its formula2 is
0,1^0, or Cfi Hs 0S + H0.

1 Lehrbuch tier Chemie, 1837, p. 512. 2 See Appendix I, Note 25.

ACETIC ACID.

At a red heat lactates with fixed bases are converted into
carbonates : 100 parts of the carbonates of potash and soda cor-
respond to 180 9 and 201-1 parts of the respective lactates of
those bases.

There is no ready test by which we can detect the presence
of lactic acid : it is chiefly distinguished by its negative pro-
perties. Rides for the quantitative determination of this acid
and its salts will be found in the chapters on the different fluids
in which it occurs ; they are founded with various slight modi-
fications on the method that we have given for the exhibition
of the acid.

2. Oxalic acid is not one of the normal constituents of the
animal organism; it is however, when combined with lime, a very
common ingredient of morbid urine, and of urinary calculi.

Oxalate of lime, when obtained by the addition of a soluble
oxalate to a salt of lime, occurs as a white amorphous powder,
insoluble in water, alcohol, oxalic and acetic acids, but soluble in
hydrochloric and nitric acids without effervescence. It leaves,
when heated to incipient redness, a white residue of carbonate
of lime, from which the amount of oxalate may be easily calcu-
lated, for 100 parts of carbonate of lime correspond with 128-9
of oxalate of lime. After a prolonged exposure to a higher tem-
perature, the carbonic acid is expelled, and caustic lime remains.

The occurrence of oxalate of lime in a crystalline state in
urinary sediments has been shown, by Dr. G. Bird, to be
much more frequent than was formerly supposed; in fact,
although the beautiful octohedral forms in which it occurs
had been noticed some years ago by Vigla, Donne, and other
French observers, it was not until the appearance of Dr. G.
Bird’s papers in the ‘ London Medical Gazette’ for 1842, that
their chemical nature was fully established.

3. Acetic acid has been found by Tiedemann and Gmelin in
the gastric juice, by Thenard in the sweat, by Simon in the
fluid of pemphigus and in saliva, and is asserted by some
chemists to be a constituent of urine. For its chemical cha-
racters we must refer to any of our systematic treatises on
Chemistry : it is sufficient to notice the means by which it may
be recognized, and its amount determined. Acetic acid may

ORGANIC CONSTITUENTS.

be detected by its peculiar odour, wbicb is rendered more obvious
by the application of a gentle warmth. The presence of an
acetate may be determined by the addition of a little sulphuric
acid ; the odour of the liberated acetic acid is at once rendered
perceptible. The addition of perchloride of iron to free
acetic acid produces hardly any visible change, but if it be
added to a solution of an acetate, a deep blood-red colour is
produced. When acetates and free acetic acid are mixed up with
a large quantity of other animal matters, the best method of
proceeding is to separate the free acetic acid by distillation.
The residue must be evaporated, extracted several times with
alcohol, and the alcoholic residue mixed with a little sulphuric
acid, and distilled. The first distillation gives the free acetic
acid, the second the acetic acid in a state of combination.
The amount of acetic acid may be determined by saturating
the distilled fluids with potash, evaporating to dryness, and
taking up the acetate of potash with alcohol of *833. The
acetate of potash obtained by the evaporation of the alcoholic
solution is frequently mixed with a little chloride of sodium,
the amount of which (if appreciable) may be determined by
nitrate of silver.

At a red heat the combinations of acetic acid with non-
volatile bases are converted into carbonates.

END OF INTRODUCTION.

CHEMISTRY OF MAN.

CHAPTER I.

ON THE PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OP COMPOUND ANIMAL
SUBSTANCES.

Zoocliemical analyses are instituted for the purpose of ascer-
taining, either quantitatively or qualitatively, the proximate or
ultimate constituents of animal substances. It is requisite in
physiological and pathological chemistry that equal attention
shoidd be paid to both these modes of investigation, for there
is this great distinction between the chemistry of inorganic and
of organic bodies, that in the former case the determination of
the proximate principles can be inferred from that of the ulti-
mate constituents, while in the latter case no such rule holds
good, and the two species of analyses (the proximate and ulti-
mate) must be conducted separately and distinctly. In the in-
vestigation of the variations in the constitution of the blood,
whether dependent during health upon age, sex, or temperament,
or during disease upon various pathological states of the system ;
in the determination of the constituents of milk, sweat, or pus ;
in the detection of sugar, urea, or bilin, in the various fluids,
in which normally they are absent ; in these and all similar cases
ultimate analysis will avail us nothing, and we must have re-
course to tests for the substances themselves, or for some of
their proximate principles. Investigations of this nature will,
moreover, do very little for the advancement of pathological or
physiological knowledge, unless they are viewed in relation to
a considerable number of similar analyses, conducted under pre-
cisely corresponding circumstances ; for in consequence of the
necessary variation that is constantly occurring in the animal
fluids, each analysis can only be regarded as the representative of

PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF

one of innumerable varieties, all of which (within certain limits)
are equally likely to occur. It is by such a course alone that we
can hope to be able to deduce important and trustworthy con-
clusions regarding the state of the animal fluids in health, and
their various deviations from the normal standard, in different
states of disease.

A large number of perfectly distinct substances enter into the
composition of the blood and urine ; neither of these fluids can,
however, be regarded as true chemical combinations, but as
mixtures of many such combinations, which in then turn are
further subject to much variation. The study of these variations
in the blood and urine constitutes one of the most important
branches of animal chemistry ; but in consequence of the im-
mense labour attendant upon a complete analysis of these fluids, it
becomes expedient to confine our attention to their most impor-
tant constituents, in the same manner as the mineralogist seeks
only to determine the proportion of ore in a given quantity of a
mineral, or the vegetable analyst to ascertain the proportions of
sugar, gum, starch, and albumen, while he neglects the non-nu-
tritive substances, the fibre, acids, resins, colouring matters, &c.

All compound animal substances that can fall within the
range of our investigation must be embraced in one of the fol
lowing classes, the solid, the fluid, or the gaseous.

The animal fluids (to which we shall first devote our atten-
tion) differ extremely in their composition, but a general scheme
may be laid down for their investigation, if we previously know
that certain substances are not present, and therefore need not
be sought for. Thus, neither urea, uric acid, pepsin, nor bilin
will usually be sought for in the milk or in the brain, because
it is well known that their formation is limited to certain organs ;
neither will haematin, globulin, nor butyrin be looked for in the
bile, nor fibrin in the sweat or in the saliva, nor glutin nor
chondrin in any of the normal fluids.

The principle upon which these investigations are conducted
is dependent on certain questions, which are to be answered by
the analysis. Thus in the analysis of the blood, the principal
component parts, the "water, albumen, hsematin, globulin and
fibrin, are usually determined ; but if it be requisite that the
analysis should be more fully carried out, we must separate the
haem at in from the globulin, isolate the fats, extractive matters,

COMPOUND ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.

and salts, and determine their individual proportions. This is
the plan that I have usually adopted, and in some cases I have
added the determination of sugar, urea, and hsemaphaein. The
execution of such a comparatively simple scheme as this is a
matter requiring considerable time and labour ; and if it were
required that we should carry out the analysis still further, and
separate the various fats, the different combinations of the fatty
acids, the varieties of extractive matter, and finally the different
salts, our task, in the present state of our knowledge, would be
one of great difficulty ; and in consequence of the minute pro-
portions in which some of these substances exist in the blood,
it would be necessaiy for us to operate upon a much larger
quantity of the fluid than we are usually able to obtain. This
method of investigation will probably in a short time be deemed
insufficient, for as soon as we have an accurate knowledge of
the mode of formation of the extractive matter, its separation and
determination will be of the highest importance in explaining
many of the phenomena of the metamorphoses of the blood.

The same is the case with respect to the urine. The forma-
tion of a perfect quantitative analysis of this complicated fluid
is an extremely difficult (if not an impossible) task, in conse-
quence of the facility with which new products are developed
during the progress of the investigation. The course usually
pursued has been, therefore, the separation of those constituents
which are apparently most important, the urea, uric acid, salts,
and extractive matter; in some cases the estimation of sugar
and albumen has been added. The instances in which the se-
paration of the extractive matter into its three principal groups,
and the individual analysis of the salts, have been undertaken,
are still more rare.

It has been already observed that a single isolated analysis
is of very little intrinsic value, in substances of so varying a na-
ture as the blood or urine. The only method by which we can
hope to throw any light upon the leading alterations that occur
in these fluids is by the comparison of the results obtained
from a series of analyses ; and if we were desirous of merely
ascertaining so simple a fact as the determination of the pa-
thological states in which either an excess or a deficiency of
fibrin and blood-corpuscles occurs in the blood, and the relation
that exists between such pathological states and such modifica-

PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF

tions of the vital fluid, science would be more benefited by the
investigation, than by the performance of a few very perfect
analyses, which did not tend to elucidate any particular point.

The best methods for the analysis of the various animal sub-
stances which are treated of in this volume, will be found in
their proper places. We will, however, give a preliminary
sketch of the course that should be adopted, if a fluid, of whose
nature we are ignorant, be placed in our hands for analysis.

Such a fluid may contain,

i. The protein-combinations : fibrin, albumen, casein, glo-
bulin.1

ii. Pyin.

hi. Extractive matters : water-extract, spirit- extract, alco-
hol-extract, and their proximate constituents.

iv. Sugars : Diabetic sugar, and sugar of milk.

v. Bilin, with the products of its metamorphosis.

vi. Urea.

vii. The fats : olein, stearin, margarin, butyrin, cholesterin,
and serolin.

viii. Colouring matters : the pigments of the blood and bile.

ix. The acids of the animal body :

a. Fatty acids.
f 3 . Other organic acids.
y. Inorganic acids.

x. The bases of the animal body.

General jjhysical analysis.

1. If the fluid contain flocculi or coagulated matters, they
are generally composed of fibrin, which by its spontaneous
coagulation frequently includes other substances in a state of
mechanical suspension. The whole fluid will sometimes as-
sume a gelatinous consistence, as has been observed in certain
products of exudation; in other cases it presents an appearance
of separation, one portion assuming the form of a cake or clot,
whilst the remainder continues fluid, as in the well-known in-
stance of the blood. On placing these clots, &c., in distilled

Crystallin, or the modification of casein that occurs in the crystalline lens, is not
included in this scheme, since it is not known to occur in any of the animal fluids.

[Pyin being tritoxide of protein, must now be regarded as a true protein-com-
pound. The binoxide of protein must also be included in the same category.]

COMPOUND ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.

water, the substances which are inclosed by the fibrin gradually
separate themselves from it, as for instance albumen, blood-
corpuscles, &c., and the fibrin remains devoid of colour, very
small in proportion to the clot from which it has been obtained,
and forming a membranous, stringy, or flocculent mass.

If the fluid has an acid reaction, the flocculi may arise from
coagulated casein, or caseous substances. In this case dis-
tilled water has no effect on them. The existence of casein
in milk is universally known. Other fluids which contain
caseous principles, as for instance, mucus and saliva, usually
maintain an alkaline reaction for a considerable period, and
thus hold the casein in solution. Pus has usually a neutral
reaction, occasionally however pus from the lungs is acid.

If the flocculi are observed to be floating on the surface of
the fluid, if they exhibit a frothy appearance, or seem more or
less globular, are of a whitish or yellow colour, and possessed
of little tenacity, they are composed of mucus, and the micro-
scope will reveal the presence of mucus-granules. A tenacious
substance of a yellow or brownish colour, and not unfrequently
containing blood, is occasionally found to be deposited in cer-
tain animal fluids, for instance, in the urine during phthisis
vesicce. It is possessed of more elasticity than mucus, and is
very probably composed partially of fibrin, although it is usually
regarded as pus.

2. If with the aid of the microscope we can detect blood-
corpuscles in the fluid, we may infer the presence of globulin
and hsematin. We recognize the blood-corpuscles, and dis-
tinguish them from other objects by their discoid form, and
their yellow colour. When blood is mixed with a serous or
watery fluid, it frequently happens that the discoid form is no
longer apparent ; if however a solution of common salt, or of
muriate of ammonia be added to a portion of the fluid, the
characteristic shape of the blood-corpuscles will be again ren-
dered perceptible. Fluids in which blood-corpuscles are found,
are always of a reddish tinge, and invariably contain albumen.

3. The microscope further enables us to detect the follow-
ing solid forms in fluids : a, fat-vesicles ; b, chyle-corpuscles ;
c, mucus-corpuscles ; d, pus-corpuscles ; e, epithelium-cells ;
/, saliva-corpuscles ; g, various crystalline forms of salts, uric
acid, cholesterin, & c.

PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF

If the fluid he very viscid and tenacious, mucus-corpuscles
are sure to he detected by the microscope : should it yield an
ammoniacal odour as if decomposition were going on, the
viscidity may be due to the action of the ammonia that has
been formed.

4. If the fluid have an acid reaction, a free acid must be

present. In most cases this is lactic,1 occasionally however
acetic acid. The latter acid may be recognized by the pe-
culiar odour evolved on the application of heat. It may

also be recognized (if the fluid be not very deeply coloured) by
the blood-red tint that is produced by the addition of the
perchloride of iron, after the free acid has been thoroughly
neutralized by ammonia. If acetic be the only free acid, by
the time the fluid has been evaporated nearly to dryness, all
acid reaction will have disappeared ; if however free lactic acid
be present, the residue which is left after evaporation will still
have an acid reaction.

If the fluid have an alkaline reaction, either a free alkali or
an alkaline carbonate must be present. Free ammonia may
be recognized by its peculiar odour, and by the vapour which
is developed on the approximation of a glass rod moistened
with hydrochloric acid.

5. If the fluid have a sweetish taste, it contains sugar.
The sweetness is however sometimes not preceptible until the
fluid has been evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, or even
till the syrup has been treated with alcohol of '900, and the
alcoholic solution evaporated. When the presence of sugar
is suspected, the various tests mentioned in page 67, more
especially Trommer’s test, should be applied. If the fluid has
a bitter taste, more or less resembling that of bile, it contains
either bilin or the products of its metamorphosis. The indica-
tions afforded by a well-marked saline or acid taste are
sufficiently obvious.

6. If the fluid be of a blood-red colour, we may conclude
that hacmatin is present ; and if blood-corpuscles are detected
by the microscope, we have certain proof of the existence of
hsematin, globulin, and albumen. Globulin and hsematin may

1 [The presence of this acid in the animal fluids has been recently disputed by
Liebig and Enderling ; there are, however, too many chemists who assert that they
have detected it, to allow us to regal'd the question as settled in the negative.]

COMPOUND ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.

however he occasionally present, when, even after the addi-
tion of a solution of salt, sugar, or iodine no blood-corpuscles
can be detected; in this case the latter are in a state of
perfect solution.

When the fluid is of a dark brown, or blackish-red coloui’,
hsematin is the colouring constituent. If the fluid be of a
clear brown or yellow colour, lisemapluein is almost sure to be
the origin of the tint, especially if any taste of bile be percep-
tible. Biliphtein will also communicate a yellow, brown, or
greenish-brown colour ; in this case there is frequently a bitter
taste, and on the addition of nitric acid, there is always a
change of colour into green or blue, and yellow.

Qualitative analysis.

Having poured the fluid into proper test-glasses, we carry on
our investigations in the following manner :

1. If, on the addition of very dilute hydrochloric acid, a
precipitate be thrown down, we see whether it will dissolve in
an excess of the test.1 Assuming that the solution is effected,
ferrocyanide of potassium is added ; if this test instantly throws
down a white or yellow precipitate, one or more of the protein-
compounds (enumerated in i) are present.

In order to ascertain which of the protein-compounds
has yielded these indications,2 a portion of the fluid is boiled :
if it become turbid, and if the turbidity commence and be
most distinct at the surface, or if the fluid coagulate, then
albumen is present; in this case nitric acid and bichloride of
mercury will throw down copious precipitates. If the fluid
become turbid on the application of heat, and the coagulum
assume a red tint, then globulin and haematin are also present,
although the microscope may have failed in detecting blood-
corpuscles : in this case, however, the fluid is always of a
rather pink or reddish tint.

If the fluid does not coagulate on the application of heat,
casein, or one of the caseous substances must be present.

1 If very dilute hydrochloric acid be employed, the albumen will not he precipi-
tated. (See p. 18.) I prefer hydrochloric to acetic acid, because the latter throws
down pyin with the protein-compounds.

5 Fibrin is recognized by its spontaneous separation, and need not he sought for in
the manner indicated in the text.

PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF

In this case lieat will develop a pellicle on the surface, and
acetic acid will throw down a precipitate, which is soluble
in an excess of the test : the acid must therefore be added
with caution.

It must not however be forgotten that if much albuminate
of soda, and at the same time no free albumen be present in
the fluid, no coagulation will occur on the application of heat,
but a pellicle will be formed on the surface. This is however
a case of very rare occurrence, and the difficulty may be
readily solved by the addition of acetic acid which will precipi-
tate casein but not albumen. If a fluid which contains
casein presents a whitish turbid appearance (as for instance,
milk, the milky fluid which is found in the breasts during the
later stages of pregnancy, the urine in certain pathological
states, &c.) the presence of butter, and in most instances, of
sugar, may be inferred.

If the ferrocyanide of potassium does not produce any tur-
bidity in the fluid which has been previously acidulated with
dilute hydrochloric acid, no protein-compound is present.

2. If the addition of acetic acid to the fluid renders it
turbid, or throws down a precipitate, which does not redissolve
in an excess of the test, then pyin or mucin1 is present. In
this case, a copious precipitate, insoluble in an excess of the
test, is thrown down by alum. In order to show that the
precipitate contains no casein, we may dissolve it in dilute
hydrochloric acid, and add ferrocyanide of potassium : no pre-
cipitate will be thrown down.2

3. If allantoin, uric acid, or hippuric acid are suspected
to be present, a considerable quantity of the fluid must be
boiled in order to coagulate any albumen that may be present,
and must then be filtered and evaporated to one fourth of its
original volume. Fluids of this nature are generally of a
yellowish colour, may be either clear or turbid, and may or
may not contain albumen.

In the examination of the allantoic fluid, crystals of allan-
toin are gradually formed, which, after being piu'ified by

1 [Mucin is the peculiar animal matter of mucus ; a brief notion of its leading cha-
racters is given in the chapter on the “ Secretions of Mucous Membranes.”]

■ As chondrin and glutin are not constituents of any of the animal fluids, we have
deemed it unnecessary to notice them in the text.

COMPOUND ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.

recrystallization, and dissolved in water, cannot be precipitated
by acetate of lead, nitrate of silver, or nitrate of the black
oxide of mercury.

If the fluid, diu'ing evaporation, gives off an urinous odour
some hydrochloric acid must be added, and it must be allowed
to stand for some time. If acicular crystals are formed, which,
after being purified by recrystallization, and dissolved in water
containing enough alkali to neutralize the acid of the crystals,
give a white precipitate with the above-named tests, an orange
with the perchloride of iron, and when moistened with nitric
acid, and wanned, do not assume a purple-red colour, they
consist of hippuric acid.

If however the crystals are very minute, are not readily
dissolved in water, and give, when moistened with nitric acid
and warmed, a purple-red stain, they are uric acid crystals.

4. If the fluid which we are examining is of a brownish
yellow colour, and if on treating a little of it with an excess
of nitric acid, the colour successively changes to green, blue
and red, then biliphsein is present.

5. On evaporating a portion of the fluid to dryness, pulver-
ising it, and boiling it with ether, we obtain, by the evaporation
of the ethereal solution, a fatty residue. If it be fluid, it is
composed of olein, if it have a tendency to be solid, either
stearin or margarin, or both are also present. The fatty
acids, and probably free lactic acid, with traces of other sub-
stances may be present, especially if the ether contained any
alcohol or water. These substances remain in solution, on
washing the fatty residue with water. The lactic acid may be
easily recognized by its acid reaction ; and the fatty acids may
be detected by the addition of acetate of lead or acetate of
copper to their alcoholic solutions. They are completely pre-
cipitated in this manner, and a residue of pure fat is left, which
must be again washed and the water removed by evaporation.
The fat must then be saponified ; if a portion of it resists this
process, cholesterin or serolin, or both, must constitute a por-
tion of the fatty residue. They must be taken up by ether,
after the saponified portion has been evaporated to dryness.
Serolin is less soluble in alcohol, and melts at a lower tem-
perature than cholesterin,1 by which means the two fats may

1 [Serolin melts at 95°, cholesterin at about 275°.]

PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF

be distinguished. The soaps which have been formed must
be decomposed by hydrochloric acid. If, on the addition of
the acid, a smell of rancid butter is developed, then butyric,
and also capric and caproic acids are present. The vari-
ations in their melting points will enable us to determine
approximately the proportions of oleic, margaric, and stearic
acids.

6. The residue not taken up by ether, must be treated
with anhydrous alcohol, which will take up the following
substances : salts of the fatty acids, especially soda-salts, as
well as any fat that had escaped the action of the ether,
also urea, bilin and the acids of the bile, biliverdin, alcohol-
extract, hcCmapluein, acetates, and lactates, a class of substances
which it is by no means easy to distinguish, and is still more
difficult to isolate. If a spirituous solution of chloride of
barium be added to the alcoholic solution, and a green precipi-
tate is thrown down, then biliverdin is present ; we may also
calculate with tolerable certainty (especially if the alcoholic
solution has a bitter, bilious taste) on the presence of bilin,
and the acids of the bile. An alcoholic solution of sulphuric
acid must now be added to the alcohol-solution that we are
testing, as long as any sulphates are precipitated. The solution
must now be filtered, and the alcohol, which still has an acid
reaction if any acetates are present, must be removed by dis-
tillation. On treating the residue with water, the fatty acids,
if they existed in combination with saline bases, will remain
undissolved, and must be removed by filtration. A portion
of this watery solution must be evaporated to the consistence
of a syrup, and allowed to cool; if, on the addition of an
excess of nitric acid, there are formed, either at once or after
some time, leafy or stellar crystalline groups, then urea is
present. Another portion must be treated with dilute sul-
phuric acid, and allowed to digest for some time. If bilin,
and the products of its metamorphosis, are present, a viscid or
oily acid, (insoluble in the acid fluid,) and a precipitate of an
extremely unpleasant bitter taste, are formed. The fluid sepa-
rated from these substances must be digested with pounded
marble, or (which is better) with carbonate of baryta, in order
to remove the sulphuric acid. It must then be boiled with
carbonate of zinc; if it contain lactic acid, crystals of lactate

COMPOUND ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.

of zinc will be obtained by evaporation. The extractive matter
and liremaphsein will be left as a residue.

If neither bilin, biliverdin, nor the acids of the bile are pre-
sent, the investigation may be much simplified. The soda may
be separated from the alcoholic solution as a sulphate ; we may
evaporate, separate the fatty acids by means of water, boil the
residue with carbonate of zinc, and filter the solution. By this
means we can separate the lactic acid. The urea may be se-
parated from the alcohol-extract by oxalic acid, of which any
excess may be removed by digestion with carbonate of lead.

We may be easily convinced of the presence of the alcohol-
extract by observing the precipitates which are thrown down
by the addition of infusion of galls and a solution of iodine.

The bases, which were present in the alcoholic solution in
combination with acids, are now combined with sulphuric acid.
They usually are soda and potash.

7. The residue of (6), which was not taken up by absolute
alcohol, must now be treated with alcohol of -883, which will
take up sugar of milk, diabetic sugar, spirit-extract (which is
usually of a brown colour in consequence of the presence of
luemaplmcin,) chloride of sodium, phosphates, and probably lac-
tates. If the quantity of sugar (of either of the above kinds)
is not very minute, a portion of it will usually crystallize either
on the cooling of the spirituous solution or by spontaneous
evaporation. The presence of the sugar may, however, be easily
recognized by the sweet taste of the spirituous solution after
evaporation. If the solution be evaporated to the consistence
of an extract, and then treated with cold alcohol of -850, the
greater part of the sugar will remain undissolved, while most of
the extractive matter will be taken up. The presence of the
extractive matter may be determined partly by the brown colour
of the spirituous solution, and more decidedly by the precipi-
tates which are caused by the addition of bichloride of mercury,
acetate of copper, and tannin. The spirit-extract usually evolves
during evaporation a peculiar odour, somewhat resembling that
of toasted bread. On evaporating a portion of the spirituous
solution to dryness, and incinerating the residue, the ash will
be found to consist of chloride of sodium, phosphates, and (if
any lactates are present) carbonates of potash and soda. These
may be separated in the ordinary manner.

PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF

8. The residue not acted on by alcohol of ’850 must be
dissolved in water, in which, if no protein-compounds are
present, it will dissolve without leaving a residue, although the
solution may not be clear. In this solution there will be con-
tained pyin, ptyalin, water-extract, phosphates, and perhaps
some chloride of sodium. The pyin is recognized by the
precipitate afforded by acetic acid. The ptyalin, when it is
present only in small quantities, and is mixed with extractive
matter, is not easily detected ; the only course we can adopt
is to precipitate the whole of the extractive matter of the
water-extract with the basic acetate of lead. A stream of sul-
phuretted hydrogen must then be passed through the fluid in
order to precipitate the lead. The liquid, after filtration or
decantation, must be evaporated to the consistence of a syrup,
and the ptyalin precipitated by alcohol.

I may here remark that, in pursuing the directions laid
down in (7), we do not succeed in obtaining all the spirit-
extract that exists in the residue of (6). Hence in practice it
is better to dissolve the residue of (6) in a little water, so as to
reduce it to the consistence of a syrup, and then to precipitate
with alcohol of ‘833. The salts may be obtained by incinerat-
ing a portion of the evaporated fluid.

In the last six paragraphs we have assumed that no protein-
compounds are present. If, however, this should not be the
case, — if some of the constituents of the blood, as, for instance,
globulin or hsematin, exist in the fluid, a different course must
be pursued. The presence of globulin and hsematin, and, con-
sequently, of albumen, may be easily ascertained. The fluid
must be boiled, evaporated on the water-bath to dryness, and
the residue reduced to a fine powder. The fat must be taken
up with ether, and the urea, alcohol- extract, bilin, with its
acids, and any luemapluein and lactates that may be present,
with anhydrous alcohol. The residue must be boiled in spirit
of '915 until it ceases to communicate any additional red colour-
ing matter to that fluid. In this way we shall obtain the
globulin, hsematin, hsemaphsein, sugar, extractive matters, and
several salts, in a state of solution. The greater portion of the
globulin and hsematin is thrown down as the fluid cools ; the
turbid supernatant fluid is then evaporated on the water-bath
to a small residue, and treated with alcohol, which precipitates

COMPOUND ANIMAL SUBSTANCES.

the remaining portion of those two constituents. Other sub-
stances are contained in the spirituous solution, which may be
distinguished and separated by the rules already given.

The residue not taken up by the alcohol of "915 must be
treated for some time with water, by which pyin, ptyalin, and
water-extract will be taken up. The albumen remains as a
residue, usually more or less reddened by a little hsematin.

If the fluid be very rich in albumen, this course does not
succeed, inasmuch as we are unable to obtain a complete sepa-
tion of those substances which are soluble in dilute alcohol, as
sugar, urea, salts, and extractive matters. The following simple
modification may in that case be adopted. The protein-com-
pounds must be precipitated by anhydrous alcohol. A spiritu-
ous solution is thus obtained, which, even when concentrated,
holds the urea, sugar, &c., in solution, while the protein-com-
pounds (at least the albumen) are reduced to an insoluble con-
dition. The coagulated protein-compounds are always mixed
up with a certain amount of foreign matters, as, for instance,
water-extract, which cannot be easily separated. After the
removal of the albumen, &c., the spirituous solution must be
evaporated to the consistence of a syrup. On the addition of
anhydrous alcohol, sugar, spirit-extract, any albumen that had
escaped the former process, and some other substances, will be
precipitated. The alcoholic solution must be evaporated, and
the residue dissolved in water, by which means the fat will se-
parate itself. The fat is, however, difficult to remove, in con-
sequence of the slow and torpid manner in which the fluid
permeates the filter. It is better, therefore, to evaporate the
alcoholic solution, at a very gentle temperature, to dryness, and
then to take up the fat with pure ether.

In searching for minute quantities of urea in alcoholic solu-
tions of concentrated animal fluids, it frequently happens that,
after evaporation of the alcohol, the removal of the fat, and the
solution of the residue in water, the action of nitric acid on the
urea is much impeded by the presence of compounds of the
fatty acids. I therefore usually remove the bases from the
alcoholic solution by means of sulphuric acid, which liberates
the fatty acids, and allows of their removal with the fat by
means of ether. The sulphuric acid should be much diluted
with strong alcohol ; and as it is of importance that there

100

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

be no excess of tbe acid, it must be added guttatim, and only
so long as it pi’oduces a precipitate, wbicb sometimes is not
observed for several hours after the addition of the acid. The
effect of the sulphuric acid should first be tried on a small
portion of the fluid.

If it is difficult to lay down general rules for the quali-
tative analysis of all the proximate constituents that can
by any possibility occur in the fluids of the animal body, it
may easily be conceived that an attempt to lay down similar
rides for quantitative analysis would involve much greater diffi-
culties. Such a general quantitative scheme is, however, not
required, since quantitative analyses are always preceded by,
and based on, qualitative investigations. The fluids most
troublesome to analyse are the blood and the mine, on ac-
count of the large number of different substances that always
occur in them. The rules for the quantitative analysis of the
various fluids will be found in the respective chapters on the
blood, milk, mine, &c.

CHAPTER II.

THE CIRCULATING FLUIDS.

The Blood.

The following scheme will explain the arrangement which
we have adopted for the general consideration of the blood.

1. The General Physiological Chemistry \ of the Blood.

Its general physiological and chemical relations ; the deve-
lopment of the blood-corpuscles ; the phenomena of circulation
and respiration ; the metamorphosis of the blood, and animal
heat.

2. The Special Chemistry of the Blood.

The method of analysing the blood.

Healthy blood.

Diseased blood.

JUNG'S CO L L i: G c HUbPl

BLOOD. 101

MEDICAL school.

1. The general physiological chemistry of the blood.

General physical relations of the blood.

The blood, while moving in the living body, consists princi-
pally of a nearly colourless fluid, in which the blood-corpuscles
are swimming ; in consequence, however, of these corpuscles
being too minute to be distinguished by the naked eye, it
appears, among the higher classes of animals, as an opaque
and intensely red fluid.

In the majority of the lower (invertebrate) animals, the
blood is white ; it is however red in the annelida, colourless in
most of the mollusca, but in many of the snails of a milk-white
colour; in the Helix pomatia of a sky-blue, and in the Pla-
norbis corneus, of a dark amethyst colour. In the dorsal
vessels of insects it is usually transparent, and of different
colours ; it is, for instance, green in the Orthoptera, yellow in
the silkworm, orange in the caterpillar of the willow-moth,
and of a dark brown colour in most of the beetles.1 The
blood-corpuscles of red blood contain within their coat, or
shell, a fluid impregnated with globulin and hsematin, and a
nucleus, which may be easily recognized in the larger cor-
puscles.

The blood of the mammalia is a somewhat thick, viscid
fluid, with a specific gravity which varies, according to dif-
ferent authors, from 1041 to 1082. In a large number of
experiments made upon the blood of man, the ox, and the
horse, I found it to be between 1051 and 1058. The average
was 1042, which corresponds very nearly with the statement
of Berzelius.

[The average specific gravity of human blood may be fixed
at 1055 according to Nasse,2 and at 1056 according to Zim-
mermann.3 The blood of man is always thicker, and at least
one thousandth heavier than that of woman; in a state of
health it is always above 1053 in man, while in woman it is
frequently not above 1050. Robust men will not unfre-
quently yield blood of spec. grav. 1058 or even 1059, while in
pregnant women the specific gravity is sometimes as low as

1 Burdach’s Physiologie.

3 Article ‘ Blut,' in Wagner’s Ilaudworterbucli, vol. 1, p. 82.

3 Ilufeland’s Journal, 1843.

102

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

1045. In very young infants tlie blood is thin, and of low
specific gravity ; according to Denis the blood of the umbilical
arteries has a specific gravity of 1075. The specific gravity of
the blood of numerous animals has been determined by Dr.
J. Davy1 and by Nasse.]

I found that the blood, as it issues from the aorta, has
a temperature of 103° in the ox, and 990,5 in the pig.
Thackray places the temperature of the blood of the horse
at 960,8, of the ox at 990,5, of the sheep at 101 G,3, and
of the duck at 105° -8. The temperature is always higher in
birds than in the mammalia. The observations of J. Davy,
Becquerel, Breschet, Mayer, and Saissy, tend to show that
the temperature of arterial is about l°-8 higher than that of
venous blood.

Microscojnc analysis of the blood.

If the blood be examined with the microscope (either in a
transparent living part, or immediately after its removal from
the body), it will be seen to consist of a great number of
yellow corpuscles swimming in a colourless fluid. In the
higher animals the form of these corpuscles is either circular
or elliptic, and invariably flattened.

Under a magnifying power of 300 diameters, they assume
the appearance of fig. 1 a in the blood of man and the mam-
malia, of fig. 1 b in the blood of birds, and of fig. 1 c in
the blood of fishes and amphibia. Mliller2 found the greatest
degree of flattening in reptiles, amphibia, and fishes. He
found that in frogs the thickness does not measure more than
one eighth to one tenth of the long diameter, and that in man
it measures about one fourth or one fifth of the transverse
diameter.

In addition to the blood-corpuscles, lymph-, chyle-, and
sometimes oil-globides are present. The first two are round,
of a finely granular appearance, and about the size of the
blood-corpuscles, from which they may be distinguished by
their want of colour, their more perfect sphericity, and their
granular appearance.

1 Anatomical and Physiological Researches, p. 2-1.

2 Ilandbueh <ler Physiologie des Menschen, vol. 1, p. 105.

BLOOD.

103

These distinctions are sufficient to prevent them from
being mistaken for blood-globules. Globules of oil may be
immediately recognized by their well-defined dark edge, and
by then1 great refractive power. They do not rotate, and are
not granular, but perfectly transparent.

The size of the blood-corpuscles varies in different animals.

In man, the diameter varies, according to Wagner, 1 from
•0004 to -0002 of a French inch ; according to Muller, 2 from
•00035 to '00023, and according to Schultz3, from ‘00036
to '00031. The thickness, according to the last observer,
may be estimated at -000085 of the same measure. Of all
the mammalia, the ruminants seem to possess the smallest
blood-globules. Wagner has given the following proportions :
In man and monkeys —th of a line = 3.

Carnivora . . ^th of a line = 4.

Ruminantia . J^th of a line = 5.

In addition to these admeasurements, the following are de-
serving of notice: Nasse fixed their average diameter at ‘00033,
the maxima and minima being '00036 and '0003 ; Bowerbank
places their average diameter at from '00035 to '00027, the
extreme limits being '00054 and '00021 respectively ; Owen
at '00028 ; and Gulliver at '0003 of an inch.

The dimensions of the blood-corpuscles in the following
animals have been measured :

Ape (Simia callitrix) '000374 (Prevost and Dumas).

Cat '00028 ; dog '00031 (Schultz) ; rat and mouse about
•00025 (Wagner).

Sheep -0002 (Schultz and Wagner) ; ox '0002 (Schultz) and
•00024 (Wagner) ; goat '00017 ; chamois '0002 (Prevost and
Dumas); horse -00031 — '00027 (Schultz). According to Wag-
ner, the diameter in rats, mice, hares, and squirrels, varies
from -00025 to '00020.

The blood-corpuscles of birds, fishes, and amphibia are el-
liptical. The following are the results of some of the best
authenticated measurements :

Common fowl : length -00062 ; breadth -00036 ; thickness
•00013 (Schultz). According to Dumas and Prevost, the long

1 Nachtriige zur Physiologic dcs Blutcs, 1838, p. 5.

* Physiologic des Menschcn, vol. 1, p. 106.

3 System dcr Cirkulation, p. 14.

4 French inches.

104

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

diameter in the pigeon, duck, and goose, varies from *0008 to
•00044; the short diameter from -0004 to ‘00029. Wagner
estimates the two diameters, in the pigeon, at -0008 and -00033
respectively.

We find the largest blood- corpuscles in fishes. According
to Wagner1 2 the largest corpuscles, at present observed, are
those of the torpedo, their long diameter being -002 ; in the
skate he found them to vary from -001 to -0012 in length; in
the loach the long diameter was -0005 ; in the eel-pout,
•00057 ; in the barbel -00066, the short diameter in this case
being -0004.

In the carp the long diameter is 4)005, and the nucleus
measures -00012.

In the plaice, Schultz estimated the long and short diameters
at -00062, and -00043 respectively, and the thickness at -00007.

In the naked amphibia the corpuscles are very large. In
the triton, Dumas and Prevost estimated the diameters at
•00128 and -00078 respectively. In the Salamandra cristata,
Schultz found that the diameters were -00138 and -000804
and that the thickness was -000315. In the frog, the same
observer estimated the length, breadth, and thickness at -00108,
and -00058, and -000017.

Of all the amphibia, the water-snakes appear to possess the
smallest blood-corpuscles. 2

The instantaneous effect of water upon the blood-corpuscles
is very remarkable, and is easily seen under the microscope :
they swell, become globular, lose their distinct contour, and (if
much water be added,) altogether disappear. If however the
blood-corpuscles have nuclei of sufficient magnitude to admit
of examination (as in the blood of fishes, reptiles, &c.), these
nuclei will be seen swimming in the water after the disappear-
ance of the capsules.

The nuclei may be separated in a similar manner, by the
addition of a little acetic acid. The acid in a few minutes
dissolves the hcemato-globulin, and assumes a yellow colour.

1 Zur vergleichenden Pliysiologie des Blutes, 1833, p. 14. [The largest blood-
corpuscles do not occur in fishes, as stated in the text, but in some of the naked am-
phibia. See Wagner’s Physiology, p. 236, English edition.]

2 A very complete account of the sizes of the blood-corpuscles of different animals,
as far as they had been then ascertained, may be found in Wagner’s Nachtriige zur
Physiologic des Blutes, 1839, p. 31.

BLOOD.

105

If, upon the addition of water, the blood-corpuscles have
swelled to such a degree as to be imperceptible under the mi-
croscope, they may be restored to their pristine form by the
addition of a solution of sugar, of common salt, of nitrate of
potash, or of muriate of ammonia. Schultz1 explains this
phenomenon by the supposition that the capsule of the blood-
corpuscle is an organic structure, which is stimulated to con-
traction by the above solutions, but which is relaxed or ex-
panded by water. In confirmation of this view, he observes
that the licemato-globulin is not precipitated by the action of
the sugar or salts. Schultz has also shown that when the
capsules have even fallen to pieces in the water, the addition
of a little tincture of iodine, diluted with water, will render
their fragments visible.

The blood-corpuscles do not always present a regular num-
mular and flattened appearance ; they are sometimes plicated
and bent in.

The cause of this phenomenon is not known, but it is pro-
bably due to a contraction of the capsule at different points.
One of the most peculiar of these forms is that in which the
edge of the blood-corpuscle appears as if it were studded with
minute pearls. In the blood of a patient suffering from
Bright’s disease, I found that nearly all the corpuscles had
undergone this modification. On the addition of a solution
of muriate of ammonia, the appearance it presented under the
microscope was very striking. I immediately made a counter-
experiment with my own blood, but it did not exhibit the
phenomenon in question.

Ascherson2 has offered the following explanation of this
peculiarity in the form of the corpuscle, viz., that it is due to
the exudation of fat which exists in a fluid state in the blood-
corpuscle.

In opposition to this view, it may be urged, that if each
individual corpuscle contained a separable portion of fat (how-
ever minute it might be), we should obtain in our analyses a
much larger quantity of fat than in reality we do. It is true
that the dried clot yields a larger proportion of fat than an equal

1 Ueber die gehemmte und gesteigerte Auflosung der verbrauchten Blutbliischcn.
Hufeland’s Journal, April 1838, p. 18.

2 Muller’s Arcliiv, 1840. Ueber die Bedeutung der Fettstoffe.

106

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

weight of serum, but the difference is by no means so striking
as it would have been if Ascherson’s theory were correct.

Hiinefeld 1 has observed a similar appearance on treating
the blood-corpuscles of the frog with putrid serum, in which
granules were present. The granules seemed to form a sort
of girdle round the corpuscle, and he conceives that they
penetrated into minute depressions upon the surface of the
capsule. If this statement be correct, it is strongly opposed
to the observations of Ascherson and Wagner respecting the
lubricity and evenness of the blood-corpuscles.

On mixing the blood of a carp with a solution of sugar,
and on the cautious addition of water, I observed that the
blood-corpuscles assumed a stellar appearance.

On treating frog’s blood with bilin, an agent which usually
dissolves the corpuscles, I observed that some of them resisted
this action for a considerable period, and ultimately assumed
a pyriform appearance, while others became narrowed at the
centre, and extended at both extremities. Others, again,
seemed to undergo an internal change, and appeared as if
their inner surface were studded with minute vesicles.

Hiinefeld made a similar observation on treating frog’s
blood with carbonate of ammonia.2

The same chemist observed a remarkable peculiarity in the
corpuscles of human blood, on the addition of sulphate of
quinine. In the^ course of a few minutes they assumed an
irregular, angular form, and appeared as if their sides were
drawn together.

Schultz3 has made the following important microscopic ob-
servation. On examining the blood-corpuscles of a salaman-
der which had been suffocated in carbonic acid gas, they were
found to be of a darker colour than usual; the darkness was
particularly marked on some spots, so that they exhibited a
sort of chequered appearance.

On shaking the blood with oxygen gas, the corpuscles be-
came brighter and more transparent.

1 Der Cliemismus in tier thierischen Organisation, p. 101.

2 L. c., p. 10G.

3 System der Cirkulation, p. 27.

BLOOD.

107

a. The general chemical relations of the blood.

The general chemical relations of the blood-corpuscles.

Midler and Scliultz have examined the action of various
tests on the blood-corpuscles. Hiinefeld1 has also recently
paid much attention to the apparent effect produced on them
by numerous medicinal agents. According to the last-named
author, the corpuscles and their nuclei are soluble in the fol-
lowing substances : caustic ammonia, potash, soda, lime, and
baryta, soap, bile, acetic acid, hydrocyanic acid, alcohol, ether,
oil of turpentine, ethereal oil, and sulphuret of carbon.

The capsules, but not the nuclei, are soluble in water, in all the
salts of ammonia, the carbonates of potash and soda, cyanate
of potash, borax, chloride of barium, chloride of calcium, the
salts of oxabc and hydrochloric acids, concentrated vinegar, and
the phosphoric, arsenic, oxalic, citric, and hydrochloric acids.

Phosphorus, chlorine, and iodine produce a similar effect,
probably by the formation of an acid.

An imperfect solution is effected by flowers of sulphur, tartrate
of ammonia, borate of ammonia, bromide of potassium, and
malic acid.

The corpuscles are not dissolved by carbonate of magnesia, ve-
ratrine, strychnine, acetate of morphine, hydrochlorate of coneine,
boracic acid, carbonic acid, nitrate of potash, nitrate of soda,
tartrate of soda, phosphate of soda, chloride of sodium, sugar,
gum, sulphate of potash, sulphate of magnesia, sulphate of soda,
tartar emetic, camphor, anemonine.

Hiinefeld also tried the effects of several of the animal fluids
on the blood. Saliva, phthisical sputa, and healthy pus pro-
duced no well-marked changes. Gastric juice, added to an
excess of blood, induced a slight coagulation, and changed the
red colour into a brown. The extractive matter of the flesh of
rabbits and calves produced no change on the corpuscles, but
the colour assumed a more vermilion tint, and the corpuscles
sank sooner than usual. Acid whey, concentrated by evapo-
ration, produced no effect, neither did the pancreatic juice or
gonorrhoeal discharge. Sweat, taken from the axilla, changed
the colour to a lighter red, and, in the course of some hours,

1 Der Clieinismus, u. s. w., p. 43-84.

108

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

dissolved the corpuscles, (possibly through the influence of the
ammoniacal salts.)

Pure urea, prepared artificially, induced no change in the
colour, hut dissolved the corpuscles, with the exception of the
nuclei and a few fragments of the capsules.

The action of putrid blood and serum has been already
noticed.

Human blood does not appear to be influenced by admixture
with the blood of birds or frogs.

The bile of man, quadrupeds, birds, fishes, and amphibia,
exerts an active soluble influence upon the corpuscles. In
some observations on frog’s blood, Hiinefeld noticed that the
capsules were immediately dissolved, and that the nuclei re-
mained unchanged for some time, but ultimately broke up into
minute granules and disappeared.

The effects produced by coneia appear, from Hiinefeld’s ob-
servation, to be very singular.

Coneine, either in a state of solution or vapour, reduces the
blood to a dirty red greasy mass, which, under the microscope,
resembles dark melted wax, and in which no corpuscles can be
detected. If diluted blood be treated with a little coneine, it
remains fluid, but, after a short time, becomes discoloured, and
throws down a brown sediment. The blood of a rabbit, poi-
soned with coneine, exhibited no peculiarity.

Arsenic acid produces no material effect upon the blood, nor
could Hiinefeld detect any alteration in the corpuscles of a frog
destroyed by this agent.

On passing hydrocyanic acid, in a state of vapour, into the
blood of a pig, the colour became more vivid, and the corpuscles
remained uninjured for a very considerable time. A large
quantity of blood, which was treated in a similar manner, gave
off a strong odour of the acid after the lapse of a year and a
half, and did not exhibit any symptoms of putrefaction. No
change could be observed in the blood of a rabbit poisoned
with this agent.

Chlorate of potash does not produce any apparent effect for
the first few minutes ; subsequently, however, the blood assumes
a brighter red tint, which ultimately passes into a brown. An
ounce of fresh human blood was mixed with eight grains of
chlorate of potash. Just at first the colour became rather

BLOOD.

109

brighter, but, after the lapse of from fifteen minutes to an
houi’, it became darker than it previously was. It then became
of a reddish brown colour, and, after from eight to sixteen
hours, it was converted into a pulpy brownish-black matter.
The blood of a cat which had taken a drachm of this salt, and
had afterwards been killed with cyanogen, exhibited no peculiar
appeai’ance.

Hunefeld, and some other microscopists, assert that acetic
acid dissolves the whole of the corpuscle, with the exception of
the nucleus. Miiller, on the contrary, maintains that in
frog’s blood the colouring envelope is not wholly dissolved,
but may still be frequently observed in a pale fine line surround-
ing the nucleus.

The following are my own observations with respect to this
test. If a sufficient quantity of acetic acid be added to freshly
drawn blood, so as to give it a decidedly acid reaction, and if the
vessel in which it is contained be submitted to a temperature
of about 88° for half an hoxir, the blood becomes changed
into a thick tar-like mass of a blackish brown colour.

If water be now added, and the mixture carefully stirred
until it is reduced to a magma of an equal consistence through-
out, we find that, on examining a portion of this mixtxrre under
the microscope, the addition of some more water does not dis-
solve the corpuscles; in fact, they are no longer soluble in
water, in consequence of the insoluble compound that has
been formed by the acetic acid, and the (casein-like) globulin.
If a great excess of water be added, the corpuscles sink ; the
albumen, and a great portion of the hsematin, which enter into
their composition, are dissolved, and they become almost per-
fectly clear. They may even be boiled in water, without any
change in their form being produced.

When boiled in acetic acid (unless it be very dilute), they
become perfectly dissolved, with the exception of their nuclei.1

According to Miiller and Schultz, a solution of caustic am-
monia dissolves the corpuscles more rapidly than a similar
solution of caustic potash. The same observers state that
alcohol does not dissolve them, but merely produces a slight
contraction or puckering, and that the granules of albumen

1 F. Simon’s Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Blutes, in Brandes’s Arcliiv, vol. 18, p. 35.

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

coagulated by this reagent cloud the field of vision, and render
the corpuscles indistinct. I have also found that neither abso-
lute alcohol, nor alcohol of -835, elfect the solution of the cor-
puscles.

It has been found by Schultz, Hiinefeld, and myself, that
the blood-corpuscles dissolve upon the addition of a small quan-
tity of ether. A quantity corresponding in volume to from
one third to one half of the blood is perfectly sufficient. This
experiment has been successfully repeated upon the blood of
man, the ox, the frog, and the carp.

If the experiment be performed in a test-glass, it will be
observed that the colour of the blood veiy soon becomes deep-
ened, but that ultimately the whole fluid becomes transparent.
The ether does not separate diming this process.

If a portion of this mixture be covered with a slip of thin
glass, and examined under the microscope, no corpuscles, but
simply the nuclei, are discernible. The nuclei in the blood of
man and the ox cannot be clearly seen on account of the colour-
ing matter that is always present ; they may, however, be always
distinctly observed in the blood of the frog or the carp for a
considerable time.

A mixture of ether and blood, kept in a stoppered vessel for
some time, became thick, assumed a greasy appearance, and
was no longer fit for the experiment ; neither could a satis-
factory result be obtained on shaking blood with an excess of
ether ; for then the ether took up the water of the blood, and
thus reduced that fluid to a state of thickness.

On pouring off the ether from a known quantity of blood
with which it had been continuously stirred for twenty-four
hours, and submitting the blood to a single washing with ether,
I was astonished to find that from the two ethereal solutions
I obtained quite as large a quantity of fat as I should have done
by the repeated extraction of a corresponding portion of dried
and finely-powdered blood with boiling ether. On treating
pure liquid serum of the same blood in a similar manner, the
quantity of fat obtained did not differ from the quantity
obtained from the perfect blood, in a ratio sufficient to justify
the supposition, that the capsules are composed of fat.

I can also confirm TIunefeld’s observation respecting the
influence of bile upon the blood. On the addition of fresh bile,

BLOOD.

Ill

the blood immediately becomes clear, and the corpuscles dis-
appear. In consequence of the viscidity of ordinary bile, I
experimented with pure bilin.

Upon the addition of a little partially dried bilin to the
blood of man, the calf, the tench, or the frog, the fluid becomes,
after a little stirring, thick, almost gelatinous, capable of being
drawn out into threads, and no corpuscles can be seen in it. If
a minute drop of frog’s blood, in which the corpuscles have
been thus dissolved, be brought in contact, and suffered to mix
with a fresh drop of blood from the same animal, an interesting
microscopic object is afforded. After the first intense action is >
over, the corpuscles are seen to move about slowly, or to be in
a state of rest, and gradually to disappear. The solution of
the capsule (not of the nucleus) occurs so instantaneously that
the eye cannot trace the reaction. The nucleus always remains
as a granular mulberry-like corpuscle. It becomes gradually paler
and paler, enlarging itself visibly at the same time, and at last its
existence can only be ascertained by its brightness. I have
never succeeded in observing the decomposition of the nucleus
into its constituent parts, which has been described by Hiincfeld,
although I have carefully repeated his experiments. I usually
observed, however, that at those points where many corpuscles
had disappeared, numerous minute points were visible, of which
the larger ones displayed a lively molecular motion. In those
instances in which the corpuscles resisted the solvent power of
the bilin for a considerable time (possibly in consequence of
the reagent being applied in too dilute a state), they often as-
sumed very peculiar forms ; appearing as if they were twisted,
and extended longitudinally in one direction, or variously
coloured in the interior. (Vide supra, p. 106.)

I have formerly noticed the solvent power of olive oil upon
the corpuscles.1 I shook a quantity of the blood of a calf, which
had been allowed to flow from the vein into a vessel one quarter
full of olive oil, until the blood was perfectly cool. No cor-
puscles could then be detected. Whipt blood exhibits the same
phenomenon; but in this case it is requisite that the oil should
remain for a longer period in contact with the blood. This
fact has also been noticed by Magendie.2

1 Pharmaceutisches Centralblatt, 1839, p. 672.

3 Lemons sur le Sang, ct les alterations de cet liquide, par Magendie. Bruxelles,
1839. p. 244.

112

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

b. The general chemical relations of the colouring matter of
the blood (Hcematin.)

The red colouring matter of the blood is contained, in all
probability, in a state of solution in the corpuscles, an opinion
which is also supported by Muller, Schultz, and Reichert. If,
in the examination of frog’s blood, one corpuscle be observed to
move over another, the lower can be distinctly perceived through
the upper one. Moreover, the instantaneous solution of the
corpuscles by means of bilin supports this view ; for, if their
contents were gelatinous or solid, the act of solution would be
observed to progress from the circumference to the centre, and
would admit of being observed by the microscope.

Hiinefeld1 seems to support the opinion that the colouring
matter exists in an insoluble form, attached to the inner surface
of the capsules. If, however, this were the case, the blood-
corpuscles would appear more opaque than they do. The
observations of Hiinefeld and others show that the follow-
ing substances heighten the red colour of the blood : cold
water-extract of the flesh of rabbits and calves (having an acid
reaction) communicates a vermilion colour to the blood. It
becomes of a deep garnet red by the carbonate, cyanate, and
nitrate of ammonia, and less intensely by the saliva, phthisical
sputa, gonorrhoeal matter, sweat, hydrocyanic acid, the carbo-
nates of soda and potash, and bicarbonate of soda.

A brown tinge may be produced by the agency of several
substances for instance, by all free acids, by sugar of milk,
oil of bitter almonds, ammonia, boracic acid, carbonate of mag-
nesia, tartrate of potash, bromide of potassium, sulphate of
magnesia, chloride of strontium, nitrate of strontia, lactate of
iron, phosphorus, iodine, &c.

The alkalies, alkaline earths, and sulphuret of potassium
produce a green tint. It becomes entirely decolorized by the
action of coneine and oil of turpentine.

c. The general chemical relations of the nuclei of the
blood-corpuscles.

The similarity of the constitution of the nuclei to coagulated
fibrin has been long observed. Hiinefeld,2 however, conceives

1 L. c., p. 104. 5 Der Cliemismus, u. s. w., p. 108.

BLOOD.

113

that corpuscles, instead of consisting of fibrin, are mainly
composed of fatty matter (either cliolesterin or some allied
substance), combined with albumen, as occurs in the yelk
of eggs. In this view I cannot coincide, although I fully
believe that albumen and fat do take a very active part in
the formation of all the animal tissues, and, consequently,
in the production of the blood- corpuscles. In this instance,

the formative process has advanced so far that we can expect
to find the original materials of formation present in only very
small quantities. It is true that the fibrin and the blood-
corpuscles contain a greater relative proportion of fat than the
other constituents of the blood ; yet even in fibrin the propor-
tion amounts to only 5g, and the fat cannot therefore be re-
garded as a preponderating constituent of this substance. That
the fat is not actually cliolesterin seems pretty clear from the
fact of the ready solubility of the corpuscles in caustic potash.

The diameter of the nucleus is usually about one-fourth or
one-fifth of the diameter of the blood-corpuscle. In the
amphibia it varies from ‘002 to '005 ; in fishes, from ‘0016 to
•0025 ; in birds, its length is about -002, and in the mammalia
•0008 of a line.

I have made the following observations with regard to the
nuclei in the blood of man,1 the carp, and the frog. The
nuclei in the frog appear, after the solution of the capsule and
hsemato-globulin, as partly elliptical and partly cylindrical.
After washing them for a day or two in order to remove the
colouring matter and albumen, they assume a more spherical
form, and most of them present a granulated appearance on
the surface. I cannot, however, positively assert that granular
cells were present, nor did I observe the nuclei separate into
distinct portions during this treatment. The nuclei, even
when moist, were not soluble in boiling ether. When dried,
moistened with water, and then observed under the micro-
scope, several nuclei were seen floating about, apparently un-
altered ; many were, however, connected together in such a
manner as to prevent their whole outline from being apparent.
Upon treating the dry nuclei with ether, appearances similar

1 I allude to the nearly colourless sediment 'which may he obtained by washing
blood with a large quantity of water, and which is found to contain lymph-corpuscles
and fragments of capsules.

114

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

to those already described were perceived. Moist nuclei dis-
solved readily in caustic potash ; if the solution be supersatu-
rated with concentrated acetic acid, and heated, an imperfect
solution of the matter, precipitated by the acid, occurs ; a very
small quantity of dilute hydrochloric acid will, however, readily
dissolve the whole. On treating the filtered solution with
tannin, a copious precipitate was thrown down; ferrocvanide
of potassium caused a mere turbidity, or very slight deposit.
Similar observations were made on the nuclei of carp’s blood,
but the ferrocyanide of potassium caused less turbidity than in
the former case. The nuclei of human blood are scarcely dis-
cernible in the viscid sediment. The effect of reagents was
much the same as in the former cases.

Hence we are led to infer that the blood-corpuscles are
chiefly formed of a substance closely related to the protein-
compounds, although not identical with any of them : possibly
the nuclei may be converted into fibrin, soluble in the liquor
sanguinis, after the metamorphosis of the blood-corpuscles has
been accomplished. On heating the nuclei on platina foil, a
fatty smell is first observed, and then an odour resembling that
of burning albumen. Upon heating them in a test-tube, and
applying litmus paper, the red colour is soon changed to a
strongly-marked blue. The ash has a reddish appearance, and
consists of peroxide of iron, lime, and phosphoric acid.

d. The general chemical relations of the plasma ( liquor

sanguinis) .

The plasma of living blood exists as a clear fluid, in which
the corpuscles are seen to float. If the blood has been
removed for some time from the body, the fibrin separates
from the plasma. This separation appears to take place simul-
taneously and uniformly throughout the whole of the blood.
As the fibrin contracts, it entangles the corpuscles ; the subse-
quent contraction tends to expel the serum, and thus the clot
is produced. The clot, at first soft and gelatinous, becomes
gradually more consistent, and ultimately appears as a mass,
capable of a certain degree of resistance, and floating in the
serum.

There are certain pathological conditions, under which the

BLOOD.

115

blood cannot hold the corpuscles in suspension. There is
then formed, previously to the separation of the fibrin, a layer
of yellow plasma above the sunken blood-corpuscles, in which
(i. e. in the plasma), upon the subsequent coagulation, a cer-
tain quantity of fibrin separates (crusta inflammatoria) .

In some observations on the blood of a cachectic horse,
made during the summer, I found that the corpuscles sunk so
rapidly in the tumbler in which the fluid was received, that a
layer of plasma was formed, amounting to nearly two thirds
of the whole volume of the blood, previously to the coagulation
of the fibrin. The fibrin, which was present in large quantity,
then began to coagulate, and after some time a solid cylinder
of coagulated plasma was formed, which resisted a consider-
able degree of pressure, and under which the uncoagulated
blood-corpuscles were distributed.

In some pathological states the blood contains mere traces
of fibrin ; in these cases no clot is formed ; we observe merely
the separation of a few dark gelatiniform flocculi.

The coagulation of the plasma is a consequence of the
cessation of the vitality of the blood; hence it occurs not
merely in blood abstracted from the living body, but after
death, and under some peculiar circumstances, in the vessels
themselves. It is independent of external influences, for it
occurs equally in ordinary air, in vacuo, and in various gaseous
atmospheres. It may be accelerated or impeded by certain
agents, and may even be altogether prevented; the blood,
however, when prevented from coagulating in this manner, is
in a state very different from that in which it previously existed
in the body, the fibrin having undergone a chemical change.

The retardation or prevention of coagulation .t

Fresh blood becomes solid below 32°, without the coagula-
tion of the fibrin, which however occurs after thawing.

1 [A full account of the various experiments by John Hunter, Davy, Prater,' Scuda-
moie, and others, on the effects of various agents upon the coagulation of the blood,
to the period it was written, may be found in Ancell’s seventh lecture “ on the Phy-
siology and Pathology of the Blood.” Lancet, 1840.]

116

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

The blood of frozen and apparently dead frogs remains fluid,
and the same is the case in hybernating animals, in which the
temperature of the blood is reduced to that of cold-blooded
animals.1

The coagulation of the blood is retarded by contact with
animal membranes j it will remain fluid in tied arteries for the
space of three hours. Blood which has been infused into the
cellular tissue will remain fluid for weeks. Schultz has ob-
served that blood which has collected in the intestines remains
fluid for a long time ; moreover, the blood which has been
abstracted by leeches does not coagulate, as long as it remains
in the body of the animal.2

Gerhard, Ilufeland, and Kielmeyer have shown that blood
through which an electric current is continuously passed re-
mains fluid for a long time. Schubeler also showed that
positive electricity hinders the coagulation of the blood ; more-
over, the blood of animals killed by electricity or lightning
does not coagulate.

The following salts hinder the coagulation of the fibrin,
according to Hewson,3 Schultz,4 and Hamburger V’ observa-
tions : sulphate of soda, chloride of sodium, nitrate of potash,
chloride of potassium, acetate of potash, and borax, if they be
added in the proportion of half an ounce to six ounces of
blood. If however the blood be diluted with double the quan-

tity of water, the fibrin coagulates. (Hewson.) The carbo-
nates and acetates prevent the coagulation of the blood, in
all degrees of concentration. With regard to the action of
the sulphates, a concentrated solution appears to retard the
coagulation ; a dilute solution, on the contrary, to accelerate it.
(Hamburger.) The same appears to be the case with respect
to the tai’trates and borates.

The following metallic salts impede the coagulation of the
fibrin : sulphate of copper, ammoniaco-sulphate of copper, sul-
phate of the protoxide of iron, chloride of iron, ferrocyanide

1 Schultz, op. cit. p. 80.

2 L. c., pp. 64 and 81.

3 Disquisitio experimentalis de sanguinis natura. L. B. 1785.

4 Op. cit.

3 Experimentorum circa sanguinis coagulationem specimen primum diss. iuaug.
auct. Hamburger. Berolini, 1839.

BLOOD.

117

of potassium, acetate of lead, and tartrate of antimony and
potash.1

Magendie’s2 observations differ considerably from the above.
He arranges in a tabular form3 the following salts which tend
to impede the coagulation of the blood : the alkaline car-
bonates, nitrate of potash, and nitrate of lime. All observers
agree that the free alkalies completely prevent the coagulation.

The observations of Schultz, Magendie, and Hamburger
show that dilute miueral and vegetable acids prevent the
coagulation of the blood, which however thickens, and assumes
a syrupy or oily appearance. These statements have been
confirmed by myself.

The following non-mineral reagents have been observed by
Magendie to prevent or impede the coagulation of the fibrin :
nitrate of stiychnine, nitrate of morphine, and nicotine. This
statement, as far as regards the nitrate of strychnine, has been
denied by Hamburger.3

Hunter observed that the coagulation was retarded by the
addition of a solution of opium, a statement however which is
not confirmed by Hamburger. The latter observer notices
the effect which is produced by the addition of bile, in pre-
venting the coagulation.

Acceleration of the coagulation .

The coagulation of the fibrin is accelerated, or at any rate
not impeded, by a temperature higher than that of the living
blood. According to Hewson, it takes place most rapidly at
from 114° to 120°. Scudamore and Schroder van der Kolk
assert that the coagulation is accelerated by electricity and
galvanic currents, which however is opposed to the previous
observations of Kielmeyer and others. Contact with atmo-
spheric air hastens the coagulation.

According to Hamburger, no influence, either in accele-

1 Schultz remarked that hydrochlorate of ammonia, sulphate of potash, and sul-
phate of magnesia, retain the blood in a state of fluidity, and that even the addition

of a large quantity of water does not produce coagulation. After the addition of
sulphate of soda, the blood could only be prevented from gelatinising by constant
stirring, a step that was not requisite with the other salts.

3 Lemons sur le Sang. Bruxelles, 1839.

3 Op. cit. p. 249. 3 lb. p. 45.

118

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

rating or impeding the coagulation, is exerted by sulphate of
lime, chlorate of potash, or iodide of iron.1 2

According to Magendie and Hamburger, the coagulation is
accelerated by acetate of morphine. The former observer states
that water, a watery solution of sugar, the fluid of dropsy,
Seidlitz and Vichy waters, alcohol, ether, and mannite ; and
the latter, that decoctions of digitalis, and tobacco, solution of
tannin, iodine, solution of sugar, gum arahic, starch, and fresh
urine, have a similar effect.3

ON THE CHEMICAL PHYSIOLOGY OP THE BLOOD.

On the formation of the blood.

The formation of the blood, and especially of the blood-
corpuscles, has been made a subject of careful and laborious
research by many of the best microscopic observers of the
present age, amongst whom we may enumerate the names
of Schultz, Baumgartner, Valentin, Reichert, Wagner, and
Schwann.

[As the physiological details connected with this subject
belong strictly to the physiology rather than to the chemistry
of the blood, we shall content ourselves with a brief statement
of all that is known with any degree of certainty regarding
this obscure and intricate process.

Capillary vessels are developed by the stellated union of a
certain set of blastodermic or germinal cells ; and no sooner
are capillary or other vessels formed, than a kind of blood is
found in them. The corpuscles of that blood differ from those
of the adult in being considerably larger, more spherical and
granular, and in containing a distinct nucleus. There is pro-
bably an external envelope. The granules unite or amalga-
mate, so as to form the coloured or clear part of the blood-
corpuscle, while the nucleus remains. See fig. 2.]

Although much light has recently been thrown on the
formation of the blood-corpuscle in the embryo, we are still

1 Magendie observed that the coagulation is hastened by the addition of the chlo-
rides of potassium, sodium, ammonium, and barium ; of bicarbonate of soda, sulphate
of magnesia, borax, nitrate of silver, iodide of p otassium, and the cyanides of gold
and mercury.

2 [A summary of Mr. Blake’s experiments outlie effects of various salts, &c. on the

blood, is given in Williams’s Principles of Medicine, page 99.]

BLOOD.

119

unfortunately almost entirely deficient in positive information
regarding the formation of the blood-corpuscles in the mature
individual. That blood-corpuscles are formed in adults, cannot
admit of a doubt ; for we see that the mass of the blood, and
consequently of the blood-corpuscles, is continually increasing
from the moment that blood is first produced in the embryo,
up to the period of full corporeal development. Moreover, in-
dependently of any considerations founded on the increased
mass of the blood, a continuous formation of blood-corpuscles
is obviously necessary to compensate for the waste and
consumption of blood dependent on the exercise of the vital
functions. The immense quantities of extractive matters
(abounding in nitrogen and carbon), — of urea, uric acid,
bile, mucus, and fat, which are daily secreted in the urine,
fteces, and mucous discharges, together with the considerable
amount of carbon which is given off as carbonic acid in
the process of respiration, — must all be refunded to the
system by the blood. To this it may be objected, that the
supply takes place on the part of the plasma, which alone
therefore would require to exist in a state of continuous in-
crease, while the corpuscles coexist, and are coeval with the
individual in whose blood they occur. Such a view is, how-
ever, at variance with all the phenomena of the higher stages
of existence; for no tissue or portion of the body, solid or
fluid, is allowed to remain unchanged or unendowed with vi-
tality. The necessity for the consumption and reproduction
of the blood-corpuscles has never yet been disputed, but various
theories have been propounded by different physiologists re-
garding the seat of their formation and their mode of organic
development or metamorphosis.

Hewson endeavours to show that the spleen is the principal
organ in which the blood-corpuscles are formed, and that they
are produced from lymph-granules. Although the functions
of the spleen are not even at the present day properly deter-
mined, it is an established fact that the spleen may be extir-
pated, and the formation of blood not be impeded ; moreover,
the red colour of the lymph, upon which Hewson strengthens
his opinion, has not always been observed.1 Schultz2 con-

1 J. Muller’s Handbuch der Physiologie, vol. 1, p. 573.

3 System der Cirkulation, p. 37.

120

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

siders that the blood-corpuscles are formed in the lymphatic
glands, and conveyed by the ductus thoracicus into the blood.
He states that the chyle which is found in the vessels issuing
from the glands, contains clear, round, oily vesicles, and
granular lymph- corpuscles. The diameter of the granular

lymph-corpuscles in horses and rabbits varies from -0005 to
•0008 of a line ; and they are so similar to the nuclei of the blood-
corpuscles, as to render it very probable that the latter are de-
rived from them. In the lymph of the ductus thoracicus of
rabbits and horses, we find actual blood-corpuscles, as well as
the transparent and granular lymph-corpuscles ; these blood-
corpuscles, however, possess more tender, and not perfectly
flattened capsules, and a much smaller amount of colouring
matter than when they have arrived at maturity. They are
consequently paler and more transparent than at a subsequent
period, and the nucleus may be inclosed more or less closely
in the capsule. The lymph- corpuscles and the nuclei of the
blood-corpuscles present a very close analogy, for they both
vary in size, and, to use Schultz’s own words, “ it cannot be
doubted that the blood-corpuscles are produced by the forma-
tion of a coloured capsule around the lymph-globules.”1

These blood-corpuscles could not have been transmitted
there by blood-vessels ; their difference from the mature cor-
puscle, and their slight amount of colouring matter, are opposed
to such a supposition. Since lymph-corpuscles also pass into
the blood, the formation of blood-corpuscles from them in the
blood-vessels cannot be denied ; it may however happen that
they are again conducted by the blood to the lymphatic glands,
where their metamorphosis is completed. In a more recent
work on the Blood,2 Schultz states that the coloured capsule of
the blood-corpuscle is principally formed in the process of re-
spiration. There is much in favour of this view, for we know
that the blood can only obtain its nutriment through the
ductus thoracicus, and it seems obvious that the conditions
necessary for the formation of the blood-corpuscles must be as-
sociatedwith the circumstance of the derivation of the nutriment
from this source. Moreover, there can be no doubt that in conse-

1 L. c., p. 45.

2 Ueber die gelieinmte Auflosung und Ausscheidung der verbrauchten Blutblasclien.
Hufeland’s Journal, April 1838.

BLOOD.

121

quence of the continuous supply of chyle which is afforded to the
blood, the lymph-corpuscles would speedily predominate, unless
they underwent some metamorphosis, and assumed another form ;
but in reality the number of lymph-corpuscles in the blood is
comparatively small. Although the lymphatic glands may be
regarded as in some degree the seat of formation of the blood-
corpuscles, it must by no means he supposed that the latter issue
from these glands in a perfectly developed state ; their ultimate
maturity is obtained in the blood, and they aid in the support
of its independent vitality. Henle, who likewise coincides in
the view just given, as I know from a personal communication
with him, has minutely studied the formation of the blood-
corpuscle from the lymph- corpuscle, and the transitions of
the latter to a state of maturity. He regards the lymphatic
glands as the chief, although not the exclusive seat of
formation of the blood-corpuscles. Although the chyle
does not contain a sufficient number of matured blood-cor-
puscles to allow us to recognize their presence by its external
appearance, we must remember that during its continuous dis-
charge into the subclavian vein, a considerable number of
blood-corpuscles may in a certain time he conveyed into the
blood : that the blood-corpuscles which are contained in the
chyle are formed in the organs of chylification, and are not
conveyed thither by arteries or veins, is clear from our knowledge
of the connexions between the vascular and capillary systems.

It is pretty generally allowed that the process of respiration
is essentially requisite for the further development of the
young blood-corpuscles, after their formation in the lymphatic
glands. J. Miiller, in his chapter on the formation of the
blood, expresses himself to the effect that the contents of the
lymphatics, namely the clear lymph and the whitish chyle, are
the materials for the formation of the blood, and that this
formation is carried on not in any one particular organ, but
under the combined influence of the vital functions generally.
This view corresponds with the former, if in the materials for
the formation of the blood we understand the young blood-
corpuscles, (i. e. the lymph- and chyle-corpuscles which are to
be changed into blood-corpuscles,) and the plasma, which is
still almost destitute of fibrin. If, however, the lymph- and
chyle-corpuscles arc regarded as having no connexion with the

122

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

genesis of tlie blood-corpuscles, then it is distinct from the
previous views. Reichert in his work on Development, has
said nothing respecting the formation of blood-corpuscles in
the adult ; but from a personal communication, I find that he
regards the liver as the blood-preparing organ in adults, and
the preparation of the blood as the principal function of that
gland ; the secretion of bile must then be regarded as a conse-
quence of the metamorphosis that occurs during the above process.

On the forces that circulate the hlood.

The due performance of the functions of circulation and
respiration is as essential to the metamorphosis of the blood
as it is to life itself.

Circulation commences in the foetus with the rhythmic
movements of the heart.

Reichert 1 has observed in the incubated egg, that the only in-
dependently formed canals for the blood are the great Arascular
trunks directly connected with the heart; the other blood-vessels
are, as it were, excavated by the force of the heart's action on
the blood-cells in the loose cellular mass of the early embryo.

The action of the heart is the primum movens of the cir-
culation. Burdach 2 observes that the vital action of the heart,
which acts mechanically on the blood, and propels it in certain
directions and courses, indicates most clearly that the heart
comprehends within itself the elements of the circulating
power, and that independently of its vital activity, the whole
circle of phenomena appertaining to it results from its mere
mechanical relations. The cause of the heart’s action must be
referred to the irritation produced in it by the living blood.
Muller 3 also considers that the blood is chiefly propelled by
the rhythmic action of the heart.

The view taken by Schultz 4 is different : he considers that
the motion of the blood in the living body results from the
joint influence of the blood and of the vessels reciprocally
acting on each other, whose true nature can only be seen in
the vital relations, and its aim in the circle of organic functions.

R. Wagner5 is inclined to believe that the blood is propelled

1 Op. cit. p. 142. 2 Op. cit. vol. 4,p. 163.

3 Op. cit. vol. 1, p. 163. 4 Op. cit. p. 244.

5 Zur vergleiclienden Physiologic des Blutes, 1833, p. 70.

BLOOD.

123

not merely by the heart’s action, but also by a certain electric
attraction of the organs, by the influence of the nerves, and
by a motive poAver inherent in the blood itself. Since the
heart’s action is occasioned by the irritation exercised upon
that organ by the living blood, there can be no doubt that
the reciprocating action of the organs and of the blood must
influence the circulation. Schultz evidently undervalues the
influence of the rhythmic motion on the circulation, Avhen he
limits the functions of the heart to the conveyance of arterial
blood to the peripheral system, and to the conduction of
venous blood back again, and regards the blood in the peri-
pheral system as moving entirely independent of it.

The circulation is usually divided into the greater and
the lesser. There is however, in fact, but one circulation ; and
this is divided into the greater course, which proceeds from
the left heart through the arteries of the body, and through the
veins to the right heart, and into the lesser course, which recon-
ducts the blood through the lungs from the right to the left heart.

On the process of respiration.

Respiration takes place through lungs, gills, tracheae, or the
integument.

Oxygen is indispensable for the process, although pure
oxygen is less conducive to health than a mixture of oxygen
with a gas not detrimental to life, as nitrogen or hydrogen.

The proportions of oxygen and nitrogen that occur in atmo-
spheric air are doubtless the most suitable for the respiration
of the higher animals ; viz. 21 parts of the former, and 79 of
the latter gas. In an atmosphere of pure hydrogen or nitro-
gen, a man would run the risk of suffocation in a very few
seconds, not because these gases are themselves poisonous,
but simply from the absence of oxygen.

Many gases produce a directly poisonous effect, and cannot
be breathed even when mixed with oxygen ; as, for instance,
arseniuretted hydrogen, sulphuretted hydrogen, phosphoretted
hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen, carbonic oxide, cyanogen,
chlorine, ammonia, and many others.

As a consequence of the process of respiration, the blood
becomes chemically changed ; this change is almost entirely
confined to the blood-corpuscles, which in this independent

124

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

act of metamorphosis represent exactly what we understand by
the vitality of the blood.

Respiration in man and the mammalia is effected by the
dilatation and contraction of the cavity of the thorax.

Since the diaphragm in a state of relaxation is arched, and
in a state of contraction during inspiration becomes flattened,
the cavity of the thorax is increased during inspiration, the
surface of the lung follows the retreating walls, its volume
becomes enlarged, and the atmospheric air rushes into its
cells. The branches of the air- tubes ramify to an extraor-
dinary degree in the parenchyma, and their most minute ex-
tremities terminate in vesicular dilatations, which do not com-
municate with each other, and whose walls are covered with
the peripheral capillary network. From a calculation of Lie-
berkuhn,1 it would appear that the whole surface of the ramify-
ing air-tubes in man amounts to 1400 square feet, on which
extraordinary surface the blood and atmospheric air are in
contact with each other, (being separated merely by a moist,
permeable membrane,) and the former absorbs the required
amount of oxygen.

Davy calculates that the human lung after the strongest
expiration, still contains 35 cubic inches of air ; after an
ordinary expiration 108 cubic inches ; after an ordinary inspi-
ration 118, and after a very deep inspiration 240 cubic inches.

In ordinary inspiration and expiration (about 26 or 27
in the minute) the amount of air that is changed varies from
10 to 13 cubic inches.

According to Herbst, full-sized adults usually inspire from
20 to 25 cubic inches; persons of smaller stature from 15 to
20. The volume of air inspired during each respiratory act is
fixed by Allen and Pepys at 16-5, by Abilgaard at from 3 to 6,
and by Thomson at 40 cubic inches.

The quantity of air that enters the lungs in the course of
24 hours is calculated by Davy at from 400,000 to 500,000
cubic inches, by Allen and Pepys at from 460,800 to 475,200,
and by Thomson at as much as 1,152,000, or 52'5 pounds, the
respirations in this case being 20 in the minute.2

Atmospheric air once respired is lessened in volume ; and

1 Scliultz, op. cit. p. 288.

3 Gmelin's Handbuch dcr theoretischen Chcmic, vol. 2, p. 1519.

BLOOD.

125

the loss has been variously estimated by Bertliollet, Pfaff, and
Davy at from 1-2 7tli to 1- 100th of its bulk. Allen and Pepys,
however, found the loss not more than l-166th, or about 0-6",
and they looked upon the former as a mere error of obser-
vation.

The most important experiments regarding the changes
which atmospheric air undergoes in respiration, are those of
Allen and Pepys,1 of Dulong,2 and of Despretz.3

The earlier experiments of Allen and Pepys showed that
the quantity of oxygen lost was exactly replaced by the car-
bonic acid generated, and that nitrogen was given ofl’.

In their later experiments, it appeared that more oxygen
was absorbed than the quantity of carbonic acid expired ac-
counted for ; they were also further convinced of the accuracy
of their former observations respecting the increased quantity
of nitrogen which is expired. They caused animals to breathe
an atmosphere of pure oxygen, and likewise of oxygen mixed
with three times its volume of hydrogen. In the latter case
a portion of the hydrogen disappeared, and was replaced by an
equal volume of nitrogen.

