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QUARTERLY JOURNAL 

or 

I 

SCIENCE, 
LITERATURE, AND THE ARTS. 




VOLUME XII. 



•t *^ ''LONDON: 

JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE-STREET. 
» 

18S8. 



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LONPON : 
t^RjNTFf) l)Y Win JAM CLOVVG8, 
N<>rtltniiilirriai«d ronrt. 



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CONTENTS 

QE 

THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL, 

N°. XXIII. 



I. On an Ancient Monument of Sculpture in Stone repre« 



genting the Theban Sphinx, which was recently dis- 




covered at Colchester. By C. W. A. Hay, Esq. 






I 


IL Some additional Facts relatins: to the Division of the 




Eighth Pair of Nerves. By A. P. W. Philip, M.D., 






17 


IH. On Secret Writiner. in Renlv to Mr. Chenevix's Chal- 




lenge. By the Rev, Edw, Hincks, A.M., Cormerly 






21 


IV. Contributions towards the Chemical Knowledge of 




Mineral Substances. By the late Martin Hsnry 






29 


V. Captain Kater on the Construction of a Balance. With 






40 


VL On Pitchstone. By J. Mac Cu^cloch, M.D.F.R.S.,&c. 


41 


Vn. A Translation of Rey's Essays on the Calcination of 




Metals. By John George Children, Esq , 


64 


VUL A further Inquiry into the Nature of the Products of 




the Slow Combustion of Ether. By J. F. Daniell, 






64 


IX. On some New Electro-Magnetical Motions, and on 




" the Theory of Magnetism. By M. Faraday, Chem. 




Assist, at the Royal Institution. With a Plate . . . • 


74 



CONTENTS. 



ART. , : PAILE 

X. Dr. Hastings on the Division of the Eighth Pair of 



Nerves 96 



XI. Meteorological Observations. By J. F. Dakiell, 






97 


XII. An Account of some Observations and Kxriprimpntji 




made by Mr. Green, during his Ascent in a Balloon 




uu tnc oiii lacpi. io<ci. \^uiiiiuunicaie€i oy iv. ri> 




Solly, Esq., F.R.S. & M.R.I 


114 




119 




120 


Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of 


• 




120 


i- On the Blarfe llptp IVIiirnsum tkf th** Npoto lipino' a 
Ti<*f(Pnf»p furatTi^t th<* Sonrfliincr F.flRar'f^ r»F tKi> Siin'«j T?ftVQ 






By Sir E Home Bart FRS . ... ' . 


125 


u. On the Magnetic Phacnomena produced by Llectncity, 




in a Letter from Sir H. Davy, Bart. F.R.S., to \V. H. 




WnTTA<5Tnv MD PRS ... 




111. IV. L/ommunications of Jsm^iar racts m isaturai riis- 




tory. Jjy tiie jiiari oi i>ioiiiOf», r.rt.o., anu jj. vjiles, ii,sq. 


126 


V. The Croonian Lecture. Microscopical Observations 




on the following subjects : On the Brain and Nerves, shew- 




ing that the materials of which they are composed exist in 




Rlnod On -the discover v of Valves in -the Branches of the 




Vas Breve lying between the villoCis and muscular coats 




of the Stomach. On the Structure of the Spleen. 'Ey 






127 


vi. On two New Compounds of Chlorine and Carbon, 




and on a New Compound of Iodine, Carbon, and Hydrogen. 




By M. Faraday, Chemical Assistant in the Koyal 


129 




vii. An Account of the Comparison of various British 


130 


Btandards of Linear Measure. By Capt. H. Kater, F.R.S. 


viii. An Account of the Urinary Organs, and Urine of two 




Species of the genus Rana. By John Davy, M.D.F.R.S. 


130 


ix. An Account of a Micrometer made of Rock Crystal, 






131 



1 



CONTENTS. m 

ART. £AG£ 

X. The Bakcrian Lecture on the best kind of Steel and 
Form for a Compass Needle. By Capt. H. Kater, F.R.S* 132 

xi» Notice respecting a Volcanic Appearance in the Moon, 
in a Letter addressed to the Presideot. By Capt. HT 
IUter. F.K.i> . 133 

xii. A farther Account of Fossil Bones, discovered in 
Caverns enclosed in the Limestone Rocks at Plymouth. 

By JosKPFi Whidbey, Esq. 133 

xiii. On the Aeriform Compounds of Charcoal and Hy « 
drogen, with an Account of some additional Experiments 
on the Gases from Oil and from Coal. By William 
Henry, M.D. F.R.S.. &c 133 



XV. Astronomical & Nautical CoLLECTioys, No.Vn. 137 

1. An Essay on the easiest and most'convenient method 
of calculating the Orbit of a Comet from Observations. 
By William Olbers, M.D 137 

ii. An easy method of computing the Aberration of the 
Stars. By the Rev. John Brinkley, D.D., Professor 
of Astronomy in the University of Dublin 151 

XVI. The Clock's Daily Rate and Error at one time of 
the Day being kuowa, a Table to find its correspond - 
ing Error throughout the Day. By J. South, Esq. 
F.R.S 155 

XVII. MlSCELLAHEOUS iNTELLlGEyCE 168 

I. Mechanical Sciexce. 

^ The Arts, Manufactures » Sfc, 

1. Application of the Air Pump. 2. Adhesive Pelt. 
3. The Apograph. 4. New Madder Lake. 5. Contami - 
nation of Salt for Manufactories 168 

IT. Chemical Science. 

