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THEODORE JASPER, A.M. M.D

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Jacob H, Studer, Publisher

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ROBERT CLARKE & CO
68 WEST FOURTH STREET

Cc. D. CAZENOVE

15 BEAUFORT BUILDINGS, STRAND

CINCINNATI, O LONDON

iintered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, by JAcop H, STUDER, in the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.

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PUBLISHER’S CARD.

To meet a common want, and to oratify a universal taste, the undersigned takes pleasure in placing before the public
a work containing beautifully colored illustrations and descriptions of over six hundred different species of birds, comprising
all that are known to exist on this Continent, including a popular account of their habits and characteristics, and embracing -
the general outlines of the science of Ornithology with the classification or division of birds into classes, orders, groups,

and families, fully describing each of these in detail.

The drawings for the work are made from life, and uniformly reduced to one-quarter the natural size, by THEropor#
Jasper, A. M., M. D., an Artist and a Naturalist, who has made the study of Ornithology the business of his life.

In addition to the illustrations of over six hundred different species of birds, the work contains, in the part devoted
to the science of Ornithology, drawings of—First,,the skeleton of a bird; second, a bird’s wing; third, the position and
form of the feathers ; fourth, ‘ke terminology of a bird; fifth, about forty plates illustrating different groups of birds.

The material for the work is taken from notes made by Dr. Jasper from actual personal observation in fields and
forests, continued through long series of years, and from standard works on the general science of Ornithology, or on

some of its departments.

A complete account of the birds of North America, including Mexico and Central America, is to be found in this
work, the classification being so arranged as to agree with the most modern and approved systems, excluding all unnecessary

technicalities and irrelevant matter.

There is no more attractive study than Ornithology, the department of zoology which treats of the structure, habits,
and classification of birds. The graceful forms, movements, and habits of the feathered tribes have been celebrated in all
ages by poets and artists, and have furnished the instructors of mankind with lessons of wisdom. But this admiration is
not confined to the poet, the artist, or the sage; it is whiversal. Wherever human beings are found, the forms, the
plumage, the songs, the migrations, the loves and contests of birds awaken curiosity and wonder. No similar work, con-
taining so many beautiful and faithful pictures of living birds, and so much descriptive and scientific information, is now

extant, or has ever been published in this or any other country.

The work is intended to be bound into two volumes. Two frontispiece plates are furnished to each subscriber for
that purpose. ‘There are also, at the close of each volume, an index and an exposition of the technical terms used in the

work.

JACOB H. STUDER.

Cotumsus, Ouro, November 1, 1873.

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THE

BirDS OF NortH AMERICA.

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Popular History.

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PLATE I.

The White-headed or Bald Eagle. (Falco Leucocephalus.)

Tuis noble bird being the adopted emblem of our beloved Re- —

public, I introduce him first to the kind reader; and he is indeed
_ fully entitled to a particular notice, as he is the most beautiful
of his tribe in North America.

The Bald Eagle has long been known to naturalists, being com-
mon to both Continents, and has occasionally been found in very
high northern latitudes, as well as near the borders of the torrid
zone, Chiefly in the vicinity of the sea or on the ‘shores and cliffs
of lakes and large rivers. His food consists chiefly of fish, of
which he seems to be very fond, but he will not refuse, when
driven by hunger, to regale himself on a lamb or young pig; he
will even, ‘‘in hard times,” snatch from a vulture the carrion on
which he is feeding.

The ardor and energy of the Bald Eagle might awaken a full
share of deep interest, were they not associated with so much
robbery and wanton exercise of power, for he habitually despoils
the Osprey or Fish-hawk of his prey. Of the singular manner in
which he does this, Alexander Wilson, in his work on North
American birds, says: : |

‘¢ Elevated on a high dead limb of some gigantic tree, that com-
mands a wide view of the neighboring shore and ocean, he seems

calmly to contemplate the motions of the various feathered tribes
that pursue their busy avocations below—the snow-white Gulls,
slowly winnowing the air; the busy Tring (Sandpipers ) coursing
along the sands; trains of Ducks, streaming over the surface ; silent
and watchful Cranes, intent and wading; clamorous Crows, and
all the winged multitudes that subsist by the bounty of this vast
liquid magazine of nature. High over all these hovers one whose
action instantly arrests his whole attention. By his wide curvature
of wing and sudden suspension in the air, he knows him to be the
Fish-hawk, settling over some devoted victim of the deep. His
eye kindles at the sight, and balancing himself with half-opened
wings on the branch, he watches the result. Down, rapid as an
arrow from heaven, descends the distant object of his attention,
the roar of his wings reaching the ear, as it disappears in the deep,
making the surges foam around. At this moment, the eager looks
of the eagle are all ardor, and leveling his neck for flight, he sees
the Fish-hawk once more emerge struggling with his prey and
mounting in the air with screams of exultation. These are the
signals for our hero, who, launching into the air, instantly gives
chase, and soon gains on the Fish-hawk; each exerts his utmost
to mount above the other, displaying in these rencounters the most
elegant and sublime aerial evolutions. The unincumbered Eagle
rapidly advances, and is just at the point of reaching his opponent,
when, with a sudden scream, probably of despair and honest exe-
cration, the latter drops his fish; the Eagle, poising himself for a
moment, as if to take a more certain aim, descends like a whirl-
wind, snatches it in his grasp ere it reaches the water, and bears
his ill-gotten booty silently to the woods.”

Dr. Franklin is rather severe on this emblem of our National
Union. He says:

‘¢ For my part, I wish the Bald Eagle had not been chosen as
the representative of our country. He is a bird of bad moral
character ; he does not get his living honestly. You may have seen
him perched upon some dead tree, where, too lazy to fish for him-
self, he watches for the labors of the Fishing-hawk, and when
that diligent bird has at length taken a fish, and is bearing it to his
nest for the support of his mate and young ones, the Bald Eagle
pursues him, and takes it from him. With all this injustice,
he is never in good case, but like those among men who live by
sharping and robbing, he is generally poor, and very often lousy.
Besides, he is a rank coward; the little King-bird, not bigger than
a sparrow, attacks him boldly, and drives him out of the district.
He is, therefore, by no means a proper emblem for the brave and
honest Cincinnati of America, who have driven out all the King-
birds from our country, though exactly fitted for the order of
knights which the French call Chevaliers d’Industrie.”

The Falls of Niagara are one of his favorite haunts, on account
of the fish caught there, and the attraction presented by the nu-
merous remains of squirrels, deer, and other animals, which perish
in attempting to cross the river above the cataract.

The nest of this species is generally fixed on a very large and
lofty tree, often in a swamp or morass, and difficult to aeceate It
is formed of large sticks, sods, earthy rubbish, hay, corn-stalks,
rushes, moss, etc., and contains, in due time, two eggs of about
the size of a goose egg and of a bluish white color. The young
are at first covered with a whitish or cream-colored down and have
light bluish eyes. This cream color changes gradually into a
bluish gray ; as the development of the feathers advances, the light

_ blue eyes turn by degrees to a dark hazel brown; when full grown,

they are covered wholly with lighter or darker brown feathers, un-
til after the third year, when the white of the head and tail grad-
ually appears; at the end of the fourth year he is perfect and of an
appearance as seen on our plate, his eyes having changed to a
bright straw color.

The Bald Eagle is three feet long, and measures from tip to tip
of the wing about seven feet. The conformation of the wing is
admirably adapted for the support of so large a bird; it measures
two feet in breadth on the greater quills and sixteen inches on the
lesser ;- the larger primaries are about twenty inches in length and
upward of one inch in circumference where they enter into the
skin; the broadest secondaries are three inches in breadth across
the vane; the scapulars are very large and broad, spreading from
the back to the wing, to prevent the air from passing through.
Another range of broad flat feathers, from three to ten inches long,
extends from the lower part of the breast to the wing below for the
same purpose, and between these lies a deep triangular cavity ; the

. thighs are remarkably thick, strong, and muscular, covered with

long feathers pointing backward. The legs are half covered be-
low the tarsal joint; the soles of the feet are rough and warty.
The male is generally three inches shorter than the female; the
white on the head and tail is duller, and the whole appearance less
formidable; the brown plumage is lighter, and the bird himself is
less daring than the female, a circumstance common to all birds of

prey.

2 W OODPECKER—NUTHATCH.
eee ee a ee Ee 8 Ee ES eee

PLATE II.

This plate represents a scene which I witnessed, resting near
a patch of woods, between the Scioto river and the canal, about
two miles and a half south of Columbus, Ohio, on one of my
shooting excursions in the month of May.

A pair of Red-headed Woodpeckers had a nest in the old stump
of a decayed tree; the entrance to it undoubtedly had been made
by the Yellow Hammer, as the size of it indicated, it being consid-
erably larger than the Red-heads usually make. I had pre-
viously examined this nest; there were four eggs in it at the time.
At first a male Yellow Hammer tried his best to force an entrance,
but was effectually repulsed by the Red-heads. The female Yel-
low Hammer was during this time most indolently sitting on an-
other stump of a broken tree, seeming not to take any interest in
the doings of her mate; but some time after, perhaps pressed by
the necessity of laying her egg, she too took an active part against
the Red-heads, and the united strength of both finally overpowered
them, and they had to abandon their nest and eggs to the Yel-
low Hammers, who, in their turn, after having thrown out the eggs
of the Red-heads, installed themselves in the nest.

The two Nuthatches which we see in the plate were led only by
curiosity ; they merely wanted to see what the racket was about.

The Gold-winged Woodpecker. (P2cus Auratus.)

Fig. 1, The male. Fig. 2, The female.

Though this species, generally speaking, is migratory, yet they
often remain north during the whole winter. They inhabit the
continent of North America from Hudson’s Bay to Georgia ; they
have even been found on the northwest coast of the continent.
They generally arrive at Hudson’s Bay in-the middle of April, and
leave in September. The natives there call them Ou-thee-quan-
nor-ow, from the golden color of their shafts, and the lower side
of the wings. This bird has numerous provincial appellations in
the States of the Union, such as ‘‘ High-hole,” from the situation
of its nest, and ‘‘ Hittucks,” «*‘ Yucker,” ‘‘ Piut,” ‘* Flicker,” «* Yel-
low Hammer,” etc. Most of these names have probably originated
from a fancied resemblance of its notes to the sound of the words;
for the most common cry of the Gold-winged Woodpecker con-
sists of two notes or syllables, often repeated, which, by the help
of the hearer’s imagination, may seem to resemble any of them.

The Gold-winged Woodpecker builds his nest about the middle
of April, usually in the hollow body or branch of a tree, at con-
siderable height above the ground, but not always, for I found the
nest of one in an apple tree, less than three feet above the ground.
The female lays five or six white, almost transparent eggs, very
thick at one end and tapering suddenly toward the other; the
young leave the nest early, climbing to the higher branches, where
they are fed by the parents. Their plumage, in its color and mark-
ings, resembles that of the parent birds, with the exception that the
colors are less brilliant, and the dots appear less frequently on the
breasts of the young than on those of the old birds. The food va-
ries according to seasons, and consists of worms, berries, seeds,
Indian corn, etc., and this is perhaps the reason why farmers de-
stroy this bird whenever they have a chance.

Formerly he was classed by many of the ornithologists among
the Cuckoos, which was an absurdity, as he has no resemblance
to them. The tongue is constructed like that. of all the Wood-
peckers, and he has no resemblance to the Cuckoo, except that
two of his toes are placed before and two behind; he not only
alights on the branches of a tree, but most frequently on the trunk,
on which he will climb up or down or spirally around it, just as
his fancy may be; when on the ground, he hops; his flesh is in
quite good esteem.

The Red-headed Woodpecker. (Pecus Erythrocephalus.)

Fig. 3, The male. Fig. 4, The female.

This bird is more universally known than any other bird in
North America. His plumage, red, white, and black, glossed
with violet, added to his numbers and his peculiar fondness for
hovering along the fences, is so very notorious that almost every-
body is acquainted with him. His food consists chiefly of insects,
of which he destroys a large quantity daily; but he is also very
fond of cherries, pears, sweet apples, and other fruit; wherever
there is a tree covered with ripe cherries, you may see him busy
among the branches; in passing an orchard, you may easily know
where to find the earliest and sweetest apples, by observing those
trees on or near which the Red-head is skulking, for he is an ex-
cellent connoisseur of good fruit; when alarmed on such occasions,
he seizes a capital one, by sticking his open bill into it, and bears
it off to the woods. He also likes Indian corn, when in its rich,
succulent, milky state, opening with great eagerness a passage
through the numerous folds of the husk. The girdled, or dead-
ened timber, so common among corn-fields, is his favorite re-
treat, whence he sallies out to make his depredations. He is of
a very gay and frolicsome disposition; half a dozen are frequently
seen diving and vociferating around the dead high hmbs of some
large tree, pursuing and playing with each other, amusing the
passenger with their gambols. The cry of the Red-headed Wood-
pecker is shrill and lively, and resembles very much the cry of the
tree-frog.

Farmers generally hate and destroy him whenever they have a
chance; but whether this is just or not I will leave to them. I
have above remarked that he also destroys thousands and thou-
sands of destructive insects and their larve, and therefore I would
say to the farmer, in the benevolent language of the Scriptures, not
to ** muzzle the mouth of the ox that treadeth out the corn;” and
the same liberality should be extended to this useful bird that forms
so powerful a defense against the inroads of many millions of de-
structive vermin.

Properly speaking, the Red-headed Woodpecker is a bird of
passage. They inhabit North America from Canada to the Gulf
of Mexico, and have also been found on the northwestern coast.
About the middle of May they construct their nests, which they
form in the body or large limbs of trees, taking in no materials,
but smoothing the nests to the proper shape and size. The female
lays six eggs of a pure white, and the young make their appear-
ance about the 20th of June. During the first season, the head
and neck of the young birds are blackish gray, the white on the
Wing is also spotted with black, but in the succeeding spring they
receive their perfect plumage, as on our plate. The male and
female differ in nothing except that the female is a trifle smaller.

The White-breasted, Black-capped Nuthatch. (Sz¢¢a Carolénensz?s.)
Fig. 5, The male. Fig. 6, The female.

The White-breasted Nuthatch is common almost everywhere in
our woods and may be known at a distance by his peculiar note—
quank, quank—frequently repeated, as he moves up and down in
spiral circles, around the body and larger branches of the tree,
probing behind the thin, scaly bark, shelling off considerable
pieces of it in search of spiders or other insects and their larve.
He rests and roosts with his head downward, and appears to pos-
sess an uncommon degree of curiosity. Frequently I have amused
myself, when in the woods, imitating the voice of a bird in distress,
to see who would be the first to appear, and invariably the Nuthatch
made his appearance first to see what was the matter. Frequently
he will descend very silently within a few feet of the root of the
tree where you happen to stand, stopping head downward, stretch-
ing out his neck in a horizontal position, as if to reconnoiter your
appearance, and after several minutes of silent observation,

WHITE OR WHOOPING CRANE—RAIL. 3

wheeling round, he again ascends with fresh activity, piping his
‘¢quank, quank,” as before. He is strangely attached to his native
forests and seldom forsakes them ; amidst the rigors of the severest
winter weather his lively quank, quank is heard in the bleak and
leafless woods. Sometimes the rain, freezing as it falls, incloses
every twig and even the trunk of the trees in a hard transparent
coat or shell of ice; on such occasions we observe his anxiety and
dissatisfaction, as being with difficulty able to make his way along
the smooth surface. At such times he generally abandons the
woods and may be seen gleaning about the stables, around the
house, mixing among the fowls, entering the barn and examining
the beams and rafters and every place where he can pick up a
subsistence.

The name Nuthatch is very erroneously bestowed on this family
of birds. It was supposed that they could crack the hardest nuts
with their bills by repeated hammerings; soft-shelled nuts, such
as chestnuts, hazel-nuts, and a few more of this description, they
may perhaps be able to demolish, but I never have seen them do it.
Hard-shelled nuts, such as walnuts, hickory-nuts, etc., they are
perfectly incapable of breaking, as their bills are not at all shaped
for that kind of work. ‘This absurd idea may have had its origin
in the circumstance that we frequently observe the Nuthatch busily
searching for insects in heaps of shells of broken nuts, lying on
some old stump of a tree, or around it, brought there or broken by
the squirrels, whilst ignorance ascribed the broken nuts to the
doings of the feeble little bird.

This bird builds his nest early in April, in the hole of a tree, in
a hollow rail of a fence, and sometimes in the wooden cornice
under the eaves; the female lays five eggs of a dull white, spotted
with brown at the greater end. The male is the most attentive
husband and supplies his beloved mate, while setting, regularly
with sustenance, stopping frequently at the mouth of the hole, call-
ing and offering her what he has brought. At other times he
seems merely to stop and inquire how she is, and to cheer up the
tedious moments with his soothing chatter. He seldom goes far
from the spot, and when danger appears, regardless of his own
safety, he flies to alarm her. When both feed on the trunk of the
same tree or on adjoining ones, he is perpetually calling on her,
and from the momentary pauses he makes, it is evident that he
feels pleased to hear her reply.

The female differs very little from the male in color, the black
being only less deep on the head and wings.

PLATE III.
The White or Whooping Crane. (Gras [Ardea] Americana.)

In former times the Cranes were classed with the Herons, to which
they bear a certain alliance, but were afterward, with propriety,
separated from them, and now form a very natural division in that
great class. They are all.at once distinguished from the Herons
(Ardez) by the bald head and the broad, waving, and pendulous
form of the greater coverts, and the shortness of the hind toe. The
Crane is found in every part of the world, but the group is, not-
withstanding, limited to a few species.

Our species, the Whooping Crane, is the tallest and most stately
of all the feathered tribes of North America. He is the watchful
inhabitant of extensive salt marshes, desolate swamps, and open
morasses in the neighborhood of the sea and large rivers. He is
migratory, and his migrations are regular and most extensive,
reaching from the shores and inundated tracts of South America
to the Arctic Circle. In these immense periodical wanderings,
they rise to such a height in the air as to be seldom observed, and
form at such times regular lines in about a sharp angle, frequently
changing their leader, or the one that flies foremost. They have,
however, their resting stages on the route to and from their usual
breeding-place, the more northern regions; and during their stay,

ym

they wander along the muddy flats in search of worms, sailing
occasionally from place to place with a low and heavy flight a lit-
tle above the surface, and have at such times a very formidable
appearance. Their cry is loud and piercing, and may be heard
at a distance of two miles; they have various modulations of this
singular cry. When wounded, they attack the gunner or his dog
with great resolution, striking with their sharp and formidable
bills. They are extremely watchful, but not shy. When alone,
they are constantly on the alert, and a flock of them has always
regular guards. When alarmed, they never return to the same
place without sending out a number to reconnoiter. As cautiously.
as he avoids man, he becomes as closely attached to him, when
once brought into his companionship; he learns to understand
every action of his master, knows his voice and shows his satisfac-
tion when he sees him: he not only regards him as his master,
but as his friend; society seems to be a necessity to him. One
that I received from Dubuque, Iowa, which was caught on the
Mississippi by a trapper, and has been living with me nearly four
years, was at first very ferocious and could only be approached
with great difficulty, but is now perfectly tame. It became in a
very short time reconciled to its imprisonment, and is now very
much attached to me.

The Cranes sometimes rise spirally in the air to a great height,
the mingled noise of their screaming, even when almost out of
sight, resembling that of a pack of hounds in full cry. On such
occasions they fly around in large circles, as if reconnoitering the
country to a vast extent for a fresh quarter to feed in. At other
times, they assemble in great masses, forming in regular lines and
standing erect, with their bills resting on the throat, whilst one will
step out, open his wings and dance in the most ridiculous way be-
fore the others—the people on the Mississippi call this ‘‘ preach-
ing ;” at other times several will dance regularly around each
other with outspread wings. ‘They live chiefly on vegetable food,
such as Indian corn; but readily swallow mice, rats, moles, etc.,
with great avidity. They build their nest on the ground, about
one foot in height, and lay two pale blue eggs, spotted with brown,
as large as a goose egg, but more lengthened. ‘The Cranes, as
above stated, are distinguished from the other families by the bald-
ness of their heads, the broad flag of plumage projecting over the
tail, and in general by their superior size. They also differ in
their internal organization, in the conformation of the windpipe,
which enters the breast in a cavity fitted to receive it, and after
several turns goes out again at the same place, and thence de-
scends to the lungs. Unlike the Herons, they have not the inner
side of the middle claw pectinated; and the hind toe is very short,
scarcely reaching the ground. The brown Crane (Grus Cana-
densis) is no other than the young of the Whooping Crane.

All the descriptions of former ornithologists are exactly corre-
spondent with the above. Ina flock of ten or twelve Whooping
Cranes, three or four are usually of that tawny or reddish-brown
tint on the back, scapulars, and wing-coverts, but are evidently
yearlings of the Whooping Crane, and differ in nothing but in that
and in size from the others. They are generally five or six inches
shorter, and the primaries are of a brownish cast, and their legs
are also a trifle darker.

PLATE INV:

The Rail. (Aadlus Carolinus.)
Fig. 1, Male. Fig. 2, Female.

The Rail, or as it is called in Virginia, the Sora, and in South
Carolina the Coot, belongs to a genus of birds, of which, as nearly
as can be ascertained, about thirty-two different species are known
to naturalists, and those are distributed over almost every region of
the habitable parts of the globe. The general character of them
is everywhere the same. They run swiftly, but their flight is

4 VIRGINIA RAIL—SONG SPARROW.

slow, and with the legs hanging down; they become extremely
fat, and fond of concealment, and usually prefer running to flying.
Most of them are migratory and abound during the summer in
certain countries, the inhabitants of which have very rarely an
opportunity of seeing them.

The Rail usually builds his nest in a tussock of grass; the nest
is formed of a little dry grass. The female lays from four to six
eggs of a dirty whitish color with brown or blackish spots; the
young ones run off as soon as they are hatched: they are covered
with a perfectly black down, and run about among the grass like
mice.

The Rails arrive at Hudson’s Bay, and other northern parts,
early in June, breed there, and leave again for the south early in
autumn. But it is certain that some of them remain with us, as
I have caught young Rails myself in the latter part of the month
of June on the Connecticut river, just a little above the town of
Wethersfield, in a swampy or reedy place, called there the Weth-
ersfield Cove. I have also been informed, by persons of credit
and intelligence, in several places of the Union, that they had
found nests, as well as young Rails; but what is singular, none of
them had ever seen at that time the old ones. The Rails, as well
as the Bobolinks, are very fond of the seeds of two different kinds of
reeds, which grow up from the soft muddy shores of the tide water,
and are alternately dry and then covered again with four or five
feet of water. They rise with an erect, tapering stem to the height
of six or eight feet. They grow up so close together that a boat
can only with difficulty make its way through them at or near the
time of high water. The seeds are produced at the top of the
plant, the blossoms occupying the lower branches of the panicle
and the seeds the higher.

These seeds are nearly as long as an ordinary pin and very —

slender, white, and sweet to the taste; also very nutritious, as ap-
pears by the effect they have on the various birds that at this time
feed on them. When the reeds are in this state, the Rails take
possession of them in great numbers. At this season, as you
walk along the embankment of a river where these reeds grow,
you can hear the Rails squeak in every direction like young pup-
pies. Ifa stone be thrown among them, there is a general outcry
and a reiterated ‘‘keek, keek, keek,.” somewhat like that of a
Guinea fowl; any other sudden noise, as the discharge of a gun,
produces the same effect. In the meantime none are to be seen,
unless it be at or near high water ; for when the tide is low, they
universally secrete themselves among the interstices of the reeds,
and you may walk past or even over them—where there are hun-
dreds—without seeing a single one. On their arrival they are
generally lean and unfit for the table, but as the seeds of the reeds
ripen, they fatten rapidly, and from about the middle of September
to the middle of October, are excellent and eagerly sought for.
Their flight among these reeds is usually low, and shelter being
abundant, itis rarely extended to more than from ten to fifty yards.
When winged and uninjured in their legs, they swim and dive
with great rapidity, and are seldom seen to rise again.

J have found them several times, on such occasions, under the
water, clinging with their feet to the reeds. They are very feeble
and delicate in every part, except the legs, which seem to possess
great strength; their bodies being remarkably thin and com-
pressed, measuring not more than an inch and a quarter through
transversely, they are enabled to pass between the reeds like rats.
When seen, they are almost constantly jetting up the tail. Flut-
tering as their flight appears in the reeds, 1 have seen them at
other times rise to a considerable height, stretching their feet be-
hind them and flying to such distances that I really lost sight of
them. Inthe State of New Jersey, where this particular kind of
reed does not grow, we find no Rails. Most of them leave the
Middle States before the end of October, and the Southern States
early in November, though some are found lingering in the warm
southern marshes the whole winter. Numbers of them have been
found in the West Indies at the time of our winter season, which

makes it evident that they migrate across that part of the sea be-
tween the mainland and the islands; and why should this be im-
possible? As the Rail can swim and dive well and fly at pleasure,
he seems to me well fitted for such an undertaking.

The young Rails, the first season, resemble the females.

Some modern ornithologists have classed this bird under the
genus Gallinule; but this seems to me altogether wrong, as all
Rails are destitute of a frontal plate, which characterizes the Gal-
linulas; they otherwise have certainly a strong resemblance to
them.

The Virginia Rail. (Aadlus Vergenianus.)

Fig. 3.

This elegant little bird is far less numerous in this part of the .
United States than the preceding, but inhabits more remote north-
ern regions. He is frequently seen along the borders of our salt
marshes, which are rarely visited by the Sora; he breeds there as
well as among the meadows that border our large rivers. He is
met with in the interior, as far west as the Ohio river; also in Ken-
tucky in the groves and wet places, but only in the spring. He
feeds less on vegetable and more on animal food than the com-
mon Rail. The food of this species consists chiefly of small snail
shells, worms, and the larve of insects that it extracts from the
mud with its long bill, which is wonderfully adapted to it. On
this account its flesh is much inferior to the former; otherwise,
its habits, its thin compressed body, its aversion to take to the
wing, and the dexterity with which it runs and conceals itself
among the grass, are exactly similar to those of the common
Rail, from which genus, notwithstanding the difference of its bill,
it ought not to be separated. Pure

Some people call this bird the Fresh Water Mud Hen. The
epithet ‘‘ fresh water” 1s given to it because of its frequenting only
those parts of the marsh where fresh water springs rise through
the bogs into the salt marshes. In such places it usually con-
structs its nest, which 1s composed altogether of old dry grass and
rushes. The female lays from six to ten eggs of a dirty white or
cream color, sprinkled with specks of reddish and pale purple,
most numerous near the greater end. They commence laying
early in May, and probably raise two broods in the season. The
young of this species are also covered with a pure black down,
and have a white spot on their bill, and a soft and piping note.
The female is about half an inch shorter than the male, the color
of the breast is paler, and a little more white on the throat and
chin.

These birds, like the preceding, stand and run with the tail
erect, which they frequently jerk upward; they also fly exactly |
like them, with the legs hanging down, but only a short distance,
and the moment they alight run off with great speed.

The Song Sparrow. (fringilla Melodia.)

Fig. 4, Male. Fig. 5, Female.

The Song Sparrow may be found in all parts of the United
States; he is the earliest, sweetest, and most lasting singer of all
the Sparrows. We may call them partially migratory, for the most
of them pass to the south in the month of November; but many
remain with us all winter, in the low sheltered meadows and
swamps. He is the first singing-bird in spring, taking precedence
of the Peewee and Bluebird. His song, resembling the beginning
of the Canary’s song, or perhaps rather the song of the European
Yellow Hammer (Emberiza Citrinella), is very short but exceed-
ingly sweet, and frequently repeated, generally from the branches
of a bush or small tree, where he sits, chanting for an hour at a
time. He is very fond of frequenting the borders of rivers, mead-
ows, swamps, and other like watery places. He is found, witha
multitude of other kinds of Sparrows, in the great Cypress swamps.

f
eh PIN

-

Ornithology, or the Science of Birds.

Tue word ornithology is compounded of two Greek words, or-
nithos, of a bird, and logos, a discourse. It is that department of
Zoology which treats of the structure, habits, and classification of
birds.

Birds are warm-blooded animals, and form the second class of
vertebrates. They are distinguished from mammals, not only by
their feathery covering, and the formation of the jaws or man-
dibles, which end in a horny bill, but by the production of their
young from eggs, and by the formation of the anterior limbs, which,
in their case, are developed into wings. :

It might, at the first glance, be supposed that birds are con-
structed upon a plan very different from that in the case of mam-
mals; but a little careful study of the skeletons of each will show
that the two classes are built upon the same general and uniform

plan.
The Bony Structure of Birds.

The following is a brief outline of the skeleton or bony structure
of birds:

EXPLANATION OF PLATE A. (Skeleton of a Bird.)

a. Cranium or skull. 6. Cervical vertebrze. c. The anchylosed or fixed vertebre
of the back. d. The caudal vertebre. e. The ribs. f/ The breastbone. go. The
furculla or merry-thought. 4%. Clavicula or collar bone. 2. Scapula or shoulder
bone. & Humerus or upper arm. J, m. The forearm (/, ulna; m, radius).
m. Metacarpus or hand bones. o. Phalanges of fingers. #. Femur or thigh bone.
g,g- The patella or knee pan. +7, r. Bones of the leg (tibia fibula). s,s. Assa cal-
cis or heel bones. 7, 7. Metatarsal bones. uw, uw. Metacarpal bones. v. Ilium.
w. Pubis. x. Ischium bones of the pelvis.

Tue Hrap.—The head consists of the skull and face. The
former is strongly arched, and consists of several bones. These
are united by seams plainly visible in the young birds; but in the
old ones the bones become so compacted as to obliterate the seams.
The bones forming the face are small, but peculiarly prolonged.
They consist of the two upper jaw-bones and the plow-share, the
quadrate and the connecting bones, together with the lower jaws.
The large size of the cavities of the eyes and the thin partition
which separates them are remarkable. Sometimes holes are
pierced through this partition. Another peculiarity is the connec-
tion of the bones of the head with the vertebrez of the neck, which
enables birds, with more ease than mammals, to move their heads
in all directions.

Tue VERTEBR«.—The backbone of a bird is divided into the
vertebre of the neck, and of the back and pelvis, and the caudal
vertebrae. ‘The number of vertebre in the neck varies from nine to
twenty-three. They are distinguished by their mobility, while the
seven or eleven ‘vertebrze of the back are immovable, and often
become compacted. ‘The same may be said of the seven or twenty
vertebree of the pelvis. The caudal vertebre, numbering from
five to nine, are more perfectly constructed than those of mam-
mals. The last one in birds, which supports the large feathers of
the tail, resembles a high three or four sided plate. The thin
broad ribs, whose number always corresponds to the vertebre of

the back, are linked to these vertebre, and with peculiar long —

bodies, to the breast bone. They bear, with the exception of the
first and last, on their back border, hook-shaped processes, which
rest on the upper border of the following lower ribs. By this ar-
rangement the thorax is considerably strengthened.

THE BREASTBONE may be compared to a large shield, having
in the middle a ridge, varying in size and height according to the
power and size of the muscles attached to it, and, consequently,
according to the greater or less power of flight in the bird. In all
birds of prey, for instance, this ridge is very high, and bound with

large and strong muscles; but in birds incapable of flight, it is
wholly wanting. This ridge in some birds is hollow inside, to re-
ceive in its groove a part of the windpipe.

Tur Pexvis of birds is principally distinguished from that of
mammals by its prolongation; otherwise, it has the same bones as
the human pelvis.

Tue Merry-Tuoucut—tThe only other bone peculiar to birds
is the merry-thought or wish-bone, shaped like a horseshoe, and
fastened above to the collar bone, and below to the beginning of
the breastbone.

THe Wines.—The following are the different bones in the
wings of Birds:

first. The shoulder bone. |

Second. The long and strong collar bones, articulated with the
breastbone, and above with the shoulder and upper arm bone, and
also, internally, with the merry-thought. |

Third. ‘The humerus (upper arm bone), a long, hollow bone,
filled with air.

Fourth. 'The ulna (elbow bone), which is usually stronger in
birds than in mammals of corresponding size.

fifth. The radius, which is weak in birds.
bones form the lower or forearm.

Szxth. Two, sometimes three middle hand bones (phalanges),
three fingers anda thumb. The latter has, in some birds, a strong
hook-shaped nail covered with feathers. But in that case the
thumb has two limbs.

The two latter

EXPLANATION OF PLATE B. (Structure of a Bird’s Wing.)

The feathers marked from 1 to Io are the primaries. A. The secondaries.
B. The winglet, spurious or bastard wing (thumb). C. The tertiaries. #. Humerus
or upper arm bone. ¢@. Ulnaof forearm. z-. Hand bones. o. Finger bones.

Birps’ LEGs consist of:

First. A thigh bone (femur), and the leg bones (tibia and fib-
ula). The fibula is very small and immovably fixed (anchylosed)
to the tibia.

Second. ‘The metatarsal or shank bones. At their lower end
these bones have as many processes as there are toes. Each of
these processes is furnished with a pulley for moving the corre-
sponding toe.