The experiments of Dulong were conducted with great ac-
curacy, and by means of apparatus expressly prepared for the
purpose. They showed that more oxygen is consumed than is
replaced by the carbonic acid formed. The quantity of oxygen
thus lost, and not replaced by carbonic acid, amounted in the
case of herbivorous animals to about 10"- of the oxygen which
was changed into carbonic acid ; in carnivorous animals the
minimum excess amounted to 20, and the maximum to 502.

The observations of Despretz confirm the results obtained
by Dulong, and likewise show that nitrogen is developed
during respiration.

The following table presents a sketch of the results of the
observations made by Despretz ; the calculations are founded
on the Drench litre : —

1 Schweiger’s Journal, vol. 1, p. 182; and vol. 57, p. 337. Phil. Trans. 1809,

p. 410.

3 lb. vol. 38, p. 505.

3 Annales de Chimie et de Physique, vol. 26, p. 337.

126

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

Air before the Ex-

Air after the Experiment.

Excess of

periment.

Oxygen
over Car-

Nitrogen

Carbonic

bonic Acid

developed.

Nitrogen.

Oxygen.

Nitrogen.

Oxygen.

Acid.

formed.

Rabbits . .

37-914

10-079

38-743

6-023

3-076

0-980

0-839

Leverets

39-085

10-389

39-517

6-216

2-955

1-218

0-432

Guinea-pigs

37-957

10-089

39-023

6-790

2-588

0-707

1-066

Dog . .

37-649

10-008

39-022

4-424

3-768

1-806

1-374

Puppies . .

37-176

9-882

38-273

3-649

4-018

2-215

1-097

Tom Cat

37-830

10-055

38-354

7-125

2-060

0-870

0-524

Pigeons . .

37-662

10-012

38-372

6-826

2-451

0-735

0-710

Great Owl .

38-027

10109

38-754

7-483

1-601

1-025

0-727

The quantity of carbonic acid formed in the process of re-
spiration in twenty- four hours in adults, and the amount of
carbon contained therein, have been calculated as follows :

Expired Carbonic Acid

Carbon.

Consumed Oxygen.

Cubic in.

Grains.

Cubic in.

Grains.

Lavoisier and Seguin

14930

8584

2820

46037

15661 French.

Menzies

51480

17625 English.

Davy ....

31680

17811

4853

45504

15751 „

Allen and Pepys .

39600

18612

5148

39600

13464 „

The large amount of carbon, from 11 to 13 ounces, (Davy,
Allen, and Pepys,) that is thus carried off by the lungs in the
twenty-four hours, does not accord with the other phenomena
of nutrition ; and Berzelius has calculated that it wordd require
6i pounds of solid food daily to make up for the carbon that is
separated by the lungs alone, without taking into consider-
ation the very considerable amount that is also removed by
the urinary secretion. And further : when we consider that in
most sorts of food the portion which is converted into chyle is
much less than that which is carried off by the intestinal
canal in the form of faeces, it becomes the more wonderful how
so many persons can exist on a few pounds of daily food, the
solid constituents of which must be very small, and of which
only a still smaller part admits of assimilation ; and we cannot
help agreeing with Berzelius, that so large an excretion of
carbon is inconceivable, and that in all probability there is
some fallacy in the experiments.

Prout has made some interesting observations respecting
the development ot carbonic acid from the lungs at different

BLOOD.

127

periods of tlie day. He found that during equal spaces of
time the minimum occurred during the middle of the night ;
towards morning it increased, and attained its maximum be-
tween 11 and 1 o’clock; it then gradually diminished till
about 9 p. m., when it remained fixed at its minimum till
3 a. m. The quantity of carbonic acid was likewise found to

increase by gentle exercise, especially at its commencement,
and when the barometer was low.

The mean amount of carbonic acid per cent, was 3-45.
[A series of similar experiments has been published by Mr..
Coathupe, which differ in several respects in their results from
those of Prout. They were continued for a week. The fol-
lowing is the result obtained :

From 8 a.m. to 9|

10 a.m. to 12
12 noon to 1
2 p.m. to 5 1
7 p.m. to

9 p.m. to midnight

Carbonic acid per cent,
of air expired.

4-37

3-90

3- 92

4- 17
3-63

. 4-12 — Mean 4-02.

Macgregor ascertained that the air expired by persons ill of
confluent smallpox contained as much as 8§ of carbonic acid.
During the eruptive fever of measles, it amounted to from 4 to
5§ ; and in proportion as the health was restored, the per cent-
age was diminished to its natural standard. In chronic skin
diseases an augmentation was likewise observed ; and, in a case
of ichthyosis, the mean per centage was 7'2 ; in typhus, ac-
cording to Dr. Malcolm,1 the formation of carbonic acid is di-
minished; in diabetes, no deviation from the normal standard
could be detected.

The question of the quantity of carbonic acid expired by a
person in twenty-four hours has lately become of peculiar inte-
rest, in consequence of its association .with several problems of
high physiological importance. Liebig has endeavoured indi-
rectly to estimate the quantity by comparing the amount of
carbon contained in the food consumed in the twenty-four
hours, with the carbon of the excretions during the same period,
and estimating the difference as the quantity separated by the
respiratory process. He thus found that an adult, taking
moderate exercise, expires daily on an average 13 9 ounces of
carbon (more than double the quantity found by Lavoisier.)

' London and Edinburgh Monthly Journal of Medical Science, 1843, page 1.

128

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

Experiments have recently been made by Andral and
Gavarret, Sell aiding, and Brunner and Valentin, with the view
of ascertaining this point, and of elucidating the chemical
bearings of this department of physiology. We shall endeavour
to give, as briefly as possible, their most important results.

Absolute quantity of expired carbonic acid.

Andral and Gavarret expressed their results per hour. They
are contained in the following table :

MALE SEX.

Carbon

exhaled

Age.

Muscular development.

per hour.

Age.

Muscular development.

per hour.

grni ns

grains

Moderate

67-0

Moderate

164-7

Very great

104-7

Very great

186-3

Moderate

113-9

Very slight (mean of 4) 132-4

Great

127-8

Good

161-7

Moderate

126-2

Good

164-7

16.J

Good

157-0

Very great

163-2

Good

169-4

Moderate

154-0

Good

166-3

Extraordinarily great

209-4

Moderate (mean of 2)

176-6

Extraordinarily great

190-9

217-1

Slight

133-9

Extraordinarily great 4

217-1

Moderate

147-8

Moderate

169-4

Slight

92-4

Good

190-9

Extraordinarily great

135-5

Good

176-6

102

Extremely diminished

90-8

Moderate (mean of 6)

164-7

FEMALE SEX.

Periods

Muscular

Carbon

Periods

Muscular

Carbon

develop-

exhaled

develop-

exhaled

life.

Age.

ment.

per hour.

life.

Age.

ment.

per hour.

grains

Prior to the

r-10

Good .

92-4

-38

Moderate

120-3

appearance

Good .

95-4

Good .

127-8

of the <

Great .

97-0

Very great 152-4

catamenia.

a5j

Very great 109-3

After

Moderate

113-9

rl5i

Moderate

97-0

cessation

Moderate

115-5

Verygreat 107-8

Moderate

109-3

During

Good .

103-1

catamenia.

Moderate

106-2

menstrual .

Slight .

92-4

Moderate

104-7

life.

Moderate

97-0

Verygreat 101-4

Moderate

95-4

_82

Moderate

92-4

-45

Moderate

95-4

3 months

-42

Good .

120-3

pregnant. J

5 mo. do.

Good .

126-7

7£ mo. do.

Slight .

112-4

8^ mo. do.

Good .

129-3

BLOOD.

129

It is thus seen that, in general, the amount of carbonic acid
expired by both sexes increases with age up to a certain point —
the 40-45 th year, and then diminishes ; that the quantity of
carbonic acid expired increases with the development of the
muscular system ; that women expire less carbonic acid than
men ; that the formation of carbonic acid attains its max-
imum at the commencement of menstruation, and then expe-
riences no further increase, except in the pregnant state, until
the cessation of menstruation, when an increase again takes
place. On an average, an adult male, of moderate constitution,
exhales from 160 to 170 grains of carbon per hour; an adult
female in the unimpregnated state, from 100 to 110 grains;
during pregnancy, 125 grains; and after the cessation of the
catamenia, from 116 to 130 grains. Dumas also found 154
grains per hour as the average quantity of carbon exhaled by
an adult male.

Scharling's experiments were made on the following indi-
viduals : 1st, a male, set. thirty-five, weighing 131 lbs. ; 2d,

a male, set. sixteen, weighing 1151 lbs. ; 3d, a soldier, set.
twenty-eight, weighing 164 lbs. ; 4th, a girl, set. nineteen,
weighing 11 li lbs. ; 5th, a boy, set. nine and three-quarters,
weighing 44 lbs. ; and 6th, a girl, set. ten, weighing 46 lbs.
The carbon exhaled per hour amounted to —

No. of

Amount

the

of carbon.

Remarks.

person.

grains.

145

Fasting

In June

190 -j

C After breakfast and a

when

L walk

very

130

Hungry

hot.

165

2 hours after dinner

160

After tea

100

Whilst asleep

114

Sleepy

In June

144-2

Fasting

when

139-8

Fasting and hungry

very

hot.

177 •

167-7 -

r 5 an hour after break-
1 fast

f 2.J hours after break -

l fast

180-8

2 hours after dinner

No. of

Amount

the

of carbon. Remarks.

person.

grains.

137-8

Asleep

111-9

Fasting

October.

159-4 |

Fasting, after break-
fast and work

188-9

After dinner

194-7

3 hours after dinner

178-3

After work

122-3

Whilst asleep

98-9

Whilst eating

91-3

Fasting

October.

92-6

After supper

133-8

1 hour after breakfast

1170

1 hour after dinner

108-9

Whilst eating

130

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

No. of

Amount

No. of

Amount

the

of carbon.

Remarks.

the

of carbon. Remarks.

person.

grains.

person.

grains.

76-2

Fasting

65-5

Whilst asleep

94-8

Whilst at breakfast

95-3

After breakfast

Autumn.

113-8

After breakfast

Autumn.

103-0

After dinner

119-3

1 hour after dinner

99-0

Shortly after tea

84-5

2 hours after supper

75-1

Whilst asleep

74-8

Whilst sleepy

Supposing that adults sleep seven and children nine hours
per day, the amount of carbon consumed is on an average —

In twenty-four hours.

In one hour.

1.*

3380 grains.

141 grains.

3455

144

3692

154

2555

106

2050

1932

It is thus evident that the quantity of carbonic acid ex-
pired is very variable, and that it may be altered by many
circumstances. Hunger and rest diminish, satiety and labour
increase it. It is greater during the day than the night, in
the proportion of l-237 to one. If the expired carbonic acid
be estimated in relation to the weight of the body, it is found
that children give off a proportionally greater amount of this
gas than adults. In some forms of disease, the amount of
expired carbonic acid falls below the standard; it seems, in a
state of health, to vary directly with the activity of the circu-
lation.

The influence of muscular activity on the amount of carbon
consumed, has been clearly shown by some experiments made
by Dr. Hofmann during a pedestrian tour. His diet was simple
and scanty, he took no drink, walked during the whole day,
weighed all his food and every excretion that could be weighed
(even the nasal mucus), as well as himself; he then found that
the weight lost by the body was never equalled by the excess
of the excrements over the food, and that there was a constant
loss of matter by the skin and lungs, which amounted to more
than 1 lb. We must pass over the details of his experiments.
Brunner and Valentin found that the weight of carbon they
consumed per hour varied from 134 to 170 grains, and averaged
160. The volume of expired carbonic acid per hour, on an

BLOOD.

131

average, was equal to 2T8 litres,1 and the entire volume of
the air expired per hour on an average equal to 540 litres.
These results agree well with those of the earlier observers.
When the corrections for moisture are made, the quantity of
carbon expired per hour is equal on an average to 172 grains,
and of carbonic acid 23*5 litres.

b. Relations of the constituents of the expired air to the
theory of respiration.

On this point Brunner and Valentin only have experimented.

They found —

Individual.

No. of experiments.

Volume per cent.

Volume per cent, in relation
to the atmosphere.

Mean of

co2.

Disappeared O. Difference of 1

Brunner -j

' 12 exp. 1st series

4-356

16-007

79-547

4-720

0-362

L 4 exp. 2d „

3-825

16-306

79-869

4-508

0-683

Thomas .

4 exp. 1st „

4-673

15-895

79-432

4-920

0-329

Valentin -{

r 2 exp. 1st „

4-316

16-143

79-541

4-671

0-356

L 12 exp. 2d „

4-641

15-783

79-576

5-032

0-391

Total average

4-380

16-033

79-587

4-783

0-402

Brunner -j

r 12 exp. 1st series

Weight per cent.
6-522 17-428 76-050

5-582

—

0-940

l 4 exp. 2d „

5-749

17-735

76-516

5-275

—

0-474

Thomas .

4 exp. 1st „

6-975

17-165

75-860

5-845

—

1-130

Valentin -j

f 2 exp. 1st „

6-458

17-481

76-061

5-529

—

0-929

L 12 exp. 2d „

6-945

17-089

75-965

5-920

—

1-025

Total average

6-546

17-373

76-081

5-637

—

0-909

It is thus evident that the variations observed in the
amount of nitrogen are entirely within the errors of observa-
tion, and the nitrogen may be disregarded in the process.

Again, the expired air contains a volume of carbonic acid,
which is but little less than the volume of oxygen which has
disappeared (therefore the weight per cent, of the carbonic acid
is necessarily somewhat greater than that of the absorbed oxygen,
and thus also the difference of nitrogen appears positive as
regards volume, but negative as regards weight) ; so that all
the oxygen absorbed reappears as carbonic acid, except a small
quantity consumed in the body for other purposes. Now,
according to Graham’s law of the diffusion of gases, when they
are separated by an animal membrane and are under equal
pressure, they become mixed inversely as the square roots of

[' The litre is a little larger than the English wine quart ; the litre being equal to
:l-028, and the quart to 57*75 cubic inches.]

132

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

their densities; consequently, 1*17585 volume of oxygen is
absorbed for one volume of expired carbonic acid. Comparison
of the figures shows us that the mixture of the two gases in
respiration takes place entirely according to the law of diffusion
of gases ; for the most accurate method of experimenting gave
results, in which the figures obtained for the carbonic acid and
absorbed oxygen, almost exactly agreed with those reckoned
according to the law of the diffusion of gases :

Volume per cent, of the
expired air.

CO,. O. N.

Oxygen

absorbed.

Carbonic acid
calculated.

Difference.

3-850

16-270

79-185

4-690

3-994

0-144 per cent.

3-593

16-034

79-185

4-931

4-199

0-606 „

3-949

16-090

79-185

4-887

4-162

0-213 „

3-777

16-090

79-185

4-914

4-192

0-415 „

3-759

16-095

79-185

4-922

4-192

0-433 „

4-483

15-328

79-185

5 698

4-853

0-370 „

4-752

14-733

79-185

6-362

5-418

0-660 „

4-588

14-852

79-185

6-253

5-325

0-737 „

In respiration, which is thus a purely mechanical process,
the inspired air is first warmed to 990-5, and saturated with
moisture at this temperature, which is rapidly accomplished on
account of its extensive distribution. It then experiences a sim-
ple diffusion; the nitrogen remains entirely unaffected; 1-1742
volume of oxygen is absorbed, and replaced by 1 volume of car-
bonic acid which is expired ; or for each volume of oxygen ab-
sorbed -8516 volume of carbonic acid appears. In consequence of
the accuracy with which the law of diffusion is here observed, the
most minute portion only of other gases is absorbed or expired.

That hydrogen, carburetted hydrogen, and carbonic oxide
gases are not contained in the expired air, the authors have
shown by some direct experiments ; but small quantities of
organic matters are evolved during respiration, as is shown by
sulphuric acid, through which expired air has been made to
pass, being always coloured red.] 1

Various opinions have been promulgated respecting the
formation of carbonic acid in the blood. The most natural and
probable is that of Lagrange and Hassenfratz, who maintain
that the blood takes up oxygen in the lungs and retains it in a

1 [For further information on this subject, the reader is referred to Valentin’s
Lehrbuch der Physiologie, 1844, vol. 1, pp. 507-580, or to an excellent abstract
that appeared in the Chemical Gazette.]

BLOOD.

133

state of solution. The blood-corpuscles absorb from this con-
stant source a due supply of oxygen for their change.

The metamorphosis occurs in the peripheral system, and, for
the most part, in certain organs, as, for instance, the kidneys.
The blood-corpuscles give up the carbonic acid, thus formed,
to the blood, and it is thrown off by the lungs. It must
be remembered that blood always contains carbonic acid and
oxygen, but arterial contains more of the latter and less of the
former than venous blood ; also, that the whole of the carbonic
acid is not separated by the lungs, although, when the blood
reaches those organs, it is perfectly free from oxygen.

Although the atmospheric air and the circulating fluid are
not brought into absolute contact, there is no impediment to
their mutual action. The absorption of the air through the
humid membrane that surrounds the parenchyma of the lungs
is facilitated by the immense extent of surface presented,
over the whole of which a thin stratum of blood is distributed,
and simultaneously exposed to the atmospheric influence. The
permeability of the soft tissues, especially of the membranes,
by fluid and gaseous substances, is a well known fact. It
is in accordance with this law that atmospheric air finds its
way into the blood. Dark red blood, inclosed in a moist
bladder, soon assumes a bright red tint ; a gas inclosed in a
similar receptacle is found, after some time, to be partly dis-
placed by atmospheric air. These are mere illustrations of the
same principle. If the opinion that has just been given be
correct, then carbonic acid and oxygen must be present both
in venous and arterial blood. Numerous experiments have
been instituted with the view to determine this point.

By submitting 12 ounces of the venous blood of a calf to a
heat of 200°, Sir H. Davy obtained 1*1 cubic inch of carbo-
nic acid, and 0-7 of oxygen, and the experiment has been con-
firmed by Brande and Vogel. Stromeyer, Bergemann, Muller,
and others have failed in obtaining carbonic acid from blood
in this manner. Brande and Vogel found that blood placed in
vacuo developed a gas which contained some carbonic acid, and
their statement is confirmed by Home, Bauer, and Reid Clanny,
while J. Davy,1 Mitscherlich, Tiedemann, Gmelin, and Muller

1 [Dr. Davy has recently shown that gas is frequently, although not invariably,
disengaged both from venous and arterial blood in vacuo. Researches, Physiol, and
Anat. vol. 2, p. 153.]

134

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

failed in observing any development of carbonic acid under tbe
air-pump.

Hoffmann and Stevens could not obtain carbonic acid either
by tbe application of beat or by tbe air-pump ; but they ob-
served that if freshly- drawn blood be shaken with hydrogen,
carbonic acid is then evolved. Another experiment in favour
of the existence of carbonic acid in the blood has been insti-
tuted by Muller. Nysten and Collard de Martigny made
animals inhale gases entirely devoid of oxygen, and observed
the formation of carbonic acid. Muller and Bergemann made
frogs breathe pure hydrogen and nitrogen, and observed that,
after the animals had remained in these gases from 6 to 22
hours, they had expired a quantity of carbonic acid, varying
from 025 to 083 of a cubic inch.

Magnus has published a series of accurate experiments which
must be regarded as quite decisive respecting the amount of
carbonic acid and oxygen in arterial and venous blood. He
passed a current of hydrogen through recently drawn blood,
and found that carbonic acid was given off in a constantly de-
creasing ratio. He likewise analysed the whole of the gas that
he obtained from the blood, and found its composition as
follows :

Volumes in cubic centimeters.

Gas.

r 5-4 C02

Blood of a horse ....

125

yielded 9'8 ■

1-9 0

l 2, N

Venous blood of a horse

205

. 12-2 •<

r 8-8 C02
2-3 0
L 1-1 N

Ditto . . , .

195

. 14-2 J

r 10-0 C02
2-5 0

L 1-7 N

Arterial blood of a horse

130

. 16*3 J

-10-7 C02
4-1 0

. 1-5 N

Ditto

122

. 10-2 j

r 7-0 C02
2-2 0
. 1-0 N

Venous blood of the same horse

170

. 18-9 J

r 12'4 C02
2-5 O

. 4-0 N

Arterial blood of the calf

123

. \ 14,]

- 9-4 C02
3-5 O

. 1-6 N

BLOOD.

135

Volumes in cubic centimeters.

Gas.

r 7-0 COa

Arterial blood of the calf

108

. yielded

12-6 ■*

3-0 0
L 2'6 N
r 10-2 COa

Venous blood of the same calf

153

• • •

13’3-j

1-8 O
L 1-3 N
r 6-1 C0.2

Ditto

•

140

77 -j

1-0 O
L 0-6 N

From these experiments, it follows, 1st, that carbonic acid,
oxygen, and nitrogen exist both in arterial and in venous blood ;
and, 2dly, that the quantity of oxygen is greater, and the quan-
tity of carbonic acid less in arterial than in venous blood, a fact
which confirms the opinion we have expressed regarding the
formation of carbonic acid and the theory of respiration generally.

The bright colour which is communicated to the blood by
oxygen, as well as the dark shade that is induced by the trans-
mission of carbonic acid through it, are the actual shades of
colour that we see in arterial and venous blood. Moreover,
when blood has been rendered artificially venous in this way,
it may be rendered arterial in its colour by agitation with a
certain quantity of oxygen, and we can then obtain from it a
mixture of oxygen and carbonic acid.

We have now enumerated the most interesting phenomena
in reference to the expired air. We have already noticed the
circumstance that nitrogen is expired. It follows naturally
that this gas, which forms the principal constituent of the
atmosphere, should be inhaled; and, according to Edwards,
there is a sort of compensation between the amount of exhaled
and inspired nitrogen, so that the quantity of this gas in the
atmosphere remains fixed, the amount of expired nitrogen pre-
dominating at one time, and of inspired nitrogen at another.
According to Berzelius, the portion of nitrogen taken up by
the blood is only changed when the blood comes in contact
with a gas which either contains no nitrogen or which possesses
it in a greater ratio than atmospheric ah'. Nitrogen is there-
fore evolved from the blood during the inspiration of oxygen
or hydrogen, and the circulating fluid is then found to contain
a greater proportion than usual of oxygen or hydrogen ; but if
nitrogen is inhaled, an excess of this gas is found in the blood,
while oxygen and carbonic acid are evolved in accordance with
the known law of the diffusion of gases.

136

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

In the air after expiration we always find a greater or less
amount of watery vapour. According to Menzies, an adult
man, in the course of twenty -four horn’s, gets rid, in this man-
ner, of 2880 grains of water. Abernethy fixes the amount at
4320; Thomson at 9120; Hales at 9792; and Lavoisier at as
much as 13,704 grains. This water exhales from the blood
which is circulating in the bronchi and cavity of the throat,
and contains some animal matter which causes it to decompose
speedily. Alcohol, ether, and substances of that nature are
removed from the blood by the lungs, at least in part ; for after
they have been taken, their odour may be distinctly recognized
in the breath. Sulphuretted and phosphoretted hydrogen, if
injected into a vein, are easily recognized in the breath by the
odour ; and if phosphoretted oil is applied in a similar manner,
dense white vapours of phosphorous acid are speedily exhaled.

Respiration of the foetus and of animals.

As the function of respiration in the embryo of the mam-
malia cannot be carried on by the lungs, an equivalent is
supplied to them by the influence of the maternal fluids on
those of the foetus, in the placenta. Anatomical investigations
have shown, that it is impossible for the blood of the mother
to be transmitted unchanged into the foetus; nutriment and
arterial blood can only make their way into the foetal system
through the medium of cells.

In the umbilical cord there are two vessels which convey
venous blood from the foetus to the placenta, and there is one
that conducts arterial blood from the placenta to the foetus.
The changes which are effected in this manner in the foetal
blood are not so obvious as if they had occurred in the ordinary
manner in the lungs : in fact it is by no means easy, or in-
deed always practicable, to detect any difference in the colour
of the arterial and venous foetal blood. The change, however,
such as it is, is of the highest importance to the foetus, since
it dies if the umbilical coi'd be tied before birth. The anato-
mical peculiarities in the circulating system of the foetus are
too well known to require any description.

In the embryo of birds the respiration is carried on during
the later stages of development, by the allantois, an extremely
vascular membrane, over which the left umbilical artery is

BLOOD.

137

especially distributed. Tbe embryo is ultimately entirely in-
closed in tbe allantoide (the chorion of V. Baer,) and is inti-
mately connected with tbe membrane of the shell. The mutual
action of the allantoide and the atmosphere, takes place directly
through the membrane of the shell, and the shell itself, and
thus it may be regarded as a proper respiratory organ, whose
development has corresponded throughout with that of the
embryo.

In birds, the lungs do not occupy the whole of the thoracic
cavity, but are placed in its furthest extremity: the thoracic
and abdominal cavities are not separated by a diaphragm.
Openings are situated on the surface of the lungs which admit
the air from those organs into the large cells situated around
the pericardium and between the viscera of the abdomen: the
air can pass from these cells even into the cavities of the bones.

Respiration is conducted in fishes much on the same prin-
ciple that it is in the foetus of the mammalia. The venous
blood is conveyed to the gills, where it circulates in the capil-
laries, and absorbs oxygen and nitrogen from the air which is
contained in the water, and in this way it becomes arterialized.
Humboldt and Proven5al have carefully studied the process of
respiration in fishes, and have proved that they take up oxygen
and nitrogen from the air which is diffused through the water,
and that they exhale carbonic acid ; that the quantity of oxygen
which they absorb is more than is replaced by the carbonic acid
expired; that fishes absorb oxygen from boiled water which has
been subsequently impregnated with half its volume, but that
they only survive in it for a short time; and, lastly, that they
die in water from which the air has been removed, or in which
they have respired for any time.

The water (from the Seine) in which these experiments were
conducted contained from -0266 to '0287 of its volume of atmos-
pheric air, of which from -306 to ’314 was oxygen. The amount
of carbonic acid varied from -06 to T1 of the volume of atmos-
pheric air.

The water was inclosed in bell-glasses over mercury, through
which the fishes were introduced into it. In experiments with
tenches they observed, that from 100 parts of atmospheric air
there were abstracted 22'8, 13-6, 23'4, 15-5, 17-4, 22-8 parts,
the variations depending on the duration of the experiment

138

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

and the number of the fishes. The ratios of the consumed
oxygen to the carbonic acid formed, were as 1 to '57, SO, '91,
•20, and -50, while the ratios of the consumed oxygen to the
consumed nitrogen were as 1 to '43, '87, ’40, '19, *71, and '63.
The inequality of these ratios indicates, as Berzelius remarks,
the varying power with which fishes act upon the air on dif-
ferent days, at different seasons, and possibly in different con-
ditions of health.1

The amount of oxygen consumed by fishes is much less than
would be required for warm-blood animals of equal bulk,2 and
their temperature is very little above that of the surrounding
medium. When breathing free atmospheric air, they do not
consume more oxygen than in their native element.

Fishes absorb oxygen and exhale carbonic acid, not merely
with their gills but with the whole surface of their body, as
long as they are surrounded with water impregnated with at-
mospheric air. This fact was proved by Humboldt in the fol-
lowing manner. He passed a cork collar, covered with waxed
cloth, over the head of a fish, which was then introduced into
a vessel filled with water, the vessel being closed by the cork
collar, which was so adjusted that the head and gills of the fish
did not come in contact with the water in the vessel. Fishes
thus treated lived five hours, and the water in the vessel under-
went the changes usually produced by respiration.

Ermann found that the air, in the swimming bladder of lake
fish, is deprived of a considerable portion of its oxygen. Biot,
on the contrary, found in the swimming bladder of those marine
fishes that inhabit deep waters, more oxygen than nitrogen.
Humboldt and Provem;al observed that after the removal of
the swimming bladder fishes continued to absord oxygen, but
that they did not form any carbonic acid; they regard it, how-
ever, as doubtful whether this phenomenon is due to the pa-
thological condition of the animal, or to the absence of the
swimming-bladder.

Insects can live for a long time under the receiver of the
air-pump, in a very rarified atmosphere; if, however, their stig-

1 Thierchemie, p. 140.

2 Treviranus estimates the amount at about 50§ less than warm-blood animals of
equal bulk would consume. Ilis conclusions are based on the experiments referred
to in the text.

BLOOD.

139

mata be closed with oil, they speedily die. The researches of
Scheele, Vauquelin, and Hausmann show that in the respira-
tion of insects a portion of the oxygen of the atmospheric air
is converted into carbonic acid.

Treviranus has observed that the amount of oxygen which
is taken up is frequently twice as great as is required for the
production of the carbonic acid formed, and that insects always
develop nitrogen. Thus a honey-bee, confined in an atmosphere
of 272 cubic inches, consumed 13 5 of oxygen, while it only
yielded 8'3 of carbonic acid and 5 ‘3 of nitrogen.

The experiments of Spallanzani and Iiansmann tend to
prove that the changes produced by worms on the atmospheric
air in which they are confined are similar to those effected by
insects.

On the metamorphosis of the blood.

All our conceptions of organic life are associated with the
idea of continuous change of substance. A constant metamor-
phosis is going on in the living blood, which, in fact, may be
regarded as the most obvious manifestation of its vitality.

When it ceases to undergo this metamorphosis, it dies ; indeed
the very act of vital annihilation is attended with a change in the
blood, which we regard as an indication of its plastic power. As,
however, life in every manifestation of its varying forms is depen-
dent on certain conditions, and cannot exist when they are in-
fringed, so it is with the vitality of the blood ; for although there
is doubtless an actual inherent power in the blood, it can no
longer act when it is deprived of the condition requisite for its
maintenance, namely, the reciprocal action of the organism. The
blood is not the only portion of the body that undergoes this
change; every organ and tissue is subjected to a similar meta-
morphosis, which is presented to us under the general phenomena
of nutrition and consumption, (or waste,) and which is dependent
on, and effected by, the blood alone ; but since the various tissues
present a different chemical composition, and since the different
organs separate different matters from the blood, it is obvious that
they cannot all modify the circulating fluid in the same manner,
but that the metamorphosis must vary in some degree with the
influence of the nervous system. Two conditions are essentially
requisite for the metamorphosis of the blood, namely, circulation

140

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

and respiration, inasmuch as, without them, the blood would
not be brought in contact with the oxygen, which is necessary
for the existence of life ; and the more completely these func-
tions are discharged, the more perfectly will the due changes
in the blood be effected ; if, on the contrary, the blood is de-
tained in any part of the body, or cannot enter the sphere of at-
mospheric action in the lungs, the metamorphosis can be only
imperfectly effected.

We know, from the investigations of Schwann and Reichert,
that all the tissues of the animal body are composed of cells, and
that nutrition and growth of the organs and tissues is conducted
by the production of new cells, appropriate for each individual
organ, developing themselves at every point where the substance
from which they are formed, viz. the blood, is conveyed ; that
these cells, by their organic formation, effect a change in the
nutritious plasma, by appropriating from it matters homologous
to themselves, and that the cells are finally consumed or dis-
solved, as is obvious from the general phenomena of the circu-
lation. The nutrition and consumption of the tissues of the
animal body in the general process of life is, consequently, the
product of the nutrition and consumption of the cells which
constitute those tissues. Since the capillaries are distributed
over every particle of each individual tissue, and since their walls
are composed of cells, which can communicate and impart the
plasma to the adjacent cells, the plasma can be universally dis-
tributed, and the reciprocal action between it and the cells of
the various organs ensured.

In what manner the cells act upon the nutrient fluid we are not
able to understand, but there can be little doubt that they, or
(which amounts to the same thing) the organs and tissues which
they constitute, produce adialytic, catalytic, or, as Schwann terms
it, a metabolic change on the plasma of the blood. The products
of these influences must necessarily consist of certain chemical
compounds, formed in very different ways, and varying in their
nature in accordance with the activity of the nervous power.
The high atomic numbers of those animal substances which are
of the most importance in nutrition, as the protein-compounds
and fats, render the existence of numerous decompositions ex-
tremely probable. In vegetable chemistry we find whole classes
of substances trausmutable, one into the other, in which the

BLOOD.

141

same radical, consisting of carbon and hydrogen, is combined
with different atoms of water, or of water and oxygen ; I need
only refer to woody fibre,1 starch, gum, sugar, and lactic acid.
We have sufficient grounds for assuming the existence of simi-
lar radicals in the chemical compounds of the animal body; and
if we knew more of the composition of the extractive matters,
we should doubtless find a radical common to all of them. In
many of these decompositions, which are extremely varying in
their nature, oxygen is undoubtedly absorbed, and carbonic
acid evolved, as indeed we see in the process of respiration.
Oxygen combines not merely with carbon ; it may also enter
into combination with hydrogen and form water, or with a bi-
nary or ternaiy radical, which it would oxidize. Hydrogen
and oxygen may, further, be either separated from or taken up
by these compounds, in the proportions in which they form
water. Thus quaternary compounds may be split into several
quaternaries with the same or a different radical, or into quater-
nary and ternary compounds, &c. These must, however, be re-
garded as mere possibilities, which, unless kept in check by
experiment, are capable of indeterminate extension.

One of the most important conditions for the reciprocal ac-
tion between the cells of organs and the nutrient fluid is a
proper degree of warmth ; the requisite temperature varies in
different classes of animals, but its range is limited within
very narrow bounds, above or below which the action is im-
peded, or even destroyed, and death then ensues. If, there-
fore, we should regard the conditions of temperature as inde-
pendent of the organism, and unconnected with the phenomena
of life, these phenomena would be unavoidably and perpe-
tually disturbed, and the due course of the organism altogether
destroyed.

The conditions for the production of a due temperature are
therefore based on the vital phenomena themselves, and in ac-
cordance with the principles of adaptation that are observed

1 [Woody fibre (lignine)
Starch
Gum .

Cane sugar

Grape or diabetic sugar
2 eq. Lactic acid

• C"i2 tl8 08 — (^i2 Hs) 08

• ^12 tl|0 Oio = (C12 He) 08 -f- 2 HO

• C12HuO„ =(C12H8)Ob + 3HO

. C12H10O10+ H0 = (C12H8)08 + 3H0

• C12H11011 + 3H0 = (C12H8)08 + 6H0

• C12HI0O10 + 2HO = (C12H8)O8 + 4HO.]

142

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

in the animal organism, it is developed by those very processes
for which its existence is indispensably necessary.

On animal heat.

The temperature of every animal is higher than that of the
surrounding medium. The temperature of the human body in
those internal parts which are most easily accessible, such as the
mouth and rectum, is usually between 970,7 and 98°-6. The
temperature of human blood varies from 100°-6 to 101°-75 in a
state of health, but in disease it may rise to 106° or 107°. In
morbus coeruleus and in cholera the temperature falls consider-
ably : in the former the hand could only raise the thermometer
to 78°-8, and in the latter, the heat of the mouth raised it only
to 780-8, and in another experiment to 77°. In healthy persons
the temperature is said to attain its maximum during the day,
and to fall from T8 to 2'7 degrees during sleep. In warm cli-
mates Dr. Davy found the temperature of the interior of the
body 20,7-30,6 higher than in temperate climates.

Tiedemann1 has given the following table regarding the tem-
perature of birds, which is higher than that of any other class
of animals.

Degrees.

Great titmouse

. 111-25

Swallow ....

. 111-25

Fringilla, different species

. 111-25 to 107

Anas, different species

. Ill to 106

Common hen

. 109-94 to 102-99

Falco, different species .

. 109-74 to 104-5

Pigeon

. 109-58 to 106-7

Raven

. 109-23 to 105-99

Vulture ....

. 107-49

Common cock

. 103-78 to 102-99

White game

. 102

Gull

. 100

Tiedemann and Rudolphi have also made an extensive series
of observations regarding the temperature of the mammalia.
The following is derived from their tables :

Degrees.

Bat (Vespertilio pipistrellus) . . 106 to 105

Squirrel 105

Sheep 104 to 100-4

1 Tiedemann’s Physiologie, vol. 1, p. 454.

BLOOD.

143

Degrees.

. 104

Rabbit ....

. 104

99-46

Ape (Simia aigula)

. 103-86

Cat

. 103-6

98-6

Bat (Vespertilio noctula)

. 102

Dog

. 101-3

99-3

Guinea-pig ....

. 100-4

96-37

Hare

. 100

Elephant ....

. 99-25

Horse

. 98-24

There is no very great difference between the cetacea and the
other mammalia in respect to their temperature. The tempe-
rature of the seal and of the Greenland whale has been deter-
mined at 104°, and that of the porpoise has been found to vaiy
from 990,5 to 950,9. The temperature of the amphibia differs
very slightly from that of the surrounding medium. Czermack1
found that the temperature of a proteus was 63'5° when that
of the air was 55°-4, was 680,25 when the temperature of the
air was 63°-5, and was 65° in water at 55° ; in water of which
the temperature was 440,4, the temperature of a frog was 48°.
Dr. Davy found the temperature of a snake 88°-46 in air of
810-5, and 90° in air of 820-94; the temperature of testudo
midas was 84°, while that of the air was 790-5.

The temperature of fishes appears, from the experiments of
John Hunter, Dr. Davy, Broussinet, and others, to be from '7
to 2-7 degrees above that of the surrounding water.2

It must be regarded as an established fact, that a certain
temperature is necessary for the continuance of animal life, and
that the source of this temperature must be sought for within
the organism, and must be looked upon as a consequence of
life itself. The production of heat cannot, however, be so
properly ascribed to any of the collective phenomena of life, as
to the chemical processes, which are known to develop warmth,
and the action of which we see in the metamorphoses ; and on

1 Baumgartner’s und Ettinghausen’s Zeitschrift fur Physik und Matlieinatik, vol. 3,
p. 385.

2 [The theory of respiration, as the source of animal heat, invented by Lavoisier
and Laplace, as well as the critical experiments by which that theory was tested by
Dulong and Despretz, are too well known to require repetition ; neither need we
devote any space to the influence of the nerves on the generation of heat. The sub-
ject is fully discussed in Muller’s Physiology, translated by Dr. Baly, vol. 1, pp. 83-88 ;
first edition.]

144

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

tlie other hand a certain degree of animal heat is indispensably
requisite for those chemical processes which are the necessary
consequences of the proper organic development of the cells of
all tissues, and of their catalytic influence on the nutrient fluid,
the plasma of the blood. The animal heat is therefore to be
regarded as the product of those vital functions, for the due
exercise of which it is essentially requisite. The organism is
thus protected against the innumerable disturbing forces under
which it would otherwise succumb, in consequence of the vary-
ing temperature of the external world. The development of heat,
therefore, decreases with the diminution of the vital powers, with
the retarded circulation of the blood, with checked nutrition,
and with imperfect metamorphosis, while all the phenomena of
inanition, perfect destruction of power, and finally an asphyxiated
condition, are the consequences.

As this cellular action, which is collectively exhibited in the
metamorphosis of the animal organism, may be regarded as
purely chemical, so the heat that is engendered thereby may be
considered as a consequence of these chemical processes, and
therefore all those functions of the organism which are necessary
for the preservation of life, contribute directly or indirectly to
the production of animal heat, which must be regarded as de-
veloped at every point at which metamorphosis is occurring, and
therefore not merely in the lungs, but in the whole peripheral
system. The absorption of oxygen, and its combination with
the carbon of animal matter, not only in the lungs, but in the
whole body, must, on that account, be regarded as the prin-
cipal source of heat. In addition to the oxygen required
for the formation of the carbonic acid, a certain amount is ab-
sorbed, which probably enters into combination with hydrogen,
or with binary or ternary radicals of carbon and hydrogen, of
carbon and nitrogen, or of carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, and
in this manner, doubtless, contributes somewhat to the general
production of heat.

The theory of animal heat affords a simple explanation of many
well-known phenomena, as, for instance, of the slight inde-
pendent warmth of the foetus, when removed from the uterus
(as shown by Autenrieth and Schultz),1 and of those young

1 Experimenta circa calorem foetus et sanguinem. Tub. 1799.

BLOOD.

14.5

animals that are born in an imperfectly developed con-
dition.

The low temperature of persons with morbus coeruleus, in
whom the metamorphosis of the blood is always imperfect, and
the corresponding phenomena that are presented by aged,
debilitated, sick persons, and those in whom (according to
Edwards) a small quantity of blood circulates torpidly; as well as
the increased temperature in inflammatory diseases when the
blood circulates more rapidly than usual, and the metamorphosis
is more rapid, are other illustrations of the same principle.

The phenomena observed in liybernating animals are strongly
corroborative of the mutual dependence of the animal heat and
of metamorphosis, and also of the intimate connexion of the
former with the processes of respiration and circulation.

The observations of Pallas, Spallanzani, Mangili, Saissy,
Czermack, and Berthold show that hybernation is prevented by
a temperature of from 50° to 80°, whilst it is induced in those
animals that are subject to it, even in summer, by means of arti-
ficial cold : other observers, however, maintain, that there is a
periodical deficiency of vital energy at the usual liybernating
season. During this peculiar state the respiration becomes
slow, and may even cease altogether ; the circulation is likewise
almost stopped, for Saissy found that the capillaries of the exter-
nal parts of the body were nearly empty, while the larger ves-
sels were only half filled, and the undulatory motion of the blood
was observable only in the principal trunks of the thorax and
abdomen. He likewise found that the blood did not contain
the usual amount of fibrin and albumen at this period, and that
the bile had a peculiarly sweet taste.

The production of heat is also dependent on the mass of
the blood-corpuscles, and on the rapidity of the circulation, — a
view that perfectly accords with the preceding statement, for
the corpuscles are (as we shall presently show) undergoing a
constant metamorphosis, which may be regarded as an evidence
of the vitality of the blood, and which is intimately connected
with the respiratory process.

When there is a paucity of corpuscles, the necessity for the
absorption of oxygen is diminished in a corresponding ratio,
the circulation becomes slower, and there is less heat developed
than in the normal state : on the other hand, blood with an

146

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

excess of corpuscles, but -which is circulated slowly, develops
less heat than blood which contains a smaller proportion of
corpuscles, but which is more rapidly circulated, foi moie
oxygen may be consumed in the latter than m the foimer
case.

The following table, drawn up from the researches of Dumas
and Prevost, and amplified by my own observations, affords
some interesting data on this point :

Animal.

Blood-cor-

Mean tem-

Pulse.

Respiration.

puscles.

perature.

Pigeon .

15-57

107-6

136

Common hen .

15-71

106-7

140

Duck

15-01

108-5

110

Raven

14-66

108-5

110

Heron

13-26

111-2

200

Ape (Simia Callitriche)

14-61

95-9

Man

12-92

98-6

Guinea-pig

12-80

100-4

140

Dog

12-38

99-4

Cat

12-04

101-3

100

Goat

10-20

102-5

Hare

9-38

100-4

120

Horse

9-20

98-2

Sheep

9-20

100-4

10-50

99-5

Carp

2-10

51-1 to 51-4

Tench

1-40

52-8 to 51-4

Green toad

2-20

51-8 to 51-4

The metamorphosis of the blood, and the general change of
matter, lead to still another secondary source of animal heat.
It has been shown by Poullet1 that all solid bodies, organic
and inorganic, undergo an elevation of temperature when
moistened with different fluids. In organic substances it may
amount to from 11° to 18°. Since the act of metamorphosis
is always effected through humid membranes, this source of
heat must he regarded as of great importance, even if it be
not actually identical with the catalytic metamorphosis of the
cells themselves.

Becquerel and Breschet2 have observed, by means of a
thermo-electric multiplier, that each contraction of a muscle is
accompanied by an increase of temperature, amounting to

1 Annales de Chimie et de Physique, vol. 20, p. 141.

8 Annal. des Scienc. Nat. 1835.

BLOOD.

147

from l°-8 to 2°-6, the increased temperature that succeeds
violent exercise may probably be in part accounted for by this
means.

Metamorphosis of the blood in the nutrition of the organism.

The conveyance of nutriment to the various parts of the
organism is one of the most important functions of the blood ;
and in order to discharge it efficiently, the blood must itself
receive a constant supply of proper material.

Regarding the blood physically, as composed of corpuscles
and plasma, it is only from the latter that the organs can di-
rectly obtain nourishment. This plasma is, however, a very
complicated fluid ; its principal constituents are albumen,
fibrin, fatty compounds, salts, extractive matters, and a pe-
culiar colouring matter, heemaphajin. The question now arises,
Are all these constituents, or only some of them, employed in
nutrition? Our analyses of urine, sweat, and mucus show
that these secretions and excretions carry off, in addition to
certain peculiar matters, the same pigment, the same salts,
and the same (or similar) extractive matters as are contained
in the plasma ; hence we may infer that those substances
which are removed from the body are effete products of the
metamorphosis, and that they are not suited for nutriment, at
any rate in the form in which they occur. Neither albumen,
fibrin, nor fat1 is found in vuine, sweat, or mucus, and the
presence of either albumen or fat is always regarded as a
symptotn of a morbid state. This fact tends to support the
opinion that albumen, fibrin, and fat are the substances which
are employed in the nutrition of the peripheral system.

The blood, in its passage through the capillary network,
permeates all organs and tissues, and their cells take up from
the plasma those substances which they require for nutrition,
and restore to it those which have become effete, and are no
longer adapted for the process of nutrition. We may con-

1 The fat that is occasionally to he detected in the sweat does not arise from the
true perspiration, but from the sebaceous glands of the skin. Perfectly normal
mucus, such as occurs in some quantity in healthy urine, contains neither albumen
nor fat. Pulmonary mucus and the saliva discharged with it often contain a little
fat and albumen, hut, in all probability, they belong to the saliva only, a fluid not
intended to be excreted.

148

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

elude that the act of nutrition is effected by the sole influence
of a vital power inherent in the cells, and that the plasma is
entirely passive. If the various tissues of the animal body,
different as they are in their chemical constitution, obtain
their nourishment from the protein- and fat-compounds of the
plasma (which contains the elements of the cells, but not the
different cellular substances themselves,) it is clear that the cells
and tissues must produce a metamorpliic effect on that portion
of the nutriment which is homologous with themselves. Their
catalytic, or as Schwann2, in his theory of cells, terms it, their
metabolic power, evolves from the plasma the materials that
serve for the nutrition of the cells. The plasma is here the cyto-
blastema, the catalytic or metabolic force lies in the cells and
tissues. But although the plasma acts only passively in this
nutritive process, we cannot deny it a peculiar vital power. This
is first manifested in the formation of the cytoblastema, for the
force that creates these forms cannot be regarded as inde-
pendent of the plasma. If the nucleus is formed by the so-
lidification of fibrin in the plasma, which from the similarity
of their constitution is probable, its formation must be re-
garded as the result of a purely plastic force in the liquor san-
guinis. If, however, all the different portions of the body, —
the muscles, bones, cartilages, horny matter, serous mem-
branes, sinews, neurilema, brain, &c., — are nourished and
formed by the protein- and fat-compounds of the plasma,
we must arrange these compounds into those which are,
and those which are not, homologous to the tissues. Neither
albumen, fibrin, nor fat can belong to the second division,
since the tissues are formed from these substances.

I have already mentioned, that those constituents of the
plasma, that are excreted in the urine and the sweat, cannot
reasonably be considered as any longer nutritious, for it would
be at variance with our ideas of a consistent organization to
suppose that substances which could be subservient to the pre-
servation of the body should be removed from it ; it would be
just as irrational to conceive that they were conveyed into the
body in order to circulate therein, with the nutriment, with no
definite object; it only remains then for us to conclude that

1 Mikroskopisclie Untersucluingen, p. 231 and 234.

BLOOD.

149

they are formed in the body, and in that case they can only be
regarded as products of metamorphosis. The most important
constituents of the secretions and excretions separated from the
blood are urea, uric acid, bilin, hannapliaein, biliphsein, ex-
tractive matters, lactic acid, salts, and mucus. Mucus must
not, however, be regarded as a genuine excretion, for it plays
an important part in the animal organism, and its removal is
not a matter of vital necessity, but the urea, uric acid, and
bilin are chemical combinations which, in a healthy condi-
tion of the system, are removed by certain organs in a fixed
quantity, but which are not met with in the blood itself : and,
indeed, it is difficult to understand how these products of the
metamorphosis of the plasma (constant in their amount, and
determinate in their composition) are produced in the formation
of tissues, which present entirely different chemical characters,
and which are frequently developed in veiy changeable pro-
portions. It seems more rational to conceive that the ui’ea,
uric acid, and bilin are products of the metamorphosis of a sub-
stance of a fixed chemical composition, which, by the simplicity
and uniformity of the changes to which it is subjected, gives
origin to the formation of these products of decomposition.
We shall revert to this subject in our observations on the me-
tamorphosis of the blood-corpuscles, and on the manner in
which the production of liEemapluein may be explained.

There still remain for our consideration the extractive mat-
ters, the lactic acid of the urine, and the salts : all these sub-
stances occur in no inconsiderable quantity in the blood, and
their formation during the act of nutrition of the various tissues
is consequently veiy probable. If the various tissues are formed
from the plasma of the blood, and if, as is probably the case,
their formation is accompanied by the absorption of oxygen and
the liberation of carbon, the resulting products may be ex-
tremely various : indeed there are so many different forms of
extractive matter, of the true nature of which we are still ig-
norant, that we are justified in the conclusion, that they un-
dergo veiy complicated transformations during the nutrition of
the tissues. While all the tissues may be considered as albu-
minous, gelatinous, osseous, horny, or fatty, it must be re-
membered that the various fats differ materially in their con-
stitution, and that there are similar differences amongst the

150

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

albuminous tissues. If we regard the extractive matters as the
products of the nutrition and waste of the different tissues, the
variety in which they exhibit themselves is not at variance
with the conceptions we are led to form respecting the nature
of metamorphosis. Another circumstance in support of this
view is, that the formation of similar matters is observed in the
vegetable kingdom, where there is a Antal, reciprocal action be-
tween the cells and the nutriment, combined either with the
production of lactic, or of some allied acid. Although these
extractive matters are, without doubt, entirely different from
those that occur in the animal body, they correspond in many
of their physical and chemical properties : both are inca-
pable of being exhibited in a crystalline form, they dissolve
readily in water and partially in alcohol, they are precipitated
by many of the metallic oxides, and it is a matter of extreme
difficulty to obtain them in a state of purity in consequence of
their tendency to undergo transformation and to become che-
mically changed.

Until the extractive matters of the animal body have been
accurately analysed, and the Composition of the various tissues
has been determined, it will be impossible to obtain a rational
insight into the nature of these changes.

It appears from the statements of Berzelius, as well as from
my own investigations, that some of the extractive matters
which occur in the blood and in the flesh are also met with in
the urine. It still remains to be decided whether all the ex-
tractive matters of the flesh pass unchanged into the blood and
are thrown off by the urine, or whether they become changed
in their passage; or, lastly, whether they are not partially me-
tamorphosed in certain organs, and again rendered fit to serve
the purposes of nutrition. When we consider the wisdom that
is universally obvious in the economy of the animal body, it
seems probable that the last is the most correct Anew, and it
is by no means improbable that the gelatinous tissues are sus-
tained by a cytoblastema, allied to the extractive matters.
The fact that some of the extractive matters of flesh are not
only strengthening but Arery digestible, renders it more than
probable that some of the matters of this class serve as nou-
rishment; while others, incompatible Avith the purposes of nu-
trition, are excreted.

BLOOD.

151

The plasma of the bloocl contains salts, some of which are pe-
culiar to that fluid, and are transmitted from thence into the se-
cretions and excretions, while others (especially the phosphates of
lime and magnesia, fluoride of calcium, together with small quan-
tities of the sulphates and carbonates of soda and lime), occur in
the bones as actual constituents of the body. The latter are con-
veyed into the body with the food, partly in the state of phos-
phates, &c., while their formation is also in part due to the pro-
duction of phosphoric and sulphuric acids by oxydation of the
phosphorus and sulphur which occur in the protein-compounds,
and the subsequent combination of those acids with bases.
These salts are again found in the urine, for they are removed
by the blood during the metamorphosis of the bones, and are
excreted by the kidneys. In the present state of our chemical
knowledge, it is impossible to assign with certainty any de-
finite function, to the large quantity of salts, which enters the
blood but is not transferred into any of the solid textures of
the body. Hewson suggested that the object of the saline con-
stituents of the serum was to enable the blood-corpuscles to
retain their discoid form. Albumen, without salts, has as little
power as pure water in hindering the solution of the blood-
corpuscles. Hewson’ s view seems to be' supported by the facts,
that the alkaline salts which occur in only a very slight pro-
portion in solid textures, are found in a very large quantity in
the blood ; and further, that when water is mixed with blood,
by injection into a vein, in a sufficiently large quantity to dis-
solve or modify the form of the corpuscles, a fatal result ensues.
As these salts are continuously introduced into the blood with
the food, a corresponding amount must be removed by the ex-
cretions. The salts have, however, other functions than that
assigned to them by Hewson. The blood, as is well known,
has always an alkaline reaction, and it might therefore be sup-
posed that if a large quantity of an acid were taken, the reaction
of the blood would be neutralized. This is, however, by no
means the case, partly because only a certain quantity of the
acid enters the blood, the remainder being carried oft’ by the
intestinal canal, and partly because the portion that does enter
the circulating fluid is at once removed by the kidneys. Thus
all the mineral acids may be detected in the urine after their
administration ; the vegetable acids appear, however, to undergo

152

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

a partial change, at least Wohler found that neutral potash,
or soda salts, formed by a vegetable acid, were decomposed in
the organism, and that the bases were removed by the ui-ine
in the form of carbonates. We thus see that the existence of
basic salts in the blood is indispensably necessary; and as neutral
or acid salts are usually contained in the food, it is clear that
they must undergo such a change in the body as to permit of
the removal of the acids by the urine while the bases are retained.

There is every reason to suppose that the basic salts of pot-
ash and soda in the blood serve for the purpose of combining
with the lactic, fatty, uric, and probably carbonic acids that
are continually secreted diming metamorphosis.

The salts of lactic and uric acid are in part excreted in that
form; and in part, as has been remarked, are decomposed,
so that the free acids are separated by the kidneys, while the
bases are retained. The salts of the fatty acids appear to he
secreted only in the liver. Whether chloride of sodium, which
appears to be requisite for all the mammalia, serves merely for
the purpose of preventing the solution of the blood-corpuscles,
or whether it does not, like some other salts, act as a stimulant
on the nerves, and in that manner influence the composition of
the blood, is a question not easily answered.

Active metamorphosis of the blootl.

As the plasma is subjected to a continuous change in the
peripheral system during the nutrition of the tissues, it becomes
a matter of necessity that it should also receive a continuous
supply. This is afforded to it by the chyle, a fluid generally
only poorly supplied with blood-corpuscles, but abounding (at
least at certain times) in lymph- and chyle-corpuscles, and oil-
vesicles, and containing some fibrin. The chyle is therefore not
blood, although closely allied to it ; if, however, as is generally
believed, the chyle is the only nutriment of the blood, it must
ultimately be changed into blood, and this transformation is
effected by an increase of the blood-corpuscles, and by a dimi-
nution of the lymph-, chyle-, and fat-corpuscles, while the fibrin
is not only increased, but becomes more plastic. A change must
therefore take place in the blood itself, and this must be not of
a passive nature, as during nutrition in the peripheral system,
but active ; we must assume that there is a formation and de-

BLOOD.

153

velopment of certain substances in tlie blood, produced by a
certain vital power inherent in this fluid, with the aid of neces-
sary potential forces, as, for instance, of oxygen. This change
or metamorphosis represents the real vitality of the blood, and,
as far as we at present understand it, we may describe it as a
process in which not only blood-corpuscles are formed, (by a
consumption of lymph-, chyle-, and fat-globules,) and fibrin is
produced, but further, in which the blood-corpuscles are again
consumed; for it is obvious that if there is a continuous process
of formation while their total number remains nearly constant,
there must be a corresponding consumption of them.

The presence of atmospheric oxygen is indispensably re-
quisite for this active metamorphosis of the blood, and one of
the results of this change is an excretion of carbon, which com-
bines with a portion of the absorbed oxygen, so as to develop a
certain degree of warmth. The probability that the chemical
process, which occurs during nutrition in the peripheral system
by means of the plasma, involves the absorption of oxygen, has
been already noticed. The importance of the presence of oxygen
for the perfect metamorphosis of the blood, and indeed for life
itself, is sufficiently obvious from tlie circumstance that the ces-
sation of the respiratory process is followed by immediate death.

Although the respiratory process is as necessary for the active
metamorphosis of the blood as for the production of animal heat,
yet neither of these processes is to be referred to the lungs
alone, but to the whole peripheral system. If it were other-
wise, the temperature of the lungs would be much higher than
it actually is ; whereas, in reality the excess of temperature of
those organs is very slight, and may probably be sufficiently
accounted for by the more energetic action of the atmospheric
oxygen on the mass of the blood in these organs than in other
parts of the body.

I cannot give any description of the manner in which the
blood-corpuscles are formed from the consumption of lymph-,
chyle-, and fat-corpuscles. Physiologists suppose that a capsule,
which at first is very thin, but subsequently becomes thicker
and thicker, is developed around the lymph-corpuscle : this cap-
sule is filled with hsematoglobulin, which at first is compara-
tively colourless, but subsequently assumes a vivid red tint.
We are perfectly unable to state where the first hsematoglobulin

154

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

is formed, but there is no doubt that the respiratory process is
essential to its production.

Schultz and Henle have examined the blood-corpuscles in
their various stages of development, and have arrived at very
similar conclusions. Schultz1 observed that the young corpus-
cles were poorer in colouring matter than the older ones, and
that, consequently, the nucleus was much more distinct. The
capsule becomes tumid in proportion to the age and development
of the blood-corpuscle, whilst the nucleus becomes gradually
smaller, and in some cases entirely disappears. Water acts very
differently on blood-corpuscles in different stages of develop-
ment. The younger and more delicate blood-corpuscles are
quickly and readily dilated by a very small quantity of water ;
they are soon entirely deprived of their colouring matter, and
become perfectly clear and transparent ; whilst the older and
more developed corpuscles entirely resist the action of water, or
at the most only become rounded, and do not dissolve except
on the addition of a large quantity of water. They remarked
at the same time that the corpuscles most abundant in colour-
ing matter frequently presented a minute nucleus up to their
final disappearance ; while many of the most highly developed
ones gave no indications whatever of a nucleus.

That a metamorphosis of the blood-corpuscles does occur can-
not be for a moment doubted, but with respect to the peculiar
circumstances under which it is conducted, and to the products
that are then formed, we know scarcely anything : all that we
have been able to ascertain with any degree of certainty is, that
oxygen is absorbed, and carbon given off during the process ;
and the following facts justify us in this conclusion :

a. Dark blood, both within the system and out of it, as-
sumes a lively reddish tint on being brought in contact with
oxygen. This change is probably based on a chemical change
in the lnematin.

b. Blood taken from the body and agitated with oxygen
absorbs a certain portion of the gas, while carbonic acid is
formed. The mere serum, however, which contains no blood-
corpuscles, absorbs only a very little oxygen, and develops car-
bonic acid in a corresponding ratio.

1 Ueber die gehemmte und gesteigerte Auflbsung und Ausscheidung der verbrauch-
ten Blutblaschen. Hufeland’s Journal, 1838.

BLOOD.

155

c. The consumption of oxygen and the formation of carbonic
acid stand in a direct ratio with the amount of blood-corpuscles,
and with the number of respirations in a given period.

Hence it is obvious that the oxygen taken up by the blood
during the respiratory process, is, for the most part, consumed
in the metamorphosis of the corpuscles.1

The development of the blood-corpuscles is doubtless con-
ducted on the same principle as that of other cells ; i. e. the
blood-corpuscles exert a transforming influence on the surround-
ing plasma ; they select from it the materials requisite for their
development, and reject the non-liomologous products that are
formed in it. Amongst the matters that are taken up there
must be always free oxygen.

During the later stages of development of the blood-corpus-

1 [There are two rival theories respecting the manner in which oxygen is taken up
by the blood and conveyed to the peripheral system. Liebig maintains that this is
effected solely by the iron in the corpuscles, while Mulder refers it entirely to the oxi-
dation of protein-compounds. Liebig asserts that the corpuscles of arterial blood con-
tain peroxide of iron ; that, in their passage through the capillaries, they lose a portion
of their oxygen and combine with carbonic acid, so that, in the venous system, they
no longer contain peroxide, but carbonate of the protoxide of iron. When they reach
the lungs, an exchange takes place between the carbonic acid of the blood and the
oxygen of the atmosphere. Mulder, on the other hand, denies that the blood -cor-
puscles are conveyers of oxygen, and that iron is oxidized during respiration, as
assumed by Liebig, and he found his conclusions on the following grounds :

a. The iron is so intimately connected with the other elements of hacmatin that
it cannot be removed, even by long digestion of this constituent in dilute hydrochlo-
ric or sulphuric acid. (Vide supra, p. 41.) Consequently it is highly improbable
that it should be oxidized in the lungs. Liebig, indeed, observes that dilute acids
remove iron from dried blood, but Mulder gets over this difficulty by showing that
other constituents of the blood, besides the colouring matter, contain this metal,
apparently in an oxidized state.

(3- If, as Liebig asserts, peroxide of iron exists in arterial, and carbonate of prot-
oxide of iron in venous blood, almost any dilute acid would be capable of extracting
the oxide, which we have shown not to be the case.

y. Assuming, with Liebig, that the iron exists in arterial blood as a peroxide,
the organic part of hmmatin would be different ; instead of being C44 H22 N3 06, it
would be 2 (C4 H22 N3 06 Fe) - Fe2 0„ or 2 (C44 H22 N3 04.5).

S. The probability of its existence in a metallic state has been already shown.
(Vide supra, p. 42.)

f. The amount of hacmatin in the whole mass of the blood is far too inconside-
rable to carry a due supply of oxygen to the whole system.

Mulder’s theory has been alluded to in an early part of this work. (Vide supra,
p. 12, note.) We shall have occasion to notice it at some length in our observations
on the differences between arterial and venous blood.]

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

1 5G

cles up to their final solution, they must undergo so thorough
a change as to leave no remains of their principal constituents,
the liaematoglobulin, the nuclei, and the capsules, for not a trace
of these substances, is found either in the plasma or in any of
the secreted or excreted fluids, in which we should naturally
expect to find them. It is altogether impossible to state how
this change takes place ; this, however, is evident, that if the
metamorphosis of the blood-corpuscles terminates in their per-
fect solution, both the capsule and the nucleus must he en-
tirely dissolved, and neither hsematin nor globulin can be
contained in it at the moment of solution. What the products
of this change actually are is very difficult to determine with
any degree of certainty.

Transitory combinations with a brief existence may be pro-
duced, or compounds may he formed, which undergo a further
decomposition in certain organs. It is very probable that
substances closely resembling the extractive matters are formed
in the metamorphosis of the blood-corpuscles, by the decom-
position of which urea or uric acid are produced, so that by
the influence of a certain organ (the kidney) the compound is
separated into those substances, and another form of extractive
matter. It may further be presumed that the composition of
hsemaphtein is such as to include the constituents of biliphsein,
and that the hepatic cells possess the power of secreting the
biliphaein from it.

Combinations may likewise be formed of which we know
actually nothing; for the blood has not yet been sufficiently
examined. These points need not engross our consideration
at present ; and I will only remark, that in my attempt to
prove that the fibrin and hsemaphaein of the plasma, the urea,
uric acid, bilin and its acids, the biliphaein, and certain acid
fats, are products of the metamorphosis of the blood-corpuscles,
I by no means conclude that they are the only products ; in
fact, I freely grant my assent to the possibility of many others.

The blood contains a certain amount of fibrin, varying
from "2 to -9, or according to Andral even to 1*0§, which on
whipping is separated in thickish, globular, elastic, stringy
masses ; the chyle appears from my analyses to contain not
more than from '02 to •01? of fibrin, which, in consequence
of its slight tenacity separates on whipping into loose and

BLOOD.

157

globular, or else into flocculent mucous masses. Fibrin is
therefore obviously formed in the active metamorphosis of the
blood ; and that portion which preexists in the chyle is modi-
fied and rendered more plastic. It is a well-known fact that the
respiratory process not only increases the plasticity of fibrin in
the blood, but also its quantity, and that on the other hand the
amount of fibrin diminishes in blood which is not efficiently
brought in contact with oxygen. As the blood-corpuscles
principally consume oxygen during their change, it appears
very probable that the fibrin is produced during this process.

This view is elucidated, and I may say confirmed, by my
analyses of the blood, in which it appears that with very few
exceptions, the amount of fibrin always varies inversely with
the mass of the blood-corpuscles, or, in other words, that the
more corpuscles there are, the less in quantity is the fibrin,
and vice versa. This fact is readily explained by the adoption
of the view that fibrin is formed from the blood-corpuscles ; for
it is obvious that the quantity of fibrin in the plasma must in-
crease during an extraordinary consumption of the corpuscles.

Let us now inquire which of the constituents of the blood-
corpuscles has been employed in the production of that most
essential ingredient of the plasma, the fibrin ? It can hardly
be the globulin, for that forms from 4 to lOj? of the blood, and,
being a protein-compound, is so intimately connected in its
chemical relations to fibrin, that if we were to suppose that it
were converted into fibriu, we should expect to meet with a
much greater quantity of this latter constituent in the blood
than wre find actually existing • still less can it be the hsematin ;
indeed, the use of this appears to be to facilitate and to maintain
the independent metamorphosis of the blood-corpuscles, through
its energetic capacity for the absorption of oxygen, and through
its own metamorphosis, instead of forming a product for the
further nutrition of the plasma. The capsules and the nuclei
still remain for consideration. Of the former we know very
little, but the latter actually possess chemical characters which
approximate them to fibrin, so that there is no impediment to
the supposition that this important constituent of the blood is
formed from the nuclei by a metamorphic process, accompanied
probably by the absorption of oxygen and the separation of
carbon.

158

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

The nuclei may be distinctly seen in young blood-corpus-
cles, but in the process of development they become smaller,
and, according to Schultz and Henle, as the final solution of
the blood-corpuscles approaches, they altogether disappear;
hence the metamorphosis of the nuclei is by no means sudden,
but progresses with the development of the blood-corpuscles.

Burdach,1 R. Wagner,2 and Valentin3 are of opinion, that
as long as the blood-corpuscles circulate in the living body,
they possess no nucleus, and that this is only formed at the
instant that the blood-corpuscle is removed from the circulation.
R. Wagner found that nuclei were formed by the mere con-
tact of the blood-corpuscles with atmospheric air. This is a
further point of analogy between the nuclei and the fibrin of
the plasma; and if we coidd only succeed in observing the
unequivocal reappearance of a nucleus in a blood-corpuscle
removed from the body, and in which, on account of its ad-
vanced development, the nucleus had undergone solution, we
might then, in my opinion, consider that the change of the
nuclei into fibrin was sufficiently established, especially when
we reflect that no other constituent of the blood possesses the
extremely characteristic property of being retained in solution
in living blood, and of separating into an insoluble mass as
soon as the vitality of the fluid is destroyed.

If we assume that the fibrin is formed in this manner, it
follows that the amount of fibrin must always stand in an in-
verse ratio to that of the blood-corpuscles ; and this is in reality
the case, — that whenever the activity of the metamorphosis is
increased, the amount of fibrin must likewise increase ; and
further, that whenever the blood is hindered in its circulation,
or its supply of oxygen is stopped or lessened, the amount of
fibrin must diminish. All these consequences really take
place. Blood that stagnates in the vessels loses fibrin, for it
is consumed, while no fresh supply can be formed. Menstrual
blood, and the blood in mehena contain no fibrin ; 4 and I shall
subsequently refer to other similar cases.

1 Physiologie, vol. 4, pp. 27 and 94.

2 Beitnige zur vergleicliendeu Physiologie des Blutes, 1838, p. 14.

3 I-Iandbuch der Entwickelungsgcscliichte des Mensclien, p. 296.

4 [That the menstrual discharge does occasionally contain fibrin mil be shown in
a future part of this work.]

BLOOD.

159

Let us now proceed with the metamorphosis of the blood-
corpuscles ; the next question for consideration is this : What
changes do the hcematin and globulin undergo ? It has been
already shown that both these substances must undergo an
entire change diming the period of development of the blood-
corpuscles, that terminates in their consumption or solution.
The plasma contains a peculiar colouring matter, hsemaphsein,
to which it owes its yellowish colour,1 and which cannot accu-
mulate in it beyond a certain amount, because it is con-
tinuously removed by the kidneys ; it is, in fact, this consti-
tuent that gives the yellow or yellowish-brown tint to the
mine.

It can hardly be doubted that the hsemaphsein is a product
of the metamorphosis of the hsematin ; especially, if it can be
proved that it is formed solely from the blood-corpuscles, and
that it is contained in them to a large amount. We can
obtain from the serum only slight traces of luem aphsein, but
the clot yields a considerable amount of colouring matter,
which must be therefore contained in the blood-corpuscles.
The hsemaphsein is formed from the hsematin during the de-
velopment of the blood-corpuscles, and the change is probably
accompanied by an absorption of oxygen and a separation of
carbon ; the youngest blood-corpuscles must consequently con-
tain less hsemaphsein than those that are older ; and when the
act of development terminates in their solution, they no longer
possess any hsematin, but only hsemaphsein. In a normal
state, the consumption and production of the blood-corpuscles
must be nearly balanced, and consequently the proportion of
the hsematin to the hsemaphsein will remain tolerably constant ;
when the metamorphosis of the blood is accelerated (i. e. when
the circulation is quickened, and the mutual action between
the blood and oxygen is increased) more blood-corpuscles will
be consumed in a given time than in the normal state, and
the consumption will especially include the older ones which
abound in colouring matter, and which in their development
are approximating to the stage of solution.

1 When the serum, after the separation of the clot, is of a reddish tint, which is
not unfrequently the case, blood-corpuscles are suspended in it. In icterus the serum
is often of a brownish red colour, in consequence of the presence of biliphaein ; in
this case the colour rapidly changes into a green, on the addition of nitric acid.

160

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

In these cases there is, therefore, not merely a diminution of
the quantity of the blood-corpuscles, but likewise of the colouring
matter contained therein, since the corpuscles that remain are
young and deficient in colouring matter, containing, in addition
to hicmatin, only a very small quantity of hcemaphsein. If the
circulation of the blood is impeded in any part of the body, and
it is prevented from receiving its due supply of oxygen, the
metamorphosis will likewise be impeded and rendered imperfect ;
the matured blood-corpuscles which are approaching the stage
of solution will not be dissolved, and there will consequently
be an accumulation of colouring matter, especially of lisema-
phsein, which is the most abundant pigment in the matured
corpuscles.

All these appearances are actually observed. I shall be able
to demonstrate that, in inflammatory affections, (when the me-
tamorphosis of the blood is excited to increased activity in con-
sequence of the accelerated circulation and the increased mutual
action of the blood and oxygen,) there is only a small amount
of colouring matter present in the blood, and that, in all pro-
bability, hmmaphaein constitutes but a minute portion of the
little that does exist ; while, on the other hand, in blood which
is retained in the body without being submitted to the due
action of oxygen, in which the perfect metamorphosis is checked,
and the corpuscles are not dissolved, as in melsena and in
morbus maculosus, there is a great excess of hsemaphsein. The
colouring matter may also accumulate when organs that take an
active part in the metamorphosis of the blood are affected, as
I have observed in morbus Brightii.

I shall now proceed to show that it is much more probable
that such substances as urea, uric acid, and bilin, which are
definite compounds secreted in a nearly constant ratio by peculiar
organs, should be products of the active metamorphosis of the
blood-corpuscles, than that they should be formed during the
metamorphosis of the plasma in connexion with the process of
nutrition.

It is but reasonable to infer that such substances as urea,
uric acid, and bilin, which are separated in large quantity by
the kidneys and liver from the blood, should be products of the
metamorphosis of a substance of an invariably uniform compo-
sition. In every class of animals, in the most varied forms of

BLOOD.

161

existence, under the most opposite kinds of food, we find that
the bile is a secretion of the liver ; whilst amongst all the
higher classes of animals and many of the lower, urea and uric
acid, or one of the two, occur as a constant secretion of the
kidney.1 It seems opposed to all reason to imagine that in
animals as different in structure as they are opposite in their
habits of life, and under every possible variation of circum-
stances, these fixed and definite compounds should be products
of the metamorphosis of the plasma during the nutrition of
every form of tissue. It is, however, easy to conceive that the
corpuscles which, although different in their form, are similar,
if not identical, in their chemical constitution, in the blood of
all these animals, should, under similar conditions, yield similar
products as the result of their metamorphosis, and that these
products should take the form of urea, uric acid, and bilin.
This consideration alone is deserving of much weight iu sup-
port of the view that I am now advocating. If the urea, uric
acid, and bilin were formed in accordance with the other hypo-
thesis, their production would be increased, diminished, or
stopped, according as nutrition was proceeding favorably, was
deficient, or was entirely checked, as happens in certain dis-
orders. But it is well known that the production of these
substances is by no means dependent on such circumstances.
The secretion of urea, uric acid, and bile proceeds, both in man
and animals, when the tissues are gradually wasting from dis-
ease, and when then1 nutrition is utterly suspended ; they are
separated long after the body has ceased to take any food what-
ever, in fact, as long as respiration and even life itself remains,
the only necessaiy condition being the healthy state of the
secreting organs. I have had several opportunities of examining
the urine during inflammatory diseases, both before and during,
or shortly after the height of the attack, and have found that,
in the latter case, there was always a greater amount of urea
than in the former. This is easily explained by the conside-
ration that the active metamorphosis of the blood-corpuscles is
accelerated by an excited inflammatory state, and that, conse-
quently, a larger number of the corpuscles is consumed during
a given time, than in the ordinary condition of the system.

' Muller’s Ilandbuch der Physiologie, vol. 1, pp. 515 and 588.

162

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

My analyses of the blood are even more confirmatory tlian
any of the preceding statements, of the production of these
substances during the active metamorphosis of the corpuscles.

I analysed the blood of the aorta and vena renalis of one
animal, and the blood of the vena portarum and vena hepatica
of another animal, with the following results :l 2

a. Blood of aorta.

b. Blood of vena renalis.

in 1000 parts.

Water

. 790-000

778-000

Solid constituents

. 210-000

222-000

Fibrin .

8-200

? 3

Albumen .

90-300

99-230

2. a

Blood of vena portarum.

b. Blood of vena hepatica.

Water

. 738-000

725-000

Solid constituents

. 262-000

275-000

Fibrin . >

3-500

2-500

Fat

1-968

1-560

Albumen

. 114-636

130-000

Globulin ,

116-358

112-580

Haematin

4-920

4-420

Haemaphsein

1-467

1-040

Extractive matter

16-236

17-160

Here we observe that the arterial blood contains more water
than the blood of the renal vein, and that the blood of the
vena portarum contains more than that of the vena hepatica ;
the arterial blood and the blood of the vena portarum contain
a larger amount of fibrin than the blood from the renal and
hepatic veins respectively. The blood of the renal vein con-
tains more albumen and fewer blood-corpuscles than arterial
blood, and a similar relation holds good between the blood of
the hepatic vein and of the vena portarum. Passing over all
other points of difference, the results at which we have already
arrived afford an a priori argument for, and a confirmation of,
my theory respecting the formation of urea, uric acid, and bile,

1 In the first analysis, the venous blood from both the renal veins was collected.
The amount, although small, was sufficient for the required purpose. Professor Gurlt,
of our veterinary school, had the kindness to obtain the blood for me.

2 The whole amount of blood from both renal veins did not exceed sixteen grains,
a quantity not sufficiently large to admit of the determination of the fibrin by whip-
ping. I employed it in determining the ratio of the albumen to the dried residue,
and found that while the aortic blood contained 43, the blood of the renal veins con-
tained 44-7g of albumen.

BLOOD.

1G3

from the corpuscles during the active metamorphosis of the
blood.

Since the kidneys and the liver secrete fluids from the blood
of less specific gravity than the blood itself, it is clear that in
its passage through these organs it must become richer in solid
constituents than before it entered them; moreover, as in its
circulation through these organs it meets with no free oxygen, it
must be poorer in fibrin when it leaves them than on its entrance.

The change that the blood undergoes in these organs, is,
however, by no means so simple as it might appear to be, and
as, in fact, these analyses might lead us to conceive. There
result from it the products of the metamorphosis of the cor-
puscles, or of the compounds that are formed from them, as
well as of the plasma, during the nutrition of these organs.
The excess of albumen in the blood of the renal and hepatic
veins is clearly opposed to the view that the urea and bilin are
formed from the plasma.

It is sufficiently established that the renal cells possess the
power of removing an excess of salts and water from the blood,
in the same manner as the hepatic cells separate fat.

I beg expressly to repeat that I do not regard the urea, uric
acid, and bilin, as the only substances that are formed, besides
fibrin and hsemaphtein, during the active metamorphosis of the
blood-corpuscles ; on the contrary, I am of opinion that other
substances are likewise produced, regarding the formation of
which we might speak with greater certainty if almost every-
thing regarding them were not based on mere conjectures. It
is, for instance, very probable that a portion of the globulin
is converted into albumen, which, since both substances are
protein-compounds, might happen in two ways, either by a
portion of the phosphorus, or sulphur, being oxydised, if glo-
bulin contain more of those elements than albumen ; or if, on
the other hand, it contain less, by the globulin dividing into,
for instance, one half or one third of a protein-compound with
all the phosphorus and sulphur, and into one half or two thirds
of a protein-compound devoid of phosphorus and sulphur, which
then undergoes further metamorphosis. The fat, which is more
abundant in the blood-corpuscles than in the serum, must likewise
undergo a change. The fat of the serum appears to be softer
than that of the corpuscles, while that of the fibrin is firm and

164

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

white. In all of them there is cholesterin, margaric and oleic
acids. Berzelius could detect no phosphorus in the fat of fibrin ;
neither did Lecanu find any in the fat of the serum. The fat
containing phosphorus, which Boudet found in the blood, must
belong to the corpuscles. We cannot form any very clear idea of
the manner in which these metamorphoses are conducted ; it is,
however, probable that the phosphorized fats are conducted to
the brain. Since the fats that are taken as food consist, for
the most part, of stearin, margarin, and olein, it would appear
as if fatty acids were formed from them by a process of oxyda-
tion during the succeeding formation of blood-corpuscles, and
the consumption of lymph-, chyle-, and oil-globules.

The elementary composition of many of the substances that
are formed from the blood, and of some that occur in it, are
known to us, but of the greater number of the matters that are
produced during its metamorphosis, particularly of the extrac-
tive matters, we are entirely ignorant.