^ Chemistry, Electricity^ Magnetism^ j-c. 
1. On the Analysis of Alkaline Minerals. By M.Berthicr. 
2. Compounds of Molybdenum, Chromium, Tungsten, 
Antimony, &c. 3. Oxide of Chromium. 4. Carburet of 
Nickel. 5. On the Alloys of Chromium, Iron, and Steel. 



IT GOWTENTS. 

AAZ* PAGE 

6, On the Combination of Oxides with Chlorine. Iodine. 
and Cyanogen, by M> Granvitle« 7. On a New Sali- 
fiable Base, by Dr» Brugnatelli. 8. Effects of Copper on 
Vegetation. 9. On Succinic Acid, by M. JuHen. 10, 
Woulfe's Apparatus improved. 11. Prize Question. 12. 
Laws of the Propagation of Heat. 13. Phosphorescence of 
Wounds. 14. On the Phosphorescence of Luminous Insects. 

15. Relation of a remarkable Electrical Phoenomenon. 16, 

On Voltaic Electricity, by M. Pictet. 17. Electro-Mag - 
netic Instruments, invented bv M. de la Rive. 18. Contact 
in Voltaic Electricity. 19. Magnetism by Electricity. 20. 
New Electro-Magnetic Apparatus ,..>«......«. 186 

in. Natural History. 
^ Medicine. 

1 . On the Use of Iodine in Medicine, by Dr. Coindet. 

2. Use of Nitrate of Silver in Medicine. 3. Use of Chlorine 

in Hydrophobia. 4. Medical Prize Question . , 187 

§ Mineralogy', Geology^ Meteorology ^ Sfc, 

1. New Mineral Substance. 2. Sinking of a Mountain. 

3. Remains of Art in a Limestone Formation. 4. On Me- 
teorolites, by M. Fleuriau de Bellevue. 5. Skull found in 
aTree 191 

IV. General Literature. 

1. Anoient MSS. ^. Statuary Marble. 3. Inventor of 

the Steam Engine. 4. Medico-Chirurgical Society of 
Edinburgh. 193 

Select List of New. Publications 196 



TO CORRESPONDENTS. 



7. on iSat Decompositioii of Nitrogen has been received ; we 
aoxiously look for the experimerUum cruck* 



Several CQmmiimcations have readied itt relating to the de- 
• tme tt Mi cf enoke; we shell avail oofselfee eC thoee-eC Mr. 
Janes Roberson and D., Irat theie are w«gfatj reasons Ibr da* 
f erring liie eowidefatioii of tliis maltar. 



The Letter to the Trustees of the British Museum is not ia 
our way ; Britannicus may have it back agaui. 



We have not Mayow's TVoetate at haiidi bat H. of Man- 
diester win find that the passage adverted to, rans nearly as 
followi : ¥ix eomeipi poteti u$ii$ auffmemhm iStid wUimmm, 

fUn d particuUs nUro^werets^JbdM tatir caldnandim, procedat,^ 



Our friend at Milan is right. 



JoBKftO!^ is infonned that Bonpland has seen an iainnBae 
plaki in Ike inteiter of Sootk America eorered witk iamiBiera* 
ble auMses of Msfaone mHk 



FiatjmtiHay mat calunC* is perhaps ri|^t in theory, bet 

certainly wrong in practice. 



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TO COBBBSPOnBim* 



Und^r iStut ftpprohaisicMi of more contfovofsyy iv6 de- 

clincd three papers bearing upon the Oil Question ; with the 
permission of our correspondent at Glasgow, we shall use 
his information upon another occasion. Mr. Paaks^ too 
has been fio obliging as to favour us with a repfyp connected 
witli the same sobiecty which ve haye been compelled to 
ledmL 



A general Index of Reference to the contents of the first 
twelve volumes of this Journal wiU be published in the course 
of the Spring. 

m 

t ' 

t 



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CONTENTS 

THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL, 

N". XXTV. 



ART. rAOE 

1. Comparative Analysis of Black and Green Tea 201 

IL On the Chart of Shetland. By J. Mac Culloch, 

M. P., r. R. S., &c.. 206 

IIL Account of the Method of Illunainating the Clock Dial 

on the Steeple of the Tron Church in Glasgow (with a 
Plate) 229 

IV, On the Difference of the Functions of certain Nerves of 
the Face, illustrated by their Anatomy in the Inferior 
Animals, and by a comparison of their Uses in Man and 

Brutes. By Jony Shaw, Esq. 231 

V. Dr. CoiNDET> of Geneva, on the administration of Iodine 

in Scrofula > 243 

VL Process for Procuring Platinum, Palladium, Rhodium, 
Iridium, and Osmium, from the Ores of Platinum. By 
M. Baruel, Chem. Oper. in the School of Med., Paris. 246 

VII. Contributions towards the Chemical Knowledge of Mi * 
neral Substances. By the late Martik Henry Kla- 

PROTH 

VII I. On an Easy and Secure Method of Secret Correspoa* 
dence r - r ^92 

IX. Translation of Key's Essays on the Calcination of Me- 
tals. By JoHK George Chilpren, Esq. F. R. S., 
&c. ("continued) 



li 



COXTENTS. 