Third. 'The toes. There are usually four of these. This
number is never exceeded, while a few birds have only three toes,
and the true Ostrich only two. Three of the toes are directed
forward; but one, corresponding to the great toe of the human
foot, is turned backward. This is the general rule. In some birds,
however, the great toe is altogether wanting, or only rudimentary ;
in others, such as the swallow, it is bent forward. In climbing
birds, such as the Parrot and Woodpecker, the outer toe and the
barb or great toe are turned backward.

The Muscular and Nervous Systems.

Tue Muscies.—Among the muscles are those that move the
wings, or the pectoral muscles. These are the most important,
and are more powerful than the similar muscles in mammals.
Compared with these, the muscles of the back are small. The
legs have strong muscles only on the upper and lower portions, and
only in such birds as have their legs feathered down to the toes. ©

THE NERVouS SYSTEM very nearly resembles that of mammals.
The brain exceeds the spinal nerve in bulk, but is more simple in
construction. It is divided into the greater and smaller brain. It

2 THE ORGANS OF THE SENSES—RESPIRATION AND DIGESTION.

presents both hemispheres of the larger brain, but not the convolu-
tions so characteristic of the brains of mammals. Birds, therefore,
in point of sagacity, are inferior to mammals, but superior to rep-
tiles, fishes, and insects. The bulk of the brain in proportion to
the size of the body varies in the different kinds of birds. In the
Eagle, it is 1-260th of the size of the body; in the Sparrow,
T-25th; in the Goldfinch, 1-27th; in the Robin, 1-60oth; in the
Blackbird, 1-68th; in the Canary, 1-14th; in the Duck, 1-256th;
in the Goose, 1-360th. .

The spinal nerve in the vertebre of the neck is round, and of
a uniform thickness.
and thicker, but thinner in those of the pelvis. Otherwise the
nerves of birds, in their construction and distribution, greatly re-
semble those of mammals.

The Organs of the Senses.

All the organs of the senses in birds are well developed; single
organs are simplified, but never entirely separated.

Tue Eye is remarkable for its large size as well as for its curi-
ous construction. Its form and size vary greatly. All far-sighted
and nocturnal birds have very large eyes. Peculiar to a bird’s eye
is the bony ring formed of twelve to sixteen four-sided scales, which
shove over each other like the shingles on a roof. They differ in
size, form, and strength. There is also a fan or comb, a closely
folded, dark colored skin, lying at the base of the vitreous body,
at the entrance of the nerve of vision, and very often extending
upward to the crystalline lens. ‘The ring and fan enable the bird,
perhaps at will, to be far or near-sighted, and certainly they deter-
mine the unusual mobility of the eye. Besides the two eyelids,
birds possess a third, the nictitating or winking membrane. In a
bird that closes its eyes, the lower eyelid is drawn up to the upper,
differing in that respect from the human eye, for when the latter is
closed, the upper eyelid is drawn down to the lower. The nicti-
tating membrane is a curious appendage. When at rest, it les in
the inner corner of the eye, toward the bill; but, by the combined
action of two small muscies which are attached to the back of the
white of the eye (sclerotic coat), it can be so drawn out as to cover
the whole front of the eyeball like a curtain. This apparatus is
doubtless a very useful contrivance when the eye is exposed to a
brilliant light.

Rapacious birds have the greatest range of sight. Spreading
birds, as Swallows, which catch insects on the wing, have a very
rapid flight, and an almost inconceivable quickness of sight.

The iris varies in its color according to the age, sex, and kind
of bird. Brown is the prevailing color; but from this, the iris
passes through all shades to red, light yellow, or silver gray; and
from the last to light-gray, and even blue. Some birds have a
bright green; others, a bluish black eye.

Tue Ears—An external ear does not exist in birds. The great
openings of the ears are located sideways on the back part of the
head, and are, in most birds, surrounded by loose bunches of feath-
ers, allowing the sound-waves to pass through without hindrance.
‘Owls have a substitute for an external ear, consisting of a fold of
the skin which the bird can open or shut at pleasure. The drum
skin lies close to the entrance; the hearing passage is short and
membraneous, and the drum barrel is very spacious. Instead of
the three little hearing bones of the mammals, birds have one pol-
ygonous (many angled) bone, which has some resemblance to the
hammer.

THE ORGANS OF SMELL in birds are decidedly inferior to those
in mammals: The external nose and wide nostrils are want-
ing. ‘The nostrils in birds are usually located in the upper mandi-
ble, near the root of the bill, and look like little round holes or

In the vertebrae of the back, it is broader >

slits, either bare or covered with a skin or bristle-like feathers.
The inside of the nose is divided into two cavities. In each of
these are three membraneous, cartilaginous or bony muscles, cov-
ered with a mucous membrane, on which are spread the nerves of
smell.

It has been asserted that the sense of smell was developed to
the highest degree in the Vulturidz (Buzzards); but experiments
have clearly shown that it is the great development of the sense of
sight in these birds, which draws them so quickly to the spot where
a carcass is lying. But if the carcass is covered with a cloth, no
vulture will come near it, be its putrid smell ever so strong. Re-
move the cloth from only a small portion of the putrefying mass,
and the birds will come from a long distance for a feast.

Tastr.—Few birds have the tongue so constructed as to. serve
for an organ of taste. Only the Parrot, Parroquet, and Loris,
have the tongue so constituted as to justify the inference that they
have the sense of taste. Their tongues are soft, thick, and cov-
ered with papille. A few of the Natatores (Swimmers) have a
similar tongue. It is, however, far inferior to the tongue of Par-
rots, as these appear to select their food by the sense of taste. In
most birds, the tongue is more or less separated, and is either short-
ened or diminished, or covered with a horny integument. Ina few
birds, it is long and fleshy. It is probable that the tongue is used
by birds more as a feeler than as a taster, and that it may also
serve to extract and take hold of food.

Tur SENSE OF FEELING, considered as mere feeling or as per-
ception, seems to be highly developed in birds, for the outer skin is
thickly set with nerves; the tongue is often endowed with feeling,
and the bill covered with:a soft skin.

Respiration and Digestion.

Very perfect in birds is the apparatus for the circulation of the
blood, and also that for respiration.

Tue Heart anp Lunes.—The heart of a bird has two cham-
bers, and two ante-chambers, similar to the arrangement in the
heart of a mammal, with this difference, however, that the mus-
cles of the bird’s heart are comparatively stronger than those of
On both sides of the heart lay the lungs, which are
rather large in proportion. Sideways of the point of the heart, are
the two lobes of the liver. The lungs often adhere to the ribs, and
reach further down than in mammals. ‘There is no division be-
tween the chest and the cavity of the abdomen, as the diaphragm
is wanting. All the great bones of the limbs, and many of the
body, communicate with the lungs, and are hollowed reservoirs of
air. There are, also, sacs, or bladder-like receptacles, which can
be filled with air, distributed about the body ; some of them in the
internal portions; some between the muscles and the skin, along
the throat, the chest, and the sinews of the shoulders. These sacs
or bladders communicate with each other, and with the lungs.
The lungs can be only slightly expanded or contracted; but as a
compensation for this disadvantage, the branches of the windpipe
open into the lungs, and these in turn communicate with the mem-
braneous sacs or air cells distributed throughout the entire body,
so that when air is blown into the windpipe of a bird, its whole
body becomes distended like a blown-up bladder.

mammals.

THE WINDPIPE consists of bony rings combinéd with a strong
membrane, and possesses an upper and lower larynx. The former
lying behind the tongue, is nearly triangular, and has no cover;
its opening is surrounded by little warts, and lined on both borders
by a soft, muscular skin, by which the larynx can be completely
closed. ‘The lower larynx lies at the end of the windpipe, just be-
fore the separation of the branches, and is a mere enlargement of

THE SKIN AND FEATHERS. 3
es eee ee EA ee eee ur sa beet eens ST wee fn

the last ring of the windpipe. A bridge in the middle, formed by
the doubling of the inner membrane of the windpipe, divides it
into slits or clefts, and its borders, set in motion by the air. passing
out, produces the voice. The second cleft in the throat (rima glot-
tidis) performs, in a great many birds, the same. office as the
reed in the clarionet, while the first cleft (rima) acts like the vent-

age or small hole of the instrument, by giving utterance to the note. ,

On each side of the lower larynx lie muscles, from one to five in
number, which, by their action, may change the larynx. These
muscles are lacking in only a few birds; in others, especially in
the singing birds, there are five pairs of these muscles. Besides,
on both sides of the windpipe, there are some long muscles, which
begin in the lower larynx, and, in some birds, run up to the ears,
serving, by their action, to lengthen or shorten the windpipe. Very
curious is the course of the windpipe in some birds. It does not
always pass down the lower part of the neck directly into the in-
terior of the thorax; but, in some cases, it passes before into the
comb or ridge of the breastbone, and forms, with the outer pectoral
muscles, a more or less deep nose, turning backward and upward,
and then passing down into the thorax.

Tue DicEestivE AppaRATus in birds is very differently con-
structed from that in mammals, as the former have no teeth.
Birds have salivary glands; but a mixing of the food with saliva
hardly takes place, as the food is not masticated before it is swal-
lowed. ‘The food, in the case of a great many birds, passes first
into a widened part of the throat, called a crop, where it remains
and is prepared for digestion. In the case of other birds, the food
passes directly into the membraneous stomach—a widening of the
lower part of the throat with numerous glands, and always thinner
than the third stomach or gizzard.
and is very large in those that do not possess a crop.

Tue Gizzarp is variously constructed. In birds that live par-
tially or exclusively on other animals, it usually consists of a thin,
skinny sack ; but in birds feeding on hard grain and seeds, it re-
sembles a sort of grinding-mill, being composed of two semi-glob-
ular masses of thick and powerful muscles, covered on their flat
inside with a strong leathery skin, and working over each other
like a pair of mill-stones. This action is aided by sharp-cornered
grains of sand, or little pebbles, which the instinct of the bird has
prompted it to swallow for this purpose. In this way, the hardest
seeds or grains are, in a very short time, ground down to a fine

pulp.

Tue Brax.—Though the beak never performs mastication
proper, yet its use varies in different birds. It is used to divide
flesh, to crack nuts, to separate grain from husks, and by the aid
of the tongue, to shell it like the Canary. Some birds make an
approach to a sort of mastication, as the Buntings, which, by means
of a knob in the middle of the palate, bruise the hard seeds before
they are swallowed.

Tue ViscerA.—In birds, the larger intestine is wholly absent.
A small rudimentary portion of it is found in the Ostrich. The
rectum in birds widens toward the termination into a sort of cham-
ber (cloaca), into which enter the two urinary tubes, the seminal
tubes, and those of the ovarium. The milt or spleen is proportion-
ally small; the abdominal salivary glandis large ; the liver is divided
into several lobes, hard, grainy, and of considerable size; the
gall-bladder is also large, and the kidneys long, broad, and lobed.

ORGANS OF GENERATION.—Some birds have a distinct penis;
all of them testes and seminal tubes. The testes are found in the
cavity of the abdomen, lying in the upper part of the kidneys. In
the time of mating they acquire considerable size, but soon after-
ward shrink to small globular bodies, and are, in some birds,
hardly visible. The seminal tubes run in a zigzag way along the

It is never lacking in any bird, -

urinary tubes to their termination, gradually widening and forming
little bladders at their termini. The grape-shaped ovaries lie on
the upper end of the kidneys, and consist of a multitude of small,
globular bodies, varying in number from one hundred to five hun-
dred. The ovi-director is a long intestine-like skin, entering by one
mouth into the abdominal cavity, and by another into the cloaca.

The Skin and Feathers.

Tue Sxin of birds resembles in its formation that of mammals.
Like the latter it consists of three distinct layers—the epidermis,
the mucous net, and the cutis. The cutis is thin and full of folds,
but becomes thicker on the feet, consisting on the soles and toes of
horny scales, and undergoing a similar transformation in the bill.
The cutis varies in thickness. In some birds, it is very thin; in
others, thick and hard, but it is always full of vessels and nerves,
and is often found with a thick layer of fat on the inner side. The
mucous net lies between the cutis and epidermis, and is filled with
a liquid (mucus). ‘The epidermis consists of countless little gland-
ular cells, of which the lower layers only are active, and filled with
mucus. ‘The layers of cells nearer the surface are more or less
dried up, causing the cells to lose their round form and appear
flattened, while the upper or outside layer constantly peels off. It
is in the mucous net that the little feathers find their birthplace ; but
the larger ones pass through the cutisinto pocket-shaped bags, as can
be seen in the tail feathers and the larger feathers of the wings.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE C. (Picus Auratus.)

Fig. 1. Upper or back side; the dotted places represent the covert, the blank places
the uncovered parts. a. Is the salivary glands, so remarkably developed in Wood-
peckers. Fig. 2. Represents the same bird from the lower side or belly.

Tue Featuers of birds are similar to the hair, spines, or scales
of mammals, but vary in the different members of the same class,
as well as on the different parts of the same bird. We distinguish
in the feather, the trunk and the barb or vane; and in the trunk,
the quill and the shaft. The quill is the part to which the feather
is fastened in the skin; it is of a transparent, cylindrical formation.
Higher up it changes into a four-sided form, filled with a porous ~
marrow, Containing in its middle the so-called ‘‘ saul,” a row of
little cells inserted into each other, and containing the nourishment
of the feather. The ‘‘saul” is united or joined, above and below,
to the quill. ~

The upper part of the shaft is arched, and covered with a smooth
horny mass; the lower part is divided into halves by a longitudinal
groove. On the shaft is the vane or beard, composed of a double
series of layers, or thin parallel plates on each side of the shaft.
Toward the shaft of the feather, these layers are broad, and of a
semicircular form, for the sake of strength, and for the closer
placing of them, one against the other, when in action; but toward
the outer part of the vane, these layers grow slender and ta ering,
so as to become lighter. On their wider side, they are thin and
smooth; but the upper, outer edge is parted into two hairy edges,
each side having a different set of hairs, rather broad at the bot-
tom, but slender and bearded above. In this way the hooked beards
of one layer always lie next the straight beards of the next, lock-
ing into and holding each other, but offering no resistance or hin-
drance to the flight of the bird. Beneath these layers of feathers
is the **down,” similarly constructed, but more irregular and more
tender. It preserves the bird from cold, to which it would other-
wise have been greatly exposed.

All the feathers of a bird are divided into the outer feathers and
the down. The former are subdivided into feathers of the body,
coverts, wing and tail feathers. As previously observed, the wings
of a bird, zootomically speaking, correspond with human arms and
hands; but the human hand consists of four fingers and a thumb,
while on the hand of a bird (see Plate B, x, o) there are only
three fingers and a thumb, and these are all only rudimentary.

4, CONSUMPTION OF FOOD—FLYING CAPACITY—WALKING, ETC.

From these bones of the bird’s hand (z, 0) arise the great quill
feathers or primaries of the wings, usually ten in number. These,
by their form, stiffness, and relative strength, indicate the power
of flight. The secondaries spring from the principal bone of the

forearm (/),.and are generally stouter, longer, and more flexible

than the primaries, differing considerably less from the general
covering of the body. ‘Their number varies in the different kinds
of birds. From the bone of the upper arm (humerus) springs an-
other class of feathers, called the tertiaries. These, in many birds,
as in the Plover, Curlew, and others, are greatly lengthened ; but
are weaker in their structure than the secondaries. ‘T'wo, or, gen-
erally, three short and stiff feathers form the thumb (Plate B), and
are called the bastard wing, winglet, or spurious wing. ‘These le
upon the base of the first primaries, at the edge of the wing. Be-
sides these, and corresponding with the series of feathers, there
are, both on the outer and inner surface of the wing, several rows
of smaller feathers, called coverts, from their protecting the basal
part of the quills.

The covering feathers of the body do not cover it equally all over,
but form single rows or patches, so that, in fact, the larger part of
a bird’s body is not covered at all. These rows of covering feath-
ers vary in the different kinds of birds. The birds that have an
even covering of feathers all over are unable to fly. The feathers
of the body lay over each other like shingles on a roof—the large
feathers of the wings and of the tail resembling a fan.

Great Consumption of Food.

No other animals undergo such rapid transformations of the bod-
ily tissues; none have such warm blood as birds. It is the in-
creased capacity for breathing that gives to birds such an increase
of activity and power. They inhale larger quantities of air than
other animals. Not only the lungs, but also the air bladders, the
hollow bones, the cells of the bones, and also, sometimes, peculiar
cells of the skin, are filled with air. The blood contains more
oxygen than the blood of other animals, and its circulation is more
rapid and powerful. The arteries in birds are comparatively
thicker; the blood is redder, and contains more globules, than that
of other vertebrates. Hence arise the unsurpassed mobility of birds
and their wonderful power of digestion.

Birds eat more in proportion to their size than any other animals
belonging to the class of vertebrates. Not a few of them eat as
long as they are awake, and many of those that live on insects, con-
sume daily two or three times their own weight. But flesh-eaters
consume daily only about one-sixth of their weight, and plant-eat-
ers about the same; yet we shall be compelled to call these birds
gluttinous, if we compare them in this regard with mammals. Many
birds fill the throat with food up to the bill, and others so fill the
crop that it stands out like a ball on the neck. Birds of prey even
digest old bones; while the larger grain-eaters so work pieces of
iron or needles in their gizzards, that the forms of these articles are
considerably changed, or their sharp points altogether disappear.
Indigestible food often lies for weeks in the stomachs of birds.
Bones, hair, etc., are often found in the stomachs of birds of prey,
wrought into balls, which the birds disgorge at their will. In spite
of the rapid changes of tissue in birds, large quantities of fat col-
lect under the skin and between the intestines. But a few days of
hunger will dissipate this surplus. Yet birds endure hunger, or
want of food, longer than some mammals. The mole, for example,
~ will, if destitute of food, die in a few hours.

The Flying Capacity of Birds.

Compared with those of other animals, all the voluntary motions
of birds are quicker and more enduring; their muscles are more
compact, stronger, and more irritable, contracting more power-
fully. All other animals, capable of flying or moving through the

air, flutter merely. Birds fly. This is due to the construction of
their wings. All the wing feathers lie like shingles lapping over
each other, and so curved as to give the wing a convex appear-
ance upward. When the wings are raised, the connection of the
single feathers is loosened, and the air rushes between them; on
the other hand, when the wings are pressed down, all the feathers
become closely locked to each other, and offer considerable resist-
ance to the air. The bird necessarily rises by each stroke of its
wing, and when the stroke is made from the front backward, and
from above downward, a forward movement is gained. ,The tail
serves as a rudder, and is a little raised in ascending, and pressed
down in descending, and in turning round, either to the right or
left. The strokes of the wings, in perfectly accomplished flyers,
are at times quicker or slower, or cease altogether; the wings being
more or less turned, with the front border sometimes higher and
sometimes lower than the hinder part, according as the bird intends
to fly more quickly upward or forward, or sail ahead, or reverse
its course. If the bird intends to dart downward from a great height

_ in the manner of Hawks, the wings are completely drawn in; the

evolved form:of the wing requires a counter-wind, for the current
of air in front fills the wing and raises the bird, while the rear
wind, or current of air, loosens the feathers, and presses the bird
downward. ,

The relative velocity and manner of flight depend upon the shape
of the wing and the construction of the feathers. Long, slender,
sharp-pointed, and stiff-feathered wings contribute to a rapid flight ;
short, broad, and rounded wings and loose feathers allow only a
slow flight. A proportionally long and broad tail makes sudden
turns possible. Large, rounded, and broad wings facilitate longer
continued hovering. ‘The flying velocity of some birds is remark-
able. For example, the Swallow and Eagle dart through the air
at the rate of about seventy-five miles an hour; the Falcon, at the
rate of sixty miles an hour, and the wandering Pigeon literally out-
strips the wind. Other birds, in a few days, fly across wide seas.
Birds of passage fly for days without any cessation; hovering
birds play for hours in the air, and only the most untoward condi-
tions can cause them finally to desist. It is wonderful how a bird,

‘at the most different and the greatest heights, flies with the same
comparative ease. Humboldt, when almost at the highest point

of Chimborazo, observed a Condor flying at such an immeasurable
height above him as to present the appearance of a small dot, and
yet apparently flying with the same ease as in a much denser at-

mosphere. But this must have been only apparently, since Pig-

eons, let loose by aeronauts at great heights, fly very insecurely,
until they reach lower and denser regions of the atmosphere.

Walking and Swimming.

WaLkine.—The perfect flyers among birds are, as a rule, inca-
pable of walking. An excepted few only can walk with ease.
The walk of birds is various. There are runners, trotters, cursors,
jumpers, steppers, walkers, and, finally, some unskilled sliders and
waddlers. All birds, except a few swimmers, walk on their toes.
Those that have the center of gravity corresponding with the cen-
ter of the body, walk the best, if not the quickest. High-legged
birds walk well, but with measured steps; the short-legged walk
badly, usually hopping, and those with middling long legs walk
rather quickly, their movement being more like a run than a walk.
Birds having a more erect posture, and those with their legs far be-
hind, move heavily and awkwardly. Some good flyers can not
walk at all, and some excellent divers only slide or waddle. Many
birds use their wings to assist them in walking.

SWIMMING AND Divinc.—Not a few birds move with ease in the
water, and every bird swims, if thrown upon the water. The
swimmers proper, like all birds living on the water, have a denser
plumage than the land birds. Their plumage is always richly

————

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BY

PHRODPORE JAG Pith, AM MED

A ELE,

ff, Studer, Publisher

COLUMBUS, OHIO

C. D, CAZENOVE

ROBERT CLARKE & CO
18 BEAUFORT BUILDINGS, STRAND

Ge Vis) OU RTH SERE ET

CINCINNATI, O LONDON

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Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, by Jacos H, Sruprr, in the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.

PLY.

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MARSH WREN—GREAT HORNED OWL. | 5.
Se ea a Le Se PY el as ie 2 eS

of the Southern States, which seem to be the places of their grand
winter rendezvous.

The nest of the Song Sparrow is built in the ground under a
tuft of grass, and is formed of fine dry grass, lined with horse-
hair and other material; it lays four or five eggs of a bluish
white, thickly covered with reddish-brown spots. It raises
usually three broods in the season. There are young ones often
found in the nest as early as the latter part of April, and as late
as the tenth of August. Sometimes the nest is built in a cedar
tree, six to eight feet from the ground, which seems to be very
singular for a bird that usually builds on the ground; but this same
habit is found in another bird—the Red-winged Starling, which
sometimes builds its nest in the long grass or swamps, or in the
rushes, and at other times in low trees or alder-bushes. The male
and female are so nearly alike as to be scarcely distinguished from
each other.

The Marsh Wren. (Zroglodytes Palustris.)

Fig. 6, Male. Fig. 7, Female. .

The Marsh Wren arrives from the South about the middle of
May; as ‘soon as the reeds and a species of Nymphica, usually
called ‘* Splatter-dock”—which grow in luxuriance along the tide-
water of our rivers—are sufficiently high to shelter it. In such
places he is usually found, and seldom ventures far from the river.
His food consists of insects and their larve, and a kind of small
green grasshopper that inhabits the reeds and rushes. His notes or
chirp has a crackling sound, resembling somewhat that produced by
air-bubbles, forcing their way through mud, or boggy ground when
trod upon, and can hardly be called a song. But low as he may
stand asa singer, he stands high as an architect, for he excels in
the art of design, and constructs a nest, which, in durability,
warmth, and convenience, is far superior to the most of his musical
brethren. The outside is usually formed of wet rushes, well inter-
mixed with mud and fashioned into the shape of a cocoa-nut; a
small round hole is left two-thirds up for his entrance, the upper
edge of which projects like a pent-house, over the lower, prevent-
ing the admittance of rain. Inside it, is lined first with fine dry
grass, then with cow’s hair and sometimes feathers. This nest,
when once dried by the sun, will resist any kind of weather, and
is generally suspended among the reeds and tied so fast to the sur-
rounding ones as to bid defiance to the wind and waves. The
female usually lays six eggs of a fawn color, and very small for
the size of the bird. They raise usually two broods in a season.

He has a strong resemblance to the house Wren and still more
to the winter Wren, but he never associates with either of them;
and the last named has left before the Marsh Wren makes his
appearance, which is about the beginning of September. The
hind claw of this little bird is large, semicircular, and very sharp;
his bill slender and slightly bent; the nostrils prominent; the
tongue narrow, very tapering, sharp-pointed, and horny at the
extremity ; and for this reason he ought to be classed—as some
naturalists really have done with good cause—among the true
Certhiadz, or Creepers. His habits are also like those of the
Creepers, as he is constantly climbing along the stalks of reeds
and other aquatic plants in quest of insects.

PLATE V.

The Great Horned Owl. (2ub0 Virginians.)

Fig. 1.

This well known formidable Owl is found in almost any part of
North America, from the icy regions to the Gulf of Mexico; also
on the Western coast, but most abundantly in the central part of
this continent.

His favorite resorts are the dark solitudes of swamps covered
with a growth of gigantic timber, which he makes resound
with his hideous cries, as soon as night sets in. At times he
sweeps down from a tree, uttering his loud Waugh O! Waugh
O! so close to you, and so unexpectedly, that you can not help be-
ing startled. Besides this favorite note of his, he has other noctur-
nal solos, just as melodious, especially one that resembles very
strikingly the half-suppressed screams of a person being nearly
suffocated; but after all, his peculiar cry is very entertaining.
Another of his notes sounds like the loud jabbering and cackling
of an old rooster pursued by a dog, and is kept up sometimes for
half an hour. You will always take pleasure in observing him, and
often, when quietly sitting under a tree, he will sweep so close by
you as almost to touch you with his wings; but generally he shuns
the presence of men, and seems to know that man is the worst of
his enemies. |

At night he is very cautious, and even in the day-time he suffers
no one to approach—unlike the rest of the Owls, which allow the
gunner to approach them without showing signs of being alarmed.
The Great Horned Owl is rarely seen in day-time, the peculiar
coloring of his feathery dress agreeing perfectly with the bark of
the tree on which he sits, almost motionless. It sometimes hap-
pens, however, that one of the smaller warblers discovers him, and
alarms, by his cries, the whole feathered population of the forest,
which now tease and keep on annoying him till he is at last com-
pelled to leave his resting-place in disgust.

But it is a different thing at night; then he is lord. His flight,
which, in day-time, appears rather awkward, is then silent and very
swift. Sweeping low above the ground, generally, like the rest of
the Owl tribe, he rises also, with ease, to great heights, and his
movements are so quick that he catches regularly any bird he has
scared up from sleep. Any bird—the smallest warbler as well as
a chicken or a duck—will serve him for a meal; and this may ac-
count for the circumstance that all birds, without an exception,
hate him. © He lives also on squirrels, rats, and mice, of which he
destroys great numbers. |

fle pairs usually in February." At this time the male, after hav-
ing performed the most ridiculous evolutions in the air, alights near
his chosen female, whom he delights with his boundings, the snap-
ping of his bill, and his extremely ludicrous movements. This
style of love-making he practices in day-time as well as at night.

His nest, which is proportionally very large, is usually built on
a thick horizontal branch of a big tree, close to the trunk. It has
been found in the crevice of a rock. It is composed of crooked
sticks and coarse grasses, fibers, and feathers, inside. The eggs,
which number from three to five, and even six, are almost globular,
rough, and of a dirty white color. The male assists the female in
sitting on the eggs. The young are covered at first with a thick
white down, and remain in the nest until fully fledged. Even then
they follow their parents for a long time and are fed by them, ut-
tering a mournful, melancholy cry, perhaps to stimulate them to
pity. They are much lighter colored than the old ones, and ac-
quire their full plumage in the following spring.

Although the Great Horned Owl, as above stated, prefers retire-
ment, he sometimes takes up his abode in the vicinity of a detached
farm, and causes great havoc among the poultry, especially the
young poultry, of the farmer, by occasionally grasping a chicken
or Guinea fowl with his talons, and carrying it off to the woods.
When wounded, he exhibits the most revengeful tenacity of spirit,
disdaining to scramble away like other Owls, but courageously
facing his enemy, producing his powerful talons and snapping his
bill. At such times his large eyes seem to double their usual size,
and he shuts and. opens them alternately in quick succession as
long as his enemies remain in his presence. The rising of his
feathers on such an oc¢asion gives him a very formidable appear-
ance, and makes him look nearly twice as large as usual.

In former times, this Owl, as well as Owls in general, was re-
garded with a great deal of superstition, and we often find the Owl

6 GROSSBEAK—AMERICAN RED START—BLUE WARBLER.

introduced in gloomy midnight stories and fearful scenes of nature,
to heighten the horror of the picture; but knowledge of the gen-
eral laws and productions of Nature has done away with this su-
perstitious idea, as well as with so many others. With all his
gloomy habits and ungracious tones, there is nothing mysterious
about this bird, which is simply a bird of prey, feeding at night and
resting during the day. ‘The harshness of his voice is occasioned
by the width and capacity of his throat. The voices of all car-
nivorous birds and quadrupeds, are likewise observed to be harsh
and hideous.

The Great Horned Owls are not migratory; they remain with
us during the whole year. The female is, like ail birds of prey,
considerably larger than the male, but the white on the throat
is not as pure, and she has less.of the bright ferruginous or tawny
color below.

The Rose-Breasted Grossbeak. (Coccoborus Ludovictanus.)
Fig. 2, the Male. Fig. 3, the Female.

This elegant species of the Parrot Finches (Pityli) is found most
abundant in the New England States, especially Massachusetts,
but with the exception of the extreme western parts and coast of
Georgia and the Carolinas, they are met with, at certain seasons,
in almost every part of the United States. His wanderings extend
as far up, asNew Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland,
where he has been observed to breed. He leaves early in the fall
to take up his abode in warmer regions and as soon as spring sets
in, commences his wanderings eastward again. Heis seen in Ken-
tucky as early as the 16th of March, on his eastern travel.
His flight is steady, and at a considerable height. At times he
will lower himself and take a rest in the top branches of a high
tree. Before taking a new start he will utter a few very clear
and sweet ‘notes. You may hear the same, at times, during his
flight, but not when he is resting. At about sundown he chooses
one of the highest trees to sit upon, in a stiff and upright position,
and after a few minutes repose retreats into a thicket to spend the
night.

His food. consists of grass and other seeds, buds of trees, tender
blossoms, and berries, especially those of the Sour Gum, on which
he eagerly feeds; he also subsists partly on insects, which he often
catches on the wing, as most of the Finches do.

In the third year he arrives at his full plumage. The younger
birds have the plumage of the back variegated with light brown,
white, and black, a line of which extends over the eye. The rose-
color reaches to the back of the bill, where it is speckled with
black and white. Our plate shows the full-plumaged female, who,
therefore, differs considerably from the male.

The Rose-Breasted Grossbeak is, in common opinion, one of the
sweetest singers of this continent. His song is rich and melodious,
and he sings at night as well as in day-time. His notes are clear,
full, and very loud, suddenly changing, at times, to a plaintive
and melancholy, but exceedingly sweet, cadence. One loves to
observe him on such occasions, and can not help thinking that
he must himself be fully aware of his good singing talent, from his
gestures and the positions he takes while pouring forth the sweet
notes from the depth of his breast. In captivity he sings fre-
quently and just as well, though not so loud.

His nest is found from the latter part of May to the beginning of
July. Itis fixed on the upper forks of bushes, on apple trees, or
even higher trees, mostly in the neighborhood of water. It is
composed of thin branches, intermixed with dry leaves and the
bark of the wild grape, lined inside with dry roots and horse-hair.
The female lays four eggs of a bluish white color, sprinkled with
oblong specks of a brownish purple, especially at the larger end.
‘They are hatched alternately by both male and female. The young
are fed with insects exclusively, as long as they are little; then as
they grow, with seeds also, which were previously soaked in the
crops of the parents.

_ woods, but are almost impossible to be expressed by words.

The American Red Start. (Sefophaga Ruticilla.)

Fig. 4.

This little bird has been classed by several of our best ornithol-
ogists among the Sylvicolinz (Warblers). We will not, therefore,
venture to remove him, though we would rather have him placed
among the Muscicapide (Fly-catchers), as there is hardly any
other in the whole tribe that has the characteristic marks of the
genus Muscicapa more distinct than he. The formation of his bill,
the forward-pointing bristles, and especially his manners, stamp
him a Fly-catcher. He is in almost perpetual motion, and will
pursue a retreating party of flies from the top of the tallest tree to
the ground in an almost perpendicular but zigzag line, while the
clicking of his bill is distinctly heard. He certainly secures a
dozen or more of them in one descent, lasting not over three or
four seconds, then alights on an adjoining branch, traverses it
lengthwise for a few moments,-and suddenly shoots off in a quite
unexpected direction after fresh game, which he can discover at a
great distance.