The extremely high atomic numbers of many of these sub-
stances, as, for instance, of the protein-compounds, renders it
very probable that each atom is decomposed into various new
atoms of less atomic weight. We are, however, at present en-
tirely deficient in many of the requisite data, in our knowledge
regarding the connecting links, as, for instance, of the compo-
sition of the extractive matters, of the different tissues, &c.,
without which even a superficial insight into the nature of the
metamorphosis of the blood cannot possibly be obtained.

With the scanty materials in our possession, we may never-
theless attempt an ideal sketch of the metamorphic action that
goes on in the blood, the conditions being that there is an
absorption of oxygen, and that carbon is given off ; it will, at
any rate, afford an illustration of the facility with which such
equations may be deduced, and of the slight degree of confi-
dence that should be placed on their interpretation, unless they
are tested by established facts.

We may, for instance, suppose that 4 equiv. of the organic
portion of hsematin (C14 H22 N3 Q(i), by the absorption of oxygen,
will be decomposed into choleic acid, uric acid, urea, and car-
bonic acid. Thus —

4 At. Hsematin
164 At. Oxygen . .

• • c,76 II88 N12 0.

BLOOD.

165

Likewise,

2 At. Choleic acid . . C84 H72 N2 024

1 At. Uric acid . . . Cl0 H. N. 08

3 At. Urea .... C8 Hla N8 08 f— ui7<i “bs ^12 ul88

76 At. Carbonic acid . . C78 Ol32J

We can also sliow how cliondrin may be supposed to be
formed from protein by the addition of oxygen and hydrogen :
for,

4 At. Protein • • Ct80 H(24 N20 048"i

C At. Water . . H6 06 l = 5 (C32 H26 N8 0I8) = 5 At. Chondrin.

16 At. Oxygen . . 016J

We may, in a similar manner, conceive that glutin, urea,

and lactic acid are formed from protein by the absorption of
oxygen, and the liberation of carbonic acid ; for

2 At. Protein
46 At. Oxygen

H62 NI0 024

o46

thj N10 O70

Likewise,

2 At. Glutin . .

3 At. Urea . . .
6 At. Lactic acid .

12 At. Carbonic acid

• • c26h20n4o
. . c6 h12 n6 0

• • 03g H30 O

• • C„ 0

10'

— 08o D82 N10 0

If we conceive that the blood-corpuscles are formed of globulin
(a protein-compound), hsematin, and margarin, they may, by
the absorption of oxygen and the development of carbonic acid,
be decomposed into many other substances, as, for instance,
into protein, cholesterin, margaric acid, urea, mic acid, and
lactic acid; for,

10 At. Protein . .

O4OO

B310

N50

®120'

1 At. Hsematin
1 At. Margarin

C44

C76

H22

H7S

0|2

* — Oi20 h407

138 At. Oxygen . .

Likewise,

Ol3B'

5 At. Protein . .

^200

HISS

n25

Oao '

2 At. Cholesterin .

C74

h84

2 At. Margaric acid

C70

h69

10 At. Urea . . .

^20

H4o

N20

O20

■= O520 h407

2 At. Uric acid

C2o

0,2

14 At. Lactic acid .

C84

h70

O7o

52 At. Carbonic acid

c52

0,oJ

N53 027g

N53 D27g

Many similar illustrations of possible metamorphic actions
might be adduced; but, as they do not contribute to the ad-
vancement of chemical science, we shall omit to notice them.

106

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

2. Special chemistry of the blood.

Proximate constituents of the blood.

The blood is a fluid of a very complicated nature, and has
been proved to include the following constituents in man and
in certain mammalia :

Protein-compounds

Colouring matters

Extractive matters

Fats

Salts .

Gases

Water.

{Fibrin.

Albumen.

Globulin,
f Haematin.

I Hiemaphaein.
r Alcobol-extract.

. . ■< Spirit-extract.

L Water-extract.

'Cholesterin.

Serolin.

. . ■{ Red and white solid fats, containing phosphorus.

Margaric acid.

COleic acid.

Iron (peroxide.)

'Albuminate of soda.

Phosphates of lime, magnesia, and soda.
Sulphate of potash.

. . -I Carbonates of lime, magnesia, and soda.

Chlorides of sodium and potassium. .

Lactate of soda.

-Oleate and margarate of soda,
r Oxygen.

. • ■< Nitrogen.

L Carbonic acid.

Sulphur.

Phosphorus.

Traces of the following substances have also been detected
in the blood in certain pathological states of the system :

Sugar.

Urea.

Bilin and its acids (?).
Bilipliann.

Glutin (?).

Hasmacyanin.

Erytlirogen.

Hydrochlorate of ammonia.
Acetate of soda.

BLOOD.

167

Benzoate of soda.

Margarin.

Olein.

Copper.

Manganese.

Silica.

On the methods of analysing the blood.

Although many of the proximate constituents of the blood
may he recognized without difficulty, there are some (especially
those which exist in only minute quantity) that cannot he
readily detected. An exact quantitative analysis of the blood,
including the determination of all the substances in the fore-
going table, would, in the present state of chemistry, be almost
an impossibility ; we must, therefore, content ourselves with the
quantitative determination of the more important constituents,
and arrange and determine the others, as, for instance, the
fats, salts, extractive matters, &c. in groups. For this purpose
fresh blood must be used : the clot must be allowed to sepa-
rate from the serum, and the two (the clot and the serum) must
then be analysed separately.

The following method is given by Berzelius.1 Two known
quantities of blood are taken, one of which is allowed to coagu-
late spontaneously, while the other is evaporated for the pur-
pose of ascertaining the quantity of water. The clot, when
thoroughly separated, is removed from the first of these quan-
tities, cut into pieces, and placed upon an open weighed filter,
resting upon several folds of blotting paper ; it must then be
covered with a similar weighed filter, over which some more
blotting paper must be placed, and the whole must be compressed
by a stone or other weight. The blotting paper must be changed
as long as any moisture is communicated to it, and the clot
must be subsequently dried in vacuo over sulphuric acid, and
carefully weighed. By deducting the known weight of the
filters we obtain that of the fibrin and blood-corpuscles.

The dried clot must now be frequently washed with water
at from 75° to 85°, until the fibrin is left colourless.

The dried blood which has been used for the purpose of as-
certaining the quantity of water must be successively treated

1 Thierchemie, p. 93.

168

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

with ether, alcohol, and boiling water. The ultimate resi-
due consists of fibrin, blood-corpuscles, and albumen ; by
deducting the already determined weight of the fibrin and
blood-corpuscles, we obtain the weight of the albumen. Ether
takes up the fat ; alcohol, certain extractive matters, and lac-
tates; boiling water, certain extractive matters, chloride of
sodium, &c. The serum (the quantitative relation of which
to the clot is known) is gently boiled, by which means the
albumen is coagulated, and all moisture is removed by eva-
poration.

The dried residue is pulverized and treated ivith boiling
water, which leaves albumen and fat unacted upon ; the latter
of which may be now taken up by ether.

The water dissolves the salts, certain extractive matters, and
some fat, or fatty-acid compounds.

The watery solution must now be evaporated, and the residue
treated with alcohol, which takes up the chlorides of sodium
and potassium, the lactates, extract of flesh, and perhaps some
fat, if any happens to be present.

An objection may be raised against this method, that the
separation of the blood-corpuscles from the serum is not suffi-
ciently perfect.

The complete removal of the serum is a matter of very con-
siderable difficulty, in consequence of the formation of a dried
surface, at those parts of the clot which are in contact with the
paper, by which means a check is opposed to the egress of any
moisture from the interior portions. Indeed, the moist clot
can only be perfectly freed from hsematoglobulin with difficulty,
and with the loss of some fibrin; if it were thoroughly dried,
the difficulty would be confined to the washing out of the
blood-corpuscles. But when fibrin remains for a considerable
time in water, a small portion of it is dissolved, and a part of
it is transformed into a viscid mass, consisting of very minute
microscopic granules, which are not easily washed out. When
all the blood-corpuscles are not inclosed by the coagulated
fibrin, the serum assumes a reddish tint in consequence of their
presence ; they must then be taken into estimation with the
serum. In most .cases, analyses made in this manner would
yield too high a number for the blood-corpuscles; in some few
cases the assigned number would be too small.

BLOOD.

169

Lccanu’s method of analysing the blood is very similar to
that of Berzelius.

Denis' adopts a method of analysing this fluid which involves
considerable time and manipulation ; and, after all, does not
give results of very great accuracy.

Fresh blood is received into two vessels of known capacity,
one of which is narrow and high. One portion is used for the
determination of the water, the carbonate of soda, and the
chlorides of sodium and potassium; the other for the estimation
of the other constituents of the blood.

i. The first portion is evaporated to dryness in the water-
bath, pulverized in an agate mortar, again heated on the water-
bath, and the quantity of evaporated water estimated.

The residue is incinerated, digested in water, and filtered; the
filtered solution is evaporated to dryness, and the residue is
weighed, dissolved in water, and treated with nitrate of silver ;
chloride of silver, and oxide of silver (?) are precipitated. This
precipitate is dissolved in nitric acid, the solution is evapo-
rated and crystallized; the crystals are dissolved, decomposed,
and neutralized by carbonate of soda. The solution which is
thus obtained (of nitrate of soda) is filtered, evaporated to dry-
ness, and incinerated with animal charcoal in a platinum cru-
cible. It is then digested in water, and the carbonate of soda
ascertained. Upon deducting the weight of the salt from that
of the whole ash of the blood, we obtain as a residue the weight
of the chlorides of sodium and potassium.

n. The other portion is allowed to stand for twenty-four
hours, in order to permit of the thorough separation of the clot
from the serum.

The latter is removed with a pipette, and the separation is
continued until incipient signs of decay present themselves.
The water is removed from the serum, in vacuo , at a tempera-
ture of from 120° to 140°. The clot is placed in a small bag
and washed with water until all the colouring matter is removed.
The residue, consisting of fibrin, is then placed in the water
that has been used for the washing of the clot. The fibrin
is separated by decantation, the solution of colouring matter
being carefully poured off. It is then washed with fresh water.

1 Recherclies experimentales sur le Sang humain, considere a l’etat sain, par S.
Denis: Paris, 1830, p. 121.

170

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

In tlie separation of tlie hsematoglobulin from the fibrin, ac-
cording to this method, about the seventieth part of the clot
is lost in the water. The solution of the colouring matter is
heated until the coagulation of the haematoglobulin is ef-
fected, which is then separated and freed from moisture by
pressure.

The fluids are then evaporated to dryness. We have now
four subdivisions :

a. The fibrin which still contains fat and cruorin.1

b. Albumen with cruorin, salts, and extractive matter.

c. Hsematoglobulin with fat, extractive matter, and salts of
iron and the earths.

d. The evaporated fluid separated from the hsematoglobulin,
containing salts and osmazome.

These four portions are dried, weighed, put into glass flasks,
and submitted for some minutes to the action of alcohol of
•800 — '820, at a temperature of 86° ; they are then filtered,
and the spirituous solutions united and evaporated. The re-
sidue, consisting of extractive matters and salts, must be in-
cinerated, by which means the quantity of extractive matter is
determined.

The four portions must now be treated with boiling water,
by which cruorin and certain salts are removed.

The portions a and d are now combined, and the three are
treated with boiling alcohol of ‘800 for the purpose of ex-
tracting the fat. The filtered solutions are united and evapo-
rated, and the cholesterin separated by crystallization from the
fats which contain phosphorus. The mixed portion of a and d
contains tolerably pure albumen ; it is dried, weighed, and in-
cinerated, and the ash is preserved.

The second portion contains fibrin; this likewise is incine-
rated, and the ash added to the former.

Lastly, the hsematoglobulin is dried, weighed, and incine-
rated. The collected ashes are analysed with regard to the pro-
portions of peroxide of iron, phosphates of lime and mag-
nesia, &c.

1 Denis applies the term cruorin to a substance obtained by boiling fibrin and
albumen in water. It is soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol and ether, of an agree-
able taste, and precipitable by tannic acid. It appears to be produced by the action
of the boiling water on fibrin previously affected by long contact with water.

BLOOD.

171

This method is objectionable, not merely on account of the
time and labour required for its various stages, but further,
because the whole of the water cannot be estimated by the in-
dicated process. Moreover, the quantity of the luematoglobulin
which is dependent upon the quantity of blood-corpuscles, will
be given in excess, as it is certain that the whole of the serum
cannot be separated from the clot, in the manner proposed by
Denis. The determination of the fibrin may also be inac-
curate in consequence of the continuous treatment of the clot
with water, which has the effect of transforming a portion of it
(i. e. the fibrin) into minute flocculi or granules which combine
with a viscid substance. The estimation of the fat and of the
extractive matters is also very inaccurate ; the quantity of fat
given by Denis in his analyses being much too large, and of
extractive matter, too small. Finally, no certain results with
respect to the separation of the salts can be obtained by this
method. Whatever may be the faults of his process, he is at
least deserving of praise for having conducted no less than
eighty-three analyses in this laborious manner.

The method that I pursue in the analysis of the blood, if
not strictly correct, at least gives results that approximate nearer
to the truth than those of Denis. In explaining it, I must enter
a little into detail, in order to indicate certain necessary pre-
cautions, and to explain on what points it is deficient.

a. I receive two, three, or at the most four ounces of blood,
as it flows from the vein, in a thin glass, and stir it,1 but not
violently, till the fibrin separates. If it be stirred too vio-
lently, a portion of the fibrin becomes separated in the form of
finely-divided scum, which cannot be easily collected. When
the blood has completely cooled, it is weighed, together with
the rod and glass, in a good balance ; it is then poured out,
the glass is cleansed and dried, the rod is freed from the ad-
herent fibrin, and is washed and dried : the glass and rod are
then weighed, and the quantity of blood determined.

b. Any fibrin that separates in flocculi from the blood must
be collected, added to the former, pressed, and placed in water.
If the water become strongly coloured, it must be poured off'

1 [A bunch of fine twigs is generally used for this purpose, but the fibrin may be
obtained with as much accuracy by shaking the blood in a stoppered bottle containing
a few fragments of lead, to which it readily adheres.]

172

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

and renewed until tlie fibrin is found to be colourless, which is
usually the case in from 1 8 to 24 hours. It is almost needless
to mention that none of the flocculi of fibrin must be allowed
to escape when we pour off the water. The decolorized fibrin
is dried, cautiously broken up, pulverized in an evaporating
basin, and then submitted to a temperature of 230° until it
ceases to lose weight.1 It is then weighed. It is again finely
triturated, placed in a flask and heated, first with anhydrous
alcohol, and then with ether, for the purpose of extracting the
whole of the fat. The ether and alcohol must be evaporated in
the water-bath, and the weight of the fat estimated. The quan-
tity of fibrin and of fat associated with it must then be cal-
culated in regard to the whole quantity of the blood.

c. A quantity varying from 30 to 50 grains of defibrinated
blood must be accurately weighed in a small basin, and cau-
tiously heated over the flame of a spirit-lamp. This portion
must then be triturated, submitted to the action of the water-
bath, pulverized as completely as possible, and the heat conti-
nued until it ceases to lose weight. Lastly, it must be heated
in a chloride of zinc bath to 230°. The loss of weight indicates
the quantity of water.

d. An optional quantity (say from 400 to 600 grains) of defi-
brinated blood, must be boiled over the flame of a spirit-lamp, in
order to coagulate the whole of the albumen, and subsequently
placed on the water-bath for the purpose of removing all mois-
ture. As soon as the blood has become sufficiently dry to ad-
mit of being partially broken up, it must be carefully triturated
in a mortar, and then again placed on the water-bath. All the
tough coriaceous portions, which are not easily pulverizable,
must be carefully removed : by further drying they become ge-
latinous, tough, and ultimately brittle. The powdered blood
ought, however, if the previous steps have been properly exe-

1 I may observe that, in my analyses of blood, I always use small porcelain basins,
weighing from 200 to 300 grains, and that I pulverize dried substances in the basins
themselves with a small pestle. As these substances, when thoroughly dry and warm,
are apt to exhibit a strong electrical repulsion of their particles, it is advisable to
place the basin on a sheet of glazed paper, by which precaution any portion that may
escape from it can be easily replaced. Any particles adhering to the fingers or to
the pestle may be swept off with a soft feather. The most scrupulous exactness and
accuracy is requisite in these investigations.

BLOOD.

173

cutecl, to assume a flocculent and bright-red appearance, even
before it is perfectly dried, and should not exhibit any dark,
glittering particles under the process of trituration. If it is
black, or of a bad colour, brittle, very tough, and extremely dif-
ficult to triturate, it is not fit for the purpose of analysis.

e. This flocculent powder must be reduced to dryness (the
trituration being at the same time kept up), and a small por-
tion (8, 10, or at most 15 grains) weighed in a glass flask for
further experiments. If the powder should appear to contain
moisture, a small quantity (for instance about 8 grains) may
be submitted to a temperature of 230° for a short time, and
the whole error from this source may be thus estimated.

I have found that when the powdered blood has been sub-
mitted to too strong or too continuous a heat, the spirit- extract
is only imperfectly taken up : hence it may be advisable not to
reduce the whole of the powder to a state of absolute dryness,
but rather to calculate from a small portion the quantity of
retained moisture.

This powder must now be treated with a little anhydrous
alcohol. Some ether must then be poured over it, and it must
be heated to the boiling point, in order to dissolve the fat as
thoroughly as possible.1

After the deposition of the powder the clear ether must be
poured off, and the operation repeated two or three times. The
ethereal solutions are then collected, the ether evaporated, and
the residual fat submitted for a short time to a heat of 212°,
and then weighed.

f The powdered blood, thus freed from fat, must now (after

1 I use small and very thin glass flasks, containing from one and a half to two
ounces (which, like all other apparatus, may be obtained from the establishment of
Hoffmann and Eberhardt, of Berlin) : at first I pour on the pulverized blood only
about twice its volume of alcohol ; I then heat the flask on the sand-bath, keeping
it in almost continuous motion, in order that none of it may spirt over, until it boils ;
I then add a considerable quantity of ether, winch precipitates the salts dissolved in
the alcohol, so that nothing hut fat remains in solution. If too much alcohol has
been added, some of the salts remain dissolved, and the apparent weight of the
fat is increased. If ether alone be used for the extraction of the fat, the process
must he repeated five or six times ; the ether should be heated in boiling water just
removed from the fire. In using dilute spirit for the purpose of extraction, I heat
the flask over the flame of a spirit-lamp. In both cases the flask must be kept in
continual motion, in order to regulate the ebullition.

174

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

the ether has been removed by evaporation) be boiled in the
same flask with spirit1 of ’925 — '935. This must be effected by
gently moving the flask over the flame of a spirit-lamp. The
spirituous solution must lie allowed to boil freely for some time.
All the constituents of the blood are taken up except the albu-
men : for the salts, extractive matters, hremaphrein, and hremato-
globulin are all soluble in boiling spirit of *935. The finely-
divided albumen is gradually deposited from the clear, hot,
deep-red solution, which becomes turbid on cooling. On care-
fully examining a thin section or stratum of the fluid, the pre-
sence of albumen or of deposited hsematoglobulin in suspension,
may be readily detected. In the first case, in addition to floc-
culi of a larger or smaller size, there are fine, clearly-defined
points to be seen. If the spirituous solution be too thick and
consistent to allow of the free deposition of the suspended albu-
men, the fluid must be cautiously decanted from the sediment
into a large glass, and about double the quantity of spirit of
•935 added. It must be heated until all the hrematoglobulin
is dissolved, and then gradually cooled. When the solution is
perfectly cold, we find deposited at the bottom a small quantity
of separated albumen, which must be again washed with alcohol
into the flask. The residue in the flask must be boiled -with
spirit of -935 as long as any additional colouring matter is
given off : five, six, or even eight boilings are requisite. What
now remains is albumen. If the b rematin has been removed
as completely as possible, the albumen, while moist, appears of
a grayisli-green, and when dried, of a dirt}' -gray colour; and
leaves on incineration a bright yellow residue, containing traces
of peroxide of iron. It must be washed out of the flask with
a little water, with the aid of a feather ; the water must be re-
moved by evaporation upon the water-bath, and the residue
submitted to a temperature of 230°, and weighed.

(/. The spirituous solutions are collected in a glass, and
usually throw down a certain quantity of hrematoglobulin, in the
form of flocculi. After the decantation of the fluid, they must
be dried upon the water-bath, triturated as finely as possible,
rubbed with warm water to a uniform pulp, and washed
with spirit of -925. They must be added to the flocculi, of
which we shall speak directly. As much alcohol is now added

1 I mix equal parts of alcohol of 85 or 905 'with distilled water.

BLOOD.

1 75

as is sufficient to precipitate tlie dissolved hsematoglobulin in
distinct flocks. If tlie wliole is now allowed to stand for 12 — 18
liours, all these flocks will be deposited at the bottom of the
vessel, and there will remain above them a clear yellow fluid,
which must be removed with a syphon, and the last remaining
portion with a pipette. The flocks must he washed two or three
times with fresh spirit of from -89 to '90, which must be re-
moved by the same means.

If these spirituous solutions are of a yellow or citron colour,
we may assume that they contain only salts and extractive
matters tinged with hsemaphcein : if they are of a reddish tint,
then hsematoglobulin is also present, which must be precipitated
by the addition of stronger spirit.

We have now to analyse (i) the flocculi, and (n) the spi-
rituous solution.

i. a. One or two ounces of alcohol of *83 or ’80 (the
stronger the better) are poured over the flocks ; the mixture is
then well stirred, and a sufficient quantity (usually from three
to eight drops) of dilute sulphuric acid is added guttatim, until
a decided change of colour of the flocks is observed. The flocks
are now allowed to settle, and the deep red alcoholic solution is
decanted. The decolorized flocks are then treated with pure
alcohol until they cease to give off any more colouring matter.
If, after this, the flocks have still a reddish tinge, they must be
treated with a little more acidulated alcohol. If the flocks are
as free from hsematin as possible, they assume a more or less
clearly defined gray colour ; when dried, they appear as a dirty-
gray powder, and on incineration they leave a yellow or orange-
coloured ash.

b. The flocks must be washed with alcohol until they
cease to exhibit an acid reaction ; they must then be washed
out of the glass flask (with the aid of a feather and a little
water) into a porcelain basin, be dried first upon the water-
bath, and subsequently at a temperature of 230°, and then
•weighed. They are estimated as globulin.

c. The red alcoholic solutions are mixed and saturated
with ammonia to such an extent as to emit a decided ammo-
niacal odour; they are allowed to stand for some hours, in
order to allow of the separation of the sulphate of ammonia ;

176

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

they are then filtered, the sulphate is washed with a little al-
cohol, and the alcohol is subsequently evaporated. The re-
sidue consists of hmmatin with hsemaphsein, a trace of fat, and
perhaps a little sulphate of ammonia. The latter may be
taken up by water, at the risk, however, of losing an almost
unappreciable trace of hsemaphsein, which is so far soluble iu
that fluid, as to communicate a yellow tint to it.

d. There may be certain cases in which the perfect sepa-
ration of the two colouring matters, the luematin and hsema-
phsein, would be a matter of considerable importance.

In all those cases in which I have found a large proportion
of hacmatin, as in the blood in Bright’s disease, and in men-
strual blood, a certain portion of hsemaphsein is always asso-
ciated with it. The dark coloured blood of melsena contains a
peculiarly large quantity of hsemaphsein. The separation of the
two colouring principles is best effected by alcohol, which dis-
solves the hsemaphsein, but not the hsematin. The alcohol
should be warmed, but not allowed to boil. Upon the eva-
poration of the alcohol the hsemaphsein is obtained, and when
thoroughly dried, may be weighed.

n. a. By the evaporation of the alcoholic solutions, we ob-
tain a yellow or brown residue, which has a saltish taste,
and smells of extractive matters. It must be thoroughly
dried, and then weighed.

b. If we wish to carry the analysis further, a known
weight of the residue must be incinerated. The quantity of
ash from 8 to 16 grains of this residue, will be small, pro-
bably from -3 to l'O grain. The residue likewise contains
sugar, ru’ea, and the colouring matter of the bile ; the former
may sometimes be detected by the taste, and the presence of
the biliphsein may be recognized by the dark colour that it
imparts to the serum. In so minute a quantity of material
the urea cannot be easily traced.

In my analyses of the blood, I have always followed this
course, and I feel convinced that if all necessary precautions
are taken, the results will be nearer the truth than those ob-
tained by any previously described method. I do not, how-
ever, intend to assert that my method will give exactly ac-
curate results ; and I shall at once proceed to point out, —

BLOOD.

177

1, Those errors against which we may guard by caution ; and

2, Those which, with all care, cannot be avoided.

Watei\ This constituent may be determined with perfect
exactness.

Fibrin. If the blood be whipt with due care, the fibrin is
obtained as a thick, coriaceous, fibrous mass, surrounding the
twigs of the rod. It can be removed without loss, and can be
easily and quickly washed.

If it be stirred too rapidly, a portion of the fibrin becomes
minutely subdivided, and after washing cannot be collected
without some loss ; on the contrary, if it be stirred too slowly,
or not long enough, the fibrin incloses many blood-corpuscles,
and must either lie for some time in water, during which it is
liable to a certain degree of change, or else it must be tri-
turated and broken up, which induces the formation of flocks
and of a viscid matter, and occasions considerable loss.

With a little experience and practice, the fibrin may be de-
termined with great exactness. It is necessary to submit the
dried fibrin to a temperature of 230°.

Fat. The fat contained in the fibrin may be estimated
with great accuracy. It is only necessary to boil the pulverized
fibrin with ether, or (which is better) with a mixture of ether
and anhydrous alcohol, for four, five, or six times. The deter-
mination of the quantity of fat in the dried pulverized blood is
much less certain and accurate. In an analysis in which I
separated the ligemaphsein, I treated a large quantity of pul-
verized blood, six successive times with boiling ether, in a
retort ; yet I still found a considerable quantity of fat in the
hsematin. This may be due, partly to the compounds of mar-
garic and oleic acids becoming decomposed by the sulphuric
acid in the alcohol during the boiling of the powdered blood
which had been treated with ether ; and partly, I believe, to a
little free fat which had not been taken up by the ether.

The fat appears to be extracted most perfectly when the
powdered blood has been first loosened, as it were, with an-
hydrous alcohol. A quantity of ether, just sufficient to pre-
cipitate the salts dissolved by the alcohol, must then be added.

178

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

We may safely calculate that the whole of the free fat has been
taken up, after six or seven extractions with ether. If, after-
wards, the litem atin should still be found to contain fat, some
of the fatty acids must have been present, and acted upon by
the acidified alcohol.

Albumen. Errors may arise in the determination of the
albumen. These may be due, in the first place, to want of
care in drying and pulverizing the blood. If the powdered
blood has been allowed to dry into a cracked, brittle, tough,
hard mass, which can only be repulverized with difficulty, and
usually with considerable loss, then, only a portion of the
hsematoglobulin is taken up by the spirit, some of it now ap-
pearing of a yellow or gray-green colour, while another part of
it occurs in the form of coarse black fragments, resisting the
action of alcohol. This albumen has a somewhat red tint, and
upon incineration leaves an ash, which is tolerably rich in iron.

Another source of error may lie in the spirit, which may be
either too strong or too weak. I have always found a mixture
of equal parts of alcohol of 85 — 90§, and of water, succeed
best. I have occasionally found that with all precautions, and
after boiling the residue with spirit until no more htemato-
globulin was taken up, the albumen has still retained its red
tint, and left an ash abounding in iron. I have never been able
to ascertain the reason why diluted boiling alcohol should occa-
sionally fail in the perfect extraction of the hsematoglobulin.

If, after continuous boiling with dilute alcohol, the albumen
still retains a red tint, I heat it with alcohol of -80 — -82, in
the same flask, and during ebullition I gradually add one,
two, or even four drops of dilute sulphuric acid. The alcohol,
at first colourless, now assumes a red tint, and the albumen,
which is deposited upon standing, is either free from colour,
or becomes so after being once more boiled in strong alcohol.
It must then be boiled several times in alcohol of 0925, which
takes up the sulphate of globulin, and leaves the albumen.1

1 As sulphate of albumen is insoluble in alcohol, we need not be apprehensive of
losing any albumen by this extraction. I have convinced myself, by a special inves-
tigation, that spirit of -925 takes up nothing but sulphate of globulin from the pul-
verized residue of the blood. The fluid, while hot, is perfectly clear, but becomes
rather turbid on cooling, in consequence of the separation of fat.

BLOOD.

179

The alcoholic solution of the sulphate of haem at in which
(unless the alcohol were too dilute) contains no globulin, may-
be poured into a flask, and united with the fluid, which is
subsequently obtained on the separation of the hsematin from
the globulin, (i, c .)

The sulphate of globulin separates pretty completely in the
form of flocks from its alcoholic solution, on cooling. The
supernatant spirit, which frequently has a slightly acid reaction,
must be evaporated, till only a little is left ; and we must then
try whether upon the addition of strong alcohol, any globulin
will still be precipitated. The whole of the sulphate of globulin
must be added to that which is subsequently obtained from the
hsematoglobulin.

If, in accordance with the methods of Berzelius and Denis,
the clot is washed for the purpose of obtaining the fibrin, the
nuclei and capsules of the blood-corpuscles are entangled in,
and increase the apparent quantity of the fibrin ; if however
the fibrin is removed by whipping, according to my method,
then the nuclei and capsules remain in the albumen, and in-
crease its estimated quantity.

I am not acquainted with any researches tending to show
the degree in which the proportions of albumen and fibrin are
modified by the adoption of one or other of these methods.
Maitland,1 however, observes that the quantity of fibrin ob-
tained by whipping is less than that obtained by washing the
clot. Muller, 2 on the contrary, thinks that the weight of the

nuclei must be extremely small, and that the results obtained
by the two methods are very nearly the same. My own opinion
is, that the fibrin cannot be determined with accuracy from the
washed clot.

Globulin. The globulin can be calculated with considerable
accuracy if the albumen has been perfectly freed from the
hsematoglobulin. I have never yet succeeded in entirely
removing the hsematin from the globulin. It is known that
even nearly colourless globulin leaves, on incineration, an ash
which is pretty rich in peroxide of iron. Whether globulin
generally contains peroxide of iron or not, I cannot positively

1 An Experimental Essay on the Physiology of the Blood, 1838.

2 Pbysiologie des Menschen, vol. 1, p. 119.

180

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

state. The globulin usually occurs in analyses of the blood as
a sulphate, and as such I have always estimated it. It is of
a grayish-white colour, forms a brownish solution in water,
and on incineration leaves an ash, more or less abundant in
iron.

If after the separation of hsematin (in the manner already
described), and after being washed in alcohol, the globulin
retains a red tint, it must be again treated with a lukewarm
mixture of sulphuric acid and alcohol, as before, which dis-
solves the hsematin that had remained attached to the glo-
bulin. It must then be repeatedly washed with alcohol, until
it no longer exhibits any acid reaction.

Hcematin. From the remarks which have been made re-
specting the albumen and the globulin, the reader may con-
clude that the hsematin cannot always be determined with
exactness ; I conceive, however, that with all due care, the
error in the determination of the hsematin should be very
trifling in 100 parts. It by no means necessarily follows that
hsematoglobulin should under all circumstances contain a con-
stant proportion of hsematin. Moreover, if the fat has not
been previously entirely removed, a certain quantity may be
associated with the hsematin. If the hsemaphsein is separated
from the hsematin by means of warm alcohol, the fat dis-
solves simultaneously with the former of these colouring mat-
ters, and remains closely connected with it. If the alcohol
used for the separation of the hsematin from the globulin is
not sufficiently strong ; and if, after the saturation of the sul-
phuric acid with ammonia, a sufficient time is not allowed
for the sulphate of ammonia to separate, a portion of this
salt will pass through the filter, and become mixed with the
hsematin upon the evaporation of the alcohol. If this is the
case, the salt may be easily recognized in the hsematin by its
crystalline form ; and it must be extracted with water. It is
always advisable to use strong alcohol, and to allow the satu-
rated solution to stand for some hours before it is filtered.

H&maphcEin. The determination of this constituent is
somewhat uncertain and difficult, on account of the minute
proportion in which it exists. It is occasionally found to

BLOOD.

181

constitute only O’ 12 of tlie weight of the dried blood. A

portion of this colouring matter is taken up with the ex-
tractive matters from which we cannot separate it ; another
portion may be lost if the alcohol used for the separation of
the haematin from the globulin is not of sufficient strength. In
this case, on saturating with ammonia, a sulphate of ammonia
is precipitated, and its removal is associated with a further loss
of hsemaphsein. The hsemaphsein always retains a little fat.

Salts and extractive matters. These substances, with due
caution and experience, may be determined with considerable
accuracy. They must be separated from the hsematoglobulin
by the addition of dilute spirit, and to ensure a tolerably
perfect separation, the whole should be allowed to stand from
eighteen to twenty-four hours. I have already mentioned the
com’se that must be adopted in case any of the hsematoglo-
bulin should be retained in the alcoholic solution. If the ex-
tractive matters and salts are evaporated on the water-bath to
a slight residue, and then treated with anhydrous alcohol, the
alcohol-extract will be dissolved and may be estimated. I do
not know how to separate hsemaphaein from the extractive
matters. In order to determine the salts, the extractive
matters must be incinerated. By treating the (incinerated)
residue with hot alcohol of ’85, we take up the chloride of
sodium. The residue must be dissolved in a little water, and
rendered neutral by the addition of acetic acid. The acetates
of potash and soda may now be taken up by alcohol. These
salts correspond with the lactates.1 There still remain the

1 [The existence of lactic acid and the lactates in the animal fluids is denied in
toto by the Giessen school.

Enderlin’s conclusions regarding the recently incinerated ash of blood may be
summed up in the following terms :

1. The ash does not effervesce on the addition of an acid.

2. Hot water poured on the ash becomes alkaline ; it holds in solution alkaline
phosphates and sulphates, chloride of sodium, and sometimes chloride of potassium,
but no other salts.

a. On the addition of a neutral solution of nitrate of silver to this fluid, there is a
yellow precipitate, which is partly soluble in nitric acid ; a portion, however, con-
sisting of chloride of silver, remaining undissolved. The addition of nitric acid
causes no effervescence. On neutralizing the acid filtrate with ammonia, a yellow
precipitate of tribasic phosphate of silver (3Ag 0, P05) is thrown down.

b. On treating the aqueous solution of the ash with a solution of chloride of cal-

182

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

phosphates and sulphates of lime, magnesia, potash, and soda.
If they are dissolved in a little dilute nitric acid, the addition
of ammonia induces the precipitation of the earthy phosphates,
while the other salts remain in solution.

There are some substances occurring only in veiy minute quan-
tities, or in certain diseased states, which cannot be always
easily detected.

1. Urea. This substance has never yet been observed in
any great quantity in the blood.

I have detected a minute quantity of urea in the blood of a
healthy calf. I allowed the blood (about fifteen or sixteen pounds)
to run into a vessel filled with alcohol, and assiduously stirred
the mixture. The alcohol was removed by pressure, evaporated,
and the residue extracted with anhydrous alcohol. After filtra-
tion, and a second evaporation, the residue was again dissolved
in a little anhydrous alcohol, and the bases of the lactates and
fatty acids precipitated with sulphuric acid. The filtered liquid
was digested with carbonate of baryta, evaporated, dissolved in
water, the fats and fatty acids removed by filtration, the aqueous
solution concentrated, and nitric acid added. The greater part
of the fluid was removed by being placed in vacuo over strong
sulphuric acid; alcohol was poured over the residue, and the

cium, there is a copious gelatinous precipitate of phosphate of lime (3CaO, P05),
which dissolves in nitric acid without effervescence. On treating this acid solution
with nitrate of silver, and neutralizing with ammonia, the tribasic phosphate of silver
is precipitated as before. The addition of the chloride of calcium neutralizes the
previously alkaline fluid.

From 1, we see that the alkaline reaction is not due to the presence of alkaline
carbonates ; and 2 shows it is not dependent on the presence of free potash or soda,
for otherwise the fluid would not he neutralized by the chloride of calcium. Hence
the albumen in the blood cannot exist as a soda-compound (albuminate of soda) ;
neither can there be alkaline lactates, acetates, nor fatty-acid salts in that fluid ; and
on the above grounds, Enderlin conceives that we are justified in assuming that the
alkaline reaction of the ash is dependent on the presence of tribasic phosphate of
soda (3NaO, P05) ; and as this is the only salt that remains tribasic at a red heat,
he concludes that the alkalinity of the blood, as well as of the ash, is dependent on
it. Enderlin is the only chemist who excludes carbonates from the ash of the blood
and other animal fluids. The manner in which he accounts for the occurrence of
these salts in the analyses of other chemists is very plausible. On exposing 3NaO,
POs to the atmosphere, it becomes converted into 2NaO, HO, PO, andNaO, COa.
(Liebig and Wohler’s Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie; March 1844.)]

BLOOD.

183

solution submitted to spontaneous evaporation. The microscope
then revealed the presence of nitrate of urea, which was recog-
nized by its peculiar crystalline form.

[Marchand got only slight microscopic indications of urea
from twenty pounds of the serum of the blood of a healthy cow;
and as the urine of that animal contains a larger amount of
urea (45 according to Sprengel) than that of man, the blood
must likewise contain a larger proportion of this ingredient.
He calculates (assuming that there are twenty pounds of blood
in a man’s body, and that one ounce and a half of urea is eli-
minated in twenty-four hours) that the blood contains only the
15,360th part of its weight of urea, a quantity that could hardly
be determined analytically, if it were increased thirty-fold.1]

After the extirpation of the kidneys, and in Bright’s disease,
it has been found in so large a proportion that its detection is
accomplished with comparative ease. My method, in looking
for urea, is to treat a certain quantity of the blood with alcohol
for the purpose of throwing down the protein-compounds ; then
to filter ; and, subsequently, to wash the residue upon the filter
with alcohol. The alcoholic solution (including the washings
of the filter) must be evaporated to a small residue, and treated
with anhydrous alcohol. The solution is decanted from the
spirit-extract, which remains undissolved, is evaporated, and
again treated with anhydrous alcohol. This process must, if
necessaiy, be repeated until the residue is freely soluble in this
menstruum.

The alcohol must then be evaporated, and the residue dis-
solved in water, which usually becomes slightly turbid in con-
sequence of the separation of traces of fat. This fat is not
easily separated by filtration ; if, however, this process is deter-
mined upon, a considerable quantity of water is added ; it is
heated, and allowed to stand for some time. The watery solu-
tion will then pass through the filter tolerably clear, but slowly.
It must be evaporated to a small residue, thoroughly cooled,
and nitric acid then added. If the quantity of urea is not too
minute, there are formed almost instantaneously an immense
number of glittering crystalline scales. If the quantity of urea

1 [That there is a peculiar difficulty in the precise determination of this constituent
is shown by an experiment in which Marchand mixed one grain of urea with 200 of
serum. He could only recover -2 of a grain.]

184

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

is very minute, tlie crystallized nitrate of urea may not he per-
ceptible for several hours, and even then probably not without
the aid of the microscope. In order to avoid any errors that
might arise through the crystalline form of other salts, I first
made myself thoroughly acquainted with the appearance pre-
sented under the microscope by alcohol-extract of urine (con-
taining urea) when treated with nitric acid; then with the
appearance presented by alcohol-extract of blood to which a
little urine had been added, on the addition of nitric acid ; then
with that of alcohol -extract of blood devoid of urea ; and, lastly,
with blood which contains urea in the natural proportions. In
this manner I found that the salt which most commonly occurs
in the alcohol-extract of blood, the lactate of soda, may be
readily distinguished under the microscope from the nitrate of
urea, and that very minute quantities of urea may be detected
with certainty.

Small quantities of urea may be recognized, by the peculiar
and characteristic form of the nitrate, in fluids containing those
extractive matters and salts of urine or of blood that are soluble
in anhydrous alcohol. The forms which are principally and most
frequently observed are depicted in fig. 3 : a represents the

characteristic crystalline form of nitrate of urea; b, c, d, e,
groups that are formed in a somewhat dilute solution of urea ;
f, groups that are formed in a very dilute solution, chiefly at
the edge of the fluid. Fig. 4 exhibits the crystalline form which
is produced by the addition of nitric acid to the alcohol-extract
of blood, containing no urea. These crystals are not perceptible
until the fluid is evaporated nearly to dryness. Fig. 5 shows
the form of the nitrate of urea in blood containing a conside-
rable quantity of urea. I have several times observed these
appearances in Bright’s disease. With a little practice the
commencement of the crystallization of the nitrate may be
perceived ; it begins by exhibiting an appearance of numerous
fine parallel lines or streaks.

Oxalic acid may likewise be used in microscopic researches
regarding the presence of urea in the blood. I have always,
however, preferred the use of nitric acid, because, in the first
place, it is not itself capable of crystallization as oxalic acid is ;
and, secondly, because the nitrates of potash and soda are much
more soluble than the corresponding oxalates. Fig. 6 shows

BLOOD.

185

the crystalline form of the oxalate of urea when alcohol- extract
of urine, not very rich in urea, is treated with oxalic acid. In
a, we see the characteristic crystalline form of the oxalate of
urea ; b, represents various groups of it. If the alcohol-extract
of blood containing no urea be similarly treated, the crystals of
fig. 7 are produced. Lastly, fig. 8 shows the crystals of oxalic
acid itself, which are very similar to those of pure crystallized
urea.

On treating the extractive matter of blood containing no
urea with nitric acid, I have occasionally perceived crystals
which, at first sight, appeared extremely similar to those of
nitrate of urea, but which were in reality composed of nitrate
of soda. These crystals are exhibited in fig. 9. They possess
a veiy remarkable degree of thickness,1 which I have endea-
voured to represent in the plate. They may be distinguished
from the similar form of nitrate of urea, by the circumstance
that the former are not at all soluble in anhydrous alcohol, while
the latter are readily dissolved in it. If nitrate of urea be pre-
sent, it will recrystallize from its alcoholic solution in groups
similar to those in fig. 10.

2. Sugar. This substance, which I once discovered in the
blood of a calf, is very seldom to be found in healthy blood,
although in certain pathological states, especially in diabetes
mellitus, it has frequently been detected. If the quantity be
very small, its presence is not always easily recognized. It is
found mixed with the extractive matters, if the blood is analysed
according to my directions, and if it exists in any quantity,
may be recognized by the taste. If only a very little sugar be
present, it is advisable to precipitate the protein-compounds
from a large quantity of blood, with spirit. The fluid must
then be filtered and evaporated to a small residue, which must
be treated with anhydrous alcohol. The sugar, if present, must
be taken up by the alcohol. If, after due evaporation, the
residue have a sweetish taste, a portion of the sugar may be
obtained tolerably pure, since its quantity cannot be very incon-
siderable. With this view we dissolve it in a little water, add
alcohol of ’833, and allow it to stand, for some time ; under

1 This is easily seen by slightly varying the locus.

186

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

favorable circumstances, a portion of tbe sugar will crystal-
lize. In consequence of its intimate mixture with a large
quantity of extractive matter, an exact quantitative analysis of
tbe sugar is extremely difficult. Tbe best method is that
of fermentation, and estimating the quantity of carbonic acid
that is formed. If the quantity of sugar be very minute, it
cannot be recognized by the tongue, in consequence of the
sweetness being disguised by the taste of the salts and extractive
matter ; it may, however, in this case, be detected by sulphuric
acid, although this test is fallacious in the hands of unpractised
analysts. The method to be pursued in this case is the same
as that previously indicated; the spirituous solution must be
evaporated, treated with anhydrous alcohol, and the fluid de-
canted. The precipitate which contains extractive matter,
chloride of sodium, lactate of soda, and sugar, must be dissolved
in water ; and if (as is frequently the case) any hmmatoglobulin
remains undissolved, the fluid must be filtered. The filtered
fluid must be evaporated to dryness in a porcelain basin, on the
water-bath, and one or two drops of dilute sulphuric acid (one
part of acid to six of water) must be dropped upon the dried
residue. On again submitting it to the heat of the water-bath,
it is observed that those points which have been moistened by
the acid at first assume a blue or violet tint, become gradually
darker, and ultimately coal-black. When the quantity of sugar
is very small, the colour is only sufficiently marked at the margin
of the drop, or at points where the layer of extractive matter
happens to be particularly thick. Unfortunately for the suc-
cess of this test, a dark spot, varying from a deep brown to a
dark dirty-violet tinge, but never positively black, is produced
in the same manner in the spirit-extract of blood, which con-
tains no sugar; so that, without a well-practised eye, it is
difficult to decide upon the absence or presence of sugar by this
test. After the addition of one grain of diabetic sugar in
solution, to 500 grains of blood, (which contained no sugar,) no
decided sweetness could be observed in the spirit-extract. The
sulphuric acid test indicated the presence of sugar by the for-
mation of a coal-black spot ; on the addition of the acid to a
portion of the extract of the same blood in which there was no
sugar, a dirty violet spot was produced. In examining the
blood of diabetic patients I once found so large a proportion of

BLOOD.

187

sugar that it was readily detected by the taste ; on another
occasion, however, it was only rendered manifest on the addi-
tion of sulphuric acid. But of all the tests for sugar in the
blood, Trommer’s is certainly the best. The protein-compounds
are first precipitated with anhydrous alcohol, and dry carbonate
of potash is then added to the filtered spirituous solution,
which must be well shaken. On the addition of a little solution
of sulphate of copper, and the application of heat, we observe,
if sugar be present, a yellow or yellowish brown tint developed,
produced by the reduction of the copper to a state of suboxide.

3. Bile. In healthy blood we find neither bilin nor bili-
phaein. In icterus we meet with biliphaein in the serum, which
is more or less deeply coloured in proportion to the quantity
of this pigment contained in it. It may be of a deep orange,
or almost red colour, so as to lead to the suspicion of the
presence of lucmatin in a state of solution. I found the serum
nearly blood-red in a case of icterus ; but on shaking it against
the sides of the vessel, the thin adhering layer appeared of a
beautiful saffron colour. A similar colour was induced by the
addition of water to the serum.

If only so small a quantity of biliphaein be present as to
colour the serum slightly, it may be recognized by the addition
of nitric acid, which produces a variety of tints, more or less
green in their character. The albumen is at the same time
precipitated in white flocks, upon which a slight tinge of green
may be distinctly perceived.1 In the deep red serum already
alluded to, the addition of nitric acid produced an intensely
clear grass-green colour, which, at some points, passed into a
blue, and, in the course of twenty-four hours, into a yellow
tint. The quantity of biliphaein varies directly with the intensity
of the colour of the serum, and with the time required for the dis-
appearance of the green tint, produced by the addition of nitric
acid. Neither in the blood already alluded to, nor in another
specimen which contained less biliphaein, could I discover a
trace of bilin. The alcohol-extract of the blood had a saltish, but

1 [In consequence of the facility with which coagulated albumen assumes a green
tint under these conditions, we are often enabled to detect biliphaein (that would
be otherwise unappreciable) in non-alb uminous fluids, by the addition of a little
albumen.]

188

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

not a bitter taste. I am not aware that bilin or bilifellinic acid1
lias ever been observed in the blood, and I hardly believe that
they will be found, owing either to their not being taken up
by the blood at all, or else to their speedy elimination by the
urine. A large quantity of bibn would have a very dangerous
effect upon the blood, since (as we have already shown) it dis-
solves the blood-corpuscles. I treated 500 grains of blood with
half a grain of inspissated ox-bile, and then precipitated the
protein- compounds with spirit, evaporated the fluid, and treated
the residue with anhydrous alcohol. It is clear that the bile
must be contained in this residue. After the evaporation of the
alcohol, there remained a rather dark-coloured extract, having
a bitter bile-like taste, and which, when dissolved in water, and
nitric acid was added, manifested a slight green tinge. If, there-
fore, the bilin should constitute one-thousandth part of the blood,
it w'ould be easily detectible.

If the analysis of the fats and of the extractive matters is to
be thoroughly carried out, (as in many cases it certainly ought
to be,) much larger quantities of blood must be taken than I
have made use of.

The various fats, however, as well as the different extractive
matters, are at present too little known to enable us to attempt
exact, or even approximating quantitative analyses.

4. Fats. Boudet2 3 has analysed the fats which are taken up
by alcohol from dried blood, after all substances that could be
extracted by water have been removed. The alcohohc solution
deposits serolin on cooling, which must be separated, and the
alcohol evaporated. There remains as a residue a mixture of
several fats, which were separated by Boudet in the following
manner. Cold alcohol of ‘833 leaves un dissolved a crystalline
fat which contains phosphorus, and is apparently similar to the
brain-fat, denominated cerebrot by Couerbe. Cholesterin is
deposited by the spontaneous evaporation of the cold alcoholic
solution ; and on further evaporation, (after the removal of the
cholesterin,) there is left a mixture of oleic and margaric acids,

1 [Eriderlin states that he has detected minute quantities of choleate of soda (pure
bile, according to Demarfay’s theory) on three occasions, in the blood of calves and

oxen. (Annales der Chemie und Pharmacie, April 1844.)]

3 AnnaL de Chim. et de Phys., vol. 52, p. 337.

BLOOD.

189

as 'well as some oleate and margarate of potash. In addition to
these fats, there are certain coloured phosphorized and nitroge-
nous fats, similar probably to those which have been described
by Couerbe, as cephalot and eleencepliol. Lecanu found, in
the fat of the serum, only cholesterin, serolin, margaric and
oleic acids ; he could detect no phosphorized fat. Berzelius1
describes the fat of the fibrin, which may be taken up either
by alcohol or ether, as solid and crystalline ; when melted, of
a yellow or light brown colour, readily soluble in cold alcohol, to
which it imparts an acid reaction, indicating the presence of
one or more of the fatty acids. Upon burning it, no acid ash
is left.

Denis,2 on the other hand, obtains from fibrin, as well as
from albumen and luematoglobulin, a red phosphorized fat,
which has an alkaline reaction. By digestion in caustic potash,
a part is dissolved, while an insoluble portion remains, in the
form of a white, saponified powder, readily soluble in ether,
from which it may be again obtained, by spontaneous evapo-
ration, in the form of delicate crystals, which burn like fat.

The portion of saponified fat which is dissolved in the potash
must be precipitated by hydrochloric acid, and cannot be melted
in the acid fluid, even on raising the temperature to a boiling
heat. After having been removed by filtration, it is found to
be soluble in alcohol and ether, and we may obtain it, after
evaporating the fluid in which it is dissolved, as a fat, which
becomes fluid at a temperature of 97° — 104°, but is solid at an
ordinary temperature. It has an acid reaction, and swells up,
but is only very partially soluble in boiling water, from which,
on evaporation, we obtain it (the dissolved portion) as a sort of
film or coating.

According to Berzelius, it is similar to the acid salts of
stearic and oleic acids described by Chevreul ; it differs from
them, however, by its greater solubility in etber and cold alcohol.

5. Extractive matters. These substances have been less care-
fully analysed than the fats, and the proportions in which they
occur, are so small, that even in the analysis of a large quantity

1 Thierchemie, p. 88. 2 Reclierches Experimentales, &c. p. 101.

190

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

of blood, their exact determination is no easy matter. All
that is known upon the subject is already given in the Intro-
duction.

[A simple method of determining some of the most important
constituents of the blood has been recently given by Figuier.
It is based on the fact, made known many years ago by
Berzelius, that after the addition of a solution of a neutral salt
to defibrinated blood, the globules do not (as before) pass through
filtering paper. On the addition of two parts of a solution of sul-
phate of soda of spec. grav. 1T30 to one of blood, Figuier found
that the whole of the corpuscles remained on the surface of the
filter. The following are the steps of his analysis. The fibrin
is removed by whipping, dried, and weighed; the weight of the
corpuscles is ascertained by the method indicated ; and that of
the albumen by coagulating, by means of heat, the filtered
solution. The proportion of water is determined by evapo-
rating a small known weight of the blood.]

Analysis of coagulated blood.

It sometimes happens that we receive blood for analysis that
has already coagulated. The process to be adopted in such
cases, although not in reality more difficult, involves a greater
amount of chemical manipulation than when the fibrin is sepa-
rated by whipping ; and it appears to give less exact results.

The directions that I shall now give for the analysis of co-
agulated blood were published in a paper of mine some time
ago;1 I have, however, only once adopted this method, as I
always prefer analysing the blood directly it is taken from
the body.

The whole of the blood must first be weighed as accurately
as possible, the clot must then be removed, and if sufficiently
consistent, dried between folds of blotting paper, and then
weighed. A portion of the clot (from 40 to 80 grains) is cut
off, and its weight accurately taken; it is then thoroughly
dried, and the loss of weight, which indicates the quantity of
water, ascertained : the dried residue must be reduced to a
spongy, bright-red fine powder, and treated -with ether in order
to remove the fat: it must subsequently be treated with boiling

1 Brande’s Archiv, vol. 28.

BLOOD.

191

alcohol of ‘925 until the spirit ceases to take up any addi-
tional colouring matter, aud the powder which remains has a
dirty-gray or gray-green colour. This must be thoroughly
dried, and estimated as fibrin and albumen. The reddened
alcoholic solution, a, is set aside for further operation.

Another portion of the clot must be weighed and placed in
a porcelain mortar, which should be provided with a pestle of
such a size as exactly to fill it. Moreover, the edge of the
mortar should be about one third of an inch above the head of
the pestle. By this arrangement none of the clot can be lost.
It must be reduced to a fine pulp, which must be treated with
water until the flocculi of fibrin become perfectly white : these
must be carefully collected aud dried.

By the subtraction of the weight of the fibrin from that of
the former residue, we obtain the weight of the albumen.

Before analysing the serum, it must be well shaken in order
to render its constitution uniform; a portion must then be
weighed, coagulated at a boiling heat, thoroughly dried, again
weighed, and the proportion of water thus estimated. The dried
residue must be finely pulverized, the fat removed by ether,
and it must be then boiled with alcohol of '925 until everything
which is soluble in that fluid has been taken up.

The residue consists of albumen, which must be dried and
weighed. The alcoholic solution must be added to the solution
a, and these mixed fluids analysed for the globulin, hsematin,
hsemaphsein, extractive matters and salts, in exactly the same
manner as described in page 175.

ON THE HEALTHY BLOOD IN RELATION TO PHYSIOLOGY.

[From my own analyses.)

It is almost unnecessary to observe that the blood of one
and the same individual may vaiy in its constitution at dif-
ferent times, and under different circumstances. We shall
proceed to investigate the causes upon which these variations
depend.

Amongst the most obvious causes we may place the proper
supply, or the absence of sufficient nutrition.

The blood will clearly abound in water, in proportion to the
quantity of fluid with which it is supplied; it will abound in

192

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

albuminous constituents, in fats, and salts, in proportion to the
richness of the nutriment that has been taken, and of the chyle
that has been evolved from that nutriment. In order to coun-
teract the evils that might arise from an excess of water in the
blood, (which, if allowed to remain unchecked, would induce
too rapid a solution of the blood-corpuscles,) the kidneys, skin,
and lungs exert an active agency ; while, on the contrary, if
there be a deficiency in the proportion of the water, caused
either by too great exhalation, dependent upon excessive fatigue,
or by a direct accumulation of the salts (which might impede
the solution of the corpuscles) it is immediately indicated by
an urgent desire for drink.

When substances, injurious to life, are taken into the sto-
mach, only small quantities enter the blood, the great pro-
portion being usually carried off by the intestinal canal, and by
the organs of excretion and secretion. If the organism be
unequal to the task of rejecting the injurious agent, the equi-
librium of the system is destroyed, and death ensues.

Another cause of the varying nature of the blood, inter-
esting equally to the physiologist and the physician, may be
referred to the modifications that it undergoes in the nutrition
of the organism, and to the changes undergone by the cor-
puscles, in connexion with the processes of secretion and
excretion.

On the distinctive characters of arterial and venous blood.

The distinctive colours of arterial and venous blood are too
well known to require any observation.1

1 [From Scherer’s experiments it appears that, when fresh red ox-blood is deprived
of its fibrin and diluted with twice or thrice its volume of water, it assumes a dark
venous tint, which is not affected by the passage of a current of oxygen through it.
On the addition, however, of a little milk, oil, finely-powdered chalk or gypsum, the
original bright red colour is evolved. These experiments are sufficient to prove that
the bright red colour is dependent on other causes than oxidation, and that the dark
venous tint does not arise from carbonic acid or carbon ; in fact Scherer conceives
that they prove that the former is dependent on the presence of white particles of
chyle suspended in the fluid, an opinion confirmed by the microscope. It was observed
by Hewsou that, when the colour of the blood is bright red, the corpuscles are always
biconcave ; they reflect a large amount of light, and in this respect act as the chalk,
milk, &c. in Scherer’s experiments. When, on the other hand, the blood is of a
dark colour, the corpuscles are biconvex, and the capsule is so thin as to admit of

BLOOD.

193

Arterial blood, on being whipt, allows the fibrin to separate
in short conglobate masses, more tenacious and compact- than
the fibrin of venous blood.

The odour of arterial blood is considered to be stronger than
that of venous. The temperature is also usually stated to be
different, J urine being the only experimentalist who assigns an
equal temperature (i. e. 102o,2) to both forms of blood. Ac-
cording to Scudamore the temperature of arterial blood in man
is 10,8, according to Kramer 2 0-7, higher than venous blood.
Dr. Davy found the difference in animals amount to 30-6. The
observations of Colemann, Cooper, and Martini are directly
opposed to the above statement. (Lecanu, Etudes cliimiques
sur le Sang.)

The relative capacity for heat of arterial and venous blood
is, according to Davy, as 839 to 852.

There is considerable difference of opinion among physiolo-
gists with respect to the specific gravity of arterial and venous
blood : Hammerschmidt, Davy, Scudamore, and Letellier assert
that the density of arterial is lower than that of venous blood ;
the former being represented by 1039’8 — 1042-9, the latter by
1053—1056.

the easy passage of the whole light through it ; moreover, on account of its attenu-
ation, it bursts, and allows of the escape of its contents, as may be observed on the
addition of water to red blood. If the blood remain in contact with water till a dark
tint becomes apparent, and a saturated solution of a neutral salt be then added, the
corpuscles again become biconcave, in consequence of their being partially emptied by
the endosmosis called into play by the different fluids within and without the capsule;
and the capsules themselves, and the original bright red colour reappear. A current of
carbonic acid gas passed through fresh red blood renders the corpuscles biconvex,
and makes the blood assume a dark venous hue.

Mulder explains the difference between the colour of arterial and venous blood in
the following manner : Two oxides of protein are formed iu the act of respiration ;
they have a strong plastic tendency, and solidify round each corpuscle, making the
capsule thicker and better qualified to reflect light. Each corpuscle of the arterial-
ised blood is then in reality invested with a complete envelope of huffy coat, which
gradually contracts, and speedily forms the cupped or biconcave surfaces, which, as
we have already shown, are favorable to the reflection of light. On reaching the
capillaries, the coating of the oxides of protein is removed, and the corpuscles, losing
their opaque investment and their cupped form, can no longer reflect light, and the
blood assumes a venous tint. (Mulder’s Versuch einer allgemeinen physiologisclien
Chemie, pp. 344-59 ; or Dr. G. Bird’s account of Mulder’s Researches, in the Medical
Gazette, December 1844.)

194

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

Boissier and Hamburger, on the contrary, found arterial
denser than venous blood.

The observations of Bellingeri1 respecting the electric rela-
tions of arterial and venous blood are very singular.

In birds, horses, and occasionally in sheep and calves, both
forms of blood are in the same electric state. In other animals
the arterial blood is positively electric in relation to the venous.
The reverse has never been observed.

Observations have also been made regarding the comparative
tendency to putrefaction of arterial and venous blood. Krimer
and Kanig assert that arterial blood is the most prone to decay;
Thackrah, on the contrary, makes a similar statement respecting
venous blood.

In order to obtain any correct information with regard to the
differences that undoubtedly exist in the composition of arterial
and venous blood, it is necessary to have recourse to accurate
chemical analyses. I have devoted much attention to this point,
and fully concur with Schultz, Dumas and Prevost, and others,
in the belief that the two forms of blood present marked differ-
ences of constitution.

1 made use of the blood of horses in these experiments, and
was kindly assisted by Professor Gurlt. The carotids, from
which we obtained the arterial blood, were exposed, and opened
in such a manner as to ensure the absence of any venous blood :
the venous blood was obtained from the jugulars.

The analyses were made according to my ordinary method
(vide supra), and gave the following results.2

1000 parts of blood contained :

Analysis 1.

Analysis 2.

Arterial blood.

Venous blood.

Water

760-084

757-351

Solid residue

239-952

242-649

Fibrin

11-200

11-350

Fat

1-856

2-290

Albumen

78-880

85-875

Globulin

136-148

128-698

Hsematin

4-872

5-176

Extractive matter and salts

6-960

9-160

100 parts of the blood-corpuscles I 100 parts of the blood-corpuscles
contained 3-4 of lioematin. I contained 3-9 of hsematin.

' Quoted by Lecanu. Etudes Chimiques sur le Sang hurnain, p. 75.
a It must be observed that no sound horses were used for these experiments, but

BLOOD.

195

The horse, which was suffering from malleus humidus, had
taken its ordinary food up to the time of its death.

Analysis 3.

Analysis 4.

Arterial blood. Venous blood.

Water

789-390

786-506

Solid residue

210-610

213-494

Fibrin

6-050

5-080

Fat

1-320

1-456

Albumen

113-100

113-350

Globulin

76-400

78-040

Haematin

. . .

3-640

3-952

Extractive matter and salts

10-000

10-816

100 parts of blood-corpuscles

100 parts of blood- corpuscles

contained 4-5 of haematin.

contained 4-8 of haematin.

This was a meagre horse, killed in consequence of debility
and old age.

From these analyses we are led to the conclusion that arterial
blood contains less solid residue generally than venous blood : it
contains less fat, less albumen, less hrematin, less extractive mat-
ters and salts than venous blood. The blood-corpuscles of arterial
blood contain less colowing matter than those of venous blood.

There does not appear to be any fixed relation between the
fibrin and globulin (or, which is nearly the same thing, the
mass of the blood-corpuscles,) in the contrasted analyses ; for
in Nos. 1 and 2 the fibrin in the venous exceeds that in the
arterial blood, while in Nos. 3 and 4 we observe exact!}' the re-
verse. The same fluctuation is observable with respect to the
globules, or the mass of the blood-corpuscles.

In an analysis of the blood of a healthy ox, made with the
same object, I found the quantity of fibrin to be larger in the
arterial than in the venous blood. Iu the former case it
amounted to 4'90, and in the latter to only 4-82 in 1000 parts.

I shall now give the results obtained by other chemists upon
this subject : I must, however, observe that their methods of
analysis differ considerably from mine, and that I consider some
of their results questionable.

only those intended for anatomical purposes. Some were too old and weak to be of
any use ; others were suffering from incurable disorders. Although it may be fairly
questioned whether the composition of the blood in these animals is normal, the
correctness of the comparative results must be unaffected as long as the lungs and
other secreting and excreting organs remain healthy, provided there is no reason for
supposing that the general metamorphosis of the blood is morbidly affected.

196

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

Denis analysed tlie blood of tlie hound. He found in 1000
parts :

Arterial blood. Venous blood.

Water . . . .

830-0

Fibrin ....

2-5

2-4

Albumen

57-0

58-6

Ilsematoglobulin

99-0

97-0

Extractive matter and salts

110

12-0

In this instance both kinds of blood contain an equal pro-

portion of solid residue : the former contains,

as I have already

observed in two out of three

analyses, a larger quantity of fibrin.

Denis found, as I have also done, that the quantity of albumen,
and of extractive matters and salts, is less in arterial than in

venous blood.

Hering1 has analysed both kinds of blood

in the bullock.

the sheep, and the horse. In the blood of the bullock he found

in 1000 parts :

Arterial blood.

Venous blood.

Water ....

798-9

794-9

Fibrin ....

7-6

6-6

Albumen

20-1

25-8

Ilajmatoglobulin

1G4-7

170-4

Extractive matter and salts

2-7

2-3

In the blood of the sheep he found in 1000 parts :

Arterial blood.

Venous blood.

Water ....

850-2

841-2

Fibrin ....

5-3

Albumen

33-6

26-4

Hsematoglobulin

106-1

124-4

Extractive matter and salts

4-0

2-7

In the blood of the horse he found in 1000 parts :

Arterial blood.

Venous blood.

Water ....

839-5

831-6

Fibrin ....

4-6

6-9

Albumen

22-0

26-7

Ilajmatoglobulin

130-0

131-1

Extractive matter and salts

3-0

3-7

These analyses correspond very well with each other, and
corroborate our remark that arterial leaves a smaller amount of

1 Physiologie mil steter Beriicksichtigungder Pathologie fur Thierarzte. Stutgart,
1832, p. 118.

BLOOD.

197

solid residue than venous blood. In the bullock and sheep
the fibrin in arterial exceeds that in venous blood ; in the horse
the reverse is observed. The same observation holds good with
regard to the albumen, and in this respect (at least in the case
of bullocks’ and sheep’s blood) Ilering’s results differ from those
of Denis and myself.

Hering invariably found the quantity of blood-corpuscles to
be greater in venous than in arterial blood ; the proportion of
extractive matters and salts are, however, extremely fluctuating.

Lecanu1 has likewise analysed the blood of the horse, and
found in 1000 parts :

Blood of aorta.

Blood of vena cava descendens.

Water ....

783-83

795-679

Blood-corpuscles

122-68

106-759

Albumen with its salts, ex- "i
tractive matter and salts J

93-49

97-562

Blood of carotid.

Blood of jugular vein.

Water ....

785-5

804-55

Blood-corpuscles

125-6

111-03

Albumen with its salts, ex- '
tractive matter and salts

| 88-9

84-45

These analyses differ from my own, and from those of Denis
and Hering, in assigning to arterial a larger solid residue than
to venous blood.

The quantity of blood-corpuscles is also greater in arterial
than in venous blood, and Lecanu found the same to be the
case with regard to the quantity of fibrin. The quantity of
albumen fluctuated.

Schultz2 observed that the venous blood of hungry and starv-
ing horses contained a larger amount of solid residue than
the arterial, in the proportion of 186 to 155 in 1000 parts of
blood : in a well-fed horse the reverse was the case, the solid
residue of the arterial being to that of the venous blood, in the
proportion of 229 to 195. The quantities of fibrin were very
fluctuating : on one occasion the fibrin of the arterial was to the
fibrin of the venous blood in the proportion of 5 '3 to 8T ; on
another occasion as 9-2 to 90. The hsematoglobulin (which he
considers identical with the colouring matter of the blood) was
found to vary directly with the darkness of the blood’s colour,

1 Etudes chimiques sur le Sang humain. Paris, 1837, p. 83.

3 System der Cirkulation, p. 138.

198

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

and consequently to be more abundant in venous tban in arterial
blood.1 The reverse was the case with respect to the albumen.

Autenrieth, and Prevost and Dumas,2 found a greater
proportion of solid constituents in arterial than in venous
blood : Lassaigne, like myself, found just the reverse : whilst
Letcllier asserts that, there is no fixed rule on the subject.

Muller3 and Berthold4 observe that in the goat there is a
larger proportion of fibrin in arterial than in venous blood : the
latter chemist extends the statement to the blood of the cat and
the sheep. The observations of Sigwart5 and Lassaigne6 are
opposed to these statements.

Prevost and Dumas obtained from arterial a larger propor-
tion of blood-corpuscles than from venous blood, and in this
respect they confirm the observations of Lecanu and Denis. My
own analyses, and those of Letellier, tend, however, to show that
the proportion is a fluctuating one.

Hence we are led to the conclusion that there are certain dif-
ferences in the composition of arterial and venous blood, which,
however, are not constant, but vary according to circumstances.

The most important of these circumstances are the general
health of the individual, and the mode of nourishment, whether
dependent upon or independent of the health.

Let us now consider what must be the qualities of arterial
and venous blood when all the functions of the organism are
properly discharged, when the nutrition exactly corresponds with
our actual wants, and when the blood undergoes the various
changes that we have described in a former page.

Under these circumstances we arrive a priori at the con-
clusion that the final result of the changes in the blood during

1 In order to avoid the error that might arise in the determination of the liajmato-
globulin from the retention of serum in the clot, Schultz proceeded in the following
manner : He dried the clot, and subtracted from its residue the amount of solid matter
left by a quantity of serum corresponding to the expelled moisture. The difference
he regarded as haunatoglobulin. We must not, however, forget that the hsemato-
globulin does not exist in a dry state in the blood'; and, further, that there are no
grounds for assuming that the fluid in which it is held in solution is serum.

* 2 Annales de Chimie et de Phys., vol. 13.

3 Physiologie des Menschen, vol. 1, p. 119.

4 Burdacli’s Physiologie, p. 281.

3 Reil’s Archiv, vol. 12, p. 5.

6 Journal de Chimie Med. vol. 1, p. 34.

BLOOD.

199

the act of circulation must necessarily be this : there must be
a substitution of fresh and proper nutriment to supply the
place of those constituents of the blood which are being perpe-
tually consumed ; for it is obvious that if in each circulation
the consumption of albumen or haematoglobulin exceeded the
supply by the merest trace, after a certain period the blood
would acquire an abnormal constitution. We know that al-
bumen, fibrin, and salts are consumed in the nutrition of the
peripheral system ; if therefore the blood receives no fresh
supply of these substances, before it arrives in the larger
venous trunks, it is clear that the venous blood must be poorer
in these substances than the arterial.

The blood also conveys away from the peripheral system
various products formed by the consumption of the tissues ; for
instance, certain salts, extractive matters, &c., some of which
are eliminated by the kidneys, in a state of great dilution,
while others are removed by the skin. If the quantity removed
exceed the supply, the venous blood will be poorer in ex-
tractive matters and salts than the arterial; it will be richer
in these substances if the reverse be the case.

The venous blood will contain more or less water than the
arterial, according as the elimination of water by the kidneys,
liver, skin, and lungs, exceeds or is less than the quantity
supplied by the fluid of nutrition.

The blood-corpuscles, and the germs from which they arc
developed, are likewise supplied to the blood by the nutrient
fluids. They are further developed, and ultimately dissolved
during the course of the circulation, and then development
and solution is especially facilitated at those points where the
action of oxygen on the blood is the most powerful.

It is obvious that the blood, immediately after having re-
ceived the chyle, must contain more blood-corpuscles than
before; it depends however upon several circumstances whe-
ther venous generally contains more or less corpuscles than
arterial blood.

The plasma receives a supply of fibrin from the solution of
the blood-corpuscles ; if the supply exceeds the consumption of
this constituent in the peripheral system, the venous blood
may become richer in fibrin than the arterial.

If any albumen should be produced by the solution of the

200

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

blood-corpuscles, it may be regarded as a substitute for the
portion of that constituent which has been taken up from the
blood for the nourishment of the tissues.

From these observations we are led to conclude that there
is no necessary variation in the composition of venous and
arterial blood. The organism, when free from disturbing in-
fluences, possesses in itself various means of regulating the due
admixture of its different juices, and more especially of that
most important vital fluid, the blood.

Amongst these means we may place the influence of the
nervous system, its power of increasing or lessening the action
of the secreting and excreting organs, and of inducing in them
either co-operating or vicarious action.

The differences in the constitution of arterial and venous
blood cannot, however, by any possibility be very great. In
my analyses they usually fluctuate between fractions of a
hundredth part ; and they appear to be less between analyses
3 and 4, than between analyses 1 and 2, since the former
(anal. 3 and 4) were made on the blood of an old decrepid,
half-starved horse, in which the change and waste of tissue,
and the consequent metamorphosis of the blood, would be very
slight. That the difference must be small is obvious, when
we consider that the whole course of the circulation may be
accomplished in 25-30 seconds ; that the plasma just con-
veyed to the tissues must everywhere propel the nutrient mat-,
ter conveyed there by the preceding blood-wave, and that the
tissues, everywhere saturated with nutrient plasma, only take
up a supply proportioned to their consumption. The process
of nutrition in the peripheral system is continuous and is sup-
ported by the liquid plasma with which all the tissues are sur-
charged ; hence these tissues become the temporary recipients
of far more nutrient matter than they can possibly consume,
even as the rivulet contains infinitely more water than is ne-
cessary for the refreshment of the soil on its banks.

In both cases we found that the venous blood contained a
larger proportion of solid constituents than the arterial ; hence
we infer that more water was removed by means of the
kidneys, liver, and skin, than had been supplied to the blood
by the nutrient fluids.

The quantity of fibrin in the venous blood in analysis 2 is

BLOOD.

201

greater than in the arterial blood, although, from our know-
ledge of the fact that fibrin is employed in the process of nu-
trition, we should have expected an opposite result. Hence
we are led to attribute the excess of fibrin to the consumption
of a large proportion of blood-corpuscles, a view which is con-
firmed by the circumstance that the venous blood in this in-
stance is poorer in blood-corpuscles than the arterial.

The proportions are reversed in analysis 4, but whether
from opposite causes or not, I cannot decide. It is singular
that in both instances the quantity of albumen is greater in
the venous than in the arterial blood, since there can be no
doubt that this constituent is consumed in the nutrition of the
tissues, and that a portion of the changed plasma enters the
lymphatics. I do not see how this increase can be accounted
for, unless we assume, as I have previously done, that a portion
of the globulin of the blood-corpuscles is converted into albu-
men during their metamorphosis.

In the present state of our knowledge regarding the meta-
morphosis of the blood, it is as difficult as it is hazardous to
attempt to explain the various causes upon which the differ-
ences between venous and arterial blood are founded. There
are, as I shall proceed to show, decided differences between
the blood of the renal arteries and veins, and between the blood
of the hepatic vein and of the vena portae ; and yet, as has
been already shown, the differences between the blood of the
aorta and of the vena cava are very immaterial and trifling.
To produce this ultimate similarity, other changes (not yet
heeded by the physiologist) must have largely contributed.

Properties of the blood of the vena portae ; — its comparison
with arterial blood.

The blood of the vena porta? in horses (the only animals in
which I have examined it) is darker than ordinary venous
blood ; the difference of the tint is however so slight, as to be
observable only upon actual comparison. It coagulates more
slowly than ordinary arterial or venous blood ; the clot is less
firm, more of a gelatinous appearance, and falls to pieces if an
attempt be made to lift it. I analysed the blood of the vena
porta? of the two horses already alluded to. If arterial, ordi-
nary venous, and vena porta? blood are deprived of their fibrin

202

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

by whipping, and are then allowed to stand, the blood-cor-
puscles subside in nearly equal times ; but while they occupy
little more than one half of the volume of arterial or ordinary
venous blood, in portal blood they form nearly three fourths of
the whole volume.

In portal blood, after the lapse of several hours, a delicate
glittering film was formed upon the surface of the serum, which
when seen under the microscope was found to contain fat-glo-
bides ; I could not however discover any lymph-granules either
in the serum or amongst the blood-corpuscles. The arterial
and ordinary venous blood, on the contrary, exhibited lymph-
granules, but no fat-globules.

The blood of the vena portae not only contains less fibrin
than arterial or ordinary venous blood, but the qualities of
that constituent are also different ; it is not so consistent as
ordinary fibrin, and does not separate into the firm, globular,
little masses that are obtained by whipping arterial blood.

Our knowledge of the properties of this blood has been ma-
terially increased by the researches of Schultz.1 The follow-
ing are his principal conclusions : It is darker than ordinary
venous blood, but the difference of tint is sometimes so slight,
as to be hardly perceptible. It is darkest in fasting horses,
but after a full meal, it becomes brighter. These differences
are more striking than those between arterial and venous
blood. Common salt, nitre, atmospheric air, and even oxygen,
when shaken with the dark blood of the vena portte, have
scarcely any effect upon the colour, whereas venous blood
would be changed to a brighter red by these reagents. If the
blood of the vena portae be not extremely dark, a slight change
is perceptible.

If a portion of this black blood be treated with a quantity
of common salt or nitre sufficient to prevent it from coagu-
lating, coagulation may still be induced (although not until after
several hours, and then very slightly) by the addition of water,
while venous blood similarly treated coagulates in the course
of five or ten minutes.

If the blood is very dark, it sometimes does not coagulate
at all; if it is not very dark, it occasionally coagulates in the
same time as ordinary venous blood ; the clot, however, is very
1 System der Cirkulation, p. 140.

BLOOD.

203

soft, and either entirely, or at least its lower surface, dissolves
in the course of from twelve to twenty-four hours. Schultz
further observes that after the blood has been whipt, the cor-
puscles sink very quickly ; he ascribes this peculiarity to an
excess of colouring matter attached to the capsules of the
blood-corpuscles.

As the blood of the vena portae that I analysed was taken
from the same two horses from which I obtained the arterial
and venous blood, a fair comparison may be instituted with
respect to their differences of constitution.

I parts contained :

Analysis 1.

Analysis 5.

Arterial blood.

Blood of vena port®.

Water ....

760-084

724-972

Solid residue

239-952

257-028

Fibrin ....

11-200

8-370

Fat ....

1-856

3-186

Albumen

78-880

92-400

Globulin ....

136-148

152-592

Haematin

4-827

6-600

Extractive matter and salts

6-960

11-880

100 parts of blood-corpuscles 1

100 parts of blood-corpuscles

contained 3-4 of haematin. 1

contained 4-1 of haematin.

Analysis 3.

Analysis 6.

Arterial blood.

Blood of vena port®.

Water ....

789-390

815-000

Solid residue

210-610

185-000

Fibrin ....

6-050

3-285

Fat ....

1-320

1-845

Albumen

113-100

92-250

Globulin

76-400

72-690

Haematin

3-640

3-900

Extractive matter and salts

10-000

11-632

100 parts of blood-corpuscles : 100 parts of blood-corpuscles
contained 4-7 of haematin. I contained 5-3 of haematin.

It is only in four respects that the results obtained by a
comparison of these two analyses of the blood of the vena
portae with arterial blood at all coincide : the former contains
less fibrin, more fat, more extractive matter and salts than the
latter, and lastly, the proportion of colouring matter to globulin
is greater in the former.

In order to give a better idea of the relative proportions •of
the colouring matter, 1 shall quote another analysis of the

204

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

blood of the vena portse, which was made for the purpose of
comparison with the blood of the hepatic vein.

In this analysis the colouring matter is separated into hae-
matin and luemaphain. I obtained from 1000 parts :

Analysis 7.

Water .

801-500

Solid residue

198-500

Fibrin .