ART. PAGE 

X. On the Constitution of Liquid Muriatic Acid, at difiercnt 
densities. By Andrew Ure, M.D., F.R.S.,Prof. of the 
Andersonian Institut. Glasgow, &c 287 

XI. Desciiption of an Ejectro-mannetical Apparatus for the 
exhibition of Rotatory Motions. ByM. Faraday, Chem. 
Assist. Roy. Institution 283 

XIL ProcccdintTs of the Royal Society , 300 

XIII. Account of the Progress of Foreif^n Science :505 

XIV. Analysis OF SciENTiric BooKb 31-3 

i. Fproifuginin ; or, the Inconveniepce of the Aer and Smoake of 

London dLsaipated. Together wiilisome Remedies, huniblv proposccT 
by John Evr-LY\, Ksq , to \m sacred Majestie, and to the Parlia - 
ment now assembled. LoiMton, i66i 

ii. One Thousand Experiments in Chemistry, with Illustrations of 
Natural Phenomena, ami Practical Qbservations on the Manurac - 
tnring and Chemical Processes at present pursued in the siuTessfnl 
pultlvation of Uie Useful Arts ; with nnmeroua Engravings on wood 
and copper. By Colin Mackenzie. 

iii. Philosophical Transactions of the Rcyal Society of London, for 
the year lesti. Part II. 

XV. ASTKONOMICAL AND NaUTICAL CoLLECTIOKS, 

No. VIII 381 

i. [Second] Report ou the present state of Ram&den's Dividing En- 
gine. By Dr. W. H. Wollaston. (See Vol. IX. P. 347.) 

ii. Mr. Ivory's Metliod of Computing the Latitude from two Alti- 

tndea and the time intervening. 

iii. ApoIop:y for the " Postscript on Refraction/* in answer to Mr. 
Ivory's jkeiuai ks. 

iv. The Variation of the Temperature of the Atmosphere deduced 
from the Mean Retraction. 

V. Account of some Optical Inventions of Professor Amici. 

XVI. Miscellaneous Intelligence 402 

I. Mechanical SriF-NCR. 
^ Mechanics^ the Arts, &c» 
L Letters from Messrs. Parkinson and Frodsham. 



dition. 


2. Steam Engines in England. 3. 


Prize Questions. 


5. Litht 


^graphy. 


6. Preservation of Milk. 


7. Preservation 


of Caul 


i flowers. 


8. Use of Larch Bark 


in Tanning. 9- 


Atkin's 


Rock, 


10. Preservation of Fresco Painting. 11. 



CONTENTS. iil 

II. CiiEMicjii. Science. 
§ Chemistry, 

t . Curious Effect of Soda Water upon Ca?>t Iron. C. .S<^]u - 
bility of Magnesia and its Carbonate in Water. 3. On ihc So- 
lution of Carbonate of Lime, by Mr. Dalton. 4. On Sul « 
phureous Mineral Waters, and the Nitrogen contained in tlicm. 
5, On Meteoric Iron, and the masses supposed to be such. 
6". Tests for Arsenic. 7. On the detection of Arsenic in 
Ores of Antimony. 8. Berzelius on the Oxide of IMatiuuin 
and Gold. 9* On rendering Tissues incombustible. 10. Heat 
produced by Chlorine. 1 1. Explosion of Chlorine and Hy- 
drogen. 12. Oxalic Acid. 13. Alum in decomposed Mica 
Slate. 14. American Hydraulic Lime 40/ 

§ Electricity, Magnetism^ &c. 

1. Effects of Lightning. 2. Production of Magnetism. 3. 
Effect of Iron on the rate of Chronometers. 4. Electro- 
Magnetic Kotation. 5. Note on New Ekctro-Magnctical 
Motions. 15y M. Faraday . . . 4t4 

ITf. Natttrat. History. 

§ 1 . Mineralogy y Meteorology^ &c. 

i. Oxalate of Iron found as a Mineral. 2. Native Cop- 
per- of Lake Superior. 3. Mont Brasier. 4. Scipione Ma- 

zella's Account of tlie Rise of Monte-Nuovo, in the year 
1538. 5. Fail of an Ai?rolito at Juvinas. 6. Earthquak(3 
in Cumimara. 7* Kartiiguake at Celebes. 8. Mud Volcanoes 
in Bogs. 9. Scottish Pearl. 10. HeinPecr. 11. First Ap - 
pearaiice of the Boa Constrictor in the Island of St. Vincent. 422 

^ II. Medicine* 

1. Salivation and Ulceration of the Gums, produced by 
Hydrocyanic, or Pru'^sic Acid. 2. Preservative against 
Scarlet Fever. 3. On Irritation of the Spinal Nerves. 4. 