His notes or twitter hardly deserve the name of song. They
resemble somewhat the words, Weese! Weese! Weese! often re-
peated as he skips along the branches; at other times this twitter
varies to several other chants, which may easily be recognized in the
In the
interior of the forest, on the borders of swamps and meadows, in
deep glens covered with wood, wherever flying insects abound, this
little bird is sure to be found. He makes his appearance in Ohio
in the latter part of April, and leaves again for the South at the be-
ginning of September. Generally speaking, he is met with all
over the United States, and winters chiefly in the West Indian is-

lands.

The name Red Start is evidently derived from the Dutch “ Roth
Start” (Red Tail), and was given to him by the first settlers, from
his supposed resemblance to the European bird of this name, the
Motacilla Phoenicurus; but he is decidedly of a different genus,
and differs not only in size, but in manners and the colors of the
plumage.

The Red Start builds his nest frequently in low bushes, in the
fork of a small sapling, or on the drooping branches of the elm, a
few feet above the ground. The exterior consists of flax, or other
fibrous material, wound together and moistened with his saliva, in-
terspersed here and there with pieces of lichen; inside it is lined
with very fine soft substances. The female lays five white eggs,
sprinkled with gray and little blackish specks. The male is ex-
tremely anxious about them, and, on a person’s approach will flirt
within a few feet about the nest, seemingly in great distress. The
female differs from the male, in having no black on the head and
back. Her head is of a cinerous color, inclining to olive. The
white below is not as pure. The lateral feathers of the tail and
breast are of a greenish yellow; those of the middle tail, of a dark
brown. ‘That beautiful aurora color on the male is, op her, very
dull. ‘The young males of the first season look almost exactly like
the females, and it is not until the third season that they receive
their complete colors, Males of the second season are often heard
in the woods crying the same notes as the full-plumaged males,
which has given occasion to some people to assert that the females
of this bird sing as well as the males.

The Black-Throated Blue Warbler.

(Dendroica Canadensis.)
Fig. §.

This bird is one of those transient visitors that, at about the end
of April or the first week of May, pass through Ohio, on their
route to the north to breed. He reminds one, in his manners of
the Fly-catcher, but the formation of his bill as well as his gen-
eral appearance, places him unmistakably among the Warblers.

CREEPER—W ARBLER—HAWkK. a:

But little can be remarked here concerning this bird, as it is only to
be met with now and then in spring, and during a sojourn of
nearly eight years in Ohio, the writer has seen it only twice in
the fall; but as the woods are then still thick with leaves, and the
bird perfectly silent, it is more difficult to get sight of him, and
he probably makes a shorter stay than in spring. Although no
pains were spared to find his nest, here as well as in more north-
ern districts, still the search has not been successful. During
summer not one single individual of this species has been ob
served. :
Our plate shows the male. The female has a kind of a dusky
ash on the breast, and some specimens which had been shot were
nearly white. | |

The Black and White Creeper. (JZxzotzlla Varia.)

Fig. 6.

This is also one of the little birds which ought to be respected —

by farmers and husbandmen generally, on account of his extreme
usefulness. He clears their fruit and forest trees of myriads of
destructive insects, particularly ants, although he does not sere-
nade them with his songs. He seldom perches on the small. twigs,
but circumambulates the trunk and larger branches, in quest of
ants and other insects, with admirable dexterity. He is evidently
nearer related to the Creepers than to the Warblers, for his hind
claw is the largest, and his manners, as well as his tongue, which
is long, fine-pointed, and horny at the extremity, characterize him
strongly as a true Creeper. He arrives in Missouri, toward the
latter part of April, and begins soon afterward to build his
~nest. One which we had the good luck to discover was fixed in the
crack of the trunk of a large tree, and was composed of some
fibers and dry leaves, lined with hair and a soft cotton-like down.
It contained five young ones recently hatched. This was on the
28th of April. At about the beginning of October, the whole tribe
leave again for warmer climates, probably the West Indies, though
we have been informed that at least several of them have been
perceived in the Gulf States during the whole winter.
The male and female are nearly alike in colors.

The Yellow-Throated Warbler. (Dendroica Superczliosa.)
Fig. 7.

The habits and manners of this splendid little bird are not con-
sistent with the shape and construction of his bill, his ways being
those of the Creepers or the Titmouse, while the peculiarities of
his bill rank him with the Warblers. His notes, which are loud
and spirited, resemble strongly those of the Indigo Blue Bird
_ (Cyanospiza Cyanea). He utters them every three or four minutes,
while creeping around the branches or among the twigs in the
manner of the Titmouse. On flying to another tree, he frequently
alights on the trunk and creeps nimbly up and down or spirally
around it, in search of food, like a Creeper. He leaves the North
for a short time only in winter, and can not, therefore, migrate very
far South. They have been seen in the North as late as the middle

of November, and as early again in the spring as the 12th of

March. Inthe State of Connecticut, onthe banks of the Connecti-
cut river, great numbers of them have been observed as late in the
fall as the roth of October. They are rarely met with there in the
spring, but why, we are unable to state. They seem to be rather
partial to running waters, in'the vicinity of which they are invari-
ably found; sometimes on trees, sometimes hanging on fences,
head downward, like the Titmouse, or searching among the dry
leaves on the ground.

The bird on our plate is the perfect male. As to the female, her
wings are of a dingy brown, and her colors in general, particu-
larly the yellow on the breast, much duller. The young birds of
‘the first season are without the yellow.

PLATE VI.
The Wandering Falcon, or Great-Footed Hawk. (/ulco Peregrinus.)

The Wandering Falcon, Mountain Falcon, Rock Falcon, Duck
Hawk, or Great-footed Hawk, justly deserves his names. He
roams almost all over the world. His home extends from the
northeast of Asia to western Europe, and the question is yet to be
solved whether our American bird is a different species or not. It
is evident he is not; for the size, as well as the general characteris-
tic traits of both the American and the one described by European
writers, agree almost to minuteness. Some of the European orni-
thologists differ somewhat in the description of his coloring ; but
these discrepancies seem to have been occasioned by specimens of
different ages, more than by any other cause. He is also found in
the interior of Africa, and, according to Jerdon,inIndia. This ex-
cellent observer says: ‘‘ The Wandering Falcon is found through-
out India, from the Himalaya to Cape Comorin, but only during the
cold season; especially plentiful near the sea-coasts, or on the
shores of large rivers. He does not breed there, as far as I can
ascertain, but is only a winter visitor, who appears in October and
leaves again in April.” In America he extends his wanderings far
to the South; whether they reach to South America has not been
ascertained, but it is certain that he flies across the Gulf of Mex-
ico. ‘To his immense faculty of flying, a distance of a few hun-
dred miles is mere fun. He inhabits large forests, especially those
interspersed with high steep rocks, but is occasionally found close
to habitations, ‘and even large cities. The one that served for
our drawing was, for instance, shot in the neighborhood of Colum-
bus, Ohio, on the Scioto river, in the month of September. He is
a powerful, daring, and extremely agile bird, and experience shows
that he knows, too, how to make use of his natural gifts. His
flight is extremely swift, mostly close to the ground, in spring only
rising to heights immeasurable and almost out of sight. He sel-
dom is sailing but rapidly flapping his long wings. Before rising,
he flies a short distance low above the ground and with expanded
tail. He is very shy and cautious, choosing the densest pine forests
to pass the night, and if such be too far to be reached, prefers sit-
ting on a piece of rock in an open field. His voice is strong and
penetrating, sounding somewhat like Kajak! Kajak!

The Wandering Falcon attacks birds only, from a Wild Goose
down to a Meadow Lark. Among Pigeons, Quails, and Grouse
he makes the greatest havoc, but is especially fond of Ducks, which
he pursues with untiring tenacity. Water-fowls, when approached
by a gunner, usually take to the wing; not so if our Falcon is vis-
ible. Then they make all speed to the water and dive, and those
only which are on land or in shallow water fly off, till they reach
deep water, then suddenly drop and dive also; but this caution on
their part is of no avail, for the Hawk will hover above the water
till they are exhausted, then strike down upon them and pick
them up. | .

All birds seem to know him, for not one attacks him, not even
the otherwise courageous Crows. All are anxious to save them-
selves as soon as he is in sight. He usually strangles his prey in
the air, before it can even reach the ground. Larger birds, such as
the Wild Goose, which he has seized, are tormented by him in the
air until they drop down with him, and then are killed. By throw-
ing himself with full force upon his victim, the latter is stunned by
the concussion, and drops. ‘This is probably the reason he never
attacks a bird that is sitting on the ground, as he would run the risk
of killing himself by the concussion. Small birds he carries away
to a convenient place; larger ones he eats on the spot where they
dropped, plucking off some of their feathers before he begins.
Small birds he devours, together with the intestines, which he re-
jects in the bigger ones. In his attacks he very seldom fails, and
they seem to be but play to him.

His nest is chiefly built in cracks of steep rocks, difficult, if not

8 DUCK—TEAL—HERON—CAT BIRD.
erp ee Be Sept eclogite eee a a RS ere rR A ee Es

impossible, to ascend; sometimes also in high trees. It is care-

lessly constructed of thicker or thinner branches and fibers. The

eggs, three or four in number, are laid at the beginning of June, -

and are of a reddish yellow color, sprinkled with brown, more
thickly so at the larger end, and the female hatches alone. ‘Lhe
young ones are fed at first with half-digested food from the crops
of the parents, afterward with different kinds of birds. When
they are able to fly they are instructed by the parents in the art of
hunting.

It is a well-known fact that all true Falcons, when attacked, drop
their booty and leave.it to the attacking party, and the beggars
among the birds of prey, being aware of this, profit by it. There
they sit, those stupid, lazy fellows, watching the Hawk till he has
struck down a bird, when suddenly they assault him. Our hero,
otherwise afraid of no bird, drops his prey at their approach, and
with an indignant Kajak! Kajak! up and off he goes.

The bird of which the Hawk has taken hold in our Plate is—

The Pin-tail Duck. (Azas—Dafila Acuta.)

The Pin-tail is a common and well-known Duck, much esteemed
for its excellent flesh, which is generally in good order. Itis ashy
and cautious bird, feeding in mud flats and shallow fresh-water
marshes, but is rarely seen on the sea-coast. It has a kind of clat-
- tering note, is very noisy and vigilant, and usually as the alarm
at the approach of the gunner.

Some of the Duck tribe, when alarmed, disperse in all directions,
but the Pin-tails cluster confusedly, giving the expert gunner a cap-
ital chance to rack them with advantage. ‘They do not dive ex-
cept when winged.

They inhabit the whole northern part of this continent, as well
as the corresponding latitudes of Asia and Europe. Great flocks
of them are sometimes observed on the rivers near the coasts of
England and France.

Our plate shows the male. The female has the crown of a dark
brown color; the neck of a duil brownish white, thickly speckled
with dark brown; breast and belly of a pale brownish white, inter-
spersed with white; back and root of the neck above black, each
feather elegantly waved with broad lines of brownish white. These

wavings become rufous on the scapulars, vent white, spotted with,

dark brown; tail dark brown, spotted with white, the two middle
feathers only half an inch longer and more slender than the rest.
The other two birds on the Plate are the male and the female

Blue-winged Teal. (Azas—9Querquedula Discors.)

The Blue-winged Teals are the first that return to the Central
States from their breeding-place in the North. They arrive as early
as the middle of September, and usually sit on the mud, close to
the border of the water, generally crowded together, so that gun-
ners often kill a great number at one shot. Their flight is very
rapid; when they alight they drop suddenly among the reeds or
on the mud, in the manner of the Snipe or Woodcock. They live

chiefly on vegetable food and are especially fond of the seeds of
reeds or wild oats. Feeding on such they become extremely fat
in a short time. Their flesh is excellent for the table. The first
smart frosts drive them to the South, for they are delicate birds and
very susceptible to cold. They abound in the inundated rice-fields
of the Southern States, where they are caught in vast numbers in
hollow traps, commonly called ‘figure four,” and placed here
and there on dry spots rising out of the water, and strewn with
rice. In April they pass through the Central States again, north-
ward bound, making only a short stay.

PLATE VII.

The Green Heron. (Ardea—Butorides Virescens.)

Fig. I.

Public opinion shows but little liberality toward this bird, hav-
ing stigmatized him with a vulgar and indelicate nickname, and
treating him as perfectly worthless and with contempt. This is
injustice; he keeps himself as clean as any other of the whole
Heron tribe, lives in exactly the same way as they do, and at the
same places with them, but he is most numerous where cultivation
is least known or cared for.

He makes his first appearance in the Central States early in April,
as soon as the marshes and swamps are completely thawed. There,
among the ditches and amidst the bogs and quagmires, he hunts
with great cunning and dexterity. Frogs and small fishes are his
principal game, but on account of their caution and facility of es-
cape their capturing requires all his address and quickness. With
his head drawn in, he stands on the lookout, silent and motionless,
like a statue, yet ready for an attack. The moment a frog or min-
now comes within his range, with one stroke, quick and sure as that
of a rattlesnake, it is seized and swallowed in a wink. He also.
hunts for the larveeof several insects, especially those of the dragon-
fly, which lurk in the mud.

When alarmed, he rises with a hollow guttural scream, but does.
not fly far, and usually alights on a fence or an old stump and.
looks out with extended neck, but now and then with his head
drawn in so that it seems to rest on his breast. When standing and
gazing on you this way, he is often jetting his tail. Sometimes he
flies high, with doubled neck and his legs extended behind, flapping
his wings bravely, and traveling with great expedition. He is per-
haps the most numerous and the least shy of all our Herons, and is.
found in the interior as well as in the salt marshes.

At the latter part of April he begins to build, sometimes in sin-
gle pairs in swampy woods, often in company with others, not un-
frequently with the Night Heron. The nest, which is fixed on the
limb of a tree, consists wholly of small sticks lined with finer twigs
loosely put together, and is of considerable size. The female lays
three or four eggs, of an oblong form and a pale blue color. The
young do not leave the nest until perfectly able to fly.

The Cat Bird.

(ldimus Carolinensis.)
Pig. 2.

This is a very common and very numerous species in this part of
the Continent, well known to everybody. In spring or summer,
when approaching thickets of brambles, the first salutation you re-
ceive is from the Cat Bird. One unacquainted with his notes would
conclude that some vagrant kitten had got bewildered among the
briers and was in want of assistance, so exactly alike is the call of
this bird to the cry of that animal. Of all our summer visitors he
is the least apprehensive of man. Very often he builds his nest
in the bushes close to your door, and seldom allows you to pass
without paying you his respects in his usual way. By this famili-
arity he is entitled at least to a share of hospitality, but is often
treated with cruelty instead. It is true he steals some of the best
and earliest of the farmers’ strawberries and cherries, but he’
lives mostly on insects, of which he destroys incredible numbers.
Besides, he is one of our most interesting singers. He usually
sings early in the morning before sunrise, hovering from bush to
bush, hardly distinguishable in the dark. His notes are, however,
more remarkable for their singularity than for melody. He chiefly
imitates the song of other birds, frequently with perfect success.
Sometimes he seems to be at a loss where to begin, and pours out
all the odd and quaint passages he has been able to collect. In un--

ee

3

CLIMBING AND SINGING BIRDS—RANGE OF THE SENSES. 5

oiled, and their bodies are thus protected from the wet. A bird
swimming on the surface of the water maintains its position with-
out difficulty. Each stroke with its legs produces a forward move-
ment. Generally it uses the feet only for swimming ; it folds them
together, and pushes them forward, spreading out the toes and
pressing them back. In easy swimming, it uses first one leg and
then the other; in quick swimming, it uses both legs at the same
time. In steering, it lays one leg backward, with the toes spread,
and uses the other leg as a rudder.

Diving. is often combined with swimming. Some birds swim
faster under than upon the surface of the water, and are said often

to race with the fishes. Some are only able to dive by darting down’

from a height. The birds that dive from the surface, with a leap or
spring, more or less apparent, are called swim or spring divers, and
those that dart from a height, pushing divers. The swimming
divers are skilled operators; the pushing divers are bunglers. The
former easily dive deep into the water, and remain under the sur-
face as long as they can hold their breath; the latter having forced
themselves under the water by a powerful exertion, necessarily
soon rise again to the surface. The former search for food under the
surface ; the latter only seize such prey as they may have seen from
the height. Short wings are suited to swim diving, and long ones
to push diving. Only one group of birds—the storm divers—com-
bine, in a certain sense, both facilities. ‘The swim divers use both
legs and tail; the push divers principally use the wings, and some
other divers use legs, tail, and wings.

No general rule can be laid down, either as to the rapidity with
which birds dive, as to the depths to which they descend, or as to
the length of time they remain under water. Eider Ducks are
said to dive to the depth of sixty fathoms, and to remain under the
surface six minutes. The majority of diving birds do not, however,
descend to such a depth, and do not remain under water longer than
two or three minutes. Other birds, not belonging to the class of
swimmers, not only dive, but run along on the ground under the
water.

°. Climbing and Singing Birds.

CuiimBEers.—Many birds possess a great capacity for climbing.
For this purpose they chiefly use their feet, sometimes their bills and
tails, and occasionally their wings. Parrots are poor climbers.
They lay hold of an upper branch with the bill and pull the body
up. But Woodpeckers climb more artistically, using only their
feet and tail. Some birds flutter upward; in every rising move-
ment they use their wings, lifting them up and then drawing them
in. The Alps Wall-creeper (tichodroma murania) moves in this
way; while the Woodpecker climbs with a sort of hop, without
moving its wings. Climbers generally move upward or sideways on
the upper side of a limb or branch; but some move downward or
forward on the sides of the branch.

Sincinc Brrps.—Most birds have loud, full, and clear voices,
though with many the voice is a shrill, unpleasant squeal. Mute
birds are unknown. For their different sensations and impressions,
birds have peculiar sounds or notes, forming a kind of language
which they understand, and which may, to some extent, be learned
by a careful observer. By these sounds and notes, they call each
other; they express their love or hate, their joy or grief; they
challenge each other to fight; they warn against approaching ene-
mies, and, in short, make an almost endless variety of communi-
cations. Not only do individuals of the same species understand
each other, but those better endowed communicate with the less-
gifted ones.
listen all the smaller rabble in that locality, and by the alarm-cry
of the Robin, all the wood-birds in the forest are warned. The
tell-tale Tattler sounds an alarm and warns the Ducks of the ap-
The more cautious seem often to act as guard-
In the season of courtship

proaching gunner.
ians of the entire community of birds.

To the warning cry of one of the larger marsh-birds,

or love-making, birds converse, talking, singing, and caressing.
Parent birds speak and sing tenderly and affectionately to their
offspring. Some appear to practice in concert, talking to and an-
swering each other. Others seem merely disposed to give expres-
sion to their feelings, not caring whether they are understood or
not. To these belong the singing-birds, the pets of the creation.
In communicating with each other, both sexes appear to be on equal
footing; but the males only are endowed with the privilege of
song. Sometimes, but seldom, the females learn to sing a few
notes. .

With all the singers proper, the muscles of the lower larynx are,
as a general rule, similarly developed, yet their power of song is
very different. Each separate kind has its peculiar keys and a
certain volume of sound; each combines these keys or notes in
trills, which are easily distinguished by their greater or less full-
ness, volume, and power. Some songs are composed of only a few
notes, while others contain octaves. Besides, each singing-bird
has numerous variations in its song. The same bird has one song
on the mountain and a different one on the plain, though the dif-
ference can only be distinguished by close and continued observa-
tion. A good singer in a certain district may educate inferior ones
to sing well, and a bad singer may spoil a good one. Some birds,
not satisfied with their own natural song, mix with it the songs of
others, and even striking sounds and noises. These we call Mock-
ing-birds. Singing-birds are found in all the zones of the earth,
but are most numerous in the temperate zones.

Range of the Senses.

SicHt.—The structure of the eye enables a bird to command a
wide range of vision. Within this range it observes any object
with incredible quickness. Birds of prey easily distinguish small
Insect-eaters perceive resting or flying insects at an as-
tonishingly great distance. ‘Their eyes move constantly, as the
proper focus must be found for each distance. ‘This may be proved
by a simple experiment. If the hand is moved toward the eye of
a bird of prey, the pupil expands or contracts in proportion as the
hand is brought nearer to or moved further from the eye. This
shows why these birds see the smallest objects, when sailing thou-
sands of feet above the earth.

mammals.

Hearine.—The singing of birds proves their acute hearing.
Shy birds become aware of approaching danger chiefly by the sense
of hearing; domesticated birds attend to the feeblest call. Birds
that have a sort of external ear, doubtless use their hearing as well
as sight; but, as a general rule, it is probable that the hearing of
birds is by no means as acute as that, for instance, of the bat, the
cat, or any ruminating mammal. -

SMELLING.—Though the sense of smell is but feebly developed
in birds, yet a certain amount can not be reasonably denied them.

Tastinc.—The sense of taste in birds is dull compared with that
of mammals. Birds prefer certain kinds of food, and reject other
kinds; but this can not be ascribed altogether or chiefly to the dis-
criminating nature of their sense of taste, since, with few excep-
tions, they swallow their food without any sort of mastication, and
many birds seem to use the tongue more for probing for, than for
tasting their food.

FEELING. —Birds, in most cases, evidently use the tongue as an
organ of feeling. Woodpeckers, Humming-birds, and many oth-
ers probe with the tongue the hiding-places of their prey, and
by the same organ separate the digestible from the indigestible
portions of their food. The general development of the sense of
feeling in birds increases the keenness of their perception, and
guards them against sudden changes in the weather and other ex-
ternal influences.

6 DISTRIBUTION—HABITAT—GENESIS AND DEVELOPMENT.

Distribution of Birds.

As far as the surface of the earth has been explored, birds have
been found in high northern latitudes, as well as between the trop-
ics; on the plains, in the valleys, on the seas, and on the highest
mountains ; in fertile regions, and in deserts; in primeval forests,
and on the barren rocks which are elevated above the surface of the
surrounding waste of water. Each separate zone has its peculiar
feathered inhabitants. Birds in general follow the laws of animal
distribution. ‘They are found in great numbers in the frigid zones,
but are represented only by a few kinds. Toward the torrid zone,
the number and varieties rapidly increase. ‘The water harbors and
supports but a, few kinds, all of which have many points of re-
semblance; while on the land, each zone and every locality has its
peculiar birds. Only a very few birds literally inhabit all parts of
the globe. Among these, so far as is known at present, there is
not a single land bird. The Turnstone (strepsilas interpres), for
instance, is found on the coasts in all parts of the world, because it
finds the same conditions of life, as well in the eastern as in the
western hemisphere.

As a rule, the circle of bird extension reaches farther in the lon-
gitudinal than in the latitudinal direction. Inthe northern parts of
the globe, for example, are found many birds which abound more
or less.in all other parts in or near the same latitude; while a few
hundred miles to the north or south may produce a very decided
change in the number and kinds of birds. The flying capacity of
birds is not coincident with the circle of extension. Good flyers
may be confined to a comparatively small area, while indifferent
ones may have the range of a much larger circle. The regular
travels and migrations of birds do not enlarge their circles of ex-
tension. )

SPECIES AND OrDERs.—So far as at present known, the num-
ber of all the different described and non-described species of birds
may be estimated at about eight thousand. The order of Parrots
numbers three hundred and fifty; birds of prey, four hundred;
Pigeons, about three hundred; scratchers, three hundred; short-
wingers, ten; stilts and swimming-birds, about six hundred kinds.
The remaining species are distributed to other orders. America
has a larger number of the different kinds of birds than any other
grand division of the globe. Next follow in this regard, in the
order named, Asia, Africa, Oceanica, and Europe.

The following remarks may be made respecting different orders
of birds: The first order includes Parrots, wanting in Europe; the
second order embraces Sparrows; the third order, Ravens; the
fourth order, birds of prey; the fifth order, the spreading birds ;
the sixth order, singing birds, and the seventh order, climbing
birds; the eighth order, Humming-birds, is confined to America;
the ninth order, light bills, is chiefly found within the tropics; the
tenth order, cooing birds, and the eleventh, scratchers, are repre-
sented in all parts of the world; the twelfth order, short-wingers,
belong to Africa, Oceanica, and more generally to America; the
thirteenth order, stilts, and the different orders of swimming birds,
have representatives in all portions of the globe.

Habitat and Trades.

Tue Hasirat, or residence of birds, depends on the means it
affords them for a living. Birds that live on the water ascend high
mountains, and still higher rise the stilts, as they are less confined
to the water. The forests are densely populated with birds of va-
rious kinds. Oceans, seas, and lakes support millions of individ-
uals of the same or similar kinds. Hatching-time collects them in
multitudes on single rocks and islands. Frequently, the greater
the uniformity of the open or forest land, the greater seems the va-

the uterus, vary greatly.

riety of the feathered tribes. The nearer an approach is made to
the equator, the greater also is this variety, as the countries of the
torrid zone present an increase of the varied conditions of life. The
like wonderful variety, too, obtains in countries where forests and
prairies, mountains and valleys, dry lands and swamps or water, al-
ternate with each other. A river passing through a forest, a swamp
bordered with large trees, or an inundated part of a forest, always
collects great multitudes and varieties of birds; for where the pro-
ductions of land and water are combined, the greater the variety
and richness of the food. As the supply of food attracts birds to
certain localities, so the want of it compels them to abandon others.

‘They manifest great sagacity in selecting the best portions of cer-

tain districts. ‘They pry into every hiding-place, into every crack,
cranny, and hole, and pick up every digestible thing.

TRADES OF Brrps.—Considering the different modes in which
birds support life, it may be said that they have different trddes or
callings. Some, like Pigeons, and other granivorous birds, pick up
the grains they find on the surface of the ground; others of the
same kind strip the husks from the grain, and some scratch seeds
and roots out of the ground. Fruit-eaters pluck fruits with their
beaks; insect-eaters seize their prey on the ground, or on the
leaves or branches of trees. Some of these latter birds labor very
hard for a living, searching with their tongues for insects in the ine
nermost recesses of their lurking-places. Ravens pursue all these
various trades, and operate on a small scale as regular robbers.
Falcons and Hawks, or Eagles, are constant hunters. Vultures
are scavengers, and other birds may be regarded as beggars and
spongers.

Aquatic birds have their trades as well as land birds. Many of
the former pick their food lying in plain sight; others ransack the
hiding-places of other animals; some are omnivorous; others car-
nivorous; some draw their food out of turbid water or soft mud;
others obtain theirs by diving deep in the water, and -others, per-
ceiving their food from a great height, dart thence upon their prey.

Genesis and Development.

Tue Eee.—After impregnation of the female bird, one of the
little yelk bodies which adhere in the ovaries, starts out from the
rest, absorbs from the blood all the matter pertaining to the yelk,
and is finally itself transformed into a yelk, growing to its proper
size. Detaching itself, it slides into the ovi-director, which shows,
during the time of laying, an increased actiyity, and secretes albu-
men. Both the yelk and albumen are now pushed forward by the
contractions of the ovi-director, and arrive finally at the lower ex-
pansion of the same, or the so-called womb (uterus). Here they
assume the regular egg form, and receive the shell skin and the
calcareous shell. The latter is at first soft and adhesive, but soon
hardens, and the egg is complete. By the contraction of the fibers
of the muscles of the uterus, the egg is pushed forward into the
cloaca, where it is probably colored, and whence it is finally ejected.
The size and form of the egg, which may depend on the form of
There is supposed to be, in general, a
certain ratio between the size of the egg and of the body produc-
ing it: but there are large birds that lay comparatively small eggs,
and small birds that lay comparatively large eggs. The form of
the bird’s egg usually resembles that of the hen’s egg; but some
birds’ eggs correspond more to the form of a top or pear, while
others are equally rounded at both ends and are very oblong in
shape. Eggs laid in hollows or crevices are generally white, or
have only one color; those laid in open nests are, for the most
part, speckled. The number of eggs laid by one bird varies from
one to twenty-four, provided none are taken from the nest during
the process of laying, as in that case the number may be increased
ten or more. But the great majority of birds lay from four to six
eggs. “

YOUTH AND MATURITY. 7
aa aa ee ee ee ee eee

IncuBATIon.—Having completed the task of laying her eggs,
the female bird enters upon the process of incubation or hatching,
in which she is often relieved by the male. The process is accel-
erated by the warmth of the body of the female, which now pos-
sesses a high temperature. Some birds utilize the heat of the sun
and of vegetable fermentation. The duration of the hatching pro-
cess varies with different kinds of birds. The Ostrich takes from
fifty-five to sixty days; the Humming-bird only ten or twelve, and
birds, on an average, from sixteen to twenty-five days. For the
formation and development of the chick or young bird, a temper-
ature of about ninety-six degrees (Fahrenheit) is required. The
requisite warmth may be obtained from the parent bird, or by arti-
ficial means, as breeding-ovens, etc. That famous story-teller,
Pliny, relates that Julia Augusta, the wife of Tiberius, hatched
eggs in her bosom. Besides warmth, the access of atmospheric
wir is absolutely necessary to the development of the chick. With-
out this, the egg will inevitably become addled.

Procress oF DEVELOPMENT.—The effect of warmth may be
seen after a few hours, and in hen’s eggs, in about ten or twelve
hours after the commencement of the incubation. The white round
dot, or treddle, assumes a more oblong form, and its surr ounding
white rings are widened and increased in number. At the begin-
ning of the second day, a small projection appears, and, in thirty
hours, there is seen in its bladder-like cavity filled with a clear
liquid, a turbid, cloudy jelly. Toward the end of the second day,
the first traces of blood appear in reddish dots, streaks, and lines,
gradually combining and forming a sort of net-work. These are
the rudiments of the blood-vessels, which appear more distinct on
the third day, forming branches at first, and finally a central point,
eventually developing into the heart. Soon after its first manifes-
tation, it begins to move; it expands and contracts: life has awak-
ened, and manifests itself. Next are observed three dots like small
bubbles, which originate the head, two of them being rudimental
eyes. These are of a dark hue, the other dot is colorless. Now
appears a row of little bubbles in pairs, which, taking a downward
course, will combine into a backbone. Two developing plates
mark out the circuit of the abdomen, and, at the same time, are
exhibited traces of the stomach and the intestines.

On the fourth day, the yelk is enlarged, but loosened and thin-
ned; the albumen is decreased, and the blood-vessels increased ;
the separation of arteries from veins is progressing ; the head is bent
down toward the posterior portion; the heart becomes more dis-
tinct in its manifestations; the vessels of the brain, and the rudi-
ments of the mandibles, the wings, the legs, and the liver begin to
be discerned, the last as a reddish gray jelly-like mass.

The fifth day presents the heart and intestines more fully devel-
oped, and the breast almost covered by a compound substance,
beginning from the backbone and the wings. At the close of this
day, the beginning of the lungs is. observable; the heart is sur-
rounded by a transparent sack, and the backbone is plainly shown.

On the sixth day, the egg-skin is formed, appearing like two
closed bladders—the external one for the cutis and the internal for
the amnion. On the abdomen, enlarged by the admixture of al-
bumen, the vessels are spread out; the several parts of the em-
bryo are more distinctly developed, and it sometimes exhibits, at
the close of this day, a kind of motion.

The embryo, on the seventh day, swims in the amniotic fluid;
it is now about an inch long, and its head is almost as large as its
body. The brain, appearing like a soft, slimy mass, presents to
view its different parts, and the backbone shows traces of the be-
ginnings of cartilaginous formations. The ribs are seen in white
streaks. The throat, the crop, the gizzard, gall-bladder, and milt
are likewise discernible.

The eighth day exhibits the chick increased in size; the breast-
bone begins to be formed, and white streaks, the beginnings of
muscles, appear around the developing bones.

The ninth day discloses a small process on the head, forming the

upper mandible; the transparent eyelids become visible around the
eyes; the heart, inclosed in its sack, pulsates twelve times in a min-
ute; the brain becomes more compact, and its cartilaginous bony
portions assume greater distinctness.

On the tenth and eleventh days, the embryo still increases in
size; the large head is considerably lessened, and lies between the
legs, almost covered by the wings; the gall-bladder is filled, and
on the skin are seen small protuberances, whence feathers will
spring in due time. On the two following days, the chick begins
to move visibly, and attains a‘ length of about two inches; downy
feathers appear on the part of the body near the pelvis, and on the
back, wings, and legs; the limbs are more fully developed, and the
feet and toes begin to be covered with white scales; the bill pre-
sents itself in a cartilaginous form; the brain has almost attained
its future size and shape; the cartilaginous brain cover (the skull)
begins to ossify, and the lungs gain their proportionate size; the
cartilaginous rings are traceable on the windpipe, and the urinary
vessels in the kidneys, while the urinary tube, the ovaries, and the
ovi-director are easily distinguished. The muscles are soft and of
a white color, the large sinews are more distinct, and the cartilag-
inous forms of the bones begin to ossify.

On the fifteenth and sixteenth days, the chick reaches almost its
full size; the white scales on the feet and toes are converted into a
horny casing; the larger wing-feathers begin to shoot out, and the
embryo chick, if disturbed, opens and shuts its beak. During the
seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth days, the cutis is spread
over the whole inner surface of the egg; the albumen becomes al-
most totally absent; and the yelk-bag collapses and passes through
the navel ring into the abdominal cavity. The chick dons its
feathery robe, lying inclosed in the amnio, folded in a compact
form, and leaning sideways on its breast, with its head under the
right wing, and its legs drawn up to the abdomen. It begins to
be active now ; it opens and shuts its bill, gasps forbreath, and often
utters a distinct *‘peep.” ‘Fhe head is completely developed, and
the brain has assumed its permanent form.