6-200

Fat

2-700

Albumen

90-000

Globulin

75-600

Hsematin

3-400

Hsemaphsein

1-800

Extractive matter, with some hsemaphsein,
and with salts ....

\ 14-400

This blood was very rich in colouring matter, there being
no less a proportion of it than 6- 8 in 100 parts of blood-cor-
puscles, of which 4' 5 were hsematin and the remaining 2-3
hsemaphsein. In addition to this, the extractive matters re-
tained a considerable quantity of hsemaphsein.

The circumstance that the blood of the vena portae in analy-
sis 6 contains less solid residue, and a smaller proportion both
of albumen and blood-corpuscles than arterial blood, while the
reverse is observed in analysis 5, need not excite much surprise
when we remember that in analyses 3, 4, and 6 the blood was
taken from an old, decrepid, starved animal.

Schultz1 has made some very important observations on the
relative constitution of the blood of the vena porta, as contrasted
with arterial and ordinary venous blood.

Solid constituents.

The blood taken from the vena porta of fasting horses gave,
as a mean of three analyses, 16'90g of solid constituents, while
arterial and venous blood gave 15*5 6g and 18-6£ respectively :

1 Schultz’s analyses. of the portal blood would, in my opinion, have yielded more
important results, both as regards the absolute and the comparative composition of
the fluid, if he had determined all the constituents from the same identical blood.
He appears to have used the blood of different animals for the determination of the
different constituents. The absolute composition of the blood is assuredly different
in different animals, but there are also relative differences depending on age, nutri-
tion, and other circumstances.

BLOOD.

20.5

it contained therefore (in this instance) a greater proportion of
solid constituents than arterial ; a less proportion than venous
blood. This proportion, 16-902, is however less than is usually
met with in arterial or venous blood.

The blood of the vena portae of a horse fed with oats gave
20 3^ of solid constituents, while the arterial and venous blood
of the same animal gave 22-912 and 19-5§ respectively. Here
the solid constituents of the blood of the vena portae bear an
exactly opposite proportion to those of arterial and venous blood,
for in this case they exceed those of arterial, and are less than
those of venous blood.

The amount of the per-centage of the solid residue, although
still deficient, approximates very nearly to the ordinary average.

My observations from analysis 5 are at variance with these
remarks.

Fibrin.

As an average of three analyses, -322 of fibrin was obtained
from the blood of the vena porta, while the proportions obtained
from arterial and venous blood were 1-042 and 1-092 respectively.
Hence it may be concluded that this blood is poorer in fibrin
than either arterial or venous blood — a point which is con-
firmed by my own observations.

Albumen with salts, and blood-corpuscles d

The following results were obtained from his analyses :

Albumen

Blood-corpuscles

1. 2.
Blood of vena ports.

. 8-16g 9-67g

. 8-74g 10-532

1. 2.

Arterial blood.

9'86g 11-llg
4-65g 10-21g

1. 2.

Venous blood.
7-96S 11-250
9-21g 6-95g

The analyses 1 were made with the blood of fasting horses ;
the analyses 2 with the blood of horses after a recent meal
of oats. Hence it follows that the blood of the vena portm
contains more blood-corpuscles and less albumen than arterial
or venous blood. My own analyses do not exactly coincide
with these remarks.

Fat.

The solid residue of the blood of the vena portse gave (as the
mean of four analyses) 1-662 of fat, while the corresponding

1 Schultz’s method of analysis is described hi note 1, p. 198.

20G

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

proportions of fat in arterial and venous blood amounted to only
•92§ and -832 respectively. Hence it appears (and in this re-
spect my own observations confirm tliose of Schultz) that this
blood contains a larger proportion of fat than either arterial or
venous blood. The albumen and the clot contain individually
a larger quantity of fat in this than in ordinary blood. Schultz
has observed a very striking difference between the quantity of
fat contained in the fibrin of this and of arterial blood : the
former yielded 1072, while the latter gave only 2 '342 of fat,
which in the first case was brown and discoloured, in the latter
was white and crystalline.

It follows from these remarks that there is no constancy in
the deviations of the blood of the vena portae from arterial or
venous blood. The reason of the mutability of the composition
of this blood is easily accounted for, if we consider the relation
that the ramifications of the vena portae bear to the digestive
organs, and the absorbent power of the veins, as shown by the
experiments of Magendie,1 Tiedemann, and Gmelin.2

The rapid removal of water from the stomach can, moreover,
only be explained by the agency of the vena portae.

Hence it is evident, both from my own analyses and those
of Schultz, that the blood which is conveyed to the liver by
the vena portae differs in well-fed and in fasting animals.

When fluids, containing a smaller proportion of solid residue
than ordinary blood, are absorbed by well-fed animals, we may
naturally infer that the blood of the vena portae will be more
deficient in solid constituents than either arterial or venous
blood. This view is confirmed by the observations of Schultz,
excepting in the case of the horse that had been fed with oats
shortly before its death, when a greater solid residue was left
by this blood than by either the arterial or venous : in this in-
stance, however, the residue was below the ordinary average of
either venous or arterial blood. In fasting horses the residue
is considerably below the average of ordinary blood.

The remarkably small quantity of fibrin that is invariably
found in the blood of the vena portae, as well as the large pro-
portion of fat that is associated with the fibrin, is a point of con-
siderable interest; as also the large proportion of blood-corpuscles

1 Precis elementaire de Pliysiologie, par Magendie. Bruxelles, 1838, p. 328.

2 Muller’s Pliysiologie des Mensclien, vol. 1, p. 241.

BLOOD.

207

observed by Schultz, and which occurred, in rather a striking
degree, in my analysis 5.

It is of importance to trace the origin and development of
these peculiarities, as we may thus be led to take clearer views
of the functions of the liver and the preparation of the bile.

Schultz1 attributes the source of all these peculiarities to the
intestinal canal, to the lymphatic glands, and to the spleen.

The organization and vitality of the chyle, prepared in the
intestinal canal, require (according to Schultz,) the co-operation
of the plasma, which (being thus partially consumed) leaves a
large proportion of blood- corpuscles, the majority of which ap-
pear to have been deprived of their nuclei by absorption, and
to have been converted into empty capsules impregnated with
colouring matter. To this is attributable the preponderance
of the clot. The large quantity of fat is ascribed by Schultz to
absorption of the chyle, and he considers that its dark colour
is in some way connected with the metamorphosis of the co-
louring matter of the blood-corpuscles.

My own views with respect to the causes of the peculiar
constitution of this species of blood differ, in a few immaterial
points, from the ingenious explanation of Schultz.

There are two reasons for the very small quantity of fibrin
in this blood. In the first place it may take up a quantity of
fluid containing little or no fibrin, by which means the relative
proportion of fibrin in a given quantity of blood must of course
be diminished; and, secondly, it may be explained by tbe torpid
motion in this part of the circulatory apparatus, and the de-
ficiency of atmospheric oxygen : this latter reason may also
account for some of its other peculiarities. In consequence of
the deficiency of oxygen, the metamorphosis of the blood-
corpuscles must be imperfect, deficient, and retarded, and the
solution of the developed corpuscles will not be duly effected.
To this cause we must ascribe not merely the diminished quan-
tity of fibrin, but the retarded solution, and the accumulation
of the corpuscles, especially of such as are fully developed and
abound in hsemaphsein, the consequent accumulation of tbat
colouring substance in tbe plasma, and the necessarily dark
tint of the serum, which possesses no means of throwing off
that constituent.

1 Op. cit. p. 322.

208

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

The large proportion of fat is chiefly attributable to the
fluids that are produced during the act of digestion, and which
are conveyed into the portal vein. In examining this blood
under the microscope, I have seen that it is rich in fat globules.
The deep yellow (or sometimes even brown) tinge of the fat is
produced by liaemaphaein, which is very soluble in fat and cannot
easily be extracted from it.

The fatty acids do not seem to undergo any change in the
liver, for we find them, as well as the cholesterin of the blood,
again in the bile. The cholesterin is particularly abundant,
and is probably one of the products of the function of the liver.

Properties of the blood of the hepatic vein ; — its comparison
with the blood of the vena portae.

I am not aware of any analyses of the blood of the hepatic
vein having been made previously to my own.

Very important conclusions might doubtless be drawn re-
specting the constitution of the bile, by contrasting the analyses
of the blood of the vena portae with that of the hepatic vein,
if it were not that we had to take into consideration with the
former the blood of the hepatic artery with which it mixes in
the capillary system of the liver.

As the contents of the hepatic vein are discharged into the
vena cava inferior, immediately as it leaves the organ, it is no
easy matter’ to obtain any considerable quantity of the blood in
a pure and unmixed state.

Professor Gurlt has kindly assisted me in collecting specimens
of this blood from horses.

The blood of the hepatic vein differs, in several respects, from
any of the forms of blood that have been hitherto considered.

It appears to be darker than the blood of the vena portae,
(when contrasted with it,) but becomes of a somewhat brighter
colour by continued stirring.

The separation of the fibrin is more difficult and tedious than
from the blood of the vena portae, and this constituent, when
deposited on the rod, is possessed of very little consistence,
is soft, gelatinous, and difficult to urash, a portion of it falling
to pieces and being distributed through the water. The
blood, after the removal of the fibrin by whipping, continues
to manifest a tendency to gelatinize; the blood-corpuscles de-

BLOOD.

209

posit themselves and form a dark coagulated clotted mass under
the surface of the serum, from which no additional fibrin can
be obtained by farther stirring; and upon allowing it to rest,
the same phenomena are again exhibited. On placing a little
of the blood, immediately after staring, on a glass slip, the
blood-corpuscles may be seen to collect into minute islets or
spots ; at least I observed this to occur in three specimens of
this sort of blood that I analysed at different times.

In one instance I found that the blood had actually coagu-
lated, but slowly, after the removal of fibrin by whipping, and
upon renewed stirring I obtained a small quantity of stringy
or coriaceous fibrin.

Microscopic analysis. On examining a specimen of this
blood, not diluted with the ordinaiy solution of salt, the swollen
corpuscles were observed moving about; some were distinct,
some partially united with others ; these gradually attached
themselves to one another and formed irregular groups of various
sizes, in which the outlines of the individual corpuscles could
no longer be recognized. It appeared as if the corpuscles
exuded a plastic matter, which might possibly be the cause of
their adhering to each other.

On diluting the blood with a solution of hydrochlorate of
ammonia, I once observed that the medium-sized corpuscles
appeared studded with minute pearly beads, (vide supra, page
105.) The following observation which I made upon two
occasions interested me extremely. I saw a great excess of
small blood-corpuscles, about one fourth or one sixth of the
ordinaiy size, whose true nature could only be recognized
by their well-marked yellow colour, and by their passing from
a spherical into a flattened form, when rotation was excited.
The motions of these minute blood-corpuscles resembled those
of Brown’s molecules, and were much more active than those
of the ordinary corpuscles in common blood.

The analysis of the blood of the hepatic vein gave in 1000
parts —

210

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

Water

Solid residue
Fibrin

Fat ...

Albumen

Globulin

Haematin

Extractive matters and

Analysis 6.
Blood of vena portfe.
815-000
185-000
3-285
1-845
92-250
72-690
3-900

salts 11-623

Analysis 8.

Blood of hepatic vein.
814-000
186-000

2- 650
1-408

103-283

57-134

3- 000
12-312

100 parts of blood-corpuscles I 100 parts of blood-corpuscles
contained 5-3 of haematin. I contained 5-2 of haematin.

The blood was taken from the starved horse, who supplied
the matter for analyses 3 and 4.

Water

Analysis 9.
Blood of vena port*.
738-000

Solid residue

262-000

Fibrin

3-500

Fat

1-968

Albumen

114-636

Globulin .

116-358

Haematin

4-920

Haemaphfein

1-467

Extractive matters and salts

16-236

Analysis 10.

Blood of hepatic vein.

725-000

275-000

2-500

1-560

130-000

112-000

4-420

1-040

17-160

100 parts of blood-corpuscles
contained 5-4 of colouring
matter, of which 4-2 were
haematin and 1-2 haema-
phaein.

100 parts of blood-corpuscles
contained 4-8 of colouring
matter, of which 3-9 were
haematin and 0-9 haema-
phaein.

From these analyses we deduce the following conclusions.
The blood of the hepatic vein is richer in solid constituents
than that of the vena portae, and consequently than either ar-
terial or ordinary venous blood; it contains less fibrin, fat,
globulin, and colouring matter, than the blood of the vena
portae ; the ratio of the colouring matter to the globulin is
smaller, and the quantity of albumen larger in the former than
in the latter form of blood.

In consequence of the admixture of the blood of the hepatic
artery with that of the vena portae in the capillary system sur-
rounding the biliary ducts, and of the catalytic influence of the
cells of the liver in the formation and secretion of bile, it is
impossible for us to ascertain the relative parts which these two
distinct forms of blood play in the production of this important

BLOOD.

211

secretion, or to state with certainty which constituents are
drawn from the contents of the hepatic artery and which from
those of the vena portae, or how the withdrawal of them is
effected.

These analyses are nevertheless of great importance, since
they show that the blood-corpuscles are actively engaged in the
secretion of the bile, a view which corresponds with and tends
to explain other phenomena connected with this secretion. They
show that the blood of the hepatic vein contains more albumen
and less globulin, or (which is much the same thing) blood-
corpuscles, than that of the vena portae. These differences
favour the hypothesis that the corpuscles (or, at least, tlieir
principal constituent, the globulin,) have a greater share in the
formation of the bile in the peripheral system of the liver than
the albumen, the principal constituent of the plasma.

Another corroborative circumstance is the small amount of
colouring matter in the blood of the hepatic vein, from which
we infer that some of it has been consumed in the formation of
the bile, a view which accounts, with more probability, for the
origin of its colour than the supposition that it is produced from
a portion of the plasma.1

If the liver were supplied with blood from the vena portae
alone, there could be hardly a doubt entertained with regard
to the correctness of my hypothesis ; the influence of the blood
of the hepatic artery must not, however, be overlooked. If,
for instance, the blood of the hepatic artery contained a much
larger proportion of albumen and a smaller quantity of blood-
corpuscles than the blood of the vena portae, the mixture of
these would produce a fluid similar in constitution to the blood
of the hepatic vein. But, upon comparing the blood of the
vena portae with that of the hepatic artery, no such proportions,
as those we have assumed, are observable. It is true that a
mixture of the two bloods in a badly fed animal would contain
more albumen, but, at the same time, more blood-corpuscles
than the blood of the vena portae (see Analyses 3 and 6) ; and
in the reverse case (see Analyses 1 and 5) the mixture would

1 [This view is corroborated by Mulder, who observes that if the blood-corpuscles
undergo a metamorphic change prior to their development into living tissue, the
products of the decomposition of the lisematin may be probably traced in the bili-
fulvin of the bile. (Versuch einer allgemeinen physiologischen Chemie, p. 358.)]

212

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

contain fewer corpuscles, but, at the same time, less albumen,
than tlie blood of the vena portoe.

It is impossible to account for so large an amount of albumen
in the blood of the hepatic vein, if we consider the quantity of
bile which is secreted by the healthy liver, and attribute its
formation to the elements of the plasma alone ; whereas, if we
consider the bile to be formed at the expense of the blood-
corpuscles, the peculiarities in the blood of the hepatic vein are
at once accounted for.

In addition to the separation of the bile, the liver effects a
further change in the blood by drawing from that fluid the
sources of its own nutrition. These two processes merge into
one, which may be regarded as the product of the development
of the hepatic cells. The formation and secretion of such a
complicated fluid as the bile, by the action of the hepatic cells
on the plasma, may be dependent on various causes. The entire
structure of an organ must necessarily correspond with its func-
tions, and with every variety of internal organization there will
be a corresponding variation in the secretion. The action of
the hepatic cells on the plasma is different from that of the
renal or other glandular cells, in consequence of the difference
of their chemical action on the blood. The nerves also seem
to influence the secretions.

Further, since the plasma has been modified in its progress
through the liver by the solution of a large number of blood-
corpuscles, a corresponding new product must be evolved from
it by the hepatic cells. I have previously stated that the de-
velopment, and especially the ultimate solution of the blood-
corpuscles may occur in all parts of the peripheral system, if a
sufficient supply of oxygen be present. I have shown that a
large quantity of fully developed corpuscles accumulates in the
blood of the vena porfre, in consequence of its torpid motion
and the want of a due supply of oxygen ; if this blood mixes
in the capillaries with the well-oxygenised blood of the hepatic
artery, it is not difficult to conceive that a proportionably larger
quantity of blood-corpuscles is thus dissolved in a given time
than at many other parts of the peripheral system, that the
plasma may thus become changed, and that the product of the
general action of the hepatic cells may be different.

It is well known that the liver is one of the most active

BLOOD.

213

organs of the animal economy. Even in the embryo, the de-
velopment of its cells is wonderfully abundant, as has been
shown by Reichert. In the adult the activity of the liver
is exhibited by the increased secretion of the bile during di-
gestion. The activity of an organ is represented by the in-
tegral of the activity of its cells ; and the increased activity of
the cells is intimately connected with the facility of evolution
and revolution. If, then, in consequence of the activity of
the liver as a secreting organ, a large number of cells are con-
sumed, it follows that a proportionably large number must be
reproduced; and we can thus explain the apparently incon-
sistent phenomena of the blood of the hepatic vein containing
less fibrin than that of the vena porta;, by the supposition that,
although a large quantity of blood-corpuscles is consumed by
the liver, the fibrin of the plasma supplies the materials for the
formation of cytoblasts for new cells.

All the other differences that are observable between the
composition of the blood of the hepatic vein and of the vena
portae may be accounted for by paying a little attention to the
nature of the bile.

The bile contains a smaller proportion of solid constituents
than the blood ; hence it is obvious that the blood, previously
to the separation of the bile ( i . e. the blood of the vena portae)
must contain a smaller proportion of solid constituents than after
this change has been effected ( i . e. the blood of the hepatic
vein.)

The blood of the vena portae contains more colouring matter,
both haematin and haemaphaein, than that of the hepatic vein.
It is impossible to decide with certainty upon the manner in
which these colouring substances are consumed in the liver, as
we are still deficient in correct ultimate analyses of biliphaein
and haemaphaein ; we may, however, safely conclude that the
biliphaein is produced by the metamorphosis of the colouring
matter of the blood.

Properties of the blood of the renal veins ; — its comparison
with the blood of the aorta.

The blood of the renal veins was drawn from a horse simul-
taneously with the aortic blood ; it was found, however, upon
opening the body of the horse, bled to death, that the renal

214

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

veins contained so small a quantity of blood that Professor Gurlt
was unable to collect from them more than about 50 grains.

The blood obtained in this manner was visibly darker than
the aortic blood. I stirred it for a considerable time with a
rod; but could obtain no fibrin ; on leaving it to stand, it became
gelatinous, and resembled the blood of the hepatic vein after
similar treatment.

Microscopic analysis. Upon comparing the two sorts of
blood under the microscope, the only perceptible differences
were the following : In the unmixed blood of the renal veins
the corpuscles united themselves into islets and amorphous
groups, in which the individual globules could not be traced.
Upon mixing some of this blood with a solution of salt, a
larger quantity of small and middle-sized coi’puscles were ob-
served than in the aortic blood when similarly treated. The
proportion, however, of the small corpuscles to the large ones
was not so striking as in the blood of the hepatic vein. (Vide
supra, p. 209.)

In consequence of the small quantity of material, I resolved
to determine only the most important of the constituents. I
made an accurate estimate of the proportions of water and
albumen, but was prevented by illness from ascertaining the
quantities of globulin and lisematin.

1000 parts of blood contained :

Water

Solid residue

Fibrin

Albumen

Analysis 11.
Aortic blood.
790-000
210-000
8-200
90-300

Analysis 12.
Blood of renal vein.
778-000
222-000

99-230

From these analyses it appears that the blood of the renal
veins is more abundant in solid constituents and in albumen
than the aortic blood, but that it contains less fibrin and fewer
blood-corpuscles.

The two latter inferences, respecting the quantity of fibrin
and of blood-corpuscles in the blood of the renal vein, cannot
be drawn from the analyses in the same certain manner as in
the comparative analyses of the blood of the hepatic vein and
of the vena portie.

BLOOD.

215

Although I cannot believe that this blood is entirely devoid
of separable fibrin, it certainly contains less fibrin than arterial
blood. In fact it is more than probable that the quantity of
fibrin which is formed during the course of the blood through
the renal capillary system, where oxygen is taken up and not
again supplied, does not exceed the quantity consumed. Although
no determination of the lisematin and globulin was instituted,
we may infer, analogically, from our former analyses, and from
the necessary reciprocating proportions of the two principal
constituents of the blood, that less lnematoglolmlin exists in the
blood of the renal veins than in that of the aorta. If the albu-
men in each be estimated in regard to equal quantities of the
solid residue, the albumen in the aortic blood will be found to
be to that in the blood of the renal vein in the ratio of 425 to
446. The quantities of hsematoglobulin will therefore be in
an opposite ratio.

These results throw considerable light upon the changes which
the blood undergoes in the kidneys. It loses a certain quantity
of water, which is accounted for by the urine. Hence this
blood contains less water than the aortic blood.

Urea appears to be formed from the corpuscles, under the
cooperating influence of the plasma and oxygen of the blood,
rather than from the albumen, which preponderates in the blood
of the renal veins the same as in the hepatic vein. It cannot
be positively asserted that the observations which were made
regarding the trifling amount of fibrin in the blood of the he-
patic vein, as compared with that in the blood of the vena portae,
here hold good, but there are many reasons in favour of such
an analogous view.

It is highly probable that the activity of the excreting powers
of the kidney is due to the activity of the organ itself, as has
been already observed with regard to the liver, and that this
activity corresponds with the energetic evolution and revolution
of renal cells.

That the kidneys do not separate bile, but urea, uric acid,
and salts, is due partly to the chemical constitution of the renal
cells and to the peculiarly directed cooperation of the nerves
of these organs, and partly, perhaps, to the composition of the
blood itself, which differs from that which supplies the liver.

The separation of the water is caused by the peculiar internal

216

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

structure of the organ ; it cannot be regarded as a product of
the development of the cells, or of the metabolic power of the
cells acting on the plasma ; but the water is separated in much
the same manner as the various gases of the blood are re-
moved by the lungs.

But whether the salts which are separated by the kidneys, the
combinations of chlorine, and of phosphoric, sulphuric and lactic
acids, are, so to speak, mechanically carried away in the water
in which they are held in solution, and which permeates the
textures of the kidney, or whether their separation is to be re-
garded as a true secretion of the renal cells, due to their organ-
ised development, is a point which I have no means of ascer-
taining. An accurate analysis of the kidneys would soon show
whether the salts which have been mentioned do or do not
belong to the constitution of the renal cells, a point which the
analysis of Berzelius has left undecided. These salts, most of
which preexist in the blood, at all events find their way into
the renal cells, and either are or are not connected with their
peculiar vital development. The former is far the more pro-
bable; and in that case the secretion of the salts would not
be a mere mechanical act, but would be due to organic causes.

The kidneys separate hsemaphcein from the colouring mat-
ter produced by the metamorphosis of the blood-corpuscles,
and the proportion in which they separate it is larger than
the proportion contained in the plasma, a circumstance which
is obvious from the colour of the urine being generally deeper
than that of the liquor sanguinis. Hence it is very probable that
a portion of the colouring matter is formed by the metamor-
phosis of the corpuscles in the peripheral system of the kidney.
The kidneys likewise separate another colouring matter, uro-
erythrin ; in a normal state, only in a slight proportion, but
in certain pathological conditions, in a comparatively large
quantity. Uroerythrin, in all probability, owes its origin to
the lisematin of the blood-corpuscles. As the proportions of
uric acid and of uroerythrin to urea are very small in normal
urine, but are much increased in certain pathological conditions,
we must infer that, in these latter cases, the blood undergoes
some peculiar change.

BLOOD.

217

Comparison of the venous blood with the blood of the capillaries.

It is well known that blood taken from the body by scari-
fication does not materially differ in its physical properties
from venous blood ; it takes about an equal time to coagulate,
and separates into clot and serum. The blood which flows
from leech-bites is also similar to venous blood. From com-
parative analyses of venous blood and blood taken by leeches
or cupping. Dr. Pallas1 concludes that the (so termed) capillary
blood is richer in solid and coagulable constituents than either
venous or arterial blood.

The ratios are represented by the following numbers :

2-550 : 3-100 and
2-550 : 2-630

Denis2 contradicts these statements ; he observes that the
blood of the capillaries, when taken by cupping, is of a bright
red colour and very plastic if it is taken from the neighbour-
hood of a large artery, but that it is dark and proportionally
less plastic when drawn from the vicinity of large venous trunks;
so that its characters always present a certain degree of simi-
larity to either arterial or venous blood. Denis analysed blood
drawn from the arm of a man aged 70, and blood taken by
cupping from the left side of the thorax of the same individual.

and compared the results.

1000 parts contained :

Blood from the arm.

Blood obtained by cupping.

Water

790-0

Fibrin

2-7

2-9

Albumen

5G-0

54-0

Haematin

131-G

133-4

Oxide of iron

0-7

Phosphorized fat

8-0

8-2

Cruorin

1-1

1-0

Carbonate of soda

1-0

Chloride of sodium

4-0

Chloride of potassium .

2-1

2-0

Carbonate of lime

1-3

Phosphates of lime and magnesia 0-5

0-5

Or,

Water

790-0

Blood-corpuscles

132-3

134-1

Solid residue of serum

77-7

75-9

1 Journal de Chimie Medicale,

Oct. 1828.

3 llecherchcs, p. 72.

218

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

Denis also analysed the blood of a girl, aged 27, in a similar
manner, and obtained corresponding results from both forms of
blood. (Recherch.es, pp. 152, 153, and 250.)

REVIEW OF THE MODIFICATIONS AND CHANGES THAT THE BLOOD
UNDERGOES IN THE COURSE OF THE CIRCULATION.

Having in the previous section given my views respecting the
probable changes that the blood undergoes in the coiu’se of the
circulation, founded partly on numerous analyses of that fluid,
and partly on conclusions deduced from the necessary connexion
that exists between the phenomena of secretion and of meta-
morphosis ; and having also endeavoured to explain the varia-
tions that occur in the blood of the same individual, through
the influence of nutrition and the secreting organs (as the liver
and kidneys), I beg once more to call the attention of the
reader to the subject under consideration.

My views regarding the formation of the products of secretion
from the changes that the blood undergoes in the organism re-
quire a more searching investigation before confidence can be
placed in them. There is nothing improbable in the supposition
that the blood is changed in the manner that I have assumed ;
I can as easily conceive that the urea and bilin are formed by
the mutual action of the blood-corpuscles and the liquor san-
guinis, as that their origin is dependent upon the liquor san-
guinis alone ; but for reasons afready communicated, there is
a greater degree of probability in the idea that these substances
are produced by the metamorphosis of the blood-corpuscles.
These reasons are founded more on the intimate connexion that
exists between the products of secretion, change of matter and
blood, and on the mutual adaptation and principle of compen-
sation in the organism of the animal body, than on the phy-
sical and chemical “momentum” of the circulation and of secre-
tion ; and the question we have now to consider is, whether in
the latter there is not something directly opposed to our views
respecting the metamorphosis of the blood.

Before proceeding to these investigations, I must in the first
place revert to some of the points connected with this rneta-
morpliic action.

The first and principal object of the blood is the nutrition

BLOOD.

219

of the organism, and for this purpose the circulating fluid is
modified and consumed in the peripheral system. We have
conjectured that the extractive matters of the blood which are
removed by the kidneys are thus formed. The constant mo-
dification and consumption of blood dependent on the act of
nutrition render the supply of fresh nutrient fluid, and the re-
moval of effete matter, indispensably necessary, since a proper
constitution of the blood is requisite for the due performance
of the function of nutrition. The effete matters are replaced
by chyle mixed -with lymph ; and this fluid must of necessity
be converted into blood, as otherwise the blood would soon
consist entirely of chyle. The change is effected by the for-
mation of young blood-corpusles, (an act which is accompanied
by the consumption of chyle-, lymph-, and oil-corpuscles,) and
by the fibrin of the chyle becoming more plastic ; all the other
fluid constituents of the chyle are similar to those of the liquor
sanguinis, except that there is an excess of water and of ex-
tractive matters in the former. If therefore we suppose a con-
tinuous formation of blood-corpuscles, the necessity for their
consumption must be sufficiently obvious. I have assumed that
fibrin is formed as a consequence of this consumption, and that
this newly-formed fibrin supplies the place of that which is em-
ployed for the purposes of nutrition in the peripheral vascular
system. I have also shown, (page 163,) that there is no diffi-
culty in the idea of the formation of albumen ; and lastly, I
attempted to show that, in all probability, urea, uric acid, and
bilin are formed as a consequence of this consumption of the
blood-corpuscles. For these substances must necessarily be
formed as products of the changes which the constituents of the
blood undergo in the circulation, and are not (as observations
on starved and emaciated individuals show us) a consequence of
the changes which the circulating fluid undergoes during the nu-
trition of the tissues, but are dependent on the metamorphic
action that is produced by the respiratory process. It is prin-
cipally the blood-corpuscles, (as I have endeavoured to show, in
page 155,) that are connected with the consumption of oxygen ;
and when we reflect that this change in the corpuscles must
take place under similar conditions in animals both high and
low in the scale of development, we can understand how it is
that urea, uric acid, and bilin occur in the renal and hepatic

220

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

secretions of animals of nearly every form of structure, and
under such varying phases of existence.

I will now proceed seriatim with the objections that may be
urged against my views respecting the metamorphosis of the
blood.

Analyses of the urine show us that it contains a greater
amount of urea and uric acid than of extractive matters ; as-
suming that the former substances, and the bilin, are products
of the metamorphosis of the blood- corpuscles, and that the
latter are the products of the change that the plasma under-
goes in the nutrition of the peripheral system, the mass of the
former is greater than the mass of the latter. If, moreover,
a portion of the extractive matter is in reality not removed by
the kidneys, but is, as I have already suggested, in page 150,
again adapted in the circulation to the purposes of nutrition,
(serving probably for the cytoblastema of the cells of the cartila-
ginous and gelatinous tissues), then the separation of so consi-
derable a quantity of the product of the metamorphosis of the
blood-corpuscles ought still to surprise us, if its only purpose
were to supply the fibrin, and possibly a part of the consumed
albumen in the plasma.

It can, however, be easily shown that another and a much more
important final result must he considered in the consumption of
the blood-corpuscles. For if, as I have shown, in page 155,
the blood-corpuscles are principally concerned in the consump-
tion of the atmospheric oxygen, then it is clear that the greater
part of the carbon, which is exhaled from the lungs as carbonic
acid, must originate from them, and the source of animal heat
would thus be chiefly attributable to the metamorphosis of the
blood-corpuscles. Consequently, the chemical modifications of
the blood-corpuscles are of at least as much importance as the
act of nutrition in the peripheral system carried on by the
agency of the plasma, inasmuch as they are subservient to the
most essential and indispensable requisite for animal life. The
other purposes of the corpuscles appear also to he subservient
to this great end.

If the blood-corpuscles (from the period of their develop-
ment up to their final solution) convert as large a quantity of
carbon as is generally assumed, into carbonic acid, in order to
maintain a proper degree of temperature, then we cannot be
astonished at the amount of the products of secretion of the

BLOOD.

221

kidneys and liver, -which we have assumed to be consequent on
the metamorphosis of the blood-corpuscles ; for since the animal
matters undergo a chemical change by the elimination of the
carbon, the products which are then formed must be removed,
in order that the blood may retain its normal composition.

In opposition to the assertion that the urea, uric acid, and
hilin are products of the metamorphosis of the blood-corpuscles,
it may be urged that the daily amount of these secretions in-
volves a larger daily consumption of blood-corpuscles than ap-
pears to be consistent with the rate of their reproduction, as far
at least as our knowledge of the act of formation of the corpus-
cles would lead us to infer.

I have mentioned, in page 155, that the blood-corpuscles are
to he regarded as cells, whose development must be considered
as perfectly analogous with the development of other cells. In
absorbing from the plasma the substances requisite for their
nutrition, and in rejecting the products that must be conse-
quent upon the act of absorption, they obviously exert a modi-
fying influence on that fluid. The blood-corpuscles do not,
however, find their way into the circulating fluid in a matured
form, hut their cytoblasts enter it as germs of the future cor-
puscles, and require the assistance of the atmospheric oxygen
to attain their perfect development. The only hypothesis we
can frame regarding the primary formation of the blood-cor-
puscles is, that they are produced from the plasma, that their
entire development and increase of bulk is due to the reciprocal
action of the young blood-corpuscular cells and plasma on
each other at the expense of the latter, and that up to the mo-
ment when the blood -corpuscles cease to discharge their func-
tions as independent organisms in the circulation, every change
that occurs in them must be accompanied by a simultaneous
alteration in their cytoblastema, the plasma.

It may further be urged that, in order to account for the forma-
tion and secretion of urea, uric acid, and bilin, there is no neces-
sity for the assumption that there is a metamorphosis of the blood-
corpuscles. These substances might as easily have been formed
in the process of chylification, or during the conversion of the chyle
into blood, or from the albumen, instead of from the corpuscles.

I have already mentioned that it is by no means probable
that these products of secretion are formed in the act of nutri-

222

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

tion, since they are produced in fasting persons, and even when
nearly all the soft tissues are wasted away.

We do not, however, intend to assert that nutrition exercises •
no influence over these products, or that the peculiar structure
of each secreting organ is not to be considered. Neverthe-
less I cannot agree with certain physiologists who maintain
that in granivorous animals, sugar formed in the chyle is the
cause of the carbonic acid evolved from the lungs, or that urea,
uric acid, and bilin are formed solely from the albumen, and
that the blood-corpuscles take no part in this action ; for the
uniform and simultaneous formation of carbonic acid, urea,
uric acid and bilin, in animals whose food is so varied, and whose
habits and conditions of life are so diversified, renders it pro-
bable that these substances are simultaneously formed, as a
consequence of one and the same metamorphic act. On the
other hand, we must not omit to notice that the occurrence of
the non-nitrogenous hippuric acid in the ruminantia, the ex-
cessive production of uric acid accompanied frequently with a
total absence of urea in birds and amphibia, and the inverse
ratio in which these substances occur in man, monkeys, &c.,
as likewise the different chemical relations of the bile in fishes
and amphibia, point out the influence of nutrition and of the
organization in general on these secretions. What is the ultimate
purpose of the blood-corpuscles in the organism if they do not
participate in the formation of these products, and if they ex-
perience no real material change ? The idea that the nutrition
of the tissues is accomplished by the aggregation of blood-
corpuscles is now abandoned, and the supposition that these
molecules exert a vitalizing influence on the organized tissues
is perfectly unintelligible. I can form no conception of a
blood-corpuscle that is not undergoing a continuous material
change, and I regard this change as the ultimate object of its
existence.

Daily experience shows us that the fluids which are secreted
by the principal glands take their origin from the blood: the
question then arises whether these secretions exist in the blood
itself, that is to say, whether the blood which enters a secreting
organ, as the kidney or liver, indicates a difference of composi-
tion as it leaves that organ. At first sight we should doubt-
less answer this question in the affirmative; but taking into

BLOOD.

223

consideration the rapidity of the circulation, and the short space
of time in which the same blood is supposed to remain in an
organ, it is obvious that the detection of the changes in the
blood, due to the removal of the secretions, will be a task, if not
absolutely impossible, at least extremely difficult.

The question whether the blood of the same individual pos-
sesses any traceable differences, is most intimately connected with
the physico-chemical “ momentum” of the circulation; although
sufficient facts and experiments are still wanting to enable the
point to be decisively settled, I believe from an estimate of all
that is at present known on the subject, that we are warranted
in the assumption that there does exist a difference in the
blood of one and the same individual.

According to Hering’s experiments,1 (in which he injected
ferrocyanide of potassium into the veins of horses,) the blood
performs the circuit of the body in from 20 to 30 seconds.
Several authorities are opposed to this statement. It is evident
that the blood, as it issues from the heart, proceeds in smaller
and larger circles; the smallest are those which it describes
through the heart itself and the lungs, the larger are those
through the extremities, and it must require different times to
go over these different spaces, and besides this, its course is
differently impeded in the capillary system of the different or-
gans. Thus one portion of the blood may frequently pass
through the heart and lungs, while another portion has only
made one complete circuit, and traces of the injected ferrocy-
anide of potassium which permeates uniformly the whole mass
of the blood, may therefore be found after a short time in parts
of the system remote from the heart, which have not gone the
perfect circuit through the heart, lungs, and all the organs.
This appears to be very evident from the fact that some of
those salts which are supposed to be rapidly eliminated by the
kidneys, may be detected for a considerable period in the blood.
Thus I observed,2 that when iodide of potassium was taken at
four o’clock in the afternoon, its presence was traceable in the
urine till nine the next morning ; and Tiering3 found ferrocy-

1 Treviranus Zeitschrift fiir Pliysiologie, 1832, p. 85.

2 Simon, Die Frauenmilch nach ihrem chemischen und physiologischen Verlialten.
Berlin, 1838, p. 75.

3 Op. cit. p. 96.

224

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

anide of potassium in the urine of a horse two days after it
had been injected. Hence the whole mass of the blood occu-
pies a considerable time in passing through the renal arteries,
or else the kidneys do not remove all the foreign constituents
from the blood that passes through them.

Others have calculated the rapidity of the circulation by the
quantity of blood projected by the heart at each systole. Reck-
oning this quantity at from 1 to 2 ounces, and the whole amount
of blood in the human body at 30 pounds, it would take from
3 to 7 minutes (assuming the pulse to be 75 in the minute) for
all this blood to pass through the heart. Since, however, the
blood in the smaller circles passes more frequently through the
heart in a given time than the blood in the larger circles, and
since it is variously impeded and delayed in the different
organs, we must not consider that the absolute mass of the
blood of the whole body is represented by the identical 30 pounds
which pass through the heart in from 3 to 7 minutes. The
quantity of blood in an adult has likewise never been accurately
determined. Hales places it at 25 pounds ; the maximum is,
however, calculated to amount to 30 pounds ; and wrhen we
consider the extremely large quantity of blood that is retained
in the capillary vessels, this estimate is probably too low.

That the rapidity with which the blood circulates varies in-
versely with the distance from the heart is an established fact.
In the capillary system its progress is the most torpid. Omitting
the consideration of the various mechanical impediments that
meet the blood in the capillaries, it must be remembered that,
if the blood is the real nutrient fluid of the body, there must
be a necessary attraction between it and the organs it has to
nourish. The blood in the capillary network permeates the
tissues, or (to speak more correctly) the cells of the tissues at-
tract from the blood their proper nutriment. It is clear that
this must delay the course of the blood in the peripheral sys-
tem, to what amount it is impossible to say, but in all proba-
bility the delay will vary directly with the intensity of the ac-
tion between the blood and the tissues, and with the amount of
the change of matter. The greatest dclajr will most probably
occur in the kidneys and in the liver, since they afford the
largest amount of secreted matters. Even if the amount of the
secretions did not indicate a heightened cellular activity, it

BLOOD.

225

would be sufficiently proved by the structure of the organs
themselves, for they are permeated by such an extremely abun-
dant and dense capillary network, and such very delicate venous
twigs closely encircle their excretory ducts, that the tissue is
brought in contact with the blood at every point and in every
direction.

The chemical constitution of these organs is likewise so pe-
culiar, that we might infer that the cells would exert a particu-
lar influence; for the muscular tissue, serous membrane, lung, &c.
when triturated with water, yield little else than some of the
constituents of the blood from the capillary vessels, while the
liver and kidneys by trituration yield a pappy mass, which is for
the most part soluble in water, contains much fat in a state of
suspension, and leaves only a small amount of solid residue
(18-9§ in the liver, and, according to Berzelius, even less in the
kidneys), consisting of shreds of vessels and membranes.

From the observations already made, we may infer that the
blood undergoes a much more rapid metamorphosis in the kid-
neys and liver than in the tissues of the muscles, bones, See. If
it were possible to determine the time during which the same
blood remains in these organs, then we might decide with some
degree of certainty whether the blood which emerges from them
differs in its composition from that which enters them. We
have seen that there are reasons for assuming that the circula-
tion is delayed in these organs. If we suppose, with Haller,1
that the eleventh part of the whole blood passes through the
kidneys, and that, consequently, at each systole of the heart four
scruples are driven into them, then, assuming that the kidneys
contain from four to six ounces of blood, and that the rapidity
of the circulation in them is the same as in the aorta, the same
blood will remain in these organs for about one third or one
half of a minute. But taking into consideration the various
facts that we have adverted to regarding the impeded circulation
in these organs, we can scarcely doubt that the blood is detained
in them for a very considerable period. According to a calcu-
lation made by Keil, and quoted by Hales in his ‘ Medical
Statics/ the blood remains in the kidneys for several hours.

R. Wagner2 measured the rapidity with which a blood-cor-

a Lehrbuch <ler Physiologic, part 2, p. 193.

1 Elem. Phys., vol. 2, p. 407.

226

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

puscle moves in the capillary system, and found that it tra-
versed a course of from 12 to 15 lines in the course of a minute.
If the motion of the corpuscles and of the blood is supposed to
be equal, and if the blood progresses in the large vascular trunks
at the rate of eight inches in one second, and consequently 480
inches in one minute, then the rapidity of the blood in the
larger trunks will be to the rapidity in the capillaries in the
ratio of from 480 — 384 : 1 ; a calculation tending to show that
the blood remains in the kidneys for a space of from one to
two hours.

To this it may be objected that the phenomena of resorp-
tion are opposed to these results, and that if the renal veins
convey away as much blood as is conducted to the kidneys by
the renal arteries, this protracted delay would be impossible.
We cannot, however, determine with certainty the amount
of blood that enters the kidneys, for there is no necessity that
the whole mass of the blood should flow through them as through
the lungs ; moreover, only one branch of the aorta enters this
viscus, and while the tendency of the blood is to flow in the
direction in which it meets with the least opposition, there is,
perhaps, no organ in the whole body that offers a greater re-
sistance than the kidney. The chemical change that the blood
nndergoes in the kidneys must likewise be much more rapid
than in the capillary vessels of many other tissues, since, in ad-
dition to the large amount of secretion that they yield, a por-
tion of the consumed blood is carried away by the lymphatic
vessels.

Let us now endeavour to ascertain how long it would be ne-
cessary for the blood to remain in the kidney, in order that the
contents of the renal veins should exhibit chemical peculiarities
dependent on the action of the gland. Assuming that a healthy
man secretes about 40 ounces of urine in 24 hours, and that
the change dependent on the secretion of 10 ounces of urine
from 1000 ounces of blood may be detected by the changed
proportion of the water, then, omitting all consideration of the
lymphatic vessels, 4000 ounces of blood would pass through the
kidney in 24 hours, in order to separate 40 ounces of urine.
According to this calculation, 250 pounds of blood would pass
through the kidneys in 24 hours, about 10 pounds in one hour,
and 1 pound in six minutes ; and assuming that both kidneys

BLOOD.

22 7

contain six ounces of blood, this blood must lie retained in them
for at least two minutes. This period is much shorter than
those deduced by Keil and Wagner, in which it amounts to
hours.

I think we may fairly conclude, from the preceding ob-
servations, that the changes which the blood undergoes in its
composition while passing through the kidneys and liver, are
appreciable ; for if we have shown the probability of the cor-
rectness of the statement in the case of the kidneys, there can
be no question that it is true in the case of the liver, which is
everywhere permeated by the torpidly circulating blood of the
vena portae.

On the absolute composition of healthy venous blood.

It cannot be doubted but that the blood of different indivi-
duals in a state of perfect health will exhibit differences of com-
position, and that it would be the merest chance if the compo-
sition of the blood of two persons were found to be precisely
the same. The circumstances capable of inducing a change in
the composition of the blood are very numerous. Different
methods of life, and various modes of nourishment, might cause
such changes; but, independently of these external influences,
there are others connected with the individual which must mo-
dify, to a greater or lesser degree, the composition of the blood,
as, for instance, the influences of sex, age, and temperament.

It is extremely difficult to determine a formula for the com-
position of normal blood that would serve as a standard, by
comparison with which we might detect absolute deviations in
other forms and specimens of blood, on account of the variable
nature of the fluid, changing even in the same individual at
different periods of the day, and in accordance with the food
that has been taken.

In a medical point of view, the composition of venous blood
is the most interesting, because it is from the veins that blood
is almost always taken in disease, and because venous blood
can naturally only be compared with venous blood for the pur-
pose of ascertaining any deviations that may occur.

Before attempting to give a decided opinion on the normal
composition of venous blood, it would be requisite that nume-
rous accurate analyses of the blood of healthy males and females

228

CIllCULATING FLUIDS :

of different ages should be instituted. Possibly we should also
regard the influence of their various inodes of life, and (if we
ascribe any influence to the circumstance) of their temperaments.

Experiments of this nature are still wanted, and the contri-
butions hitherto made with that object by no means meet the
exigencies of the case. Many difficulties present themselves in
such an investigation.

It is not an easy matter to select individuals from whose state
of health we can infer that the composition of the blood closely
approximates to the normal standard, and after tbe selection
is made it is still harder to convince them of the advantage or
necessity of venesection in their own cases.

I was obliged to content myself with two such analyses, one
of the blood of a young man, the other of an unmarried female.

Analysis 13. N — , aged 17 years, a servant, of sanguineous
temperament, nearly full grown and properly developed, chest
well arched, respiratory and digestive organs healthy, coun-
tenance florid and blooming, was bled from the arm. The
blood was apparently rather brighter than usual, and when al-
lowed to stand, separated into a bright red, uniformly coloured,
copious, and properly consistent clot, and a clear bright yellow
serum.

A portion of the blood was whipped as soon as it was drawn,
and the analysis was conducted in accordance with my ordi-
nary plan.

1000 parts contained :

Water .

791-900

Solid residue

208-100

Fibrin .

* . .

2-011

Fat

. .

1-978

Albumen

75-590

Globulin

. . •

105-165

Hasmatin

7-181

Extractive matter and salts

14-174

100 parts of blood-corpuscles contained 6-3 of hfematin and haemaphaein.

Analysis 14. S — , a servant girl, aged 28 years; tempera-

ment rather phlegmatic than sanguineous; tall, strong, and vigo-
rous ; countenance healthy; digestion good; had menstruated a
fortnight before. The blood from the arm appeared rather
dark, and on being left to itself separated into a considerable
clot, and bright, clear yellow serum.

BL001).

229

1000 parts of this blood contained:

Water ....

798-056

Solid residue

201-344

Fibrin ....

2-208

Fat

2-713

Albumen ....

77-610

Globulin ....

100-890

Haematin ....

5-237

Extractive matter and salts

9-950

100 parts of blood-corpuscles contained 5-2 of hannatin and haemaphaein.

These two analyses indicate a great similarity between the
blood in both sexes in a state of health; and if, in the absence
of other and better experiments, we venture to take these as
descriptive of the composition of normal blood, we may give its
leading features in the following terms. It contains about 20g
of solid constituents ; not much more than 0-2£ of fibrin, and
about an equal quantity of fat ; the blood-corpuscles considerably
exceed the albumen in quantity, and contain about 5§ or 6g of
colouring matter.

Lecanu, although his method of analysing the blood is dif-
ferent, obtains similar results. He has given in his Thesis,1
ten analyses of healthy venous blood, which I shall here com-
municate.

Extractive matter.

Age.

W ater.

Solid residue.

Albumen. Blood-corpuscles.

salts, and colouring

matter.

780-210

219-790

72-970

132-820

14-000

790-900

209-100

71-560

128-670

8-870

782-271

217-729

66-090

141-290

10-349

783-890

216-109

67-890

148-450

9-770

805-263

194-757

65-123

117-484

12-120

801-871

198-129

65-389

121-640

11-100

785-881

214-119

64-790

139-129

10-200

778-625

221-375

62-949

146-885

11-541

788-323

211-677

71-061

131-688

8-928

795-870

204-130

78-120

115-850

10-010

The mean

of these

analyses

would give —

789-320

210-680

68-059

132-490

10-688

From these analyses we therefore obtain about 21g of solid
residue, and a larger proportion of blood-corpuscles than albu-
men. Lecanu assigns to the fibrin rather a larger proportion
than I do, viz. ’29g.

1 Etudes chimiqucs sur lc Sang liumain, etc., p. G2.

230

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

The analyses of Denis, (although from the very different
manner in which they were conducted, their results cannot
very well be compared with mine,) upon the whole, support my
statements with regard to the proportions in which the most
important constituents occur.

I shall give some of his analyses in a condensed form, re-
ducing them to the relative proportions of water, solid residue,
fibrin, blood-corpuscles, and albumen.

The venous blood of healthy men contained in 1000 parts :

No' in Ace.

Denis’s work.

Water.

Solid residue. Fibrin. Albumen.

Blood-corpuscles.

733-0

267-0

2-3

55-0

182-9

732-0

268-0

2-5

60-0

181-4

766-0

234-0

62-2

149-2

758-0

242-0

62-0

155-0

733-0

267-0

2-7

52-3

186-0

748-0

252-0

2-5

550

170-6

770-0

230-0

2-3

570

145-3

800-0

200-0

60-0

114-8

790-0

2100

2-7

56-0

131-6

781-0

219-0

2-5

61-0

130-4

The

venous

blood of women gave

, in

1000 parts

780-0

220-0

2-5

60-0

133-4

773-0

227-0

2-9

59-0

1400

786-0

214-0

60-0

126-0

795-0

205-0

2-1

58-4

110-3

The venous blood of virgins gave.

1000 parts :

814-0

186-0

2-7

60-0

100-0

774 0

226 0

2-7

68-4

131-5

760-0

240-0

2-7

50-0

162-4

In my observations on Denis’s method of analysing blood I
pointed out the reasons why some of the constituents would
not be correctly determined. It is obvious that, in these
analyses, two of my characteristics of healthy venous blood,
namely, the proportions both of the solid constituents and of
the blood-corpuscles are given in excess. I fix the proportion
of the solid residue by an exact determination of the water, at
about 20;j, whereas these analyses would bring it up to 26-8§.
Still greater discrepancies occur in the relative proportion of
the albumen to the blood-corpuscles. In my analyses the pro-
portion of the albumen to the luematoglobulin (the principal

BLOOD.

231

constituent of the blood-corpuscles) is as 75 : 100 or 1 : 1-5.
The proportion assigned by Lecauu is much the same, but ap-
proximates to the ratio 1:2; whereas Denis’s proportion is
usually 1 : 3 and often higher. Denis’s amount of fibrin is
larger than mine, but less than Lecanu’s, for if the mean of
the first 10 of his analyses be taken, the result is -24£,

In the estimation of the colouring matter there are, as might
have been anticipated, considerable differences. The mean of
my two analyses gives it as G'2 in 1000 parts of blood; and in
100 parts of licematoglobulin the average is 5-7.

This quantity of colouring matter, when estimated, according
to my method, from an analysis of 8 — 12 grains of dried blood,
contains, moreover, luemapiuein and some fat ; in consequence
of the very small proportion in which the two latter occur,
(the former being frequently not more than from T4 to '3,
and the latter about -3 of a grain,) I seldom attempted their
separation unless I had reason to believe that a consider-
able quantity of hcemapluein was present. The quantity of
luematin, in my two analyses, is therefore placed rather too high.
Lecanu estimates the lisematin in 1000 parts of blood at 2'2 7,
which is considerably less than half my average. This dif-
ference is owing partly to the circumstance of Lecanu’s analyses
being made with blood-corpuscles not thoroughly deprived
of their fibi’in, and which possibly retained a portion of
moisture, and partly to the fact that Lecanu, by working on
larger quantities, was enabled to remove all the lnemaplueii l
and fat. The average quantity of peroxide of iron in Denis’s
experiments amounted to ‘09", which would correspond (accord-
ing to my own and Lecanu’s analyses,) with about 09 of
haematin.

From the 10 analyses of man’s blood, the mean quantity of
blood-corpuscles is 15-8”. Hence Denis perfectly agrees with
me in the consideration that the blood-corpuscles contain 5-7D
of haematin.

I have not attempted any separation of the salts : Denis
has, however, in all his analyses, determined the carbonates,
phosphates, and chlorides.

It results from his important and elaborate observations,
that although the relative proportions of the salts vary con-
siderably, the limits to which they are restricted are not very

232

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

extended. I sliall now give the quantity of the salts in the
10 analyses of man’s blood, preserving the same order of suc-
cession as before.

1000 parts of healthy

venous

blood in

a man

contained :

No. in

Denis's work.

Carbonate

Chloride

Chloride Carbonate

Phosphate of lime.

Age.

soda.

sodium.

potasssium.

lime.

with traces of
phosphate of magnesia.

2-0

4-9

3-9

2-8

0-6

2-0

4-2

3-6

2-6

0-8

1-2

4-0

1-2

0-7

4-0

2-0

0-3

2-1

5-2

2-3

1-8

0-4

1-3

4-9

2-5

1-3

0-5

2-0

4-2

3-5

2-7

0-5

5-0

1-0

1-3

0-2

4-0

2-1

1-3

0-5

1-5

4-2

3-2

1-7

0-5

The mean deduced from these 10 analyses is —

47 1-6 4-4 2-7 1-8 0-5

And the average proportion of the salts, collectively, would
be 11T in 1000 parts of blood.

[Nasse has analysed human blood, and found in 100 parts :

Water

798-402

Solid constituents

201-598

Fibrin

2-233

Fat

1-970

Albumen

74-194

Blood-corpuscles

116-529

Soluble salts ....

6-672

The soluble salts consisted of —

Alkaline phosphates

0-823

Alkaline sulphates ....

0-202

Alkaline carbonates

0-957

Chloride of sodium

4-690

The insoluble salts were also estimated

6-672

as follows :

Peroxide of iron ....

0-834

Lime

0-183

Phosphoric acid ....

0-201

Sulphuric acid ....

0-052

1-270

The insoluble salts and extractive matters are probably in-
cluded, in Nassc’s analysis, in the albumen.

BLOOD.

233

Becquerel and Rodier have recently published an elaborate
memoir on the composition of the blood in health and disease.
Their method of analysis is founded on nearly the same prin-
ciples as that of Andral and Gavarret, which will he found at
the commencement of our section on Diseased Blood.

The following table is drawn up from the analyses of the
blood of 1 1 men, varying in age from 21 to 56 years, all of whom

were considered by the experimenters to be in perfect health.

Mean.

Max.

Min.

Density of defibrinated blood

1060-2

1062-0

1058-0

Density of serum

1028-0

1030-0

1027-0

Water ....

799-0

800-0

760-0

Solid constituents

201-0

240-0

200 0

Fibrin ....

2-2

3-5

1-5

Fat' ....

3-2

6-6

2-0

Albumen

69-4

73-0

62-0

Blood-globules

1411

152-0

131-0

Extractive matters and salts

6-8

8-0

5-0

1000 parts of incinerated

blood contained :

Mean.

Max.

Min.

Chloride of sodium .

3-10

4-20

2-30

Other soluble salts

2-50

3-20

2-00

Earthy phosphates

0-33

0-70

0-22

Iron ....

0-56

0-63

0-51

The composition of the

blood in the healthy female, as

deduced from eight analyses,

is given in

the following table :

Mean.

Max.

Min.

Density of defibrinated blood

1057-5

1060-0

1054-0

Density of serum

1027-4

1030-0

1026-0

Water ....

791-1

813-0

773-0

Solid constituents

208-9

227-0

187-0

Fibrin ....

2-2

2-5

1-8

Fat3 ....

2-2

5-7

2-0

Albumen

70-5

75-5

65-0

Blood-globules

127-2

137-5

113-0

Extractive matters and salts

7-4

8-5

6-2

1 This fat contained :

Mean.

Max.

Min.

Serolin

0-020

0-080

inappreciable.

Phosphorized fat

0-488

1-000

0-270

Cholesterin

0-088

0175

0-030

Saponified fat . .

1-004

2-000

0-700

3 This fat contained :

Serolin

0-020

0-060

inappreciable.

Phosphorized fat

0-4G4

0-800

0-250

Cholesterin

0-090

0-200

0 025

Saponified fat

1-046

1-800

0-725 r

234

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

1000 parts of the incinerated blood contained :

Chloride of sodium .

Mean.

3-90

Max.

4*00

Min.

3-50

Other soluble salts .

. •

2-90

3-00

2-50

Earthy phosphates .

0-35

0-65

0-25

Iron

•

0-54

0-57

0-48

The salts have been analysed by Marchand. They amount

(he observes) to 6-28-

—6-822 of the dried residue.

The four

following analyses are

given in

his ‘ Lehrbnch der

Physiolo-

gischen Chemie

Chloride of sodium

3-91

3-42

3-81

3-82

Chloride of potassium

0-32

0-21

0-31

0-38

Carbonate of soda

0-62

0-52

0-72

0-61

Sulphate of soda

0-31

0-52

0-38

0-42

Phosphate of soda .

0-56

0-72

0-68

0-59

Phosphate of lime .

0-25

0-31

0-28

0-30

Phosphate of magnesia

0-21

0-20

0-25

0-28

Lactate of soda

0-32

0-28

0-35

0-34

Lactate of ammonia

0-12

0-10

0-00

0-08

. .

—

■

—

6-62

6-28

6-78

6-82

In 100 parts of the ash of human blood there are contained,

according to Enderlin :

Tribasic phosphate of soda (3Na, P05) .

22-100

Chloride of sodium ....

Chloride of potassium

54-769 /

^ L=83-740 soluble salts.

Sulphate of soda ....

2-461 J

Phosphate of lime ....

3-636-j

Phosphate of magnesia

0-769 1=15-175 insoluble salts.]

Peroxide of iron and phosphate of iron .

10-770 J

On the differences of the blood, dependent on sex.

Lecanu1 concludes from his analyses that the venous blood
of males is richer in solid constituents than that of females, but
that the quantity of albumen in both is the same. The follow-
ing are the maxima, minima, and mean results of his analyses :

Maximum

Minimum

Mean

Water in venous Wood
of men.

805-263

778-625

791-944

Ditto in that
of females.
853-135
790-394
821-764

Maximum .

Minimum

Mean

Albumen in ditto.
78-270
57-890
68-080

Albumen in ditto.
74-740
59159
66-949

1 Etudes cliimiques, etc., p. 65 ; or Journal de Pharmacie, vol. 18, p. 551.

BLOOD.

235

Having only made two analyses of the blood of healthy persons,
I am not in a position to draw any inferences regarding differ-
ences in its composition, dependent upon sex. I have, however,
deduced, from Denis’s analyses, a table indicating the differences
that exist between male and female blood, at the same age.

Bloed of Males :

Water.

Blood-corpuscles.

Albumen.

Fibrin.

Maximum .

790-0

187-1

63-0

2-9

Minimum .

733-3

102-0

52-3

2-1

Mean

758-0

147-0

57-5

2-5

Blood of Females :
Maximum .

820-0

162-4

66-4

Minimum .

750-0

88-1

50-0

0-25

Mean

773-0

138-0

61-2

0-27

Hence it appears that the analyses of Denis1 hear out
Lecanu’s statement with regard to the smaller proportion of
water in male than in female blood : the albumen, however,
appeal’s to be rather more abundant in female than in male
blood. The proportion of blood-corpuscles is smaller, and of
fibrin rather larger than in the blood of the male.

[From the analyses of Becquerel and Itodier, it appears that
the influence of sex is so great, that, in order to arrive at any
correct conclusions respecting the deviation of morbid blood
from the healthy standard, diseased male and female blood must
be always contrasted with the respective male and female blood
in a state of health. The mean differences may be seen by a
glance at the following table :

Density of defibrinated blood

Male.

1060-0

Female.

1057-5

Density of serum ....

1028-0

1027-4

Water

779-0

791-1

Fibrin ......

2-2

Sum of fatty matters

1-60

1-62

Serolin .....

0-02

Phospborized fat ...

0-488

0-464

Cholesterin ....

0-088

0-090

Saponified fat

1-004

1-046

Albumen

69-4

70-5

Blood-corpuscles ....

141-1

127-2

Extractive matters and salts

6-8

7-4

Chloride of sodium

3-1

3-9

Other soluble salts

2-5

2-9

Earthy phosphates

0-334

0-354

Iron

0-566

0-541

Op. cit. p. 290.

236

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

Hence female blood differs materially from the blood of the
male in tlie amount of water and of blood-corpuscles.]

On the differences of the blood, dependent on constitution.

Denis concludes from bis analyses that, generally speaking,
the stronger the constitution is, the greater will be the amount
of solid constituents, and especially of blood-corpuscles. If
age is also taken into consideration, my observations confirm
those of Denis. At equal ages, the blood in weak constitutions
is less abundant in solid constituents and hEematoglobulin than
in stronger constitutions.

On the differences in the blood, dependent upon temperament.

According to Lecanu,1 temperament has an influence upon
the composition of the blood. He infers from his analyses that
the blood of lymphatic persons is poorer in solid constituents,
and especially in blood-corpuscles, than that of persons of san-
guineous temperament, while the quantity of albumen is much
the same in both. The following table will illustrate these
views.

1000 parts of blood contained on an average :

Water

Albumen

Blood-corpuscles

Men of sanguineous
temperament.

786-584

65-850

136-497

Men of lymphatic
temperament.

800-566

71-781

116-667

Water

Albumen

Blood-corpuscles

Women of sanguineous
temperament.

793-007

71-264

126-174

Women of lymphatic
temperament.

803-710

68-660

117-300

On the differences in the blood, dependent on age.

My own observations, which, however, chiefly refer to dis-
eased blood, lead to the conclusion that the blood of young
persons contains a larger proportion of solid constituents, and
especially of blood-corpuscles, than that of older persons. Lecanu
and Denis have, however, made this a point of especial inquiry,
and have extended their analyses over a wide range of ages.

1 Op. cit. p. 66.

BLOOD.

237

I have drawn up the following table from the numerous
analyses of Denis, the blood being considered healthy.

1000 parts of healthy blood of males contained :

Age.

14 years.

Water.

750-4

Solid residue.
249-6

Fibrin.

4-0

Blood-corpuscles.

162-2

Albumen.

58-0

733-0

267-0

2-3

182-9

55-0

732-0

268-0

2-5

181-4

60-0

766 0

234-0

2-1

150-1

62-2

783-0

217-0

2-9

129-3

60-0

750-0

250-0

2-5

167-8

55-1

769-0

231-0

2-5

156-9

48-5

748-0

252-0

2-5

170-9

55-0

790-0

210-0

2-6

100-0

63-0

798-0

202-0

3-0

111-0

63-0

800-0

200-0

3-1

114-8

60-0

790-0

210-0

2-7

132-3

56-0

781-0

219-0

2-5

130-4

61-0

1000 parts

of healthy blood of females contained

833-0

167-0

2-8

80-5

64-0

820-0

180-0

2-5

97-6

59-0

787-0

213-0

2-3

130-0

57-0

774-0

226-0

2-5

135-7

65-0

772-0

228-0

2-5

144-2

57-0

780-0

220-0

2-5

133-4

60-0

750 0

250-0

173-4

51-0

774-0

226-0

2-7

131-5

68-4

786-0

214-0

3-1

126-0

60-0

820-0

180-0

2-9

88-1

68-0

745-0

255-0

2-5

171-1

55-0

It appears from these tables, especially from the second,
that the blood is loss abundant in solid constituents, and par-
ticularly in blood-corpuscles in early life, than at the period of
maturity. From the latter period (or rather sooner) to middle
life the proportions of the corpuscles and of the solid constitu-
ents continues large ; from that time to an advanced age they
. are subject to a decrease. [Becquerel and llodicr observe that,
after the age of 40 or 50, there is a decided and progressive in-
crease of cholesterin in the blood.]

Denis has made a comparative analysis of the blood of
the mother and of the foetus ; he found that the latter was
richer in solid constituents and in blood-corpuscles than the
former.

238

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

The two following analyses, one of the venous blood of the
mother, the other of the placental blood as it issued from the
artery of the cord, may serve as an additional illustration of
the point.

The blood of the umbilical artery was of a brown-red colour,
smelled of the liquor amnii, and became of a brighter colour on
being exposed to the air.

Water ....

Venous blood of
mother.

781-0

Blood of
umbilical artery

701-5

Solid residue .

219-0

298-5

Fibrin ....

2-4

2-2

Albumen

50-0

Blood-corpuscles

139-9

222-0

Peroxide of iron

0-8

Phosphorized fat

9-2

7-5

Ozmazome and cruorin

4-2

2-7

Salts ....

12-5

12-1

The difference in the solid constituents and in the blood-
corpuscles is obviously very considerable ; the same is the case
with the iron, the ratio being 1 to 2-5.

The mass of the blood in the foetus increases in a very rapid
ratio with the development. The proportion of corpuscles is
more augmented, and the quantity of water is less than occurs
at any subsequent period of life. Even for some time after
birth the mass of the blood is relatively large, and the propor-
tion of blood-corpuscles and of iron contained in them is con-
siderably above the ordinary standard.

Denis has made some experiments on the difference between
the blood of very young animals and those of mature age,
which confirm the observations already made. His experi-
ments were instituted on dogs.

Blood of a dog.

Blood of a puppy,

3 months old.

1 day old.

Water ...

830-0

780-0

Solid residue

170-0

220-0

Fibrin ....

2-4

Albumen

58-6

46-0

Blood-corpuscles

97-0

1650

Extractive matter and salts

12-0

7-0

When the shin of the new-born animal loses its red tint,
the blood becomes more watery, the blood-corpuscles and the
quantity of iron are diminished, and it becomes relatively, but

BLOOD.

239

not absolutely, poorer, for its quantity at the same time in-
creases. Subsequently, however, when the generative powers
begin to be developed, the corpuscles and the iron increase, and
the relative proportion of water diminishes. At the period of
full development the excess of corpuscles and iron serve in
maintaining the necessary energy of that part of the system,
and till the generative powers begin to flag the blood remains
abundant in solid constituents, and more especially in corpuscles.

These observations are suggested by the results obtained by
Denis,1 as will be clearly seen by the following table, which
was drawn up by that chemist himself.

The mean amount of solid constituents and of blood-corpus-
cles at different ages are given in the following proportions.

Solid constituents. Blood-corpuscles.

In 5 individuals between 5 months and 10 yrs.

170

10 years

and 20 yrs.

200

>»

240

220

210

The following table shows that Lecanu’s analyses confirm
those of Denis and myself.

Age.

Water.

Solid residue.

Blood-corpuscles.

Albumen.

778-625

221-375

.146-885

62-949

788-323

211-677

131-688

71-061

795-870

204-130

115-850

78-120

783-890

216-110

148-450

67-890

780-210

219-790

132-820

72-970

805-263

194-737

117-484

65-123

801-871

198-129

121-640

65-389

ON DISEASED

BLOOD.

The pathological chemistry of the blood.

The question whether there exists such a thing as diseased
blood is easily answered. The material deviations from its
normal condition exhibited by the blood in its physico-chemical
relations, in certain morbid conditions of the system, have long
been recognized, by pathologists.

1 Reclierches, pp. 289, 290.

240

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

The quantity of the fibrin is sometimes found to be very
much increased, while in other cases it is present only in such
very small proportions that no clot is formed. The blood will
sometimes be found to be very rich in solid constituents, and
especially in blood- corpuscles ; while at other times it will be
so poor as to resemble coloured water. In some instances the
corpuscles will sink rapidly in whipped blood ; while in others
they will only deposit themselves slowly and imperfectly, so that
merely a thin layer of serum remains above them. It will also
sometimes contain substances which are not found in it in a nor-
mal state, as colouring matter of the bile, sugar, or urea. All these
are deviations from the normal state of the blood ; and if we
term that blood healthy, which is constituted in the ordinary
manner, and properly discharges its various functions, we are
perfectly justified in considering blood as diseased which does
not fulfil these conditions.

The analyses published by Andral and Gavarret,1 in then’
elaborate essay upon this subject, correspond in their results,
generally speaking, with those instituted by myself. They,
however, usually assign a higher proportion to the corpuscles
(especially in the blood during inflammatory diseases) than I
have found to occur. It is hardly probable that such differences
should arise from the geographical positions of the observers,
although, generally speaking, the blood may be richer in solid
constituents and in corpuscles, in southern than in northern
regions : it is more likely that they are caused by the different
methods of analyses pursued by the French observers and my-
self. I have tried both methods, and consider it useful, if not
necessary, to state the results of my trial.

In the analyses of Andral and Gavarret, the blood is received
into two six-ounce vessels. The first and fourth quarters are
received in one vessel, the second and third in the other. In
one, the blood is allowed to coagulate spontaneously; in the
other, it is whipped, in order to obtain the fibrin, which must
be carefully washed. When the coagulation is effected, the clot
must be carefully removed from the serum, and we must dry
(a) the fibrin which has been obtained by whipping one portion
of the blood ; (b) the serum ; and (c) the clot. By weighing

' Annul, de Chiinie ct de Pliys. vol. 75, p. 225.

BLOOD.

241

the dried fibrin we know the quantity of that constituent con-
tained in the clot. By weighing the dried serum we know the
proportions of water and of solid constituents contained in it.
Lastly, we weigh the dried clot : the quantity of water which it
gives off is estimated as serum, and the solid residue due to it is
readily calculated. By deducting from the weight of the dried
clot the weights of the fibrin and of the solid residue of the
serum contained in the clot, we obtain the amount of the
globules. Hence we have (1) the weight of the fibrin; (2) the
weight of the globules ; (3) the weight of the solid residue of
the serum ; and (4) the weight of the water.

This method is simple, and easy of application, in cases in
which it is unnecessary to ascertain the proportions of hsematin,
globulin, fat, hsemaplnein, extractive matters, and salts, sepa-
rately. I shall, however, show that an error may easily arise in
the determination of the blood-corpuscles, if the drying has not
been perfectly effected.

In order to ascertain what would be the amount of differences,
I analysed the same blood by their method, and by my own.
About eight ounces of blood were received in a glass, from the
arm of a woman, aged 35 years. It was rapidly stirred ; about
a fourth part of it was poured into a small glass, and the
fibrin removed in the ordinary manner, by whipping. The
larger portion was left to coagulate.

x. Analysis of the defibrinated blood.

The blood, including the fibrin, weighed 950 gi’ains, of which
the fibrin, when washed and thoroughly dried, weighed 1'9 gr.
Hence 1000 parts of blood contain 2-0 of fibrin.

112-42 grains of defibrinated blood left, after the thorough
removal of the water, a solid residue, amounting to 20-33 grs.

Hence 1000 parts of blood contained 180 of solid constitu-
ents ; 7- 7 grains of the dried residue were boiled in spirit of
•925, to which three drops of dilute sulphuric acid were subse-
quently added, as long as the spirit continued to take up any-
thing more, and until a bright gi'ay-green residue was left.
This residue, which is composed of the albumen of the blood,
when dried, weighed 3-31 grains.

The red alcoholic solution was saturated with ammonia, and
evaporated to a small residue. The hsematoglobulin, which se-

242

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

parated perfectly in this way, was then washed several times with
water, dried, and weighed. Its weight amounted to 4 grains.
The extractive matters and salts (including loss) may therefore
be estimated at *39 of a grain.

Now since 1000 parts of the defibrinated blood contain 180
of solid residue, the blood must contain :

Water

. .

. 818-00

Solid residue

•

. 182-00

Fibrin

, ,

2-00

Albumen

. 77-40

Hasmatoglobulin

. 93-60

Extractive matters, salts, and loss

9-00

1000-00

n. Analysis of coagulated blood, according to the method of
Andral and Gavarret.

a. The serum weighed 1406 grains.

b. The clot weighed 1228 grains.

In order to ensure a greater degree of accuracy in my re-
sults, I evaporated only a portion of this quantity.

375T4 grains of the clot when dried, cautiously pulverised,
and again heated, left 112-54 grains. Hence 100 parts of the
clot contained 300 of solid constituents. 449-98 grains of
serum left 42-66 of solid residue, which corresponds therefore
with 9-5g.

1000 parts of blood consist of 533-8 of serum and 466-2 of
clot, of which the serum gives a residue of 50-7, and the clot of
139-86 parts. The solid residue of 1000 parts amounts there-
fore to 190-56.

From the residue of the clot we deduct 2-0 for fibrin, and
31-0 for the solid residue of the serum contained in it, which
must be added to the 50-7. Consequently 1000 parts of blood
contain :

Water

. 809-44

Solid residue

•

. 190-56

Fibrin

2-00

Solid residue of serum

. 79-70

Blood-corpuscles

•

. 108-86
1000-00

BLOOD.

243

The differences between these analyses are obvious. The
solid constituents obtained by Andral and Gavarret’s method are
8-5 higher, in 1000 parts of blood, than by mine ; moreover, the
quantity of corpuscles obtained by them considerably exceeds
the hsematoglobulin separated by my method. If we assume
that the 8-5 parts of water which Andral and Gavarret’s method
did not succeed in removing, were retained in the clot, the cor-
puscles would be reduced from 108-86 to 98-3 ; in which case
the discrepancy between the two analyses would be much less
striking.

1000 parts of blood would then contain :

According to Simon.

Fibrin .... 2'00

Albumen, with extractive matters,
and salts . . . 86-40

Hsematoglobulin . . 93-60

According to Andral and Gavarret.
Fibrin .... 2-00

Solid residue of serum . 80-50

Blood-corpuscles . . 99-50

It must, however, be remarked, that the sum of the hsematin
and globulin, in my analyses, can never represent the absolute
quantity of blood-corpuscles. As has been previously remarked,
the nuclei and capsules of the blood-corpuscles have been esti-
mated as albumen by my method, as fibrin by Berzelius, and
as appertaining to the corpuscles by Anclral and Gavarret.

Their absolute weight has never been accurately ascertained,1
but it cannot be larger, since the quantities of fibrin obtained
by washing the clot, and by whipping fresh blood differ very
little. Further, a portion of fat separated by my method, be-
longs to the blood-corpuscles, and we cannot deny the possi-
bility of the corpuscles containing albumen.

My analyses, moreover, aim not merely at the determination
of the proportion of the fibrin, of the corpuscles, and of the
solid residue of the serum, but they are intended to embrace
the determination of the most important proximate constituents
of the blood ; and if the hsematoglobulin, or possibly the glo-
bulin be regarded as constituting the principal mass of the cor-
puscles, I can succeed in tracing their increase or decrease
by means of the proportion of the hsematoglobulin or globulin.

The following objections may likewise be brought against
Andral and Gavarret’s method.

1 Nasse (Das Blut in mehrfacher Bezieliung, &c., Bonn, 1836, p. 109) has attempted
to form a quantitative analysis of the nuclei.

244

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

In cases where no consistent clot is formed, but where there
is merely a slight gelatinous coagulation, as frequently occurs
in blood deficient in fibrin, the serum and the clot cannot he
separated with any degree of exactness. If the clot he allowed
to stand for some hours in order to induce a more perfect se-
paration of the serum, the water partially evaporates, and the
ratio of the solid constituents of the clot to the water becomes
changed, and consequently too high a number is assigned to
the corpuscles. The difficulty of thoroughly removing the water
varies in a direct proportion with the quantity of the blood
submitted to evaporation. Serum, comparatively poor in solid
constituents, gives only a slight residue, from which the water
can be more readily expelled, than from the more abundant
residue left by the clot : in proportion to the water remaining
in the clot, the quantity of corpuscles found by this method
will be increased, as will be clearly seen by the following
illustration.

1000 parts of blood are composed of 500 parts of serum and
500 of clot.

The serum leaves a solid residue of 50, or 10§; the clot of
150, or 30°.

The 350 parts of water in the clot are to be estimated as
serum, and thus give a residue of 35 parts; so that 1000 parts of
blood, (the fibrin not being taken into consideration) consist of:

Water

800

Solid residue

200

Blood-corpuscles

115

Residue of serum

. .

If, however, the clot had not been perfectly dried, and if
only 1 per cent, of water in relation to the weight of the whole
blood had been retained, we should have obtained the follow-
ing result :

500 parts of clot would then give 160 of solid residue, and
there would therefore be 340 of water, which, estimated as
serum, would yield 34 of residue; consequently the corpuscles
would he estimated at 126, and 1000 parts of blood would
consist of :

Water

790

Solid residue

210

Blood-corpuscles

126

Residue of scrum

# ,

BLOOD.

245

In all other methods of analysing the blood in which the water
is determined by a separate process, and the dried residue is
used for farther investigation, an error in its estimation will
simply increase the absolute quantity of the solid constituents,
without disturbing their relative proportions. But in the ap-
plication of their method it is easy to see that each per-centage
of retained water not only increases the absolute quantity of
the solid constituents to the amount of lg, but also the weight
of the corpuscles, not only by the addition of the retained water,
but also by the weight of the residue of the serum, due to an
equal quantity of water, and which amounts to Tig.

Moreover, the supposition of Andral and Gavarret, that the
humidity of the clot should be considered as serum is totally
devoid of foundation. The corpuscles cannot be supposed to
swim in the plasma as dry molecules, and it has not been
proved that the fluid, with which they are filled, is the fluid of
the serum.

These observations are sufficient to show that Andral and
Gavarret’s method, and my owrn, give somewhat different re-
sults: the differences, however, are not very material, and are
easily explicable on the grounds already stated.

The changes which the composition of the blood may expe-
rience in its various pathological conditions, are either de-
pendent upon the quantity of solid residue generally, or upon
the changed relative proportions that the various proximate
constituents bear to each other.

If we assume the composition of healthy blood, (as deduced
from the mean of my analyses) to be represented by

Water

795-278

Solid residue

204-022

Fibrin

2-104

Fat

2-346

Albumen

76-600

Globulin

103-022

Haematin

6-209

Extractive matters and salts

12-012,

the following differences will be found to occur among the
specimens of diseased blood which I have analysed. The
quantity of —

246

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

Water

. may vary

from 888-0

to 750-0

Solid residue

250-0

112-0

Fibrin

9-1

a trace

Fat

4-3

0-7

Albumen

131-0

55-1

Globulin

106-6

30-8

Hsematin

8-7

1-4

Haematoglobulin .

115-4

31-2

Extractive matters and salts

16-5

7-6

Tlie analyses of the French chemists gave the following
results, with regard to this subject.

Taking the mean of Lecanu’s analyses of healthy blood as a
standard, and contrasting with it the extreme results which
were found by Andral and Gavarret in diseased blood, we have
the following results:

Lecanu’s Analysis.