5. Medical Prize Questions ■» . . . 428 

1. Cabinet of Ancient Glass. 2. Lithography. 3. Public 
Education. 4. Statistics — Spam. 5. Census in America. 

6. Observatory at Abo in Finland. 7' Kewards for Dis - 
co veiy in the North. 8. Convent of St. Bernard 



c 2 



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9 



THE 

QUARTERLY JOURNAL, 

Oehber, 1821. 

Abt. L — On an ancient Monument of Sculpture in StotiCf 
rqpretenting the Thebm Sphmx; which wot reenify di^ 
covered at Colchester, m Emx* J^E.W. A, Hat, Efq., 
A.B., F.A.S.* 

There is not peiliapt «ny fingle object of aneiant ar^ tiiat 
hasbeen ever found in diifl country, whidi ofiera to tnach interest, 

notmeiclv to the antiquary, but to tlie artist and to the historian, 
as this very extraordinary and beautiful sculpture lately dU- 
covered. * 

The enf^Tings (Pig. 1> 2, 3^ and 4t,) are after drawinga made, 
as nearly aa the perspective would admits aoeotding to a ical* 
of one quarter fiie sise of tbe original. They repieient the four 
princi[>al views of the Sphinx, whicfc the scnlptor has exhibited 
as having already slain some victim of he r wiles ; her blood- 
thirsty passion would seem to be already satiated ; she sits as 
it were satisfied with her prowess^ and in perfect serenity^ over 
. mangled lemams of her imsucceufbl opponeat. 

• In a letter which the writfr of this article published lately at Colches- 
ter, upon the same subject, he anti:>unc( d his intentioa of transmitting the 
four drawings, here engraved, to the Society ol Antiquaries of Londf)n, for 
the purpose of insertion in their Archaeologic al publication. T he clrHwirif^'^s 
have been exhibited tu the society, and elicited considerable interest with 
UuU learned body ; bat, as the forthcoming volame of the Archasologia wag 
already ean|pl«ted,aiid in the press, and thna was not any probability 
«r part efaaotlMi being pattliahed witlda a twdfemnthfiroMt^^ * 
line» itwastbmiifhtderifabletoeiiaveyto AepabllOy ioae knowledge of 
tbn cmions diieofefjt thioqah the cinnOation of this QaMtwiy Jogm ei. 

t The figores 1 and 2 present the right and left viswi of the monmnent : 
the fSgnres ft and 4, shewing the firoot and net views, will be ftiven^ tha 
following Number of this J iim l , 
Vot.XXL B 



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2 0»<m ancietU Monument f 

This singular figure, which, from its beauty, might naturally 
be expected to be of the finest marble, has been sculptured in 
freestone. The material appears, from its good quality, to have 
been brought from the Isle of Portlaiid ; since it is not known 
that any stone of the same kind has been foimd in anatiTe state 
in the neighbourhood of Colchester. The Romiius brought, no 
doubt, from Portland, much of the materials for their finer works 
at that place where they planted dieir first colony* in Britain, 
and which long remained one of their principal military stations. 

This Sphinx was found in the midst of a great number of 
fragments of another species of stone, equally unknown at Col- 
chester as a native protlact, and vulgarly called Swanage, from 
the place where it is dug in the Isle of Puxbeck, which is in the 
immediate vicinity of Portland. 

The general dimensions of onr antique are as fc^owB: 

Length of the base, 25|- Inches. 

Medium breadth of the base, 10 

Height from base to top of Sphinx's head, . 25 
The face of the Sphinx, measuring from underi 

the chin to the crown of the head, . • J ^ 

The stone was found at the depth of sbout two feet from 
the surface of the soil, in trenching the ground around the 
General Hospital latdy erected at Colchester. It was dis- 
covered in an almost perfect state, there being only a few marks 
of injury, and those slight ; excepting upon the left side of the 
work that lay uppermost. The fracture of the nose of the 
Sphinx, as well as a blow upon the man's forehead, were, with 
some other less material branes, Ae almost unavoidable eibcts 
of the labour upon discovery. 

But the circumstances of the spot where this relic has been 
found, as well as the great beauty and the peculiar character of 
the work, have stimulated inquiry, and merit some discussion. 

Notwithstanding all that has been written upon the early 
history of Colchester, it'may be usefrd, as a preltminary step to 
our oonsideratton of tiie probable history of the monumoit in 
question, to refer those who retain any hesitatiuu upon aihxiug 

* lysitBi JwmL, L, 14, sad QMMkn apoaEisex* 



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the Cb^nia Caniulodunum of tlic Komaot •! Colchester, to tlie 
Archoeologia. Mf. Waifiwd^ addadngr Mvml MrtboritiM tipon 
whose judgment aid lemiag ^ nmt fcnipQlofit may be wiU* 
ittgtorel7,hu,iatbt l6lhToluMof tfMitMdil^^ 

9m interefltiiig ditiertation upon the situation of Camulodmnm 
m these terms : " I hope the preceding observations, which 
fxom my own perfonai inspectioii I have found very accurate, 
will be the mem nf putventiagf any latiire controv^emi or dil^- 
mmmofkaimm^ Ik* nigact; aadtet all will a^m witk 
Buliop MHbgaBfllt Dr. Stakalty, Or. Mafoo, Mr. Marasl, lb. 
Goa^h,aod the Rev. Mr. Leman,thatColch€ster,and not Maldeo, 
was fhe Colonia Camuiodunum of Richard of Cirencester*.*' 

Having premised tlms much, I proceed ta present such 
hypolfaeMa vpon tbe pnibMe aga, aatbow, aad hkt^if of 
the nMmametit und^ iaviaw» as maj be tuAf dodaecd froai ft 
coofideratioii of ha own character, of TarioiM remaiiit of aali* 
quity found near it, and of the historical records immediately 
applicable to the place of discovery. 