On the last two days, the yelk altogether disappears in the cav-
ity of the abdomen, and the chick fills the entire egg. It breathes,
peeps, and, if taken out of the egg, puts out its tongue. Several

hours before its exit, the chick, on the twenty-first day, rubs the

horny protuberance upon its bill against the shell of the egg. This
begins to crack, little pieces fall off, the skin of the shell is torn
asunder, and the chick, stretching out its new-found legs, pulls its
head from under its wing, and comes forth from its prison-house
to air, light, and freedom.

Youth and Maturity.

GrowTuH.—A few birds only are as fully developed in the ego
as chickens and ducks, and those only that are destined by nature
to follow their parents and run about as soon as they make their
debut in the world. The birds that have, when full grown, the
greatest mobility and power, are among the most helpless in in-
fancy. Those that run from the nest (Nest-runners), come into the
world feathered and with developed senses, and have a pleasing
appearance, being already, to a certain extent, perfected. Others
that attain similar perfection by slow degrees, and remain, in the
meantime, in the nest (Nest-squatters), are ungraceful, and even de-
formed in appearance; their development requiring a longer or
shorter time, according to their kind. The smaller kinds of nest-
squatters are usually fledged in about three weeks; the larger often
require several months. Most of them take years to become equal
to their parents, for the youth of a bird can only be said to be ended
when it appears in the dress of its parents. Many of these birds
have at first a feathery dress, which has no resemblance to that of
the parents. A majority of these young birds are covered like the
females, and the difference of sex can be known by the external
appearance only when they have assumed the dress of maturity.

8 SUBSISTENCE, MATING, AND BREEDING.
ee ce ee ee ae ee sh SO a i ae A ae ae Rel ITER yd

Eagles and several other birds are often three, four, or five years

old before they can be called old birds, having donned their per-

manent plumage.

Mou.tine.—The different changes to which the plumage is sub-
ject, are caused by the peeling off and discoloring of the feathers,
or the process of moulting. The consequence of the peeling off is
usually an embellishment, and the discoloring produces, in certain
portions of the plumage, a change of colors. The young White-
headed or Bald Eagle, for instance, is covered almost wholly in a
sober brown dress in due time, the tail-feathers become spotted,
the white specks on them gradually becoming larger ; at length these
specks run into each other, till finally the whole tail turns white.
Nearly the same transformation occurs in the head-feathers, except
that with these the process begins in white streaks, gradually
widened, till the entire head is rendered perfectly white. The same
discoloring is seen in the American Goldfinch, whose plumage is
changed every spring from a light brown to a bright yellow, black
and white dress, and, in the fall, changed back to the modest
brown. Many other birds are subject to similar changes.

The moulting of birds usually takes place when the feathers have
become damaged by long use, by the effect of light, dust, wet,
etc. Moulting generally begins shortly after hatching. The un-
usual heat of the body, and other causes occurring at that period,
injure the feathers. The change of feathers takes place at the
same time on different parts of the body, but always on the corre-
sponding parts of the two sides. On many birds, the smaller
feathers only are replaced at the first moulting; the larger feathers
of the wing and tail, at the second. Several years are required
with some birds to replace the larger feathers, as only two new
feathers, one in each wing, are formed at the same time. ‘The
moulting, in some cases, takes place so quickly that the birds, as
Ducks for example, become totally incapable of flying. When a
bird is in good condition, it appears, after each moulting, brighter
colored, and this brightness of color is not diminished, but increased
by age. Birds, at moulting time, are subject to many diseases,
and, as this process is necessary to their well-being, anything that
interrupts it endangers life.

Lonerviry.—It may be laid down, as a general rule, that birds
attain, comparatively speaking, a great age. Pigeons sometimes
live twenty years; Canaries, in cages, often sixteen or eighteen ;
Parrots, sixty to one hundred; Geese, eighty to ninety ; Linnets,
and other small birds caged, often ten to fifteen years ; Eagles, over
one hundred and twenty, and Lucans, as there is ample testimony
to prove, live from two hundred to two hundred and fifty years.

DisEASE AND DratTu.—Birds, generally speaking, are not very
liable to disease. But they are exposed to many accidents and to
many enemies. ‘They are continually destroyed by birds of prey
and other animals. Sometimes epidemics have been known to pre-
vail among certain species of birds, by which great numbers have
been swept off. At first view, it seems rather singular that the
body of a bird that has died a natural death, is seldom found. But
investigation has disclosed the fact that birds generally have an
anticipation of their approaching dissolution, and this feeling
prompts them to seek concealment. Birds that would otherwise
never enter any such place, prompted by this feeling, conceal
themselves in the cavities and hollows of trees, and creep under
stones and into the thick tussocks of grass, or other like places of
concealment. Only now and thenis the dead body of a bird found
under its resting-place. The dead bodies of aquatic birds are
sometimes washed ashore, without bearing any traces of death by
violence.

Subsistence, Mating, and Breeding.

VIGILANCE AND AcTiviry.—Birds are active and lively. From
break of day till late at night, and often during the whole night,

birds are awake and on thealert. The longest days seem too short —
for them, and the shortest nights not shortenough. At early morn
we hear in the woods the voices of birds; the same voices are heard
during the day and long after nightfall. Birds seem to need very
little time for rest or sleep; three or four hours appear to suffice.
From this rule, birds of prey and Vultures are exceptions; as,
among birds, they are the indolent classes.

Frrpinc.—All birds gifted with the faculty of singing, hail the
approaching day with a matin song, especially’in the time of mat-
ing or breeding. After this they take breakfast. Most birds take
two regular meals daily—one in the morning and the other late in
the afternoon. Midday is usually devoted to rest,-or to putting in
order and cleaning their feathers. Such birds as depend on luck
and chance for their supply of food, as birds of prey, generally
put up with one meal per day. Vultures have sometimes to con-
tent themselves with a single meal every other day, as they never.
search for food, but depend on what chance and good luck may
offer. .

Birds, in general, to use a common expression, live only “ from
hand to mouth.” ‘They eat food as they find it, unconcerned about
the morrow. Our Woodpeckers, however, generally store away
a considerable amount of food for winter use. ‘They deposit it in
different places, as the hollows of trees, cracks in their bark, and
holes in the ground. Some other birds, as the Nuthatches, collect
food and hoard it in different storing-places.

BATHING AND ReEstTine.—Birds drink immediately after feed-
ing, and then take a bath. This is taken in water, or in dry sand
or dust, and sometimes, in winter, in snow. Water-bathers exer-
cise a good deal after their bath, by flying about and shaking them-
selves. Then, after a short rest, their plumage is put in order and
preparation made for a foraging excursion. If the expedition
proves favorable, then, toward evening, the birds betake them-
selves to certain well-known haunts, for a social interview with kin-
dred and friends, before retiring for the night. The singing-bird,
ere he goes to his night’s repose, warbles his sweetest songs, and
then retires, either in company with others of his kind, or, in breed-
ing time, with his little sitting mate or with his young ones. He —
never goes to sleep without having previously engaged in some sort
of conversation, carried on by means of various gestures and
chatterings. He ceases only when overcome by fatigue.

Matinc.—The breeding season with birds is always in the
spring. In the torrid zone, it occurs in the rainy season, which
perhaps corresponds to our spring. Birds generally practice mo-
nogamy; very few among them are polygamists. A pair once
united, are, as a general rule, mated for life, and it is only in ex-
ceptional cases that either proves conjugally unfaithful. Yet, as
there are more males than females among birds, it naturally hap-
pens that a number of male birds, including those that have lost
their female companions, are compelled to remain unmated. These
are described as restless, wandering from place to place in search
of mates, and resorting to various tricks and devices to entice away
females from their allegiance to their ‘‘ liege lords.” The result is,
that the latter often become furiously jealous, and quarrels, and
even severe fights, frequently ensue. Though the attempted se- -
duction is sometimes successful, yet it often happens that the female
sallies forth with her mate to drive off to a respectful distance the
impudent intruder on their domestic felicity. So much for con-
stancy in female bird mates. On the other hand, it has been ob-
served that a female bird having lost her mate, became, in half an
hour afterward, the partner of another male; and this second mate
being killed, she did not hesitate a moment to listen to the addresses
of a third wooer. The male birds are ardent in their courtship,
displaying all their beauty and attractions. Some woo by gentle
longing calls and by singing ; others, by a sort of dancing or gam-
boling in the air; sometimes the male pursues the female for hours;.

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Price, $1.00.

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DRAWN FROM LIFE

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PHBODORE. JAS PHAR, “A.M: MoD

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Jacoh H, Studer, Publisher
> COLUMBUS, OHIO

ROBERT CLARKE & CO C. D. CAZENOVE

68 WEST FOURTH STREET | 18 BEAUFORT BUILDINGS, STRAND
CINCINNATI, O | . LONDON

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Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, by JAcoz H, STUDER, in the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.

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YELLOW THROAT—DUCK—TERNS. g

settled parts of the country he is rarely or never found, but seems
to prefer the company of men. His nest is built in briers or black-
berry bushes, and is composed of thin branches and roots, stuck
together with mud, lined inside with hair and finer fibers. The
female lays five eggs, of a bluish tint. He leaves in September
to winter in warmer latitudes. .

The Maryland Yellow Throat. (Geothlypzs Trichas.)

Fig. 3, Male. Fig. 4, Female.

This neat little bird inhabits chiefly such briers, brambles, and
bushes as grow luxuriantly in low, watery places, his business and
ambition seldom leading him higher than to the tops of the under-
wood, and he might properly be denominated ‘*‘ Humility.” In-
sects and their larve are his principal food. He dives into the
thicket, rambles among the roots, searching around the stems, ex-
amining both sides of the leaves, raising himself on his legs to
peep into every crevice, and amuses himself with a simple, but not
at all disagreeable twitter, ‘ ‘ whit-ti-tee ! whit-ti-tee !” which he re-
peats in quick succession, pausing, now and then, for half a min-
ute. He inhabits the States from Maine to Florida, and westward
to the Mississippi. He is by no means shy, but unsuspicious and
deliberate. He often Visits the fields of growing rye, wheat, or
_ barley, and is of much service to the farmer by ridding the stalks
of vermin that might destroy his fields. He lives in obscurity and
peace, and seldom comes near the farmhouse or the city.

He builds his nest about the middle of May, in the midst of a
thicket of briers; among the dry leaves on the ground. Sometimes
it is arched over, and but a small hole left for entrance. It con-
sists of dry leaves and fine grass, lined with coarse hair, etc. The

female lays five eggs, semi-transparent, marked with specks of |

brown and reddish brown. ‘The young leave the nest in the lat-
ter part of June, and a second brood is sometimes raised in the same
season. ‘They return to the South early in September.

PLATE NAT.

The Wood Duck, or Summer Duck. (Azx Sonsa.)

Fig. 1, Male. Fig. 2, Female.

This is the finest of all our Ducks, and the beauty of its dress is
in perfect harmony with its gentle manners. A characteristic trait
is the moving of its tail from one side to the other, which some-
times looks almost like wagging. It swims with as much ease and
grace, and seemingly with as little effort, as it flies among the
branches and trunks of trees. The cry of the female is a long-
stretched ‘* Pi-ai-wee-wee-wee !” and the warning sound of the male
a not less melodious ‘‘ O-eek ! O-eek !” It seems to shun the neigh-
borhood of men less than any other Wild Duck, and is by no means
in a hurry to leave its breeding-place, even if buildings are in con-
struction close by. Easier than the rest of the tribe, the Wood
Ducks get reconciled to, and regularly breed in, captivity, if a
suitable chance is offered them.

They live mostly on grain, several aquatic plants, chestnuts,
acorns, beech-mast, etc., also on worms, snails, and other insects,
which they pick up among the dry leaves or catch in the air.
Their full beauty and loveliness shows itself best shortly before
and during mating time. Toward March the flock separates, and
every single pair now looks out for a convenient breeding-place. To
this end the male roams about the woods, alights on a high tree in
which he expects to find a hole for a nest, walks easily on its limbs,
inspecting every hole he can find, and is often perfectly satisfied
with a hole made by the fox squirrel, or even acleft inarock. The
female squeezes herself with astonishing ease through the entrance,

which often seems to be a great deal too narrow for her. The male
keeps watch outside during inspection by the female, encouraging
her by his tender chatterings, or warning her of supposed danger
by his timely ‘*O-eek ! O-eek!” after which both quickly take to
flight. If they have once built a nest they return to it every year.

The male, although very peaceful, is very courageous when his

- jealousy is aroused. Any other male coming near him is always

kept at a proper distance by unmistakable signs and motions. The
female begins to lay in the first days of May. The eggs, seven
to twelve in number, are small, oblong, and perfectly white. The
hatching-time lasts, as with most of the Duck tribe, twenty-seven
or twenty-eight days. When the last egg is laid, the female lines
the nest with the soft down of her breast, and covers the eggs with
the same when she flies out. While she takes all the parental cares
to herself, the male repairs to a suitable watery place to pass
through his moulting time, which begins in July, and is ended in the
first part of September, giving him a dress distinguished from that
of the female only by the white marking of his throat and the
greater brilliancy of his plumage. |

The nest of the Wood Duck is sometimes at a considerable dis-
tance from any water, and quite high from the ground. From the
entrance to the nest itself, it is sometimes over six feet. As soon
as the young ones are all hatched, the female carries them, one by
one, in her bill, to the water, leaving them to the care of the male,
till she has brought the last one, when she herself takes care of
them again. If the tree on which the nest is, happens to overhang
the water, she merely tumbles them out of the nest. Wood Ducks
generally live together in small flocks of from six to twelve—occa-
sionally they are seen in flocks of more than a hundred; this occurs.
chiefly in the fall. Toward October the young ones begin to moult ;
at the same time the male parent, who reappears now in his bridal
dress, joins them again. The flesh of the Wood Duck is very
tender and in good esteem.

The Short-tailed Tern. (Aydroche-lidon Plumbea.)
_ Fig. 3.

This bird is often observed in fresh-water marshes, in flocks num-~
bering from four to ten; itis seldom seen in salt-water marshes. Its
flight is very graceful. Its food consists of grasshoppers and insects.
generally, which it picks up, while on the wing, from grasses or,
rushes, as well as from the surface of the water. It frequently
associates with

The Black Tern. (ydroche-lidon Nigra.)
Fig. 4.

The Black Tern is a little less in size than the preceding, which
it resembles in every respect. They are found on fresh-water

- marshes, mill-ponds, etc., and are most numerous on the marshes

of the Mississippi and its tributaries. Their nests are very art-
lessly constructed, in large tussocks of rank grass, and contain
each four eggs of a greenish buff color, spotted with amber and
black, chiefly at the larger end. The young ones of the first
season (Fig. 5) have the head white, and the neck and breast ir-
regularly spotted with black and white. |

It was found, on dissecting these birds, that they feed exclusively
on insects, their stomachs never containing any small fish.

Mr. Audubon, in his valuable work on ‘*‘ Birds of North Amer-
ica,” writes as follows of this bird:

‘¢The Black Tern begins to arrive from the Mexican territories
over the waters of the Western country about the middle of April,
and continues to pass for about a month. At that season I have
observed it ascending the Mississippi from New Orleans to the
head waters of the Ohio, then culling over the land, and arriving
at the Great Lakes, beyond which many proceed still farther

10 WOODCOCK—WOOD THRUSH—WOODPECKER.

northward. But I have rarely met with them along our Atlantic
shores until autumn, when the young, which, like those of all
other Terns with which I am acquainted, mostly keep by them-
selves until spring, make their appearance there. Nor did I see
a single individual when on my way to Labrador, or during my
visit to that country. Often have I watched their graceful, light,
and rapid flight, as they advanced and passed over in groups of
twenty, thirty, or more, during the month of May, when nature,
opening her stores anew, benignly smiled upon the favored land.”

PLATE IX.
The Woodcock. (/usticola Afinor.)

This bird, so universally known to our sportsman, is represented
at the bottom of the plate. It arrives in the Central States in
March, and if the weather is mild, even earlier, and stays till the
first frosts forbode the approach of winter. It is sometimes found
here in December, and it may be that in mild winters, some of these
birds remain until spring. During the day the Woodcocks keep
to the woods, or wooded swamps and thickets ; toward evening they
usually fly out to the broad open glades, which lead through the
woods, or to meadows and swampy places in the neighborhood. A
carefully hidden observer can see the Woodcock pushing his long
bill under the decayed leaves and turning them over, or boring one
hole close to another in the damp soft ground, as deep as his soft,
flexible bill will permit, to get at the larve, bugs, or worms hidden
beneath. In a similar manner he examines the fresh cow-duneg,
which is soon populated by a multitude of larve of insects. He
never tarries long at any place.
naked snails, especially angle-worms, form his principal food.

If in hot seasons his favorite resorts in watery recesses inland
are generally dried up, he descends to the marshy shores of our
large rivers.

The female Woodcock usually begins to lay in April; the nest
is built in a quiet, retired part of the wood, frequently at the roots
of an old stump; it is constructed of a few withered leaves and
stalks of grass put together with but little art. The eggs are four or
five in number, about an inch and a half long, and about an inch
in diameter, tapering suddenly at the small end; they are of a dun
clay color, thickly marked with brown spots—particularly at the
large end the spots are interspersed with others of a very pale pur-
ple. The young Woodcocks, when six to ten days old, are cov-
ered with down of a brownish white color, and are marked from
the bill along the crown to the hind head with a broad. stripe of
deep brown; another line of the same color curves under the eyes
and runs to the hind head; another stripe reaches from the back to
the rudiments of the tail, and still another extends along the sides
under the wings. ‘The throat and breast are considerably tinged
with rufous, and the quills at this age are just bursting from their
light blue sheaths, and appear marbled as on the old birds. When
taken they utter a long, clear, but very feeble ‘* peep,” not louder
than that of a mouse. They are, on the whole, far inferior to
young Partridges in running and skulking.

The Woodcock is a nocturnal bird, seldom stirring about before
sunset, but at that time, as well as in early morning, especially
in spring, he rises by a kind of spiral course to great heights,
uttering now and then a sudden * quack ;” having gained his ut-
most height he hovers around in a wild irregular manner, produc-
ing a sort of murmuring sound, and descends with rapidity in the
same way he arose.

The large head of the Woodcock is of a very singular confor-
mation, somewhat triangular, and the eyes set at a great distance
from the bill, and high up in the head; by this means he has a
great range of vision. His flight is slow; when flushed at any

Larve of all kinds of insects and ©

time he rises to the height of the bushes or the underwood, and
usually drops down again at a short distance, running off a few
yards as soon as he touches the ground.

The Wood Thrush. (Zurdus Mustelinus.)

Fig. 1, Male. Fig. 2, Female.

The Wood Thrush is one of our best and sweetest singers. Au-
dubon writes of him as follows:

‘¢'The song of the Wood Thrush, although composed of but few
notes, is so powerful, distinct, clear, and mellow, that it is impos-
sible for any person to hear it without being struck by the effect
which it produces on the mind. I do not know to what instru-
mental sounds I can compare these notes, for I really know none
so melodious and harmonical. ‘They gradually rise in strength, and
then fall in gentle cadences, becoming at length so low as to be
scarcely audible, like the emotions of the lover who, at one mo-
ment exults in the hope of possessing the object of his affections,
and the next pauses in suspense, doubtful of the result of all his

efforts to please.

‘««Several of these birds seem to challenge each other from differ-
ent portions of the forest, particularly toward evening, and at that
time nearly all the other songsters being about to retire to rest, the
notes of the Wood Thrush are doubly pleasing. One would think
that each individual is anxious to excel his distant rival, and I have
frequently thought that on such occasions their music is more than
ordinarily effective, as it then exhibits a degree of skillful modu-
lation quite beyond my power to describe. These concerts are con-
tinued for some time after sunset, and take place in the month of |
June, when the females are sitting.”

The Wood Thrush inhabits almost the whole continent of North
America, from Hudson’s Bay to the Gulf. The very next morn-
ing after his arrival he will mount to the top of some small tree and
announce himself by his sweet song, which, although not contain-
ing a great variety of notes, is exceedingly mellow and melodious,
poured forth in a kind of ecstacy, and becoming more charming at
every repetition, especially if several of them are heard at the same
time, in different parts of the wood, each trying to outdo the other.
He is always in good humor, and his voice is often heard on rainy
days, from morning to nightfall. His favorite retreats are thickly
shaded hollows, through which meander small creeks or rills, over-
hung with alder bushes and wild grapes. It is in such places, or
near them, that he builds his nest, a little above the ground. It is
constructed outwardly of withered leaves to prevent dampness; on
these are layers of knotty stalks of withered grass mixed with mud
and smoothly formed ; the inside lining consists of fine dry roots of
plants. -The female lays four, sometimes five, light blue eggs.
The Wood Thrush is a shy and unobtrusive bird, appearing either
single or in pairs, and feeding on different kinds of berries, as well
as on beetles or caterpillars.

On his migration to the South he never appears in the open
plains, but hops and flies swiftly through the woods. Occasionally
he takes a rest on a low branch, uttering a low chuckling sound,
and jerking his tail up and down at each note; then for a few mo-
ments he keeps perfectly still, with the feathers of his neck and
back a little raised.

The Yellow-bellied Woodpecker. (2icus Varius.)

Fig. 3, Male. Fig. 4, Female.

s

This is one of our resident birds, and is often to be met with in
the thickets of the woods in midwinter. It is generally considered
a handsome bird, and in its manners and mode of living resembles
the small spotted Woodpeckers.

He is frequently seen in their company, especially in the fall,

SCARLET TANAGER—SNOW OWL—SNOW BUNTING. 11

when visiting the orchards. Its nest is usually in a dry old tree,
or in a large fallen branch, the entrance to which is small for the
size of the bird, and passing down in a slanting direction it expands
toward the place where the eggs lay, which are from three to four
in number and of a pure white color. Nests containing eggs are
invariably to be found from about the middle of May to the first of
June. This bird is met with almost everywhere, but not in
great numbers, from Hudson’s Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. Its
food, like that of all the Woodpeckers, consists chiefly of insects
and their larve, and to some extent of berries.

The Scarlet Tanager. (Pyranga Rubra.)

Fig. 5.

This beautiful bird is an ornament to our woods. It is almost
destitute of song, being endowed with a few notes only, which re-
_ semble those of the Baltimore Oreole. It may be found in all parts
of the United States, even as far up north as Canada. It rarely
visits the habitations of man, but frequently orchards, where it
sometimes settles down on an apple or peartree. Its nest, which
it builds in the middle of May, on a horizontal branch, consists of
stalks of broken flax and other dry fibrous matter loosely woven
together. The eggs, three or four in number, are of a dull bluish
color, spotted with brownish purple.

It seems not to be very shy, but allows you to approach it very
near, and is frequently sitting right above your head while you are
looking for it in the distance, misled by its notes, ‘‘ chip, cheer,”
which seem to come from a great distance. “y's

The female is green above and yellow below ; the wings and tail
_ brownish black, edged with green. The male has a spring and a
summer dress. Our plate shows him in the spring dress. This
changes, soon after the young are hatched, into one similar to that
of the female—green above and yellow below; and in the time
between this and his bridal dress, he is often speckled with red,
which is produced by the red points of the feathers: for, with the
exception of the points, these feathers are of a bluish and some-
times a yellowish white; but they lie so regularly on the living
bird that the white parts are invisible.

PLATE X.

The Snow Owl. (/tyctea Nivea.)
Fig. I.

The Snow Quwl, the largest of all the so-called Day Owls, inhabits
all parts of the North. However near men have approached to the
pole, they have seen this Owl, not only on the land, but they have
observed him likewise sitting on icebergs, or flying close over the
water with powerful flapping of the wings. It is, therefore, proba-
ble that they inhabit not only the whole of North America, but also
the corresponding latitudes of Europe and Asia.

In extremely cold winters they regularly wander southward, and
are by no means scarce in Illinois. Several of them were shot near
Chicago, in the winter of 1871-72. Our drawing was prepared
from a beautiful female specimen.

A gentlemen from Cuba assures us that he has frequently seen
this Owl there.

Some ornithologists of Europe hold that the color and markings
of this species are different at different ages, and that some are
like the one on our plate, while others are almost or perfectly white.
It may be so; but on dissection the white ones have been invaria-
bly found to be males andthe others to be females. ‘The white
‘Owls are the smaller.

During the summer they generally keep in the mountainous part

of the North; in winter they take up their abode in the plains. In
his manners, the Snow Owl has many peculiarities. In his quiet
sitting position, his resembles all other large Owls; but his move-
ments are quicker and more graceful, his flight being like that of
the slow-flying birds of prey. In boldness and tenacity he sur-
passes all the rest of the Owl tribe. His food consists chiefly of
small quadrupeds, such as the muskrat; partly also of fish, which
he catches with great skill, in nearly the same manner as the
Fish-hawk, sitting on a projecting rock and watching for them,
until they come to the surface of theewater. In winter he prefers
the evening or the night to day-time for hunting. His cry is a
rough, harsh ‘* craw! craw!”

The eggs are laid in the month of June. Their number varies
from five to ten—a remarkable number for a large bird of prey
like the Snow Owl; they are oblong and of a dirty white color. .
The nest consists of a small cavity in the ground, lined with with-
ered grass and a few feathers from the mother bird. Both parents
are much attached to the young, and on the approach of man, the
female flies off a short distance from the nest, and, feigning lame-
ness, remains with spread wings, lying on the ground, in order to
coax the enemy away from the nest. It has been tried many times
to keep Snow Owls in cages; but they invariably died in a short
time without any apparent cause. :

The Snow Bunting. (Lletrophanes Nivaltis.)
Fig. 2.

The Snow Bunting inhabits, ike the Snow Owl, the northern
regions not only of this continent, but also of Europe and Asia. His
home is in the mountains, where he builds his nest in crevices of
rocks or under stones; the outside of it is composed of dry grass,
moss and lichen, the inside of feathers and soft down: the entrance
to itis always narrow; the eggs, five or six in number, are so ir-
regularly marked and colored that a description of them is almost
impossible. ‘The song of the male is very pleasant but short. The
young birds, when fully fledged, remain for a short time in their
old home, then form large flocks and begin their regular wander-

ings. As hardly any other birds fly in as large flocks, at least not

in northern regions, their wanderings attract the attention, not only
of naturalists, but of almost everybody. In Indiana they appear
only in small groups of from sixteen to fifty. They travel also
considerable distances over the sea.

In their manners, Snow Buntings resemble Larks. They fly
easily, with little flapping of the wings, in long curving lines, gen-
erally at considerable heights, and sometimes just above the ground.
They are of a lively, frolicksome disposition, and seem to be in
good humor even on the coldest winter days. In summer they sub-
sist chiefly on insects; in winter they feed also on several kinds ot
seeds. It is very amusing to see a flock of them in winter, on the
snow-covered fields, on a foraging tour. ‘They hover over the
ground, a part of them alighting to pick up what little seed they
can find on such withered plants as extend above the snow, the rest
flying just over them a little further along, and then alighting also;
after a while the first party fly over the others, and in this way they
go over the whole field. ‘Their cry on such occasions sounds like
‘* fit ;” sometimes it isa shrill ‘ tzirr,” uttered during the flight. Our
plate represents this bird in its winter dress. The summer dress of
the old male is really handsome, notwithstanding its plain colors.
The whole middle of the back, the tips of the primaries, and the
middle of the tail feathers are black. There is also a black spot
on the metacarpus. All the rest of the plumage is snow white.

12 SNIPE—SAND PIPERS—SEA SWALLOW—ORIOLE. |
RET Poe ere sa oP ree Te meena eg Sate Oe grat en re Neale Se RO tae

PLATE XI.

The Yellow-shanked Snipe. (Gamdetta—Scolopax—Flavipes.)
Fig. 1.

The Yellow-shanked Snipes arrive in the Northwestern States
between the middle of April and the early part of May, on their
way to the North, where they breed; and return as early as the
latter part of August, or the beginning of September, making only
a short stay. All the birds of this genus seem only to go northward
to breed, and to return southward as soon as the young are able to
fly. Single ones are to be met with in summer, or at almost any
season; but as all of them are male birds, it is to be presumed they
are either old bachelors or widowers, who can not bear to see the
happiness of those who are mated, and therefore wander off toward
the sunny South. There is more dignity in the manners and hab-
its of the Snipes than in those of the Sand-pipers. Their flight
is easy, and when they alight they flap their wings, and before lay-
ing them together, stretch them straight up, so that the tips touch
each other. In case of need they swim and dive tolerably well.
Their chief resorts seem to be the sea-coast and salt-marshes, as
well as the muddy flats at low water, where they delight to wade in
the mud; but it is rather the abundance of food they find there
than the mud, that attracts them. They live on insects and all kinds
of larve. You may sometimes meet with single ones, which show
no shyness at all; but when in flocks they shun the gunner care-
fully and seem to distinguish him from less dangerous persons. It
may be on account of these qualities that numbers of different kinds
of Sand-pipers are found in their company, and seem to follow them
as their leaders with great confidence. Asa delicacy for the table,
they are held in high esteem.

The Semi-palmated Sand-pipers. (Zréxga—Actit?s Semi-palmata.)
Fig. 2.

The principal places which these neat little birds inhabit, are the
sea-shores. ‘Their legs are rather short in proportion to the size of
the bird. They live on the same food asthe Yellow-shanks. These
birds inhabit almost every part of the North American continent.
They migrate North in the spring, and should the season be open,
remain quite late in autumn, when they depart for their winter-
quarters at the South. They congregate in large flocks on the
beaches and sand-bars, and meadows, along the sea-coast and on
the shores of the interior lakes and streams. When feeding, they
scatter about in small parties; when surprised, they run with a
rapid movement, collecting in such close bodies that as many as
twenty, and sometimes more, are killed at a single shot. When
closely pursued, they run off in one mass uttering a chirping note.
If this note be imitated, they will shortly obey the call. They breed
at the far North, the female laying four or five white eggs, spotted
and blotched with black.

On their wanderings southward they sometimes penetrate far in-
land, following the sandy and muddy banks of rivers. In swim-
ming they constantly move their heads backward and forward like
Ducks.

A heavy down under the feathers of the breast makes them ap-
pear round and plump. In the fall the male and female are
marked exactly alike.

The Great Tern, or Sea Swallow. (Sterna Hirundo.)
Fig. 3. |

The Sea Swallows inhabit the northern parts of the temperate
zones. They are found in great numbers on the North American
lakes. In their wanderings they fly, at a considerable height, from

one sheet of water to another, following, when it is possible, the
course of rivers, and occasionally coming down to feed or rest.
Their voice sounds like ‘‘ kraa,” and when frightened, like ‘‘kick”
or ‘¢ krick.” Their food consists of small minnows, young frogs or
tadpoles, worms, crickets, etc. They catch their prey when it is
in the water by suddenly plunging down upon it; when they find
it on the ground, they pick it up while on the wing. They build
their nests on low islands, the shores of rivers, or the coast gener-
ally, but not on sandy ground. ‘They make small holes, or use
such as they happen to find, for their nests, without lining them.
The eggs are laid about the last of May, and are of a light yellow-
ish brown color, speckled with purplish, reddish, and dark brown
round or oblong spots. The female sits on them during the night,
and the male occasionally in the daytime. During the warm sun-
shine the eggs are left uncovered. The young, which are hatched
in about sixteen or seventeen days, soon leave the nest, hiding
themselves, in case of danger, among the pebbles, and only betray-
ing their presence by their melancholy piping, when the parents are
shot. The upper part of these birds is covered with a grayish white
down, and on the lower part the down is white.

They always turn their heads toward water when sitting on the
nest. Their flight is extremely graceful.

The young grow rapidly, and when only three weeks old are
able to follow their parents.

PLATE XII.

The Baltimore Oriole. (Ordolus—-Hyphantes Baltimore.)

Fig. 1, Male. Fig. 2, Female.

The Baltimore Oriole inhabits North America as far as the fifty-
fifth degree of latitude. It ischiefly found in the vicinity of rivers,
and seems to prefer a hilly country. It is only a summer visitant
in the Northern States, where it makes its appearance in pairs,
during the latter part of April or the beginning of May. It com-
mences at once to build its nest, the material and construction of
which vary according to climate and circumstances. In the
Southern States, it consists of ‘‘ Spanish moss,” put together so
loosely that the air can pass through it; itis never lined, and is al-
ways placed on the north side of a tree. In the Northern and
Western States, it is hung on such twigs as are most exposed to the
rays of the sun, and lined with the warmest and finest material.
The bird, in constructing the nest, ties the material to the twigs with
his bill and claws, weaving it strongly together, and giving the
whole the shape of a hanging bag, as.shown on the plate.