Water ....

790

Solid residue

210

Fibrin

Organic residue of serum

Inorganic ditto

Blood, corpuscles

127

Andral and Gavarret' s Deviations.

Water

from

915-0 to

725-0

Solid residue .

275-0

85-0

Fibrin

10-5

0-9

Solid residue of serum

114-0

57-0

Blood-corpuscles

185-0

21-0

From these data, it appears, that although the proportions of
all the constituents are subject in disease to a certain amount
of change, the variation is the most striking with regal’d to
the fibrin and globulin.

The former is found in my analyses occasionally to exceed
four times the average quantity, and in Andral and Gavarret’ s,
three and a half times ; while the latter may diminish, accord-
ing to my analyses, to a mere trace; and according to Andral
and Gavarret’ s, to one sixth of the normal quantity.

These determinations must not, however, be regarded as ab-
solute : they are dependent on various causes, and can be ex-
plained in more ways than one.

BLOOD.

247

For instance, the 21 parts of blood-corpuscles were observed
by Andral and Gavarret in blood wbicli left a residue of only
85, wliile the 185 of corpuscles occurred in blood which gave a
residue of 275. Hence the per-centages of the corpuscles in
these two cases, in regard to the solid residue, are 25g and
67;j respectively.

The deviations in the proportions of the various constituents
do not occur singly, for instance, we do not find the other con-
stituents in normal proportions, and the blood-corpuscles alone
very low ; neither are they all found simultaneously deficient or
in excess : but there exists, as we shall soon see, a certain an-
tagonism between the proportions of the individual constituents.
Thus we find that when the fibrin is much increased, the cor-
puscles are diminished in quantity, and vice versa .

In every 100 parts of the residue of healthy blood, we have
1 of fibrin and 53 of haematoglobulin. In diseased blood I
have observed the following proportions :

Fibrin.

Haematoglobulin.

1-4

1-7

2-1

A similar relationship is exhibited in the analyses of Andral
and Gavarret; the range of the corpuscles is, however, not so
extensive.

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles

Healthy blood

1-5

Diseased blood

2-5

3-2

4-2

»»

4-8

5-0

The connexion between the fibrin and blood-corpuscles is
still more strikingly exhibited in some of the analyses of Andral
and Gavarret, in which blood was taken several successive times

248

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

from the same patient. We select four cases by way of illus-
tration :

Vetiesection.

Fibrin.

Blood-

corpuscles.

Fibrin.

Blood-

corpuscles.

Fibrin.

Blood-

corpuscles.

Fibrin.

Blood-

corpuscles.

1st

6-3

130

6-1

123

Ill

5-6

133

7-7

106

7-2

120

5*5

107

5-5

131

8-2

112

7-8

112

101

9-1

128

4th

9-3

103

10-2

101

9-0

9-4

102

In the following table drawn up from Andral and Gavarret’s
analyses, the first column gives the proportions of fibrin and of
corpuscles in 100 parts of solid residue. The second column
does the same, only that in this case the quantity of fibrin is
considered constant, and is represented by 1‘5, and the propor-
tion of corpuscles is estimated accordingly : an arrangement
which makes their increase more obvious.

Fibrin.

Corpuscles.

Fibrin.

Corpusc

Healthy blood

1-5

Diseased blood

1-5

1-3

1-5

1-2

1-5

0-9

1-5

1-0

1-5

1-0

1-5

105

0-5

1-5

180

[Becquerel and Rodier have laid it down as a general law
that “ bleeding exerts a remarkable influence on the composition
of the blood, the greater the oftener the bleeding is repeated.”
The three following tables show the mean results of the first,
second, and third venesections, performed on a certain number
of Cruveilhieris patients. Ten patients were bled rivice, and
ten thrice, so that we have 20 first, 20 second, and 10
third bleedings.

BLOOD.

249

Mean composition of the blood of twenty persons bled twice.

1st Venesection.

2d Venesection.

Density of defibrinated blood

1055-0

1051-2

Density of serum ....

1026-1

1025-3

Water

796-2

812-0

Solid residue

203-8

1880

fibrin

3-7

3-8

Albumen

66-2

62-5

Blood-corpuscles ....

125-4

112-0

Extractive matters and salts

6-8

7-6

Fat

1-657

1-560

Consisting of — Serolin

0 027

0-047

Phosphorized fat

0-490

0-465

Cholesterin

0-178

0150

Saponified fat

0-962

0-900

The salts in 1000 parts of blood

were :

Chloride of sodium . . . .

2-8

3-4

Other soluble salts ....

2-7

2-5

Phosphates

0-435

0-417

Iron

0-527

0-488

Mean composition of the blood of ten persons bled three times.

1st Venesection.

2d Venesection.

3d Venesection.

Density of defibrinated blood

1056-0

1053-0

1049-6

Density of serum

1028-8

1026-3

1025-6

Water ....

793-0

807-7

833-1

Solid residue

207-0

192-3

176-9

Fibrin ....

3-5

3-8

3-4

Albumen

65-0

63-7

64-6

Blood-corpuscles

129-2

116-3

99-2

Extractive matters and salts

7-7

6-9

8-0

Fat . .

1-662

1-584

1-530

Consisting of — Serolin

0026

0-088

0-012

Phosphorized fat 0-637

0-489

0-450

Cholesterin

0-106

0-156

0149

Saponified fat

0-893

0-851

0-919

The salts contained in

1000 parts of blood were:

Chloride of sodium

2-8

3-5

Other soluble salts

2-6

2-5

2-7

Phosphates

0-404

0-493

0-348

Iron ....

0-513

0-471

0-468

From these tables they draw the following conclusions. “In
proportion to the number of venesections the blood becomes im-
poverished and more watery; hence the fall in the density of the
defibrinated blood. The albumen diminishes, but only slightly;

250

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

lienee tlie density of the serum is not much affected. The
fibrin is quite uninfluenced by venesection, and its amount is
determined by the nature and intensity of the disease. The
extractive matters and salts are unaltered. There is a slight
diminution in the amount of fat. The various salts are un-
affected, and the iron, in consequence of its relationship to the
corpuscles, is diminished. In short, the effect of venesection is
to cause a great diminution of the corpuscles, while it only
slightly lessens the amount of albumen.”]

THE FIRST FORM OF DISEASED BLOOD, HYPERINOSIS.l

Chemical characters of the blood.

The blood contains more fibrin than in the normal state, and
the corpuscles decrease in proportion to the excess of fibrin;
the fat is also increased. In proportion to the increase of the
fibrin and fat, and the decrease of the corpuscles, the whole
solid residue will be diminished.1 2

Physical characters of the blood.

The blood coagulates more slowly than in the normal state ;
the clot is usually not small, but very firm and consistent, and
does not brealc up for a considerable time. It is almost in-
variably covered with a true buffy coat, (which is produced by
the sinking of the corpuscles before the occurrence of coagu-
lation, and by the subsequent coagulation of the fibrin in the
layer of serum.)3 This buffy coat is firm, tough, and intimately
connected with the clot; its edge is often turned upwards, and
its surface uneven.4 If the clot is small, the buffy coat and

1 Derived from -tnnp and t, ivog, the fibre of flesh.

2 Nasse (Das Blut in mehrfacher Beziehung, &c.) has arrived at similar conclusions ;
for he observes that the corpuscles and the fibrin are generally in an inverse ratio,
and that blood exhibiting a decided genuine huffy coat is usually of low specific
gravity, that is to say, the amount of water is increased.

3 [The huffy coat does not consist of true fibrin, but of the binoxide and tritoxide
of protein. (See page 10.)]

4 The huffy coat is not exclusively connected with an inflammatory state of the
blood ; it occurs in other diseases, as, for instance, in chlorosis, hut its properties
are then very different. A very elaborate disquisition on the formation, and the
proximate and remote causes of the huffy coat, occurs in Nasse’s work, pp. 36-57’
and 204-240.

BLOOD.

251

the surface of the clot are more or less cupped ; the serum is of
a pure lemou colour, not tinged red. When subjected to
■whipping, the fibrin separates in thicker and more solid masses
than in ordinary blood. After the removal of the fibrin the
corpuscles quickly sink, and frequently occupy only one fourth
of the whole fluid, while, in healthy blood, they sink very im-
perfectly or not at all. The blood has always an alkaline re-
action, and is of a higher temperature than in the ordinary state.

Lauer1 found the temperature of the blood in pneumonia as
high as 100°, and in bronchitis it reached 101°-6. These tem-
peratures are, however, not higher than are met with in healthy
blood.

According to Becquerel the temperature may rise to 50,4 in
inflammatory diseases and fevers.

According to Coupil it amounts, in inflammatory disorders,
to 106° — lll°-7, and at the inflamed region to 1120,4.

The microscope has not yet succeeded in detecting any con-
stant peculiarities.

The blood occurs in a state of hyperinosis in all inflamma-
tory disorders (Phlogoses).

In proportion to the firmness of the clot, the concavity of its
surface, (the cupping,) and the toughness, and thickness of the
buffy coat, is the degree of inflammation; and conversely the
thinner and more friable the clot is, the less intense is the dis-
order. We also find, accompanying these physical symptoms,
an excess of fibrin, and a diminution of hsematoglobulin, as
well as of the solid constituents of the blood generally, and in
proportion to the degree in which these phenomena are ob-
served, we may infer a greater or lesser amount of inflammatory
action.

[Before proceeding to the consideration of individual dis-
eases, we may observe that Becquerel and Rodier have deduced
the following law from their numerous analyses of morbid
blood. “ The development of an inflammatory disorder pro-
duces remarkable modifications in the composition of the blood,
of which the most striking is the increase of fibrin.”2

1 Quaedam de sanguinis different, in Morb. p. 15.

2 The authors merely regard this as a confirmation of the law established by Andral
and Gavarrot, not as an original discovery.

252

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

The following table, extracted from their memoir, gives the

mean results obtained from the analyses of blood
of cases of well marked inflammation.

Males.

in a number

Females.

Density of defibrinated blood

1056-3

1054-5

Density of serum

1027-0

1026-8

Water

791-5

801-0

Solid constituents

208-5

199-0

Fibrin .....

5-8

5-7

Albumen

66-0

65-8

Blood-corpuscles

128-0

118-6

Extractive matters and salts

7-0

7-2

Fat . . . . ,

1-742

1-669

Consisting of — Serolin

0-020

0-024

Phosphorized fat

0-602

0-601

Cholesterin

0-136

0-130

Saponified fat .

0-984

0-914

The salts in 1000 parts of blood were :

Chloride of sodium

3-0

Other soluble salts

2-4

2-7

Phosphates ....

0-448

0-344

Iron

0-490

0-480

By a comparison of these results with the formulae for healthy
blood, (vide supra, p. 233,) we see that only three constituents,
fibrin, cholesterin, and albumen, deviate from the normal
standard. The first two of these constituents are increased,
the last is diminished.]

I. PHLOGOSES OP THE CIRCULATING SYSTEM.

a. Metrophlebitis puerperalis.

In most of the cases of metrophlebitis puerperalis that have
occurred in our lying-in institution as well as in the hospital,
the blood exhibited all the symptoms of hyperinosis. Accord-
ing to Ebert’s observations the clot was rather large, and so
consistent that sections of it still displayed a powerfid and
well-marked tenacity. The surface, which was more or less con-
cave, was either covered with a thin tine huffy coat, or more fre-
quently, with a rather thick, and often discoloured stratum of
gelatinous substance, forming, what is termed, a false huffy
coat. Gelatinous coagula, of a similar nature, were also fre-
quently seen floating in the serum.

BLOOD.

253

The microscope often detects pus in the blood, during the
course of this disease. If, however, the quantity of pus is
only small, its detection may be attended with much diffi-
culty.1 As the presence of pus in the blood has also been
recognised in other pathological conditions, and many obser-
vations have recently been made upon the subject, I shall refer
to this point more particularly when I speak of the presence of
foreign substances in the blood.

I have analysed the blood of two women suffering from me-
trophlebitis puerperalis. The analyses gave :

Analysis 15.

Analysis 16.

Water ....

836-360

785-560

Solid residue

163-640

214-440

Fibrin ....

7-640

4-440

Fat

3-120

4-320

Albumen ....

103-358

112-770

Globulin ....

40-000

74-130

Haematin ....

2-080

3-440

Extractive matters and salts .

7-649

12-390

100 parts of hsematoglobulin con- 1 100 parts of haematoglobulin con-

tained 5-0 of colouring matter. 1 tained 4-6 of colouring matter.

The blood in analysis 15

was taken from

a woman aged

years, who was attacked

in our lying-in

institution with

violent phlebitis uterina the day after her delivery. The pulse
was full and hard, and 140 in the minute, previous to the bleed-
ing. The post-mortem examination revealed a high degree of
inflammation of the veins and of the uterus itself, with a co-
pious deposition of pus.

In analysis 16, the blood was taken from a woman aged 20,
who was seized fourteen days previously to the bleeding with a
violent attack of phlebitis uterina, from which, however, she
recovered by the use of venesection and mercury. Violent
fever afterwards came on, accompanied by pain in the region
of the uterus. The pulse was somewhat full and hard, and
132 in the minute. She died soon after, and the post-mortem
examination proved the accuracy of the diagnosis.

[In a case of plegmasia alba dolens, accompanied with fever,
occurring in a woman aged 21 years, six weeks after delivery,

1 According to Gendrin, when there is pus in the blood, the serum deposits a viscid
urinary-like sediment, or else is turbid and cloudy.

254

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

Becquerel and Kodier found a considerable diminution of the
blood-corpuscles (92‘6,) and an augmentation of the fibrin (4' 2.)
The cholesterin was in excess, ('223,) and the phosphates were
abundant.]

(3. Carditis.

Lecanu1 analysed the blood of three men and five women,
who were suffering from angiocarditis and endocarditis. Un-
fortunately he has made no observations on the physical cha-
racters of the blood, and the quantity of fibrin was also not ascer-
tained. The analysis seems to have consisted simply in the
separation of the clot from the serum, and then ascertaining
the solid residue of each.

The blood of men gave the following results :

Water.

Solid residue.

Residue of serum.

Blood-corpus

821-02

178-98

77-59

101-39

880-48

119-52

77-62

41-90

807-27

192-73

96-35

96-38

ie blood of women

gave :

873-45

126-55

86-10

40-45

868-62

131-38

79-89

51-49

866-61

133-39

89-69

43-70

877-51

122-49

77-00

45-49

845-14

154-86

85-80

0906

Healthy blood 790-00

21000

80-00

130-00

It is much to be regretted that the fibrin was not deter-
mined in these researches, as the proportions of the solid re-
sidue, and especially of the corpuscles, indicate a high degree
of hyperinosis.

Blood taken by repeated venesections from the same patient
during carditis, differs in the following respect from blood simi-
larly taken in cases of bronchitis, pneumonia, peritonitis, rheu-
matism, &c. ; in these latter it becomes gradually poorer in
solid constituents, and especially in corpuscles, while in the
former, at least if we may judge from two analyses of Lecanu,
the reverse takes place.

The man whose blood formed the object of the second analysis,
on venesection being repeated 12 hours afterwards, yielded
blood which left a solid residue of 139T, and the woman from

1 Etudes chimiques, etc., p. 110.

BLOOD.

255

whom the blood in the eighth analysis was derived yielded, on
a repetition of the venesection, blood which contained :

Water

841-62

Solid residue

158-38

Residue of serum

81-79

Blood-corpuscles

76-58

Lecanu noticed in the blood of one of these men a solid
floating mass, (which, when dried, weighed about 100 grains.)
It had a fleshy appearance, and on a section being made it ex-
hibited a solid, loosely attached nucleus, of a brick-red colour,
in the centre, which slowly dissolved in water. On the second
occasion of this patient being bled, the clot presented even a
more singular appearance. It was almost entirely formed of agglo-
merated clusters of small, round, white, grape-like masses, which
were composed centrally of a bright red gelatinous substance.

[In a case of pericarditis with effusion, occurring in a woman
aged 40 years, in which the blood was analysed by Becquerel
and Bodier, the following results were obtained :

Density of defibrinated blood

1st Venesection.
1045-8

2d Venesection.
1042-4

3d Venesection.
1045-5

Density of serum

1023-0

1021-8

1024-3

Water

831-0

847-0

Solid constituents

169-0

153-0

Fibrin

2-3

3-4

Fat

1-094

Albumen

530

51-0

60-4

Blood-corpuscles

105-0

92-0

78-0

In the first analysis the phosphates were in excess (O' 684) ;
in other respects the salts occurred in their normal proportions.

At the period of the third venesection, the heart-symptoms
were much alleviated. The most remarkable feature in this
blood is the extreme diminution of the albumen. There was no
albumen in the urine.]

II. INFLAMMATION OF THE RESPIRATORY ORGANS.

a. Bronchitis.

The blood usually exhibits, at least when the symptoms are
at all urgent, decided indications of hyperinosis. The buffy
coat is scarcely ever absent, the serum is clear, and the clot

25G

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

firm and consistent. The fibrin and fat are always more or
less increased, and the hsematoglobulin diminished.

Analysis 17.

Analysis 18.

Water ....

797-500

757-831

Solid, residue . . .

202-500

242-269

Fibrin ....

4-320

Fat ....

3-650

3-393

Albumen

96-890

109-080

Globulin

76-530

106-650

Htematin

3-200

8-762

Extractive matters and salts

11-560

14-500

100 parts of hsematoglobulin con- 100 parts of hsematoglobulin con-
tained 4-0 of colouring matter. tained 8-4 of colouring matter.

In analysis 1 7 we observe, in a decided degree, the character
of inflammatory blood, as far as regards the large quantities of
fibrin and fat. The quantity of hsematoglobulin, 79-73, is not
so much diminished in proportion to the albumen in this case,
as in those of phlebitis uterina.

The patient was a robust man, of about thirty years of age,
who had only been suffering from the disease three days; pulse
hard and very frequent. The blood of analysis 18 was taken
from a child three years of age, by leeches, which is the reason
why the fibrin was not determined.

Andral and Gavarret1 have analysed the blood in six cases
of bronchitis, and in all the instances in which fever was present,
they found that well-marked character of inflamed blood, an
increased quantity of fibrin. The maximum was 9'3, the mi-
nimum 5-7, in 1000 parts of blood.

I shall now give the results of their analyses.

Venesection. Water. Solid residue. Fibrin. Blood-corpuscles. Solid portion of serum.

1st Case -f 1

763-3

236-7 7-3

148-8

80-6

1 2

793-6

206-4 9-3

110-2

86-9

organic.

inorganic.

2d Case 1

789-6

210-4 6-3

117-6

78-0

8-5

3d Case -f ^

769-5

230-5 5-9

139-6

76-7

8-3

782-2

217-8 5-9

129-4

76-3

6-2

4th Case 1

821-8

178-2 5-8

114-3

58-1

5th Case -f *

800-2

199-8 6-0

131-3

62-5

1 2

808-1

191-9 7-1

125-5

59-3

6th Case 1

808-3

191-7 5-7

98-2

87-8

Healthy blood, -

according to

> 790-0

2100 3-0

127-0

80-0

Lecanu

1 Annal. de Chim. et de Phys., vol. 75,

p. 225.

BLOOD.

257

The decreasing ratio of the corpuscles, and the increasing
ratio of fibrin is less striking in this disease than in pneumonia
and rheumatism. Andral and Gavarret give the following ex-
planation of the first case, in which the high number 148-8 is
assigned to the blood-corpuscles. Tbis individual exhibited
symptoms of typhoid fever at the period at which he was re-
ceived into the hospital. In the second analysis the number
is less by 38-6 than before. The symptoms of typhoid fever
had now disappeared, and made way for those of bronchitis:
the increase of fibrin from 7 3 to 9-3 sufficiently indicates the
progress of inflammation.

In the fourth case the small quantity of solid constituents in
the serum was coincident with a highly albuminous state of the
urine; the patient, who was about 30 years of age, had for
some time been in a weak and emaciated state. The urine in
the fifth case, (a debilitated person 28 years of age, whose
lower extremities were oedematous,) also contained albumen.

Andral and Gavarret have likewise analysed the blood in
chronic bronchitis. They state that, as the febrile symptoms
disappear, and the disease assumes the chronic form, the blood
ceases to exhibit a large excess of fibrin, and in fact does not
differ in any respect from ordinary healthy blood.

The same is the case if the chronic bronchitis is combined
with pulmonary emphysema.

The average of five analyses made on the blood of four per-
sons suffering in this way, scarcely differs from ordinary blood.

Water. Solid residue. Fibrin. Blood-corpuscles. Port‘on

of serum.

Mean of five analyses . 792-7 207-3 3-0 121-0 83-0

Healthy blood (Lecanu) 790-0 210-0 3-0 127-0 80-0

In one of these cases a second venesection was ordered, in
consequence of the severity of the dyspnoea. The blood exhi-
bited a diminution of II in the corpuscles, of -6 in the fibrin,
and of 22 in the solid constituents.

[Scherer has published an analysis of the blood of a woman
in the seventh month of pregnancy, who was suffering from
bronchitis, and probably from tubercular phthisis. The serum
had a specific gravity of 1022-69, and contained in 1000 parts :
Water .... 911-516

Solid residue . . . 88-484

258

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

The solid residue consisted of :

Albumen

77-978

Extractive matters

0-977

Salts

9-529

The whole blood contained, in 1000 parts :

Water .

825-698

Solid residue

174-302

Fibrin

4-568

Albumen

70-636

Blood-corpuscles .

71-069

Extractive matters

20-178 (?)

Soluble salts

6-399

Earthy phosphates

1-825

The serum presented a sin

gular milky appearance, aiising

from the presence of numerous

minute granules in suspension.

No fat-vesicles could be recognized by the microscope.

Becquerel and Itodier have analysed the blood

in eight cases

of acute bronchitis, four males

and four females.

The mean

results are expressed in the following table :

Males.

Females.

Density of defibrinated blood

1056-7

1056-6

Density of serum

1027-1

1027-7

Water

793-7

803-4

Solid constituents

206-3

196-6

Fibrin .....

4-8

3-5

Fat . ’

1-621

1-715

Albumen . . . ' .

64-9

68-8

Blood-corpuscles

129-2

115-3

Extractive matters and salts

5-8

7-3

The salts consisted of :

Chloride of sodium

3-2

3-3

Other soluble salts

2-9

2-8

Phosphates ....

0-346

0-309

Iron

0-513

0-479.]

(3. Pneumonia.

The blood usually exhibits the characters of hyperinosis,
more decidedly in pneumonia than in most other inflammatory
diseases, it also retains its heat for a longer period.1 The clot
is rather below the ordinary size, very consistent, and does not

1 Lauer found that blood, which, as it flowed from the vein, had a temperature of
97°-7, raised the thermometer to 83°-6 thirteen minutes after its removal from the
body.

BLOOD.

259

break down for a considerable time. It admits of being sliced,
and the sections retain their consistency for some time. Its
surface is covered with the buffy coat, and is more or less cup-
ped. The serum is of a pure yellow colour. The quantity of
solid constituents is usually less than in healthy blood.

The maximum of fibrin in my analyses was 9T5, which is the
largest quantity that I have ever discovered in inflamed blood.
The minimum was 3'4, and the mean of four analyses was 6-0.
Andral and Gavarret found the maximum of fibrin to be 10-5 ;
the minimum 4; and the mean to fluctuate between 7 and 8.
They never met with more than 10-5 of fibrin in the whole
course of their analyses.

The maximum of heematoglobulin, occurring in my re-
searches, was 78, and the minimum 36, which is very far
below the amount in healthy blood. Andral and Gavarret
differ from me considerably on this point, (see my remarks on
our comparative methods of analysis, page 241.) They make
the maximum of the blood-corpuscles 137, and the minimum
83-7. We find, however, in the course of 58 analyses, made
by them on the blood of 21 persons labouring under pneumonia,
that the amount of corpuscles just reached the normal propor-
tion in 5 cases, in 6 cases exceeded it, and in the 47 remaining
cases fell below it. The average of these cases was 113, which
is 14 below the normal quantity in healthy blood, according to
Lecanu’s analysis.

The maximum of fat, in my analysis, was 4-3, and the mi-
nimum (in a man aged 60 years) was ‘7.

The maximum of solid residue was 202; the minimum was
160. In 51 out of the 58 analyses, made by Andral and
Gavarret, the solid constituents exceeded the ordinary normal
proportion.

In all these cases the quantity of the blood-corpuscles was
very high : the fibrin, in two cases, reached 9'1 ; and in one case
9-0 : in the others it was low, or amounted to only the mean of
the fibrin in pneumonia.

The two highest amounts of solid residue found by Andral
and Gavarret was 230, and 227 ; in these cases the maxima of
corpuscles also occurred. The smallest amount of solid residue
was 166, which corresponded with the minimum of blood-cor-
puscles. The mean quantity of solid residue, as deduced from

260

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

these 58 analyses, was 201, or 9 less than Lecanu’s average for
healthy blood.

I have made four analyses of the blood in pneumonia :

Analysis 19.

Analysis 20.

Analysis 21.

Analysis 22.

Water

. 839-848

798-500

803-179

803-400

Solid residue .

. 100-152

201-500

196-821

196-600

Fibrin

9-152

6 020

5-632

3-443

Fat

2-265

4-100

4-336

0-697

Albumen

. 100-415

100-280

121-721

102-100

Globulin

. 34-730

74-880

52-071

74-948

Haematin

1-800

3-120

2-752

2-466

Extractive matters

and 1

10-500

10-309

salts .

1 8-003

11-258

100 parts of haematoglo- \ 4-9

4-0

5-2

3-2

bulin contained . J of colouring matter.

The blood in analysis 19 was taken from a woman aged 40,
who died a few days after the venesection. Dissections exhi-
bited exudation, and tubercles in the lungs.

The blood in analysis 20 was taken from a vigorous man
aged 30, who recovered ; and in analysis 21, from a vigorous
man aged 40, who also recovered.

The blood in analysis 22 was taken from a man 60 years of
age, who suffered from cough, thoracic oppression, &c., and
whose pulse was hard and full. I am ignorant of the result
in this case.

The following are the maxima, minima, and average results,
obtained by Andral and Gavarret :

Water.

Solid residue.

Fibrin.

Corpuscles.

Solid residue
of serum.

Maximum .

834-4

229-5

10-5

137-8

95-2

Minimum .

770-5

165-6

4-0

83-2

66-7

Average

799-0

201-0

7-3

114-1

81-0

The following table indicates the differences that are found
in pneumonic blood during repeated bleedings. It is drawn
up by Andral and Gavarret,1 and corresponds generally with
the table already given for the blood taken in a similar
manner during bronchitis. It is, however, entirely at variance
with Lecanu’s statement regarding the blood in carditis.
(See page 254.)

1 Annales de Cliimie et de Physique, vol. 75, p. 254.

Venesection.

Day of
disease.

Water.

BLOOD.

Solid residue.

Fibrin.

Corpuscles.

Solid residue
of serum.

r 1

818-0

182-0

111-3

66-7

Case-;

818-5

181-5

5-5

107-7

68-3

820-9

1791

6-5

1011

71-5

834-4

165-6

83-2

73-4

r 1

773-0

227 0

5-2

137-8

84-0

Case<

782-3

217-7

7-3

125-5

84-9

795-0

205-0

6-9

117-4

80-7

-4

800-4

199-6

8-0

111-5

80-6

781-5

218-5

5-5

129-8

83-2

Case-

788-3

211-7

6-8

116-3

88-6

823-9

1761

6-4

95-7

740

This table is sufficient to show that the blood taken from the
same individual in different consecutive bleedings varies con-
siderably. The blood taken at the later bleedings contains
less solid constituents, less blood-corpuscles, more fibrin, and
more solid residue of serum1 than the blood which is taken
earlier.

This statement is, however, only true within certain limits ;
if the bleedings are earned beyond a certain extent, the fibrin, as
well as the corpuscles, are diminished; the whole quantity of solid
residue becomes less, whilst the residue of the serum increases.
In the third case this proportion is seen on comparing the
blood taken on the third, with that taken on the second bleed-
ing ; but it is much more strikingly shown in the analyses
made by Andral and Gavarret, of the blood in acute rheu-
matism, as will be seen by the following numerical data.2

Bleeding.

Day of
Disease.

Water.

Solid residue.

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Solid residue
of serum.

778-8

221-2

1231

92-0

780-9

2191

7-2

120-7

91-2

788-0

2120

7-8

112-8

91-4

799-0

201-0

10-2

1010

89-8

813-9

186-1

89-2

87-9

826-2

173-8

7-0

83-3

83-0

My own observations regarding the blood taken by re-
peated venesections during peritonitis, give perfectly similar
results. I shall endeavour to give an explanation of the origin
of these changes at the end of the section on hyperinosis.

Dr. J. Davy3 has instituted numerous researches on the

1 [This conclusion is not very obvious.]

3 Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journal, 1839.

5 Op. cit. p. 246.

2G2

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

blood found in the body after death : in a case of pneumonia,
he found a large quantity of fluid blood, clot, and fibrous co-
agula in the heart. The fluid portion did not coagulate after
exposure to the air for 24 hours. In another instance, the
fluid portion when exposed to the air, coagulated rapidly and
formed a huffy coat.

[Dr. Rindskopf1 has published several analyses of the blood in
pneumonia.

1. A young man, with a veiy severe attack of pneumonia:
delirium, and all the signs of arachnitis. After death, a con-
siderable effusion of pus was found on the membranes of the
brain. Two venesections were instituted during the last thirty-
six hours. The first gave fibrin 5-470. The second analysis

was more perfect, and yielded :

Water 828-566

Solid constituents .... 171-434

Fibrin 6-674

Albumen and blood-corpuscles . . 150-103

oluble salts 8-302

Insoluble salts . t . . . 1-107

Extractive matters .... 5-248

2. A man, aged 60 years, who had suffered for a considerable
period from chronic bronchitis and emphysema, was attacked
with broncho-pneumonia. The blood was taken shortly before
his death, and contained, in 1000 parts :

Water 812-566

Solid constituents .... 187-434

Fibrin 12-726

Albumen and blood-corpuscles . . 160-300

Salts 10-930

Extractive matters . . . . 3-478

3. In the blood of a young man, aged 19 years, suffering
from pneumonia, Rindskopf found :

Water

Solid constituents

Fibrin

Albumen

Blood-corpuscles

Salts

Extractive matters

1st Venesection.

2d Venesection.

775-448

783-944

224-552

216-056

6-702

7-723

79-021

65-744

122-097

120-682

9-201

10-416

7-531

11-661

Ueber einige Zustiinde des Blutes.

BLOOD.

263

4. In a case of pneumonia after catarrh, four analyses were
made, the blood taken at the first venesection apparently not
having been examined. In addition to the bleedings, tartarized
antimony and calomel were administered : recovery.

2d Venes.

3d Venes.

4th Venes.

5th Venes.

Water

796-494

793-362

807-699

809-650

Solid constituents .

203-506

206-638

192-301

190-350

Fibrin .

5-919

7-715

10-384

8-155

Albumen and blood-corpuscles 173-605

169-883

165-960

160-522

Soluble salts .

10-188

7-952

]

11-531

Insoluble salts

1-340

1-404

[ 15-957

4-151

Extractive matters .

11-454

19-684

5-991

5. In a case of pneumonia of four weeks’ standing, accom-
panied with catarrh and delirium tremens, in which tartar emetic
was administered, and recovery took place, the following results

were obtained :

2d Venesection.

3d Venesection.

4th Venesection.

Water

793-237

797-915

Solid constituents

206-763

202-085

Fibrin

7-893

9-087

9-478

Albumen and corpuscles

157-916

164-451

Salts

10-978

8-291

Extractive matters

29-975

20-256

Heller1 has analysed the blood of a powerful young man,
aged 21 years, suffering from pneumonia, the left lung being
perfectly hepatized.

The colour of the blood was rather dark. As it flowed from
the vein, its reaction was perfectly neutral. The serum, after
the separation of the clot, had an alkaline reaction, a specific
gravity of 1025, and was of a darker yellow colour than usual,
although the addition of nitric acid disproved the presence of
biliphsein. The blood was composed of 600 parts of clot and
400 of serum. It contained, in 1000 parts :

Water .... 773-266

Solid constituents . . 226-744

Fibrin .... 4-320

Blood-corpuscles . . 145-574

Residue of serum . . 76-850

Becquerel and Rodier have analysed the blood of five women

1 Archiv fur physiologische und pathologische Chemie und Mikroskopie. Wieii,
1844, vol. 1, p. 3.

264

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

suffering from pneumonia, two

of whom were bled only once,

while in three venesection was repeated.

The mean composition of the blood is expressed in the fol-

lowing table :

1st Venesection

2d Venesection.

Density of defibrinated blood

. 1052-6

1050-2

Density of serum

1025-0

Water

801-0

808-0

Sobd constituents

199*0

192-0

Fibrin

7-4

6-3

Fat

1-687

1-618

Albumen

61-1

59-7

Blood -corpuscles

122-5

113-9

Extractive matters and salts

6-4

7-4

The following salts were contained in 1000 parts of blood :

Chloride of sodium

2-8

Other soluble salts

2-7

2-4

Phosphates ....

0-308

0-445

Iron

0-493

0-512

Zimmerman1 has found the specific gravity of the blood in

this disease as high as 1065.

The following ultimate analyses of dried

pneumonic blood

have been recently published :2

Ash.

C. H.

Blood buffed, 1st Venesection

4-365

57-428 8-615

„ 2d ditto

4-081

52-280 —

„ 1st ditto

3-880

51-966 8-543

„ 2d . ditto

3-784

51-149 7-832

Two analyses of the blood in cases of pneumonia biliosa have
recently appeared, one by Scherer, the other by Heller.

The individual whose blood was analysed by Scherer was a
robust young man, aged 29 years.

The clot was tolerably firm and tough, and covered with a
greenish yellow buffy coat. The serum exhibited a similar tint,
and nitric acid indicated the existence of biliphadn in the urine.
The conjunctiva was coloured yellow, and there was considerable
gastric disturbance.

1 Hufeland’s Journal, 1843.

2 Hoffmann, Annalen der Chemie und Pliarmacie, April 1844. According to Macaire
and Marcet (Mem. de la Societe Phys. et d’Hist. Nat. de Genev., vol. 5, p. 223)
healthy venous blood contains C 557, H 6-4, N 16-2, and 0 217.

BLOOD.

265

The blood drawn at the first venesection yielded :

Water

779-00

Solid constituents

221-00

Fibrin

9-70

Blood-corpuscles

124-60

Albumen

72-26

Salts

9-57

Extractive matters

4-83

Blood was again taken, in consequence of further symptoms

of congestion. It yielded :

Water .... 785-00

Solid constituents . . 215-00

Fibrin .... 9-40

Blood-corpuscles . . 122-26

Albumen .... 65-36

Salts .... 8-31

Extractive matters . . 9-67

Three days after this venesection the patient was again bled.
The blood contained :

Water

780-00

Solid constituents

220-00

Fibrin

12-72

Blood-corpuscles

118-47

Albumen

69-83

Salts

7-63

Extractive matters

11-35

The blood obtained by a fourth venesection contained :

Water

Solid constituents
Fibrin

Blood-corpuscles

796-00

204-00

8-87

106-26

In Heller’s case the blood was taken from a robust man,
aged 31 years. The clot was firm, and slightly buffed; the
serum was of a deep yellowish-red colour, very alkaline, of
specific gravity 1023, and, on the addition of nitric acid, a
blue coagulum was formed, indicative of the presence of bili-
phsein.

The blood consisted of 521 parts of clot and 479 of serum.
It contained, in 1000 parts :

26G

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

Water ....

Solid residue

Fibrin ....

Blood-corpuscles

Residue of serum (with biliphsein)

781-659

218-351

6-113

147-114

65-124

Heller observes tbat be lias often been able to detect bili-
phtein in tbe blood of pneumonic patients when there have
been no other indications of a disordered state of tbe hepatic
functions.

In pneumonia venosa the huffy coat is absent. (Schonlein.)]

Never having analysed pleuritic blood, I shall merely give
the results obtained by AncLral and Gavarret.

That the blood in this disease may exhibit considerable dif-
ferences, will be seen by the following cases.

1st stage. Pleuritis in its early stage, before any effusion has
occurred. In two cases of this nature, Andral and Gavarret
found the quantity of fibrin increased to 5-8 and 5-9.

2d stage. Pleuritis not yet advanced, but effusion.

Andral and Gavarret found that the quantity of fibrin varied
from 4 to 6 in eight cases of this nature.

3d stage. Pleuritic effusion of some duration ; no fever. In
four cases of this nature, in which effusion had occurred during
well-marked pleuritis, from two to four months previously, the
quantity of fibrin was increased, less certainly than in the pre-
ceding cases, but still in one instance rising as high as 4-8, and
averaging about 4.

Hence it follows that the fibrin is increased in the blood in
pleuritis, especially in the acute form, accompanied with fever ;
the increase, however, is not so decided as in pneumonia, bron-
chitis, and (as we shall presently see) in acute rheumatism.

Nassei states that the buffy coat is particularly characteristic,
and seldom absent in pleuritic blood.1 2

1 Das Blut, etc., p. 61.

2 The buffy coat was absent 9 times in 35 cases in which blood was extracted
during pleuritis, 3 times in 1 1 cases of pneumonia, and twice in 5 cases of bronchitis.

y. Pleuritis,

BLOOD.

267

Andral and Gavarrct’s analyses gave the following results.

Venesection. Water. Solid residue. Fibrin. Blood-corpuscles. Solid residue of serum.

1st Case

774-2

225-8

5-9

127-7

92-2

789-4

210-6

5-4

90-4

114-8

845-6

154-4

5-0

68-3

81-1

4 th

782-0

218-0

5-2

122-9

89-9

5th

815-0

1850

91-5

88-9

6th

ft 4

802-6

197-4

5-0

107-4

85-0

l 2

807-6

192-4

5-0

102-5

84-9

7th

833-1

166-9

4-1

84-7

78-1

8th

763-3

236-7

4-9

1411

90-7

9th

861-3

198-7

4-8

120-8

73-1

10 th

tt *

783-5

216-5

3-9

128-8

83-8

L l

780-3

219-7

5-8

118-9

950

11th

816-9

183-1

3-8

92-8

86-5

12 th

„ ]

ri -

783-0

217-0

3-5

135-4

78-1

l 2

798-5

201-5

4-2

124-2

73-1

Healthy blood

790-0

2100

3-0

127-0

80-0

Lauer1 states that he has found the serum turbid in pleuritis.

Caventou2 analysed the blood in a case of chronic pleuritis,
accompanied with vertigo. It was turbid, of a dirty-red colour,
and covered with a soft light-coloured bufly coat. The clot was
moderately large, and floated in a yellowish-white, milky serum,
which was perfectly neutral, devoid of smell or taste, coagu-
lable by heat, but not by acids or alcohol, and scarcely at all by
corrosive sublimate.

[Becquerel and Bodier have analysed the blood of five men
attacked with uncomplicated and acute pleuritis. The mean
composition of the blood is given in the following table.

Density of defibrinated blood , . 1055-0

Density of serum .... 1026-0

Water 798-6

Solid constituents .... 201-4

Fibrin ...... 6-1

Fat 1-905

Albumen ..... 65-4

Blood-corpuscles .... 120-4

Extractive matters and salts . . 7-6

The salts consisted of :

Chloride of sodium . . . 3-0

Other soluble salts . . . 2-0

Phosphates 0-478

Iron 0-461

1 Qusedam de Sanguine diff., etc.

a Annal. dc Chim. etde Phys. vol. 39, p. 288.

2G8

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

The blood-corpuscles and the albumen are considerably dimi-
nished while the fibrin is increased.]

III. INFLAMMATION OF THE CHYLOPOIETIC VISCERA.

a. Angina tonsillaris ( amygdalitis ).

Andral and Gavarret analysed the blood of four persons suf-
fering from angina vera, and they always found, in a greater or
less degree, the distinctive characters of hyperinosis. They ob-
tained the following results.

Venesection.

Day of
disease.

Water.

Solid residue.

Fibrin.

Blood-

corpuscles.

Solid residue
of serum.

1st Case-j

782-6

217-4

6-1

111-0

100-3

l 2

793-6

206-4

7-2

105-3

93-9

2d „

777-9

222-1

5-4

126-0

90-7

3d J

r 1

819-5

180-5

4-4

90-0

88-1

L 2

830-2

169-8

6-4

79-5

83-9

4th „

779-6

220-4

3-8

120-3

96-3

Healthy blood

790-0

2100

127-0

80-0

With the exception of the 4<th case, which was one of chronic
angina, and in which the blood presents no striking deviations
from the healthy standard, and of the 2d case, in which the
blood is extremely rich in solid constituents, the remainder ex-
hibit a decided decrease in the quantity of the corpuscles1, and
a less marked increase of fiction.

(3. Hepatitis and lienitis.

Accurate quantitative analyses of the blood in these inflam-
matory diseases are still wanted. It has been frequently observed
that the proportion of fat is considerably increased in the blood
during hepatitis, and Trail has found the serum milky on several
occasions ; Nasse2 has occasionally seen it so highly coloured
with biliphsein as immediately to tinge paper on being dipped
in it; and Lauer3 has observed that a yellow-coloured sedi-
ment is deposited by the serum upon the buffy coat, during this
disease.

1 In the blood obtained by the second venesection in Case 3, they fall even below
the solid residue of the serum. Andral and Gavarret, however, attribute the low
amount of corpuscles in this instance to the circumstance of the patient having been
for some time under the poisonous influence of lead.

2 Das Blut, etc., p. 78.

3 Quaedam de Sanguinis different, in Morbis, p. 34.

BLOOD.

2C9

In the milky serum to which we have adverted, Trail1 found
21 T2 of solid constituents, which were composed of fatty oil 4-5,
albumen 15*7, soluble matter -9. The water amounted to
78-92. The specific gravity of the serum was 1-087 ; it was
of a creamy consistence, and became thinner when exposed to
a gentle warmth ; when left to itself, even for weeks, it did not
deposit any sediment.

In another instance the specific gravity was 1-025, and the
solid constituents amounted to 15-2g, of which a considerable
portion was oil.

The serum has been observed by Cullen, Testa, and Heu-
singer to be turbid in lienitis (Nasse).

y. Peritonitis.

The blood in peritonitis, and especially in the form denomi-
nated puerperal fever, exhibits in a tolerably well marked de-
gree the characters of hyperinosis. I made two analyses of the
blood of a patient suffering from peritonitis puerperalis, and
found that the fibrin amounted to twice as much as in healthy

Andral and Gavarret obtained similar results,
analyses yielded :

Analysis 23. Analysis 24.

Water ....

784-941

787-064

Solid residue

215-059

212-936

Fibrin ....

4-459

4-366

Fat ....

4-035

3-350

Albumen

107-406

109-714

Globulin ....

84-623

83-532

Haematin

3-591

3-733

Extractive matters and salts

10-350

9-440

The liaematoglobulin contained I The haematoglobulin contained
4-00 of colouring matter. I 4'2g of colouring matter.

The blood in these analyses were taken from a woman aged
33 years, who, according to Dr. Ebert’s report, exhibited the
first symptoms of peritonitis on the evening of the second day
after her confinement.

The belly was somewhat swelled, and tender to the touch.
There was extreme heat, violent thirst, and rapid respiration.
The pulse was quick, hard, and full, 130 in the minute. The
blood formed a tolerably firm clot, and was covered with a buffy
coat of a line and a half thick. There was violent exacerbation

1 Edinb. Med. and Surg. Journal, vol. 17.

270

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

on tlie evening of tlie third day : the countenance was much
flushed, there was delirium, the pulse was 140, and hard. It
was at this period that the blood referred to in analysis 23 was
taken.

On the fourth day the abdomen was tympanitic : the head-
symptoms were comparatively gone : the countenance was pale,
pulse 140, soft and small. The composition of the blood now
taken is given in analysis 24. The patient died. Dissection
showed that the thoracic organs were healthy, but that there
was exudation in the abdomen, with flocculent and purulent
matter : the same was found in the uterus aud intestines. The
vessels on the peritoneal surface were fully injected ; and on
cutting into the uterus, milky pus was observed to exude in
pearly drops from the distended lymphatic vessels.

In relation to the chemical constitution of the blood taken
at the second venesection, we may observe (vide supra, p. 261)
that there is a diminution not only of the quantity of the solid
constituents, but also of the hcematoglobulin or blood-corpus-
cles. The fibrin, however, instead of being increased, is dimi-
nished by *01, which may probably be accounted for by the cir-
cumstance of the pulse not having increased in frequency, and
having even become less hard.

Andral and Gavarret1 have made eight analyses of the blood
of four persons suffering from peritonitis : one was a case of
simple peritonitis ; the others were instances of metroperitonitis.
Two of the cases terminated fatally, and in these a large quan-
tity of pus was found in the abdominal cavity.

Their analyses gave the following results :

Venesection.

Water.

Solid residue.

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Solid residue of serum.

1st Case 1

787-2

212-8

5-5

122-8

84-5

822-9

177-1

5-4

88-3

83-4

2d „ 1 2

831-6

168-4

5-3

73-6

89-5

851-0

149-0

3-6

60-5

84-9

3d „ 1

786-4

213-6

7-2

117-0

89-4

789-4

210-6

3-8

120-0

86-8

4th „ ^ 2

802-7

197-3

4-7

109-5

831

813-5

186-5

6-1

100-3

80-1

Healthy blood

790-0

2100

127-0

80-0

Andral and Gavarret make the

following observations on

these analyses. Two of them exhibited a considerable decrease2

1 Annal. de Cliimie et de Physique, vol. 75, p. 2G1.

2 They do not, of course, refer to an absolute decrease below the healthy standard,
but merely below the ordinary standard of the blood in inflammatory disorders.

BLOOD.

271

in the quantity of fibrin. In one of these cases (the third vene-
section of the second case) it amounted only to 3'6 in 1000
parts of blood. The blood for this analysis was taken at a period
when the patient was much reduced by marasmus.

Dissection revealed the existence of pus in the cavity of the
abdomen, a consequence of the previous inflammation.

The second instance is that of the 1st venesection of the fourth
case, in which 3-8 of fibrin were found. This case was that of
a woman labouring under suppression of the catamenia, who was
seized with violent pains in the abdomen, which were attributed
to mere uterine congestion : there was no fever present. The
blood contained 3'8 of fibrin, little more than the normal pro-
portion. At the expiration of two days the pain became more
acute, and the blood taken at the second venesection contained
4-6 of fibrin. From this rapid increase of the fibrin it was in-
ferred (although there was no fever) that something more than
simple hypersemia of the uterus was present ; and, in point of
fact, on the following day all the symptoms of metroperitonitis
were established.

At the third venesection, 6-1 of fibrin were found in the
blood. After this time the patient began to improve.

This case is of much interest, as affording an illustration of
the importance of chemical research in the formation and esta-
blishment of diagnosis.

[A singular case of peritonitis, in which milky serum was ob-
served, has been recently published by Heller. It occurred in
a robust but not corpulent man, aged 40 years. The blood,
when first drawn, was of the ordinary colour, and on standing,
the clot and serum separated perfectly, the former not exhibit-
ing a buffy coat.

In 1000 parts of blood there were :

Fibrin .... 4-72

Blood-corpuscles . . 80-13

In 1000 parts of the serum there were :

Water .... 829-515

Solid residue . . . 170-485

Fat .... 50-473

Albumen . . . 108-791

Extractive matters and salts 11-221

272

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

The fat was perfectly saponifiable with potash, and yielded
no traces of cholesterin.

After the separation of the clot, the serum exactly resembled
milk : its reaction was alkaline, and its specific gravity 1024-35.

In the blood of a girl, aged 18 years, suffering from a slight
attack of peritonitis, Becquerel and llodier found a marked di-
minution of the blood-corpuscles, and an increase of the fibrin
(5) ; the albumen remained normal, the phosphates and the cho-
lesterin were increased.

The serum was abundant, limpid, and yellow ; the clot large
and firm.

In a woman, aged 24 years, attacked with metroperitonitis,
Scherer observed a tolerably large buffy coat, apparently more
gelatinous than tough. The clot was rather large, but not very

firm. The serum was neutral.

The blood contained in 1000 parts :

Water ....

814-53

Solid constituents

185-47

Fibrin ....

5-32

Albumen

96-35

Blood-corpuscles

70-16

Fat and extractive matters .

6-02

Salts ....

7-13

Two days afterwards the blood contained :

Water ....

832-58

Solid constituents

167-42

Fibrin ....

4-02

Albumen ....

100-25

Blood-corpuscles

52-30

Salts and extractive matters

11-42

The huffy coat had a more gelatinous

appearance, and the

serum was redder than on the former occasion. Death occurred
two days after the second venesection.

In a case of metroperitonitis, in which the blood was analysed
by Heller, the clot was soft, and exhibited a well-marked buffy
coat. The serum was clear, but of a deep yellow colour, and
contained a large quantity of biliphsein. Its specific gravity
was 1024. The blood consisted of 486-5 parts of clot and 513-5
of serum, and contained :

BLOOD.

27.3

Water

820-02

Solid constituents

179-98

Fibrin . * .

7-78

Blood-corpuscles ....

87-12

Residue of serum (with biliphrcin) .

85-08]

IV. INFLAMMATION OF THE UROPOIETIC VISCERA.

Nephritis and cystitis.

Very little has been done in the chemistry of the blood in
these diseases.

Lauer1 found that the blood taken from a man suffering from
nephritis, and who speedily fell a victim to the disease, strongly
resembled milk.

Andral and Gavarret2 analysed the blood of a man suffering
from inflammation of the bladder, and found it to be composed of

Water

785-8

Fibrin

5-4

Blood-corpuscles

111-4

Solid residue of serum .

97-4

The increase of the fibrin and the diminution of the corpus-
cles show that this blood is similar in its constitution to the
blood in other inflammatory diseases.

The blood in acute rheumatism, erysipelas, tubercular phthisis,
puerperal mania, &c., is so strongly impressed with the ordi-
nary characters of hyperinosis, that we shall consider it, in re-
ference to those diseases, in the present place.

a. Rheumatismus acutus.

In acute rheumatism, accompanied by fever, the blood always
exhibits, in a more or less marked degree, the characters of
hyperinosis.

The clot is rather small, consistent,3 and sometimes covered

1 Op. cit. p. 32. 1 Op. cit. p. 266.

3 Nasse states that, in inflammatory rheumatism, he has observed a solid clot,
although, when the huffy coat was very strong, its consistence was less on its lower
surface. According to Haller, a thick clot is formed in acute rheumatism. (Stark,
AUg. Patliolog. p. 950.) Jennings, on the other hand, maintains that the clot under
the huffy coat is so loose as to fall to pieces on the slightest touch. (Course of Lectures
on the Physiology and Pathology of the Blood, by Ancell. ‘ The Lancet,’ 1840, p. 841.)

274

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

with a strong huffy coat, The serum is usually clear, and of a
deep yellow colour. •

I have made only one analysis of the blood in acute rheu-
matism accompanied with fever. I found that the quantity of
fibrin was considerable, that the quantity of fat was sensibly in-
creased, and of haematoglobulin much diminished in relation to
the normal proportions.

Andral and Gavarret have analysed the blood in 14 cases of
acute rheumatism. They found that if the blood was taken
during the period of acute pain and fever, the fibrin existed in
much larger proportion than in normal blood.

On the other hand, they found that the quantity of fibrin was
even less than in normal blood, in the case of an individual who
was bled after the subsidence of the pain and of the fever.

In those cases in which the pain and fever returned, after
an improvement had taken place, an increase of fibrin was again
observed.

My analysis gave the following results :

Analysis 25.

Water

801-500

Solid residue

198-500

Fibrin

6-320

Fat

3-150

Albumen

100-540

Globulin

71-560

Ilsematin

3-000

Extractive matters and salts

11-860

The blood was taken from a man aged 35 years, in whom the
joints of the foot and knee were much swollen and very painful :
the joints of the hand were less swollen, but very tender on
being touched. The febrile symptoms were not severe.

The following table exhibits the maxima, minima, and mean
of 43 analyses made by Andral and Gavarret upon the blood of
14 individuals suffering from acute rheumatism :

Water.

Solid residue.

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum

Maxima

839-6

228-4

10-2

130-0

104-8

Minima

771-6

160-4

2-8

70-1

76-9

Mean

805-4

194-6

6-7

101-0

86-0

Healthy blood .

790 0

210-0

3-0

127-0

80-0

100 parts of the solid residue of the serum gave, on an ave-
rage, 7- 9 of inorganic constituents.

BLOOD.

275

The quantity of blood-corpuscles only once exceeded the quan-
tity in normal blood, and this instance coincides with that in
which the solid constituents generally attained their maximum,
228-0 : in most instances it was considerably diminished, and
hence we find that the average displays the corpuscles 16 below
the ordinary proportion. In only four cases was the quantity of
fibrin lower than 5-0. Andral and Gavarret remark that the
acuteness of the pain seems to have a greater influence on the
increase of the fibrin than the stage or duration of the disease.
The blood will be found to contain as large a proportion of fibrin
at the commencement of a rheumatic attack which begins very
severely, as at a much later period in a case commencing mildly,
but in which acute pain gradually supervenes. This will be

seen by the following

analyses

Venesection.

Day of disease. Water.

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum.

797-1

8-9

109*3

84-7

796-9

9-8

107-5

81-8

1st Case.

812-5

8-5

95-4

83-6

820-6

6-4

93-5

79-5

789-7

2-8

117-9

89-6

778-8

123-1

92-0

780-9

7-2

120-7

91-2

2d Case -

788-0

7-8

112-8

91-4

799-0

10-2

101-0

89-8

813-9

9-0

89-2

87-9

826-2

7-0

83-8

83-0

In the first case, the maximum of fibrin is found in the blood
taken at the second venesection, and as early as the fifth day of
the disease. In the second case, on the contrary, it did not
occur until the fourth venesection, upon the thirteenth day of
the disease, when nearly all the joints were reported to be in a
swollen and painful state. These symptoms began to diminish
after the next two bleedings ; the fever, however, still continued.

The minimum of fibrin in the first case occurred at the period
of the fifth venesection, and is even less than the amount in
normal blood : the corpuscles are now considerably increased.
This venesection was performed on the eighteenth day of conva-
lescence, after all pain had entirely disappeared, and after the
patient had been put upon a nourishing diet.

Andral and Gavarret show in the following table how the
remission of the fever influences the quantity of fibrin.

276

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

Venesection.

Day since com-
mencement of

Water.

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum.

disease.

795-0

6-2

111-9

86-9

801-5

3-7

102-0

82-8

814-9

5-5

95-8

83-9

833-8

5-8

81-5

78-9

The second bleeding was ordered when the fever had com-
pletely gone, and only a few slight pains remained ; the third
upon the occurrence of a relapse ; and the fourth during a con-
tinuation of the pain and fever.

[Dr. Rindskopf has analysed the blood of a woman suffering
from rheumatism, accompanied with pneumonia. He found

in 1000 parts :

1st Venesection. 2d Venesection.

Water

809-973

Solid constituents .

190-027

Fibrin ....

4-652 5-856

Matters coagulable by beat

166-954

Salts ....

12-188

Extractive matters .

6-233

Becquerel and Rodier have analysed the blood of four men
suffering from acute rheumatism. The mean composition of
the blood is given in the following table :

Density of defibrinated blood . . 1055-5

Density of serum .... 1025-8

Water 798-9

Solid constituents . . . 101*1

Fibrin 5-8

Fat 1-647

Albumen 66-9

Blood-corpuscles . . . 118-7

Extractive matters and salts . . 8-1 ]

Andral and Gavarret have analysed the blood of ten indivi-
duals suffering from chronic and subacute articular rheumatism.
No peculiarly striking results were obtained. The proportion
of fibrin in no instance exceeded 5’0, and in two cases was as
low as 29 and 2-6. The blood-corpuscles in one instance
amounted to no less than 154‘3, and the solid constituents to
259' 1. In the other cases the corpuscles were below the healthy
average.

These results lead us to the conclusion that, provided there

BLOOD.

277

are no other disturbing influences, as the rheumatism loses its
acute character, the blood gradually throws off the specific cha-
racteristics of hyperinosis.

The following table exhibits the maxima, minima, and mean
results, as deduced from 10 analyses :

Water.

Solid residue.

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Solid residue
of serum.

Maximum

826-8

259-9

5-1

154-3

1020

Minimum

7411

173-2

2-6

79-0

77-1

Mean

782-7

217-3

3-8

108-2

95-2

Healthy blood .

790-0

210-0

3-0

127-0

80-0

I add the results of some of the analyses, on account of the
interesting remarks that Andral andGavarret have made on them.

Water.

Solid residue.

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Solid residue
of serum.

826-8

173-2

4.8

79-0

89-4

818-3

181-7

4-6

89-1

88-0

815-4

184-6

4-0

82-6

98-0

741-1

259-9

2-6

154-3

102-0

The blood in the first of these cases was taken from a colour-
mixer under the influence of lead, to which circumstance Andral
and Gavarret attribute the deficiency of the corpuscles. In the
second of these cases, the blood was taken from a person who had
suffered from an acute attack of rheumatism, for which he had
been bled six times (!), besides having had 200 leeches (!) applied;
a fully sufficient reason why the blood contained only 89-0 of cor-
puscles. The blood in the third analysis was taken from a per-
son suffering from incipient chlorosis. In the fourth case the
blood was taken from a rigorous person, 20 years of age, which
accounts for the unusually large quantity of corpuscles, as well
as of solid constituents generally.

(3. Erysipelas.

I have not made any analyses of the blood in erysipelas.
Andral and Gavarret found that the blood, in ordinary erysi-
pelas attended with fever, was so rich in fibrin, and the quan-
tity of corpuscles so reduced, as to leave no doubt of the exist-
ence of hyperinosis.

It is by no means easy to detect the peculiar properties of
the blood depending on this disease, for as soon as any inflam-
matory fever is complicated with it, the blood will, from that
cause alone, assume a state of hyperinosis. Moreover, the mere

278

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

circumstances of temperament, age, &c. may induce a state of
tlie blood partially approximating to hyperinosis, or to hypinosis.
Contradictory results may also arise from variations in treat-
ment, as far as venesection is concerned. We know, for in-
stance, that in France the lancet is used with an unsparing
hand ; and if venesection be ordered in a case of erysipelas in
which no serious inflammatory affection is present, it is by no
means impossible that the blood may exhibit the character of
hypinosis. In Germany, on the contrary, venesection is seldom
prescribed unless decided inflammatory symptoms present them-
selves ; in this case the blood is sure to exhibit the characters
of hyperinosis. Schonlein states that in erysipelas the serum
is always tinged yellow by the colouring matter of the bile ;
that the proportion of the serum to the clot is large ; and that
the consistence of the clot is inversely as its size. These cha-
racters decidedly indicate a state of hyperinosis.

Andral and Gavarret have made eight analyses of the blood
of five persons, four of whom were suffering from erysipelas of
the face, and one from inflammatory erysipelas of the foot. In
seven of these cases the fibrin was materially increased ; in three
instances it amounted to 5-0, in three to 6-0, and in one to 7‘0.
In a much shorter and milder case, in which there was but little
fever, it amounted to only 3-6.

Their analyses gave the following results :

Day since com- Solid residue

Venesection.

mencement of
disease.

Water.

Solid

residue.

Fibrin.

Blood-

corpuscles.

of serum.

organic, inorganic .

1st Case-!

826-6

173-4

7-0

75-9

83-2

7-3

l 2

836-0

164-0

6-1

64-4

87-3

6-2

2d „ -j

799-2

200-8

6-7

108-4

78-9

6-8

l 2

806-2

193-8

7-3

101-9

78-2

6-4

3d „

831-2

168-8

5-0

73-6

83-0

7-2

4th „ -|

r 1

788-7

211-3

4-7

119-1

80-7

6-8

-2

796-9

203-1

5-0

110-7

80-5

6-9

5th „

762-9

230-4

3-6

139-4

80-2

7-2

The large amount of corpuscles associated with the slight
increase of fibrin in the fifth case is explained by the circum-
stance of the attack being very mild, and the constitution par-
ticularly strong. The reverse is seen in the first case, in which
the blood was taken from a woman who had been scrofulous
from her youth.

BLOOD.

279

The serum contains, on an average, 7-8£ of inorganic consti-
tuents ; just the same amount as in acute rheumatism.

[Blood, in a case of erysipelas of the hand, analysed by
ltindskopf, yielded 7' 71 of fibrin. The blood-corpuscles were
not determined.

In a case of erysipelas iu the face, occurring in a young man
aged 20 years, recorded by Heller, the blood separated into 648-96
parts of clot and 351 '04 of serum. The clot was tolerably firm,
and covered with a huffy coat. The serum was of a fawn
colour, aud turbid, in consequence of suspended liaematoglobu-
liu. It contained no biliphsein.

The blood contained in 1000 parts :

y. Phthisis tuberculosa.

It is a well-known fact that the blood of phthisical patients
exhibits the ordinary characters of inflammatory blood.

The clot is usually rather small, consistent, and covered with
a buffy coat : the serum is clear, and of a bright yellow colour.
The blood differs considerably during the progressive stages of
the disease.

Andral and Gavarret observe that, whatever be the stage of
the disorder at which the blood is analysed, the fibrin seems
always on the increase, and the corpuscles on the decrease ; but
the proportion of the increase on the one hand, and decrease on
the other, varies with the progress of the disease. If the tuber-
cles are still in a crude, unsoftened state, the increase of fibrin
is only small, and its whole amount may be estimated at about
4; and the decrease in the amount of corpuscles, although
perceptible, is by no means great. As the tubercles begin to
soften, the quantity of fibrin usually increases to about 4-5, while
the amount of corpuscles continues on the decrease. Sub-
sequently, upon the formation of vomicse in the lungs, the fibrin
rises to 5'5, and sometimes even to 5-9 : it never, however, at-
tains the height observed in pneumonia. In the very last stage
of the disease, as the blood becomes poor, the fibrin diminishes

Water

Solid constituents
Fibrin

Blood-corpuscles
Solid residue of serum

762-44

237-56

5-45

141-71

90-40]

280

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

in much the same ratio with the other solid constituents, and
sometimes falls even under the healthy standard. Generally
speaking, it seems that the amount of fibrin attains its maxi-
mum about the period when the febrile symptoms are regularly
established.

I have made three analyses of the blood of phthisical per-
sons, the results of which are not devoid of interest.

Analysis 26. Analysis 27.

Analysis 28.

Water

807-500

825-200

750-000

Solid residue

192-500

174-800

250-000

Fibrin

4-600

6-500

a trace

Fat .

2-350

4-200

3-750

Albumen

98-360

90-350

131-000

Globulin

71-230

61-110

94-500

Haematin

3-110

2-690

2-750

Extractive matters and salts

9-350

8-000

15-250

The blood

in analysis

26 was taken

from a

man aged 36

years, in the second stage of tubercular phthisis, who afterwards
sunk under the disease. The blood in analysis 27 was taken
from a man aged 41, in the third stage of the disease, who suf-
fered extremely from nocturnal colliquative sweats, and from
feverish symptoms. In these two instances the blood exhibits
the characters of hyperinosis, for the quantity of fibrin is in one
instance twice, and in the other thrice the normal amount, and
the amount of liaematoglobulin is below the healthy standard :
moreover, the quantity of solid constituents is less than in
healthy blood. Andral and Gavarrefs observations respecting
the changes that the blood undergoes as the disease advances
are here borne out.

The 28tlx analysis gives results quite at variance with the two
former. The blood in this instance was taken from a man
about 30 years of age, who was treated in our hospital for tu-
bercular phthisis. He had taken cod-liver oil for some time
with much benefit ; subsequently, however, frequent attacks of
haemoptysis came on, for which venesection was always imme-
diately prescribed. The clot in these cases was seldom very
firm. I analysed the blood taken at his last venesection. It
was received into a shallow vessel, and amounted to between
six and seven ounces. It did not coagulate, and it presented
the appearance of a homogeneous dark red fluid, in which some
white gelatinous flocks of coagulated fibrin were swimming.

BLOOD.

281

The blood contained, much to my surprise, a larger amount
of solid constituents than I have ever observed in any other
analysis. The fat, 'when isolated, smelt strongly of the volatile
fatty acid of the cod-liver oil, the odour of which was also
strongly developed during the evaporation of the blood to dry-
ness. A considerable quantity of lucmapluein was present, and
deeply coloured the extractive matters and salts. It is very pro-
bable that the peculiar changes in the blood in this instance are
due principally to the cod-liver oil and to the repeated bleedings.

Andral and Gavarret have analysed the blood in 21 cases of
this disease. Their maximum of fibrin was 5-9, their minimum
2‘1. In only two instances did the amount of corpuscles ap-
proximate to the normal standard, as fixed by Lecanu : in these
two cases it was represented by 122-1 and 120-4 respectively.
The amount was frequently below 100, and the decrease of cor-
puscles was almost always found to be accompanied with a cor-
responding increase of fibrin.

The maxima, minima, and average of the various constitu-
ents, as deduced from 22 analyses, made by Andral and Gavarret,
are given in the following table :

Solid residue

Water.

Solid residue.

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

of serum.

Maxima

845-8

225-0

5-9

122-1

105*4

Minima

775-0

154-2

2-1

76-7

65-1

Mean

809-7

190-3

4-4

100-5

85-3

Healthy blood

890-0

210-0

3-0

127-0

80-0

This table shows the great difference that may exist between
the quantities of the solid constituents, and of the corpuscles,
in healthy and in diseased blood.

[Becquerel and Rodier examined the blood of nine persons
affected with pulmonary phthisis, viz. five men and four women.

The following table represents the mean composition of the
blood of the men :

Density of defibrinated blood

1st Venesection.

1056-7

2d Venesection.
1055-5

3d Venesection.
1050-3

Density of serum

1028-0

102G-3

1025-5

Water ....

794-8

799-8

821-0

Solid constituents

205-2

200-2

179-0

Fibrin ....

4-8

4-2

3-G

Fat ....

1-554

1-443

1-0G0

Albumen

GG-2

65-0

62-0

Blood-corpuscles

125-0

122-7

103-5

Extractive matters and salts

7-7

G-7

8-9

282

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

Mean composition of the blood of phthisical women :

Density of defibrinated blood .

1055-4

Density of serum

1028-2

Water

79G-8

Solid constituents

203-2

Fibrin

4-0

Fat

1-729

Albumen ....

70-5

Blood-corpuscles , .

119-4

Extractive matters and salts

7-6]

§. Febris puerperalis.

[The blood in this disease has been

analysed by Heller : it

was of a very dark brown colour, but

coagulated in the ordi-

nary manner : the serum was turbid,

but after standing for

some time became clear ; its reaction was alkaline, its specific
gravity 1025, and it contained no biliphsein. The clot was
dark, of a loose consistence, and covered with a strong huffy
coat, over which there was a delicate membrane, that presented
under the microscope a finely granular appearance, and fat-

vesicles.

In 1 000 parts of blood there were contained :

Water ....

833-85

Solid constituents

166-15

Fibrin ....

5-16

Blood-corpuscles .

77-52

Albumen and extractive matters

77-47

Fixed salts ....

6-00

The blood has been partially analysed in two cases of this
disease by Becquerel and Rodier.

In the first case the blood, taken at the first venesection,
yielded fibrin (4-3), albumen (55'6), and blood-corpuscles (77’3) :
at the second venesection, the fibrin was (4-2,) the albumen
(54), and the blood-corpuscles (66-6). The cholesterin and the
phosphates exceeded the normal amount.

In the second case, the fibrin was normal, the albumen
(43), and the blood-corpuscles (70).]

e. Eclampsia. Convulsions.

[The blood of a girl, aged 20 years, who frequently had 40
or 50 attacks in the course of 24 hours, was subjected to several
analyses by Heller.

BLOOD.

283

The blood taken on the first occasion was of rather a dark
colour, the clot was loose, and the serum was turbid and light
red, in consequence of the presence of hiematin. The spe-
cific gravity of the serum was 1030, and the relation of the
clot to the serum as 446 : 554.

The blood contained in 1000 parts :

Water

797-00

Solid constituents

203-00

Fibrin .....

G-00

Blood-corpuscles

92-36

Albumen -with extractive matters

96-03

Fixed salts

8-35

A second venesection was instituted 33 days afterwards. The
physical characters of the serum were much as on the former
occasion, except that its specific gravity was only 1025. The
blood was taken partly from the arm, and partly from the foot.

The blood from the arm separated into 598‘4 parts of clot,

and 40T6 of serum, and was composed of:

Water

800-06

Solid residue ....

199-94

Fibrin .....

4-44

Blood-corpuscles ....

113-16

Residue of serum ....

82-35

The blood from the foot separated into 568-6 parts of clot,
and 431 ‘4 parts of serum, and was composed of:

Water

778-43

Solid constituents

221-57

Fibrin .....

5-84

Blood-corpuscles ....

125-80

Residue of serum

89-93

In the blood from the foot, the clot was

covered with a buffy

coat of about two lines in thickness ; in the blood from the arm

there was no indication of that phenomenon.

Heller likewise analysed the blood in a case of convulsions
occurring a few hours after delivery. At the period of the
venesection there were symptoms of metroperitonitis and
endometritis.

The blood was of a tolerably bright red colour, and sepa-
rated on coagulation into 587-3 parts of clot, and 412'7 of
serum. The specific gravity of the latter was 1026, and it
contained a large quantity of biliphsein.

284

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

Tlie blood contained in 1000 parts :

Water 788-20

Solid residue .... 211-80

Fibrin 5-87

Blood-corpuscles .... 124-07

Residue of serum . . . 81-86]

£. Carcinoma meclullare colli uteri.

[The sanguineous discharge from the uterus of a woman, aged
34 years, presenting all the characters of intense anaemia, was
analysed by Drs. Lenzberg and Morthier. It was of a dark
red colour, and the separation into clot and serum was not very
perfect. There appeared, however, to be about 543 of the

former, and 457 of the latter.

The blood consisted of :

Water 832-46 '

Solid constituents . . . 167-53

Fibrin 16-44

Blood-corpuscles . . . 77-03

Residue of serum . . . 74-06

Here we see that there is an enormous increase of fibrin,
and a great diminution of the corpuscles, while the residue of
the serum remains almost normal.]

On the probable cause of the peculiar change in the composition
of the blood in inflammatory diseases.

Although, in consequence of the deficiency of our knowledge
regarding the true nature of inflammation, an attempt to ex-
plain the primary causes of the change undergone by the blood
during this process may be deemed precipitate, yet the an-
nouncement of an opinion (though it have no higher claim than
a mere hypothesis) may be of service in directing the attention
of other investigators to the subject.

Numerous observations have shown us that blood retained
for any length of time in an organ, and thus prevented from
meeting with a due supply of oxygen, becomes poorer instead
of richer in fibrin; whereas there is undoubted evidence that in
inflammation the fibrin is increased. Moreover, blood impeded
in the course of the circulation becomes darker, (a sign that
there is not a due supply of oxygen,) while blood in inflamma-

BLOOD.

285

tion is generally brighter than in the normal state. The solid
constituents of inflamed blood are certainly diminished, but the
increased amount of fibrin renders it more plastic ; so that we
are not justified in comparing it (as Magendie has done) with
blood in which the capacity of coagidating has been lessened
by water, or alkaline carbonates, and which produced in the va-
rious organs, symptoms resembling those of inflammation. This
defibrinated blood presents characters entirely the reverse of
what we observe in inflammatory fluid, and resembles the con-
dition of the circulating blood in typhoid fevers. We can, I
think, scarcely doubt that the blood in an inflamed organ differs
in its composition from the blood in the rest of the body, pro-
vided we can assume that there is a stagnation of blood in the
affected organ during the whole period of inflammatory action.

Whether the blood is the first part of the system that becomes
diseased, or whether it becomes modified in consequence of
the pathological condition of the suffering organ, is a question
not easily answered. This much, however, is certain, that what-
ever be the inflamed organ, the blood invariably differs from
its normal condition in the same manner, although with varying
intensity. If we direct our attention to the reaction of the
whole organism dui’ing inflammation, Are see that all the organs
essential to the well-being of the blood are disturbed ; the tem-
perature of the whole body is heightened ; the pulse is full,
hard, tense, and frequent ; the urine scanty and loaded. Under
all these circumstances, we must expect to find a considerable
deviation of the blood from its normal condition.

If, in this general reaction of the Avhole system, which cor-
responds with a heightened amount of vitality in the blood, a
more rapid circulation is induced, Ave shall, without much diffi-
culty, be enabled to give a sufficient explanation of the manner in
AAdiich the peculiar changes already adverted to, are brought about.

The vital actmty of the blood is heightened, and its meta-
morphosis hastened, by an increased rapidity of the circulation ;
it remains, then, for us to consider what effect an accelerated
metamorphosis will have on the composition of the blood.

The metamorphosis of the plasma during the process of nu-
trition in the peripheral system will not necessarily be increased
by an accelerated circulation ; since (as I have endeavoured to
shoAv, in page 148,) the plasma remains virtually passive, and

286

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

is only changed by the cells of the organs, through which it passes,
possessing the inherent power of abstracting and appropriating
from it the substances requisite for their nourishment. It is
different, however, with the active metamorphosis of the blood,
in which the corpuscles are changed at the expense of the
plasma. If the general circulation be hastened, the blood will
be urged more frequently through the lungs and other organs
that exert a modifying influence on its composition.

Hence the blood (passing more frequently through the
lungs) gives off a larger amount of carbon in the form of car-
bonic acid than in the normal condition. If, as I have endea-
voured to show (pp. 155 and 219), the blood-corpuscles take
an essential part in the respiratory process, and their vital
activity, evolution, and revolution are only carried on with the
cooperative agency of the atmospheric origin, then, in propor-
tion to this increased cooperation, will their development be
hastened, their vitality heightened, and more corpuscles be con-
sumed than in the normal state.

Two important conclusions may be drawn from my theory,
regarding the production of fibrin from the blood-corpuscles,
viz. that the amount of fibrin is increased, and of blood-cor-
puscles diminished. This is the more striking, since the in-
crease of fibrin during the development of the corpuscles does
not keep pace with its consumption in the act of peripheral
nutrition, and since the supply of blood-corpuscles afforded by
the chyle cannot be proportionate with the diminution produced
by the accelerated circulation.1

Hence, if we only assume that the circulation is increased
by the reaction of the organism in inflammatory affections, an
explanation is at once afforded us of the change that occurs in
the composition of the blood in hyperinosis, and at the same
time of its heightened temperature. We do not, however, mean
to imply that the increased circulation is the sole cause of the
change in the blood, for it can hardly be denied that the nerves
exert an influence on its constitution ; moreover, as we have
already shown, venesection modifies its characters.

1 It has been suggested that blood in which there is an excess of fibrin increases
the energy of the heart’s action, while blood deficient in fibrin diminishes it. The
rapid circulation of the blood in inflammations and its torpid condition in certain
typhoid affections seems in favour of this view.

BLOOD.

287

SECOND FORM OF DISEASED BLOOD : IIYPINOSTS.l

I have shown, in speaking of hyperinosis sanguinis, what
striking changes in the blood are due to the excessive accumu-
lation of fibrin, and a corresponding diminution of blood-cor-
puscles. These differences are easily seen, because it is usually
necessary that blood should be taken at a period when these
changes are most obvious. In hypinosis sanguinis the case is
different : in many diseases of this nature it is not customary
to abstract blood at all, or at any rate only when an inflam-
matory affection is also present. Its distinctive characters
are therefore seldom so decidedly marked as in the former
case, and, in point of fact, less is known regarding this form of
diseased blood.

Chemical characters of the blood.

The quantity of fibrin is frequently less than in healthy
blood, or if it amounts to the normal quantity, its proportion to
the blood-corpuscles is less than is found in a state of health
(2'1 : 110 Simon, or 3 : 110 Lecanu) ; the quantity of cor-
puscles is either absolutely increased, or their proportion to
the fibrin is larger than in healthy blood : the quantity of solid
constituents is also frequently larger than in the normal fluid.

Physical characters of the blood.

The clot is most commonly large (but sometimes small), soft,
diffluent, and of a dark, almost black red colour: occasionally no
clot is formed. The huffy coat is seldom seen, and when it does
occur it is thin and soft, or forms a gelatinous particoloured
deposit on the clot. The serum is sometimes of a deep yellow
tinge, from the colouring matter of the bile, or red, from blood-
corpuscles in suspension : the blood has always an alkaline
reaction.

From the numerous analyses of Andral and Gavarret, and
from the observations of others, it appears that the blood occurs
in a state of hypinosis in fever ; if, however, the reaction as-
sumes the synochal type, or if inflammation of the respiratory

1 Formed from viro and “ic, ivog, the fd)re of flesh.

288

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

or other organs supervene, then the fibrin will increase in a cor-
responding degree, and the blood- corpuscles decrease, so that
the blood will approximate in its constitution to the normal
standard, or even partially assume the characters of hyperinosis.

a. Typhus abdominalis .

The blood in this disease exhibits the characters of hypi-
nosis perhaps more distinctly than in any other affection :
but the statements regarding its qualitative and quantitative
composition are still very contradictory, arising, probably, in
part, from its varying in different stages of typhus : thus, in
the period of excitement, it may incline towards a state of
hyperinosis ; in the stage of depression, the fibrin gradually
decreases ; and lastly, in the stage of collapse, the quantity of
blood-corpuscles and of solid constituents decreases so remark-
ably, that in the case of putrid abdominal typhus the blood (in
consequence of the liquor sanguinis being too watery, and de-
ficient in salts) assumes the state of spansemia. The same
appears to occur in petechial typhus.

One source of difference is therefore evidently dependent
upon the stage of the disease at which the blood is taken : the
presence of any inflammatory symptoms will also modify its
constitution.

The blood in typhus is found to be very deficient in fibrin,
and frequently also in albumen : it coagulates imperfectly, and
often remains in a semi-fluid state : the clot is soft, friable, of
a very dark, almost black red colour, and is very rarely covered
with a buffy coat : this form of blood becomes putrid sooner
than the healthy fluid.

I have made two analyses of the blood in rather mild forms
of the disease. The results do not by any means give a good
idea of hypinosis sanguinis.

Water

Analysis 29.
816-875

Analysis 30.
792-340

Solid residue

183-125

207-660

Fibrin

2-525

2-010

Fat .