The adjustment of the liair of the Sphinx, is the same as that 
of the younger empress Faustina ; yet it resembles aknott at 
cloaely the dress that we have frequent oocasion to notice upoa 
Roman monuments of an eariier time. Bat when we consider 
the CTideaee of the senlpture itself, whose ehasle, yet ctthfrated 
character is as far distLini iVom the rude operations of the earliest 
British workmen, as it is from the meretricious style of any 
middle time in this country ; we need not hesitate to ascribe 
our Sphinx to the chisel of some eminent Roman scnlplor, and ^ 
of the best age. 

Hie coarse nature of the material miBtates against the proba- 
bility of this fine piece of work having been imported from 
Italy. We may therefore be allowed to conclude, that it was 
wxovgfat in this island ; for it is acknowledged that the Romans 
bnkvght artist^fatther with dkem, and dieymay also bare basii 
tmtad oyer by Ibe Bfitish PriBoef f. 

* See Pe^ge.M the Cmt ^ CunobdAn, and Rudiog's Aw^^'^ 
Cmugt, f See P^gge m V^e Coins qf ipumbdm^ p.'54, 



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On am ancient MmmmM^ 



• Of the Roman Ofigtn of this monument, we ha?e ineuetible 
proof m the great mass, fbnnd in and aiound the very spot* 
-where the Sphinx was discovered, of antique vemaiRS : such ai 

bricks, tiles, pottery, frae^ments of bronze, and other relics, 
that are decidedly oi Koman fabric ; and which, as well as the 
4Sphinx> lay conceded in a soil that apparently had not for cen- 
turies been disturbed beyond the depth of the plough*shaseh 
But my attention has been particulaily attraeted by the portion 
of a sepulchral inscription, to the memory of one or more le* 
^ionary P^oman soldiers: this was dug up a few days sooner 
than the Sphinx, and at the distance of no more than about 
twen^-five paces Irom it. The following cut is a faithlhl copy, 
although the engiaver has formed the letter^ with tees sharp- 
ness and care, and represented them as being moie 
than the state of the original will justify. 







E<i III > A' 




This firtgment is moreover of itself extremely curious, as 
mddog a distinct mention of the TkM Imperial Legion, 
(LEGioDis 111. AVgustfle) a portion of the Roman forces, of 

whose appearance in Britain I cannot find any trace by all the 
references i have been able to make. The stone has 10 J inches 
by 8 of surface, and is If of an inch thick. Let it be noticed, 
thai this fragment isof thestoiie brought firomSwaiuige; and ft 



r 



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i 



mg^rewUing the Tkeban iSjmUhx. $ 

is farther an extraordinary relic, as, excepting one otlier frag- 
ment of a sepulchral inAcripUoiiy which is of the same matehftl, 
but cut with greater deUoM^, and fimnd at Colchester aboattvtlfs 
7^"** H0\ no Romaii femuM of a timilar Jdiid m kaoim to 
hm been duoofoied eitlior el Colcheeter, or oven witlum tho 
comity of Essex. Tliis, from the loof resldenee of the Ronaat 
in that quarter of the island, is indeed almost unaccountable; 
but may be judged of by the void it has occasioaed in Uorsiey't 
Biitanma Smmmai* 

' We harenowto offer en nneipected teetunony in hsnm, not 
only.of the Roman origin of our itone Sphinx, bat alio of the 

pecnlier reverenoe in which, perhaps, that Tery feme beantifal 

figure of sacred legend, or at least the more common and less com- 
plicate mystic symbol, was held at Camulodunum ; by the for- 
tonale finding of a bronie Sphinx, of which the following e»» 
gra?ing pmente a yiew, the same in liie ae its original^ 




The bronze is perfect, excepting the loss of the wings, which, 
from the appearance of the back, have evidently been torn off. 
This, which I deem to have been one of the fares of en inha- 
bitant, was dug op last summer within a few yards of the 

• Now in my possession. 

t Since this article went to the press, John Disney, E?q., of the H} cle,near 
Tngatestone in Essex, has been so obliging as to make known to me a small 
sepulcliral monument in his possession, which waa found atOrfslWSlStle 
1T13, and bears the fullowing inscriptiott. It Is alMllft fif ■biMRi' sight 
iMhm Isng, by foor sad fhne-fuitm U«9i,lMnriig » 
other wwk In Inferior style : 

0OIWBi4«tBnStlA'PIUA-V-AM II«D XXX CONSI DI VHATOJi'lMTMi'f^A'aXW. 

t tailhsfOBStssioaofalsAyntCololuMter. 