In constructing its nest, he makes use of any material he deems
suitable. A lady in Connecticut, while sitting at an open window.
engaged in sewing, was called away for a few moments. A Balti-
more Oriole, in the meantime, entered the window, and carried off
her thread and several yards of small tape to the nest he was then
building. The lady suspected the mischievous bird, and, on going
to the nest, found him weaving in hertape. This she succeeded in :
recovering ; but the silk thread was so perfectly wound in that it
could not be disentangled.

The female lays four and sometimes five or six eggs, of a light
gray color and marked with dark spots, dots, and lines. The young
are hatched in a fortnight, and in three weeks more are fully
fledged. Before they fly out they often hang or climb around the
nest like Woodpeckers. ‘They are fed by their parents for a couple
of weeks, and then left to take care of themselves. The food of
the Baltimore Oriole consists of mulberries, cherries, and similar
fruit. In the spring they chiefly subsist on insects, which they
pick up on leaves and branches or catch flying. Toward fall they
commence their return southward, flying high in the air, and al-
ways in the daytime. They generally fly singly with loud cries,
and apparently in great haste. At sunset they alight on a suitable

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’ MIGRATORY BIRDS. 9

addressing her apparently in angry tones; but in general, the woo-
ing is agreeable and soon brought to a successful issue, the female
thence forward devoting herself to her mate with all possible af
fection and tenderness.

Nest Buritpinc.—As soon as birds have mated, they look out
for suitable nesting-places, unless they belong to the class of birds
that have regular domiciles, to which they return from year to year.
The nests are usually built in the central portion of the district
which the birds inhabit, and are different in their architecture and
materials. Birds of prey build nests on lofty trees or ‘high
rocks; the running birds generally build on the ground; others,
on the branches, or in the hollows of trees (sometimes excavated
by themselves), in the forks of bushes, or on the ground, among
mosses or weeds. Aquatic birds make nests on the shore among
rushes, weeds, or grass, or in sand-banks. Sometimes they fasten
the nest to the rushes and leave it to float on the surface of the
water, as do the Gallinules where the water alternately rises and
falls. Some sea-birds build nests in rocky caves, or like the Puf-
fins, dig out hollows in rocks for that purpose.

The concealment of the nest seems to be a great object with all
birds. Where it is built in open places, it is so constructed as not
to be easily observable. Some birds hardly make a nest at all, but
lay their eggs on the bare ground, or on the naked surface of a
rock. Some only make a small cavity in which to deposit their
eggs; others fill the cavity with some soft and warm material; and
others still, including those that build their nests on trees or form
running nests on the ground, construct a sort of trestle-work as a
basis for the nest.

The architecture of nests on trees and shrubs is as varied as are
the birds that build them. Some nests are put loosely together ;
others are made in a more regular form out of tree branches, woody
fibers, etc. ; while other regularly formed nests are neatly lined with
fine roots like threads and with hair or feathers. Some nests are
roofed or arched over, and the entrance into others is lengthened
to a kind of tube through which the birds creep in and out. The
weaver-birds knot and sew their nests with long fibers or threads,
and use, besides, little twigs and the soft wool-like material of dif-
ferent plants. Nuthatches are also adepts in the art of nest build-
ing, forming the walls of their nests with loam, which, made into
mortar or paste by the saliva of the bird, becomes hard and dura-
ble. The principal use of the nest is to serve as a depository for
the eggs and a cradle for the young. Some birds, however, build
nests for their own amusement or for shelter in winter. To this
class belong several kinds of weaver-birds, the Atlas and Collar
birds, and Woodpeckers also, which always sleep at night in the
hollows of trees, together with the domestic Sparrow, that regu-
larly retires at night to a warm and well-lined nest, at least in
winter.

The female bird usually constructs the nest, while her mate
brings the materials. But among the weaver-birds the nest is
chiefly built by the male. Among other birds, the male acts as a
sort of architect or superintendent, watching and directing the fe-
male during the progress of the work. ‘The males of polygamous
birds take no part in the construction of nests. Male birds gen-
erally, during the time of nest-building, entertain their female com-
panions with sweet songs, or encourage them with their agreeable
chatterings. Some birds’ nests are made for a common use; dif-
ferent females lay their eggs in them together, which are often
hatched alternately. Other birds build a large nest in common,
and divide it into several apartments, each of which is used by a
separate family. :

As soon as the female bird begins to lay eggs, the temperature
of her body begins to increase, and she soon has the so-called
breeding-fever. This causes her to lose the feathers on some parts
of her body. The process of hatching the eggs is chiefly per-
formed by the female. She usually sits from the afternoon of one
day till the forenoon of the next, and is then only relieved by the

male while she is necessarily absent, searching for food. Some
birds, however, divide the labor of incubation, the male and female
sitting alternately. The male Ostrich does all the sitting. The
eggs, after the bird begins to sit, are turned almost daily, and are
always covered with a soft down when both birds are absent.

CARE OF THE Younc.—The parent birds render no assistance
to their young to facilitate their coming out of the shell. But as
soon as they have effected their entrance into the world, they are
cared for by their parents with assiduity and tenderness. At first
they are fed with the tenderest food; then on that which is more
substantial, and, as soon as they are able to leave the nest, they are
taught to procure their own food and take care of themselves. All
birds manifest great love for their offspring. They will protect
them from peril and resort to all sorts of tricks to avert danger or
turn away an enemy, risking their own lives in defense of their
progeny. These, in turn, are in like degree attached to their par-
ents, and listen obediently to their every call.

Migratory Birds.

MicraTions.—As soon as their young can be safely left to
themselves, several kinds of birds commence their journeyings to
other countries. This journeying, when it occurs regularly every
year, ata time certain, and in an appointed direction, is called
‘‘ passage.” But it takes the name of ‘‘ wandering,” when the
traveling is the result of necessity, and therefore takes place
neither at a certain time nor in a certain direction, ceasing when
the cause that produced it is removed. It is also called ‘‘strolling”
or ‘* rambling,” when the journey is confined within narrow limits,
and is merely the result of a desire for a change of residence or
for the sake of more abundant food. )

Singing-birds make their passages or migrations every fall, and
return in the spring. Aquatic birds set out on their passages long
before the severely cold weather sets in. A majority of the birds
of North America, and of Northern Europe and Northern Asia,
migrate in a more or less southern direction; those in the Eastern
hemisphere journeying southwesterly, and those in the Western
hemisphere eastwardly, according to the prospect for finding plenty
of food and a good winter-harbor. Rivers, valleys, and mountains.
serve for guidance to migratory birds. Sometimes these birds fly
in pairs and sometimes in large flocks. The shy and feeble travel —
by night, the bold and strong both day and night. Before they
set out, they grow restless and wander about, as if prompted to
travel by an irresistible impulse. Birds taken from the nest when
young, and kept confined in cages, manifest this same restlessness
when the migrating season arrives.

It is a curious fact, that the birds that leave us the latest in the
year, are the first to return, and those that leave the earliest, are
the last to return. Birds that leave in November, return in Feb-
ruary. North American birds travel to the southern parts of the
United States or to Central America. Several kinds of European
birds winter in the southern part of that continent, and many North
African kinds, dwelling between the thirty-seventh and twenty-
fourth parallels of north latitude, migrate south to regions within
the torrid zone. Other winter-quarters for migratory birds are
India, including Siam and South China. Birds in South America
take a northern direction to Southern and Middle Brazil; and South
Australian birds fly to the northern part of the island, some of them.
even to New Guinea and the neighboring islands.

All birds of passage, before they start, hold regular meetings,
remaining in session for several days. ‘They call in all those that
pass by, and as soon as the flock has become large enough, the
meeting is broken up, and the long flight begins. During the pro-
gress of the meeting, regular musters are held; leaders are chosen,
and such birds as are judged incapable of remaining a long time
on the wing and of keeping up with their companions are ejected.

10

PROTECTION OF BIRDS—CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.

re a es. a ee a Le tS SS SS eS SSS a a aaa ea ie nn a os anne ev ee

Some naturalists even affirm that birds supposed to be too feeble to
endure the tedious passage are put to death. The migratory flock
flies in two rows or lines, so formed as to be gradually approach-
ing nearer each other, and both ending in the one point, so as to
form a figure resembling a harrow or the letter V. Some fly in
direct lines, and some in disorder. Generally, those that fly very
high sometimes take suddenly a downward course, fly low for a
short time, and then rise to the same height as before. Some weaker
kinds of birds fly only in the daytime, and as much as possible from
tree to tree and from forest to forest, using the trees for shelter at
night and during high winds and storms. Runners that fly with
great difficulty, make rapid progress, alternately running and fly-
ing. Aquatic birds sometimes take to the water and swim, when
they come upon a river or other body of water which they can use
for helping them onward in their migration. The progress of mi-
_ gratory birds is aided by favorable winds, and retarded, often for
several days, by contrary winds. The restlessness and excitement
that birds experience before and during their flight, cease soon after
they arrive at their destination.

THE WANDERINGS of birds resemble their migrations, inasmuch
-as the former, with more or less regularity, take place at certain
times. Wandering birds usually live in the higher northern lati-
tudes, and are forced to migrate by having their feeding-places sud-
denly covered up by heavy snow-falls. Other wanderers fly from
north to south within a certain zone, during very severe winters.
Birds inhabiting the higher mountainous regions annually migrate
to lower places, and, with the opening of spring, return to their
former homes.

THE STROLLING of birds occurs at all seasons, and in all parts
of the globe. Birds having no mates, go in search of them, and
birds of prey are always strolling for food. Some birds seem to
enjoy a strolling, irregular life, as they wander about without any
apparent object. But wherever a bird may stroll, however long
or short its journeyings, and however long or short the time of its
sojourn abroad, its home is in the locality where it builds its nest
and rears its young.

- The Utility and Protection of Birds.

Tue Utiuity of birds to mankind is beyond question. They
are our guardians against insects, whose ravages would, were it
not for birds, lay waste the entire globe. Birds are held in high
esteem even among savages. Their handsome forms, their bright
and beautiful plumage, the astonishing celerity of their motions,
their long, rapid, and lofty flights, and, above all, the delightful
harmony and sweetness of many of their songs, win the admira-
tion and affection of all human hearts. From the earliest periods
of history, birds have always been the favorites of man, and es-
pecially of womankind. From them, more than from all other
animals, we make selections for our entertainment, and for intimate
and constant companionship in our private rooms, and even in our
parlors. Many of our domestic and other birds supply us with
feathers for use and ornament, while their eggs and flesh furnish
wholesome and delicious food. 3

THE ProTEcTION of birds has been often, in civilized countries,
made the subject of legal enactment. But it is to be regretted that
such legislation and its enforcement have never given the protec-
tion that should have been afforded. Our legislators, in gen-
eral, are not adequately informed as to the utility of birds, else they

would hardly be willing to leave any of them beyond the pale of -

legal protection. Many birds seemingly useless, or even destruc-
tive, will be found, on closer observation, to be among our greatest
benefactors. Natural history, in general, and Ornithology, in par-
ticular, are interesting and important branches of education.

Classification of Birds.

Tue Systematic CiassiFIcaTIon of birds is attended with pe-
culiar difficulties, owing to their many resemblances, combined
with manifold variations. Numerous systems of classification have
been devised, especially since the beginning of the present cen-
tury ; but none of these are entirely satisfactory, all of them being
considered, by Ornithologists in general, as more or less unnatural
and artificial. The system of Linnzeus has been long abandoned,
although its author deserves the same credit for his orderly distri-
butions in Ornithology as in other departments of Zoology.

In the classification herein attempted, the suggestions of the best
modern Ornithologists have been adopted. There is doubtless
room enough for many improvements; and improvements will cer-
tainly be made, as the further progress of the Science of Birds shall
lead to agreement, on doubtful or disputed points, among its
votaries.

FIRST CLASS.

CRACKERS—(Zuuclatores)—THREE ORDERS.
FIRST ORDER.
Parrots—(Pszttacinz)—Six Groups.

First Group—Parrots Proper—(Pszttacz)—Seven Families.

. Gray Parrots—Pszttacus.

. Green Parrots—Czrysotzs.

. Short-tail Parrots—FPronus.

. Fan Parrots—Deroptyus.

. Dwarf Parrots—Agapornis.
. Sparrow Parrots—Pszttacula.
. Siskin Parrots—/Vascterna.

TOUS WH WD H

Second Group—Loris—(Lorzz7)—Four Families.
. Loris—Lorzus.
. Lorikets—Pszttacuteles.
. Purple Loris—Corcphilus.
. Long-tailed Loris—Pyrrhodes.

& G&G DN HA

Lhird Group—Cockatoos—(Plyctolophi)—Seven Families.

. Cockatoos—Cacatua.

- Helmet Cockatoos—Calocephalus. *
. Fan Cockatoos—Lzcmetis.

. Ground Cockatoos—WVestor.

. Hair Cockatoos—Dasyftilus.

. Proboscis Cockatoos —Microglossum.
- Raven Cockatoos—Calyptorhynchus.

“TIT Ou & WwW A

fourth Group—Night Parrots—(Strigopes)—One Family.
1. Night Parrots—Strigops.

Lifth Group—Araras—(Are@)—Four Families.

. Araras—Ara.

. Blue Araras—Anodorhynchus.
- Wedge-tail Araras—Conurus.
- Nose Araras—Znzcoguathus.

Wb

Sixth Group—Sittiches (Sparrow or Finch Parrots) —Fal@or-
nithes)—Seven Families.

- Noble Sittiches—Paleornis.

- Superb Sittiches—Polyteles.

. Grass Sittiches—Platycercus.

- Speckled Sittiches—Psephotus.

- Ornamental Sittiches—Aclopsittacus.

- Painted Sittiches—Wymphicus.

. Ground Sittiches—Pezoporus.

sTONUA w® WN HE

CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS. 11

SECOND ORDER.

SPARROW Birps—(Ffasseres)—Thirteen Groups.

First Group—Crossbills—(Zoxie@)—Two Families.

t. Crossbills—ZLow7a.
2. Sittich Finches—Pszttcrostra.

Second Group—Bullfinches—(Pyrrhule)—Eight Families.

. Parrot Bullfinches—Paradoxornis.

. Pine Bullfinches—FPiuzcola.

. Redbreast Bullfinches—Zrythrothorax.
. Long-tail Bullfinches— Veragus.

. Desert Bullfinches—Bucanetes.

- Red Bullfinches—Pyrrhula.

. Garden Bullfinches—Serznus.

. Tree Bullfinches—Dryosdiza.

On OM Bf & DY H

Third Group—F¥inches—(fringilla)—Eight Families.

- Noble Finches—/7rzn gvlla.

. Alps Finches—/ontifringilla.
. Winter Finches—/V7phea.

. Hemp Finches—Cannabina.

. Birch Siskins—Lznarza.

. Siskins—Sfznus.

. Thistle Siskins— Carduelis.

. Goldfinches—Astragalinus.

On AU BP & bY H

Fourth Group—Sparrows—(Fasseres)—Four Families.

I. Sparrows—fasser.

2. Sparrowlets—Pyrgvtopsis,

. Gold Sparrows—Chrysospiza.
. Mountain Sparrows—Fetronia.

- 6

ss
Lifth Group—Grossbeaks—( Coccothrauste)—Four Families.

. Green Finches— Chloris.

. Grossbeaks— Coccothraustes.

. Evening Grossbeaks—Hesferiphona.
. Nut Grossbeaks— Geosfzza.

& & Hb H

Sixth Group—Parrot Finches—(P2tyl7)—Nine Families.

. Kernel Crackers—Coccoborus.

. Crested Kernel Crackers—Cardinalis.
Gray Finches—Faroarza.

. Bullfinch Finches—Sporophila.
Rudder Finches—Catamblyrhinchus.

. Parrot Finches—Pitylus.

Mask Finches—Carzothraustes.

. Habias—Saltator.

. Plant-mowers—Phytotoma.

‘0 ON ANU BW DH

Seventh Group—Color Finches—( Zanagre)—Six Families.

. Tanagers— Tanagra. '

. Fire Tanagers—Pyranga.

. Callists—Caltiste.

. Callous-billed Tanagers—/thamphocelus.
. Strangling Tanagers—Lanzo.

. Organists—Luphone.

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Eighth Group—Pomp Finches—(Amadine)—Twelve Families.

. Collar Finches—Amadina.
Cap Finches—Spermestes.
Cracker Finches—Pyrenestes.
. Bullrush Finches—Donacola.
. Grass Finches—Poéphila.

. Rice Finches—Fadda.

. Gold Finches—Pytelza.

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. Drop Finches—Lagonosizcta.

. Variegated Finches—Hmblema.
. Lustre Finches—/ypochera.

. Butterfly Finches—Marzfosa.

. Astrilds—Astrzlda.

Ninth Group—Weaver-Birds—(FPlocez)—Seven Families.

. Social Weavers—FPihzleterus.

. Gold Weavers—floceus.

. Bunting Weavers—Velicurvius.
. Bloodbill Weavers—Quelea.

- Mourning Weavers— Zaha.

. Fire Weavers—ZuPplectes.

. Cattle Weavers— J7exior.

Tenth Group—Widow Birds—( Vidue)—Five Families.

- Mourning Widows—- Colzuspasser.
. Train Widows—Chera.

. Cocktail Widows—Szeganura.

. Widows— Vidua.

. Hair-tail Widows— 7etrenura.

Eleventh Group—Bunting Finches—(Passerel/e)—F our Families.

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. Morning Finches—Zonotrichia.
. Bunting Finches—SPrzella.

. Steps Finches—Fasserculus.

. Shore Finches—Ammodromus.

Twelfth Group—Buntings—(Emberize@)—Seven Families.

. Cardinal Buntings—Gubernatrix.
. Gray Buntings—AZlarza.

. Buntings—Améberzza.

. Pomp Buntings—LZusZzza.

. Bullrush Buntings—Cynuchramus.

Spur Buntings— Centrophanes.

. Winter Buntings—flcctrophanes.

Thirteenth Group—Larks—(Alaude)—Ten Families.

. Kalander Larks—Melanocoripha.
. Steppes Larks—Sawzlauda.

Sand Larks—Ammomanes.

. Bunting Larks—Pyrrhulauda.
. Shore Larks—Pahileremos.

Tuft Larks—Galerita.

. Wood Larks—Corys.

. Larks—Alauda.

. Spur Larks—Macronyx.
. Runner Larks—Alemon.

THIRD ORDER.

Raven Birps—( Coracirostres)—Eight Groups.

first Group—Starlings—(/cterz)—Seven Families.

. Rice Eaters—Dolichonix.

. Swamp Trupials—Agelaius.
. Cow Birds—JZolothrus.

. Yellow Birds—Jcterus.

. Hang-Nests—Hyphantes.

. Blackbirds—Casszcus.

. Boat-tails—Quzscalus.

Second Group—Starlings Proper—(Sturnz)—Five Families.

. Starlings—Sturnus.

. Starlingouzel—Fastor.

. Shepherd Starlings—Acrzdotheres.
- Grakles—Gracula.

- Maggot Choppers—Buphaga.

j2

Lhird Group—Lustre

Avi B® DN

CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.

a ae a a a ee ee a es Oe ee ee ee ee ee ae ee ee ed ee eer ea a ee a

Thrushes — (Lamprotornithes) — Six
Families.

. Lustre Starlings—Lamprocolius.

. Starling Lustre Thrushes—J/Votauges.
. Scale Lustre Starlings—Pholidauges.
. Lustre Stars—Lamfgrotornis.

- Rock Lustre Birds—Pilorhinus.

- Mountain Lustre Starlings—Amydrus.

Fourth Group—Oriols—( Orzolz)—Four Families.

I. Satin Birds—Piclonorhynchus.
2. Collar Birds—Chlamydodera.
3-

4. Silk Oriols —Serzculus.

Oriols— Orzolus.

Fifth Group—Birds of Paradise—(Paradisee)—Seven Families.

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. Birds of Paradise—Paradisea.

- Conchoid-tails—Crcennurus.

. Collared Birds of Paradise—Lophorzna.
. Ornamented Birds of Paradise—Farotza.
- Pomp Hoopoes—Seleucides.

- Ornamented Hoopoes—Apzmachus.

. Paradise Pies—Astrapia.

Sixth Group—Ravens—(Coraces)—Thirteen Families.

- Rock Crows—/regizlus.

. Rock Jackdaws—Pyrrhocorax.
. Noble Ravens— Corax.

. Vulture Ravens—Corvultur.

. Ornamented Ravens—Fterocorax.
. Crows— Corvus.

. Field Crows—/rugzlegus.

. Tower Crows—MVonedula.

. Pomp Crows—Anomalocorax.
. Pine Crows—WVucifraga.

. Piping Crows—Gymnorhina.

. Piping Pies—Strepera.

. Bald Crows—Ficathartes.

Seventh Group—Jays—(Garrul:)—Eleven Families.

. Garden Jays—FPica.

. Pie Jays—Cyanopica.

. Tree Jays—Cyanocorax.
. Strangling Jays—Cyanocitta.
. Jays—Garrulus.

. Lichen Jays—FPerssoreus.
. Tail Jays—Dendrocitta.
. Lobe Jays—Crypsirhina.
. Stump Jays—Zemuurus.
. Kittas— Uroczssa.

. Feather Bills—Czssa.

Eighth Group—Plantain Katers—(Amphibole)—Five Families.
1. Plantain Katers—J/usophaga.

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I.

. Helmet Birds—Corythazx.
. Turakos—Corytheola.
. Bustle Birds—Schizorhis.

. Mice Birds—Colzus.

SECOND CLASS.

CATCHERS—(Cafiantes)—THREE ORDERS.
FOURTH ORDER.

BIRDS OF Prey—(Raptores)—Thirteen Groups.

First Group—F alcons—(falcones)—Eight Families.
Hunting Falcons—Hzerofalco.

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. Peregrine Falcons—falco.
. Lark Falcons—Aypotriorchis.
. Bush Falcons—Areracidea.

. Jogging Falcons— 77nnunculus.
. Evening Falcons—EZrythropus.
. Thrust Falcons—Arhynchodon.

. Dwarf Falcons—Hzerax.

Second Group —Hawks—(Accipitres)—Six Families.

. Noble Hawks—AHerfpetotheres.
. Tooth Hawks—Harfagus.

. Sparrow Hawks—/Vzsus.

| Hawks-—Asivr.

. Song Hawks—Melerax.

. Snake Hawks—Polyborozdes.

Third Group—Eagles—(Aquz/e)—Ten Families.

. Eagles proper—Aquz/a.

. Buzzard Falcon Eagles— Uroaétos.
. Hawk Eagles—Pseudaétos.

. Hooded Eagles—S#zzaétos.

. Tuft Eagles—Lophoattos.

. Strangling Eagles—Pternura.

. Sparrow Eagles—Morphnus.

. Harpy Eagles—Harpya.

. Sea Eagles—/aliaétos.

. Fishing Pere lw a

Fourth Group—Kites—(Crcz > —Twelve Families.

. Eagle Kites—Helotarsus.

. Swimmers—Z/lanus.

. Hover Kites—J/ctznza.

. Buzzard Kites— Cymzndis.
. Hood Kites—Aaza.

Water Kites—//ydrozctinza.
Kites—Aiz/vus.

. Swallow Kites—WVauclerus.

Dwarf Swallow Kites—Chelidopteryx.

. Field Kites—Strzgvceps.
. Swamp Kites—Circus.
. Speckled Kites—SPzlocircus.

fifth Group—Buzzards—( Buteones)—Eight Families

. Eagle Buzzards—Circaétos.

. Speckled Buzzards—Szlornis.

- Honey Buzzards—FPernzs.

- Rough Legged Buzzards—Archibuteo.
. Buzzards—Auteo.

. Stepps Buzzards—Peliornis.

. Hook Buzzards—fostrhamus.

- Heel Buzzards—Hypomorphunus.

Sixth Group—Vulture Falcons—(Polybord)—Three Families.

I.
2.

3.

Vulture Buzzards—Milwago.
Vulture Falcons—Polyborus.
Crying Buzzards—J/6ycter.

Seventh Group—Crane Vultures—(Gypogerant)—One Family.

I.

| Lighth Group—Vulture Eagles—(Gypaéti
. Lammergeier, Barbed Vulture—Gyfaétos barbatus.

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Crane Vulture or Secretary—Gypogeranus serpentartus.

One Family.

Ninth Group—vVultures—( Vultures)—Four Families.
Comb Vultures—Sarcorhamphus.
Goose Vultures—Gy¢s.
Tuft Vultures— Vultur.

. Ear Vultures— Otogyps.

UDI UARSS RRO LA MEADRDO DRO D ED

os

JEL E DE

Jacob H, Studer, Publisher

COLUMBUS, OHIO

ROBERT CLARKE & CO C. D. CAZENOVE
6B WEST FOURTH STREET 18 BEAUFORT BUILDINGS, STRAND
CINCINNATI, O ; | LONDON

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ene

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1. @DICNEMUS crepitans.

2. RSACUS magnirostris .

GWIRS ORIN.

1. PLUVIANUS egyptus. gz. CURSORIUS égalhcus.

5. OREOPHILUS totanirostris.

GILAIRIE OLIN AS .

C.Hullmandel's Patent Tathotint.

Order VII. GRALLA. Family I. CHARADRIADA.

The third Subfamily,

GLAREOLIN A, or Pratincoxss,

have a short Bill, which is broad at the base, and laterally compressed to the tip; the Wings very long,
with the first quill the longest ; the Legs moderate, with the tip of the tibia naked; the Toes three in

front, and one posteriorly, which is elevated.

GLAREOLA Briss.*

Bill short, broad at the base, much compressed to the tip, with the culmen depressed at the base,
elevated and arched to the tip, the lateral margins curved; the nostrils basal, lateral, and oblique.
Wings lengthened, pointed, extending beyond the end of the tail, with the first quill longest. Tail
moderate, and more or less forked. Legs moderate and slender, with the tarsi scutellated, and the
middle toe and claw lengthened; the outer toe longer than the inner, and united at the base to the
middle one; the hind toe very short, elevated, but touching the ground; and the claws rather long,

nearly straight, that of the middle toe shghtly pectinated on one side.

These few species inhabit the temperate and warmer parts of the Old World. They frequent the borders of rivers,
lakes, and marshes, both in the plains and on the mountains. Their food consists chiefly of worms, flies, orthopterous
and aquatic insects, which they take on the wing like the swallows, and on the ground, where they can run very
quickly. They form a slight nest on the surface of the ground, among the rushes and thick herbage in the marshes,

wherein they deposit several eggs.

1. G. pratincola (Linn.) Pall. Pl. enl. 882.— Glareola austriaca 4, G. orientalis Leach, Linn. Tr. xiii. pl. 13.
Gmel. Leach, Linn. Tr. xiii. pl. 12. ; Glareola nevia Gmel.; Glareola 5. G. isabella Vieill. Gal. des Ois. t. 263. — Glareola grallaria
senegalensis Gmel.; Glareola torquata Meyer. Temm.; Glareola australis Leach, Linn. Tr, xiii. pl. 14.

2. G. Nordmanni Fisch. — Glareola pratincola Pall. 6. G. lactea Temm. Man. ii. 503., Pl. col. 399.

3. G. limbata Riipp. 7. G. cinerea Fras. Proc. Z. 8. 1843. 26.

* Brisson established this genus in (Ornithologie) 1760 ; and in 1777 Scopoli proposed Trachelia.

May, 1844.

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1 TEXTOR alecto. : 2. HYPHANTORNIStextor. 38. NIGRITA canicapilla. 4. SYCOBIUS cristatus. CBullmandelis Fatent Lithotint
5. PLOCEUS phhppimus. 6. PLOCEPASSER mahal. 7. PHILETARUS socius. 8. CHERA progne
9. VIDUA primcip alis.

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Order VII. GRALLAZ Linn.«

comprehends a large series of birds that have the lower portion of their Tibia, or Thighs, naked, and
the Tarsi lengthened, rounded, and slender.

The first Family,

CHARA DRIADZA, or Provers,

have the Bill short, with the basal portion of the culmen rather depressed and weak, and the apical part
strong and swollen; the Nostrils placed in a deep longitudinal groove of various length; the Tarsi

lengthened; the hind Toe totally wanting, or small and elevated.

The first Subfamily,
CEDICNEMIN 4, or Tuicx-Kners,

have the Bill as long as, or longer than, the head, with the culmen slightly depressed at the base and
swollen at the tip, and the gonys more or less angulated ; the Tarsi lengthened, with three rather short

Toes in front.

CEpicNemus T'emm.}

Bill rather longer than the head, the culmen straight, with the apical half arched and curved to the
tip, the sides compressed, and the gonys nearly half the length of the bill, angulated, and advancing
upwards to the tip; the nostrils in a subtriangular membranous groove, with the aperture longitudinal
and anterior. Wings of moderate length, pointed ; with the first quill shorter than the second, which
is the longest, and the tertials the length of the quills. Zaz moderate and wedge-shaped. Tarsi
lengthened, three or four times the length of the middle toe, and covered with hexagonal scales. Toes
short, the inner shorter than the outer, and both united to the middle one by a membrane at their base,

especially the outer; the claws short and slightly curved.

* Or the Grallatores of Illiger.
+ This genus was established by M. Temminck in (Manuel d’ Ornithologie, 1st edit. p. 3821.) 1815; and the Fedoa of Leach, proposed

in 1816, is coequal.

GiDICNEMIN .

They are migratory birds, inhabiting all parts of the world except North America, seeking the more temperate
regions to rear their young, and the warmer latitudes to pass the winter. ‘These periodical flights are performed in
flocks during the night, with great swiftness. It is in uncultivated open moorlands that these birds are generally found.
Their food is sought for during the evening or at night; it consists of small quadrupeds, reptiles, and especially
worms and insects. During the day they sit closely squatted behind a stone, or any other object sufficiently large to
hide them; but, if disturbed, they fly to a short distance, and then run off to hide with great rapidity. Each female
deposits two eggs on the surface of the bare ground. The young are capable of following the parent as soon as
they are excluded from the egg.

1. Cid. erepitans Temm. PI. enl. 919.— Charadrius Gidicnemus 5. CEd. grailarius (Lath.) Lambert’s Icon. ined. iii. t. 11.— (id.

Linn.; Cid. europeus Vieil/.; Cd. griseus Koch. longipes Vieill. Pl. col. 386.; Charadrius frenatus Lath. Lambert’s

2. Cid. senegalensis Swains. Birds of W. Afr. ii. 228. — Ed.
affinis? Réiipp. Mus. Senck. 1834. 210.
3. CEd. maculosus Temm. Pl. col. 292.— Cd. capensis Licht.

Icon. ined. ili. t.41.; ? Charadrius magnirostris* Lath. Lambert's
Icon. ined. ii. t. 19.
6. Gd. giganteus Licht. Isis, 1829. 647.

A, Cid. bistriatus (Wagl.) Isis, 1829. 648.—CEd. vocifer L’ Herm.
Mag. de Zool. 1837. pl. 84.; Cid. americanus Swains.

Esacus Less.

Bill much longer than the head, strong, the culmen more or less straight, with the base cultrated, and
the tip gradually or suddenly hooked; the base broad, and the sides gradually compressed to the tip ;
the lateral margins more or less curving upwards to the tip, and angulated at the base; the lower
mandible strong, with the gonys half its length, angulated, and advancing upwards to the tip; the
nostrils placed in a membranous groove, rather less than half the length of the bill, with the aperture

longitudinal, anterior, and near the margin.

They inhabit the wide sandy banks of the larger rivers of India during the winter, and, as the summer advances,
migrate to the northern parts of India. Their food consists of crabs and other hard shellfish. They are also found
in the Indian Archipelago and Australia.

1. Es. recurvirostris (Cuv.) Less.—Carvanaca grisea Hodgs. ; 2. Es. magnirostris (Geoff.) Temm. Pl. col. 387.
Cidicnemus recurvirostris Swains.

* The type of Illiger’s genus Burhinus, which was established in 1811 on Latham’s short description, taken from the badly executed
drawing referred to above.

~ This is coequal with Carvanaca, of Mr. Hodgson, published in the Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 1836, p. 776. In 1841 he changed it to
Pseudops. M. Lesson’s name was published in 1831, in his T'raité ad’ Ornithologie, p. 547.

May, 1844.

5
i
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od

SUye

ORIOLE—BLUE BIRD—FLY-CATCHER—CORMORANT. 13

tree, take a little rest, and, having quickly picked up some food,
goto sleep. Next morning after a slight breakfast, the journey is
resumed. The movement of these birds is pleasant and easy ; their
flight straight, and their walk on the ground quiet. They mani-
fest great skill in climbing branches ; in this respect almost surpass-
ing the Titmouse.

The Orchard Oriole. (Orcolus—AIcterus—Mutatus.)
Fig. 3s

This bird chiefly frequents orchards, whence the name. It is
gay and frolicksome, and seems tobe always in great haste, hopping
among the branches or upon the ground, and flying in the air. Its
notes are short but lively, and uttered with such rapidity that it is
difficult to follow them distinctly. Sometimes it utters only a single
note, which is very agreeable. Its food generally consists of in-
sects and their larva. Of the insects that infest fruit trees, they
destroy great quantities, and are therefore benefactors to farmers
and fruit-growers.