2-233

2-200

Albumen

90-650

80-330

Globulin

75-205

99-510

Ilrematin

3-985

5-300

Extractive matters and salts

9-678

12-670

BLOOD.

289

The disease diagnosed in both instances (which occurred in
our hospital) was dothinenteritis.

In both cases venesection was ordered at an early stage of
the disease, when there was a good deal of vascular excitement
present, which may account for the partial decrease of the fibrin
and increase of the corpuscles.

The blood in analysis 29 was taken from a man 30 years of
age ; the tongue was furred, abdomen tender on pressure, mind
tolerably clear ; pulse rather full, 95 in the minute.

The blood in analysis 30 was taken from a man 38 years of
age, in whom there was a good deal of nervous excitement, gid-
diness, and buzzing of the ears; the abdomen was tender on
being pressed, the tongue thickly coated, and the pulse quick,
rather hard and full. Both cases turned out favorably.1

The most comprehensive researches on the blood in typhoid
fever (Sevres typhoides2) are those of Andral and Gavarret,
who made 50 analyses of blood taken from 20 persons suffering
under this affection.

The following are their principal results :

The fibrin never rises perceptibly above the normal standard
in true typhoid fever. It often remains at the normal height,
and is still more frequently below it.

In inflammatory disorders it is pretty clear that the fibrin
increases with the increased intensity of the disease : here we
observe just the reverse : the fibrin decreases in proportion to
the advancement of the disorder.

Andral and Gavarret observe that this cannot be ascribed to
the repeated bleedings, or to the continued low diet, for these
circumstances induce no change in the amount of fibrin in other
diseases. As soon, however, as any symptoms of convalescence
appear, the fibrin begins to increase, even before the organiza-
tion could contribute a supply by increased nutriment. This
continues to be the case during the progress of convalescence, and
as the patient improves the corpuscles simultaneously decrease.

In inflammatory diseases we observed a general tendency to

1 [In an analysis of the blood in typhus abdominalis, made subsequently to the
publication of his Chemistry, Simon found, water 887*5, sobd constituents 112*5,
fibrin none, albumen 54, haematoglobulin 47*25.]

2 Fievre continue qui reconnait pour caractere anatomique l’inflammation exantlie-
mateuse, puis ulcereuse, des follicules intestinaux. (Andral.)

290

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

diminution in the corpuscles : here we have just the reverse,
for the more frequently we analyse blood soon after the out-
break of the disease, the more frequently shall we find instances
in which the corpuscles, instead of being diminished, are consi-
derably increased, and, even in the more advanced stages, the
amount of the corpuscles is frequently found to exceed, or at
any rate to equal, the normal quantity.

The absolute increase of the corpuscles is not, however, so
decided as the increase of the fibrin in inflammatory diseases ;
neither is it so essential a condition for the existence of the disease,
for even in those cases in which the amount is much increased
at the commencement of the disorder, it may become diminished
during its course, and even when it is getting more severe.
However, when the absolute quantity of the corpuscles is dimi-
nished, its proportion to the fibrin is still greater than is ever
observed in the normal state.

The leading characteristic of the blood in this disease is the
decrease of the fibrin, which diminishes in proportion to the
violence of the attack, and from which another character is de-
rived, namely, the increased amount of corpuscles. During
the early period the diminution of the fibrin is not absolute ; it
is only relative in relation to the corpuscles ; but as the disease
approaches its height, the diminution becomes absolute.

Researches instituted in mild cases may give perfectly nega-
tive results.

Their maximum of fibrin was 3'7 ; their minimum -9. It is
true that in one case they found 4-2 of fibrin, but the blood was
taken dining convalescence.

The maxima, minima, and average results of 41 analyses are
given in the following table :

Water.

Solid residue.

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Solid residue
of serum.

Maximum

862-3

243-7

4-2

149-6

98-0

Minimum

756-3

137-7

0-9

66-7

66-8

Average

796-0

204-0

2-6

116-0

77-9

Healthy blood .

790-0

210-0

127-0

80-0

This average of 41 analyses (I have omitted some, as giving
no definitively clear result) does not give the general characters
of the blood, as it is expressed in the majority of the analyses.
The amount of fibrin is certainly less than in healthy blood, but
the corpuscles do not attain their normal height. If, however,

BLOOD.

201

the fibrin is estimated at 3-0, the proportion of the corpuscles is
134, which is higher than in healthy blood.

The quantity of the residue of the serum, and of solid con-
stituents generally, approximates closely to the normal standard.

The inorganic constituents of the residue of the serum amount,
on an average, to 7'62, which is very little lower than the corre-
sponding number in erysipelas or rheumatism.

Reid Clanny states, however, that the quantity of salts is
materially diminished in typhoid blood.

The following table contains the numerical results of Andral
and Gavarret’s researches on the blood in typhoid fever. In
order to make the proportion of the corpuscles to the fibrin
more striking, I have given not merely the numbers obtained
from the analyses, but the relative numbers on the assumption
that the fibrin is constantly represented by 3.

Venesection.

Date of
attack.

Water.

Solid

constituents.

Fibrin.

Blood-

corpuscles.

Blood-
corpuscles.
(Fibrin =3.)

Residue
of serum

756-3

243-7

2-3

145-3

180-0

96-1

769-7

230-3

2-1

135-8

193-0

92-4

1st Case*

785-2

214-8

1-8

126-2

210-0

86-8

798-6

201-4

1-3

116-2

268-0

83-9

827-4

272-6

1-0

91-7

273-0

79-9

819-7

180-3

0-9

93-1

310-0

86-3

752-9

247-1

2-4

146-7

183-0

98-0

766-5

233-5

2-5

143-6

172-0

87-4

4th

11 '

777-6

222-4

3-7

136-2

110-0

82-5

782-1

217-9

3-6

134-5

112-0

79-8

767-6

232-4

5-0

139-3

83-0

88-1

5th

„ <

777-3

222-7

5-4

129-7

72-0

87-6

782-4

217-6

5-0

127-1

76-0

85-5

791-7

208-3

4-0

123-6

92-0

80-7

769-5

230-5

3-6

149-6

124-0

77-3

784-7

215-3

2-9

125-3

129-0

87-1

6th

.. H

804-3

195-7

2-3

123-7

161-0

69-7

831-1

168-9

1-9

1030

163-0

64-0

^_5

845-5

154-5

3-7

79-6

64-0

71-2

810-3

189-7

3-4

102-4

90-0

83-9

816-2

183-8

3-5

105-0

90-0

79-8

7th

» 4

825-6

174-4

2-3

93-9

122-0

78-2

836-8

163-2

1-7

86-3

152-0

75-2

847-8

152-2

2-1

76-0

108-0

74-6

From these two columns of the blood-corpuscles we see that
the decrease of the fibrin is almost always connected with the

292

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

increase of the corpuscles, so that the proportion between the
two gradually differs more and more from the normal mixture.

The exceptions to this rule are caused either by some in-
flammatory complication, as in the fifth case, where an acute
attack of bronchitis accompanied the fever, or by the patient
being in a state of convalescence as in the fifth analysis, in
cases 6 and 7.

Andral and Gavarret offer no explanation of the peculiarities
in the fourth case.

The solid constituents of the blood are more frequently above
than below the normal standard, but the proportion is a fluc-
tuating one, and dependent, as we shall presently see, on the
progress of the disease.

Lecanu has analysed the blood of two persons suffering from
typhoid fever. As he did not determine the amount of fibrin,
the proportion of that constituent to the corpuscles cannot be
shown. Their absolute quantity is less than in normal blood.
Lecanu also states, that he thinks that a paucity of corpuscles
may be inferred from the smallness and friability of the clot,1
a statement at variance with the researches of Andral and
Gavarret.

Lecanu also found a diminution of the solid constituents
generally : —

' I may take this opportunity of saying a few words regarding the possibility of
drawing a correct inference respecting the amount of fibrin and of corpuscles from
the clot. We are justified in assuming the existence of a great quantity of fibrin
from a large and very firm clot, and a small amount from a small diffluent clot. We
cannot, however, with the same accuracy, draw similar influences respecting the
amount of corpuscles. On receiving the blood of a cachectic horse into a high
cylindrical glass and into a shallow vessel, a large and very firm clot generally forms
in the latter (unless, as is sometimes the case, the blood-corpuscles sink during coagu-
lation), and little serum is expressed ; while, in the other vessel, two distinct layers
are observed, a large one, consisting of firmly coagulated fibrin, containing serum,
below which there is a much smaller layer, consisting of semifluid blood -corpus-
cles. As the albumen inclosed in the coagulated fibrin in the high glass forms a very
solid mass resembling a pseudopolypus or huffy coat, we see that, independently’ of the
corpuscles, a very firm clot may he formed ; indeed, in inflammatory blood, this is
often observed to a greater or lesser degree. There may, consequently, he as many
blood-corpuscles in a small and loose clot as in a large and firm one ; moreover, we
usually find numerous corpuscles suspended in the serum and deposited at the bottom
of the vessel, in addition to those contained in the clot, in blood deficient in fibrin.
The relative amount of corpuscles and of fibrin in clots of different size and con-
sistence is a subject worthy of investigation.

BLOOD.

293

Water

805-20

795-88

Solid residue

. .

194-80

204-20

Blood-corpuscles

115-00

105 00

Residue of serum

79-00

99-12

Chomel does not consider tlmt the diminution of fibrin is a
specific character of the blood in typhoid fever, because he
found that in 6 out of 30 cases, the blood formed a solid clot,
covered -with a bully coat, but differing in thickness and colour
from the inflammatory clot; while in 2 cases there was a
slight film, beneath which the clot was diffluent, in 2 the blood
remained perfectly fluid and slightly lumpy, and in 20 the blood
formed a firm clot, but no buffy coat.

The blood in all these cases was taken during the first or
the commencement of the second stage, never in the third.
The peculiarities in CliomeFs statement may be partly due to
the blood being taken at a period before the fever had reached
its height, partly to the association of some inflammatory symp-
tom, or to a more synochal type of the disease.

According to Jennings,1 the blood in the first stage of ty-
phoid fever (depression) is generally thick and dark ; it coa-
gulates rapidly and forms a soft, large, dark-coloured clot.
In the second stage (excitement) it flows readily, is of a scarlet
colour, does not coagulate so quickly as, and forms a more
solid clot than the former. It is also occasionally covered with
a slight buffy coat. In the third stage (collapse) it flows very
readily, is thin, watery, and of a dark colour: the clot is loose
and flocculent, and occasionally appears more as a sediment
of colouring matter than as a clot. In thoroughly developed
typhus. Dr. Armstrong found the blood of the temporal artery
as dark as that of the vein. Dr. Clanny also states that the
watery portion of the blood increases with the intensity of the
disease, and that not merely the solid constituents generally,
but also the salts and carbonic acid are diminished. The water
begins to decrease, and the solid constituents to increase in
favorable cases after 12 or 18 days. According to Stevens, the
salts of the blood (especially the chloride of sodium) are di-
minished in all typhoid fevers.

1 Course of Lectures on the Physiology and Pathology of the Blood, by H. Ancell.
The Lancet, 1840, p. 338.

294

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

[Becquerel and R-odier have analysed the blood of 13 persons
attacked with typhoid fever, 11 men and 2 women. Of the
11 men, 6 were bled once, 4 twice, and 1 thrice; of the
2 women, 1 was bled once, and 1 thrice.

The following table exhibits the mean composition of the
blood of the male patients, obtained at the first venesection :

Density of defibrinated blood

1054-4

Density of serum

1025-4

Water ....

797-0

Solid residue .

203-0

Fibrin ....

2-8

Fat

1-773

Albumen

64-8

Blood-corpuscles

127-4

Extractive matters and salts

6-3

The salts consisted of:

Chloride of sodium .

....

2-9

Other soluble salts

2-5

Phosphates

0-497

Iron ....

0-555

The fibrin varied considerably, the maximum being 4-9,

while in three cases it was

considerably below the normal

standard. The albumen and blood-corpuscles

were, in most

instances, diminished.

Four of the same men were

bled a second time, and the fol-

lowing table gives the mean

results of the blood obtained in

these four cases, on both occasions :

1st Venesection.

2d Venesection.

Density of defibrinated blood

1054-0

1051-4

Density of serum

1025-0

1024-7

Water ....

801-0

814-5

Solid constituents

199-0

185-5

Fibrin ....

2-3

1-3

Fat ....

1-527

1-408

Albumen

64-4

62-0

Blood-corpuscles

124-5

113-5

Extractive matters and salts

6-0

7-3

The salts consisted of

Chloride of sodium

3-6

3-5

Other soluble salts

2-6

2-7

Phosphates

0-544

0-255

Iron ....

0-581

0-519

A comparison of the two columns shows that the blood ob-

BLOOD.

295

tained by the second venesection contains a considerably smaller
mean amount of fibrin than the blood previously taken. The
albumen and corpuscles are likewise diminished.

The case in which venesection was performed three times
offered no peculiarity ; neither did the analyses of the blood of
the two women.

In all these analyses the clot was found to present no strik-
ing peculiarity. There was none of the softness and diffluence
on which the older writers laid so much stress.

Scherer has analysed the salts of the blood in a case of
typhoid fever. In 1000 parts of blood there were 176-3 of
solid residue, which on incineration yielded 11-92 of fixed salts.

These consisted of:

Chloride of sodium .... 6-82

Carbonate of soda .... 1-41

Sulphate of soda ..... 0-84

Phosphate of soda .... 0-94

Carbonate of lime .... 0-16

Phosphate of lime .... 0'60

Sulphate of lime .... 0-22

Peroxide of iron ..... 0-60]

ft. Febris continua.

1. Prodromi febris continues. The blood exhibits similar
changes in the progress of continued fever, as in typhus.
Andral and Gavarret have carefully analysed the blood in this
disease, and give the following account of their researches.

They made nine analyses of the blood of six persons. The
fibrin did not exceed the normal amount in any instance, (in
one, however, it amounted to 3-2) ; in three cases it was a little
below the standard, but exceeded 2 ; in two cases it was rather
less than 2; and in one case as low as 1-6. The amount of
blood-corpuscles was lower in only two cases than in normal
blood; in the others it was more or less increased, and in the
blood in which the fibrin amounted to only 1*6, the corpuscles
amounted to 15 7*7, which, if the fibrin were estimated at 3,
would give the enormous amount of 296. We have only one
instance in typhoid blood of so high a proportion. The amount
of the residue of the serum is increased, rather than diminished,
and the same is the case with the solid constituents of the
blood generally.

296

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

Their analyses gave the following results :

Date of

Blood-

Residue

Venesection.

the disease.

Water.

Solid residue.

Fibrin.

corpuscles.

of serum.

1st Case

766-2

233-8

3-0

143-5

87-3

2d „

769-5

230-5

1-8

136-4

92-3

3d „

761-3

238-7

2-9

142-7

93-1

4th „

770-8

229-2

3-2

137-9

88-1

r 1

785-6

213-4

2-3

125-4

86-7

5th Case \

788-3

211-7

2-2

124-0

85-5

L 3

790-8

209-2

123-0

84-1

6 th Case -|

r i

744-2

255-8

1-6

157-7

96-5

l 2

779-7

220-3

2-1

129-3

88-9

The inorganic constituents of the residue of the serum
amounted on an average to 7*5g, which corresponds with the
proportion in typhoid fever.

2. Febris continua. Andral and Gavarret made 21 analyses
of the blood of 11 persons suffering from continued fever.
They divide their analyses into two series, one containing the
results obtained when the blood was taken nearly at the ter-
mination of the disease; the other, when certain inflammatory
states, as for instance angina, bronchitis, erysipelas, &c. had
supervened.

These researches exhibit less of the characters of hypinosis
than those instituted on the blood at the commencement of
continued fever, which, in the first series may he due to the
circumstance of the disease being on the decline ; and in the
second, to the inflammatory complication.

In both series the fibrin exceeds the normal amount, and in
both, the amount of corpuscles is, in part, also below the
standard.

The following analyses are taken from the first of these tables :

Date of

Blood-

Residue

Venesection.

disease.

Water.

Fibrin.

corpuscles.

of serum.

, . o S i

725-6

3-3

185-1

86-0

1st Case 4

l 2

789-3

3-3

128-3

79-1

r 1

824-9

3-2

82-5

89-4

2d „ \ 2

833-7

3-1

77-2

86-0

l 3

851-9

4-2

62-4

81-5

The blood

in the

first of these

cases was

taken from

a man

aged 58 years. The amount of the corpuscles, especially when
the age of the patient is considered, is very surprising ; it is

BLOOD.

297

the highest amount ever found by Andral and Gavarrct. In
the second case, the patient was at the same time suffering from
chlorosis, which accounts for the small number of corpuscles.

The second table does not give very clear results,

on account

of the inflammatory complications.

Date of

Blood-

Residue

Venesection.

disease.

Water.

Fibrin.

corpuscles. of serum.

r 1

793-8

4-3

114-7

87-2

1st Case -I 2

801-9

3-6

109-8

85-0

l 3

810-0

5-0

95-9

89-1

2d „ 1

758-9

3-8

160-7

76-6

3d „ 1

784-2

2-6

131-0

83-2

4th „ 1

804-8

5-4

94-1

95-7

r 1

791-4

3-1

118-6

86-9

5th „ 4 2

810-1

4-0

101-8

83-1

L 3

824-3

3-7

86-9

85-1

In the first of these cases the fever was complicated with a
rather severe attack of angina. In the third analysis in this
case, the blood contained a large quantity of fibrin due to a re-
newal of the inflammatory symptoms in a rather violent form.
Slight erysipelas of the face was present in the second case; in
the third there was swelling and redness of the tonsils ; in the
fourth the fever was complicated with acute bronchitis; in the
fifth the blood was taken from a woman three months after
delivery : at the period of the second venesection, some slight
symptoms of meningitis had appeared.

Jennings1 has analysed the blood of a girl aged 14 years,
suffering from continued fever. He found it composed of :

Water ....

856-0

Solid residue

144-0

Fibrin ....

2-0

Fat ....

Albumen

37-0

Blood-corpuscles

910

Extractive matter

Alkaline salts .

3-8

Earthy salts

1-0

[Becquerel and Rodicr have analysed the blood of 3 men and
2 women suffering from ordinary continued fever. The mean

1 Course of Lectures on the Physiology and Pathology of the Blood, by H. Aucell.
The Lancet, 1840, p. 339.

298

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

composition of tlie blood of tlie 3 men is given in the following

table :

Density of defibrinated blood . . . 1056-8

Density of serum .... 1025-5

Water ...... 781-6

Solid constituents .... 218-4

Fibrin ...... 2-8

Fat ..... 1-7

Albumen ..... 65-7

Blood-corpuscles .... 142-4

Extractive matters and salts ... 5-8

Here we see that the fibrin and albumen remain nearly nor-
mal, while the corpuscles, instead of diminishing, are slightly
above the average (them numbers being 146, 142, and 138.)
The fatty matters and salts offered no peculiarity.

They give the following particulars regarding the blood of
the two female patients.

The corpuscles were augmented (135-5) in the first case;
normal (125 '5) in the second: fibrin normal (l-9) in the first;
doubled (3'6) in the second : albumen normal (73 and 70) in
both. The serum was turbid in both cases. In the case in
which the corpuscles were 125, the clot was firm and resisting,
in the other it was soft and diffluent.]

In the following exanthemata, which, with true erysipelas,
constitute Schonleiw’s family of Erysipelacea, we find that the
composition of the blood is very similar to what it is in con-
tinued fever; the characters of hypinosis are much less marked
than in the typhoid form. Some analyses give negative results,
while in others the tendency of the constitution of the blood is
more towards hyperinosis than hypinosis.

The maximum of fibrin amounts to only 4*4, against which
there is a minimum of l'l. In the majority of cases it does
not differ much from Lecanu’s normal average 3.

The blood-corpuscles are increased in a less degree in variola
and varioloid, than in scarlatina and rubeola.

Variola et morb. varioloid.

The blood was analysed by Andral and Gavarret in 5 cases of
true variola and 2 of varioloid disease.

In all the cases of variola the eruption was confluent. The

BLOOD.

299

blood-corpuscles differed but little from their normal standard,
but the quantity of fibrin varied considerably, although the in-
crease above the normal mean was only small. It is worthy
of remark that the quantity of fibrin appears to increase, al-
though only slightly, by repeated bleeding; a circumstance which,
according to Andral and Gavarret, characterizes the phlogoses.

This may be due to the inflammatory state of the skin in
this disease, although we do not perceive a similar occurrence
in typhoid fever, in which the mucous surface of the intestine
is in a somewhat similar state.

Their analyses gave the following results :

Venesection.

Water.

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of se

771-5

4-4

120-6

103-5

1st Case-{ 2

780-8

2-9

110-2

106-1

820-2

3-2

94-6

82-0

791-3

114-3

91-4

803-9

3-2

92-6

100-3

2d » v 3

811-8

3-0

88-4

96-8

817-3

3-3

87-0

92-4

3d I1

781-4

2-6

127-9

88-1

J ” 1 2

792-0

3-5

124-4

80-1

4th „ j1

796-0

4-1

126-5

76-4

792-7

2-0

124-9

80-4

5th „ 1

805-0

2-9

98-8

92-3

The residue of the serum contained on an average 7,02 of
inorganic constituents.

In the first case, the first bleeding was ordered at the com-
mencement of the disease, dining the febrile period ; the second
at the commencement, and the third at about the middle of
the eruptive stage. In the second case, the first bleeding was
ordered some days before the appearance of the disease ; the
second during the fever; the third on the third day of the
eruption, and the fourth on the sixteenth day of the eruption.
In the third case, the first bleeding was ordered at the com-
mencement of the eruption; the second during the suppurative
stage. In the fourth case, both venesections were prescribed
during the height of the eruption. In the fifth case the pus-
tules were filled with blood (variole hemorragique :) the bleed-
ing was ordered when the eruption was at its height.

The analyses of blood in varioloid gave the following results :

Water. Fibrin. Blood-corpuscles. Residue of serum.

785-6 2-3 120-3 91-8

782-1 2-4 125-8 89-7

300

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

The residue of the serum contained 7-62 of inorganic matter
in the second analysis.

In the first instance the bleeding was performed on the 3d
day; and in the second case on the 2d day of the eruption.

Rubeola. ( Morbilli .)

Andral and Gavarret found that in the measles the fibrin
never exceeded, nor did it ever fall much below Lecanu’s aver-
age. In most cases the corpuscles were above the normal
standard. I quote the following analyses from their researches :

Day of

Blood-

Residue

Venesection.

eruption.

Water.

Fibrin.

corpuscles.

of serum.

1st Case

760-2

2-6

146-6

90-6

1 1

766-9

3-0

140-9

89-2

781-6

2-6

1371

78-7

4th

786-7

2-5

137-5

73-4

>> ^

L 2

795-8

2-7

131-6

70-1

5 th

» <

792-1

2-4

118-6

86-9

l 2

823-2

3-4

93-3

80-1

The residue of the serum contained on an average 8-4g of in-
organic constituents, which was one of the highest amounts
that occurred in the course of their researches.

The patient in case 3 had also been bled on the first day of
the eruption : the second bleeding in case 4 was performed on
the second day after the disappearance of the eruption.

The young woman from whom the blood in case 5 was taken,
presented so strongly the general appearances of anaemia in
consequence of excessive menstruation, that the amount of cor-
puscles, IlS'G, may be regarded as very high : the second ve-
nesection was performed after the disappearance of the eruption,
and when symptoms of tubercular phthisis were very apparent.

Scarlatina.

Andral and Gavarret have made four analyses of the blood
of three persons suffering from scarlatina. Two of these ana-
lyses decidedly indicate the character of hypinosis, although
not in a very marked degree. The two other cases present

differences which will be

presently

explained :

Venesection.

Water.

Fibrin.

Blood -corpuscles.

Residue of serum.

1st Case / *

761-5

146-0

89-4

l 2

782-6

4-0

124-3

89-1

2d „ 1

776-3

3-5

136-1

84-1

3d „ 1

798-3

6-8

112-2

BLOOD.

301

The first bleeding in the first case was ordered on the second
day of the eruption; the second during convalescence. At this
period a number of boils had appeared, and there was consi-
derable fever, to which two circumstances the change in the blood
is attributable.

The bleeding in the second case was ordered on the second
day of the eruption.

Lecanu1 has also made two analyses of the blood in this dis-
ease, and has obtained nearly similar results.

Blood of a man Blood of a man
aged 35 years. aged 18 years.

Water .... 776-55 770-41

Blood-corpuscles . . . 144-55 146-80

Residue of serum . . . 78-90 82-79

The quantity of fibrin was not determined by Lecanu.

Febris intermittens.

From the analyses made by Andral and Gavarret of the
blood in this disease, we are led to conclude that instead of being
in a state of hypinosis, the blood exhibits rather a tendency to-
wards hyperinosis. Andral and Gavarret themselves remark,
that in consequence of the absence of all disturbance in the
normal functions of the organism during the remission of the
febrile symptoms, it might be concluded a priori that no pe-
culiar changes would be exhibited in the blood.

The fibrin rises a little above the normal average ; the cor-
puscles, however, with the exception of one case in which the
bleeding was ordered at the commencement of a second attack,
fall below the normal proportion. The blood in most of these
cases was, however, taken from persons suffering from long
standing tertian or quotidian fever.

The period at which the blood was taken, whether during
the remission, the hot or the cold stage, seemed to exert no
influence on the composition of the fluid.

It will be sufficient to give the maxima, minima, and mean
of their researches.

1 Etudes chimiques, etc., p. 97.

302

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

Water. Solid residue. Fibrin. Blood-corpuscles. Residue of scrum.

Maximum

847-9

221-9

3-8

127-9

910

Minimum

778-1

152-1

3-0

68-8

71-6

Mean of 7 analyses

811-4

188-6

3-3

104-3

80-0

Tlie loss of a considerable quantity of blood by hemorrhage
must necessarily influence the composition of the blood re-
maining in the system. This will be shown (as we have already
seen in the Plilogoses) by the diminution of the corpuscles, and
in most cases of the fibrin also.

From the blood taken from the body we can usually draw a
pretty safe inference regarding the composition of the blood
remaining in the system : a thick, readily coagulating blood
usually indicates an abundance of the circulating fluid, and
especially a considerable quantity of corpuscles and fibrin, while
a thin non-coagulating blood implies a deficiency of those two
constituents.

The blood does not, however, exhibit the same changes of
composition in all the diseases that are classed as hemorrhages.
On the contrary, it has been shown by Andral and Gavarret
that the composition of the blood in spontaneous cerebral
hemorrhage is similar to that which is so characteristic in
typhoid fever.

Hmnorrhagia cerebrcdis.

Andral and Gavarret found that the quantity of fibrin in the
majority of cases of apoplexia cerebralis, and of the cerebral
congestion known as the forerunner of that disease, was less than
in healthy blood; the amount of corpuscles was, however, fre-
quently absolutely increased, and, excepting in a few cases, was
larger, in proportion to the fibrin, than in the healthy fluid.
The solid constituents were generally rather increased; circum-
stances which all correspond with a state of hypinosis.

These points are most strikingly seen in certain cases of
of spontaneous cerebral hemorrhage, when, for instance, in cor-
respondence with the small amount 1'9 of fibrin no less than
175-5 of corpuscles were found.

Andral and Gavarret have made eight analyses of the blood
of 7 persons suffering from this affection. Them results are
given in the following table : —

BLOOD.

303

Period from

Venesection.

commencement
of disease.

Water.

Solid

residue.

Fibrin.

Blood-

corpuscles.

Residue
of serum.

1st Case

790-9

209-1

2-2

135-9

71-0

2d „

742-3

257-7

1-9

175-5

80-3

779-2

220-8

3-5

137-7

79-6

3d „

770-8

229-2

2-6

140-6

86-0

4th „

791-8

208-2

3-9

126-5

77-8 •

5th „

806-9

193-1

2-0

120-8

70-3

6th „

791-3

208-7

2-1

122-4

84-2

/th ,,

774-0

226-0

3-2

123-4

99-4

The

residue of the serum contained,

on an average,

7-99 of

inorganic constituents, which, shows that the quantity of salts is
not diminished.

The blood in the first case was taken from a woman aged
60 years, whose feet had been oedematous for six months, in
consequence of hypertrophy of the heart.

The second case was that of a woman aged 59 years, who,
two days before the bleeding, had a severe apoplectic fit : the
blood exhibited decided symptoms of hypinosis, the fibrin being
diminished, and the corpuscles and (to a very considerable de-
gree) the solid constituents being increased. The bleeding was
repeated three days afterwards, when consciousness had re-
turned, and at this period the corpuscles were found to have
diminished in a very striking degree, being about 25§ less than
on the former occasion : the fibrin in the meantime increased
in a still more rapid proportion.

Andral and Gavarret observe, in regard to this case, that
the slight cerebral hemorrhage is not sufficient to account sa-
tisfactorily for the change in the composition of the blood that
was observed on the second occasion ; moreover, since the loss
of blood is not always necessarily followed by a diminution of
fibrin, it may be asked whether the changed composition of the
blood, instead of being a consequence, may not have been a
cause of the disease, since blood deficient in its proper quantity
of fibrin has always a tendency to escape from the vessels.1

The change in the composition of the blood is proportional

1 In opposition to this view it may be stated that blood containing uninjured cor-
puscles cannot be effused unless there are orifices in the parietes of the vessels, and
it is questionable whether blood abounding in fibrin can escape through such pores
at all, while blood deficient in that constituent can pass through with facility. The
only constituent that can permeate the walls of uninjured vessels is haematoglobuhn
dissolved in liquor sanguinis ; and this solution is not produced by a diminution in

304

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

to the violence of the attack, as is seen in the third case, where
the fibrin is only slightly diminished, although the corpuscles
are considerably increased.

Consciousness remained in the fourth and fifth cases. The
increase of the fibrin, while the corpuscles remained stationary,
is deserving of notice in the former of these cases. In the sixth
case the hemorrhage had occurred three weeks before the vene-
section, and was followed by entire hemiplegia of the left side.
In the seventh case the patient had previously been bled on the
third day of the attack ; she had retained her consciousness.

Andral and Gavarret have made 21 analyses of the blood of
15 persons suffering from cerebral congestion (the usual pro-
dromus of spontaneous cerebral hemorrhage). Its symptoms
are intense headache, giddiness, and a tendency towards epistaxis.

In the majority of these cases the fibrin was found to be below
the normal quantity. It twice rose to 3 -7, once to 3'5, and once
to 3-2 ; in all the other cases it was below the normal amount,
and it occurred as low as l- 6.

The amount of blood-corpuscles was pretty near the standard
average; in two instances it rose to 152 and 154; and in two
other cases, (the one a woman of weakly condition, and the
other a person under the noxious influence of lead,) it fell to 88.

I shall only give the maxima, minima, and mean of these

researches :

Water.

Solid constituents.

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum.

Maximum

820-3

259-8

3-7

152-3

104-8

Minimum

740-2

179-7

1-6

88-3

76-4

Mean

787-1

212-9

2-6

120-0

89-7

Healthy blood

790-0

210-0

3-0

127-0

80-0

The residue of the serum contained, on an average, 7 • 9" of in-
organic constituents, the same amount as in cerebral hemorrhage.

No causes can be assigned with any degree of certainty to
the peculiar modification of the blood to which I have assigned
the term hypinosis.

the amount of fibrin, since the corpuscles are insoluble in defibrinated serum, pro-
vided a sufficient amount of chloride of sodium be contained in it. On the other
hand, the solubility of the hsematoglobulin in the liquor sanguinis and its consequent
property of escaping through the walls of the vessels may arise from an absolute de-
crease of salts or from an increased amount of water in the blood. In the analyses
quoted in the text the salts were not diminished.

BLOOD.

.305

The composition of the blood in hypinosis is essentially the
reverse of that in liyperinosis. The amount of corpuscles is in-
creased, that of fibrin diminished, and the solid constituents
generally are increased rather than diminished ; while in the
phlogoses they are most commonly below the normal standard.
We have seen in the previous analyses that in proportion as
the febrile symptoms assumed the form of eretliismus, the cha-
racters of hypinosis became less marked; and, on the other hand,
that when they took on a torpid type these characters were more
strikingly developed.

If we assume that the circulation of the blood is accelerated
in inflammatory fever, we may regard it as impeded in torpid
fever. In the one case, the blood abounding in fibrin acts
as an increased stimulus to the heart ; in the other, the heart
partially loses its power of action. Its contractions succeed each
other, it is true, with increased rapidity, but the blood-wave,
propelled at each systole, is diminished and powerless, and the
pulse, although much quickened, is small and wiry.

In consequence of the delay thus occasioned in the motion of
the general mass of the blood, oxygen cannot act so efficiently
on it as in the normal state of the circulation, and consequently
the blood does not possess the bright red colour observed in in-
flammatory affections, but is dark, and the temperature, in-
stead of being increased, is often diminished, as has been ob-
served by Schonlein, in typhus. Hence the metamorphosis of
the blood, instead of being accelerated, as in liyperinosis, is
impeded, and consequently the ratio of the corpuscles to the
albumen is reversed. In abdominal typhus, the amount of the
corpuscles is rendered more striking, by the diminution of albu-
men, which constituent is removed from the blood by the profuse
diarrhoea that accompanies this disease.

From these observations it is very probable that the primary
cause of this modification of the blood may, in a great measure,
be referred to the impeded circulation, and to the deficient
energy of the heart’s action, which may be regarded as indica-
tions of the depressed vitality of the blood itself ; but at the
same time the influence of the nerves on its composition and
on the circulation (although how they act we know not) must
not be overlooked.

Finallv, it must be observed that the state of hypinosis is

30G

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

not a permanent one ; it lasts only for a brief period, till the
blood either begins to exhibit more vital activity, and to return
towards its normal condition ; or, if its vitality be still more
depressed, till it assumes tbe character of spansemia. The pre-
ponderance of the corpuscles is not absolute (as in plethora1),
but merely relative, and is due, partly to their hindered con-
sumption, and partly (as is seen in abdominal typhus) to an
absolute diminution of the water and the albumen. If the
fever assume a malignant torpid character, the hypinosis spee-
dily merges into spansemia.

THIRD FORM OF DISEASED BLOOD : SPAN^MIA.2

The chemical and physical relations of the blood in those
states in which it is deficient in solid constituents, and especially
in fibrin and blood-corpuscles, are not yet accurately known.

We have less frequent opportunities of examining this con-
dition of the blood, for some of the diseases in which it occurs
are of rare occurrence, and in the other more common forms,
the prudent physician avoids as much as possible increasing by
venesection the general want of blood in the system.

Chemical characters of the blood.

The amount of fibrin and of corpuscles is diminished : the
amount of residue of serum is either normal or diminished : the
proportion of water is higher than in healthy blood : the amount
of salts in the serum is sometimes normal, sometimes diminished.

Physical characters of the blood.

The blood is very fluid ; it is sometimes of a dark or even
violet, and sometimes of a bright colour ; it usually coagulates
imperfectly, sometimes not at all. The clot is small, soft, diffluent,
and neither covered with a true nor false buffy coat. The serum
is generally of a bright yellow colour, but sometimes of a dark
yellow or even red tint. The specific gravity of the blood is
considerably diminished.

1 [Becquerel and Rodier have recently shown that this opinion is erroneous, and
that, in plethora, the amount of the hlood is increased, while its composition is un-
affected.]

2 From alfLa, blood, and mravog, or cnrdvio£, poor; spanajmia, poverty of the
hlood. We prefer this term to anaemia, because the latter is used to represent a
morbid condition of the hlood subordinate to spansemia.

BLOOD.

307

This form of diseased blood appears capable of being subdivided
into two classes : one embracing diseases primarily dependent
upon the cliylopoietic viscera, such as are due to bad food, de-
ficient and improper formation of cliyle, atmospheric influences,
protracted action of poisonous mineral agents (lead, mercury and
its compounds, chlorine, iodine, &c.) ; and finally, to inordinate
consumption of the blood through a deficiency of the animal fluids.

The corpuscles, which, as we have seen, are of the utmost
importance in the blood, are either not produced in sufficient
quantity, or are consumed in a quicker proportion than they are
reproduced. The liquor sanguinis, although poor in fibrin, may yet
contain asufficient quantity of albumen and salts to prevent the re-
latively increased quantity of water from dissolving the corpuscles.

All the diseases arranged by Schonlein under the family
cyanoses belong to this subdivision.

The other subdivision embraces certain diseases characterized
by the peculiar composition of the blood, but in which the pri-
mary causes of its change of composition are quite distinct from
those which act in the cyanoses, and are probably dependent
upon the central nervous system. A peculiar state of the at-
mosphere (most likely due to certain changes in its chemical
composition), protracted wars, the effluvia of decaying animal
matter, &c., are assigned as the external causes of the production
of these disorders, the principal of which are abdominal typhus,
petechial typhus, the yellow fever, and the plague.

In the cyanoses, as also in the malignant (putrid) form of
typhus, passive hemorrhages are by no means rare.

It has been asserted that the deficiency of fibrin and of cor-
puscles renders the blood liable to exude through the walls of the
vessels. It is clear, however, that the colouring matter cannot
escape through the walls of the capillaries, unless such a change
occurs as to render the hcematoglobulin soluble in the liquor
sanguinis, since perfect corpuscles are not capable of passing
through the uninjured walls of the vascular system. As the blood
which is discharged by epistaxis in the morbus maculosus Werl-
liofii (as well as menstrual blood) contains corpuscles, the walls
of the vessels must be imperfectly closed. Such a form of blood
appears to occur in the putrid form of abdominal or petechial
typhus. The hcematoglobulin becomes soluble in the liquor
sanguinis, in consequence of a deficiency in the due proportion

308

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

of salts, and an excess of water ; in this case we may therefore
speak of a red, bloody transudation.

I. CYANOSES.

Ancemia and hydrcemia.

The blood in anaemia is essentially different from the normal
composition. If the anaemia has arisen from excessive loss of
blood, we may fairly assume that the total mass of that fluid has
diminished. This, in fact, constitutes true anaemia. The com-
position is, however, also changed ; it is poor in corpuscles and
in fibrin, because these constituents are not so easily supplied
as the albumen, which may be obtained at once from the lym-
phatics. The quantity of the solid constituents is also found
to be diminished, if the quantity of the corpuscles is (either
absolutely or relatively) decreased : the quantity of water is there-
fore increased, which induces the state of the blood known as
hydraemia. Anaemia and hydraemia cannot be well separated,
as a decrease in the solid constituents is usually produced by
every loss of blood.

If the anaemia is caused by abnormal or deficient chylifica-
tion, the proper quantity of liquor sanguinis may be present,
while the corpuscles and fibrin are diminished : in this case,
also, the absolute quantity of solid constituents is lessened.

The decrease of the solid constituents will probably attain
its maximum under the combined influences of an unhealthy
humid atmosphere, and improper, unsuitable nourishment.
Under these circumstances the blood will resemble a viscid,
light-coloured watery fluid.

I have not analysed the blood in any cases of anaemia, but
it is usually described as clear, watery, and viscid. The clot, if
it forms at all, is small, soft, and diffluent ; the fibrin, after it
has been separated by whipping, is not tough and firm, but soft
and viscid, and in the same state as it occurs in the chyle. The
serum is slightly coloured and transparent. It has not been
accurately ascertained whether the salts are decreased or in a
normal proportion.

In hydraemia, the serum (as has been observed by Ancell1),
is usually transparent, and contains- only a small quantity of

1 Course of Lectures on the Blood. The Lancet, 1840, p. 0G7.

BLOOD.

309

colouring matter, and probably only a slight amount of salts.1
Geddings2 observes regarding tlie inhabitants of the morasses
of the Carolinas, in whom anaemia, or, more correctly speaking,
hydraemia, is developed in a high degree, that the temperature
of the body is reduced, that the respiration is short and la-
borious, and that the pulse is small, tremulous, and frequent.
In the examination of the heart and larger vessels of anaemic
persons he found either scarcely any coagulated blood, or else a
clear red, or greenish dirty-looking fluid, almost entirely devoid
of solid or colouring constituents, containing but few blood-cor-
puscles, and which could not be coagulated either by heat or
by nitric, acid. This watery fluid was frequently present in
considerable quantity.

Carcinoma.

In a case of cancer of the left lobe of the liver, and of the
pylorus, accompanied with atrophy of the spleen, occurring in
a man, aged 53 years, the blood contained :

Analysis 31.

Water ....

887-2

Solid constituents

112-8

Fibrin ....

Albumen ....

55-1

Blood-corpuscles .

45-8

Extractive matters and salts .

8-9

Scrophulosis.

In scrofulous affections the blood is deficient in solid consti-
tuents, especially in fibrin and in corpuscles. The primary
causes are probably due to a deficient formation of chyle, and
to the influence of a moist unhealthy atmosphere.

Dubois3 has analysed the blood of scrofulous persons. The
blood coagulates slowly, the clot is small, soft, and diffluent ; the
serum is thin, and often of a red colour. When examined under
the miscroscope, some of the corpuscles appeared devoid of colour
at the edges only, some entirely colourless. Their size was not
materially changed, but they appeared flattened, spherical, or
cylindrical. Hence we may also infer that there is a deficiency
in the quantity of salts in. the blood of scrofulous persons.

1 The blood-corpuscles would, however, he dissolved in this case.

3 Baltimore, Med. and Surg. Journal, 1834, No. 4.

3 L’Experience, 1839, No. 87.

310

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

Chlorosis.

The blood in this disease possesses the general characters of
this fluid in anaemia. The clot is small, sometimes soft, hut
frequently of the normal consistence : the serum is bright,
slightly coloured, and tolerably clear. The fibrin (separated by
whipping) is not so dense and consistent as in normal or in inflam-
matory blood. Its quantity is normal, or only slightly diminished,
while the amount of the corpuscles is considerably decreased, and
the solid constituents generally are less than in healthy blood.

Golding Bird1 states, however, that the blood in chlorosis forms
just as solid a clot as in inflammatory diseases, and Jennings2
observed even a buffy coat on the clot of chlorotic persons in the
absence of all inflammatory symptoms. He accounts for this
phenomenon by supposing that as, in chlorosis, the amount of
fibrin is normal, but that of the corpuscles much diminished,
the ratio of the fibrin to the corpuscles may be the same as in
inflammatory disorders.

Anclral and Gavarret state that the blood in chlorotic persons
forms a clot similar to the coagulum in healthy blood, and that
a buffy coat is not unfrequently observed on it.

I found, on the contrary, that the clot in chlorosis was very
soft, and that the fibrin was not so firm as in inflammatory dis-
eases. These contradictions are easily explained by supposing
that the chemico-physical characters of the blood change during
the progressive development of the disease. We can obtain a
more accurate knowledge of the stage of development of the
disease from the blood than from many other diagnostic signs.

I am indebted to Dr. Vetter for the following specimen of
the blood of a chlorotic girl, which gave, on analysis, the fol-

results :

Analysis 32.

Healthy blood.

Water ....

871-500

795-278

Solid constituents

128-500

204-022

Fibrin ....

2-080

2-104

Fat ....

2-530

2-346

Albumen

79-820

76-660

Globubn . .

30-800

103-022

Hsematin

1-431

6-209

Extractive matters and salts

11-000

12-012

Tlie hsematoglobuhn contained 4-4§ of colouring matter.

1 Ancell, Course of Lectures, &c. The Lancet, 1840, p. 887. 2 Ibid.

BLOOD.

311

The girl was 19 years of age, moving in a respectable station,
and tall ; she exhibited all the symptoms of unmixed, long-
standing chlorosis, which appeared in this instance to have
reached its highest development.

On contrasting it with healthy blood, we find little difference
in the absolute quantity of fibrin; this constituent is, however,
extremely large when considered relatively with the corpuscles,
or with the solid constituents generally.

The quantities of albumen and of extractive matters and
salts do not differ very much from the quantities in healthy blood.

Andral and Gavarret have analysed the blood in several cases
of this disease. It is different in the incipient and in the fully-
developed stages of chlorosis.

In the former the appearance of the patient hardly indicates
the presence of the disease ; the face is blooming, rather than
pale, and the blood merely exhibits a very considerable decrease
of the corpuscles.

The following numbers give the maxima, minima, and mean
of 8 analyses, made during this stage.

Water.

Solid

constituents.

Fibrin.

Blood-

corpuscles.

Solid residue
of serum.

Maximum

816-3

210-0

5-3

112-7

94-1

Minimum

790-0

183-7

2-4

97-7

76-5

Mean

801-0

199-0

3-5

106-8

88-0

Healthy blood, ac-1
cording to Lecanu J

► 790-0

210-0

3-0

127-0

80-0

When the disease is fully developed the fibrin is slightly di-
minished, but the quantities of blood-corpuscles, and of the
solid residue generally are very much lessened.

Andral and Gavarret have made 12 analyses of the blood of
9 cases of confirmed chlorosis.

I shall give the maxima, minima, and mean results of these
analyses; omitting, however, the cases that were complicated
with inflammatory symptoms.

Water.

Solid residue.

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum.

Maximum

868-7

181-3

3-6

95-7

100*9

Minimum

818-5

131-5

2-1

38-7

75-4

Mean

853-2

146-8

2-9

56-7

88-0

The blood in which the corpuscles attained tlicir minimum,
had the following composition :

312

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

Water

868-7

Solid constituents

131-3

Fibrin

3-5

Blood-corpuscles .

38-7

Solid residue of serum

89-1

The amount of corpuscles exceeds, in only three cases, the
number 60 : and in five cases it remains below 50 : the fibrin
remains in five cases below 3, and in the other five cases it
amounts to or exceeds 3, the maximum being 3'6. The amount
of the solid residue of the serum is in almost every case rather
above the normal standard. It follows from 4 analyses, in two
of which, however, the chlorosis was combined with tubercular
phthisis and rheumatism, that the residue of the serum contains
on an average 8‘2 of inorganic constituents. The two cases of
pure chlorosis gave the inorganic constituents of the residue of
the serum at 8 -9, while the two complicated cases gave only

7'6, so that it appears as if the salts were rather increased than

diminished in this disease. Others,
is a diminution of the salts.

however, assert that there

[The following table gives the mean composition of the blood
of six chlorotic girls, as determined by Becquerel and Rodier :

Density of defibrinated blood

1045-8

Density of serum . *

1028-1

Water ....

828-2

Solid constituents

, 171-8

Fibrin ....

3-4

Fat ....

1-5

Albumen

72-1

Blood-corpuscles

86-0

Extractive matters and salts

8-8

The salts consisted of :

Chloride of sodium

Other soluble salts .

2-3

Phosphates

0-441

Iron

0-319]

My own observations, as well as those of Andral and Gavarret,
on the blood of chlorotic persons who had been taking ferru-
ginous medicines, are especially interesting.

The girl from whom the blood of analysis 32 was taken, took
2 ounces of the tincture of iron and 64 grains of metallic iron,
during a period of seven weeks, commencing with the day of
the first venesection.

BLOOD.

313

The blood which was then analysed had the following con-
stitution :

Analysis 33.

Water

806-500

Solid residue

193-500

Fibrin

1-200

Fat

2-299

Albumen

81-230

Globulin

90-810

Hacmatin

4-598

Extractive matters and salts

9-580

The haematoglobulin contained 4-8g of colouring matter.

This change in the composition of the blood is truly sur-
prising, and affords an excellent illustration of the wonderful
effects of certain remedies. The amount of solid constituents
is increased by nearly one half, and the increase of the lnema-
toglobulin is likewise extraordinary. In this, as well as in
Andral and Gavarret’s observations, the quantity of the fibrin
is diminished : the proportion of the hsematin to the globulin
is however slightly, although not materially, increased.

The changes in the condition of the patient kept pace with
those of the blood. Before, she was pale, and her lips colour-
less ; now she presented a really blooming appearance. Andral
and Gavarret have arrived at perfectly analogous results.

They give two cases, in one of which the iron was admini-
stered for four weeks, in the other for only three weeks.

Is* Case.

Previous to use

After use

of the iron.

Water

866-5

818-5

Fibrin

3-0

2-5

Blood-corpuscles

46-4

95-7

Residue of serum

83-9

83-3

2d Case.

Water

852-8

831-5

Fibrin

3-5

3-3

Blood-corpuscles

49-7

64-3

Residue of serum

94-0

100-9

[The two following analyses were made by Herberger.1 The
blood in (1) was taken from a chlorotic girl aged 20 years ; in

1 Buchner’s Repertorium, 2d scries, vol. 29.

314

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

(2) it was taken from the same girl after an eight weeks’ course
of chalybeates.

In both instances the blood formed a tolerably large clot,
but no huffy coat.

Water

868-340

807-080

Solid constituents

131-660

192-920

Fibrin

3-609

1-950

Fat

2-310

2-470

Albumen

78-200

81-509

Globulin

36-470

94-290

Hrcmatin

1-590

4-029

Extractive matters and salts .

8-921

8-236]

Anclral and Gavarret have likewise analysed the blood of a
chlorotic man. They made three analyses of it at intervals of
four weeks each. During this time he had been taking iron,
but without any marked advantage :

Venesection.

Water.

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum.

810ri

3-6

87-9

98-4

831-5

3-4

77-2

87-9

819-4

3-7

86-9

90-0

The blood of chlorotic persons has also been analysed by
Lecanu1 and J ennings.2 The following are the results of their
analyses.

Lecanu. Jennings.

Water

862-40

861-97

871-0

852-0

Fibrin

5-0

3-0

Blood-corpuscles .

55-15

51-29

48-7

520

Residue of serum .

82-45

86-74

Albumen

60-0

78-0

Fat

1-7

2-0

Extractive matters

3-0

2-0

Alkaline salts

7-6

7-0

Earthy salts

1-8

2-0

Andral and Gavarret consider that the great rarity of cases
of hemorrhage in chlorotic persons is due to the amount of fibrin
remaining normal, while the blood-corpuscles are considerably
diminished. I cannot, however, think that the primary cause
of ordinary hemorrhage is only to be sought for in the pecu-
liarities of the blood. That a lesion of the vessels occurs in

1 Etudes cliimiques, etc., p. 113.

2 The Lancet, 1839-40, p. 887.

BLOOD.

315

the majority of cases of hemorrhage is obvious from the cir-
cumstance of blood-corpuscles being found in the effused fluid.
I cannot easily conceive how blood, deficient in fibrin, should
more readily escape from the vessels than blood abounding in
that constituent.

In passive hemorrhages, the relations of the tissues them-
selves ought to be taken into account as much as the quality
of the blood.

[Becquerel and Rodier analysed the blood of two girls, in
whom all the symptoms of chlorosis existed, (including the

bruit de diable in the carotids,) and yet there was

no diminution

of the corpuscles, or of the solid constituents generally.

Density of defibrinated blood

1st Case.
1055-4

2d Case.
1055-4

Density of serum

1027-9

1027-2

Water

798-G

792-7

Solid constituents

201-4

207-3

Fibrin

2-9

2-3

Fat

1-287

1-980

Albumen

66-8

70-5

Blood-corpuscles

123-8

126-4

Extractive matters and salts

G-6

5-8

The salts consisted of,

Chloride of sodium

2-6

3-9

Other soluble salts

2-2

3-4

Phosphates ....

0-329

0-427

Iron

0-492

0-51G]

Scorbutus.

[The blood has been analysed by Mr. Busk

in three well-

marked cases of scurvy that occurred in the Dreadnought Hos-

pital Ship. Its composition is

represented in

the following

table:

2. 3.

Water . . 849-9

835-9 846-2

Healthy blood.
(Busk.)
788-8

Solid constituents . 150-1

164 1 153-8

211-2

Fibrin . . 6-5

4-5 5-9

3-3

Albumen . 84-0

7G-G 74-2

G7-2

Blood. corpuscles . . 47-8

72-3 60-7

133-7

Salts ... 9-5

11-5 10-9

G-8

316

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

These analyses are sufficient to disprove the general notion
that in this disease the corpuscles are dissolved in the serum.
In the blood taken from these scorbutic patients, the separation
into serum and clot was as perfect and took place as rapidly as
in healthy blood. In two of the cases the clot was buffed and
cupped.]

Morbus maculosus Werlhofii.

[Porphyra hemorrhagica (Mason Good.) Land-scurvy.]

I have analysed the sanguineous fluid discharged from the
mouth of a girl aged 20 years. She was pale and weak, the
pulse rather excited, breath fetid, and there were red spots on
the gums and above the uvula, from which blood had appa-
rently escaped. This sanguineous fluid contained much saliva,
and some flocculi of mucus, but no fibrin. It had a faint, dis-
agreeable smell, was of a very dark (almost black) red colour,
transparent, and deposited an almost clear sediment. The de-
canted fluid exhibited no blood-corpuscles under the microscope,
and only a few membranous granules. The sediment was com-
posed of blood-corpuscles, which, for the most part, were changed
from the flattened into a spherical form, and of which a small
quantity were of a pale yellow colour, while the majority were
almost, if not quite, colourless. Moreover, I observed a con-
siderable quantity of epithelium-scales and mucus-granules, the
latter of which were especially visible in the flocculi deposited
at the bottom. After thoroughly stirring the fluid, it was
boiled; upon which it coagulated perfectly. I found that it
was composed of —

Water

Analysis 34.
948-889

Solid residue ....

51-111

Fat

1-377

Albumen and mucus

34-032

Globulin

5-G10

Ilajmatin

0-102

Alcohol-extract, bilin, and salts

4-635

Water-extract, ptyalin, and salts .

2-555

Biliverdin

0-366

The presence of the bile in this blood, although I was as-

BLOOD.

317

sured, both by the patient and the nurse, that there had been
no vomiting when the blood was discharged, appeared to me of
importance, since it is well known that a very small quantity
of bile is sufficient to dissolve a considerable quantity of blood-
corpuscles.

[Some observations on the sanguineous contents of the sto-
mach, and on the blood found in the heart after death from
this disease, occur in Heller’s Archiv, vol. i, p. 10.]

Hemorrhages.

I have already observed that continuous and excessive loss
of blood must necessarily produce a change in the composition
of that portion which remains in the system, and that there will
be a more or less marked degree of spansemia in proportion to
the quantity of blood that has been lost.

Some researches have already been made regarding tbe
chemico-physical condition of the blood which is separated from
various organs in the different forms of hemorrhage.

I analysed the blood of a woman who was suffering from
melsena. It was a thick fluid, of a dark red colour (nearly
black), and gave off only a slight faecal odour : dilute acid
heightened the colour, and caustic potash developed an odour
of ammonia : it had a strong alkaline reaction, coagulated only
imperfectly on heating, and threw out an unpleasant smell, not
however resembling the odour of faeces. It did not coagulate
upon standing, and contained no fibrin. No blood-corpuscles
could be observed under the microscope, but merely some yellow
particles floating in a clear fluid. It was very rich in fat and
in haemaphaein. The fat resembled in odour the fat of putrid
blood. The alcohol-extract, which contained a considerable
quantity of fat, had a very bitter taste, but when treated with
sulphuric acid no bilifellinic acid was separated ; consequently
the presence of bile was undecided. Upon heating the dried
residue a considerable quantity of ammonia was given off.

318

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

The blood contained in 1000 parts :

Water

Analysis 35.
886-200

Solid residue

113-800

Brown fat ......

9-000

Albumen

39-830

Globulin

36-530

Haematin .......

3-018

Hfemaphsein

2-220

Ilaemaphaein with alcohol-extract, and salts .

9-673

Water-extract and salts ....

10-355

The lnemaphsein left upon incineration a trace of peroxide of
iron, and some carbonate of soda ; the alcohol-extract left
chloride of sodium and carbonate of soda ; and the water-extract
left chloride of sodium, carbonate of soda, sulphate of soda, and
phosphate of lime.

The blood discharged in htematemesis is, according to Schon-
lein’s observations, either clear and very fluid, or black and
coagulated ; sometimes the two forms are mixed. The taste of
the blood is bitter if any bile is mixed with it, acid if the spleen
is affected.

Ancell1 states that vomited blood is often coagulated, of a
dark brown or blackish colour (in consequence of the acids of
the stomach) ; in other cases it resembles coffee-grounds.

In a girl, who brought up enormous quantities of blood, I
found that it occurred, for the most part, in rather large brownish
red coagula : the fluid had a faintly acid reaction, but on
touching a section of a clot with red litmus paper, a blue tint
was produced. The microscope revealed the presence of cor-
puscles in a state of good preservation.

In hsematuria the blood is mixed with urine. If the quan-
tity of the blood is very small, all the blood-corpuscles may be-
come dissolved, as I have frequently observed. The urine, how-
ever, coagulates on heating, and the colour disappears after
boiling, while discoloured flocculi are thrown down. The cor-
puscles are frequently preserved entire, and form a sediment,
on allowing the urine to stand for some time. In this case
they can be detected by the microscope.

1 The Lancet, Sept. 1840, p. 842.

BLOOD.

319

Lecanu1 quotes an opinion of Delarive, that a change occurs
in the colouring matter of the blood that escapes in hsematuria,
since sulphuric acid produces a brown-red instead of a black-red,
and nitric and muriatic acids produce a white instead of a black-
red precipitate : alcohol also produces a white deposit. These
peculiarities in colour (especially the white precipitate) may pro-
bably be explained by the precipitation of the albumen, while in
consequence of the dilution of the blood the haematoglobulin
escapes precipitation.

Purpura hemorrhagica.

[The blood has been analysed in a case of this disease by
Routier2. In 1000 parts he found:

Water

795-244

Solid constituents

204-756

Fibrin

0-905

Blood-corpuscles

121-701

Residue of serum

83-405

From this analysis it appears

that the blood does not assume

the form of spansemia. It is placed here in consequence of the
analogy between purpura hemorrhagica and the preceding
diseases.]

Typhus petechialis putridus. Yellow fever. Plague.

The blood in these diseases is described as watery, very poor
in fibrin, and of a dark colour. If any clot be formed, it is
diffluent, and very soft : the serum is frequently of a deep yellow
or brown-red colour, partly from the colouring matter of the
bile, and partly from dissolved haematoglobulin. It possesses
a very peculiar smell, which probably differs in each disease. It
is by no means improbable that this smell may be produced by
a volatile salt of ammonia.

Schbnlein has directed attention to the formation of a pecu-
liar gas that escapes with the blood in the post-mortem exami-
nation, on opening the large vascular trunks, and which is pro-
bably developed in the blood during the last stage of the disease.

Chomel also speaks of the development of a gas in the in-
terior of the veins.

1 Etudes cliimiques, etc., p. 95.

* Gazette des Hopitaux, vol. 6, No. 90.

320

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

Ancell1 remarks, that in the first stage of the endemic yellow
fever of the West Indies the blood is of a brighter red, contains
more salts, and is hotter than in a state of health. As the
disease progresses, its characters become changed, and towards
the termination of the malady it loses its saline and animal
principles, and becomes black and thin ; in which state sangui-
neous effusions occur from the different outlets and tissues.

Balard and Rochet2 have made some observations on the
properties of the blood in the plague.

Balard is of opinion that the lymphatic system is first disor-
dered, and that inflammation, degeneration, and suppuration of
the lymphatic ganglia and vessels follow. It is not until sup-
puration in these structures has fairly set in that the venous
system begins to suffer, and a change in the composition of the
blood to ensue.

The blood, when the disease is fully established, exhibits in-
variably the same properties, whether it is obtained by bleeding,
or taken from the vessels after death. The arterial and venous
blood have both the same dark colour; the blood generally
appears in a peculiar state of solution, and oily drops are fre-
quently seen on its surface. It frequently has a peculiar smell,
but never the huffy coat.

In three patients, aged 19, 23, and 27 years respectively, and
in whom the blood was drawn between the third and fifth days,
it was of a dark -brown colour, and in the course of two hours
a good clot was formed. This, however, is frequently not the
case, especially when the oily globules appear. The serum was
reddish, and developed a gas which soon browned sugar of lead
test-paper, andwhich therefore contained sulphuretted hydrogen.
The clot constituted about 402, and contained 33 • 5 of water,
•6 of fibrin, 3'8 of cruor, -25 osmazome, '9 of chlorides of sodium
and potassium, and -2 of carbonate of soda and fat.

Lacheze,3 who observed the plague in Egypt, states that the
blood never coagulates, that it is greasy, and of a black colour.

1 Course of Lectures on tlie Physiology and Pathology of the Blood. The Lancet,
1840, p. 837.

5 Casper’s Wochensclirift, 1838, No. 12.

3 Magendie, Le?ons sur le Sang. Bruxelles, 1839, p. 200.

BLOOD.

321

THE FOURTH FORM OF DISEASED BLOOD : HETEROCHYMEUSIS.1

I arrange under this form all those states of the blood in
which a substance is present that does not exist in the normal
fluid : when, for instance, the blood contains urea (in appreci-
able quantity), sugar, colouring matter of the bile, fat, or pus.
The circumstances that lead to the establishment of this diseased
condition of the blood are far less natural than those which are
connected with the production of the three former classes. The
arrangement is artificial, and merely adopted for convenience,
since this class of diseases has simply this property in common,
that the composition of the blood is here qualitatively changed,
whilst in the three former it was only altered quantitatively .
The putrid form of typhus, the yellow fever, and the plague,
certainly might have been placed in this class, since colouring
matter of the bile, and a salt of ammonia, are often found in
the serum. I have, however, thought it best to place these dis-
eases in the third class, because, in the first place, the presence
of the abnormal constituents is not constant • and because, se-
condly, in consequence of the deficiency in the solid constitu-
ents of the blood in these disorders, they naturally occur under
the class spansemia.

I. BLOOD CONTAINING UREA: URA3MIA.

a. Morbus Brightii.

Andral and Gavarret describe the blood in this disease as
characterized by a deficiency of albumen in the serum.

It is evident, however, both from my own and from Christison' s
researches, that the decrease of the solid constituents of the
serum is not always the leading character in this disease. I
have thought it right, therefore, to arrange this disease, on ac-
count of the nearly constant presence of urea in the blood,
under the form heterochymeusis.

Christison,2 who has attentively studied the blood in this dis-
ease, describes it in the following manner : The blood in the
first stage of the disease coagulates with a thick, firm, and cupped
buffy coat. The serum is usually rather turbid, and when shaken

1 From irtpoQ and uevcnc.

5 On the Granular Degeneration of the Kidneys, etc., bvR. Christison. Edin. 1839.

322

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

with ether yields a small quantity of solid fat. The decrease in
the density of the serum at this stage is very remarkable. While
in healthy blood it is estimated at 1029 — 1031, it now sinks to
1020, or even 1019 ; and in connexion with this circumstance
we find a large quantity of albumen in the urine.

Another very remarkable peculiarity is the presence of a cer-
tain quantity of urea in the serum.

The following changes occur in the progress of the disease :
(1.) There is an excess of serum, the clot often constituting not
more than one fourth of the blood. (2.) The density of the
serum returns to its normal state, or even exceeds it ; some-
times, however, it remains low, even in the advanced stages.
(3.) The urea disappears as the disease advances, but usually
reappears, towards the termination of the case, in even a larger
amount than previously. (4.) The fibrin, which is increased
in the first stage, returns to its normal amount as the disease
advances, and only becomes considerable again during inflam-
matory complication. (5.) The most remarkable character of
the blood in the advanced stage is the great decrease of blood-
corpuscles, which frequently amount to only one third of the
normal proportion.

I have analysed the blood in four cases of Bright’s disease,
and obtained the following results :

Analysis 36.

Analysis 37.

Analysis 38.

Analysis 39.

Water

830-590

826-891

823-461

839-700

Solid constituents .

169-420

173-109

176-539

160-300

Fibrin

7-046

3-060

5-000

3-500

Fat

2-403

1-860

2-520

2-680

Albumen

103-694

109-432

97-010

63-400

Globulin

40-151

41-300

54-090

71-300

Hajmatin

3-808

4-377

5-100

4-910

Extractive matters and salts

12-348

13-280

12-819

11-380

The blood in analysis 36 was taken from a man aged 40, who
had been treated for some time in our hospital for this disease :
traces of urea were detected in the extractive matters, by the
method given in page 183. — The blood in analysis 37 was taken
from a man aged 20, whose feet and arms were so oedematous
as to render venesection a matter of some difficulty. Consider-
able quantities of urea were found in the blood. — The blood in
analysis 38 was taken from a man aged 30, in whom the dis-
ease was not so advanced as in the former cases. A considei’-

BLOOD.

323

able quantity of urea was found in the serum, which exhibited
a remarkable milk-white turbidity, not caused by fat in a state
of suspension, hut (as shown by the microscope) produced by
numerous minute solid granules, which, by diluting the serum,
and then allowing it to rest, were collected, washed, and analysed.
They were not soluble in alcohol or in ether, hut dissolved
after a continuous digestion in dilute acetic acid, from which
they were precipitated by ferrocyanide of potassium. Hence I
concluded that they were fibrin.

The blood in analysis 39 was taken from a man 36 years of
age, at the commencement of the disease. Hsematuria had oc-
curred a few days previous to the venesection. The quantity of
urea in this blood was very considerable. — The urine was albu-
minous in all these cases, especially in the last two.

It is worthy of remark that I have found the luematoglobulin
more abundant in hsematin in these than in ordinary cases. It
varied from 82 to 9-5§.

Christison gives the following results of analyses of blood in

Bright’s

disease :

Water.

Solid constituents.

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum,

863-8

136-2

2-8

57-4

76-0

844-1

155-9

4-4

57-7

93-8

808-3

191-7

3-0

133-9

54-8

831-0

1690

2-8

111-1

551

836-3

163-7

2-7

104-6

56-4

825-2

174-8

4-3

95-5

75-0

859-2

140-8

8-2

75-5

57-2

885-3

114-7

6-2

56-4

52-1

862-8

137-2

3-2

72-1

61-9

855-5

144-5

4-5

42-7

97-3

862-6

137-4

8-5

72-8

56-1

887-0

1130

5-6

49-1

58-3

841-6

158-4

3-4

91-6

63-4

Christison’s average composition of healthy blood being :
775-7 224-3 3-8 137-1 83-4

The blood in the 3d analysis was taken from a robust man,
aged 55 years, in the first stage of granular degeneration, and
suffering from anasarca. The urine was very albuminous, hut
not bloody : the serum was milky, and abounded in urea.

The blood in the 5th analysis was taken from a man aged 48,
suffering from anasarca and continued fever. The kidneys were
in the first stage of granular degeneration; the urine contained

324

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

a considerable quantity of albumen. — In the 6th case, the dis-
ease had reached the middle stage: the patient was at the same
time suffering from anasarca and chronic catarrh: the blood
contained urea. — In the 7th case, the disease was in the first
stage; the patient (a man aged 42) was also suffering from
peripneumonia and anasarca: the blood contained urea, and
the urine was albuminous.

8th analysis. Blood of a youth aged 16 years, suffering
from dropsy ; kidneys in the middle stage of granular degene-
ration. The serum was peculiarly rich in solid constituents,
and contained a considerable quantity of urea.

9th analysis. Blood of a man aged 23. The granular degene-
ration was more advanced, the blood contained urea.

10th analysis. Blood of a man aged 23, after having re-
covered from scarlatina. The disease in the kidneys was in an
advanced stage : the blood was remarkable for the small quantity
of corpuscles.

11th analysis. Blood of a woman aged 25 years, suffering
from anasarca, catarrh, and chronic rheumatism. The dege-
neration of the kidneys was in a very advanced stage. The
blood contained urea, and the urine was albuminous.

12th analysis. Blood of a man aged 32, suffering from
pleuritis and anasarca; kidneys in an advanced stage of the dis-
ease. Blood remarkable for the small quantity of corpuscles,
and for the large amount of urea.

13th analysis. Blood of a woman aged 56, with anasarca
and ascites ; the disease of the kidneys was in a very advanced
stage.

These observations entirely coincide with my own, as far as
regards the decreased quantity of solid constituents, the small
amount of blood-corpuscles, as the disease advances, and the
presence of urea in the blood.

Andral and Gavarret have analysed the blood of three per-
sons with Bright’s disease.

The following are their results:

Venesection.

Water.

Solid constituents.

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum.

1st Case

801-0

199-0

1-6

127-6

69-1

2d „

867-0

133-0

2-3

61-6

68-4

849-0

1510

3-2

82-4

64-8

3d „ ■*

836-0

164-0

3-0

88-2

72-7

1-3

845-9

154-1

4-2

71-0

78-9

BLOOD.

325

The second venesection in the 3d case was ordered at a
time when the urine was less albuminous than it had been : the
third was prescribed after a considerable interval, and when the
urine contained no albumen.

The researches of trust-worthy observers have shown that
the blood in cholera exhibits the following peculiarities. The
quantity of water is decreased, and consequently there is an
increase in the amount of solid constituents arising, in all pro-
bability, from the watery alvine evacuations ; the amount of
fibrin, as well as the alkaline reaction, is diminished, and urea
is found in the serum. The search after this substance has not
always been successful, but its presence has been clearly shown
by Rainy, i O’Shaughnessy,1 2 Marchand,3 and myself.

The following are the leading physical characters of the blood
in this disease. It appears to be thicker than usual, and either
forms a soft, friable clot, or else coagulates very imperfectly.

Wittstock has made a careful analysis of the blood during
cholera. In its external characters it resembled healthy blood :
the clot was of a scarlet red colour on the surface, but darker
than usual in the interior.

His analysis gave the following results: serum 36-52, clot 63‘5',.
The specific gravity of the serum was 1-0385, and 100 parts
left 13-75 of solid residue. The clot, when treated with ab-
solute alcohol, left a residue of 312; the alcohol took up solid
crystalline, and thin fluid fat, chlorides of sodium and potassium,
lactates of soda and ammonia, extract of flesh, and traces of
phosphate of lime. By washing the clot, 62 of fibrin were ob-
tained. Hence, if we consider the fluid of the clot to be serum,
we have the composition of this blood expressed as follows :

(3. Cholera.

Water

Solid residue

Fibrin

Albumen

Blood-corpuscles

Extractive matters and salts

740-00

260-00

11-00

110-42

124-46

14-10

1 London Medical Gazette, Jan. 1838.

3 Ancell’s Lectures on the Blood. The Lancet, 1840, p. 840.

3 Poggendorf’s Annalen, vol. 49, p. 328.

326

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

The blood-corpuscles, therefore, fall below Lecanu's average,
while the albumen and solid constituents, generally, are consi-
derably increased.

Lecanu1 has made several experiments upon the quantity of
solid constituents in the blood in cholera, and has arrived at
the following results :

Solid constituents . . 340

251 520 330

Water .... 660

749 480 670

CFShaughnessy2 has analysed the

serum of the hlood in this

disease, and has detected a considerable quantity of urea in it.

1000 parts were composed of,

Water

854-0

Albumen ....

133-0

Urea

1-4

Crystalline and fluid fat

1-4

Chlorides of sodium and potassium

4-0

Sulphates and muriates

1-6

Extractive matter and albuminate of soda . 4'8

I analysed the hlood of a woman

labouring under a severe

attack of sporadic cholera.

1000 parts of hlood contained :

Analysis 40.

Water

750-530

Solid constituents

249-470

Fibrin

2-470

Fat

5-434

Albumen

114-114

Hsematoglobulin

108-529

Extractive matters and salts 10*63 1

The salts amounted to only 5-41, the average quantity being
from 7 to 8 in 1000 parts of blood. We see that the water is
decidedly diminished, but the ratio of the blood-corpuscles to
the albumen is not such as was formerly supposed.3 In con-
sequence of the suppression of the urinary and biliary secre-
tions, the blood contained a quantity of urea and of the con-
stituents of the bile, (bilin and biliver din.)

[Heller examined the blood taken after death from the ca-
rotids of a man who died of sporadic cholera.

1 Etudes chimiques, etc., p. 106.

2 Ancell’s Lectures on the Blood. Lancet, 1840, p. 840.

3 It was conceived that the thick and often imperfectly coagulated hlood must he
very rich in corpuscles, in consequence of the amount of serum thrown off by the
intestinal canal.

BLOOD.

32 7

It was of a very dark colour and of a tolerably thick con-
sistency.

Under tlie microscope the blood-corpuscles appeared hacked
at the edges, as if the capsules were partially destroyed, and
many fat-vesicles were seen.

The blood was very rich in albumen, in fat, and in urea.
The fixed salts, especially the chlorides, were increased,1 and the
fibrin appeared to be beneath the normal standard. There was
no trace of biliphsein.]

II. SUGAR IN THE BLOOD: MELITiEMIA.

The blood in diabetes has been found by several observers,
and in one instance by myself, to contain a larger proportion of
solid constituents than healthy blood : others, as Lecanu and
Henry, state that the amount is smaller. According to the
latter, the quantity of blood-corpuscles is diminished, while
others assert that they are increased. The fibrin remains at
about the normal quantity. Rollo was, I believe, the first who
proved the presence of sugar in the blood during diabetes.
Gueudeville,2 Vauquelin, Segalas,3 Wollaston, Henry and
Soubeiran, could not detect it. Boucliardat,4 however, directs
attention to the important consideration that the presence of
sugar in the blood can only be incontestably proved when ve-
nesection has been performed two or three hours after dinner,
and that if blood is drawn in the morning, no traces of it can
be found : I have corroborated this observation.

I have analysed the blood in three cases of diabetes. The
sugar was sought for in the manner described in page 185.

Analysis 41.

Analysis 42.

Analysis 43.

Water

794-663

789-480

802-000

Solid constituents

205-337

210-510

198-000

Fibrin

2-432

2-370

2-030

Fat

2-010

3-640

2-250

Albumen

114-570

86-000

97-450

Globulin

66-300

98-500

74-350

Haematin

5-425

5-100

3-700

Sugar

2-500

a trace

Extractive matters and salts .

9-070

14-900

12-680

1 In consequence of the torpidity of the urinary secretion.

2 Annal. de Chimie, vol. 44, p. 45.

3 Journal de Chimie Medicale, vol. 1, p. 1.

* Revue Medic. 1839, p. 321.

328

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

The blood in analysis 41 was obtained from a man aged 50
years, who had taken a full meal of animal food two hours pre-
vious to being bled. The 2-5 parts of sugar were not perfectly
pure; they contained extractive matter, and some salts.

The blood in analysis 42 was taken before dinner from a
girl aged 20 years. The presence of sugar was only just per-
ceptible by the taste, by the sulphuric acid test, and by the
odour evolved on burning it. The disease in this case was far
advanced, and it is worthy of remark that, six or eight days pre-
vious to dissolution, the diabetes sapidus became converted into
diabetes insipidus.

This patient made an extremely large quantity of water, which
was not very abundant in sugar; while the man, aged 50,
passed only two or three quarts of urine daily, containing a large
proportion of sugar.

The blood in analysis 43 was taken before dinner from a
man aged 30 years, who passed a very large quantity of water,
which, however, did not contain much sugar.

I give, in the following table, the analyses of other observers:1 2

Bouchardat.

Henry and Soubeiran.

Lecanu.

Water

808-76

816-50

848-35

Solid constituents

191-24

183-50

151-65

Fibrin

1-95

2-43

Albumen

62-54

55-48

58-47

Blood-corpuscles

118-25

120-37

85-18

Salts

8-52

5-57

8-00

I further add the following analysis of the serum in diabetes,
made by Rees.2

Water ......... 908-50

Albumen, with a trace of phosphate of lime andperoxide of iron 80-35

Fat 095

Diabetic sugar 1-80

Alcohol-extract and urea 2-20

Albuminate of soda, alkaline chlorides and carbonates, with

a trace of sulphates and phosphates .... 0-80

[Some very important additions to our knowledge of the
pathology of this obscure disease will be found in Dr. Percy’s
f Observations and Experiments concerning diabetes mellitus.’
Med. Gaz. vol. ii, 1843.]

1 In addition to those quoted in the text, there is an analysis of diabetic blood by
Muller in the Archiv d. Pharm., vol. 18, p. 55. Its extreme peculiarity renders its
correctness doubtful.

2 Ancell’s Lectures on the Blood. The Lancet, 1840, p. 889.

BLOOD.

329

III. BILE-FIGMENT IN THE BLOOD : CIIOLiEMIA.

Very contraclictoiy statements exist regarding the composi-
tion of the blood in icterus.

Orfila1 found bile, or at least, biliary resin, in the blood of
three persons suffering from icterus ; and Collard de Martigny2
and Clarion3 obtained similar results. Lassaigne4 and Thenard,5
on the contrary, declare that they could never detect any con-
stituent of the bile in such cases. Chevreul found, in the blood
of children with icterus, the colouring matter of the bile, but
not picromel ; and Boudet and Lecanu have likewise found the
bile-pigment present in these cases.

I was fortunate enough to obtain a specimen of the blood
of a woman in our hospital who was jaundiced to a degree not
often witnessed. The skin over the whole body was of a yel-
lowish brown colour, the urine was of a deep, dark brown tint,
and deposited a considerable quantity of brown and yellow sedi-
ment. The blood was drawn from the arm in my presence, and
was immediately whipt. It hardly differed in appearance from
normal blood, but contained very little fibrin, and the corpus-
cles speedily sunk. The serum was of an almost blood-red
colour, but, when only a thin stratum was viewed, it appeared
of a bright amber tint. Its taste was hardly at all bitter;
when treated with nitric acid, a whitish yellow coagulum was
first formed, (consisting of albumen,) which rapidly assumed a
deep grass-green colour, then, after a short interval, changed
into a blue, and afterwards into a pale red ; and from that to a
yellow.

I precipitated the protein-compounds, by means of alcohol,
from a large quantity of serum, evaporated the fluid, again
treated the residue with alcohol, evaporated, and then dissolved
the residue in water. This aqueous solution must have con-
tained bilin or bilifellinic acid (if they had been present), besides
the alcohol-extract of the blood and certain salts, but it neither
tasted bitter, nor, when digested with sulphuric acid, did it yield
a resinous substance (a compound of fellinic and cholinic acids

1 Elements de Chim., vol. 2, p. 313.

5 Journ de Chim. Med., vol. 3, p. 423.

3 Theses d’Ecole de Medecine, 1811.

4 Journ. de Chim. Med., vol. 1, p. 266.

3 Traite de Chim., vol. 5, p. 111.

330

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

and dyslysin) ; neither did it contain bilin nor any of the pro-
ducts of its metamorphosis. On the other hand., I found, in the
urine of this person, which was brown, very acid, and contained
a large quantity of uric acid, a very appreciable quantity of
biliary resin.

We can only account for the occurrence of this product of
the metamorphosis of bilin in the urine, by recollecting the
facility and rapidity with which noxious matters are eliminated
from the blood.