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4 



ulieft our «toiie fiphinz was dkeovesed. The ihtle iaiage ez- 
Ubits, in its present itnte, no Inrdier componnd Aen of the 
Bon md. the vii ; and, firom arrangement of the hair le- 

semblin^ that of Julia Maesa, or of her daughter Julia Soemias 
(mother of the Emperor Heliogabalus), as well as from its infe- 
riority of style and execution, it is doubtless of a later time than 
jBm& hurge Sphinx; not appearing to claim any earlier date than 
aibont the beginning of the third centory of omr era. 

Bat, althongh I do not feel myself at liberty to refer the age 
of our stone monument to an earlier time than that of the first 
Emperor Claudms, as will be herealter shewn ; yet I consider 
that we are fully authorized in tracing the respect for the Sphinx * 
symbol, that would appear tohayebeen entertained by the inhft- 
bitants of Cohma CamtMmim, as well by the Indigenous 
Briton, as by the Roman colonist, to a higher origin, even to 
the time of Ausrustiis. We learn from Pliny, froiii Suetonius, 
and from Dion Cassius, that the image of a sphinx was, during 
a certain period of the life of Augustus, employed by that em- 
peror as his seal. We find also the figure of the sphinx upon 
^ Roman coins of * his tune : hut what eomes more direetly 



No. 1. No. 3. 




• Upon the passage referred to in Suetonius, Laevinus Torrentius has the 
following comment : "(De Sphinge) et eodem fortassis referendum quod 
T. Carisii, qui sub Auc^usto III. vir raonelaii» fuit, numismata sphingem 
praefemnf See also Murelli and lUustratious by Agostitd in R^. L>^» 
Jiam, Ntamtm, No. 17. tab. 12« 

t No. 1. " Obv. C¥NO. Tim bust of a winged figure, possibly a Victoxy. 
Ber. XASdO. A Sphinx, finm a «Din sT AugwtHM-Mow S. Obw, CVNO, 
A e^hin. Bar. CAM. Qu. A British waarior urltli tiM fcesd «f an wmj 
ia Us tight hMMir aseBiitithGoiw,9k«e4«DdS,19«s.8aal9SiaRii. 
41si'sJ«alM-Ko»S. OhT.CVUa AfipUaz. Bwr.CAMVLOiyVIIO. 



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1 



in aid of our aiguiiit>iil i^, lhal we meet with ihe ftSUAa ti^ffffii 
repeatedly upon the coins of Cunobelin. 

Xhia iUvttnou firiliili princs * kad, aoetedli^ to Dion Cm* 
MM^hiiiqyilacatatCkMTOiodwMMai tadmoroof juaeoiasifs 

m WBf od^r paft ol Hm 

island. Of the three here given, Nos. 1 and 2 have been 
already published; No. 3 is now, 1 Inlieve, for the first liuie, 
presented to the publk: the oiigmal is in the possession of 
Mr, WiUiwn Kcyncr, oi Colcihf>(rt«r» wIwm it wm tend About 
t«ieatj-ft?ey«Mi tgOi, I poMettabotaaall bnM«ofaiof C«f< 
adiellay jfoimd ftt thettiBepttce in 1619: tt ii ui«l»dttaia ol 
preservation, but buars upon both sides a very strikincj resem- 
blance to No. 3 ; vet mine appears to have had the wLiccl under 
the right paw of the sphinx, as we hnd exhibited in Gera^ 
tfa206ofAgOitiiii,mNo. lUofTa»rie,aiidaiM«^^ Him 
a(dlUtio& No. from tfie actioii et iti fphinx* may hm ftlio 
had, but it foens to have svibrod eonotion vpoii thot pvL 

Cunobelin is said to have cherished a friendship for the Ro- 
mans, to have attended Augustus in his wars, and so well to 
have behaved himself, that he grew mto particular favour with 
that emperor, and accompanied him to Konej wiiere ho wat 
■aiy ted by tha title of Fiiend to the Republic : moreow, tbat 
duiing hit residence there, Tennknt ^ita father^ and immediala 
predecesior en the Trinobantine throne,) paid no tribute f. 

The attachment for the Roman emperor, at least t lu politic 
respect which our great British chief I might have eutertamed, 
or merely put forth, in regard to his powerful protector, may be 
in some measure estimated by the appearanoe of the head of 
AngnstQs impieaaed npon the coins of Cunobelin vho» as 
Mr.Pegge writes, omitted no <^pportiuiityof making his oonrt 
to that enipci or." We find also iiome notices in Suetonius, of 
jthe continued friendsl^p that appears to have subsisted between 

. t B» Hiitor§i^€tltkittirbf Ummti whphitMsm>llsr»^sssiP<>o«iam 
wUfa otker le^ectable writen, give ciedit to Geoftey of A^onmouth, 

X Qr Si Baxter styles him, the Pendragon. Gloss. Vo. Ctiwodt /"'"" 
$Pegg«onhisFi^CiMi,No.l. AUoftadiiic's JiiiM^ v.Up.^M 
v.S,pp.lS— 17. 