The Orchard Oriole builds his nest similar to that of the Balti-
more. For material it uses a long fibrous grass, and generally
hangs the nest on the outward branch of an apple tree. ‘The nest
is semi-globular in shape, about three inches deep and two wide;
the inside is lined with wool or a down from the seeds of the pla-
tanas accidentalis, or buttonwood tree. The eggs are commonly
four in number, having a pale bluish tint, with a few small specks
of brown and dots of purple. ‘The female sits fourteen days; the
young remain from two to three weeks in the nest, which they leave
about the middle of June. The upper portion of the female is col-
ored with a yellowish olive, inclining to a brownish tint on the
back; the wings are dusky brown, and the lesser wing coverts
tipped with yellowish white; the tail is rounded, the two exterior
feathers three-quarters of an inch shorter than the middle ones;
the lower parts of the body are yellow. The plumage of the male
nearly corresponds with that of the female.

The Indigo Blue Bird. (Cyaxospiza Cyanea.)
Fig. 4.

This beautiful little bird inhabits, it seems, all parts of the
North American continent from Mexico to Nova Scotia, and from
the sea-coast west, beyond the Appalachian and Cherokee Mount-
ains. It is chiefly seen in gardens, fields of clover, on the borders
of woods, and on roadsides, where it is often observed perched on
fences. It is very neat and agile, and a good singer. Mounting
to the highest top of a tree it sometimes chants for half an hour ata
time. Its song consists of short notes often repeated : the first ones
are loud and rapidly succeed: each other; then they are gradually
dropped until they are hardly audible, the little singer appearing
to be quite exhausted; but after a pause of about half a minute,
he begins again as fresh, lively, and loud as at first. The song
is heard during the months of May, June, July, and August. When
frightened it utters a single chirp, sounding almost like two pebbles
struck together. The color of its plumage is changeable, depend-
ing on the light in which itis seen. Instead of indigo blue, it some-
times appears in a verdigris dress; at other times the dress appears
green, and at others blue., Its head is of a deep blue, and its color
is not changeable like that of the rest of the body. Its nest 1s usu-
ally built in rank grass, grain, or clover, and is generally suspended
between two twigs, one passing on each side; itis composed of flax
or other fibrous material, with an inside lining of fine dry grass.
The eggs, numbering five, are light blue, with a purplish blotch on
the larger end. Insects and a variety of seeds constitute its prin-
cipal food. The female is of a light flaxen color; her wings are
of a dusky black, and the cheeks, breast, and the lower portions

of her body are clay-colored, streaked with a darker color under
the wings, tinged so as to be bluish in several places. Toward
fall, after moulting, the male appears almost in the same colors as
the female. The Indigo Blue Bird is frequently kept in cages ; and
those taken in trap-cages soon become reconciled to their captivity,
but never sing so well nor so loud as those reared by hand from
the nest. They are fed with different kinds of seeds, such as rape,.
turnip, hemp, and canary seed.

In Europe they are invariably found in every collection of birds.

The Hooded Fly-catcher. (JZustcapa—Setophaga Mitrata.)
Fig. 5.

This bird is chiefly found in the southern parts of North Amer-
ica, abounding in the Gulf States. It is a lively bird, and has in
a good degree the manners of a true Fly-catcher, while in some
respects it resembles the Warbler. It is in an almost constant chase
after insects, its principal food, uttering now and then a very lively
‘* twee, twee, twitchee.” In the Northern States it is rather scarce,
and when met with there it is shy and timid, like a stranger far
from home.

It spends the winter in Mexico and the West India islands. The >
nest of the Hooded Fly-catcher is very neatly and compactly built
in the fork of a small bush: it is on the outside composed of. flax
and other fibers, and moss, or pieces of broken hemp; the inside
is nicely lined with hair and feathers. The eggs are five in num-
ber, grayish white, with reddish spots on the larger end. In the
United States it is a bird of passage. The female nearly resem-
bles the male, except that the yellow of her throat and breast has
a slight blackish tint; the black does not reach so far down on the
upper part of the neck as in the male, and it is also of a less deep
color.

PLATE XIII.

Townsend’s Cormorant. (Pialacrocorax Townsend.)
Fig. 1.

Cormorants are generally found in all parts of both hemispheres ;
in middle Asia, and, in winter, in great numbers in Africa. They
are most numerous in rivers bordered by large forests. ‘Thousands
congregate on the Columbia river. The bird from which the draw-
ing is made, was presented to usby Dr. W.'T. Shepard, who shot
it in the ‘* Reservoir,” in Licking county, Ohio. It proved, on dis-
section, to be a female.

Cormorants are common in winter in all the southern seas—in
Greece, in China, and India. Wherever water and fish are to be
met with, Cormorants are seen. These birds manifest many pecu-
liarities. They are gregarious, usually congregating in flocks, and
sometimes in considerable numbers. ‘They are seldom seen singly
or in pairs. Almost all the different kinds of Cormorants are often
collected in the same flock.

During the morning hours, Cormorants are busy in fishing. The
afternoon is generally devoted to repose. Toward evening another
fishing excursion is made, and after this they retire to sleep. For
this purpose, they select, in the interior of the country, high trees
on islands, or those standing in lakes or rivers. Such trees also
serve them for breeding-stations. On the coast or on the ocean,
they choose a rocky island, affording a wide range of vision, and
also a harbor, from whose every side they can easily take flight and
return. Such islands can be seen and recognized from a distance,
as they are literally covered with the white excrements of these
birds. Ship-loads of guano could be collected on these islands, if
it could only be dried by the tropical sun of Peru. Such a sight in
mid-ocean never fails to attract the attention of the mariner or the

14 CORMORANT—DIVER LOON.
a ee aa ee ee ee a a ee Te eg ee Se Occ ee oe Oe ae Ie ee ka ee I

traveler ; but the island is, of course, most attractive when it is occu-
pied by Cormorants. There they sit arranged in rows or lines, on
the rocks, in the most picturesque positions, and all facing the sea.
Rarely can one be seen sitting apart from the rest. They usually
wear a stiff, statue-like appearance; but sometimes each bird is
seen to move some part of the body, either the neck, wings, or tail.
The object of these movements doubtless is to dry their feathers.
After ten or fifteen minutes, they become quiet, merely basking in
the sun. On such occasions, each Cormorant seems to have a par-
ticular place which he always occupies.

Cormorants walk with extreme difficulty. Some observers have

said that these birds can only walk when they support themselves
by their tails. This supposition has evidently arisen from the fact
that the tail portion of the Cormorant’s body is stiff, like that of the
Woodpecker. Cormorants, when hanging by their short, round
claws at the entrances to crevices or hollows in rocks, support them-
selves by their tails as Woodpeckers do. The walk of Cormorants
is a mere waddling, and yet they make more rapid progress than
an observer would at first sight suppose. They are not made for
locomotion on land; but in swimming and diving they are experts.
When a boat approaches their resting-place, they stretch out their
necks, take a few irregular steps, andturn as if for a general flight ;
but only a few take to flying, bravely flapping their wings for a
short time. These maneuvers are followed bya regular sail in the
air: while others fly round in circles, rising higher and higher like
the Hawk or Kite. The majority, however, do not take to the wing
at all, but let themselves down into the water, head foremost, like
frogs, diving and rising at a great distance off. Then, looking for
a moment at the boat with their green eyes, they dive and rise
again, and so keep doing till they reach a place of safety.

There is probably no bird that can surpass the Cormorant in
diving and swimming under water. Frequent trials have been made
to get ahead of them with a light boat or canoe; but the practiced
oarsman, though exerting himself to the utmost, could make only
half the distance on the surface that the Cormorants made in the
same time under water. They dive to great depths, and re-
main a long time under water; then coming up to the surface, they
hastily draw in a fresh supply of air and dive again. When pur-
suing their prey in the water, they stretch themselves out and
swim with sturdy strokes, pushing themselves through the water
with an arrow-like velocity.

It may be reasonably inferred from the penetrating green eyes
of Cormorants that their sense of vision is well developed.’ Their
hearing is also acute, and they do not lack the sense of feeling.
But they are too voracious to possess much discrimination in the
sense of taste. It is true they feed on one kind of fish more than
on any other; but this preference is probably not so much due to
their taste, as to the fact that such fish are more easily caught than
others. The fish alluded to is the so-called alewife, a kind of her-
ring, found in great numbers, swimming near the surface. Cor-
morants are shy and distrustful. ‘Toward other birds, with whom
they come in contact, their behavior is that of tricksters and ras-
cals. |

The Chinese train Cormorants for fishing. The young intended
for this use are hatched by domesticated hens. The following is
the mode of fishing with Cormorants: The fisherman employs a
raft from fifteen to twenty feet in length, and from two and a half
to three feet in width, made of bamboo, and furnished with an oar
and rudder. Arriving on the fishing ground, he drives the Cor-

morants from the raft into the water, and they all dive at once. As-

soon as a Cormorant has caught a fish, rising with it to the sur-
face, he swims toward the raft, merely with the intention of swal-
lowing the fish. He is prevented by a brass ring or string around
his neck from accomplishing this feat. The fisherman hurries to-
ward the bird, throws a net over him, drags him to the raft, and
secures the fish. He then sends the Cormorant back into the water
for more booty.

In the interior of a country, Cormorants in a very short time

- several fathoms.

destroy all the fish in the lakes and rivers. Their ‘voracity exceeds
comprehension. A single Cormorant devours daily from sixteen
to twenty good-sized herring. ‘They catch, it is said, young
aquatic birds, Ducks, Coots, Rails, etc. The writer has found in
a Cormorant’s stomach the remains of a young Galiinula.

Cormorants prefer trees for nest-building, but also make use of
hollows in rocks. Their nests are formed of a few dry rushes,
fibrous roots, etc. Crows and Herons are often expelled from their
nests by Cormorants, who appropriate the nests to their own use.
Toward the close of April, the female Cormorant lays three or four
bluish green eggs, of an oblong shape, and small in proportion to
the size of the bird. The male and female sit alternately on the
eggs, and usually hatch them out in about twenty-eight days. They
also take turns in feeding the young. These grow rapidly, and
are well taken care of by their parents, who, however, do not try
to defend them, at least not against man. On arriving at the nest
from a fishing excursion, the parent birds empty their crops and
stomachs, which sometimes contain several dozen small fishes.
Many of these fall over the border of the nest to the ground; but
the Cormorants never take the trouble to pick them up. Toward
the middle of June the young are able to fly, and the old birds be-
gin raising a second brood. ‘The flesh of Cormorants is not gener-
ally considered fit for food; but Laplanders and other northern
people pronounce it delicious.

The Double-crested Cormorant. (Phalacrocorax Dilophus.)

Fig. 2.

This bird is represented on the plate in its summer plumage, |
having two elongated tufts of feathers behind each eye. It inhab-
its all parts of this country from Maryland to Labrador, but in no
way differs from other Cormorants. The specimen that served for
the drawing, was shot in the ‘‘ Licking Reservoir,” heretofore re-
ferred to, among a flock of the common Cormorants (Phalacro-
corax Carba).

PLATE XIV.

The Great Northern Diver Loon. (Colymbus Glacialis.\
Fig. I.

The great Northern Diver, Loon, or Studer, as this bird is called
in northern Europe, is a regular sea-bird, living on the coast, but
frequenting large fresh-water lakes and ponds in the interior for the
purpose of breeding. These birds, on their migration southward,
late in the fall, and on their return northward, in April or May,
visit our rivers and mill-ponds. They are very shy, wary, and
difficult to kill, eluding the sportsman by their astonishing dexterity

in diving and swimming under water, even against the current.

They can remain a good while beneath the surface, often six or
eight minutes at a time, and swim long distances with incredible
rapidity, and without any apparent exertion. They sometimes lie
flat on the surface of the water, or sink themselves in it, so that
only a small portion of their backs and their heads and necks can
be seen. They sometimes swim in a slow, quiet way. Their
diving is accomplished without making any noise, or any commotion
in the water, by stretching themselves up, bending the neck in a
curve forward, and then plunging down. © Under water they stretch
out to their full length, press wings and feathers close to the body,
and, moving their feet only, shoot onward like an arrow through
the water. Sometimes they swim in one direction, and then in an-
other; sometimes just beneath the surface, and then at a depth of
They swim or race with fish,-their usual food,
and catch them while swimming. From the very first day of their
lives, they swim and dive, and seem to feel safer in water than
when flying high in the air.

hie

birds by their loud and sonorous voice.

TELL-TALE—SEA EAGLE. 15

\

These birds are quite helpless on the surface of the ground, which
they avoid as much as possible. They can not walk as other birds
do, or even hardly stand upright. They crawl along instead of
walking, supporting themselves by their bills and using their wings
to aid a forward movement. Their flight is much better than one
would suppose it could be, with their heavy bodies and small
wings. ‘To get fairly on the wing, they make a long preliminary
movement; but as soon as they have gained a certain height, they
speed quickly forward, although compelled to flap their short wings
in rapid succession. Loons are distinguished from all other sea-
Many ornithologists speak
of the voice as harsh and disagreeable; but the writer can not avoid
confessing to a partiality for the loud morning call of the Loon.
Its voice, especially at night, resembles a long drawn out ‘‘Aaweek !
Aaweek!” So penetrating is it as sometimes to produce an echo

in the surrounding rocks or mountains, sounding like the cry of

a man in imminent peril of life.

Loons are shy and cautious, trusting no one. Strange creatures
they avoid as much as possible, and do not seem to care much even
for their own kind. They are often found single, and, during
the breeding season, in pairs, greatly attached to each other. It is
seldom that two pairs are seen on the same pond, and more rarely
still can even a single pair be seen on a pond occupied by other
birds. During their migrations, or when in captivity, they always
keep at a distance from other birds, and snap at them if they come
near. When brought to bay, Loons fiercely defend themselves,
inflicting ugly wounds with their strong, sharp bills.

They swallow small fish whole; but, as such as are of the size
of the herring cause them trouble, larger ones are torn into small
pieces and so devoured. It has been observed that captive Loons
never pick up a dead fish; while freshly caught birds, placed in a
large reservoir well stocked with fish, commence immediately to
dive, chase, and catch and eat the fish. Fishermen on Lake Erie
are in the habit of inclosing a small piece of water, three or four
feet deep, with a kind of network reaching above the surface, for
the purpose of keeping fish for market. Oftentimes, a Loon,
attracted by the multitude of fish, alights in one of these inclos-
ures, and is easily caught, as it can not again get on the wing, for
want of a place from which to make its launch into the air.

These birds select for their breeding-places quiet fresh-water
ponds or lakes, often preferring those situated at a considerable ele-
vation above the level of the sea. During the breeding season,
their loud, sonorous voices are oftener heard than at other times.
The nests are usually found on small islands, but in case there are
no such islands, the birds build nests on the shore near the border
of the rushes, constructing them of rushes and rank grass, carelessly
put together. No attempt is made at concealment, and the female
bird, sitting on the nest, can be seen from a great distance. She
lays two eggs of an oblong shape, with a coarse-grained shell, and
of an oil green color, sprinkled with dark gray and reddish brown
specks and dots. Both the male and female sit alternately on the
eggs, and mutually feed and take care of their offspring. The
eggs are usually laid in the latter part of May, and the young are
to be seen by the end of June. If food is lacking in the pond or
lake where the nest is located, one of the parents takes care of the
young while the other flies off to some point on a fishing excur-
sion. As soon as the young birds are fledged, they leave the home
of their infancy, and follow their parents to the larger lakes or the
sea. |

The flesh of the Loon is unfit for human food; it is rancid to the
taste, and its odor is disgusting. The natives of Greenland use the
skins of these birds for clothing, and the Indians about Hudson's
Bay adorn their heads with circlets of Loon feathers. Lewis and
Clarke’s exploring party saw, at the mouth of the Columbia river,
robes made of Loon skins. While they wintered at Fort Clatsop,
on that river, they observed great numbers of these birds.

The female is smaller than the male Loon. The bill is yel-
lowish, and only the upper ridge and the top black, or of a black-

_lowish tinge.

ish horn color; the crown, back, and part of the neck and the
whole upper parts are pale brown; the plumage of a part of the
back and scapulars is tipped with pale ash; the throat, lower side
of the neck, and the whole underparts are white, but not so purely
white as in the male, as these parts in the female have a dirty yel-
The quill feathers are dark brown. The female
has neither the streaked bands on her neck nor the white spots on
her body.

The Tell-tale, Tattler, or Godwit. (Zotaxas Melano Leucus.)
Pigs 2.

This bird is well known to our gunners along the sea-coast and
marshes. ‘They stigmatize it with the name of Tell-tale, for its
faithful vigilance in alarming the Ducks on the approach of the
hunter, with its loud and shrillcry. ‘This cry consists of four notes,
uttered in rapid succession, and so loud and shrill as to alarm any
Duck within hearing. But gunners, aware of this fact, look out
in the first instance, for this bird, and often hush its warning voice
forever, before it is aware of their stealthy approach.

This elegantly formed bird appears on our coasts about the be-

ginning of April, breeds in the marshes, and leaves for the South

in the middle of November. Not only do these birds build nests
in salt-water marshes, but also in fresh-water swamps; sometimes
on the dry ground, and even in an old stump. The nest is simply
a hollow, made usually in a tussock of rank grass, inlaid with a
few dry leaves of grass, a little moss, and with pine needles or
leaves. The eggs, four in number, are proportionally large, pear-
shaped, and of an oil green color, sprinkled with brownish gray
specks and dots. The female bird hatches the eggs; but her mate
is always at hand and on the watch. The young run about, fol-
lowing their parents, as soon as they are out of the shell, and con-
ceal themselves, as all their kindred do, on the approach of danger,
by lying flat on the ground, or in the grass or weeds. As soon as
they are full-fledged, they look out for themselves, but remain with
the old birds, flying at will from place to place, making longer and
longer excursions, and at length, on some fine evening, setting out
for a grand wandering tour.

In their winter-quarters, Tattlers associate with many other birds,
but seldom form large flocks. It seems as if the company of
strangers suited them better than that of theimown kind. Their
manner is pleasing; their walk elegant, quick, and striding, and
their flight easy and rapid. They wade in deep water, and swim
if necessary. They are generally seen, either searching for food
or standing on the watch, alternately raising and lowering the head,
and, on the least approach of danger, uttering a shrill whistle, their
warning cry, and then rising on the wing, generally accompanied
by all the shore birds in the vicinity. Occasionally they rise to a
great height, and their whistle can be distinctly heard, when the
birds are beyond the reach of the eye. They become very fat in
the fall, and their flesh is in high esteem for the table.

Nature seems to have intended this bird as a kind of guardian
or sentinel for all other shore or aquatic birds. They feed on the
shore, or in the bogs or marshes, with a feeling of perfect security,
so long as the Tattler is at hand, and is silent; but the moment his
whistle is heard, there is a general_commotion, and directly not a
bird is to be seen, the disappointed gunner, inhis vexation, uttering
between his teeth something the reverse of a prayer.

PLATE XV.
The Gray or Sea Eagle. (Aalzaétus Ossipagus Leucocephalus.)

This formidable Eagle lives in the same countries, on the same
food, and frequents the same localities as the Bald or White-headed

16 FISH HAWK.

Eagle, with which it often associates. In fact, the Sea Eagle so
much resembles the Bald Eagle, in the form of the bill, in its size,
in the shape of the legs and claws, differing from the latter only
in color, that it seems at once to be the same bird, distinguished
from the Bald Eagles previously observed simply by its age or
stage of color. Another circumstance corroborating such an in-
ference, is the variety of the colors of Sea Eagles; scarcely any
two of them are found to be colored alike, the plumage of each
being more or less shaded with light color or white. On some,
the chin, breast, and tail coverts are of a deep brown; on others,
these parts are much lighter, sometimes whitish, with the tail evi-
dently changing in color, and merging into white.

In former times some of the best informed ornithologists insisted
that Sea Eagles must be of a different kind from Bald Eagles, as,
on examination of the nests of each, it was found that both the par-
ent Sea Eagles were different in color from the parent Bald Eagles.
But it takes the Bald Eagles full four years to perfect their plum-
age, though the younger ones begin to breed in the second year.
These young ones passing for Sea Eagles, it is supposed that there
are a great many more Sea Eagles than Bald or White-headed
Eagles.

Almost everybody has heard or read stories of very young chil-
dren having been seized and carried off by a Bald or Sea Eagle.
But it is doubtful whether any of these terror-exciting tales would
bear a very close or critical examination. While the writer was
stopping at an inn in the Tyrol, the landlord entered the room one
afternoon in great haste, and, opening a window, discharged his
short rifle at a bird that was flying at too great a distance to be even
alarmed. He explained, by saying that he made it a point to kill,
or at least to shoot at, every Lammer-geier that came within sight,
as one of them had carried off the child of his best friend. The
name and residence of that friend having been given, he was vis-
ited, and the information imparted by him was, that a child had in
reality been carried off by a Lammer-geier—not one of his chil-
dren, as had been erroneously stated, but the child of an innkeeper
residing some fifteen miles distant. On visiting the innkeeper, it
was ascertained that the story was wholly without foundation in
fact.

The Sea Eagle isacoward. The present writer once climbed to
an Eagle’s nest on a lofty yellow pine tree, standing near the bank
of a small creek, in the northern part of the State of New York.
During the progress of the climbing, the old Eagle flew about the
tree, screaming and making a hissing sound, but keeping at a re-
spectful distance from the climber. On reaching the nest, it was
found to consist of a large pile of sticks, cornstalks, rushes, and
some fibrous materials. The different layers showed that it had
answered a similar purpose for several successive years. It con-
tained two young Eagles that threw themselves at once upon their
backs and showed fight when they saw their visitor looking at them,

striking at him with their claws, making a peculiar rattling with

their beaks, opening them, and suddenly shutting them with a snap.
Not even when their young were lifted out of the nest and exam-
ined, did the old Eagles venture to attack the intruder, though they
sometimes came toward him in a direct line, with open beaks, with
their head feathers all erect, and seemingly in a terrible rage. But

when within four or five yards of the object of their fury, they sud- —

denly turned off at a right angle, either to the right or left. After
the young Eagles had been examined for a quarter of an hour,
they were put back into the nest, and their visitor descended the
tree, to the great relief of their afflicted and fussy parents.

PLATE XVI.
The Fish Hawk. (Lexzdion Haliaetus.)

The Fish Hawk bears also the name of Osprey, Fish Eagle, and
Fish Kite. Up to the present time it has been regarded as belong-

—_.

ing among the Eagles, from whom it differs in many respects. Its
right position seems to be that of a connecting link between Eagles
and Kites.

Fish Hawks are migratory birds, usually arriving on the North
American lakes in the latter part of March, sometimes later, and
departing during the closing days of September. They live ex-
clusively on fish, and of course their haunts are where their food
abounds. They build nests on high trees, constructed of stout
sticks, rushes, moss, seaweed, etc. The female lays two, some-
times three, handsome, oblong eggs, of a grayish white color, and
speckled all over with light reddish dots.

Their long wings enable Fish Hawks to continue with ease a long
time in the air. At the start for an excursion, they soar to a great
height, and then letting themselves down gradually, they begin
just above the level of the water their inspection for fish. This in-
spection is not, however, entered upon while there isa mist hang-
ing over the water. They come tothe fishing-place by a circuitous
route, and ascertain, by cautiously looking about, whether any dan-
ger is to be apprehended. Alternately lowering themselves and
soaring to a height of fifty or sixty feet, they sometimes poise them-
selves to take a better aim at a fish seen in the water, and then dart
down with legs stretched forward in an oblique direction, disap-
pearing for a short time in the water, and then reappearing on the
surface, flapping their wings and shaking the water from their
feathers. If unlucky, away they fly, to return and try their for-
tune again. Whether lucky or not, they usually leave the smaller
ponds after their first endeavor. Their peculiar mode of fishing
necessitates the making of many a plunge to no purpose; but this.
does not at all discourage them : their motto alwaysis, ‘‘Try again.”
They seldom suffer want, except when, on their arrival at the North,
they find the lakes and ponds still covered with ice.

When a Fish Hawk pounces upon a fish, he drives his claws
with such force into its back that they are not easily or very quickly
withdrawn. Very often, miscalculating the size and weight of the
fish, he endangers his own life, and sometimes loses it Blthoathiors
by being drawn under the water by a heavy fish, and drowned. On
fish caught by this bird, there have been observed two holes on each
side of the back. This is explained by the fact that the Fish Hawk
can turn the outer toe either forward or backward, and that in seiz-
ing a fish, he turns this toe backward so as to get a firmer hold.
He flies off to the woods with such fish as he can conveniently carry,
to feast upon them there at leisure and in safety, but heavier fish
he drags to the shore.

Fish Hawks are never known to attack quadrupeds or birds for
the purpose of obtaining food. All aquatic birds are so well ac-
quainted with the Fish Hawk that they are never alarmed at his
approach. Grackles very often build their nests in the interstices
between the ‘sticks in the Fish Hawks’ nests, and both kinds of birds
live together in harmony. But other birds of prey, as the White
or Bald Eagles, or Sea Eagles, torment the Fish Hawk. As soon
as a Bald Eagle sees the Hawk with a fish, he chases, attacks, and
compels the Fish Hawk to drop his hard-earned booty, which the
robber Hagle seizes and appropriates to his own use.

Fish Hawks are greatly attached to their young, and defend them
to their utmost against both men and birds of prey. One of the
parents always remains near the nest, while the other is out fish-
ing. It is remarkable that the tree on which the nest of a Fish
Hawk is built, and where the young are reared, always withers and
dies in a short time afterward. Whether this is owing to some
poison imparted to the tree by the birds, or to the salt water con-
stantly dripping from the heavy moss of the nest, or to some other
cause, has not been satisfactorily settled.

On dissecting a Fish Hawk, there were found the two ends on
the rump, which supply the bird with oil wherewith to lubricate its
feathers, in order to protect them from injury by being frequently
wet. These glands were remarkably large, and contained a great.
quantity of white greasy matter as well as yellow oil. The gall
was very small; but the intestines, with their numerous windings,

uh
iv" r

Tenth Group—Raven Vultures—(Catharte)—Four Families. |

- Pharaons Vultures—Percnopterus.
. Collar Vultures-—WVeophron.

- Raven Vultures—Cathartes.

. Crow Vultures—Coragyps.

wm Bh &N EH B&O WY

hw YN Ff

Thirteenth Group—Night Owls, Screech Owls— (Strzges)—Three

Ree ee ee ees 1. Crow Shrikes— Cracticus.

CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS. 13

ee

Second Group—Bush Shrikes—(JZelaconot?)—Three Families.

1. Flute Shrikes—ZLanzarcus.
2. Cap Shrikes— Telephonus.
3- Helmet Shrikes —Pronops.

Eleventh Group--Day Ose Sernie\ Five Fanilice Lhird Group—Raven Shrikes—( Thamnophil’\—Two Families.

ikiaee Owls—Wyctea. 2. Bataras— Lhamnophitlus.
- Rock Owls—Athene. | :
Ri Onl onian. Fourth EAS coped Bel Shrikes—(4dol:7)\—Three Families.
. Sparrow Owls—Micropiyne . I. Snapping Shrikes—Drcrourus.
2. Drongo’s—Chaptza.

Twelfth Group—Eared Owls—(Bubones)—Four Families. 3. Flag Drongo’s—Zdolius.
. Great Horned Owls—Budbo. :
Weenies auss Fifth Beds ret ey nen ener Family.
t aeed- Cle ie. I. Swallow Shrike—Artamus sordidus.
.D f Eared BS 4

as ared Owls—Zphvaltes. Sixth Group—King Shrikes—( 7yrannz)—Six Families.

. Tyrants— 7 yrannus.

. Crying Tyrants—Saurophagus.
. Fork Tyrants—JZloulus.

I

| Families. - Z

Tree Screech Owls—Syrnzum. 3
Night Screech Owls—JWVyctale. fe
5

6

i
a Crown ‘Tyrants—Megalophus.
3. Veiled Screech Owls, Barn Owls—Strzx. pa i
3 . Cockerels—-Alectrusus.
FIFTH ORDER.
Seventh Group— Caterpillar Eaters — ( Campephage) — One
SPREADING Brrps—(//cantes)—Five Groups. Family.
: = Saas = 1. Vermilion Birds—FPerzcrocotus.
first Group—Swallows— (AHtrundines)—Five Families. ;

1. Noble Swallows—Cecrofpis. Eighth Group—F ly Snappers—M/ycagre)—Two Families.
2. Rough-legged Swallows—Cheldon. 1. Paradise Snappers— Terpszphone.
3- Gray Swallows—Cotyle. 2. Fan Tails—Rhipidura.
4. Wood Swallows—AzZézcora. : }
3. Sailing Swallows—Progne. Ninth Group—F ly Catchers—(Muscrcape)—Three Families.

, Bleek at 1. Fly Catchers—Lutals.

pecan, Group eigen aged Families. LM steam Bi Cateeee
1. Tree Sailor—D endrochels cat 3. Dwarf Fly Catchers—4yrythrosterna.
2. Salanganes—Collocalia.
3- Prickle Sailors—Acanthyls. Tenth Group— Waxwings, Cedar-birds — (Bombycille) — One
4. Sailors—Cyfselus. | Family.

Third Group—Night Swallows—(Caprimulg?)—Hight Families.

COonmN AM BSB WH NH &

fourth Group—Cave Swallows—(Steathornithes)—One Family.

I.

I.
2.

3-

First Group—Butcher-birds, Shrikes—(Zanz?)—Three Families.

I.
vAS

3:

1. Waxwings—Bombycilla.

Eleventh Group—Ornament-birds—(Prpre)—Three Families.

. Day Shaders—FPodager.

. Twilight Swallows—Chordevles. 1. Cliff-birds—/tupzcola.

. Night Shaders—Cafrimulgus. 2. Ornament-birds—/’pra.

. Bristle Swallows—Antrostomus. 3. Panther-birds—Pardalotus.

. Train Swallows—Scotornis. . ie

. Water Swallows—Hydropsalis. Twelfth Group—Crop-birds—( Gymnoderz)—Three Families.
. Deceit Swallows—JZacrodipterix. 1. Capuchin-birds-~ Gymuocephalus.

. Giant Swallows—JVyctzbzus. 2. Bull-birds—Cephalopterus.

3. Bell-birds—Chasmarhynchus.

Guacharo—Steathornis caripensis. Thirteenth Group—Ground nS ee a Fami-
ies.

. Nightingales—Luscznza.

. Tree Nightingales—Aédon.

. Blue-throats—Cyanecula.

. Rubi Nightingales— Calliope.

. Redbreasts—Aubecula.

Fifth Group—Owl Swallows—(Podarg?)—Three Families.

Dwarf Owl Swallows—Aegotheles.
Owl Swallows—Ffodargus.
Frog-mouth Swallows—Batrachostomus.

"Rt © WN

SIXTH ORDER. . Fourteenth Group—Chats—(Monticole)—Six Families.

. Red Starts—Aruticzlla.
Meadow Chats—FPratincola.
. Stone Chats—Sawzcola.
Running Chats—Dromolea.
. Rock Chats—Fetrocincla.

. Bush Chats— 7hamnolea.

Sincinc Brrps—(Oscznes)—Thirty Groups.

Preying Butcher-birds—Lanzus.
Ninekillers—Auzeoctonus.
Big-head Shrikes—falcunculus.

Ow B&B © N A

14, CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.

Lifteenth Group—Thrushes—( Turdz)—Two Families.

t. Wood Thrushes— 7urdus.
2. Merles—Merula.

Szxteenth Group—Mocking Thrushes—(JZzm7)—Three Families.

I. Mocking Thrushes—Jfimus.
2. Red Mockers— 7awxostoma.
3- Cry Mockers—Galeoscoptes.

Seventeenth Group—Bustle Thrushes—( 7imalie)—Four Fami-
lies. |
1. Gray Thrushes—Pycnonotus.
2. ‘Tattling Thrushes— 77malia.
3. Thrushlings—Crateropus.
4. Laughing Thrushes—Garrulax.

Eighteenth Group—Water Thrushes—(Czncl7 )—One Family.

t. Water Ouzels— Cznclus.

Nineteenth Group—Pomp Thrusl:es—(Prtte@)—One Family.
1. Pittas—Prtta.

Twentieth Group—Ant Thrushes)—J/yzothere)—Three Families.

1. Ant Birds—Pyrzgtena.
2. Ant Kings—Grallaria.
3. Rail Slippers—Pteroptochus.

Twenty first Group—Lyre-tails—(Menurae)—One Family.
1. Lyre-tails—enura.

Twenty-second Group—Grassmonks, Hedge Sparrows—(Sylvze)
' —Two Families.

t. Grassmonks—Curruca.

2. Bush Singers—Pyrophthalmna.

Twenty-third Group—Leat Singers—(Phylloscop:) —Three Fam-
ilies.