My analysis of the blood in icterus gave the following results :

Water

Analysis 44.
770-000

Solid residue

230-000

Fibrin

1-500

Fat

2-640

Albumen

126-500

Globulin

72-600

Hsematin

4-840

HEemapbsein, with biliphsein

2-640

Extractive matters and salts, with biliphsein .

16-500

The peculiarities of this blood are, its large amount of solid
constituents, due to an increase, not of the corpuscles, but of
the albumen, the diminished quantity of fibrin, and the excess
of colouring and extractive matters and salts. In other analyses
of the blood I have frequently found it impossible to separate
the hsemaphsein from the hsematin, in consequence of the small
amount of the whole colouring matter ; in this instance, how-
ever, I was able to effect their separation, and it appears that
the amount of the hsemaphsein is about one half of that of the
hsematin, a proportion which is probably larger than occurs in
healthy blood. The fat was not particularly increased.

The researches of Denis and Lecanu give, to a certain degree,
similar results : they show a decrease of the blood-corpuscles,
but not an increase of the solid constituents.

Lecanu.

Denis.

Water ....

828-660

830-0

815-00

Solid constituents

171-340

170-0

185-00

Fibrin ....

1 ft

9-50

Fat

6-00

Albumen ....

76-800

65-0

53 00

Blood-corpuscles

79-620

97-0

93-95

Salts ....

8-00

Yellow and blue pigment
Salts, extractive matters, and fat

14-900

8-0

14-55

BLOOD.

331

The large amount of fibrin and of fat is remarkable in Denis’s
analysis : the 14f5 parts of colouring matters were probably
combined with extractive matter.

Tiedemann and Gmelin observed that the clot of icteric blood
was of the ordinary colour. The clear yellow serum contained
biliphtein, and gave, when treated with a small quantity of
hydrochloric acid, a hyacinth-red colour, which, in the course
of the night, became green ; if an excess of acid was used, a
hyacinth-red colour was at once produced, which, in the course
of the night, turned to a blue. When treated with a quantity
of nitric acid not sufficient to precipitate the albumen, it became
of a greenish yellow colour ; when treated with an excess of the
acid, it gave a green precipitate, which afterwards became blue,
and subsequently violet, red, and yellow.

[Becquerel and Rodier observe that, in icterus, there may
be a continued secretion and flow of bile, or there may be
perfect retention arising from biliary calcuh, &c.

In the first case, no peculiar modification is observable in the
blood, and it is, therefore, unnecessary to quote their analyses ;
in the second case, there is an accumulation of cholesterin and
of the other fatty matters in the blood.

The following analysis wa,s made of the blood of a young
man, aged 23 years, in whom icterus was developed as a conse-
quence of indigestion. There was constipation, and no appear-
ance of bile in the faeces. The blood contained, in 1000 parts :

Water

740-509

Solid constituents

259-491

Fibrin

1-900

Fat

3-646

Albumen

66-300

Blood-corpuscles

164-300

Extractive matters and salts

23-345

The fatty matters amount to more than double the normal
quantity, and consisted of :

Serolin

0-070

Phosphorized fat

0-810

Cholesterin

0-627

Saponified fat .

2-139

The fatty acids that enter into the composition of the sapo-
nified fat occur in the bile, combined with soda. The salts
were normal.

332

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

In another case of a similar nature,

the fat amounted to

4T76, consisting of:

Serolin ....

0-128

Phospliorized fat

1-159

Cholesterin

0-556

Saponified fat .

2-333

In adddition to the large amount of fat in the blood in these
cases, Becquerel and Rodier observed that the serum was always
tinged with bile-pigment.]

IV. FAT IN THE BLOOD : PIARHiEMIA.

It is well known that free fat in the form of globules is not
ordinarily seen in healthy human blood. The greater part
exists in a saponified state, with the exception of cholesterin
and serolin, which do not saponify with potash. As, however,
the chyle contains a large quantity of free fat soon after the act
of digestion, we must conclude that during the process of me-
tamorphosis of the blood the greater part becomes converted
into fatty acids. In certain pathological states of those organs
which play an active part in the metamorphosis of the blood,
and whose cells contain a considerable quantity of fat, as the
liver and kidneys, and during inflammatory affections of the
peritoneum and of the lungs, so large a quantity of both free
and combined fat is sometimes found in the blood, that the
serum appears turbid, opaque, and even milky.

Marcet found the serum milky in diabetes, Trail in hepatitis,
Zanarelli in pneumonia, Christison in dropsy, icterus, and ne-
phritis ; moreover, in cholera the blood has been found to be
very abundant in fat.

It is hardly necessary to observe that if in such cases the
serum appear turbid, whey-like, or milky, fat-globules will be
perceptible under the microscope.

Christison and Lecanu1 have found that this, like most of the
animal fats, consists of olein, margarin, and stearin : there is
little doubt but that fatty acids are also present; in fact,Lassaigne
detected a fat of this nature in the blood, similar to the fatty mat-
ter of the brain.

Zanarelli2 found the blood of a man with pneumonia similar

1 Etudes chimiques, p. 116.

2 Journal de Cliimie Medic., vol. 2, p. 551.

BLOOD.

333

to milk : it separated into a thicker and a thinner portion. Blood
taken some days afterwards separated into a red clot and into
a milky serum. Zanarelli is of opinion that this milky blood is
chyle, which has not been converted into proper blood, in con-

sequence of the affection of the lungs. Bertazzi analysed it,

and his results are given below.

Bertazzi’s Analysis of Milky Blood.

Water

905-0

Solid constituents

95-0

Crystalline fat

4-0

Non-crystalline fat

6-0

Extractive matter, lactates, and chlorides .

5-0

Carbonates, phosphates, and sulphates

4-0

Dr. Sion1 observed an instance of milky blood in a case of
mammary abscess. It contained no fibrin, and when allowed
to stand a small quantity of colouring matter was deposited.
The fluid was analysed by Lecanu, and the following are the

results he obtained :

Lecanu' s Analysis of Milky Blood.

Water

794-0

Solid constituents

206-0

Albumen .......

64-0

Fat ; cholesterin, margarin, stearin, and fatty acids

117-0

Salts and extractive matter

25-0

Hffimatoglobulin a trace.

In a case of milky serum, which occurred during hepatitis.
Trail found :

Water .... 789

Albumen .... 157

Oily fat ... 45

Chlorides and lactates . . 9

V. PUS IN THE BLOOD : PYOHJ5MIA.

According to Gulliver,2 pus is found, and probably is also
formed, in the blood in all diseases in which there is suppura-
tion, or even inflammatory swelling, accompanied with hectic
fever. According to Blandin, blood of this nature, in issuing
from the vein, does not differ much in appearance from ordinary
blood ; it is frequently, however, rather darker and more fluid.
When the blood is inflamed and purulent, a muddy or greenish

1 Lancette frang. 1835, No. 49.
a Lond. and Edin. Phil. Mag. 1838.

334

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

yellow inflammatory coat is formed, in which, according toPiorry,
gray granulations of a puriform appearance occur.

Ammonia has been recommended by Donne as a test for the
presence of pus in the blood. Blood treated with ammonia dis-
solves into a clear fluid, while pus similarly treated forms a stiff
jelly. If, therefore, blood contains pus, it will become more or
less gelatinous upon the addition of ammonia, and if only a very
small quantity of pus is present, then we shall only find stripes of
this stringy substance deposited at the bottom of the vessel. I
have obtained favorable results from this method when the
quantity of pus has not been very minute ; I will not, however,
venture to assert that certain results can be obtained by this
method when the amount of pus is extremely small.

Gulliver,1 Gluge,2 and many others have availed themselves
of the microscope for the detection of pus in the blood, and I
am inclined to believe that this method gives the most certain
results. The blood contains, in addition to its own corpuscles,
the so-termed chyle-corpuscles, which are one half, or even quite,
as large again as the blood-corpuscles. They do not possess
the yellow colour of the latter ; they are gray, only slightly gra-
nular, and possess a sharp, dark, circumscribed edge; their
rolling motion, on inclining the stage of the microscope, shows
that they are perfectly spherical, and they do not, like the
blood-corpuscles, dissolve in water. If, however, the chyle-cor-
puscles remain in contact with water for some time (from half
an hour to an hour), they undergo a change ; they increase a
little in size, become clearer, then' edge appears less sharp, then’
shape is no longer spherical, but oblong or irregular, and they
become more distinctly granular, or else dark points become
apparent in the interior, as indications of nuclei. In this con-
dition the chyle-corpuscles may be easily mistaken for pus-cor-
puscles ; the latter are, however, usually rather larger than the
tumefied chyle-corpuscles, aud they are paler, then edge is granu-
lar, or tuberculated, and often very uneven, their shape is round,
or oblong, occasionally irregular, and they appear slightly gra-
nular in the interior, indicating from three to five nuclei. In
very many cases we see two, three, five, or even more pus-cor-

1 Op. cit.

2 Fragmente zur Pathologie des Blutes. Anatomisch-Mikroskopische Untersucli-
ungen. Heft 1. 1839.

BLOOD.

335

puscles lying closely attached to each other, while the chyle-
corpuscles almost always swim about separately. By this means
I have recognized pus in the blood, both when it has been arti-
ficially placed there, and on analysing the blood which I took
from the inflamed vein of a person who had died from phlebitis.

In one instance, in which I found a considerable quantity of
pus in the blood, taken from the inflamed vein in a case of
traumatic phlebitis, I could detect no traces of pus in the blood
taken from the vena cava and from the heart.

This is all that I can state from my own experience regard-
ing the detection of pus in the blood.

VI. ANIMALS IN THE BLOOD.

Early authors speak of living animals in the blood. Dr. Chiaje,1
of Naples, has recently stated that he found the polystoma san-
guiculum in the expectorated blood of two phthisical patients
who were attacked with haemoptysis. Some of these small flat
worms, which are similar to leeches, were floating about in
the serum, others attached themselves to the sides of the vessel.
Chiaje characterizes the polystoma in the following terms : “ Cor-
pus teretiusculum, seu depressum, pori sex antici ventrales, et
posticus solitarius ; habitat in venoso systemate hominis, et prse-
sertim in ejusdem pulmonali parencliymate.”

[Dr. Goodfellowhas lately recorded a case in which an immense
number of animalculse were found in the blood of a fever-patient.
They varied in length from 1 -5000th to l-3000th of an inch, and
in diameter, which was the same throughout, from 1-40, 000th
to 1-20, 000th of an inch. A singular case was observed by
Mr. Bushman, in which worms of about half an inch in length
were found in the blood of a boy labouring under influenza.
— AncelTs Lectures on the Blood. ‘ Lancet/ 1840, p. 778.]

SUPPLEMENT.

The following analyses of the blood of a pregnant woman (in
her fifth month), and of menstrual blood, could not be naturally
inserted among either of our four forms of diseased blood, and
will find a proper place in a supplement.

1 Omodei, Annali universal., Oct. 1837.

3.36

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

The blood of the pregnant woman formed a slight huffy coat,
but otherwise differed in no respect physically from normal blood.
It was composed of :

Water

Analysis 45.
80G-898

Solid constituents

193-102

Fibrin

2-102

Fat

3-040

Albumen .

72-200

Ilrematoglobuliu

96-900

Extractive matters

and salts

7-980

The chief point of difference between this and normal blood
is that, in this case, the amount of solid constituents is some-
what below the standard. The proportion of the hsematoglo-
bidin to the albumen is normal ; the quantity of fat is rather
increased.

[Becquerel and Rodier analysed the blood of nine pregnant
women, viz. one at the fourth month, five at the fifth month,
one at five months and a half, one at six months, and one at
seven months.

The maxima, minima, and mean results are given in the fol-
lowing table :

Mean.

Max.

Min.

Density of defibrinated blood

1051-5

1055-1

1046-2

Density of serum

1025-5

1026-8

1023-6

Water

801-6

Fibrin

3-5

4-0

2-5

Albumen .

66-1

68-8

62-4

Blood-corpuscles

111-8

1271

87-7

Extractive matters and salts

6-6

8-7

4-7

Fat

1-922

2-519

1-158

Consisting of — Serolin .

variable

0-108

0-018

Phosphorized fat

0-646

0-863

0-381

Cholesterin

0-061

0-225

0-030

Saponified fat .

1-195

1-323

0-737

The salts in 1000 parts of blood consisted of :

Chloride of sodium

3-2

3-9

2-3

Other soluble salts

2-4

2-8

1-8

Phosphates ....

0-425

0-690

0-282

Iron .....

0-449

0-490

0-370

From these analyses they conclude that pregnancy exercises
a marked influence on the composition of the blood. The
density both of the defibrinated blood and of the serum is

BLOOD.

337

diminished, the water, the fibrin, and the phospliorized fat1 are
increased, while the corpuscles and the albumen are diminished.]

The menstrual blood was obtained at a period at which it
contained no epithelium scales. It did not coagulate ; it con-
tained some vaginal mucus, but it was not putrid nor of an
unpleasant smell.

It was composed of:

Water

Analysis 46.
785-000

Solid constituents

215-000

Fat

2-580

Albumen

76-540

Haematoglobulin

120-400

Extractive matters and salts

8-600

The most striking peculiarities of this blood are, the total
absence of fibrin, and the increase of the solid constituents
caused by the excess of the blood-corpuscles. The hiemato-
globulin was found to be very rich in luematin, combined, un-
doubtedly, with a considerable amount of hoemaphsein ; the
colouring matter amounted to 8'3g of the hsematoglobulin.

[In an analysis made by Denis, and quoted by Raciborski
in his Essay on Menstruation, (in PExperience, No. 333,) the
menstrual fluid was found to consist of :

Water ....

825-0

Solid constituents .

175-0

Fibrin

0-5

Phosphorized fat

3-9

Albumen

48-3

Blood-corpuscles

63-4

Mucus ....

45-3

Osmazome and cruorin

1-1

Soluble salts .

9-5

Earthy phosphates and carbonates .

2-5

Peroxide of iron

0-5

Rindskopf analysed the menstrual discharge of a vigorous
and healthy girl. It was extremely acid, and contained :

Water

Solid residue
Salts

1st Analysis.
820-830
179-170
10-150

2d Analysis.

Water .... 822-892

Albumen and hannatoglobuliii 156-457
Extractive matters and salts 20-651

1 The phospliorized fat is always abundant in impoverished blood.

338

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

Yogel analysed the menstrual discharge in a case of pro-
lapsed uterus. It was of an intensely red colour, thick, and
viscid j it did not coagulate, but, after standing for some time,
a colourless serum separated. The fluid obtained at the com-
mencement of the flux yielded 83-9 parts of water and 16T of
solid materials, and that obtained near the termination yielded
83-7 of water and 16-3 of solid materials. The serum contained
93-53 parts of water and 6-47 of solids, of which 0-64 were fixed
salts. There can be little doubt that there is fibrin in the
menstrual secretion ; its determination is, however, usually ren-
dered impossible by the presence of a large amount of mucus,
which seems to deprive the blood of its power of coagulating.

Lochial discharge. Scherer has carefully investigated this
subject. The following is a summary of his results.

During the first day the discharge was of a brownish red
colour, viscid, formed no coagulum, but, when collected in a
vessel, threw down a slimy deposit, consisting of normal blood-
corpuscles, with which a few partially-dissolved and broken-up
corpuscles, together with mucus-corpuscles and epithelium scales
were interspersed. The supernatant serum was clear and yel-
low, and the microscope revealed in it a large number of fat-
vesicles. It was devoid of odour, perfectly neutral, and contained
in 1000 parts :

Water 740

Solid constituents . . 260

On the second day there were still blood-corpuscles, but they
were fewer and less perfect, most of them being irregular and
indentated at the edges ; there were mucus-corpuscles and epi-
thelium scales, but in less number than on the preceding day.
The fluid still deposited a viscid sediment, but the serum was
more highly coloured than on the previous day. The reaction
was neutral ; there was a faint odour. 1000 parts consisted of:

Water .... 812-2

Solid constituents . . 187-8

The residue, on incineration, yielded 9-35 of alkaline ferru-
ginous ash.

On the third day the secretion resembled arterial blood. The
blood-corpuscles were, for the most part, perfect, and normal
mucus-corpuscles were observed.

BLOOD.

339

In 1000 parts there were :

Water 760

Solid constituents . . . 240

The ash amounted to 12-2. There was an appreciable quan-
tity of fibi’in in this day’s secretion, arising possibly from a
slight haemorrhagic effusion.

On the fourth day the secretion was of a dirty brown colour,
the corpuscles were more or less injured, and there was a dis-
tinct odour of ammonia. There were numerous mucus-cor-
puscles, but no epithelium. 1000 parts yielded 191 of solid
residue, and 9‘5 of alkaline salts.

On the fifth day the discharge was of a greenish yellow colour ;
it contained very few blood-corpuscles, most of which were more
or less injured, but numerous mucus-corpuscles arranged in
groups of 5—10 together. The reaction of the fluid was alka-
line, there was a strong odour of ammonia, and 1000 parts
yielded 93'5 of solid residue.

On the sixth day the fluid was of a brown colour, smelled
like putrid cheese, and developed ammonia freely. 1000 parts
gave 76 of solid residue. For other analyses and further infor-
mation on this subject the reader is referred to ‘ Scherer’s
Chemische und Mikroskopische Untersuchun gung zur Pathologie.’
Heidelberg, 1843. J

Blood of animals.

In addition to the 12 analyses of horse’s blood which have
already appeared, I may communicate the three following :

Water

Analysis 47.
800-562

Analysis 48.
818-900

Analysis 49.
808-809

Solid constituents

199-437

182-100

191-191

Fibrin

4-747

5100

9-011

Fat .

5-149

2-214

4-820

Albumen

62-276

62-140

103-740

Hccmatoglobulin

100-291

96-100

58-960

Extractive matters and salts

12-454

12-310

14-650

The blood in all these analyses was taken from horses suf-
fering from malleus humidus. Analyses 48 and 49 refer to
the same horse, but in the latter case the animal was kept for
four days without food, being merely allowed water during that
period. Taking into consideration the deprivation of nutriment,

310

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

we cannot help feeling surprised at the large amount of solid
constituents that occur in this analysis ; it can only he explained
by supposing that a larger amount of fluid was removed from
the blood by secretion and excretion than was supplied to it by
the drink. Another peculiarity is the increase of fibrin and of fat,
and the diminution of blood-corpuscles; this change may, how-
ever, be readily explained, for as long as the organs of respiration,
secretion, and excretion, continue to discharge their functions,
the blood must obviously be changed by them, and this change
will especially affect the corpuscles. The horse passed little
urine during this time, but this little was tolerably saturated.
It was by no means strong at the commencement of the expe-
riment, but at its termination it was much exhausted, and the
respiration became gasping. The blood formed a very strong
inflammatory crust.

The blood of a healthy ox,1 and of a healthy calf, yielded
the following results :

Water ....

Analysis 50.
795-000

Analysis 51.
777-279

Solid constituents

205-000

222-721

Fibrin ...

—

2-600

Fat ....

5-590

4-191

Albumen

95-050

83-925

Haematoglobulin

91-710

105-925

Extractive matters and salts

11-181

24-444

In the former of these analyses, the fluid which was examined,
was a mixture of arterial and venous blood, from which the
fibrin had been previously removed: in the latter case the ex-
tractive matter was not separated from lisematin. The number
105-925 represents the globulin perfectly free from colouring
matter.

[Andral, Gfavarret, and Delafond, have published a valuable
essay on the blood of some of oiu- domestic animals in health
and disease. They made no less than 222 analyses of the blood
of 155 animals, viz. 4d analyses of the blood of dogs, 31 of
horses, 110 of sheep, 2 of goats, 23 of oxen and cows, and 7
of swine.

1 Berzelius (Thierchemie, p. 98) found, in the serum of the blood of oxen — water
905, albumen 80, albuminate of soda and lactate of potash 6-2, chloride of potassium
2-6, and modified albumen with carbonate and phosphate of potash 1-5.

BLOOD.

.‘3-1 1

In order to give an idea of tlie composition of the blood in
the different species of animals, we shall communicate the
average, maxima, and minima numbers that were obtained.
For the principles on which the analyses are founded, see p. 241 .
Analyses of the blood of 17 horses gave the following results:

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum.

Water.

Mean

4-0

102-9

82-6

810-5

Maximum

5-0

112-1

91-0

833-3

Minimum

3-0

81-5

74-6

795-7

Analyses of the

blood

of 14 neat cattle yielded:

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum.

Water.

Mean

3-7

99-7

86-3

810-3

Maximum

4-4

117-1

93-6 (?)

824-9

Minimum

85-1

82-9

799-0

The mean results of the blood of 6 bulls (1), and of an equal
number of milch cows (2), indicated no important differences.

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum.

Water.

(l.) . .

3-6

97-4

85-8

813-2

(2.) . .

3'8

101-9

86-8

807-5

Analyses of the blood of 6 swine of the English breed yielded :

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum.

Water.

Mean

4'6

105-7

80-1

809-6

Maximum

5-0

120-6

88-7

816-9

Minimum

4-1

92-1

73-6

793-9

The blood of 2

goats

gave :

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum.

Water.

Mean

101-4

91-4

804-0

Maximum

105-7

92-0

809-2

Minimum

2-6

97-2

90-8

798-8

Sheep of various breeds appeared to differ slightly in the

composition of the blood.

Analyses of the blood of 19 sheep of the Rambouillet1 breed

yielded :

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum.

Water.

Mean .

98-1

83-5

815-3

Maximum

3-8

109-6

96-6

830-3

Minimum

2-6

82-5

74-7

808-7

The blood of 11 sheep of a crossed variety, (the Naz-Ram-
bouillet breed,) yielded : —

1 A variety of the Merino sheep.

342

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

Mean .

Maximum

Minimum

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum.

Water.

2-8

106-1

80-3

810-8

3-4

123-4

87-7

827-2

2-3

94-6

74-7

789-8

The mean results from the blood of these 30 sheep were :

Fibrin.

3-0

Blood-corpuscles.

101-1

Residue of serum.

82-4

Water.

813-5

The blood of 13 English sheep yielded somewhat different
results :

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum.

Water.

Mean .

2-6

95-0

92-4

810-0

Maximum

3-3

110-4

97-0

822-1

Minimum

2-0

83-8

82-6

795-3

From the blood

of 16

dogsi they obtained :

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum.

Water.

Mean

2-1

148-3

75-5

774-1

Maximum

3-5

176-6

88-7

795-5

Minimum

1-6

127-3

60-9

744-6

The blood was

found to offer considerable differences in

breeding animals before and after delivery

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum.

Water.

Sheep 36 hours before delivery

. 2-3

95-0

81-7

821-0

„ 66 hours after delivery

. 3-0

106-2

78-2

812-6

„ 24 hours before delivery

. 2-9

92-9

84-5

819-7

„ 72 hours after delivery

. 3-5

102-6

86-3

807-6

Cow 5 days before delivery

. 3-7

90-9

75-2

830-2

„ 2 days after delivery .

. 5-1

98-8

73-7

822-4

That the blood of the

lamb

differs considerably from the

blood of the parent sheep, is obvious from the following analyses:

Fibrin.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of serum.

Water.

Male lamb, aged 3 hours .

. 1-9

108-6

63-3

826-2

„ 24 hours

. 1-9

117-0

74-2

806-9

„ 48 hours .

. 2-5

103-3

80-7

813-5

„ 96 hours .

. 3-0

109-1

68-6

819-3

The maxima, minima, and average numbers quoted above,
are sufficient to prove that the blood of different species of ani-
mals varies in its composition from that of man and of each

1 Gmelin (Handbuch der theoretiscken Cliemie, vol. 2, p. 1387) found, in the
arterial blood of a dog — water 898, and fibrin 2-09 ; the dried serum contained,
albumen 88-3, aud salts 11-7 ; the venous blood contained, water 843, and fibrin 2-1;
the dried residue of the serum consisting of albumen 87-5, and salts 12-5.

BLOOD.

343

other. This is a point of no slight importance, for it indicates
the necessity that exists for the determination of the consti-
tution of the healthy blood in eveiy individual class of animals
before we can venture to draw any conclusions regarding the
blood in a morbid state.

The mean amount of fibrin in one class of animals is as low
as 2*1, while in another it rises to 4-6 per mille, one being
considerably lower, the other much higher, than in man.

The largest amount of fibrin observed by Andral, Gavarret,
and Delafond, was in swine, the maximum being 5'0, and the
minimum 4T; the animals were from 2 to 6 months old, and
had been restricted for some time to a diet of horse-flesh. In
a two-year old sow that had been fed purely on vegetables, and
was very fat, the fibrin did not exceed 4'0. The blood of
horses ranks next to that of swine in the amount of fibrin, the
observed mean being 4'0, the maximum 5-0, and the minimum
3-0. Next to horses come neat cattle, the mean amount of
fibrin in their blood being 3-7, the maximum 4-4, and the mi-
nimum 3'0. The blood of the bull does not contain a larger
amount of fibrin than the blood of the cow or the ox. The
blood of the Merino sheep contains on an average the same
amount of fibrin as human blood,1 namely, 3'0; in the blood of
English sheep a smaller amount of fibrin was obtained. The
smallest quantity of fibrin was found in the blood of dogs, the
mean being only 2-1, the maximum 3-5, and the minimum 1-6.
The minimum occurred in dogs feeding on an exclusive animal
diet. From these observations it is evident that each class of
animals contains in its blood its own standard amount of fibrin.
The blood-corpuscles are found to occur, for the most part, in
an inverse ratio to the fibrin ; that is to say, in blood that con-
tains a large amount of fibrin, the amount of the corpuscles is
small, and vice versa. It was shown by special experiments
that there is no connexion between the strength of the animal
and the amount of fibrin. The amount of fibrin varies consi-
derably before delivery and immediately afterwards, during the
milk-fever; in the former case it is at its minimum, in the
latter it attains its maximum.

The amount of solid residue of the serum varies between
75-5 and 92’4. The former number occurs in the blood of the

1 Andral and Gavarret always refer to Lecanu’s standard.

344

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

dog; the blood of swine, oxen, and Merino sheep, contains
from 80-0 to 86 0, and the maximum occurs in the blood of
the English sheep.

The investigations of these chemists relating to the blood of
domestic animals in a morbid state, were principally confined
to sheep suffering from watery cachexia.1 We extract the fol-
lowing analyses from their essay, as illustrative of the changes
that the blood undergoes in pure hydrsemia without any
complication.

A 5-year old sheep : 1st Venesection

Fibrin.
. 3-1

Blood-

corpuscles.

44-8

Residue
of serum.

52-7

Water.

899-4

» 2d

. 3-0

42-2

50-9

903-9

A C-year old sheep : 1st

. 3-5

46-7

69-5

880-3

,, 2d

. 3-5

46-6

70-7

879-2

A 6-year old sheep : 1st

. 2-8

49-1

59-1

889-0

„ 2d

. 2-6

42-4

55-9

899-1

„ 3d

. 2-9

40-1

58-1

898-1

„ 4th

. 2-8

67-7

66-6

862-9

A 5 -year old sheep : 1st

. 2-4

39-4

63-4

894-8

>, 2d

. 2-3

33-3

55-8

908-6

„ 3d

. 3-0

29-3

52-1

915-6

„ 4th

. 3-0

14-2

51-9

930-9

The sheep, whose blood formed the

subject

of the last

ana-

lyses, died shortly after the 4th venesection.

In those cases in which the hydraemia was associated with
inflammatory affections, the blood presented very different cha-
racters, as the following analyses will show :

A 5-year old sheep : 1st Venesection

Fibrin.
. 9-6

Blood-

corpuscles.

32-9

Residue
of serum.

791

Water.

878-4

» 2d

. 6-4

30-0

78-6

885-0

A 4-year old sheep : 1st

. 12-6

39-5

94-1

853-8

,, 2d

. 10-4

34-2

89-1

866-3

» 3d

. 8-7

25-3

92-3

873-7

A 4-year old sheep : 1st

. 5-7

60-1

99-1

835-1

» 2d

. 4-3

54-6

95-9

845-2

The first of these animals had, in addition to the hydraemia,
pneumonia and pulmonary abscess ; the second, acute hepatitis
and peritonitis; and the third, acute bronchitis.

The following analyses of the blood of sheep, with various
disorders, were made by the same chemists :

' Commonly known as the rot.

BLOOD.

34a

Sheep with acute bronchitis .

Fibrin.

5-2

Blood-

corpuscles.

610

Residue
of serum.

109-4

Water.

824-4

Ram with softened tubercles

4-4

88-8

101-8

805-0

Sheep with tubercular pulmonary cavity .

6-2

64-5

10G-7

822-6

Ram with acute enteritis

6-0

100-7

9G-G

79G-7

Ewe with acute metritis

100-4

85-4

807-9

Sheep with chronic peritonitis : 1st Venes.

3-3

63-2

57-6

875-9

it ii 2d ,,

3-2

58-8

52-2

885-8

i> ii 3d ,,

3-1

52-8

52-6

891-5

They remark that the changes which the

blood

of these

animals undergoes in disease, precisely correspond with those
of human blood in similar disorders. Thus, in inflammatory
diseases, there is always an excess of fibrin, and they observe
that in those animals in which the normal mean amount is
highest, the fibrin is increased in the greatest proportion; thus
in the blood of a cow with inflammation of the respiratory or-
gans, the fibrin rose to 13‘0, the normal amount in that animal
being 3-8. In dogs that were reduced to a very amemic con-
dition, the blood-corpuscles fell from the normal mean 148, to
104, and even down to 83.

Then attention was, however, principally directed to the
watery cachexia, or rot in sheep. The most prominent phe-
nomena of the disease were extreme debility, paleness of the
mucous membranes, and very frequently serous infiltration of
the conjunctiva, and of the cellular tissue of the integument of
the feet. No albumen was detected in the urine. From
27 analyses made with the blood of 11 sheep, they conclude
that the amount of fibrin is slightly affected, but that the blood-
corpuscles are excessively diminished ; from 78, their normal
average, they fall to 40, 25, and even 14. The solid residue
of the serum is diminished, (a point in which this disease differs
from chlorosis in the human subject,) and the water is consi-
derably increased.

The deficiency in the amount of blood-corpuscles appeared
to vary with the progressing weakness of the animal. By
proper food, and due attention to atmospheric influences, the
corpuscles were observed to increase; in one instance they rose
from 49 to 64.

From 14 analyses of the blood, in which this affection was
associated with inflammatory disorders, it appeared that the

346

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

fibrin increases, and the blood-corpuscles diminish, as in simple,
uncomplicated inflammations.

Lastly, they observed tha,t when venesection was frequently
had recourse to in inflammatory affections, each venesection
tended to increase the amount of fibrin and of water, and to
diminish the quantity of blood-corpuscles.

The following are the results of the first and last venesec-
tions of a horse that was bled seven times in 24 hours :

The 1st Venesection gave
7th

Fibrin.

7-6

Blood-corpuscles.

104*0

38-3

Residue of serum.
90-8
60-1

Water.

802-1

894-2

Nasse has likewise taken up this subject since the publica-
tion of Simon’s Chemistry.

In the following analyses, which are extracted from his paper,
the extractive matters of the blood and the insoluble salts ap-
pear to be included with the albumen :

Blood-

Water. Fibrin.

Fat.

corpuscles. Albumen. Soluble sails.

Dog

790-50 1-93

2-25

123-85 65-19

6-28

Cat

810-02 2-42

2-70

113-39 64-46

7-01

Horse

804-75 2-41

1-31

117-13 67-85

6-82

799-59 3-62

2-04

121-86 66-90

5-98

Calf

826-71 5-76

1-61

102-50 56-41

7-00

Goat

839-44 3-90

0-91

86-00 62-70

7-04

Sheep

827-76 2-97

1-16

92*42 68*77

v y

6-91

Rabbit .

817-30 3-80

1-90

170-72

6-28

Swine

768-94 3-95

1-95

145-35 72-78

6-74

Goose

814-88 3-46

2-56

121-45 50-78

6-87

Hen

793-24 4-67

2-03

144-75 48-25

6-97

The following table represents the

composition of the soluble

and insoluble salts occurring

in 1000

parts of the blood of these

animals :

Soluble salts .-

Alkaline

Chloride

phosphates.

sulphates.

carbonates. of sodium.

Dog

. 0-730

0-197

0-789

4-490

Cat

. 0-607

0-210

0-919

5-274

Horse

. 0-844

0-213

1-104

4-659

. 0-468

0-181

1-071

4-321

Calf

. 0-957

0-269

1-263

4-864

Goat

. 0-402

0-265

1-202

5-176

Sheep

. 0-395

0-348

1-498

4-895

Rabbit .

. 0-637

0-202

0-970

4-092

Swine

. 1-362

0-189

1-198

4-281

Goose

. 1135

0 090

0-824

4-246

Hen

. 0-945

0-100

0-350

5-392

BLOOD.

347

The insoluble salts were found by Nasse to be combinations
of peroxide of iron, lime, magnesia, silica, and phosphoric and
sulphuric acids. The magnesia and silica were not determined
quantitatively.

In 1000 parts of blood there were :

Insoluble salts :

Peroxide of Iron.

Lime.

Phosphoric acid.

Sulphuric acid.

Dog

. 0-714

0-117

0-208

0-013

Cat

. 0-516

0-136

0-263

0-022

Horse

. 0-786

0-107

0-123

0-026

. 0-731

0-098

0123

0-018

Calf

. 0-631

0-130

0-109

0-018

Goat

. 0-641

0-110

0-129

0-023

Sheep

. 0-589

0-107

0-113

0-044

Swine

. 0-782

0-085

0-206

0 041

Goose

. 0-812

0-120

0-119

0-039

Hen

. 0-743

0-134

0-935

0-010

The only animals in a state of disease whose blood was ana-
lysed by Nasse were sheep with chronic rot (hydrsemia or watery

cachexia), and

horses with the glanders. The blood of three

sheep affected with the disease in question gave the following

results :

Water

952-00

932-30

916-00

Fibrin

2-75

3-84

3-90

Fat

0-23

0-25

0-30

Blood-corpuscles .

10-20

23-40

31-25

Albumen

• •

27-52

32-02

39-45

Soluble salts

7-30

8-19

7-10

The sheep a was very much reduced, and the blood had
much the appearance of reddened serum. There was effusion
into the peritoneum. The sheep b was pregnant, and in bad
condition ; while the sheep c had been delivered about 10 weeks
previously, and had been since attacked with dropsy. The salts
were determined individually, but they presented no peculiar
deviation from the normal standard.

The following analyses refer to the blood of two horses a and
b, suffering from chronic ozoena (the glanders) :

A. B.

Water .

833-00

860-00

842-00

859-00

816-00

Fibrin .

8-90

7-50

6-60

8-70

7-90

Blood-corpuscles .

65-50

43-30

68-20

44-20

88-50

Albumen and fat .

86-58

83-68

76-70

82-27

81-65

Soluble salts

6-02

5-52

6-50

5-38

5-95

348

CIRCULATING FLUIDS :

The individual salts did not differ in any remarkable degree
from the normal standard.

We have already had occasion to refer to the labours of
Enderlin, in connexion with the chemistry of the blood. He
has recently published the following analyses of the ash of the
blood of various animals, which are confirmatory of the Hews
to which we have more than once alluded, respecting the non-
existence of lactates in the blood.

The analyses are calculated for 100 parts of ash :

Salts soluble in water :

Ox.

Calf.

Sheep.

Hare.'

Tribasic phosphate of soda (3NaO, P05)

16-769

30-180

13-296

28-655

Chloride of sodium ....

59-3401

- 52-650

66-570

50-324

Chloride of potassium

6-120 J

Sulphate of soda ....

3-855

2-936

5-385

3-721

Salts insoluble in water :

Phosphates of lime and magnesia

4-190

3-490 1

- 13-920 -

Peroxide of iron and phosphate of ditto

8-277

9-277 J

1 16-509

Sulphate of lime, and loss .

1-449

0-829 .

The alkaline carbonates in Nasse’s analyses are easily ac-
counted for by Enderlin’s explanation of the action of the
atmosphere on the tribasic phosphate of soda.]

I have analysed the blood of the carp and of the tench. In
both fishes it was tolerably clear, contained oil-globules visible
to the naked eye, formed a loose gelatinous clot, from which
scarcely any serum separated, and yielded, on whipping, a viscid
sort of fibrin, possessed of little tenacity, and which, on the ad-
dition of water, separated into minute flocculi, consisting (ac-
cording to microscopic investigation) of granular masses and of
minute vesicles far smaller than the nuclei of the blood-cor-
puscles. The blood coagulated imperfectly on boiling, and was
remarkable for its small amount of lnematoglobulin. The blood
of bnfo variabilis presented exactly similar phenomena; but on
a chemical examination it was found to be richer in solid con-
stituents, especially in albumen, than the blood of fishes. It
was impossible to form a quantitative determination of the fibrin
or of the colouring matter in the blood of these animals, in

1 In another analysis he found bibasic phosphate of soda.

BLOOD.

349

consequence of the aplastic character of the former constituent,
and the minute quantity of blood that could be obtained.

The analyses gave :

Analysis 52.

Analysis 53.

Analysis 54.

Blood of

Carp’s blood.

Tench’s blood.

bufo variabilis.

Water

. 872-000

900-000

848-200

Solid constituents

. 128-000

100 000

151-800

Fibrin

. a trace

a trace

Fat ...

2-967

4-670

9-607

Albumen

83-850

68-800

112-330

ILxmatoglobulin

24-635

15-650

29-753

Extractive matters and salts

6-129

2-770

2-429

On boiling the dried residue of the blood with spirit, after the
removal of the fat, I obtained tinctures of a deep red colour,
such as would have been yielded by the blood of the mammalia,
but they differed in this respect, that they did not become
turbid on cooling, and the hmmatoglobulin, instead of being
deposited in flocks, had to be determined by evaporation. As
the flesh of these animals differs from that of the mammalia, it
is by no means impossible that there are corresponding differ-
ences in the globulin and haematin. The large amount of al-
bumen in the blood of bufo variabilis may perhaps be attributed
to the unavoidable mixture of the blood with lymph, and per-
haps with mucus.

Dumas and Prevost analysed the blood of numerous animals.
The blood was allowed to coagulate, the clot and serum were
separately dried, and the serum that remained entangled in the
clot was deducted, and added to the serum that spontaneously
separated. The fibrin was not determined.

Water. Solid constituents. Blood-corpuscles. Residue of serum.

Ape: Simia Callitriche 776-0

224-0

146-1

77-9

Dog

. 810-7

189-3

123-8

65-5

Cat

. 795-3

204-7

120-4

84-3

Horse

. 818-3

181-7

92-0

89-7

Calf

. 826-0

174-0

91-2

82-8

Sheep

. 829-3

170-7

93-5

77-2

Goat

. 814-6

185-4

1020

83-4

Rabbit .

. 837-9

162-1

93-8

68-3

Guineapig

. 784-8

215-2

128-0

87-2

Raven

. 797-0

203-0

146-6

56-4

Heron

. 808-2

191-8

132-6

59-2

Duck

. 765-2

234-8

1501

84-7

Hen

. 779-9

220-1

1571

63-0

350

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

Water.

Solid constituents.

Blood-corpuscles.

Residue of

Pigeon .

. 797-4

202-6

155-7

46-9

Trout

. 863-7

136-3

68-8

72-5

Eelpout

. 886-2

113-8

48-1

65-7

Eel

. 846-0

154-0

60-0

94-0

Land-tortoise .

. 778-8

221-2

150-6

80-6

Frog

. 884-6

115-4

69-0

46-4

[We have already alluded to the occurrence of animalcules
in human blood : in the blood of the lower animals such cases

are very frequently observed.

Cercaria have been discovered in the blood by Mayer, and
in his f Dissertatio de Organo Electrico et de Hsematorosis ;
Bonn. 1843/ he mentions the following : (1,) Paramoecium
loricatum s. costatum, in frogs ; (2,) Amoeba rotatoria in fishes.1
Polystoma-like animalcules were described by Schmitz as oc-
curring in the blood of the horse. (Dissertatio de Vermibus in
Sanguine. Berol. 1826.)

Gruby and Delafond have described a peculiar animalcule of
frequent occurrence in the blood of the dog, and numerous ob-
servers have noticed similar phenomena in the blood of the horse
and the ass.]

The Lymph.

Our knowledge of the chemical characters of the lymph is
very deficient. It is described as a viscid yellow, greenish
yellow, and occasionally red fluid, devoid of odour, possessing
a slightly saltish taste, an alkaline reaction, and containing from
3 to 5-7§ of solid constituents. The lymph of the human sub-
ject is described by Muller, Wurtzer, and Nasse as clear and
of a yellow colour, while others assign to it the same tint, but
assert that it is opalescent. It coagulates in the course of 10
or 15 minutes into a clear, tremulous, colourless jelly, and de-
posits an arachnoidal coagulum of fibrin, which was previously
held in solution, as in the liquor sanguinis, and is usually co-
lourless, although Tiedemann and Gmelin have observed it of
a reddish tint. The fluid left after coagulation is rather
thick, resembles almond oil in appearance, and under the mi-
croscope exhibits, even when perfectly clear, a number of colour-

1 Valentin (Muller’s Arcliiv, 1841, p. 436,) frequently detected this animalcule in
the blood of the salmon, and once met with it in the fluid of the cerebral ventricles.

LYMPH.

351

less corpuscles, apparently smaller than human blood-corpus-
cles, and far less numerous in it than the blood-corpuscles are
in the blood. (Muller.) In addition to albumen, the serum of
the lymph contains extractive matters and salts : the latter are
the same as the salts of the blood.

Gmelin found in 1000 parts of human lymph :

Water

9610

Solid constituents

390

Fibrin

2-5

Albumen .

Chloride of sodium, phosphates of potash and soda,

27-5

and salivary matter

2-1

Extractive matters and lactate of soda

6-9

Marchand and Colberg have analysed lymph obtained from
a wound on the dorsum of a man's foot. They found in it :

Water

969-26

Solid constituents

30-74

Fibrin ........

5-20

Albumen

4-34

Extractive matter

3-12

Fluid and crystalline fat

Chlorides of sodium and potassium, alkaline sulphates

2-64

and carbonates, sulphate and phosphate of lime,
and peroxide of iron

15-44

The amount of fibrin has doubtless been overrated in both
these analyses, since the coagulum contains lymph-corpuscles, and
some albumen, in addition to that constituent. In March an d’s
analysis it amounts to double the quantity in healthy blood.
The quantity of albumen is also incorrectly stated, for a fluid
containing -43g of albumen does not perfectly coagulate on
heating, as this fluid is reported to have done, but merely be-
comes turbid, and deposits a few flocculi. The salts in
Marchand’s analysis amount to more than double the amount
in the blood.

[L’Heretier (Traite de Chimie Pathologique, p. 18,) analysed
the lymph obtained from the thoracic duct of a man who died
from softening of the brain, and who took nothing hut a little
water for 30 hours preceding his death. It contained in 1000
parts :

352

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

Water .... 924-36

Solid constituents . . 75-64

Fibrin .... 3-20

Fat 5-10

Albumen . . . 60-02

Salts .... 8-25]

Dr. Rees has published an analysis of the lymph taken from

the absorbents of a young ass immediately after death. He
states its constituents to be :

Water ........ 965-36

Solid residue 34-64

Fibrin 1-20

Albumen 12-00

Extractive matter soluble in alcohol and in water . 2-40

Extractive matter soluble in water only . . 13-19

Salts 5-85

Fat a trace.

The salts were alkaline chlorides, sulphates, and carbonates,
with traces of phosphates, and of peroxide of iron.

Lassaigne analysed lymph collected from the absorbents of
the neck of a horse. He found in it, water 925-00, fibrin 3-30,
albumen 57-36, chlorides of sodium and potassium, soda, and
phosphate of lime 14-34.

[The lymph collected from the absorbent vessels of the neck
of a horse has been recently analysed by Nasse. He obtained
in 1000 parts :

Water

950-000

Solid residue ....

50-000

Albumen, with fibrin

39-111

Water-extract ....

3-248

Spirit-extract ....

0-877

Alcohol-extract ....

0-755

Ethereal extract ....

0-088

Oleate of soda ....

0-575'

Carbonate of soda ....

0-560

Phosphate of soda ....

0-120

Sulphate of potash ....

0-233

Chloride of sodium

4-123..

Carbonate of lime

0-104'

Phosphate of lime with some iron .

0-095

Carbonate of magnesia

0-044 ■

Silica

0-067

LYMPH.

353

It yielded no microscopic indications of urea. Nasse compared
the lymph with the serum from the blood of a healthy horse, and
found a remarkable coincidence in the salts of the two fluids :

Alkaline chlorides

Serum.

4-055

Lymph.

4-123

Alkaline carbonates'

*. M30

1-135

Alkaline sulphates

0-311

0-233

Alkaline phosphates

0-115

0-120

5-G11

5-611

The lymph, therefore, is a dilute serum, and the salts of the
blood which make their escape along with the colourless liquor
sanguinis from the capillaries, either return again in the same
proportions to each other as they were secreted, into the capil-
laries, or, which is most probable, they only penetrate into the
lymphatic vessels. Besides, there being more water in the
lymph than in the serum (in the ratio of 950 to 922) the two
fluids differ in the ratio of their solid constituents to the salts;
in the lymph, the salts amount to 11 ’22, and in the serum to
9-65§ of the solid residue. It is probably this circumstance
that causes the much greater viscidity of the serum, which is
by no means solely dependent on the larger quantity of albumen
in solution.]

All investigations with respect to the motion of the lymph
in the absorbents, and to the origin and formation of the lymph-
corpuscles, have hitherto been comparatively fruitless. Since
the primitive cells of the tissues are now regarded as organized
individuals possessing self-dependent powers of selecting their
own nutriment, and of discharging the function of secretion,
we can no longer refer the passage of the lymph into the ter-
minal points of the absorbents to mere physical endosmosis and
exosmosis. I do not believe that we can altogether satisfactorily
refer the motion of the lymph to a vis a tergo. Whether the
lymph is propelled by a progressive contraction of the absorbent
vessels, as is maintained by some physiologists, is uncertain ;
thus much, however, is undoubted, that there are numerous
valves in the interior of the lymphatics to prevent the regur-
gitation of their fluid contents. From Weber’s observations,
it appears that in the tadpole the motion of the lymph is from
10 to 20 times slower than that of the blood.

1 The oleate of soda is calculated as a carbonate.

354

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

The Chyle.

True clivlc, that is to say, the emulsive fluid that is found
after digestion in the lymphatic vessels of the intestinal canal,
is usually turbid, and of a white or pinkish tint, but I once
observed it of a blood-red colour. It is usually obtained for the
purpose of analysis from the thoracic duct, when, although
termed chyle, it is in reality a mixture of lymph and true chyle.
Chyle, like lymph, coagulates in the course of from 8 to 15
minutes. The clot is soft, gelatinous, and either wrhite (from
the entangled fat-vesicles) or red (in consequence of the pre-
sence of blood-corpuscles.) The fibrin obtained by whipping
fresh chyle is deficient in consistence, being sometimes merely
gelatinous, and cannot be washed without suffering loss. The
serum of the chyle appears, from my observations, (which were
instituted with the chyle of horses) to contain four different
sorts of corpuscles, viz. (a) fat-vesicles which occur in large
numbers in milk}' chyle ; (b) blood-corpuscles, wrhich may be
numerous, few, or absent, according to circumstances; (c) round,
colourless, transparent, rarely granular globules, from one half
to three fourths the size of blood-corpuscles; I have never ob-
served them in the blood ; they are the true lymph-corpuscles ;
and (d) round, gray or colourless granular corpuscles, with a
clearly defined, and not tuberculated outline, half as large
again, or occasionally even twice as large as the blood-cor-
puscles ; these are the chyle-corpuscles, which are always found
in the blood. Fig. 12 exhibits chyle containing numerous
blood-corpuscles as seen under the microscope.

Human chyle has never yet been analysed, but several ana-
lyses of the chyle of the lower animals have been made. Through
the kindness of Professor Gurlt 1 have had several opportunities
of examining the chyle of horses, and I have made three careful
quantitative analyses of it. The method of analysis was pre-
cisely the same as for the blood. The fibrin was removed in
the nsual manner, and washed. A known quantity of the serum
was reduced to dryness, and the water thus determined ; the
residue was finely pulverized, and a portion repeatedly treated
with ether, and afterwards with spirit of '915 in order to
remove the fat. It was then boiled in water. The residual
albumen was dried and weighed. The spirituous and aqueous

CHYLE.

35f>

solutions were mixed and evaporated, and the residue treated
with water and dilute spirit, which took up the salts and extractive
matters, and left the lnematoglobulin. The extractive matters were
dried, weighed, and incinerated, and the salts thus determined.

The thoracic duct of a horse that had been kept without food
for some time contained only a very small quantity of a reddish
fluid, with an alkaline reaction, from which a slight fibrinous
coagulum separated, and which, on standing, deposited a red
sediment, while the supernatant fluid was clear and yellow.
Blood-corpuscles were detected in the sediment, hut they were
not numerous, and, for the most part, altered in form. Lymph-
corpuscles and a very few chyle-corpuscles were observed ; some
of the latter were of a remarkable size, and presented a resem-
blance to conglomerate fat-cells. 1000 parts of this chyle left
a solid residue of 39'5, of which 20 consisted of albumen, and
3‘2 of oily fat.

In order to obtain a larger supply of chyle, a horse was fed
on peas steeped in water ; it was shortly afterwards bled to
death, and the chyle collected from the thoracic duct.

I obtained upwards of 600 grains of a reddish yellow alka-
line fluid, which was immediately stirred, in order to separate
the fibrin. In the serum there was comparatively little fat,
and only a small number of blood-corpuscles ; while, on the
other' hand, the lymph- and chyle-corpuscles were abundant.
None of the large conglomerate cells observed in the former
chyle could be detected.

The analysis of this chyle yielded :

Analysis 55.

Water ....

. 940-670

Solid constituents

59-330

Fibrin ....

0-440

Fat ....

M8G

Albumen ....

42-717

Haematoglobulin

0-474

Extractive matters and salts

8-360

Ptyalin, and globulin or casein,

with chloride of

sodium and lactate of soda

1-780

analysis of the salts was

not carried out. The amount

of solid constituents, and especially of albumen, is considerably
larger than in the former instance, but the quantity of fat is
remarkably small.

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

3f)G

On a subsequent occasion I fed two horses with oats soaked
in water, and analysed the chyle thus formed. Both spe-
cimens were stirred, in order to remove the fibrin : they had
an alkaline reaction, but one was tin-bid and milky, containing
an extraordinary amount of soft but firm fat, while the other
was of a blood-red colour, and contained a considerable number
of blood-corpuscles. Both specimens contained lymph- and
chyle- corpuscles. I have endeavoured, in fig. 12, to represent

the corpuscles that were observed in the blood-red chyle.

The analyses of these fluids yielded the following results :

Analysis 56.

Analysis 57.

Milky chyle.

Blood-red chyle.

Water

928-000

916-000

Solid constituents ....

72-000

84-000

Fibrin

0-805

0-900

Fat

10-010

3-480

Albumen with lymph- and chyle-corpuscles

46-430

60-530

Hsematoglobulin ....

traces

5-691

Extractive matters ....

5-320

5-265

Alkaline lactates and muriates, with traces
of lime

7-300

6-700

Sulphate and phosphate of lime and perox-
ide of iron

1-100

0-850

These analyses yield a much larger amount of solid consti-
tuents than those quoted above : the increase is especially ob-
servable in the amount of fat in the former, and in the con-
joined amount of albumen and hsematoglobulin in the latter of
these analyses. There can be no doubt that these variations
are due partly to the nature of the food, and partly to the
manner in which chylopoiesis goes on in aged or diseased ani-
mals. The salts approximate closely, both in quality and quan-
tity, with those that occur in the blood.

Dr. Rees analysed the chyle of the same ass to which refer-
ence has been already made in page 352. It contained :

Water 902-37

Solid constituents 97‘63

Fibrin 3-70

Fat 36 01

Albumen 35-16

Extractive matter soluble in alcohol and water . . 3-32

Extractive matter soluble in water only .... 12-33

Salts (similar to those in the lymph) . . . . 7-11

CHYLE.

357

[Nasse1 has instituted the following analysis of the chyle of

the cat. It contained in 1000 parts :

Water 9057

Solid constituents 94-3

Fibrin 1-3

Fat 327

Albumen, blood-corpuscles, and extractive matters . 48-9

Chloride of sodium ....... 77

Other soluble salts 2-3

Iron traces

Earthy salts 2-0 ]

The elaborate treatise of Tiedemann and Gmelin affords much
information respecting the influence of diet on the qualities of
the chyle, and on the modifications that it undergoes in its
passage through the mesenteric glands.

Their analyses of the chyle of the horse are given in the
following table :

Water.

Solid

constituents.

Clot.

Albumen.

Fat.

Spirit-extract,
with salts.

Water-extract,
with salts.

924-3

757

17-5

44-45

a trace

7-97

3-60

949-8

50-2

4-2

34-27

a little

8-41

2-33

918-3

81-7

7-8

42-86

16-12

11-83

2-04

967-9

32-1

1-9

19-32

a little

9-19

0-94

948-6

57-4

3-1

24-27

12-34

8-33

1-36

871-0

129-0

small

35-75

8? 01

3-22

959-0

41-0

24-60 (?)

16-40 (?)

3-22

The first four analyses were made with chyle taken from the
thoracic duct. The chyle in these cases separated into a bright
red clot, and opaque, milky serum. The fifth analysis was made
with chyle (taken from the same horse as in analysis 4)
after its passage through the mesenteric glands, and the sixth
analysis, with chyle, previous to its passage through them. In
the former case, the chyle was of a bright red colour, and co-
agulated perfectly, forming a pale red clot, and a reddish white
serum ; in the latter, it was white, and coagulated very imper-
fectly ; in fact, instead of there being a clot, there was merely
a transparent yellowish film; the serum was white and milky.

Wagner’s Handworterbuch, vol. 1, p. 235, article ‘ Chylus.’

358

CIRCULATING FLUIDS:

In the seventh analysis, the chyle was collected from the ab-
sorbents of the colon.

The fat in these various specimens of chyle was partly solid,
and partly fluid; the salts were apparently the same as in the
lymph. The albumen left about 2% of ash, which consisted of
equal parts of carbonate and sulphate of lime, together with a
little carbonate, hydrochlorate, and sulphate of soda. The dried
clot in analysis 2, yielded 9-07g of brownish red ash, consisting
of carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda, carbonate and
phosphate of lime, and peroxide of iron.

Tiedemann and Gmelin have communicated the following
data regarding the influence of diet on the chyle. Their expe-
riments were made on dogs, and the chyle was taken from the
thoracic duct.

1. After taking cheese the chyle coagulated veiy slightly.
The clot was little more than a pale red transparent film, and
the serum was slightly milky. The chyle contained water
950-3, clot 1*71, residue of serum 48-0.

2. After the use of starch, the chyle was of a pale yellowish
white colour, and coagulated rapidly. It contained water 930-0,
clot and residue of serum 70-0. The clot was of a pale red
colour.

3. After taking flesh, and bread and milk, the chyle was
of a reddish white colour, and coagulated rapidly, the clot being
of a pale red tint and the serum very milky. It consisted of
water 915-3, clot 2-7, and residue of serum 83-8.

4. After the use of milk, the chyle presented a milky ap-
pearance, and the clot was transparent and of a pale red colour.

5. After bread and milk, the chyle contained water 961-1,
clot T9, and residue of serum 37-0.

6. After flesh, bread, and milk, the chyle was of a yellowish
red colour, coagulated firmly, (separating into a bright red clot,
and turbid yellow serum,) and contained water 933-5, clot 5-6,
residue of serum 60-9.

Any explanation of the results of these investigations would
be superfluous, since it is obvious from them, that the food
best adapted to dogs, viz. a mixture of flesh, bread, and milk,

CHYLE.

3f>9

yields the richest chyle, and increases the amount of clot. That
the fibrin is formed in the chyle from the constituents of the
food is perhaps less probable than that it is separated from the
blood in the lymphatic glands ; possibly, chyle of different
qualities may react with varying energy on the lymphatic
glands.

end or VOL. i.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Blood-corpuscles of men, birds, and amphibia.

2. The formation of the blood-corpuscles, from Reichert.

3. Urea precipitated from an alcoholic solution by nitric

acid.

4. Crystals produced in the alcohol-extract of blood

devoid of urea, after the addition of nitric acid.

5. Nitrate of urea from blood in morb. Brightii.

6. Urea precipitated from an alcoholic solution, by

oxalic acid.

7. Crystals produced in the alcohol- extract of blood

devoid of urea, after the addition of oxalic acid.

8. Crystals of oxalic acid, resembling pure urea.

9. Nitrate of soda.

10. Crystalline groups of nitrate of urea, as it crystallizes

from an alcoholic solution.

11. Pus in blood.

12. Chyle from the thoracic duct.

PRINTED BY C. AND J. ADLARD,

llAUTHOLOMKW CLOSK.

PLATE 1

y-g'9/

ll.-Adlard J»c .

OF THE

OFFICERS AND MEMBERS

THE SYDENHAM SOCIETY

FOR THE YEAR ENDING

MARCH 25th; 1845.

LIST

OF THE

OFFICERS AND MEMBERS

THE SYDENHAM SOCIETY

FOR THE YEAR ENDINO

MARCH 25th, 1845.

■JiwSftfent :

JOHN AYRTON PARIS, M.D., F.R.S., President of the Royal College of Physicians

'FtteffreSfoente •

WILLIAM PULTENY ALISON, M.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Medicine in the
University of Edinburgh.

JOHN BLACKALL, M.D., Physician to the Devon and Exeter Hospital.

Sir BENJAMIN C. BRODIE, Bart., F.R.S., Serjeant-Surgeou to the Queen.

Sir WILLIAM BURNETT, M.D., F.R.S., K.C.H., Inspector-General of the Fleets
and Hospitals.

JOHN BURNS, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Surgery in the University of Glasgow.

WILLIAM FREDERIC CHAMBERS, M.D., F.R.S., K.C.H., Physician to the Queen
and to the Queen Dowager.

Sir JAMES CLARK, Bart., M.D., F.R.S., Physician to the Queen and to H.R.H.
Prince Albert.

Sir PHILIP CRAMPTON, Bart., F.R.S., Surgeon-General to the Forces in Ireland.

ROBERT J. GRAVES, M.D., M.R.I.A., Physician to the Meath Hospital, Dublin.

Sir JAMES M'GRIGOR, Bart., M.D., F.R.S. L. &Ed. Director-General of the
Medical Department of the Army.

JOHN HAVILAND, M.D., Regius Professor of Physic in the University of
Cambridge.

JOSEPH HODGSON, F.R.S. , Surgeon to the General Hospital, Birmingham.

HENRY HOLLAND, M.D., F.R.S., Physician Extraordinary to the Queen, and
Physician to H.R.H. Prince Albert.

JOHN KIDD, M.D., F.R.S., Regius Professor of Medicine in the University of
Oxford.

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in Ordinary to H.R.H. Prince Albert.

OFFICERS.

Council :

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JOHN CLENDINNING, M.D., F.R.S.
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SAMUEL SOLLY, Esq., F.R.S.
THEOPH. THOMPSON, M.D.
ROBERT WILLIS, M.D.

ERASMUS WILSON, Esq., F.R.S.
CHAS. J. B. WILLIAMS, M.D., F.R.S.
THOS. WATSON, M.D.

CreaSum- :

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Langdon, Thomas, esq.
Chippenfield, W. N. esq.

Rye, A. B. esq.

Hornibrook, William B. m.d.
Wood, Samuel, esq. a.m. m.b.
Emslie, Leith, m.d.

Scott, — M.D.

Turner, John C. esq. Dispensary
Birch, William, esq.

Sharpies, Thomas, esq.

Staley, Stephen, esq., the late
Workman, Thomas, esq.

SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

Bath

Local Sec. Soden, John S. esq.

Bally, William Ford, esq.

Bartrum, Jolm Stotliert, esq., Gay street
Bowie, W. m.d., Bennett street
Brace, W. Henry, esq., Bladud buildings
Cardew, John, m.d., Laura place
Church, William J. esq.

George, Richard F. esq.

Gore, R. T. esq., 6, Queen's square
Hensley, Henry, esq.

Hodges, Eil ward, m.d.

Hunt, Ezra, esq., River street
Jenkins, C. P. esq.

King, George, esq., King street
Marriott, Peter, esq.

Morgan, John, esq.

Norman, George, esq., Circus
Ormond, John, esq.

Ormond, Henry, esq., Belmont
Skinner, George, esq., Belmont
Spender, John Cottle, esq., Gay street
Stone, Robert N. esq., Grosvenor place
Wood, George L. esq.

. Nicholson, John, m.d.

Gilbert, Joachim, esq.

Webb, John, esq.

Beccles, Suffolk . Local Sec. Crowfoot, William Edward, esq.

Davey, H. W. R. esq.

Bedford . . Local Sec. Barker, Thomas Herbert, esq.

Bailey, William, esq.

Coucliman, Robert, esq.

Hurst, Isaac, esq.

Pearson, Francis, esq.

Swain, W. D. P. esq.

Thurnall, Wm., esq., for Bedford Medical Library
BKDLiNGTON,H.J/or/;e/A,/liirA«?HMaclaren, Benjamin, esq.

Bawtry

Beaminster, Dorsetshire

Belfast

Bere Regis

Berwick-on-Tweed

Beverley

Bexley, Kent

Bidford, Warwick
Bilston

Bingley, Yorkshire

Birkenhead

Birmingham

Lamont, A. Eneas, esq., House-Surgeon, Hospital
Moore, James, m.d.

Purdon, Charles D. m.d.

Purdon, Thomas Ilenry, esq.

Read, Thomas, m.d.

Sanders, James M. m.d.

Sanders, James M. m.d., for Medical Library
. . Nott, Thomas, esq.

. . Johnston, George, m.d.

. . Carter, Richard, esq.

Sandwith, Thomas, esq.

. . Cottingliam, Edwin, esq.

Spuriel, Flaxman, esq.

. . Fosbroke, George Haynes, esq.

. . Lewis, Edwin, esq.

. . Ainley, William, esq.

. . Holcombe, Charles Alexander, esq.

Local Sec. Fletcher, Bell, m.d.

Baker, Alfred, esq.

Bartleet, Edwin, esq.

Beckett, Isaac, esq.

Bindley, Samuel Allen, esq.

Birmingham Library
Blakiston, Peyton, m.d.

Blount, John Ilillier, esq.

LIST OP MEMBERS.

Birmingham ( continued ) . Burdett, Henry, esq.

Carter, John, esq.

Clarkson, Josiah, esq.

Clayton, Ilazlewood, esq.

Crompton, D. W. esq.

Dufton, William, esq.

Elkington, Francis, esq.

Evans, G. F. m.d.

Freer, Walter Careless, esq.

Hadley, John Joseph, esq.

Hodgson, Joseph, esq.

Lawrence, Joseph, esq.

Lee, Rev. James Prince, a.m.

Melson, John B. m.d.

Middlemore, Richard, esq.

Parker, Langton, esq.

Pemberton, Oliver, esq.

Percy, John, m.d.

Russell, James, m.d.

Ryland, Frederick, esq.

Sandys, James, m.d.

Solomon, John Vose, esq.

Tarleton, William, esq.

Taylor, Thomas, esq.

Tildersley, Henry William, esq
Waddy, J. M. m.d.

Watts, William Croydon, esq.

Welchman, Charles, esq.

Wickenden, Joseph, esq.

Wright, Samuel, m.d.

Bishop Auckland . . Canny, George, jun., esq.

Bishop’s Waltham . . Ainge, James, esq.

Blackburn . Local Sec. Martland, Richard, m.d.

Barlow, Richard, B. esq.

Cort, John, esq.

Pickop, Eli, esq.

Blandford . . Local Sec. Spooner, Edward O. esq.

Bletchingley . . . Boulger, Edward, esq.

Bodmin, Cornwall . . Kempthorn, John, esq.

Tyerman, D. F. esq., County Lunatic Asylum
Ward, John, esq.

Bognor .... Thompson, William, esq.

Boldon, Newcastle-on-Tyne . Tate, R. esq.

Bolton-le-Moors . Local Sec. Sharp, Henry, esq.

Ferguson, Fergus, esq.

Mallett, George, esq.

Robinson, John Marshall, esq.

Scowcroft, William, esq.

Botesdale, Suffolk . . Harris, Robert, esq.

Bourne, Lincolnshire . . Bellingham, Francis James, esq.

Bradford, Yorks . Local Sec. Meade, Richard Henry, esq.

Casson, Edwin, esq.

Casson, Edwin, esq.,, for Medical Library
Douglas, James, esq.

Kay, David, m.d.

Robinson, T. esq.

Taylor, William, m.d.

Brampton, Cumberland . Graham, John, m.d.

Bray, County of Dublin . Darby, Thomas, m.d.

SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

Bridgenorth . . . Tliursfield, William, esq.

Bridport, Dorset . . Cory, Samuel S. esq.

Gunn, J. M. esq.

Keddle, S. S. m.d.

Selwood, John Henry, esq.

Brighton . . Local Sec. Jenks, George Samuel, m.d.

Allen, Thomas, m.d.

Blaker, H. M. jun., esq.

Davis, W. St. George, m.d.

Drummond, George, esq.

Furner, Edmund, esq.

Franz, J. C. A. m.d.

Hood, W. C. m.d.

Lawrence, John, jun., esq.

Lowdell, George, esq., for Sussex County Hospital
Oldham, James, esq.

Piclcford, James H. m.d. m.r.i.a.

Philpott, Richard P. esq.

Pocock, Gavin Elliot, esq.

Plummer, Andrew, m.d.

Seahroolc, B. T. esq.

Tennent, James, esq.

Vallance, Benjamin, esq.

Watson, William Scott, esq.

Whitehouse, E. 0. Wildman, esq.

Willis, Thomas, m.d.

Wilson, James William, m.d.

Wilton, William, esq.

Winter, Thomas Bradbury, esq.

Brislington, near Bristol . Fox, Francis Ker, m.d.

Fox, Charles Joseph, m.d.

Bristol . . Local Sec. SwaynTe, J. G. esq. m.b., Berkeley square

Bompas, Charles Smith, esq.

Burroughs, J. B. esq., West Mall
Clark, Henry, esq.

Coltliurst, John, esq., 11, Mall
Davis, Theodore, esq.

Godfrey, James, esq., 13, Bridge street
Green, Thomas, m.d., 19, Queen square
Greig, Charles, esq., Infirmary
Greig, Charles, esq., for Bristol Infirmary
Hawkins, Thomas, esq., 28, Paul street
Hetling, George H. esq.

Humpage, Edward, esq., King square
Kelson, J. esq., Park row
Neild, John C. esq.

Norton, Robert, esq., Dispensary
O’Brien, John, m.d.

Rogers, George, esq., 38, Park street
Sheppard, William Y. esq., 6, Brunswick square
Smerdon, Charles, esq., 9, Mall
Sun-age, T. L. esq., York buildings
Symonds, J. A. m.d., 7, Berkeley square
Tredwyn, — esq.

Trotman, Dr., York place
Trotman, Dr., for Medical Library
Wayte, Charles, M. esq.

Willett, — esq.

Wilson, John G. esq.

Broughton, near Manchester Nursaw, Thomas, esq.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Budleigii Salterton, Devon

Bbngay, Suffolk .
Burford, Oxon
Burnham, Norfolk
Burnupfield
Burnley, near Manchester

Bury St. Edmunds . Loc. Sec.

Bury, Lancashire

Buxton
Calne .

Camborne, Cornwall

Cambridge . . Local Sec.

Canterbury . Local Sec.

Cardiff

Carlisle

Carshalton
Castlebar, Mayo .

Castle Town, Isle of Man
Castletown, Navan
Castle Carey, Somerset
Castle Douglas .

Cavan ....
Chatham

Hunter, Thomas, esq.

Kendal, Walter, esq.

Walker, D. Grant, esq.

Currie, John, esq.

Cooke, W. R. esq.

Dennis, A. V. esq.

Watson, U. esq.

Coultate, William Miller, esq.

Dugdale, David, esq.

Lord, James, esq.

Thompson, J. m.d.

Smith, Charles C. esq.

Coe, Thomas, esq.

Hake, Thomas Gordon, m.d.

Image, William Edmund, esq.

Newham, Samuel, esq.

Probart, Francis George, m.d.

Ranking, William H. m.d.

Wing, Henry, esq.

Chadwick, John, esq.

Fletcher, Matthew, esq.

Robertson, W. H. m.d.

Greenup, Richard, m.d.

Gurney, Edwin Godfrey Scholey, esq.

James, John, esq.

Lanyon, R. esq.

Vivian, Nicholas Duncan, esq.

Fisher, William H. m.d.

Barclay, Andrew Whyte, m.d.

Bond, Henry I. II. m.d.

Drake, Augustus, esq., Caius College
Ficklin, Thomas John, esq.

Haviland, John, m.d.

Hough, James, esq.

Paget, George Edward, m.d.

Smith, Rev. John James, Librarian of Caius College
Walton, Richard, esq.

Webster, J. H. m.d.

Scudamore, Edward, m.d.

Lochee, Alfred, m.d.

Long, John, esq., Barham
Matthews, D. esq., Cathedral gate
Siccard, Amelius, esq., Bridge
Evans, Thomas, esq.

Barnes, Thomas, m.d.

Cartmell, — m.d.

Elliott, William, m.d.

Page, W. B. esq.

Wallace, Edward, esq.

Dillon, J. m.d.

Underwood, T. m.d.

Haraerton, Clement, m.d.

Taylor, James, m.d.

Smyth, C. S. m.d.

Roe, George, m.d.

Blyth, Alexander, esq., Wye Convict Ship
Duirs, William, esq., Melville Hospital
Ely, George, esq.

Ford, W. M., for Library , Port Pitt
Martin, Richard, W. m,.d.

Rae, William, m.d., Melville Hospital 2

SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

Cheadle, Staffordshire . . Bourne, John E. esq.

Newbury, B. esq.
Tomkinson, Richard, esq.

Cheadle, near Manchester . Ockleston, R. esq.
Chelmsford . . . Miller, Samuel, m.d.

Cheltenham . Local Sec. Colledge, Thomas R. m.d.

Chertsey
Chesham, Bucks .
Chester

Acwortli, E. m.d.

Allardyce, J. m.d.

Bagnall, G. m.d.

Bernard, W. R. esq.

Cannon, jEneas, m.d.

Cary, Walter, esq.

Comyn, S. E. m.d.

Conolly, William, m.d.
Copeland, G. F. esq.

Eves, A. W. esq.

Fowler, Charles, esq.
Goodlake, Henry Cox, esq.
Hawkins, Clement, esq.
Murley, Stephen H. esq.
Pinching, Charles J. esq.
Shaw, C. S., esq.

Thomas, R. C. m.d.

Thorpe, Disney L. m.d.

. . Harcourt, George, esq.

. . Hodgson, John Bolton, esq.

Local Sec. M'Ewen, W. esq.

Jones, Phillips, m.d.
Harrison, John, esq.
Weaver, John, esq.
Willmott, A. m.d.

Chesterfield

. . Booth, Charles, esq,

Chichester

Holland, John, esq.
Walker, Hugh Eccles, m.d.
Local Sec. Tyacke, Nicholas, m.d.

Chilcompton
Chippenham
Cirencester
Clay, Norfolk
Clitheroe .
Cloghjordan
Clonmel
Colchester .

Buclcell, Leonard, esq.

Caffin, William Chart, esq.
Duke, Abraham, esq.
Gruggen, John Price, esq.
Gruggen, H. M. esq.
M'Carogher, J. m.d.
Woodman, James, m.d.

. . Flower, Farnham, esq.

. Colborne, Wm. esq.

. . Warner, Thomas, esq.

. . Cooke, Corbett, Charles, esq.

. . Garstang, J. esq.

. Purefoy, — m.d.

. . Kemphill, — jun., m.d.

Local Sec. Williams, Edward, m.d.
Bewick, Robert, esq.
Johnson, Walter, esq.

Philbrick, Samuel A. esq.,/o>- Medical Library.
Coleraine, Ireland, Local Sec. Babington, Thomas H. m.d.

Macaldin, J. J. m.d.

Collon, County of Meath . Mac Loughlin, Edward P. esq.

Congleton . . Local Sec. Hall, John, esq.

Conisborough, near Doncaster Fisher, Henry, esq.

Cork . . Local Sec. Popham, John, m.d.

Finn, Eugene, m.d.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Cork ( continued )

Cotford, near Sudbury .
Cove .

Coventry .

Local Sec.

Cowes, Isle of Wight

Cowbridge, Glamorganshire
Cowfold, near Horsham
Cranbourne, Dorset .

Cranbrook, Kent
Crawley
Crayford, Kent .
Crewkerne
Cricklade, Wiltshire
Croydon

Cuckfield .
Cullompton, Devon
Darlington.

Dartmouth, Devon
Dawlish ....
Derby . . . Local Sec.

Devonport ....
Devizes . . Local Sec.

Diss

Doncaster .

Dorking ....
Douglas, Isle of Man .

Downham Market
Dover . . . Local Sec.

Harvey, J. R. m.d.

Harris, Walter, m.d.

O’Connor, Denis Charles, m.d.

Osborn, Thomas, jun., m.d.

Townsend, E. R. m.d.

Bailey, W. R. esq.

Meade, Horace, N. m.d.

Scott, David H. m.d.

Troughton, Nathaniel, esq.
Arrowsmith, Robert, m.d.

Barton. F. W. esq., /or Medical Library
Laxon, William, m.d.

Peach, William, m.d.

Phillips, E. esq.

Tierman, — esq.

Cass, William, esq.

Hoffmeister, William Carter, m.d.
Sylvester, Charles, m.d.

Gravely, Thomas, esq.

Hobson, Smith, esq.

Smart, Thomas William, esq.

Ranger, Frederick, esq.

Smith, Thomas, esq.

Grantham, John, esq.

Bowdage, Emanuel, esq.

Taylor, Thomas, esq.

Berry, Edward, esq.

Westall, Edward, esq.

Byass, Thomas Spry, esq.

Maunder, William H. esq.

Harper, Alfred, m.d.

Piper, Stephen Edward, esq.

Strother, Arthur, esq.

Burrough, R. F. esq.

Cann, W. Moore, esq.

Fox, Douglas, esq.

Evans, Samuel, esq.

Fearn, S. W. esq.

Greaves, Augustus, esq.

Heygate, James, m.d.

Johnston, Whittaker, esq.

Rudkin, J. C. esq.

Worthington, Henry, esq.

Crossing, T. esq.

Swaine, P. esq.

Seagram, Wm. B. m.d.

Trinder, Charles, esq.

Montgomery, Ronald, esq.

Anstie, Thomas Brown, esq.

Ward, Henry, esq.

Scholtield, Edward, esq.

Storrs, Robert, esq.

Hindle, James, esq., Norton
Curtis, George, esq.

Sutherland, Patrick, m.d.

Oswald, H. R. esq.

Wales, Thomas G. esq.

Astley, Edward, m.d.

Coleman, Thomas, esq.

Heritage, 0. F. esq.

SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

Dover ( continued )

. Hutchinson, Scrope, m.d.
Jones, Edward, esq.

Mercer, Thomas, esq., Deal.
Rutley, G. E. esq.

Soulby, J. m.d.

Stolterforth, Sigismund, m.d.
Droitwich, Worcestershire . Edkins, Clement, esq.

Topharn, John, m.b.

Drogheda .... Fogarty, — m.d.

Dronfield, Derbyshire . Clarke, Thomas H. esq., Cliff House

Dublin

Nicholson, J. esq.

Local Sec. Law, Robert, m.d., 54, Rutland square
Aicken, Thomas, m.d., 68, Marlbro’ street
Bankes, John T. m.d. m.r.i.a.

Barker, William, m.d.

Benson, C. m.d.

Bevan, Philip, esq., 1, Hatch street
Biudon, H. Yereker, esq.

Brady, Thomas, m.d.

Carmichael, Richard, esq.

Crampton, Sir Philip, Bart.

Carte, Alexander, m.d., 62, Upper Bagot street
Cooke, Howard, m.d., 72, Blessington street
Cusack, James, m.d.

Croker, Charles P. m.d.

Duncan, J. F., m.d.

Dwyer, Henry L. m.d.

Evans, John, m.d.

Green, George, m.d.

Graves, Robert J. m.d.

Hargrave, William, m.d.

Harvey, J. m.d.

Hutchinson, William, m.d.

Hutton, — m.d.

Hunt, P. m.d.

Irvine, H. esq.

Kennedy, FI. m.d.

Mollan, J. m.d.

Marsh, Sir Henry, Bart.

M'Donnel, J. m.d.

Dudley

Neligan, J. M. m.d.

O’Keefe, Cornelius, esq. Regist. of Coll, of Surgeons
O’Reardon, John, m.d.

O’Reilly, Richard, esq.

Patten, J. esq., Kildare street, Royal Dublin Society
Sargent, Richard J. m.d.

Smyly, Joshua, esq.

Steel, W. Edward, m.b.

Walsh, Albert, m.d.

. Cartwright, Cornelius, esq.

Fereday, Samuel, esq.

Dulwich

Dumfries

Houghton, John H. esq.

Tinsley, William, esq.

. Ray, Edward, esq.

Loc. Sec. Browne, W. A. F. m.d.

Barker, William L. m.d.

Grieve, James, m.d. .

M'Cullocli, James M. m.d.

M‘Laclilan, James, m.d.

M'Lellan, R. H. m.d.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Dundee

Dundonald ....
Dungannon, County Tyrone .
Durham . . Loc. See,

East Grinsted, Sussex
East Rudham, Norfolk

East Stonehouse, Devon
Edinburgh . . Local Sec,

Loc. Sec. Monro, William, m.d.

Aitkin, William, esq.

Arnott, James, m.d.

Bell, Alexander, m.d.

Cocks, Robert, m.d.

Nimmo, Matthew, esq.

Osborne, G. M. m.d.

Alexander, William, m.d.

Nevill, William, esq., m.b.

Jepson, C. Edward, esq.

Alexander, — m.d.

Boyd, William, esq.

Caldcleugh, S. esq.

Carnes, John, esq., Blackgate
Crondace, George, esq., Rainton gate
Cuninghame, W. esq.

Dodd, — esq.

Green, William, esq.

Hepple, Matthew, esq.