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0»^mekfUMommmU, 



th%,lcem and TrinobaDtes and the Romaiui ; even fron the time 
of Julius Ccetar to that of the fint Glaudini. 
- Monat thnt epilonuiee from TMitaiy fton JDioo Cttnutf^ 
woAmQumt the Tietoriouaiiivaaum by the latter emperor, etnd 

the events which immediately followed : '* Claudius took Camu- 
lodunum, where he placed a colony oi' veterans, lii lionour of 
this victory h^ was divers times saluted Imperator, contrary to 
^ Roman caitom> which permitted it but onee^ia cxp»» 
ditioii. After this lie ordered the Britons to be diaermed; bat 
to those thatyielded, he remitted the eonfiseation of tbenr goods, 
which so endeured him to them, that theif erected a temple and 
an altar to him at Ca7nahdu7ium, and honoured liiin as a god." 

This is the only Roman temple of which we have any account 
M haviBf been erected at Colchester; and that bwldiDg I ap- 
prehend to have stood upon the veiy spot where the sUme Sphhiz 
was discovered. The sttuatio» is peooliarly striklof , as it a^ 
cords bttter than any other that can be chosen in or luuund the 
town, with the probable position of that sacred edifice. This 
will readily be acoeded» whoi its elevated situation be taken 
into view, with its neighbowhood to the grand ndlittry way, and 
the presentation under such an aspect of its hallowed fime to 
all those in intercourse between the great camp at Lexden* and 
tlic capital of the Trinobantes. Since some may be unwilling 
to give' credit to my pusition as taken in reference to the Roman 
wa^^ objecting that such roads were not constructed so early-as 
the reign of Claudius ; I beg to obsenre» that, although these 
loads may not have been extended generally throughout Bri- 
tain so soon as the first century of our ssra, yet there must, 
' without doubt, have been, from the first establishment of the 
Roman conquest, a grand public street leadmg i'rom so principal 
a camp as that of Lexden (where such extensive vestiges still 
remain) to the great Roman colony estabiiybed at the Trinoban- 
tiae metropolis of Camulodunom. To odiers again who may 
remark, thai the spot where I would fix the temple, is widiout 
the ancient walls, I beg to recall the words of Tacitus by 

J* Baxfsr, F«. Cuiroitoiiwi. t JmiO^. I*. 14, eh. tl. 



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j tiniMiKiiig ike Tkebam Spkmx^ 0 

wboni it is shewn, that no walls existed around the town at the 
time of this templa Jodeed, had tfam been raeh ft dveik of 
dflftoce, iM ahoold btar in miiid, that it ww hif no mmaM ttt- 

OOnnNMI wRB Ta6 IUnB8I» XO COBiCnWC IBWpiBl wfCMMt WMr 

towns; and they seem, with all other nations of tuitiquity, to 
ha?e preferred high places for such holy purpose. 

My conjecture is shig^larly supported bj the very g^at maat 
of hftilding matsriftlt* that have been tfarcnrn np dmig tiM lale 
^Dundation of the General Hoipital. It nmat have heai evident 
to ell those who witnessed, as I did, the reecnt di stm h an ce of 
the soil upon the identical spot under consideration, that some 
very large building had stood on the same ground ; buty at an 
early period, of which no local tradition now remains. 

I have ahready pointed at the Roman diataeler, of tiie aati- 
qnities discovered upon the spot : to wliich I might add tlie 
coins of that people, which are fiHiud iheveftom the time of 

Julius CcL'sar to tliat of the Cunstantines. 

Considering the pains that have been tdken at Colchester, 
for mimy successive centuries^ to remove from their fbon- 
dations all remains of Roman edifices convenient m the 
erection of the boildingSy which snooaeded at every period ; the 
qnantity of stones and Roman bricks dn^ ont from itke present 
hospital garden did appear extraordinary. I observed not only 
red bricks and tiles of undoubted Roman manufacture, but 
have also remarked, at the same place, several specimens of a 
costlier species of white ttle^ evidently the fabric of that people. 
Aiskidst a large quantity of unhewn stone» which has been lately 
thrown Ottt» and was probably used in fooadation, and other 
works equally removed from the eye, there have been disco- 
vered many and well hewn fra2;rnriits of Swaiiage ; much of 
which stone is observable also m the castle, and among other 
Koman materials in the walls of the town, in the chnicbes, and 
in other ancient bniidings at Cdehesier. 

While the workmen were digging last year for the fonndation 
of the hospital, I remarked ccmtinually the bones of oxen, deer, 
pigs*, and fowls^ amongst the Roman remains; aixd, from 

* These weie evldeetly oflh* wild species* 



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10 



tMrnminm iilMMrnjtiijafl Juv6 oottofsfid DDoa aitei of ntlw 
Bonaii ttmpka, it it &r fton beiig unreaionable to coosider 
these bones as relics of sacrifice. 