1. Leaf Singers—Phyllopneuste.

2. Leaf Kings—/regulozdes.

3. Bastard Nightingales—//yfolazs.

Twenty-fourth Group—Bullrush Singers—( Calamodyte)—Three
Families.

1; Reed Singers—Acrocephalus.
2. Bullrush Singers—Calamodus.
3. Cricket Singers—Locustella.

Twenty-fifth Group—Bush Singers—(Drymoice)—Three Fam-
ilies.
1. Reed-grass Singers— Czsézcola.
2. Taylor-birds— Ortothomus.
3. Emu Slippers—S¢tzpeturus.

Twenty-sixth Group—Slippers, Wrens—(Zroglodite)—Three
Families. 7

1. Wren Slippers— 7roglodytes.

2. Rush Slippers— Zhryothorus.

3. Flageolet-birds—Cyphorhinus.

Twenty-seventh Group—Pipers—(Anthz)—Three Families.

1. Pipers—Anthus.
2. Field Pipers—Agrodroma,
3. Stilt Pipers—Corydalla.

Lwenty-eighth Group — Stilts, Wag-tails — (Motacclle) — Five
Families.

. Stilts—Motacilla.

. Water Stilts—Calobates.

. Sheep Stilts—Budytes.

. Wood Stilts—Wemorzcola.

Swallow Stilts—Auzzcurus.

iB © bY

Twenty-ninth Group—Flue Birds—(Accentores)—Two Families.

I. Wood Flue Birds— 7harrhaleus.
2. Flue Larks—Accentor.

Thirtieth Group—Titmice—(Pard )—Six Families.

. Golden Crowns—Pegulus.
. Marsh Tits—Aegzthalus.

. Reed Tits—FPanurus.

. Tail Tits—Ovztes.

. Tit Kings—Lophophanes.
. Wood Tits—Farus.

Amp WwW NN H

THIRD CLASS.
SEARCHERS—J/nvestigatores)\—THREE ORDERS.
SEVENTH ORDER.

CiimBInG Birps—(Scansores)—Seventeen Groups.

first Group—Flower Birds—(Certhiole)—Two Families.

1. Bluebirds— Cereba.
2. Pit-pits—Certhzola.

Second Group—Honey Suckers—(/Vectarinie)—Three Families.

1. Honey Suckers—edydipna.
2. Fire Honey Suckers— Aethopyga.
3. Flower Gleaners—Cyrtostomus.

Third Group—Plantain Runners—(Arachnothere)—Two Fam-
ilies.

1. Half Bills—Hemzgnathus.

2. Hang Birds—Arachnocestra.

Fourth Group—Brush Tongues—(MWeliphage)—Four Families.

- Honey Eaters—MZyzomela.
. Har Futts—777/ozzs.
. Flower Tongues—elichera.

. Monk Birds— 7ropidorhynchus.

a WwW NH H

fifth Group—Hoopoes—( Upupe)—Two Families.
. Hoopoes— Upufa.

. Tree Hoopoes—/rrzsor.

No

Sixth Group—Tree Mounters—( Auabate)—One Family.
1. Bunch Nestlers—Phacellodomus.

Seventh Group—(Potter Bircs—(furnarz)—Three Families.

I. Oven Birds—Furuarzus.
2. Ground Mud-wall Makers— Geosztta.
3, Mount Bills—Xenops.

Eighth Group—Nuthatches—(S7tt@)—Two Families.

1. Nuthatches—Szz¢/a.
2. Tree Cleavers—Szttella.

Ninth Group—Wall Climbers—( 77chodrome)—One Family.
1. Alps Wall Climbers— 77chodroma.

Lenth Group—Tree Climbers—(Scandentes)—Three Families.
1. Creepers— Certhia.
2. Tree Choppers—AX7phorhynchus.
3. Woodpecker Tree Choppers—Dendroplex.

Lileventh Group—W oodpeckers—( Picide@)—Two Families.
1. Black Woodpeckers—Dryocopus.

2. Giant Woodpeckers— Campephilus.

Twelfth Group—Jay Woodpeckers—(Melanerpes)\—One Family.
1. Jay Woodpeckers—A/elanerpes.

Thirteenth Group—Spotted Woodpeckers—(Picz)—Four Fami-

lies.

I. Spotted Woodpeckers—Ficus.

2. Medium Woodpeckers—P. medzus.
3. Little Woodpeckers—P. minor.

4. Three-toed Woodpeckers—Afternus.

fourteenth Group — Green Woodpeckers — (Gecinz) — On
: Family.
1. Green Woodpeckers—Gecinus viridis. |
Fifteenth Group—Cuckoo Woodpeckers—( Colaptd )—Two Fam-
| ilies.
1. Gold Woodpeckers— Colaptes.
2. Field Woodpeckers—Geocolaptes.
Sixteenth Group — Sofi-tail Woodpeckers — (Picumnz) — One
| Family.

1. Dwarf Woodpeckers—Picumnus.

Seventeenth Group—Wry Necks—(Fynges)—One Family.
1. Wry Necks— Fyuw.

EIGHTH ORDER.
Hummine Birps, Coiipris—(S¢t7¢dores)—Eleven Groups.

First Group—Giant Gnomes—(Lustephani )—Two Families.
1. Giant Colibris—Fatagona.
2. Sword Bills—Doczimastes.

Second Group—Gnomes—(Palytmz)—T wo Families.

1. Hawk Noses—Gry#pus.
2. Eagle Bills—Autoweres. 6

Third Group—Sun Birds—(Phaéthornites )—One Family.
1. Solitaire—Phaétthornis.
Fourth Group— Mountain Nymphs — ( Oreotrochtli ) —'Three
Families.

1. Chimborazo Birds—Oreotrochilus.

2. Sword Winglers—Campyloplerus.

3. Curve Winglers—Flatystylopterus. eee:
Fifth Group—Jewel Birds—( Hy pophanie)—Two Families.

1. Topaz’s—Topaza.
2. Cap Colibris—Azthurus.

Sixth Group—W ood Nymphs—(Lampornithes)—Two Families.

t. Mango’s—Lampornis.
2. Wood Nymphs—Czhrysolampis.

Seventh Group—F lower Nymphs—( /Vorisugt)—T wo Families.

1. Flower Kissers—Helzothrix.
2. Flower Suckers—/lorisuga.

CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS. 15

Liighth Group—Fairies—( Trochilc)—Three Families.
1. Colibris— 7rochilus.

2. Amethyst Birds—Caliphlox.
3- Point Tails—Calothorax, or Lucifer.

Ninth Group—Elts—( Lophornithes)—Four Families.

. Cue Elfs—Cephalolepis.
. Pomp Elfs—Lophornis.
. King Elfs—Bellatrix.

. Tail Elfs—AHelzactinus.

fh oO ND EH

Tenth Group—Sylphs—( Lesbie@)—Two Families.

&

- Banner Sylphs—Steganurus.
2. ‘Train Sylphs—Sparganura.

Eleventh Group—Mask Colibris—(dicrorampht)—Two Fam-
ilies.
1. Thorn Bills—/Aramphomicorn.
2. Helmet Colibris— Oxyfogon.

NINTH ORDER.

Licut Brtus—(Levzrosires )—Nineteen Groups.

First Group—Bee Eaters—(Jeropes)—Six Families.

. Bee Eaters—WVerofps.

. Bee Wolves—Velittotheres.

. Speckled Bee Eaters—Coccolaryna.
. Forked Bee Eaters—Melittophagus.
. Ornament Bee Eaters—Cosmaérops.
. Night Bee Eaters—WVyctzornzs.

Omit WD Pb

Second Group—Rakes—( Coraciz)—Two Families.
I. Blue Rakes-—Coraczas.
2. Rollers—urystomus.
Third Group—Saw Rakes—(Pronztes)—One Family.

t. Saw Rakes—FPrionites.

Fourth Group—Throat Birds—(£urylaimz)—Three Families.
1. Trowel Bills—Corydon.

2. Horn Throats—ZAurylazmus.

3. Rayas—Psarisomus.

Fifth Group—F lat Bills—( Zodz)—One Family.
1. Flat Bills— Zodus.

Sexth Group—King Fishers—(Alcedznes)—Three Families.

1. King Fishers—A/cedo.
2. Stump King Fishers—Ceyw.
3. Thrust King Fishers—Ceryle.

Seventh Group—Halcions—( Halcyones)—Six Families.

. Tree Halcions—Halcyon.

. Wood Halcions— 7odzramphus.

. Blue Halcions— Cyanalcyon.

. Giant Halcions—Paralcyon, or Dacelo.
. Paradise Halcions— 7anysifiera.

. Sawyer Halcions—Syma.

NOU BW NY H

Eighth Group—Lazy Birds—(Agornithes)—One Family.

1. lacamars— Galbula.

Ninth Group—Barb Cuckoos— (Succones)—Three Families.

1. Sleep Birds—/Vystalus.
2. Trappists—JZonasta.
3. Dreamers—Chelidoptera.

16 | CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.

Tenth Group—Gnaw Bills—( 7rogones)—Five Families.

. Fire Surukus—/argactes.

- Flower Surukus—Hapaloderma.
. Surukus— 7rogon.

. Tocoloros—Prionotelus.

. Pomp Surukus—Calurus.

mm ff W WN HA

_ Eleventh Group—Cuckoo Birds—(Cuculide)—One Family.
1. Honey Cuckoos—Judicator.

Twelfth Group—Cuckoos—( Cuculd )—Five Families.

. Cuckoos proper—Cuculus.

. Jay Cuckoos—Coccystes.

. Cucklings—Eudynamys.

. Gold Cuckoos—Chrysococcye.
. Silly Birds—Scythrops.

mama WwW YN A

Thirteenth Group—Bush Cuckoos—(Phenzcophei)—One Family.

I. Sickle Cuckoos—Zanclostomus.

fourteenth Group—Heel Cuckoos—(Coccyg¢)—Three Families.
1. Rain Cuckoos—Coccygus.

2. Lizzard Cuckoos—Saurotkhera.

3- Slender Cuckoos—Pyrrhococcyx.
fifieenth Group—Maggot Eaters—( Crotophage)—One Family.
1. Maggot Eaters—Crotophaga.
Sixteenth Group—Spur Cuckoos—(Centropodes)—Three Fam-
ilies.
1. Spur Feet—Centropus.
2. Crow Pheasants—Centrococcyx.
‘3. Pheasant-spur Cuckoos—FPolophilus.
Seventeenth Group—Barb Birds—(Capztones)—Three Families.

1. Pomp Barb Birds—7rachyphonus.
2. Gold Barb Birds—Xantholema.
3. Toucan Barb Birds— 7Zetragonofs.

Eighteenth Group—Toucans—(framphast:)—Two Families.
1. Arassaris—/%erogtossus.

2. Toucans—framphastus.

Nineteenth Group—UHorn Birds—(Bucerotes)—Four Families.

1. Smooth-horn Birds—/thynchaceros.
2. Double-horn Birds—Dzchoceros.
3. Wrinkled-horn Birds—/thyticeros.
4. Horn Ravens—Bucorax.

FOURTH CLASS.
RUNNERS—(Cursores)—Four ORDERS.
TENTH ORDER.

Cooine Birps—(Gyratores)—Ten Groups.

First Group—F ruit Doves—( Trerones)—One Family.

1. Parrot Doves—FPhalacroteron.

Second Group—Doves—(Columbae)—Two Families.
1. Ringed Doves—Palumbus. 3
2. Hole Doves— Columba.
Third Group—Cuckoo Doves—(Macropygie@)—One Family.
1. Wandering Pigeons—Fctofzstes.

Fourth Group—Turtle Doves—( Turtures)\—Three Families.
1. ‘Turtle Doves proper—Zurtur.

2. Laughing Doves—Streptopeleza.
3. Dwarf Doves—Chalcopeleza.

fifth Group—Rail Doves—(Zenatde )—Four Families.

. Trill Doves—Melopeleta.
. Sparrow Doves—Pyrgvtenas.
- Sparrow-hawk Doves—Geofeleza.

. Wedge-tail Doves—Szzctopeleza.

— © N HA

Sixth Group—Running Doves—(Geotrygones)—One Family.

1. Partridge Doves—Starnenas.

Seventh Group—Lustre povee ME eer ee aca Families.
aychee Doves—Ocyphats.

. Glimmer Doves—FPiafs.

- Quail Doves—Geophaps.

. White-flesh Doves—Lezcosarcia.

© N H

Eighth Group—Mane Doves—( Callenas)—One Family.

1. Mane Doves—Callenas.

Ninth Group—Crown Doves—(Gour@e)—One Family.

t. Crown and Fan Doves—Goura.

Tenth Group—Tooth Doves—(Didunculz )—One Family.
1. Tooth Doves—Didunculus.

ELEVENTH ORDER.
SCRATCHING Brrps—(/ascores)—Seventeen Groups.

First Group—Flight Hens—(Perocle)—Two Families.

1. Flight Hens—/Pterocles.
2. Stepps or Heath Pee ive ee

Second Group—Rough-leg Hens—( Zetraones) —Five Families.

Ure Hens— Zotrao.

. Playing Hens—Lyrurus.
. Hazel Hens—Bounasza.

. Prairie Hens—Cupzdonza.
. Snow Hens—Lagopus.

mh © WN

Third Group—Field Hens—(Perdices)—Five Families.

- Rock Hens— Tetraogallus.

. "Red Hens—Caccabis.

. Field Hens—FPerdix.

. Francolins—/rancolinus.

. Bare-neck Hens—FPrernistes.

wm Bh Ww YN HE

Fourth Group—Tree Hens—( Odontophor?)—Three Families.
1. Tree Hens—Odontophorus.

2. Tree Quails—Ortyx.

3. Tuft Quails—Lophoriyx.

fifth Group—Quails—( Coturnices)—Two Families.
1. Quails—Coturnzx.
2. Dwarf Quails—Fwxcalfactoria.
Sixth Group—Running Hens—( Zurnices)—Two Families.

rt. Running Hens—Zurnzx.

2. Bustard Quails—FPedionomus.
Seventh Group—Pheasant Birds—(Phasianide)—Two Families.

1. Pomp Hens—Lophophorz.
2. Horn Pheasants— Cerzoruzs.

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VILAVHLYANVALIALATUU

THEODORE JASPER, A.M.. M.D

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H, Studer, Publisher

COLUMBUS, OHIO

ROBERT CLARKE & CO | C. D. CAZENOVE
65 WEST FOURTH STREET 18 BEAUFORT BUILDINGS, STRAND

CINCINNATI, O LONDON

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Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, by JacoB H,. StupeEr, in the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.

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measured full nine feet, and were extremely thin. The crop or
craw was of proportionate size, and the stomach large, resembling
an oblong pouch. Both crop and stomach contained half-digested
fish. The heart and lungs were large and strong. There was no
muscular gizzard. The female bird is about two inches longer
than the male. ‘The upper portion of her head is less white than
that of the male, and her breast is marked with brown streaks.

PLATE XVII.

The Cinereous Coot. (falica Americana.)

This species was formerly, by some ornithologists, classed among
the Natatores, or swimming birds proper; but its form, the com-
pressed body, and especially its mode of living, designate it clearly
as a connecting link between the Gallinules and the swimming
birds. It has a very strong resemblance, in the formation of its
whole body, to the Gallinnles, except that its feet are lobed.

The Cinereous Coot usually makes its appearance in the State
of Ohio about the middle of April, stays the whole summer, and
leaves for the South when the rushes are destroyed by severe
frosts.

This bird is found almost everywhere in Europe, but is repre-
sented in the southern parts by a related kind. It has been found
in middle Asia, and in its winter-quarters, in the interior of Africa.
It is probable, however, that one or the other observer may have in-
termixed the different related kinds, not having taken the trouble of
a close examination. In Great Britain it is said to be found at all
seasons, and does not seem to migrate to other countries, but merely
changes its station in autumn from the lesser pools orloughs, where
their young are reared, to the larger lakes, where these birds as-
semble in winter in large flocks. They are also found in Ger-
many. They avoid rivers and brooks as well as the sea, and pre-
fer still waters, whose borders are overgrown with rushes and reeds.

They are consequently most numerous in the marshes of the
larger lakes, and on the larger ponds. The time of their appear-
ance in the spring depends chiefly, it seems, on the melting of the
snow and ice. They remain in the same place during the whole
summer, and in autumn begin to wander, assembling sometimes in
immense flocks on the larger sheets of water, whence they migrate
to the South, usually in the latter part of October and in Novem-
ber.

The Coot is oftener seen on the water than on land, but frequents
the latter, especially during midday, to take a rest, and to clean
and put its plumage in order. Though the feet of the Coot are
rather awkwardly constructed for running, it runs tolerably well on
the ground; but spends by far the greater part of its life in swim-
ming.
lobes are lacking in breadth, is made up by the length of the toes.
The Coot is also an expert diver, and contests the palm, in this re-
spect, with many real swimming birds. It dives to considerable
depths, and swims, with the help of its wings, great distances under
water. To escape danger, it always sinks itself in deep water.
Before it rises for a flight, it flutters for a great distance over the
surface, striking the water so violently with its feet that the noise
of the splashing can be heard at a great distance.

The Coot is very loquacious, chattering to its companions almost

lts voice is a shrill **« Kuw,” and the shrillness, in
time of anger, is doubled or even trebled. It also utters a short,
hard <« Pitts,” and at times a holiow guttural sound. It is a very
sociable bird among its own kind, except in the breeding season,
when each pair always strive to keep a certain district for them-
selves, into which they never suffer any other birds to enter. Even
_in their winter-quarters, Coots do not like to see other swimming
birds, and make it a special point to drive away Ducks.

Aquatic insects and their larve, worms and small shells, and

incessantly.

Its feet are excellent rudders, for what their swimming |

CINEREOUS COOT—PILEATED WOODPECKER. 17

-

several kinds of vegetable matter, which they find in the water,
form the principal food of Cinereous Coots. They pick up
their food in swimming and diving, either from the surface, or by
diving after it to the bottom. Some Coots, kept in captivity, lived
for a whole winter exclusively on grain, and although they were

occasionally fed with small minnows, which they readily ate, they

seemed to prefer the grain. Whenever the Coot has settled on the
smaller ponds or swamps it begins to build its nest, which is formed
in the rushes near the water’s edge. It is built on the trampled
down stocks of weeds and rushes, and is composed of the dry
stocks of the same. The upper layers and the interior consist of a
little finer material, such as the finer weeds, dry grass, and fibers.
The female lays, in the latter part of May, from seven to twelve
eggs, rather large in proportion to the size of the bird, having a
fine but hard shell, of a yellowish brown color, sprinkled over with
dark ash colored and blackish brown dots, chiefly on the large end.
The eggs are hatched in about twenty or twenty-one days. As
soon as the young quit the shell and are dry, they plunge into the
water, and dive and swim with the greatest ease, but always cluster
again about the mother, taking shelter under her wings, while the
male warns and protects them from danger. For a considerable
time they return nightly to their nest; but gradually they separate
more and more from the parents. Long before they are fully |
fledged, they become independent of parental care.

The female Coot frequently breeds twice in a season, but may
be called lucky if she raises one-half of the young she hatches.
Great havoc is made among them, before they have learned by ex-
perience to defend themselves, by the Marsh Hawk and other kinds
of the Hawk tribe, as well as by turtles. |

A Coot is found in Europe, the /ulica Atra, resembling the
American, though differing from it in having the bill and frontal
plate perfectly white, while on the American Coot the frontal plate
is always of a bright chestnut color. ‘The Coot’s gizzard is strong
and muscular, like that of a common hen. The male and female
are colored alike, except that the black on the head and neck of
the female is less brilliant. The flesh of the Coot, even that of the
young, makes an unsavory dish for the table.

PLATE XVIII.

The Pileated Woodpecker. (Dryoconus—FPilus Pileatus.)
Fig. 1.

This Woodpecker, second only in size to any other, is a true
American bird, and may be called the chief of all northern Wood-
peckers. His range extends from Upper Canada, all over the
United States, to the Gulf of Mexico. He abounds most in the
North, -in forests of tall trees, particularly in the neighborhood of
large rivers, where he is noted for his loud cries, especially before
wet weather. At such times he flies, restless and uneasy, from tree
to tree, making the forest echo with his outcries. In the State of
Ohio, and generally in all the Northern States, he is called the
Black Woodcock; in the Southern States they call him the Log-
cock. Every old trunk in the forest where he resides, bears more
or less the marks of his chisel-like bill. Whenever he finds a tree
beginning to decay, he subjects it to a close examination, in order
to find out the cause, going round and round it, and pulling the
bark off in strips often several feet long, laboring with astonishing
skill and activity. He has frequently been seen to strip the bark
from a dead pine tree, eight or ten feet down, in less than fifteen
minutes. Whatever he is doing, whether climbing, stripping off
bark, or digging, he seems to be always in great haste. He is ex-
tremely watchful and shy, and is consequently difficult to kill. He
clings closely to the tree after having received his mortal wound,
and does not even quit his hold with his last breath. If shot at on

18 HAIRY WOODPECKER.

the wing, and only one wing is broken, as soon as he drops to the
ground he makes for the nearest tree and climbs on it high enough
to be out of reach. When wounded, and lying on the ground, he
strikes with great fierceness at the hand stretched out to seize him.
He is one of the few birds that are never content when caged or
confined.

This bird is now in one part of his district and then directly in
another part, roaming through the whole of itin an incredibly short
time. In the course of a few minutes, his cries are heard in differ-
ent places, remote from each other. He utters three principal
cries—two in flying, and the other when sitting or climbing: the
former sounding like ** Kerr, Kerr,” and ‘‘ Kleeck, Kleeck ;” the
latter like ‘‘Kluh,” lengthened out and penetrating, or like ‘‘Kleha,
Kleha.” Besides these cries he has several others, which he utters
for the most part when near his nest. His flight is different from
that of other Woodpeckers. He does not, like them, fly by starts,
or in alternately ascending and descending lines, but wavelike for-
ward in a straight direction, spreading his wings far apart and strik-
ing the air hard, so that the points of the larger quills appear to be
bending upward, causing his flight to resemble that of the Jay. It
is, however, more gentle than that of the other Woodpeckers, and
seems to require less exertion. The distinct whirr which we hear
in their flight, we do not hear in his. Although he seems averse to
long flights, he has been observed flying directly forward, without
stopping, for the distance of about half a mile. He hops rather
awkwardly on the ground, where he is frequently seen examining
the ant-hills in quest of the larve or eggs, of which he seems to be
extremely fond. In climbing, and boring with his chisel-like bill, he
is very expert. When he climbs, he puts both feet forward like all
other Woodpeckers. He may therefore be said to hop up the trees,
and this he does with great force, so that one can distinctly hear his
claws striking into the bark. While climbing he keeps his breast
away from the trunk, bending his neck backward.

His food consists of ants and their larvae, which he picks up
with his sticky tongue. He also devours the larve of beetles found
in pine forests, and to get at them he chisels large holes in the
trees. The mating season of these birds is in April, early or late,
according to the season. ‘The male at that period flies after the
female, crying aloud, and coming up to her, or becoming «tired of
flying after her, he alights on the withered top of a tree and begins
to drum. He chooses on the tree a place where the beating of his
bill will resound the loudest. Pressing his tail hard against a dead
limb, he raps so quickly and forcibly upon it with his bill, that the
noise made sounds like a continued ‘* Er-r-r-r-r-r-r.” The rapid
motion of the red top on his head appears like a glowing spark on
the end of a burning stick, moved quickly to and fro. The
female makes her appearance after the drumming, or sometimes
answers by quickly repeated ‘* Kluck, Kluck, Kluck.” The
male also keeps up his drumming while the female is sitting on
the eggs.

For their nests these birds seek a decayed or hollow tree, choos-
ing a knot-hole for the entrance. This hole is widened by the
female, so as to make it sufficiently large for going in and out with
ease. The inner part of the tree is then hollowed out with pecu-
liar dexterity. ‘This process seems to be very difficult for the female,
as there is not room enough for working with her bill. The sounds
made are very dull, the chips small, and the work progresses
slowly ; but as soon as she has gained more room, she is enabled
to dig out larger chips, and the work goes on more rapidly. Chips
have been found under a tree where she was at work, from four to
five inches long and half an inch in breadth and thickness. The
female only works in the forenoon, going out in the afternoon after
food. After laboring hard from ten to sixteen days, she has the
nesting-place prepared. Itis from fifteen to twenty inches deep
and from eight to ten inches in diameter, the sides being very
smooth, and the bottom ball-shaped and covered with fine chips.
On these chips the female lays three, four, and sometimes five eggs,
which are rather small and of a brilliant white color, looking like

enamel. The nest is usually built high up on a tree, generally on
a pine tree.

The same nest is used for several years, but is usually cleaned
out and enlarged. ‘The male assists the female in hatching, the fe-
male sitting on the eggs during the night and the early morning
hours. The newly hatched young are ill-shaped, being sparingly
covered on the upper part of the body with a grayish black down,
and the head being very large and the bill thick and clumsy. The
parents seem to be very fond of their young, and utter mournful
sounds when any one approaches the nest, and risk even their own
lives in defense of their brood. The young are fed from the crops of
the old birds, and their food consists chiefly of the so-called eggs
of the black ant. If not disturbed, they remain in the nest until
perfectly fledged; but before that time they often climb up to the
entrance and take a look at the outside world.

The Hairy Woodpecker. (Picus Vellosus.)
Fig. 2.

This species may be regarded as a true type of the Woodpeck-
ers (f7cz). ‘They are found almost exclusively on the trunks of
trees, and are seldom seen on the ground. They are resident
birds, and rarely missed in the orchards, where they are always
busily engaged in boring apple trees, eagerly hunting for insects,
their eggs or larve, in old withered stumps, rotten branches, and
crevises of the bark. They inhabit North America from Hudson’s
Bay to the Carolinas and Georgia. In May, this Woodpecker re-
tires to the groves and deeper forests with his mate to breed, though
they frequently choose the orchard for that purpose, and select a
suitable apple or pear tree. They seek a branch already hollow,
or dig out an opening for their nest. The nest has been found more
than four feet from the mouth of the hole. They dig: first horizon-
tally, if in the trunk of a tree, for six or seven inches, and then ob-
liquely down for twelve or fifteen inches, carrying the chips out with
their bills or scraping them out with their feet. A nest is now made
with fine chips at the bottom of the hole.. The female lays from
four to five bluish white eggs and hatches them outin June. Their
residence in summer is limited to a comparatively small extent of
country ; but in the fall and winter they roam about in a larger dis-
trict, and usually in company with Nuthatches, Creepers, Titmice,
and Golden-crested Wrens. In summer they never suffer another
bird of their kind to come within their district. ‘They make their
appearance in a moment, as soon as they hear a knocking resem-
bling that of another Woodpecker., In their roamings they fly
chiefly from tree to tree, avoiding large open spaces.

These Woodpeckers are lively, active, and daring. ‘Their con-
trasted colors make them look beautiful, even when seen from a
distance, and especially when they are flying. It is a fine sight
when on a clear, sunny day they chase each other from tree to tree,
or climb swiftly up in the sunshive on the branches or the trunk of
a tree, or when they bask in the sunlight on the tops of high trees,
or on a withered limb execute their playful drumming. ‘They are
almost constantly in motion, and enliven the forests, especially the
dark pine woods, ina most agreeable manner. ‘Their flight is swift
and produces a humming ; but it is usually not farextended. They
rarely come down to the ground, but when on it, hop about with con-
siderable skill. They prefer to sit on the tops of the trees, repeating
their «* pick, pick, pick,” or ‘‘ kick, kick, kick.” Their sleeping-
places, like those of all Woodpeckers, are hollow trees, and to
these they retire when wounded. Such is their conduct toward
their own kind and toward other birds that they can not be called
sociable. They can be easily deceived’ by imitating their drum-
ming, especially in the spring-time, as at that time, besides their
desire for food, jealousy is brought into play. In summer, when
thus deceived, they appear close before you, climbing about on all
the branches to get a sight of the supposed rivals or intruders; on
such occasions both the male and female make their appearance.

CLAPPER RAIL. 19

A Ren eS A ES ee ee et ee eee ee es ee

Their food consists of different kinds of insects, their eggs and
larve, and also of nuts and berries. It is principally gathered from
trees. For their young, they chiefly pick up small caterpillars.
They are very useful in forests and orchards, as they destroy the
insects that infest the trees. Frequently, after a few hard raps with
their bills on a small limb, they run round to the opposite side to
pick up the insects that the jarring has started out. The male and
female alternately sit on the eggs, and the young break out of the
shell in fourteen or sixteen days. They are at first helpless and
deformed, but are most tenderly taken care off by their parents,
who, when there is any seeming danger, wail piteously and never
leave the nest. For a long time after the young are fully fledged,
they are guarded and fed by the parents until perfectly able to find
their own food and take care of themselves. The male and fe-
male birds are alike in color, except that the female lacks the red
on the hind head, and the white below is tinged with brown. The
name of Hairy Woodpecker is doubtless bestowed upon this bird
on account of the white lateral spot on the back, composed of loose
feathers resembling hair. ‘This bird usually utters a loud tremu-
lous cry in starting off, and when alighting. When mortally
wounded it will hang by the claws, even‘of a single foot, while a
spark of life remains.

a

PLATE XIX.

The Clapper Rail. (Mallus Crepitans.)
Bist qe

The Clapper Rail, designated by different names, such as the
Mud Hen, Meadow Clapper, Big Rail, and several others, is a
well-known and very numerous species, inhabiting the whole At-
lantic coast from Florida to New England, and probably still more
northward. Although they chiefly inhabit the salt-marshes, these
birds are occasionally found on the swampy shores and tide waters
of our large rivers, as well as on the lakes. They, as well as
other rails, are birds of passage, arrivingon the coasts the latter
part of April, and leaving late in September. They have been
observed in great numbers at the mouth of the Savannah river, in
the months of January and February, and it is therefore very prob-
able that some of them winter in the marshes of Georgia and Flor-
ida. They are often heard to cry while on their spring migrations,
pretty high up in the air, generally a little before day-break. The
shores, within the beach, consisting of large extents of flat marsh
overgrown with rank and reedy grass or rushes, occasionally over-
flowed by the sea, by which they are cut into numberless small
islands with narrow inlets, are the favorite breeding-places of the
Clapper Rails, which are found there in double the number of all
other marsh-birds.

The arrival of the Clapper Rail is announced by his loud, harsh,
and incessant crackling, which bears a strong resemblance to that of
the Guinea-fowl. It is generally heard during the night, and is
greatest before astorm. Toward the middle of May the Clapper Rails
begin to construct their nests and lay their eggs. They drop their
first egg in a cavity lined with only a little dry grass, to which is
gradually added, as the number of eggs increases, more and more
grass, so that by the time the number of eggs reaches the full com-
plement, usually nine or ten, the nest has attained a height of ten or
fourteen inches. ‘The reason for building the nest so high is doubt-
less to secure them from the rising of the tides. ‘The large rank
marsh-grass is skillfully arched over the nest, and knit at the top, in
order to conceal the nest from view, and afford shelter against heavy
rains; but instead of concealing the nest, it enables the experi-
enced egg-hunter to find it more easily, for he can distinguish the
spot when it is at a distance of from thirty to forty yards, although
an unpracticed eye would not be able to discern itatall. The eggs

are of a pale clay color, sprinkled over with numerous small spots
or dots of a dark red. They measure fully an inch and a half in
length by one inch in breadth, and are obtuse at the small end.
They are considered exquisite food, far surpassing the eggs of the
domestic hen. The proper time for collecting these eggs is about
the beginning of June. The nests are so abundant, and some per-
sons are so skilled in finding them, that sometimes from forty to
fifty dozen are collected in one day by a single individual.

The Crows, Minks, and other animals hunt their eggs and de-
stroy, not only a great number of them, but many of the birds
also. Heaps of bones, feathers, wings, and eggs of the Clap-
per Rail are often found near the holes of Minks, by which these
animals themselves are in turn detected, driven out, and killed.

The poor Clapper Rails are subjected to another calamity of a
more serious and disastrous nature. It happens sometimes, after
the greater part of the eggs are laid, that a violent northeast storm
arises, and drives the sea into the bay, overflowing the marshes,
and destroying all the nests and eggs. Besides, vast numbers of the
birds perish, as the water rushes in suddenly, and the birds being -
entangled are unable to extricate themselves in time to escape
drowning. Hundreds of these birds may be seen at such times
floating over the marshes in great distress, a few only escaping to
the mainland. On such occasions great numbers may sometimes be
seen ina single meadow, bewildered and not trying to conceal
themselves; while the bodies of female birds that perished in their
nests are washed to the shore, with scarcely a male among the
dead bodies. After such an occurrence the birds go to work again
as soon as the water subsides, and in about a fortnight the nests
and eggs are about as numerous as they were before the calamity.
Instances have occurred when such a disaster happened twice in a
breeding-season, and yet the Clapper Rails were not discouraged,
but commenced building nests and laying eggs for the third time.