Stoker, W. esq.

Hopton, — esq.

M'Larin, — esq.

Trotter, John, m.d.

Oliver, N. esq.

Robson, Robert, esq
Tyler, Edwin, esq.

Watkin, Thomas Laverick, m.d.

Covey, George, esq.

Manby, Frederick, esq.

Upjohn, Francis Robert Smith, esq.

Sheppard, James, esq.

SriTTAL, Robert, m.d., 16, Howe street
Abercrombie, John, m.d., The late, 19, York place
Alison, W. P. m.d., 44, Heriot row
Ballingall, Sir George, m.d., 13, Heriot row
Beatli, John, esq., 19, Castle street
Begbie, James, m.d., 6, Ainslie place
Bennett, John Hughes, m.d., 5, Scotland street
Black, Francis, m.d., 19, Lynedoch place
Brown, John, m.d., 51, Albany street
Combe, J. S. m.d., 35, Charlotte street, Leith
Cormack, John Rose, m.d., 131, Princes street
Cumming, William, m.d., 15, Elder street
Davidson, Joshua FI. m.d., 19, Abercrombie place
Dickson, A. W. esq., 14, Great King street
Douglas, Ilaliday, m.d., 15, Drummond place
Duncan, James, m.d., 12, Heriot row
Gilchrist, William, m.d., 53, Constitution st. Leith
Goodsir, H. D. S. esq., 21, Lothian street
Haldane, Daniel R. esq., 24, Drummond place
Hamilton, Robert, m.d., 7. Nelson street
Ilardie, Gordon, K. 19, Salisbury street
Henderson, William, m.d., 63, Northumberland st.
Henderson, M. W. m.d., Corstorphine
Holden, Ralph, esq., 15, Dundas street
Hunter, Adam, m.d., 18, Abercromby place
Jackson, Alexander, m.d., 20, Clarence street
Johnstone, James, W. F. m.d., 22, Albany street
Keith, G. S. m.d., 22, Albany street
Keiller, A. m.d., 18, St. Patrick square

SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

Edinburgh ( continued )

Elgin, North Britain .
Eling, near Southampton
Elland, Halifax .

Eltham, Kent
Ely . .

Emswobth, Hants
Enfield, Middlesex

Epping ....
Epsom ....

Evesham ....
Exeter, Devon . Local Sec.

Kennedy, John, m.d., the late, 29, Broughton street
Laud, George, m.d., 271, Clarence street
Lonsdale, Henry, m.d., 2, Teviot row
Macfarlane, John, F. esq., 17, North Bridge street
Mac Lean, John, m.d. 17, Queensferry street
Malcolm, It. B. m.d., 76, George street
Marshall, Henry, esq., 25, Albany street
Mercer, James, m.d., 50, Northumberland street
Millar, James S. esq., 9, Roxburgh street
Miller, James, esq., 22, St. Andrew square
Moir, John, m.d. 52, Castle street
Pagan, Samuel Alexander, m.d. 3, Melville street
Paterson, R. m.d., 8, Quality street, Leith
Pattison, P. H. m.d., 1, Leopold place
Robertson, James, esq., Westfield, Cramond
Scott, John, m.d., 45, Queen street
Simpson, James Y. m.d., 22, Albany street
Smyttan, George, m.d., 20, Melville street
Sommerville, Samuel, m.d., 17, Hart street
Stiven, W. S. m.d., Pennicuick
Tait, W. m.d., 37, Nicolson street
Taylor, John, m.d., 1, Abercrombie place
Treasurer of Royal Coll, of Phys., 119, George st.
Treasurer of Royal Med. Soc., Surgeon’s square
Treasurer of Hunterian Med. Soc. University
University of Edinburgh Library
Walker, W. esq., 47, Northumberland street
Waters, Edward, esq., 14, Elder street
Wilkinson, D., m.d., 5, Howe street.

Paul, John, m.d.

Spear, William, esq.

Hamerton, John, esq.

Scholefield, John B. esq.

Guillemard, Isaac, m.d.

Muriel, John, esq.

Miller, George, esq.

Miller, John, esq.

Taylor, William G. esq.

Merriman, Charles, A. esq.

Allan, John, esq.

Jones, Arthur O’Brien, esq.

Stillwell, George, esq.

Martin, Anthony, esq.

Porter, John II. m.d.

Pennell, Richard Lewin, m.d.

Blackall, John, m.d.

Delagarde, P. C. esq.

Empson, William, esq., Clist-Ilydou
Granger, F. m.b.

Hall, William, M.D.

Kingdon, W. D. m.d.

Marsden, James, m.d.

Merry, W. H. esq., Broad Clyst
Miles, Erasmus, m.d., Heavitree
Parker, J. B. esq.

Shapter, Thomas, m.d.

Shaw, Henry, esq.

Exmouth, Devon . . . Black, Glass, m.d.

Kane, William, esq.

Land, William II. esq.

Spettigue, John, esq.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Fairford, Gloucestershire
Falkirk ....
Falmouth ....
Fanet, Ireland
Farringdon, Berks.
Farningham, near Dariford

Farnham, Surrey .

Filey, near Scarboro’, Yorks.
Finchingfield, Essex
Folkestone, Kent
Forfar

Fowey, Cornwall .
Frampton-on-Severn, Glou-
cestershire .

Fulbeck, Grantham
Grampound, Cornwall
Garstang, Lancashire
Gateshead .

Gedding, Woolpit, Suffolk
Glasgow . . Local Sec.

Glasslough. Co. of Monaghan
Gloucester . . Local Sec.

Cornwall, Charles, esq.

Espie, J. esq.

Bullmore, F. C. esq.

Fullerton, J. W. esq.

Mantell, George, m.d.

Harris, Henry, esq.

Hunt, F. B. m.d.

Knowles, E. Y. esq.

Newnliam, William, esq.

Cortis, William S. esq.

Owen, W. B. esq.

Minter, — esq.

Steele, William, esq.

Bennet, William P. esq.

Watts, Thomas, esq.

Smith, Christopher B. esq.

James, R. esq.

Bell, William, m.d.

Barlcus, B. esq.

Brady, H. esq.

Dixon, G. esq.

White, W. Middleton, m.d.

Fleming, J. G. m.d. 121, West Regent street
Adams, J. M. esq.

Anderson, Andrew, m.d.

Anderson, A. D. m.d.

Black, J. W. esq.

Brown, James, m.d.

Burns, John, m.d.

Couper, John, m.d.

Findley, John, m.d.

Frazer, D. r.n.

Gowdie, John, esq.

Hall, Alfred, m.d.

Hutcheson, William, m.d.

Jeft'ray, James, m.d.

Lancey, Thomas, esq.

Laurie, J. A. m.d.

Macewan, John, m.d.

Macfarlane, John, m.d.

Macneil, Neil, m.d.

Mackie, Andrew, m.d.

Maund, John, esq.

Orr, R. S. m.d.

Pagan, J. M. m.d.

Parker, Robert, esq.

Pollock, John, esq.

Pritchard, Thomas, esq. •

Rainey, Harry, m.d.

Smith, David, m.d.

Thomson, William, m.d.

University Library, per Questnr
Watson, James, m.d.

Weir, William, m.d.

Wright, William, esq.

Maffett, Richard, m.d.

Hitch, S. m.d., Lunatic Asylum
Cockin, John, esq.

SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

Gloucester ( continued )

Godalming
Goole, Yorkshire
Gosport

Grantham ....
Gravesend ....
Great Grimsby, Lincolnshire
Great Yarmouth
Greenock ....

Greenwich

Guildford ....

Guernsey . . Local Sec.

Haddington, N.B.

Halifax, Yorks. . Local Sec.

Halstead, Essex .
Hanley, Staff.

Han well, Middlesex
Harewood, near Leeds
Harlington, near Exeter
IIarrow-on-Hill

Harrowgate

Haslar, Portsmouth

Hastings

Hatfield . . Local Sec.

Haverfordwest, South Wales
Hawkhurst, Kent
Haw arden, Flintshire .
Helmsley, York .

Hemel Hempstead, Herts .

Cookson, John, esq.

Hicks, Thomas, esq.

Rumsey, H. W. esq.

Wood, Alfred, esq.

Chandler, A. Thomas, esq.

Cass, William Eden, esq.

Jenkins, John, esq.

Richardson, John, esq., Haslar Hospital
Rundle, William John, m.d.

Brown, Joseph, m.d.

Armstrong, John, esq.

Keetley, Thomas Bell, esq.

Worship, Harry, esq.

Spiers, John, m.d., KiRblain square
Maccall, T. S. m.d.

Barclay, Henry, esq.

Burton, J. M. esq., Croom’s Hill
Greenwich Hospital
Purvis, P. m.d.

Sells, Thomas Jenner, esq.

Stedman, James, esq.

Ozanne, Jos. esq.

Howden, Thomas, m.d.

Lorimer, Robert, m.d.

Garlick, John William, m.d.

Alexander, William, m.d.

Bramley, Lawrence, esq.

Inglis, James, m.d.

Jubb, Abraham, sen. esq.

Kenny, Mason Stanhope, m.d.

Robertshaw, Thomas, esq. Sowerby Bridge
Robinson, John, esq., Ripponden
Stansfield, Geo. esq.

Tucker, F. Hosken, esq.

Gilson, Benjamin, esq.

Dale, James, esq.

Begley, W. C. m.d., T. C. D.

Smith, Gregory, esq.

Cheesewright, William, esq.

Curtis, H. Charles, esq.

Hewlett, Thomas, esq.

Berry, Grove, esq.

Kennion, George, m.d.

Stead, H. C. esq.

Anderson, — m.d.

Allen, James, m.d.

Salmon, James, esq.

Stewart, Alexander, esq.

Duke, William, m.d.

Hobson, Smith, esq,

Mackness, James, m.d.

Moore, George, m.d.

Ranking, Robert, esq.

Savery, John, esq.

Thomas, William Lloyd, esq.

Warlow, William, esq.

Young, Francis Ayerst, esq.

Moffat, John, m.d.

Ness, John, esq.

Merry, Robert, esq.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Henfield, Sussex .
FIenley-in-Arden

Hereford .

Local Sec.

Hertford

. Local Sec.

Heywood, near Bury, Lane.

Hexham

Hitchin

Holbeach

IIorbury, near Wakefield
Hornsey

Horsforth, near Leeds
Horsham

IIoughton-le-Spring, Durham

Hounslow ....
Hull . . Local Sec.

Hulme, near Manchester
Huntingdon . Local Sec.

Hurstpierfoint
Hyde .

Morgan, Frederick, esq.

Birman, H. F. m.d.

Ings, Jolin, esq.

Braithwaite, Francis, esq.

Archibald, Robert, esq.

Bull, Henry Graves, m.d.

Cam, Thomas, esq.

Farmer, John, esq.

Gilliland, William L. M.D.

Hanbury, George, esq.

Lingen, Charles, esq.

Lye, John Bleek, m.d.

Scriven, John Barclay, esq.

Smith, Robert, esq.

Taylor, Theophilus, esq.

Vevers, H. jun. esq.

Waudby, Samuel, esq.

Wright, Henry Goode, esq.

Davies, John, m.d.

Phillips, George Marshall, esq.

Reed, Frederick George, esq.

Towers, G. A. esq., Infirmary
Leach, Jesse, esq.

Nicholson, John, esq.

Foster, Oswald, esq.

Shillitoe, R. R. esq.

Vise, E. B. esq.

Robinson, Charles, esq.

Hands, Benjamin, esq.

Wilson, William M. esq.

Bourn, Thomas, esq.

Martin, Thomas, esq.

Coleman, W. T. m.d.

Green, Samuel, esq.

Tweddell, William, esq.

Emmott, C. B. esq.

Cooper, Henry, m.d.

Clark, J. H. esq., Aldbrough
Gordon, W. m.d.

Hardey, Robert I. esq., Charlotte street
Horner, F. R. m.d.

Huntingdon, Frederick, esq.

Locking, Jos. Agar, esq.

Lunn, Wm. Jos. m.d.

Riggall, Edward, esq.

Sandwith, FI. m.d.

Sandwith, G. esq.

Sharpe, Richard, esq., 9, Castle row
Sharp, William, esq. f.r.s., Humber Bank
Sleight, R. Leadam, esq.

Twining, Edward, esq.

Wallis, Edward, esq.

West, Charles Turner, esq., 8, North street
Bowman, D. esq.

Foster, Michael, esq.

Foster, M .,for Medical Library
Isaacson, Wootton, esq.

Wilson, Josiah, esq.

Holman, Henry, esq.

Tinker, William, esq.

SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

Ingatestone
Inverness .
Ipswich

Ironbridge ....

Jarrow ....
Keith, Banffshire .

Kenton, Devon
Kettlethorpe, Lincolnsh.
Kidderminster . Local Sec.

Kilmarnock

. Local Sec.

Kingsbridge, Devon
Kingston-on-Thames .
Kington, Herefordshire
Kingstown, Ireland
Kirkaldy, Fifeshire
Kirkham ....

Kirkstall, near Leeds
Knaresborough .

Knowle ....
Knutsford, Cheshire .
Lancaster . Local Sec.

Leamington

Leatherhead

Leeds

Local Sec.

Butler, C. II. esq.

Walker, John, m.d.

Baird, A. W. m.d.

Beck, Edward, m.d.

Bullen, G. esq.

Durrant, C. II. m.d.

Scott, Walter, esq.

Webster, W. H. B. esq.

Roden, Sergeant, esq.

Rowland, J. W. esq.

Brown, W. W. esq.

Christie, John, m.d.

Day, J. A. esq.

Waddington, Edward II. esq.

'Roden, William, m.d., f.l.s.
Bradley, Thomas, esq.

Jotham, George William, esq.
Philbrick, Cornelius James, esq.
Roden, Thomas Clarke, esq.

Taylor, Thomas, esq.

Thursfield, Thomas, esq.

Ward, the Lady, Himley Hall
Hood, Alexander, esq.

Aitkin, James M. C. esq.

Mitchell, John, esq., Maucliline
Paxton, John, m.d.

Rodger, William, esq., Galston
Thompson, John, esq.

Young, Robert, esq.

Elliott, John, esq.

Cox, Abram, m.d.

Marshall, G. Henry, esq.

Adams, William, m.d.

Philp, John, esq.

Gradwell, William, esq.

Shaw, Thomas, esq.

Bishop, Edward, esq.

Newton, Isaac, esq.

Kimbell, J. H. esq.

Gleeson, E. M. esq.

Gaskell, Samuel, esq.

De Vitre, — m.d.

Howitt, Thomas, esq.

Ricketts, Charles, esq.

Beesby, Ralph A. esq.

Ebbage, Thomas, esq., Portland street
Franklin, Francis, m.d.

Jephson, J. m.d.

Jones, Richard, esq.

Starr, T. II. m.d.

Nash, William L. esq.

Teale, T. P. esq.

Allanson, James, esq
Bearpark, G. E. esq.

Braithwaite, W. esq.

Brown, C. F. esq.

Bulmer, George, esq.

Cass, W. R. esq.

Chadwick, Charles , m.d.

Chorley, Henry, esq.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Leeds ( continued )

. . Drennan, J. S. m.d.

Evans, Evan, esq.

Garlick, J. P. esq.

Hall, Matthew, esq., Wortley
Hay, William, jun. esq.

Hey, Samuel, esq.

Hey, William, esq.

Hopper, R. S. m.d.

Hobson, Richard, m.d.
Irvine, G. W. m.d.

Leek .

Jackson, Matthew, esq.
Laud, Thomas, esq.
Leeds School of Medicine
Mayne, George, m.d.
Morley, George, esq.
Nunneley, Thomas, esq.
Price, William, esq.
Radcliffe, C. B. esq.
Rickards, G. H. L. esq.
Smith, Pyemont, m.d.
Smith, Thomas, m.d.
Staniland, Samuel, esq.
Teale, Joseph, esq.

. . Cooper, Richard, esq.

Heaton, Charles, esq.

Lenham

Lerwick, Shetland

. . Stickings, George, esq.

. . Cowie, John, esq.

Leicester • • Local See- Barclay, John, m.d.

Lewisham .

Liff

Lincoln

Buck, John, esq.

Harding, Henry, esq.

Harding, PI. esq., for Leicester Infirmary
Macaulay, Thomas C. esq.

Paget, Thomas, esq.

Seddon, William, esq.

Stallard, J. H. esq.

Swain, Thomas, esq.

. . Steel, C. W. esq.

. . Archibald, David, esq.

Local Sec. Hainworth, John, esq.

Broadbent, Edward Farr, esq.

ITadwen, Samuel, esq.

Plewson, John, esq.

Hill, R. Gardiner, esq.

Limerick .... Griffin, William, m.d.
Litcham, near Swaffham . Raven, Peter, esq.

Liverpool

Local Sec. Vose, J. m.d.

Anderton, Henry, esq. (Woottou)
Bainbrigge, W. IT. esq.

Bickersteth, Robert, esq.

Byerly, Isaac, esq., 93, Prescot street
Chalmers, D. esq.

Chapman, M. J. m.d.

Dickinson, Joseph, m.d.

Drysdale, J. J. m.d., 44, Rodney street
Dudgeon, Robert, m.d., 17, Oxford street
Ellison, King, esq.

Inman, Thomas, m.b.

Lewis, Thomas, esq., 2 Rodney street
Liverpool Medical Institution

SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

Liverpool ( continued ) . . Liverpool Infirmary

Long, James, esq., 10 Rodney street
Pearson, J. Armitage, esq. (Wootton)

Smith, John Bromley, esq., 59, Great George street
Swinden, Edward, esq., Wavertree
Llandilo, South Wales . . Prothero, — m.d.

Samuel, William, esq.

LONDON LIST.

Abraham, Thomas, esq. .
Adams, John, esq.

Adcock, Christopher, esq.
Addison, Thomas, m.d .
Adlard, C. & J., Messrs.
Allchin, W. H. esq.

Allen, W. esq.

Allnatt, Richard H. m.d.

Ancell, Henry, esq.

AnseU, Thomas, esq.

Appleton, H. esq.

Archer, William, esq.

Arnott, Neil, m.d.

Ashley, W. H. esq.

Ashwell, Samuel, m.d. .
Atkinson, John Charles, esq. .
Ayre, William, esq.

Babington, B. G. m.d.
Babington, R. esq.

Baker, Frederick M. esq.
Balfour, Thomas Graham, m.d.
Ball, R. de Champs, esq.
BaUard, Thomas, esq.

Ballard, Edward, m.d. .

Barff, F. esq.

Barnes, Alfred, esq.

Barnett, Thomas, esq.

Bartlett, William, esq. .
Basham, William R. m.d.
Bateman, H. esq.

Baxter, Henry F. esq.

Baylis, Edward, esq.

Beale, Miles, esq. .

Bean, Edward, esq.

Beane, Joseph M. esq. .

Beck, J. S. esq.

Bell, Jacob, esq.

Bennett, James Risdon, m.d. .
Bently, Edward, esq.

Berry, Edward Unwin, esq.
Bevan, Thomas, m.d.

Bibby, Samuel, esq.

Bird, James, esq.

49, Old Broad street, City

31, New Broad street, City

28, Charles terrace, New Cut, Lambeth

24, New street, Spring gardens

Bartholomew close

University College

9, Albion place, Hyde park

4, Parliament street

3, Norfolk crescent, Oxford square
Bow

Lower Clapton

1, Montague street, Portman square
38, Bedford square

1, Grove villa, Loughboro’ road, Brixton

16, Grafton street, Bond street
Romney terrace, Westminster
Hackney

31, George street, Hanover square
London University Hospital

11, North place, Kingsland road
St. James’s square

12, Bloomsbury square
81, Connaught terrace

2. King Edward terrace, Islington
Portland place, Clapton

Gloster house, King’s road, Chelsea
72, Fore street, Limehouse
19, Notting hill terrace

17, Chester street, Pimlico
9, Church row, Islington

5, George street, Hanover square
30, Sackville street, Piccadilly
Bishopsgate street
Camberwell

Peckham

53, Upper Marylebone street, Portland place

338, Oxford street

24, Finsbury place, north

35, Trinity square, Borough

7, James street, Covent Garden

Finsbury circus

9, North Audley street

16, Orchard street, Portman square

1ST OF MEMBERS.

Bird, Golding, m.d.

Bird, Henry, esq. .

Birkett, John, esq.

Birlcett, E. L. m.b.

Blenkarne, Henry, esq. .
Blewitt, Octavian, esq. .
Blundell, Janies, m.d.

Bompas, Joseph C. esq.
Bostock, John, m.d.

Boyd, Robert, m.d.

Bristowe, John Syer, esq.
Brodhurst, B. Edward, esq.
Brodie, Sir Benjamin C. Bart.
Brodribb, W. P. esq.

Brown, C., Blakley, m.d.
Brown, Isaac Baker, esq.
Brown, J. Hallett, m.d. .
Brown, R. F., esq.

Brown, Robert, esq.

Brown, Thomas, esq.

Brown, Robert, esq.

Brown, William, esq.

Bryant, Walter, J. esq. .
Buchanan, G. A. esq.

Buckland, J. Pelham, esq.

Bull, Thomas, m.d.

Burnett, Sir W. m.d. k.c.h. .
Burton, Henry, m.d.

Bush, — M.D.

Butler, James, esq.

Callaway, Thomas, esq. .
Campbell, Alex. Elliott, m.d. .
Camplin, John, esq.

Camps, W. m.d.

Carr, James Thomas, esq.
Cartwright, Samuel, esq.
Chambers, William F., m.d.
Chepmall, E. C. m.d.
Chichester, J. H. R. esq.

Child, G. C. m.d.

Cholmeley, W. esq.

Chowne, W. D., m.d.
Churchill, J. esq.

Clark, Fred. Legros, esq.

Clark, Sir James, Bart. .
Clarke, J. F. esq.

Cleland, A. esq.

Clementson, F. L. esq. .
Clendinning, John, m.d.
Clifton, N. II. esq.

Clissold, Rev. Augustus .
Cochrane, J. G. esq.
Colebourne, Henry, esq.
Collyer, G. esq.

Conquest, J. T. m.d.

Cook, William, esq.

Cooke, R. H. esq.

Cooke, William M. m.d.
Cooper, Bransby B. esq.

Myddleton square

Milan cottage, Hampstead road

2, Broad street buildings
Cloak lane

39, Dowgate hill

73, Great Russell street, Bloomsbury
Great George street, Westminster
University College
22, Upper Bedford place
Marylebone Infirmary
Camberwell

4, St. Helen’s place, Bishopsgate.

14, Saville row

12, Bloomsbury square

3, John street, Berkeley square
39, Connaught terrace

7, St. George’s place, Walworth road

2, St. Mary Axe

37, Euston square

13, William street, Knightsbridge
Brixton hill

22, Russell place, Fitzroy square
50, Edgeware road

50, Myddleton street, St. John street road
84, Watling street

27, Finsbury place
The Admiralty
41, Jermyn street
Kensington House
Seething lane, Tower street
Wellington street, London bridge
First Life Guards

11, Finsbury square
50, Green street, Grosvenor square
for Parisian Medical Society
St. Thomas’s Hospital
32, Old Burlington street
46, Lower Brook street
17, Hanover square

3. Stone buildings, Lincoln’s inn
Mortimer street

St. Bartholomew’s Hospital
Princes street, Cavendish square
Princes street, Soho
Finsbury square
22 b, Lower Brook street

23, Gerrard street, Soho
118, Cock hill, Ratcliff

6, Warwick Villas, Maida hill
16, Wimpole street

38, Cross street, Islington
Stoke Newington

London Library, 29, Pall Mall

28, Harleyford place, Kennington

24, Old street road
13, Finsbury square
St. Thomas's hospital

Church street, Stoke Newington
Trinity square, Tower hill
2, New street, Spring Gardens

SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

Copland, James, m.d.

Cotton, It. Payne, esq. .
Coulthred, James, esq. .
Courtenay, J okn, esq.

Covey, Wm. Henry, esq.
Coward, G. W. esq.

Cox, W. Travers, m.d.

Craigie, J. L. esq. .

Crawford, Mervyn, m.d. .

Crisp, Edwards, esq.

Crompton, T. L. esq.

Crowdy, Charles Whitton, esq.
Crowther, J. R. esq.

Culpeper, William M. esq.
Currie, Paul Francis, m.d.
Curtis, J. W. esq.

Dalrymple, John, esq.

Davies, Robert, esq.

Davies, David, esq.

Davis, J. Jones, m.b.

Davis, Thomas, esq.

Davis, Richard Sladen, esq.
Day, G. E. m.d.

De Morgan, Campbell, esq.
Dendy, Robert, esq.

Dendy, Walter C. esq.

Derry, T. M. esq.

Dewsnap, M. esq.

Domeier, E. A. m.d., the late .
Dover, Frederick, esq.

Duncan, Edward, esq.

Dunn, Robert, esq.

Duthoit, Thomas John, esq. .
Eddowes, J. H. esq.

Edwards, Henry, esq.

Edwards, Vertue, esq.

Edwards, Daniel, esq.

Ellam, John, esq.

Erichsen, John, esq.

Evans, J. 0. esq. .

Eyles, John Brown, esq.

Eyles, Richard Strong, esq.
Eyre, Stratford A. esq. .

Farr, William, esq.

Farre, Arthur, m.d.

Farre, Frederick, m.d.

Ferguson, Robert, m.d. .
Fergusson, William, esq.

Fidler, J. esq.

Finch, Richard S. esq.

Fincham, George, m.d. .
Fisher, J. W. esq.

Fitton, W. John, esq.
Fitzpatrick, Francis, esq.

Foote, John, esq.

Forbes, John, m.d.

Fox, Charles James, m.d.
Frampton, Algernon, m.d.
France, John, esq.

Fraser, Patrick S. m.d. .

Old Burlington street
11, Kensington square

4, Melton street, Southwark Bridge road

5, Finsbury terrace
42, Charing Cross

2, North Road, Iloxton

2, Stanhope place
Finsbury square

62, Upper Berkeley street
31, Beckford row, Walworth

29, Howland street, Fitzroy square
Brixton hill

6, Lansdown place, Brunswick square
Marylebone Infirmary

30, Brook street
Finsbury pavement
56, Grosvenor street
126, Holborn HOI

St. Thomas’s Hospital
4, Poplar terrace, Poplar
Hampstead
13, Chancery lane

3, Southwick street, Oxford square
17, Manchester street

2, Grafton street east, Tottenham Court road

10, Tillotson pi., Waterloo rd., for Land. Med. Soc.

Westminster Hospital

Hammersmith

39, University street

54, Great Coram street

3, Leadenliall street

15, Norfolk street, strand

22, Trinidad place, Islington

St. Thomas’s Hospital

67, Edgeware road

St. Thomas’s Hospital

13, Queen street, Cheapside

320, Rotlierhithe street

48, Welbeck street

University College

1, St. Andrew’s court, Holborn

3, Fitzroy street, Fitzroy square
Registrar-General’s Office
Curzon street, May Fair

35, New Bridge street, Blackfriars road
9, Queen street, May Fair

8, Dover street

4, Camden row, Camberwell
Marylebone Infirmary

38, Curzon street, May Fair
Argyll street
52, Upper Harley street
27, Lisson street, New road

36, Tavistock street, Covent Garden

12, Old Burlington street

13, New Broad street, City
29, New Broad street, City
88, Cadogan place

62, Guildford street

LIST OF MEMBERS.

French, J. G. esq.

Fuller, Hugh, esq.

Fuller, J. esq.

Galton, Francis, esq.

Gardiner, John, esq.

Gardiner, Roger Cooper, esq. .
Garrett, Mark B. esq.

Garrod, A. B. m.d.

Gavin, Hector, m.d.

Gay, John, esq.

George, J. D. esq.

Gibson, John R. esq.

GiUespie, Patrick, esq. .
Girdwood, Gilbert F. esq.
Godrich, Francis, esq.
GoodfeUow, S. J. m.d. .
Goodwin, J. M. esq.

Goolden, R. H. m.d,

Gordon, Adam, esq.

Grainger, R. D. esq.

Grant, N. m.d.

Grant, John, esq.

Gray, John, esq.

Greenhalgh, Robert, esq.
Greenwood, Henry, esq. .
Griffith, J. W. m.d.

Grimsdale, Thomas F. esq.
Guazzaroni, John, esq. .
Guest, Edmund, esq.

Gull, W. W. M.B.

Gulliver, George, esq.
Gunthorpe, George John, esq.
Guy, W. A. m.b.

Hakes, J. esq.

Hall, Marshall, m.d.

Hamilton, Alfred, esq. .
Hanson, Sidney, m.d.

Harding, J. F. esq.

Hardwick, Alfred, m.d. .
Hardwicke, William, esq.
Harper, Robert, esq.

Harris, Wintow, esq.

Harris, Michael, esq.

Harston, A. D. esq.

Hastings, John, m.d.

Haviland, — m.d. .

Hawkins, Csesar, esq.

Hawkins, James, esq.

Hawkins, Charles, esq. .
Headland, Edward, esq. .
Heberden, W. m.d., the late .
Heming, G. 0. m.d.

Henry, Alexander, esq. .
Hensley, L. esq.

Hering, William, esq.

Herring, William, esq. .
Heisch, Frederick, jun., esq. .
Hilton, John, esq.

Hilton, John, esq.

Hird, Francis, esq

Marlborough street

53, King William street, City

48, Hertford street, May Fair

1 6, King street, Covent Garden

49, Great Portland street
Cheyne walk, Chelsea

3, New Road, St. George’s East
Charterhouse square
Thurlow place, Hackney road

12, Finsbury Pavement
32, Old Burlington street
115, Holborn hill
Lisson Grove north

177, Maida hill
Little Chelsea
London Fever Hospital
Streatham, Surrey

8, John street, Adelphi

Surgeon R.N., 22, Surrey street, Strand
St. Thomas’s Hospital
21, Thayer street, Manchester square
Bengal Army, 71a, Grosvenor street
7, Upper George street, Portman square
66, Upper Charlotte street, Fitzroy sq.
Horsleydown lane

9, St. John’s square
Univsrsity College

3, Terrace, Kensington
College street, Chelsea
Guy’s Hospital

Roy. Reg. of Horse Guards

51, Newington place, Iiennington

Bloomsbury square

28, Duke street, Manchester square

14, Manchester square

Broad street Buildings

17, Hanover square

13, Spencer street, Northampton square
Kensington

12, Calthorpe street, Gray’s Inn road

2, Conduit street, Westbourne terrace, Hyde park
1, New Dorset place, Clapham road

Paradise row, Hackney
Trinidad place, Islington

14, Albemarle street
177, Maida kill

for Roy. Med. Chirurg. Soc. Berners street
36, Collett place, Commercial road
Albany Court yard
32, Guildford street

28, Cumberland street, Bryanstone square
7 b, Manchester square

4, Caroline street, Bedford square

3, Great James street, Bedford square
14, Foley place

74, Sun street, Bishopsgate
16, America square
for Medical Library , Guy’s Hospital
Guy’s Hospital
Cleveland row, St. James’s

SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

Hitchman, J. esq.

Hoar, W. esq.

Hoclcen, Edward, m.d. .
Hodgkin, Thomas, m.d. .
Hodgson, Joseph, esq. .
Holland, Henry, m.d.

Holman, William H. esq.
Holman, J. R. esq.

Holman, Charles H. esq.
Hopkins, John Morgan, m.d. .
Houlton, Joseph, jun. esq.
Hovel, Thomas, esq.

Howell, C. W. H. esq. .
Hughes H. M. m.d.

Hulm, Edwyn St. James, m.d.
Ilumby, Edwin, esq.
Humphreys, William, esq.
Hunt, Henry, m.d.

Hutchinson, W. Barclay, esq. .
Hutchinson, Francis, esq.
Huxtable, William, esq. .
Jackson, Alfred, esq.

Jackson, Thomas Carr, esq.
Jacob, William, esq.

James, W. P. esq.

James, Henry, esq.

Jay, Henry, esq.

Jeaffreson, Henry, m.d. .
Jeaffreson, John F. esq. .
Jenkins, James, esq.

Jervis, Thomas, esq.

Jervis, George FI. J. esq.
Johnson, James, m.d.

Johnson, Cavendish, esq.

Jones, Thomas, m.d.

Jones, Henry Derviche, esq. .
Jones, John Darlington, esq. .
Iliff, William T. esq.
Illingworth, Henry, esq. .
Kaye, W. G. esq. .

Keen, Thomas, esq.

Kelsall, Thomas E. esq. .
Kesteven, William, esq. .
Keyser, A. esq.

Kilner, John, esq.

King, Osman, esq. .

Kinnis, J. m.d.

Lambert, H. esq. .
Lammiman, R. W. esq. .

Lane, Samuel, esq. .

Langmore, H. esq.

Langmore, William, m.d.
Langstaff, J. esq. .

Lankester, Edwin, m.d. .
Latham, P. Mere, m.d. .
Lauder, William P. m.d.

Law, Charles, esq. .

Leeson, H. B. m.d. .

Lefevre, Sir George, m.d.
Leonard, Thomas, esq. m.b.

Sanatorium, New road
78, Blackfriars road.

1 3, Bloomsbury square
Brook street

1, Spital square, Bishopsgate street Without
25, Lower Brook street
10, John street, America square
ditto
ditto

1, Elizabeth street, Eaton square
87, Lisson grove North
Five Houses, Clapton
Stratford-le-Bow

14, St. Thomas’s street

1, Tonbridge place, Burton crescent

Warwick villa, Maida hiU

21, Upper Southwick street

68, Brook street

40, Guildford street

92, Farriugdon street

1, Well’s row, Hackney
London University College
St. Thomas’s Hospital

31, Cadogan place
37, Euston square
4, City road
42, Sloane street

2, Finsbury square
Canonbury square, Islington
Royal Navy, 13, Clements lane

23, Edward street, Portman square

7, Kingsland green

8, Suffolk place, Haymarket

3, Norfolk crescent
19, Finsbury pavement
23, Soho square

1, Queen’s road, Dalston

18, Canterbury row, Newington Butts
1, Arlington street

Royal Navy

15, Manor place north, King’s road, Chelsea
Great Winchester street, City

Upper Holloway

21, Norfolk crescent, Burwood place
33, Gower place, Euston square
37, Bernard street, Russell square
Army

St. Luke’s Hospital, Old street road
118, Cock hill, Ratcliff
1 Grosvenor place

15, Upper George street, Portman square
Finsbury square

9, Cambridge square, Hyde Park

19, Golden square
36, Grosvenor street
8, Sloane street

3, Artillery place, Finsbury square

St. Thomas’s Hospital

60, Lower Brook street, Grosvenor square

14, Aske terrace, Hoxton

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Letheby, Henry, m.d.

London Hospital

Lever, J. C. W. m.d.

Wellington street, Borough

Lewis, David T. esq.

182, Brick lane, Spitalfields

Lewis, W. A. esq.

18, Stratford place, Cavendish square

Lister, Bryan, esq.

University College

Liston, Robert, esq.

Clifford street

Little, W. J. m.d. .

Finsbury square

Lloyd, W. W. esq. .

62, Great Russell street, Bloomsbury

Lobb, William, esq.

12, Aldersgate street

Lockley, Thomas, esq. .

6, St. George's place, Hyde Park comer

Locock, Charles, m.d.

7, Hanover square

Luke, James, esq. .

39, Broad street buildings

Lonsdale, Edward, esq. .

for Library, Middlesex Hospital

Mackintosh, James, esq. .

32, Wilton place, Knightsbridge

Macmeikan, John, esq. .

London Hospital

Maclachlan, Daniel, m.d.

Chelsea Hospital

M'Gill, William, m.d.

2, Bentinck terrace, St. John’s Wood

M'Gregor, Sir James, Bart.

13, St. James’s place

M'Intyre, William, m.d. .

84, Harley street

Maillardet, J. W. esq.

8, St. Martin’s place, Charing cross

Mann, John, esq. .

63, Bartholomew close

Marshall, John, esq.

8, Crescent place, Momington crescent

Marson, J. F. esq. .

Resident Surgeon, Smallpox Hospital, Charing cross

Martin, J. R. esq. .

71a, Grosvenor street

Mathew, Charles Reeve, esq. .

London University College

Mathew, James Edward, esq. .

Church Cottage, De Beauvoir square, Kingsland

Mathews, R. N. B. jun. esq. .

18, Canterbury row, Newington Butts

Mercer, Thomas E. esq. .

University College, London

Meridith, E. F. esq.

15, Charles street, Westbourne terrace

Merriman, Jas. Nathaniel, esq.

Kensington

Merriman, John, esq.

Kensington

Merriman, S. W. J. m.d. .

34, Brook street

Metcalfe, James B. esq. .

Church street, Hackney

Miles, John, esq. .

84, Harley street

Miles, John Shirley, esq.

8, Victoria square, Pimlico

MiRer, C. M. esq. .

1, Claremont terrace, Stoke Newingtou

Milroy, Gavin, m.d.

30, Fitzroy square

Moger, Robert, esq.

Highgate

Moore, Joseph, m.d.

10, Saville row

Morley, Atkinson, esq. .

Burlington Hotel, Cork street

Munlc, William, m.d.

2, Finsbury place, south

Murdock, William, m.d. .

320, Rotherhithe street

Muriel, Charles, esq.

4, Wellington street, London bridge

Murphy, Edward W. m.d.

12, Henrietta street, Cavendish square

Nairne, Robert, m.d.

44, Charles street, Berkeley square

Nasmyth, Alexander, esq.

13 a, George street, Hanover square

Nelson, Duckworth, esq.

London Hospital

Newell, H. A. esq. .

13, Warwick court, Ilolborn

Newton, Edward, esq.

26, Howland street

Nicolson, Thomas, esq. .

53, Berkeley square

North, John, esq. .

18, King street, Portman square

North, RobertExton, esq.

26, Cheyne walk, Chelsea

Noys, G. H. m.d.

Moorgate street

Nussey, John, esq.

4, Cleveland row, St. James’s

Olding, George, esq.

159, High street, Borough

Oldham, Henry, m.d.

13, Devonshire square, Bishopsgate

Ottley, Drewry, esq.

38, Hart street, Bloomsbury

Owen, Richard, esq.

College of Surgeons

Page, William E. m.d. ,

43, Curzon street, May Fair

Pardoe, George, m.d.

53, Russell square

SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

Paris, John Ayrton, m.d.
Peacock, Thomas B. m.d.
Percivall, W. esq. .
Pereira, Jonathan, m.d. .
Perigal, Frederick, esq. .
Perkins, Dodd, esq.
Perkins, Houghton, esq. .
Perry, James, esq.
Pettigrew, William Y. m.d.
Philp, Francis R. m.d.
Phillips, Benjamin, esq. .
Phillips, James, esq.
Phillips, Thomas, esq.
Pilcher, George, esq.
Pitman, H. A. m.d. .
Poland, Alfred, esq.

Pout, George, esq. .
Powell, Henry, m.d.
Powell, David, esq.

Pyle, John, esq.

Quain, Richard, m.d.

Quain, Richard, esq.
Redfearn, P. esq. .

Ree, Henry P. esq.

Reed, Septimus, esq.

Rees, Henry, esq. .
Reynolds, H. esq. .

Rhys, Thomas, esq.

Ridge, Joseph, m.d.

Riding, Roger, m.d.
Roberts, Charles I. m.d. .
Roberts, John, esq.

Robins, William, esq.
Robinson, James, esq.
Robinson, Richard R. esq.
Roods, Henry C. esq.
Roots, II. S. m.d. .

Rose, C. esq. .

Ross, Daniel, esq. .

Rowe, J. esq.

Rowley, R. m.d.

Royle, J. Forbes, m.d.

Rust, Thomas, esq.

Rygate, John James, esq.
Samwell, Francis, esq.
Sandon, James II. B. esq.
Saunders, E. esq. .
Savage, Henry, esq.

Savory. John, esq. .

Sawer, Thomas, esq.

Scott, John, m.d. .

Searle, G. C. esq.

Seaton, Edward, m.d.

Self, James, esq.

Sharpe, Rd. esq.

Sharpey, William, m.d. .
Shute, Robert Greber, esq.
Skey, Fred. C. esq.

Smee, Alfred, esq. .

Smith, Henry, esq. .

Dover street
2, South place, Finsbury
First Life Guards
Finsbury square

33, Torrington square
St. Thomas’s Hospital
Mortimer street, Cavendish square
4, Eaton square, Pimlico

30, Chester street, Grosvenor place, Pimlico
28, Grosvenor street

17, Wimpole street
White House, Bethnal green

44, Albion street, Hyde Park

7, Great George street, Westminster
Montague place, Russell square
21, Bow lane, Cheapside
65, High street, Borough

31, Finsbury square

21, Garnault place, Spa Fields
1, Middlesex place, New road
University College Hospital, Gower street
23, Kepple street
13 j, Newington Causeway
Union place, City road

41, Jewin street, City

45, Finsbury square

42, Moorgate street
University College Hospital
37, Cavendish square

36, Euston square

31, New Bridge street, Blaclcfriars

34, Finsbury circus

16, Upper Southwick street

7, Gower street

4, Camden row, Camberwell

67, Great Russell street, Bloomsbury

Russell square

10, Barnes place, Mile end

56, High street, Shadwell

41, Upper John street, Fitzroy square

37, King William street, City

4, Bulstrode street, Cavendish square
39, Connaught terrace
London Hospital
Margaret street, Cavendish square
36, Albemarle street

16, Argyle street

34, Dorset place, Dorset square
143, New Bond street

1, Lyon ten-ace, Maida hill

12, Bedford square

42, Cumming street, Pentonville
77, Sloane street

Mile end road

Grange road, Bermondsey

35, Gloucester crescent, Regent’s Park
27, Meclclenburgh square

13, Grosvenor street
Finsbury circus

17, Henrietta street, Cavendish square

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Smith, Ebenezer, esq.

Smith, John Sirnm, esq.

Solly. Samuel, esq.

Squibb, George James, esq.
Squire, William, esq.

Statliam, Hugh, esq.

Staunton, Charles F. m.d.
Stephen, T. esq.

Stewart, A. P. m.d.

Stewart, Haldane, esq.

Stewart, Wm. Edward, jun. esq.
Stewart, Wm. esq.

Stocker, James, esq.

Stokoe, Richard, esq.

Storks, Robert, esq.

Stott, Thomas B. esq.

Stowers, Noel, esq.

Strickland, John, esq.
Sutherland, Alex. J. m.d.
Swaine, W. E. m.d.

Synnett, — m.d.

Tanner, Thomas Hawkes, esq.
Taunton, John C. esq.

Taylor, Edward, esq.

Taylor, W. esq.

Taylor, C. esq.

Taylor, Jas. Eastwood, esq.
Teavers, James, esq.

Teevan, William, esq.

Tegart, Edward, jun. esq.
Thompson, Theophilus, m.d.
Thompson, Richard, esq.
Thomson, Anth. Todd, m.d.
Thwaites, Thomas B. esq.
Tibson, Arthur, esq.

Todd, Robert B. m.d.

Tomkins, C. Joseph, esq.
Toulmin, Frederick, esq.
Townsend, John A. esq. .
Toynbee, John, esq.

Travers, Benjamin, esq. .
Treasurer of Medical Society

Treasurer of St. Georye’s Hospital Library

Billiter square

17, Trinity square, Tower hiU

1, St. Helen’s place, Bishopsgate
C, Orchard street, Portman square
Wandsworth road
Wandsworth road

Royal Engineers, 40, St. Martin’s lane

King’s College Library

130, Mount street, Berkeley square

55, Cadogan place

Weymouth street, Portland place

1 , Wells row, Hackney

Guy’s Hospital

Peckham Rye

44, Gower street

Aldersgate Dispensary

26, Albion street, Hyde Park

22, North Audley street

19, Fludyer street, Westminster
41, Foley place

8, Westbourne place, Eaton square
King’s College

48, Hatton garden
Clapham Common
London University Hospital

18, Holland place, Clapham road
4, Caroline street, Bedford square
307, Rotherhithe wall

23, Bryanstone square

37, Bryanstone street, Portman square

3, Bedford square

For London Institution , Finsbury

30, Welbeck street

University College Hospital

1, Spring street, Paddington

26, Parliament street

9, Huntley street, Bedford square
Upper Clapton

48, Finsbury circus
Argyll place
Bruton street

University CoUege, London

Tripe, John William, esq.
Tulloh, James St. m.d.
Turner, John, esq. .
Tweedie, Alexander, m.d
Ure, Alexander, esq.

Vade, John Knox, m.d.
Varicas, R. A. esq.

Vaux, J. m.d.

Vincent, George, esq.

Vinen, Edward Hart, esq.
Waggett, John, m.d.

Waite, Charles, esq.
Walcott, Robert Bowie, esq.
Walker, George A. esq.
Wall, John P. esq.

Wallace, R. esq.

Walsh, Charles R. esq.

7, King’s place, Bath street, Commercial road
3, Agar street, Strand

10, Bedford place, Russell square
30, Montague place, Bedford square
13, Charlotte street, Bedford square

8, Upper Seymour street, Portman square
29, Wobourne place, Tavistock square
Elm Cottage, Elm Grove, Hammersmith
109, Sloane street

164, Blackfriars road
1, Norland terrace, Nottinghill
3, Old Burlington street
8, York street, Portman square
101, Drury lane

5, Mount street. Grosvcnor square
John’s terrace, Hackney road
42, Half Moon street

SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

Ward, Nathaniel, esq.

Ward, N. Bagshaw, esq.

Warder, A. W. esq.

Ware, James T. esq.
Waterworth, Charles, es(
Watson, Thomas, m.d.
Weatherhead, Hume, m.

Weber, Frederick, m.d.
Webster, George, esq.

Wells, Thomas Spencer, esq. R.N
Weston, Philip King, esq.
Westwood, John, esq.

White, E. Stillingfleet, esq
White, George, esq.

White, Frederick B. m.d
Whitney, W. U. esq.

Whitwell, Francis, esq.

Wilks, G. A. F. m.d.

Williams, Allen, jun. esc
Williams, James, esq.

Williams, Charles J. B. m.d.
Williamson, David, esq.

Willis, Robert, m.d.

Wilson, J. A. m.d. .

Wilson, Erasmus, esq.

Wilson, Walter, esq.
Winstanley, 0. S. esq.

Woodfall, J. Ward, m.d.
Wordsworth, J. C. esq.

Wylie, John, esq. R.N.

Yeldam, Stephen, esq.

York, James, esq. .

Young, James Forbes, esq.
Young, Robert, m.d.

7, Wellclose square, St. George’s
Ditto

1, Upper York place, Fulham road
51, Russell square

New Kent road, 5, Bengal place
16, Henrietta street, Cavendish square
63, Guildford street

8, Grosvenor street
78, Connaught terrace
36, Strand

11, Dalston terrace
Stepney

35, Edward square, Kensington

50, Edge ware road

30, Nottingham place, Regent’s Park

11, College street, Westminster

Marylebone Infirmary

19, Hart street, Bloomsbury

St. Thomas’s street, Southwark

Dalston terrace, Dalston

7, Holies street, Cavendish square

26, Finsbury place

Dover street

Charlotte street, Fitzroy square
10, Everett street, Russell square
7, Poultry

Dean’s yard, Westminster
London Hospital

2, Aldermans walk, Bishopsgate

9, Stamford street, Blackfriars road
Maida hill

Upper Kennington lane, Vauxhall
Camberwell

Londonderry
Long Sutton, Wisleach
Loughborough, Woodhouse, nr,
Louth, Lincolnshire
Lowestoffe . Local Sec.

Lutterworth

Lydd, Kent .

Lynn Regis, Norfolk

Lytham
Macclesfield
Maidstone .

Miller, Joseph Ewing, m.d.
Ewen, Henry, esq.
Kennedy, James, m.d.
Banks, John Tatam, m.d.
Worthington, W. C., esq.
Prentice, John, esq.

. Buszard, Marston, esq.
Walton, William, esq.

. . Plomley, F. m.d.

. De Mierre, Albert, m.d.
Hunt, R. esq.

Whiting, Joseph B. esq.

. Houghton, Edward, esq.

. . Holland, Loton, esq.

Local Sec. Taylor, George, m.d.

Fry, Frederick, esq.

Oates, T. Y. esq.

Ottley, John, esq.

Prance, J. C. esq.

Sanders, Godfrey, esq.
Sibbald, William, M.D.
Whatman, James, esq.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

M ALTON’

Manchester

Local Sec.

Harden, Kent

Market Bosworth, Leicester

Market Weighton, Yorkshire
Marlborough . Local Sec.
Mayo .....
Melford, Long, Suffolk
Melton Mowbray
Melton, near Woodbridge, Suff.
Mexborough, Rotherham
Milton, Gravesend

Minchinhampton

Moneygall, Ireland
Montrose ....

Mossley, near Lees , Manchester
Much Hadham, Ware, Herts.
Musselburgh

Nailsworth, Gloucestershire

Wright, John James, m.d.

Bartliff, George, esq.

Exley, John, m.d.

Noble, Daniel, esq., Piccadilly
Aikenhead, John, m.d., Oxford street
Ainsworth, It. F. m.d.

Allen, Richard, esq.

Bardsley, James L. m.d. Chatham street

Barrow, Peter, esq., Clifford street

Barton, Samuel, esq., Moseley street

Beevor, William Watson, esq., 43, Gt. George st.

Birks, G. esq., Rosholme road

Black, James, m.d., St. Peter’s square

Crompton, Samuel, esq., Grosvenor street

Dorrington, Thomas, esq., Oxford road

Goodlad, William, esq., the late, 46, Mosely street

Greaves, George, esq. Hulme

Hardy, Frederick, m.d.

Henry, Mitchell, esq., Woodlands
Plolland, P. H. esq., Grosvenor street
Howard, R. B. m.d.

Hulme, J. D. m.d.

Kerr, H. W. esq., Store street
Mellor, Thomas, esq., Greenhays
Noble, D. esq. for Medical Society
Radford, Thomas, m.d., King street
Richmond, Thomas Goodier, esq.

Sattertliwaite, Michael, m.d., Grosvenor street
Turner, Thomas, esq., Mosely street
Walker, John, esq., Princes street
Watts, T. H. m.d., Dale street
Welsh, W. H. m.d., Eccles
Whitehead, James, esq., Oxford road
Wilkinson, M. A. E. m.d., George street
Williamson, W. C. esq. Upper Brook street
Windsor, John, esq., Piccadilly
Perrey, Robert, esq.

Evans, George, esq.

Greary, Henry, esq.

Lee, John, esq.

Jackson, Matthew, esq.

Maurice, David P. esq.

Clendinning, G. m.d.

Jones, Robert, esq.

Woodcock, Edward, esq.

Kirkman. — m.d.

Woollam, George, m.d.

Hawkins, Henry, m.d.

Ray, George, esq.

Smith, Daniel, esq.

Turner, Charles W. esq.

Bindon, John Vereker, m.d.

Lawrence, Samuel, esq.

Poole, R. m.d.

Steele, George, m.d.

Halkyard, Henry, esq.

Smith, Francis, esq.

Scott, Thomas Rennie, m.d.

Stokes, Thomas, esq.

Wells, James Henry, esq.

SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

Navan, County Meath .

Needham Market

New Abbey, Dumfries .
Newcastle Emlyn
Newcastle, Staffsh. . Loc. Sec.

Newcastle-on-Tyne . Loc. Sec.

Newmarket, Suffolk
Newmarket on Fergus, Clare
Newtyle

Northampton Local Sec.

Byron, — m.d.

Hudson, Alfred, esq.

Beck, Henry, esq.

Pennington, James, esq.

Morrison, — m.d.

Tliomas, James, esq.

Wilson, Edward, m.d.

Ball, Daniel, esq., Burslem
Dale, James, esq., Hanley
Davenport, Charles, esq., Tunstall
Seddon, Joshua, esq., Shelton
Spark, James, esq.

Turner, S. M. esq.

Glover, R. M., m.d.

Bulman, Darnell, m.d.

Cargill, John, m.d.

Carter, Charles, esq.

Clark, G. esq.

De Mey, W. m.d.

Dawson, W. esq.

Glover, R. M. m.d .for Medical and Suryical Society
Greenhow, Thomas M. esq.

Houseman, J. m.d.

Heath, H. esq.

Irons, George, esq.

Miller, A. esq.

Potter, Henry, esq.

Shiel, H. esq.

Taylor, H. esq.

Tulloch, B. esq.

White, D. B. esq.

Fairclotli, R. esq.

Evans, F. P. m.d.

Langlands, Robert, esq.

Faircloth, J. M. C. esq.

Bryan, J. M. esq.

Kerr, W. m.d.

Mash, J. esq., for Library of General Dispensary
Olive, George, esq.

Percival, W. jun. esq.

Robertson, A. m.d.

Terry, Henry, esq.

North Taunton . . . Lane, Charles H. Butler, esq.

Northcurry, Taunton . . Plowman, Thomas, esq.

Merchant, Robert, esq.

Norwich . . Local Sec. Dalrymple, Donald, esq.

Brownfield, John, esq.

Cooper, W. H. esq.

Copeman, E. esq., Coltishall
Crosse, J. G. esq.

Crosse, J. G. esq ., for Medical Library
Dalrymple, A., esq.

Gibson, George, esq.

Hull, Robert, m.d.

Johnson, John Goodwin, esq.

Lubbock, Edward, m.d.

Masters, Alfred, esq.

Scott, P. N. esq.

Spencer, Christopher Jobe Miles, esq.

Tawke, Arthur, m.d.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Norwood

Nottingham

. . Street, William, esq.

Local Sec. Hutchinson, Richard S. m.d.

Odiham
Ollerton
Orford, Suffolk

Eddison, Booth, esq.

Furness, — , esq.

Higginbottom, John, esq.

Martin, Thomas Duirs, esq.

Payne, Henry, m.d.

Stanger, George E. esq.

Storer, m.d.

Taylor, — m.d,

Taylor, Henry, m.d.

Williams, J. Calthorpe, m.d.

Wright, John, esq.

Wright, Thomas, m.d., Pelham street
. . . M'Intyre, John, m.d.

. . . Ward, William Squire, esq., Wellow hall

. Randall, Samuel, esq.

Osset, near Wakefield . . Collins, 0. W. esq.

OuNDLE
Over Darwen

Wiseman, William Wood, esq.
Cowdell, Charles, esq.

. Linton, Charles, esq.

. . . Wraith, S. H. esq.

Overton, Flintshire . . Parker, Henry, esq.

Oxford

. Local Sec. Greenhill, W. A., m.d.

Barlow, W. F. esq.

Freeborn, J. J. S. esq.

Gardiner, Henry, esq. b.a.

Jackson, Robert, m.d.

Kidd, John, m.d.

Ogle, James A. m.d.

Owen, Edwin R., esq.

Parker, Charles Lewis, m.a.

Rusher, William, esq.

Symonds, F. esq.

Wingfield, Charles, esq.

Wintle, F. T. m.d., Wameford Lunatic Asylum
Wootten, John, m.d.

Paisley

. . . M‘Kechinie, William, m.d.

M'Kinlay, D. m.d.

Torbet, John, esq.

Park, Aberdeenshire . . Kinloch, Alexander Low, m.d.

Penzance . . Local Sec. Willan, L. R., m.b. m.l.

Petersfield

Branwell, Richard, esq.
Lech, Edward, esq.
Montgomery, James, m.d.
Moyle, Richard, esq.

. . . Joliffe, George, esq.

Peskett, William, esq.
Whicher, James, esq.

Pinner, near Harrow, Midsx. West, George, esq.

Plymouth .

. Local Sec. Wells, Joseph, esq., 2, Sussex place
Armstrong, Robert, m.d.

Butter, John, m.d., f.r.s., f.l.s.

Derry, Samuel, esq.

Devonport Medical Society

Dickson, Sir David J. H. Knt., m.d., f.r.s., f.l.s.

Fuge, John, esq.

Hampton, J. S. esq., R.N.

Harper, Thomas, esq.

SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

Plymouth ( continued )

POCKLINGTON
Pontefract

PoNTERSBURY, Salop

Poole, Dorset

Portarlington, Queen’s Co.

Ireland ....
PORTSEA ....
Portsmouth
Prescot, Lancashire
Preston, Lane. Local Sec.

Ramsey ....
Ramsgate ....

Rathkeale, Ireland
Reading . . Local Sec.

Redbridge, Southampton
Redruth, Cornwall
Reigate . . Local Sec.

Retford . . Local Sec.

Richmond, Surrey

Ripley, Surrey

Rochdale . . Local Sec.

Rochester .

Romford

Romsey

Roscrea, Tipperary

Kingston, Charles, m.d.

Knight, H. esq.

Mackay, — m.d. R.N.

Magrath, Sir George, m.d.

Miller, Thomas, esq., Royal Marine Division
Molesworth, — m.d.

Proctor, George, esq.

Hornby, Thomas, esq.

Simpson, J. H. esq. m.b.

Oxley, Robert, m.d.

Eddowes, William, esq.

Lacey, Edward, esq.

Salter, Thomas, esq.

Tabuter, — esq.

Scott, Edward J. m.d.

Engledue, N.C. m.d.

Welsby, J. esq.

Brown, Robert, esq., Winekley square
Dandy, C. esq.

Harrison, James, esq.

Heslop, Ralph C., m.d.

Norris, J. H., m.d.

Spencer, Lawrence, esq.

Wilson, R. esq.

Bates, C. P. esq.

Curling, Henry, esq.

Snowden, G. S. esq.

Patterson, Charles, m.d.

Walford, T. L. esq ., for Reading Med. Library
Cowan, Charles, m.d.

Maurice, T. B. esq.

May, George, esq.

Woodhouse, R. J. m.d.

Warwick, Richard, esq.

Micliell, Samuel Vincent Boyce, esq.

Martin, Thomas, esq.

Steele, John, esq.

Hall, J. C. m.d.

Dowler, Thomas, m.d.

Grant, George, m.d.

White, William Todd, esq.

Gall, A. C., esq.

Bower, Robert, esq.

Barker, Robert, esq.

Beal, William John, esq.

Buckley, Nathaniel, m.d.

Coates, John, esq.

Crowther, Robert, esq.

Coventry, Alexander, esq.

Sellers, William Burdett, esq.

Taylor, Charles Crimes, esq.

Wood, Abraham, esq.

Ely, G. E., m.d.

Jacob, P. W. esq.

Martin, A., m.d. Starr hill
Butler, Chai-les, esq.

Beddome, John R. m.d.

Buckell, Francis, esq.

Kingsley, W. m.d., Valley House

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Rotherham

Rugby ....

Ruthin

Ryde, Isle of Wight
Sabden, near Blackburn
Saffron Walden, Essex
Salford, Manchester .

Salisbury

Rothesay . . Local Sec. Maclachlan, Thomas, m d.

Ford, Charles* m.d.

Gibson, Thomas, m.d.

Orr, James, m.d.

Shearman, E. J., m d.

Paxton, James, m.d.

Jones, Thomas, esq.

Phene, H. esq.

Hindle, Richard, esq. b.m.

Jones, Edgar, esq.

Brownbill, Thomas F. esq.
Gardom, George, esq.

Jepson, William, m.d.

Middleton, Thomas, esq.
Southam, George, esq.

Hewson, — m.d.

Moore, Tlios. R., esq.

Sandford, near Crediton, Devon Stevens, T. II. esq.

Sandgate, Kent . . . Clark, Thomas, esq.

George, — m.d.

Murchison, Simon, esq.

. . Brown, W. W. esq.

Local Sec. Dunn, John Travis, m.b.

Cross, William, esq.

Ilebden, John, esq.

Smart, John C., m.d.

Taylor, William, esq., Queen street
Stamp, Thomas, esq.

Cann, Thomas, esq.

Ruddock, — esq.

Burkitt, John, esq.

Fothergill, — jun., esq.

Local Sec. Burrow, Thomas D., esq.
Harrison, Edward, esq.

. Crichton, Sir Alexander, m.d.
Shaldon, nr. Teignmouth, Devon Scarbrough, John L. esq.
Sheffield . . Local Sec. Branson, Ferguson, m.d.

De Bartolome, Martin M. m.d.
Favell, Charles Fox, m.d.

Gleadall, James, esq.

Harwood, Henry Paul, m.d.
Holland, George Calvert, m.d.
Jackson, William, esq.

Jackson, Henry, esq.

Martin, Edward, esq.

Overend, Wilson, esq.

Parker, Samuel, esq.

Porter, John Taylor, esq.

Ray, James, esq.

Reedall, Gabriel, esq.

Roper, Robert, esq.

Skinner, William, esq.

Thomas, Henry, esq.

Thompson, Edward, esq.
Thompson, Corden, m.d.

Turton, George, esq.

Wild, James, esq.

Sherborne, Dorset . . Highmore, William, esq.

Shipley, Derbyshire . . Beardsley, Amos, esq.

Sarrow

Scarborough

Seaton Carew, Durham
Seaton, Devonshire
Sedgefield, Durham .
Selby, Yorkshire .

Settle, Yorkshire .
Seven Oaks, Kent

SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

Shrewsbury
Sidmouth

Sittingbourne, Kent

Skerries

Soham, Cambridgeshire .
Sonning

Southam, Warwickshire
Southampton . Local Sec.

Local Sec. Wood, Samuel, esq.

. Cullen, William H. m.d.
Grayling, John esq.

Imlach, Henry, m.d.

Imlach, Charles, m.d., E.I.C.S.
Thornhill, — m.d.

Addison, William, esq.

Taylor, James, esq.

Smith, H. L., esq.

George, G. T. esq.

Buckle, II. Kemp, esq.

Bullar, William, m.d.

Clarke, Henry, m.d.

Corfe, G. B. esq.

Dayman, Henry, esq.

Fowler, R. S. esq.

Girdlestone, Henry, esq.
Orsborne, Thomas, esq.

Purdy, Charles, esq.

Sabine, W. Townsend, esq.
Spranger, Stephen, esq.

Stace, I. Alfred, esq.

Steed, G. m.d.

Stone, Daniel, esq.

Ward, Thomas, esq.

Wihlin, John, esq.

Williams, W. 0. m.d.

Wood, G. E. Wilmot, m.d.

Southborough, Tunbridge IFe&Colebrooke, H. m.d.

Southend, Essex
Southery, Downham Market,
Norfolk ....
South Hetton, Durham
South Petherton
South Shields

Warwick, W. R. esq.

Spalding
St. Albans .
St. Andrews

St. Asaph
St. Neots
Staines
Stalybridge
Stamford

Staplehurst, near Maidstone

Staveley, near Chesterfield .
Stevenage, Herts.

Steyning ....
Stirling . . Local Sec,

Sayle, George, esq.

Bishop, William, esq.

. Norris, Henry, esq.

. . Kennedy, S. J. esq.

Robson, — • esq.

Toshach, James, esq.

Wallis, Robert, esq.

. . Cammack, Thomas, m.d.

. . Lipscomb, John T. N. m.d.

Local Sec. Reid, John, m.d.

Adamson, John, m.d.

Smith, Maidstone, m.d.

University Library
Roberts, O. m.d.

Sole, William, esq.

Simpson, John Nixon, esq.

Barker, D. esq.

Barber, Edward, esq.

Brown, Alexander R. m.d.

Adams, Richard Dering, esq.

Joy, Henry William, esq.

France, Edward, esq.

Cooper, George, esq.

Trew, Richard N. esq., Chantry House
Forrest, William II. esq.

Beath, Andrew, esq.

Johnston, Alexander, esq.

Moodie, Alexander L. esq.

Smith, John, esq., Denny

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Stockport, Cheshire . . Flint, Richard, esq.

Turner, George, m.d.

Stockton-on-Tees Local Sec. Keenlyside, R. H. m.d.

Stokesley ....
Stonehouse, Gloucestershire
Stonehouse, Devon
Stowmarket

Dixon, Henry, esq.

Foss, William, esq.

Longbotham, Jonathan, esq., Greatham
Potts, W. R. esq., Norton
Richardson, William, esq.

Richmond, John Weems, esq.

Trotter, Charles, esq.

Whiteside, J. H. m.d.

Crummy, F. L. esq.

Holbrow, Anthony, esq.

Burrows, J. esq.

Bree, C. R. esq.

Beddingfield, — m.d.

Stradbroke

Freeman, Spencer, esq.
Snape, Richard Forth, esq.
Coveney, James H. esq.
Mayhew, G. esq.

Stratford-on-Avon .

Burman, Thomas Southam, esq.
Rice, David, esq.

Thomson, Thomas, m.d.

Strood, near Rochester, Kent

Brown, J. esq.

Stroud, Glouc. . Local Sec. Gooch, William Henry, m.d.

Armstrong, William, esq.

Goddard, Charles, esq.

Harris, C. Mears, esq., Moreton Valence
Jones, John Taylor, esq., R.N.

Uthwatt, Edolph. Andrews, esq.
Summerhill, Tenterden, Kent Canliam, J. A. esq.

Sunderland . Local Sec. Brown, J. m.d.

Sutton, Surrey
Sutton on Trent
Swaffham, Norfolk

Bowman, — m.d.

Cay, Charles Vidler, esq.
Dodd, William, esq.
Maling, E. Haygarth, esq.
Parker, Thomas, esq.
Smith, James, esq.
Wilkinson, George, esq.
Clark, Willington, esq.
Gilby, Charles Otter, esq.
Rose, Caleb, esq.

Tadcaster, Yorkshire . . Upton, Thomas S. esq.

Taunton . . Local Sec. Kinglake, Hamilton, m.d.

Teignmouth

Tenbury . . . .

Alford, Richard, esq.

Alford, Henry, esq.

Cornish, C. H. esq.

Gillett, Edward William, esq.
Higgins, C. H. esq.

Kelly, William, m.d.

Phippen, Arthur, esq., Widmore
Rossiter, F. W. esq.

Siddon, Henry, esq.

Woodford, F. H. m.d.

Walker, E. Dering, m.d.

Davis, Henry, esq.

Thompson, F. F. esq.

Tenby, South Wales
Tenterden, Kent .

Falconer, R. W. m.d,
Newington, — esq.
Saunders, E. D. esq.

SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

Tetbury ....

Tewkesbury

Thame, Oxon

Thorp, near Norwich .

Thetford, Norfolk

Thirsk ....

Thornbury, Gloucestershire .
Thorn Hill, Dumfries .

Thrapston, Nothampton
Tintern, near Chepstow
Tipton ....
Tollerton, near Easinywold,
Yorks. ....
Tonbridge

Tonbridge Wells. Local Sec.

Torbolton, Ayrshire .
Torhuay

Totness, Devon .

Tottenham ....
Tramore, Waterford .
Tring, Herts.

Timsbury, near Bath .
Trowbridge

Truro . . . Local Sec.

Tyldesley, near Manchester
Tynemouth . . . .

Upton Woodside, Cheshire .
Uxbridge .

Uttoxeter .

Ventnor .

Wakefield .

Wakering, Great Essex
Walmer .

Walsall, nr. Birmingham

Walton-on-Thames
Watton, Herts

Williams, John Brooks, esq.

Dick, J. Paris, m.d.

Lupton, Harry, esq.

Nells, Robert John, esq.

Baily, Henry, esq.

Hutton, Jno. esq.

Ryot, William H. m.d.

Jones, James, esq.

Grierson, T. B. esq.

Russell, — m.d.

Leete, John Griffith, esq.

Audland, John, esq.

Underhill, William, esq.

Bird, George, esq.

West, W. J. esq.

Powell, Henry, m.d., Monson place
Gream, R. Righton, esq.

Hargraves, Isaac, esq.

Sharp, J. esq.

Sopwith, H. L. esq.

Wilmot, J. B. m.d .,for Medical Library
Yate, Thomas, esq.

Gibson, John, esq.

Madden, William H. m.d.

Statham, S. F. esq.

Tetley, James, m.d.

Walker, John, esq. Cliff House
Barry, John Milner, m.d.

Cheesewright, William, esq., Hartington
Derry, John, esq.

Gillard, Wm. esq.

Moon, William, esq.

Waters, George A. esq.

Pope, Edward, esq.

Crang, James, esq.

Taylor, Christopher, esq.

Winn, J. M. m.d.

Bull, H. esq., for Comivall Infirmary
Bullmore, William, esq.

Kirkness, J. L. esq.

Moyle, John, esq., Chasewater
Michell, S. esq.

Williams, R. esq.

Manley, William Eckersby, esq.

Greenhow, E. H. esq.

Ililbers, J. G., esq.

Stilwell, James, esq.

Chapman, James, esq.

Martin, G. A. m.d.

Martin, J. B. esq.

Millner, Wm. Ralph, esq.

Naylor, George Fred., esq., Lunatic Asylum
Miller, C. esq.

M'Arthur, Duncan, m.d.

Duncalfe, H. esq.

Edwards, F. A. esq.

Moore, David Smith, esq.

Mott, Charles, esq.

Dalgleisli, William, esq.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Wareham, Dorset

Warminster, Wilts
Warrington

Local Sec.

Warwick ....

Wateringbury .

Watford, Herts .
Weaverthorpe, near Malt on
Wellington, Salop
Wells, Norfolk . Loc. Sec.

Wells, Somerset .

Welwyn, Herts .

Wem

West Auckland, Durham .
West Bromwich .

West Meon, Bishop Waltham

Westerham
Weston-super-Mare .
Weyhill, near Andover

Whitby, York
Whitehaven

Whitwell, near Welwyn, Herts.

WlMBORNE ....

Winchester . Local Sec.

Windsor

Local Sec.

Winterton, near Brigg, Line.
Wirksworth

WlSBEACH ....

Wisborough Green
Woburn, Beds.

Wolverhampton . Local Sec.

Woodbridge, East Soliam
Woolwich . . Local Sec.

Cope, Joseph Staines, esq.

Flower, Frederick, esq.

Vicarv, George, esq.

Hardy, G. W., esq., Bewsey street
Davies, John, m.d.

Hunt, William, esq.

Kendrick, Janies, m.d.

Olcell, William, esq.

Robson, John, esq.

Sharp, John, esq.

Wilson, Henry, esq., Runcorn
Blenkinsop, H. esq.

Hyde, F. 0. esq.

Gould, FI. Merton, esq.

Ward, Thomas A. esq.

Dowsland, Francis M. esq.

Webb, Mathew, esq.

Young, James, esq.

Rump, Hugh, esq.

Ward, Marmaduke Philip Smith, esq.
Lindoe, R. F. m.d.

Clifton, Anthony, esq.

Gwynn, S. S. esq.

Gwynn, Edward, esq.

Kilburne, John, esq.

Dickinson, W. B. m.d.

Rogers, Francis, esq.

Rogers, Joseph, esq.

Thompson, Charles M. esq.

Burke, W. M. esq.

Ryder, Henry, esq.

Smith, John, esq.

Dowson, John, m.d.

Churchill, Jno. esq. for Library.
King, R. F. esq.

Wilson, Joseph, m.d.

. Butler, Thomas, esq.

Rowe, John, esq.

White, Arthur, m.d.

Butler, Frederick, esq.

Crawford, Andrew, m.d.

Wickham, W. John, esq.

Maitland, Charles, m.d.
Holdemess, Wm. Brown, esq.

Soley, T. A. esq., Thames street
Sadler, B. esq.

Poyser, Thomas, esq.

England, W. m.d.

Ewen, Henry, esq., Long Sutton
Boxall, Henry, esq.

Parker, T. esq.

Dehane, Edward Francis, esq.
Griffith, Samuel Hallett, esq.

Gross, Edward, esq.

Denne, William, esq.

Allinson, John Hiram, esq.

Bisshipp, James, esq.

Bossy, Francis, m.d.

Butler, John, esq.

Caryl, William Asylum, esq.

SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

Woolwich ( continued ) . . Dakin, William, esq.

Farr, George, esq.

Gant, Robert, esq.

Halifax, — m.d.

Stuart, William, esq.

Turner, James Samuel, esq.
Webb, Sir John

Worcester . . Local Sec. Streeten, Robt. J. N. m.d.

Addison, William, esq., Malvern
Day, Edmund, esq.

Hastings, Charles, m.d.

Ilill, Richard, esq.

Jones, Walter, esq.

Malden, Jonas, m.d.

Nash, James, m.d.

Sheppard, James P. esq.

Turley, Edward A. esq.

Wrenbury, near Namptwich,
Cheshire . . . .

Wrexham . . . .

Wroth am, Kent .

Wycombe, Bucks .

Yalding, near Maidstone
Yatton, near Bristol
Yarmouth, Isle of Wight
York Town, Bagshot, Surrey

York

Youghall, Co. Cork

Thomson, David P. m.d.

Griffith, Thomas Taylor, esq.

Rowland, William, esq.

Williams, Edward, esq., Holt street
Kent, T. esq.

Rose, William, jun. esq.

Turner, John, esq.

Pout, Henry, esq.

Lang, J. L. esq.

Hollis, Charles Wise, m.d.

Davies, William, esq.

Simpson, Frederick, esq.

Local Sec. Laycock, Thomas, m.d.

Alderson, Septimus R. esq., Lunatic Asylum
Alderson, Richard R. esq.

Allen, Edmund T. esq.

Allen, Edward, esq.

Allen, James, esq.

Barker, Thomas H. esq.

Brunton, George, esq.

Dodsworth, Benjamin, esq.

Goldie, George, m.d.

Hodgson, Henry B. esq., Acomb House
Husband, William D. esq.

Keyworth, Henry, esq.

Library of York County Hospital
Matterson, William, jun. esq.

Morris, Beverley R. m.d.

Proctor, William, esq. County Hospital
Reed, William, esq.

Russell, Henry, esq.

Scawin, William, esq.

Shann, George, m.d.

Simpson, Thomas, m.d.

Swineard, Frederick, esq.

Thomas, Richard, esq.

Thurnam, John, m.d., The Retreat
Walker, T. Kaye Lambe, esq.

Williams, Caleb, esq.

. Desmond, John, m.d.

LIST OF MEMBERS

FOREIGN LIST.

Allen, A. M. m.d.

Indiana

Alexander, J. B. m.d.

Indiana

Babington, W. F. esq.

Bombay

Bee, — m.d.

Tyro, Ohio

Beck, J. R. m.d. Local Sec.

Albany

Bellingham, Win. FJenry, m.d.

Pisa

Boerstler, — m.d.

Lancaster, Ohio

Bowen, W. S. esq.

New York

Boyle, Alexander, m.d. .

St. John’s, New Brunswick

Branham, R. H. m.d.

Eatontou, Georgia

Brooks, J. W. m.d.

Norwich

Burns, Robert, m.d.

Frankford, Pennsylvania

Carpenter, — m.d.

Lankaster, Pennsylvania

Carter, — m.d.

Montreal

Chamberlaine, S. m.d.

Baltimore, Maryland

Cbermside, Sir Robert, m.d. .

Paris

Cheyne, — m.d.

Brizata, Columbia

for Pennsylvania Hospital

Clapp, — esq.

Curwen, — m.d.

Philadelphia

Dandridge, — m.d.

Cincinnati, Ohio

Downie, Sir Alexander, m.d. .

Frankfort-on-Maine

Duncan, Edward, esq.

Winchester, Kentucky

Dunglison, Robley, m.d. L. Sec.

Philadelphia

Ermerins, — m.d.

Groningen

Esby, William, esq.

Washington

Fox, M.D.

Georgia Medical Society.

Philadelphia

Giudice, Vittorio, m.d. .

Como

Green, H. m.d.

New York

Hart, Samuel, esq.

Charleston

Hay, Isaac, m.d.

Philadelphia

Hecker, J. F. C. m.d.

Berlin

Hodge, — m.d.

Philadelphia

Huxton, — m.d.

Philadelphia

Innes, Charles, m.d.

Easton, Pennsylvania

Johnstone, John M. esq.

Georgetown, Demerara

Jones, — m.d.

King, Charles R. m.d.

Philadelphia

Lajus, — m.d.

Philadelphia

La Roache, — m.d.

Philadelphia

Lea and Blanchard

Philadelphia

Lee, Charles, m.d. Local Sec.

New York

Louis, P. C. A. m.d.

Paris

Maclean, George, m.d.

New York

Macneven, W. H. m.d. .

New York

Macready, B. M. esq.

New York

M'Pheeters, Wm. M. m.d.

St. Louis, Missouri
Philadelphia

Meigs, — m.d.

MUls, Maddison, m.d.

New York

MiUs, Charles S. esq.

Richmond, Virginia

Mitchell, — m.d.

Philadelphia

Moore, J. Wilson, m.d. .

for College of Physicians, Philadelphia

SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

Morris, Casper, m.d'.

Philadelphia

Mower, T. G. esq.
Miitter, J. m.d.

Philadelphia

M'Vicar, John Augustus, m.d.

New York

Neville, — m.d.

Hamburgh

New York Hospital
Norris, G. W. m.d.
Oliver, Joseph, esq.

Philadelphia

New York

Oppenheim, F. C. m.d. .

Hamburgh

Overstreet, James, esq. .

Washington

Pancoast, — m.d.

Philadelphia

Parker, W. esq.

New York

Patterson, H. S. m.d.

Philadelphia

Pepper, W. m.d.

Philadelphia

Perry, H. S. m.d. .

Madeira

Roby, Joseph, m.d.

Maryland

Ross, Archibald Colquhoun, m.d.

Madeira

Rutherford, Henry Charles, m.d.

Caen, Normandy

Salter, Richard Henry, m.d. .

Boston

Sands, A. B. m.d.

New York

Sargent, D. F. m.d.

Philadelphia

Sewall, Thomas, m.d. Loc. Sec.

Washington

Sieveking, Edward, m.d.

Hamburgh

Stewardson, — m.d.

Philadelphia

Stille, Alfred, m.d.

Philadelphia

Stilhi, Moreton, m.d.

Philadelphia

Surgeon-General, United States.
Taylor, Isaac E. m.d.

New York

Taylor, Isaac E. m.d.

New York

Teulan, W. F. esq.

Halifax, N.S.

Tomes, Robert, m.d.

New York

Tripler, Charles S. esq.
Wallace, Ellerslie, m.d. .
Washington, James A. m.d.

Pennsylvania

New York

Wiley and Putnam, Messrs.

New York

Wood, G. B. m.d.

Philadelphia

Wood, Stephen, m.d.

New York

*** Although considerable pains have been taken to render this list as correct as
possible, it i3 feared that some errors -will be found. Of these the Secretary will he
glad to receive information, in order that they may be corrected in future lists.

O. AND J. ADLARD

, PRINTERS, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.

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