The young of the Clapper Rails bear a strong resemblance to the
young of the Virginia Rails, although they are somewhat larger.
They are covered, as well as the young Virginia Rails, with a soft
black down, but differ from the latter in having a whitish spot on the
auriculars, and a whitish streak along each side of the breast, belly,
and fore part of the thigh. ‘The legs are of a blackish slate color.
These birds have a little white protuberance near the tip of the bill,
and they are also whitish around the nostrils. They run with the
greatest facility among the long grass and reeds, and can only be
caught with great difficulty. Several young Clapper Rails caught
in the marshes in New Jersey, about the middle of July, corre-
sponded with the above description, the males and females being
marked alike. The extreme nervous vigor of its limbs, and its
compressed body, which enables it to ran among the grass, reeds,
and rushes with the greatest rapidity, seemed to be the only means
of defense of this bird. Almost everywhere among the salt-
marshes are covered passages under the flat and matted grass,
through which the Rail makes its way like a rat, without being
noticed. From nearly every nest runs one or more of these cov-
ered roads to the water’s edge, by which the birds can escape un-
seen. If closely pursued, the Rail will dive and swim to the other
side of the pond or inlet, rising and disappearing with celerity and
in silence. In smooth water the Rail swims tolerably well, but
not fast; he sits rather high in the water with the neck erect, strik-
ing out with his legs with great rapidity. On shore, he runs with
the neck extended, frequently flirting up his erect tail, and running
on smooth ground nearly as fast as a man.

These birds are always very difficult to catch on land even when
their wings are broken. They can remain under water four or five
minutes, clinging closely to the roots of rushes with the head bent
downward. Their flight resembles that of a Duck. They gener-
ally fly low above the ground, with the neck extended, and with
great velocity ; but like all the Rail tribe they have a dislike to
take wing, and whenever you traverse the marshes and accident-
ally start one Clapper Rail, you may be sure that there are hun-
dreds of these birds, which, if hunted by a dog, will lead him

20 BELTED KINGFISHER—BLACK-CAP HAWK.

through numberless labyrinths, and only flush when he is just at
the point of seizing them.

The male and female Clapper Rails are colored nearly alike; but
the young birds in the first year differ somewhat from them in color.
The upper parts of these young birds are of a brownish olive
streaked with a pale slate color; the wings are of a pale brown
olive; the chin and throat, white; the breast, pale ash colored,
acd tinged with yellowish brown; the legs and feet are of a light
horn color. These birds are never found at a great distance from
the lakes or large rivers in the interior part of the country; on the
lakes they are frequently found, but neverin great numbers. The
Clapper Rail feeds chiefly on small shelled fish, especially on those
of that form of snail found so abundant in the marshes; but he
also eats worms, which he digs out of the mud, and for which work
his bill is wonderfully adjusted. He also feeds on small crabs.

In the month of October, Clapper Rails migrate to the South,
never in flocks, but singly or in pairs, flying high up in the air.
None of them remain North during the winter, though one of
them was killed in the Reservoir, about thirty-three miles north-
east from Columbus, Ohio, in the latter part of November: but on
a close inspection, it was found that the bird had been crippled.

The Belted Kingfisher. (Alceda Alcyon.)
Fig. 2.

The Belted Kingfisher is an inhabitant of the shores and banks
of all our fresh-water rivers from Hudson’s Bay to Mexico. He
seems to love running streams and falling waters, like the whole
of his tribe. At such places, resting on an overhanging bough
above a cataract, he will remain for hours, glancing around with
piercing eyes in all directions, seeking to discern in the water be-
low small minnows, which, as soon as seen, with a sudden circular
plunge, executed with the velocity of an arrow shot from the bow,
he sweeps from their element and swallows in an instant. The
voice of the Belted Kingfisher resembles the sound of a child’s
rattle ; it is sudden, harsh, and very loud, but in a certain degree
‘softened by the murmuring of the brooks, or the sound of the cas-
cades or brawling streams, among which he generally rambles.
He courses up and down the stream, along its different windings,
at no great height above the water, sometimes poising himself by
the rapid action of his wings, in the manner of some of the Hawk
tribe, in order to pounce down into the water on some small fish,
which he frequently misses. After such a miss he usually settles,
with a dissatisfied look, on an old dead overhanging limb of a tree
to shake off the water from his plumage and to reconnoiter again.
Mill-dams are frequented by him, as the neighborhood usually
abounds with small fish. Rapid flowing streams, with steep high
banks of a clayey or gravelly nature, are also. his favorite places
of resort, as on such steep and dry banks he usually digs a hole
for his nest. This hole he digs with his bill and claws, extending
it horizontally, sometimes to four or even six feet, and about half a
yard below the surface, with a small cavity at the bottom for the
nest. This is composed of a few fibers, a few dried fish-bones, and
a little dry grass. The female lays five pure white eggs, compar-
atively of rather a large size. The young are hatched about the
beginning of June; but the time differs according to the climate
of the country where the breeding takes place. In the southern
parts of the United States, the female Kingfisher has been found
sitting on her eggs as early as the beginning of April, while in
Ohio the Kingfishers’ nests, with the birds sitting on the eggs, are
not usually found till toward the end of May. ‘They occupy the
same hole for several years as a breeding-place, and will not readily
forsake it, even though it should be visited. ‘There are accounts
of people taking away the eggs of a Kingfisher, leaving one in the

nest, and repeating this till they had collected twelve, or even:

eighteen eggs, the female always laying regularly one egg every

' gether.

day. Such accounts being doubted, an experiment was made, by
taking from a nest-hole in the steep bank of the Connecticut river,
a little below Middletown, Connecticut, the second egg laid; but
instead of laying another egg, the birds abandoned the nest alto-
A similar experiment was tried in Ohio, with a like
result.

In the Eastern and Western States, the Kingfisher generally re-
mains until the commencement of the cold season, when he leaves
for warmer regions, though he is occasionally seen in the North-
ern States in the middle of winter. He is found in the Southern
States-during nearly the whole winter. The Belted Kingfisher is
like all the rest of the Kingfisher tribe, not much inclined to society,
but is generally seen singly or in pairs, or in small groups of three
or four. When crossing from one brook or river to another, or
from one lake to another, which the Kingfisher frequently does, he
passes over cities or forests in a bee-line, not unfrequently fora
distance of ten or twenty miles. At such times his motions consist .
of five or six flaps, followed by a glide without making any undu-
lations like the Woodpecker. In May, 1850, on a little creek in
Connecticut, called the Hockanum, a Belted Kingfisher was ob-
served on the ground, flapping his wings and seemingly in great
distress. On coming up to him the observer found that his bill was
stuck fast in a large clam. He had probably seen the clam on the
muddy bank of the creek, with the shell partly open, and, in the
attempt to pull the clam out, the shell had closed upon his bill.
The passer-by of course liberated the poor bird, which kind act he
acknowledged by biting his benefactor on the thumb, and by
springing his rattle at him most indignantly as he flew away.

PLATE XxX.
The Ash-colored or Black-cap Hawk. (aco atricapzllus.)

This beautiful Hawk has been confounded by many Ornitholo-
gists with the Goose Hawk of Europe; but there is such a differ-
ence between them that it is really wonderful how the two birds
could be supposed to be identical. The greatest difference between
these birds is in the markings of their breast and under parts, and
this difference is so distinct as at once to strike the beholder. On our
Hawk the under parts are of a uniform pale grayish white, each
feather having in the center a. black streak; this extends to the
feathers in the center of the belly, after which the streak is hardly
any more visible: besides this, every feather is marked trans-
versely with fine, irregular zigzag bars of dark gray, In the
European bird, each feather on the breast and lower parts is
marked with a dark shaft, not exceeding its own breadth, and has
besides two decided transverse bars, giving the bird, at a first glance,
a very different aspect from the American Hawk. The upper
parts of the latter are of a blue shade, and the markings of the
head are darker and more decided. Some Ornithologists have
classed this Hawk with the genus Astur, while others make it a
sub-genus of Accipiter, in which the Sparrow Hawk and lesser
species have been placed. Although there is some difference in
tne formation of the tarsi, the habits and forms are in general nearly
similar. The Broad-winged Hawk (Astur Pennsylvanicus) is an
example of the one, and our Hawk that of the other.

The Black-capped Hawk is very spirited, and his general form
and aspect denote great strength ; his legs are very strong, and his
claws rather large in proportion, the claws of the inner toes being
as large as those of the great toe; his wings are short and rou. ed,
showing, when expanded, a considerable inner surface, very fe vor-
able to a smooth sailing flight, which is greatly aided by the
lengthened tail. His favorite abodes are forests or well-wo ded
countries, where he can be seen hunting his prey about the skirts
of the woods. In such places he builds his nest, usually on a high.

a

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wm

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aretha
th
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CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.

17

yg a a gg ae ee ee Oe ey See Oe Se, Te ee A ee ee

Lighth Group—Comb Hens—(Gali7’)—One Family.
1. Wild Hens—Gallus.

Winth Group—Pheasants—(Phastan7)—Seven Families.
. Pheasant Hens—Zuplocamus.
. Silver Pheasants—WVycthemerus.
- Noble Pheasants—Phaszanus.
. Collar Pheasants— Thaumalea.
. Ear Pheasants— Crossoptilon.
. Argus Pheasants—Areus. —
. Glimmer Picadas! Polpplectron. ;

SN QU 2 G&G WN H

Lenth Group—Peacocks—{ Pavones)—One Family.
1. Peacocks—Favo.

Eleventh Group—Pearl Hens—( Vumide)—Three Families.
1. King Pearl Hens—Acryllium.

2. Tuft Pearl Hens—Guttera.
3. Pearl Hens—-Vumzda.

Tweifth Group—Turkeys—(Meleagrides) — One Hatnily-:
1. Turkeys—Weleagris.

Thirteenth Group—Brush Turkeys—(7Tallegalli)—Three Fami-
lies.

1. Thick-bill Hens—Catheturus.

2. Maleos—Megacephaion.

3- Dove Brush Turkeys—Zezfoa.

fourteenth Group—Great-foot Hens—(Megapodiz)—One Family. |

I. Great-foots—Megapodzus.

nae ee Group—Hokko Birds—(Craczide)—Two Families.

. Hokkos—Craces.
2. Mountain ne ae Povey ee

Sixteenth Group—Shaku Hens—(Penelope)—Two Families.

1. Guan Hens—Fenelope.
2. Tuft Guan Hens—Ofuzsthocomus.

Seventeenth Group—Buttocks Hens—(Cryptur¢de)—Four Fam-

ilies.
. Injambus—Crypiurus.
- Great Buttocks Hens—/thynchotus.
. Dwarf Buttocks Hens—JVothura.
. Macucas— 7rachypelmus.

pb © NH H

TWELFTH ORDER.
SHORT-WINGLERS—(Brevrpennes)—Three Groups.

First Group—Ostriches—(Struthiones)—Three Families.

e Ostriches—Struthzo.
2. Nandu’s—/thea.

3. Emuws—Dromaeus.

Second Group—Cassowaries—(Casuariz)—One Family.

I. Cassowaries—Casuartius.

Third Group—Snipe Ostriches—(Apieriges)—One Family.
1. Snipe Ostriches—Aflerex. |

THIRTEENTH ORDER.

Stitt Brrps—( Grallatores)—Twenty-nine Groups.

First Group—Bustards—( Otcdes)—Four Families.
. Bustards— Ozzs.
. Dwarf Bustards— J7etrax.
. Hubaras—AHubara.
. Ornament Bustards—Sypheotrdes.

pp & DN H

Second Group—Run Birds—(7achydromt)—Two Families.

I. Desert Runners—Cursorzus.

2. Crocodile Watchers—//yas.

Third Group—Fallow Swallows—( Trachelig)—One Family.
1. Fallow Swallows—Glareola.

Fourth Group—Thick-feet—(Ocdicnem?) —One Family. —
1. Thick-feet—Ocdicnemus.

o

fifth Group—Rain Pipers, or Plovers—{ Charadri#t)—"Thtee
Families.
1. Golden Plovers—Charadrius.
2. Alps Plovers—Eudromdas.
3. Shore Plovers—Zevalites.

Sixth Group—Lapwings—( Vanell)—Three Families.
Lapwings— Vanellus.
Spur Lapwings—Aoplopterus.
Lobe Lapwings—Sarcéophorus.

W ww &

Seventh Group—Tamstones—(Strepsilate)—One Family.
1. Turnstones—Strepszlas.

Eighth Group—Oyster-catchers—(Hematop:)—One Family.
1. Oyster-catchers—Hematopus. |

Ninth Group—Snipe Birds—(Limzcole)—Three Families.
I. Snipes—Scolopax.
2. Swamp Snipes—Gallinago.
3- Moor Snipes—FPhzlolimunos.

Tenth Group—Strand Runners, or Sand Pipers—( Tringe)—Five
Families.

I. Swamp Runners—Limicola.

2. Sanderlings—Caldris.

3. Mud Runners—FPelidua.

4. Dwarf Strand Runners—Actodroma.

5. Wrestling Runners—Philomachus.

Eleventh Group—Water Steppers—(Phalaropi)—Two Families.
1. Odins Hens—LodzZes.
2. Water Steppers—Phalaropus.

Twelfth Group—Water Runners—( Zotan?)—Four Families.
rt. Strand Pipers—Aciztzs.
2. Rain Snipes— Glottzs.
3. Shore Snipes—Lzmosa.
4. Stilt Runners—/ypszbates.

Thirteenth Group—Sword-bills, or Avosets—(fecurvirostre)—
One Family. 3

1. Avosets, or Sword-bills—Recurvirostra.

Fourteenth Group—Curlews, or Fallow Birds—(Vumenzz) —One
Family.

I. Curlews—WVumenzus.

fifteenth Group—tlbis’s—(Lbzdes)
1. Sicklers—Falcznellus.
2. Scarlet Ibis’s—/ézs.
3. Ibis— Zhreskiornis.

—-Three Families.

Sixteenth Group—Spoon-bill Herons—(/latalee)—One Family.
I. Spoon-bills—FPlatalea. ©

Seventeenth Group—Boat-bills—(Cancromata)—Two Families.
1. Shoe-bills—Laleniceps.
2. Savakus—Cuncroma.

18 7 CLASSIFICATION

Eighteenth Group—Shadow Birds—(Scopi )—One Family.
1. Shadow Birds—Scopus.

Nineteenth Group—Storks—(Ciconie)—Six Families.

. Neversatiates— Tantalus.

. Storks—Crconza.

. Simbils—Sphenorhynchus.
. Giant Storks—MWycterza,

. Crop Storks—Leptopizlos.
. Gap-bills—Anastomus.

OU BR } NHN

Twentieth Groupb—Herons—(Ardee)—Six Families.
. Fishing Herons—Ardea.

. Ornament Herons—Herodzas.
Cow Herons—Aubulcus.
Night Herons—WVycticorax.

. Dwarf Herons—Ardetta.

. Bitterns—Botaurus.

NU Bw wb oH

Twenty-first Group—Sun Herons—(Lurypyge)—One Family.
1. Sun Herons—Luryfyga.

Twenty-second Group—Cranes—( Grues)—Two Families.

1. Cranes—Grus.
2. Virgin Cranes, or Demoiselles—Anthropfordes.

Twenty-third Group—Crowned Cranes — (Balearice) — One
Family.

t. Peacock Cranes—Aa/learica.

Twenty-fourth Group—Field Storks—(Arvicole)—Two Fam-
ilies.
1. Snake Storks—Dicholophus.
2. Trumpeter Birds—Psophia.

Twenty-fifih Group—Weapon Birds—(Palamedea)—Two Fami-
hes.

1. Weapon Birds—Palamedea.

2. Tshajas—Chauna.

we wenty-sixth Group—Rails—(feallz) —Four Families.

. Snipe Rails—/thynchea.

. Water Rails—Aallus.

. Hen Rails—Avramzdes.

. Corncrakes, or Meadow Rails—Crew.

pb W DN HA

Twenty-seventh Grouf—Leaf Pullets—(Parre)—Two Families.
1. Spurwings—Parra.

2. Water Pheasants—/ydrophasianus.

Twenty-cighth Group—W ater Hens—(Galiinule)—Three Fami-
lies.

1. Sultans Hens—Porfphyrio.

2. Moor Hens—Stagnzcola.

3. Coots—fulica.

TL wenty-ninth Group—Hemfeet—( Podoe)—One Family.
1. Diving Pullets—elornzs.

FIFTH CLASS.
SWIMMERS—(WVatatores)—Four ORDERS.
FOURTEENTH ORDER.

Tootu-BILLs—(Lamellirostres)—Six Groups.

First Group—Stilt Swans—(Phenicopter )—One Family.

1. Flamingoes—Phenicopterus.

oP &® N H

Ow AUR wD

OF BIRDS:

Second Group—Swans—( Cygnz)—Five Families.

. Knob-bill Swan, Common Swan—Cygunus olor.
. Song Swan—C. muszcus.

Dwarf Swan—C. Bewzckiz.

Black-necked Swan—C. nzgricolls.

. Black Swan—C. chenopsis atratus.

Third Group—Geese—(Anseres)—Eight Families.

. Spur Geese—Flectropterus.
Swan Geese—Cygnopsis.
Wild Geese—Anser.

Snow Geese—Aunser-Chen.
Sea Geese—Bernicla.

. Fox Geese—Chenalopex.
Dwarf Geese—WVettapus.

. Hen Geese— Cereopszs.

Fourth Group — Swimming Ducks — (Anates)— Seven Fam-

TOump Ww bd

WwW DN HA

First Group—Sea Swallows, or Terns—(Sterne)—Six Fam-

Aw pW YN H

mt on Ho

ilies.
. Fox Ducks—Casarca.
. Cave Ducks— Vulpanser.
. Tree Ducks—Dendrocygna.
. Speculum Ducks—Axzas.
. Ornament Ducks—Azwx.
. Spoon-bill Ducks—S#atula.
. Musk Ducks—Cazrina.

Fifth Group—Diving Ducks—(fuligule)—Four Families.

. Eider Ducks—Somaterza.

. Mourning Ducks— Ozdemza.

. Table Ducks—Ayéhya.

. Rudder Ducks—£vrismatura.

Sixth Group—Sawyers—(Merg?)—Two Families.

. Dwarf Sawyers—Mergellus.
. Tooth Sawyers—Mergus.

. FIFTEENTH ORDER.

Sra Firvers—(Longrpennes)—EHight Groups.

ilies.
. Preying Sea Swallows—Sy/locheldon.
. Stream Swallows—Sterna. |
. Dwarf Sea Swallows—Sternula.
. Water Swallows—Hydrochelidon.
. Fairy Swallows—Gygzs.
. Noddy Tern—Axnous stolidus.

Second Group—Scissor-bills—(fthynchopes)—One Family.

. Scissor-bills—/thynchofps.

Third Group—Gulls—(Larz)—Five Families.

. Fishing Gulls—Larus.

. Ice-field Gulls—Pagophila.

. Stump Gulls—/zssa.

. Cap Gulls—Chrozcocephalus.
. Rose Gulls—/thodostethia.

Fourth Group—Preying Gulls—(Lestres)—Two Families.
. Preying Gulls—Lesérzs.
. Parasite Gulls—Z.-Stercorarius.
Fifth Group—Albatross—(Dromedee)—One Family.
. Albatross—Domedea.

he

CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.

Sixth Group—Petrels, or Storm Birds—(Procellar7e)—Three
Families.
1. Giant Petrels—Procellaria- Ossifragus.
2. Ice Petrels—Procellaria.
3. Duck Petrels—FPrzon.

Seventh Group—Storm Swallows—(Oceanédes)—Two Families.

I. Storm Swallows— 7halass¢tdroma.
2. Storm Sailors—Oceanodroma.

Lighth Group—Storm Divers, or
ily.

1. Diving Storm Birds—Pufinus.

Puflins—(Pujfin¢)—One Fam-

SIXTEENTH ORDER.
RUDDER-FEET—( Steganopodes)—Four Groups.

first Group—Fishing-Plungers—( Prscatrices)—-Two Families.

1. Tropic Birds—Pheton.
2. Gannets—Sw/a.

Second Group—Frigate Birds—( Tachypetes)——One Family.
. Frigate Birds— Tachyfetes.

4

Lhird Group—Cormorants—( Haliez)—Two Families.
1. Anhingas, or Snake-neck Birds—Flotus.
2. Cormorants—Phalacrocorax.

fourth Group—Pelicans—(Pelecanz)—One Family.

I. Pelicans—FPelecanus.
SEVENTEENTH ORDER.
Divers—( Urinatores)—Six Groups.

first Group—Greebes—(Podicipites)—Two Families.

1. Greebes—Podiceps.
2. Dwarf Greebe—P. mznor.

Second Group—Divers—( Colymbi)—One Family.
1. Sea Divers—Colymebus.

Third Group—Guillemots—( Vrze@)—Three Families.
1. Sea Doves—Cepphus.
2. Guillemots— Uyrza.
3. Crab Divers—Mergulus.
Fourth Group—Ornament Divers—(Phaleres)—One Family.

I. Ostrich Divers— Phaleris.

Fifth Group—Auks—(Alce)—Three Families.

. Puffins—Mormon.
. Auks—Aldca.
. Stump Auks—Pinguznus, Plautus.

& bw A

Sixth Group—Fin Divers—(Apienodyte)—Three Families.

J Bin Divers—A plenodytes.
. Fat Divers—SPhenzscus.
. Springing Divers—LudyPies.

Go N

EXPLANATION OF PLATE D. (TYerminology of a Bird.)

a. Upper mandible. 6. Lower mandible. c. Nostril. d. Ridge of upper man-
dible. e. Cutting edge of lower mandible. / Angle of the mouth. g. The
eye. #. Front. 7. Crown. &. Occiput or hind head. @. Neck. m. Ear, auricle,
or auditory conch. 2. Chin. o. Throat. #. Breast. g. Fore part of belly. 7. Mid-
dle part of belly. s. Hind part of belly. ¢. Winglet, spurious or bastard wing.
w. Under tail coverts. wv. Fore part of back. w. Middle part of back. x. Hind part
of back. y. Tail feathers. 2, z. Middle tail feathers. 1y1. Side feathers of tail.
2. Upper tail coverts. 3. Bend of wing. 4. Smaller wing coverts. 5. Wing coy-
erts, first and second row. 6. Primaries. 7. Secondaries. | 8. Tertiaries. 9.
Shoulder feathers. 10 Shank. 11. Tarsus. 12. Great or hind toe. 13. Outer
toe. 14. Middle toe. 15. Inner tne. 16. Sole of foot.

19

_the young are equally conducted by both parents.

FIRST CLASS,

CRACKERS—(£unuclatores)—THREE ORDERS.

Parrots being the most proportionally developed birds, ought to
be placed at the head of the scientific classification. The question
then is, what kind of birds should stand next? WReichenbach re-
gards, as the next akin to Parrots, Sparrows proper (Passeres)
and Ravens (Coracirastres). Not without reason, we call a certain
Sparrow a ‘‘ Pine Parrot,” and certain Parrots (Szééiches) ‘* Spar-
row Parrots.” This is founded on a similarity recognized as ex-
isting between these birds. : |

We must not, however, forget that, with such a conception, we
have to do, in regard to such relations, only with orders, but not

with groups or families; and that it is consequently the form only

which we have to elucidate. A Cockatoo, a Finch, and a Crow
appear to us as having no direct relation to each other; while all
the Parrots, the multitude of Sparrows, and the Ravens show a de-
cided similarity, each to the other. These three groups have
many peculiarities in common. They are all short in body, with
wings of a medium length; they have short, stout legs, a propor-
tionally large head, and a short, hook-shaped, or a simple conical
beak. Their tail, as with birds in general, is variously formed ; it
may be long or very short, gradually pointed or lyre-shaped: but
it always consists of proportionally soft and somewhat elastic feath-
ers; sometimes a peculiar formation of single feathers of the tail is
found, but oftener a rich development of the tail coverts. The
other plumage is compact, although not abundant; the single
plumes are usually large and stiff; the color of the plumage is
often vivid and frequently gorgeous. The anatomical structure
is essentially similar in all. The skeleton may be said to be
coarsely built, and the muscles are powerful. The tongue is of
medium length, and capable of being little projected or not at all,
but very movable. ‘The throat widens in many of the class and
forms a regular crop; the stomach consists of strong muscles; and
the senses are uniformly well developed. Sight, hearing, and feel-
ing are developed in all; smell is developed in some, and taste to
a certain degree in others. |

Bodily, as well as in regard to instinct or intellect, we must rank
the Crackers among highly gifted birds. They are wise, sprightly
and quick in motion, and are fond of the society of their own kind.
Their highly developed instincts or intellects enable them to live a
comparatively comfortable life, even under unfavorable circum-
stances; while their bodily equipments afford them decided ad-
vantages in the struggle for existence. Parrots are chiefly con-
fined to the warmer zones; the rest of the class are dispersed over
the entire globe: their fixed quarters are essentially conditioned by
the growth of trees, as by far the greater part of Crackers are
tree b.rds. They rove about in comparatively small districts, and
only those that live in colder regions are wanderers. Crackers live
principally on vegetable food; their strong bill enables them to
crack hard seeds which can not be eaten by others: they eat, be-
sides, fruits and buds of trees or shrubs.
for many of them.

Nearly all Crackers mate for life, and most of them breed more
than once a year. Their nests are variously constructed, and the
number of eggs is usually from three to six or eight. The female
generally does the hatching alone, but in some kinds she is tem-
porarily relieved by the male bird. The feeding and raising of
Many Crack-
ers are disliked by the farmer on account of their raids upon his
property, but they usually profit him more than-they do him dam-
age. By their picking out the eyes of the seeds of weeds, and by
their catching obnoxious insects, they become very useful to the
husbandman. Besides, they enliven the woods and fields by their
presence, their beauty, and their song. They can be trained and
kept in confinement with ease. The flesh of most of the Crack-

Insects serve as food

20 : CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS.

ers furnishes healthy and delicious food, while the feathers of many
of them are used as ornaments.

BIRST ORDER.

THE Parrots—(Pszttacin?)—Six Groups.

The anatomical construction of Parrots has many peculiarities.
Among these are the joint between the upper mandible and the
front, the fully closed borders of the eye-sockets, the large bones
of the palate, and the small neck-bone, which is, in some kinds, as

_ in the Sparrow Parrots, entirely wanting. The breast-plate is quite

large, and its high comb projects only a little. Among the soft

_ parts the most remarkable organ, perhaps, is the thick fleshy

tongue. The throat widens giadually to a crop, and the glandu-

_ lous fore-stomach is separated by a smooth space from the stomach

proper. The gall-bladder is wanting; the intestines are usually
double the length of the body; the milt is small, and the kidneys
thin-lobed. The wind-pipe, on the lower larynx, has three pairs
of muscles.

The bill of a parrot bears some resemblance to that of a Hawk;
but it 1s considerably thicker, stronger, and better formed. The
nostrils are in the upper part of a cere or wax-skin, and are per-
fectly round.

The legs are short, strong, and fleshy; the tarsus shorter than
the middle toe, and covered with scales only; the proportionally
long toes have a thick sole; two toes are directed forward, and two
backward ; the claws are not long but greatly bent, and are never

very strong, yet tolerably sharp-pointed. The bones of the wings.

are of medium length and very strong; the large feathers are un-
usually numerous, but seldom long, and yet so arranged that the
spread wing appears very pointed. ‘The plumage consists of but
few feathers, that, with the exception of the head feathers, are dis-
tinguished by their compactness. ‘The border around the eye is
naked; but the space between the eyes and the head is generally

feathered. A more or less brilliant leaf green is the predominant.

color, although there are hyacinth blue, purple, golden, yellow,
and more darkly colored Parrots.
All the five senses are uniformly well developed in the Parrots.

The Falcons are distinguished by keenness of sight; Owls by that:

of hearing: Ravens by that of smell, and Ducks by their discrimi-

nation of taste.

Parrots are considered by some as holding a rank among birds
similar to that of apes and monkeys among quadrupeds. Like
the latter they are imitative, cunning, and mischievous. All the
larger kinds of Parrots rise on the wing with considerable difh-
culty ; but their flight is speedy. The smaller ones—for example,
the Grass or Sparrow Parrots—fly with the swiftness of Swallows ;
the Araras and Paroquets fly quickly, and only the true Parrots fly
rather slowly, flapping their short wings in order to propel their
plump and heavy bodies. On the ground, Parrots move slowly,

and their walk is a mere waddle, although some of the ground Par-

rots run like Sandpipers.

They fly over long distances, and climb over narrow spaces. In
the latter case they assist themselves with their bills, while other
climbing birds use their feet only. Parrots swim no better than a

Robin, and can not dive at all. Their feet are like hands, and

their bills, which, in most birds, serve instead of hands, are in
Parrots more flexible than in other members of their class. From

the use of the bill for the purpose of climbing, which is peculiar

to Parrots, one kind of them is called the cross-bill ‘* Pine Parrot.”
The voice of the Parrot, though generally harsh and unpleasant, is
often flexible and expressive. Several of the smaller male Grass
Parrots sing to their female mates in such a charming way as en-
titles them to be ranked among warblers. Other kinds may be

taught to whistle an air, and their capacity for imitating the hu-.

man voice in the pronunciation of words is well known.
Parrots inhabit, exclusive of Europe, all the great divisions of
the globe; but are principally found in the warmer regions. An

American kind is found as far north as the 42d degree of north
latitude; another kind in the dreary deserts of Terra del Fuego,
in the 53d degree of south latitude. Cockatoos harbor in New
Zealand, and in the Maquarie island, under the 52d degree of
southern latitude. In China, they are found only below the 27th
degree northern latitude, and in India only up to the foot of the
Himalaya; in Eastern Africa, they selcom pass northward beyond
the 15th, or in Western Africa beyond the 16th degree of northern
latitude. They generally, but by no means exclusively, confine
themselves to the woods, as some kinds inhabit the treeless plains.
Others live on the Andes above the wood regions, and at a height
of 11,000 feet above the level of the sea. Parrots, except in the
breeding season, live in society, often in very large flocks; their
regular settlements are made in forests, and they daily rove over
large districts. ‘They leave their sleeping-places early in the morn-
ing, and alight on the same tree to eat of its fruit; they set senti-
nels on guard, and at their first warning cry take all at once to the
wing.. ‘They arrive together at the same sleeping-place, and use
itin common. The place is sometimes a_ hollow tree, a closely
leaved tree top, or a hollow ina rock. They seem to choose the
Closely leaved tree tops also for hiding-places. During a heavy
tropical tempest, Parrots may be seen immovably sitting on the
highest dry branches of a tree talking cheerfully to each other,
while the water is running down their bodies. As soon as thé rain
is over, they immediately dry and clean their plumage. The
color of their plumage is so much like that of the foliage of the

tree on which they are hidden, that it is difficult to see a single

Parrot, although there may be fifty of them ensconced among the
leaves. If one of their number perceives an enemy approaching,
he gives a short, subdued warning cry, and the loud chattering’ of
the whole company is at once silenced. They then try to gain by
noiseless climbing the side opposite the enemy ; fly just ag noise-
lessly away, and only begin to scream when about a hundred
yards off—more, it would seem, to mock the deceived enemy than
for any other purpose. Such a blind-man’s-buff they regularly
play, when engaged in robbing a tree of its fruit. All their thiev-
ish depredations seem to be generally executed with a similar cun-
ning and mockery.

The food of Parrots consists chiefly of fruits and seeds. Many
of the Laris feed exclusively on the honey of flowers. The Ara-
ras and Paroquets live also on fruits and seeds, and on the buds
and flowers of trees and shrubs. Some Cockatoos add to these
the larvee of insects and worms. After feeding they fly to the

water to drink and bathe; they drink a great deal, and sometimes.

even salt or brackish water; sometimes they are seen to bathe in

the dry sand like chickens. They seem to be very fond of salt,.

for they are always found about the salt-licks in the forest. The
time of incubation is in the season corresponding with our spring.
The larger kinds breed but once a year, and never lay more than
two eggs. ‘The Australian Grass Parrots, however, lay from three

to six eggs, sometimes even eight or nine, and breed twice, and

often three times, in one year. The Sittiches and Cockatoos lay
from three to tour eggs, and breed once a year. The eggs are
always white, with a smooth shell, and nearly round. Their nests

are chiefly in hollow trees, but some of the American Parrots.

breed also in the hollows of rocks.
The Sittiches of India, according to Jerdon, often build their

nests in the hollows in the walls of old buildings. The ground ~
Parrots lay their eggs on the bare ground. All Parrots prefer to:

build their nests in large societies, sometimes in great multitudes.
Sometimes a Parrot finds a hollow in a tree, but the entrance into

it is too narrow, perhaps made by a small Woodpecker. The fe--

male widens the hole with her bill, so that she can inspect the in-
side; if this suits her, she widens the hole still more, hanging

like a Woodpecker on the bark, and gnawing: rather than cut-

ting with her bill, till the hole is completed, which is sometimes
the work of several days. The main thing in the construction of

the nest is the hollow; a few chips on the bottom form a sufficient.

A tes Sha PA 56 oro 3ECEHO-0 0

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