We know liiat it was a cuiLoiii with the Romans, as with the 
Greeks and the Egyptians, to place images ut tlie Sphinx in the 
pnmaoi of their temples. It is precisely to such a purpose^ 
thai I Mxpect our beautiful iculpture in stone to have been 4e- 
dioatody in the TestibQle of the leinple of Claudius \ 
But it maybe aiked,Why , in such a situation^ should a mutilated 
victim be exhibited under the fangs of the Theban Sphinx 
I cannot certainly venture in an unhesitatis^ tone to attempt 
an explanation of this peculiarity. Yet» if we adopt the views 
of Hofimann» this exhibition of the utter destmetion of the vic- 
tim may be fairly accoitnted for, and may be shewn to have 
been perfectly adapted to the supposed situation of this Sphinx, 
as a warning emblem for all who presumed to pass the holy pre- 
cincts, to enter even the porch of the temple. Hotfmann X con- 
siders the fable of the Sphinx, deatroying sueh as did not un- 
derstand her mysteries, to intimato that thoae who observed 
not the precepts of the gods, were abandoned to her, as to die 
infernal minister of diat divine wrath, which would not fail to 
consign the disobedient to torments and to death §. 

In reply to any hesitation that may be felt in granting the 
datms advanced for the Roman origin of our antique stone, 
upon the ground of the victim being thus introduoeds I beg 

* In the same temple, it is sapposed that the woisUp of CSsmvhw was 
also maintained. This may have been a native appellation of the Ood Man, 
thus latiniEedy as it was in many other ports of Europe ; where the worridp 
of the DtAty under that designation, WMld, bom vutkm andaothflalic 

cords, appear to have been observed. 

t See Pausanias, Boeot. c. 2C. The base of our figure appears to have 
been left in a rude state ; this may be allusive to the rock, upon which the 
oracular monster was said tu have her residence; aud whence she mshed 
to destroy those who could not solve the riddles she propoitnded« 

X Lexkotif Vo. Sphinx. 

§ Pausanias, describing the celebrated temple and statue uf the Olympian 
Inpilor, says— ^ Befine his ftet the Theban youth are seen Ibtoed away by 
SpMaxis ; end vader tie ^pUaxes, ApeOo and XMana aie ptercisg wltk 
their snows tie chiMieBjiifNIohe. B.«,ei.fi^Bfr.TefMtnnslatioa. 



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nfmmimg ikt Tk^n Spkimx. 11 

l^ve to observe, that it is only requisite to turn to Montfau- 
000% to HoSmnuf, to B«apt|, or lo MilUn^ M&ong the 
1M08 of aidii|«ariMi aadfaotitj to wbkdk lor 
eiliibilioii of a netbi conjoiaed vtHi llie flMfo of tfaa Ofoom 

Sfihiuu Yet, in the careful attachment, wiiich is somethnes 
perhaps too exclusively leiained, tor precedent; we may be 
called upon to give an example from antiquity, of tke de- 
slruiBtaoa of a victim of .tho 8phiiix» beiag i^wii m akoady 
oon|iletod. The folloiireg Tkw of ott AamHijt^Qm^ wfmA 
Iroiii the TrmUim Pierrm Cfrmim of Ummet i> forHiii 
purpose Tery satis£actory. 




imtnmiiiiniiiifKin 

• Antiq, ExpHq. T. 2, part. II. c. xvU. t Uxicony Vo.Sphinx. 

i Descriptive Catahv:^!P of Tome's Gem^ No, 8506,4^. 

§ GaJfTfc Mytholog. Pi. 142, No, 502. 

11 I here beg leave to express my thanks to the learned inedalliBt in the 
British Museum, Tajlor Cumbe, Esq. ; lui ins obliging courtesy in bavillg 
pointed out this Gem, as well as several crflis irf Cliafil)eli% wUsk We 
before unknowD to me. 



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12 Oit m mamt Monmmtf 

■ We have hm% (Edipui expontiding llie «iiigm of 
Sphinx *, who is seated on a rock ; wbenoe she would seem 

to luivti thrown, as if in defiance, under the hero's eye, the 
bones of some one wliu liad uahuppily preceded him. Again, 
we iind at No. 106 of Tassies GemSf a fine engraving upou 
cartieliatt which Mi. Kaspe has classed amongst the £gyp- 
tiaii antiques, hanng a Sphinx wmged and sitting, with a 
4mtk*t head €i kerfiet No* 8,001 of tiie same oolleotiofi, is 
taken from an ancient engraving upon onyx t, which represents 
*'(Edi[)us explainini; I Ue enigma of the Sphinx, who is silting 
upon the top of a rock," Here also may, as I think, be dis- 
cerned a hmman scuU at the bottom of the roc&|. 

Bat what shall we say upon that yerj eztraordtaary reyerse 
of the preceding coin, No. 2 of Conobelin; representing, as 
Mr. Ruding questions doubtfully, " a British warrior, with the 
head of an enemy in bis right hand and upon the obverse 
is a Sphinx ! 

I have elsewhere observed^ that the head of the man upon the 
Cokbester stone has many portrait-like pecaliarilies ; that the 
hair is moreover shorty appearing as if artificially curled; that 
although it would represent a middle-aged man, yet that it is 

beardless: all which circumstances combinid in sug^g-esting my 
first idea, that it had not been modelled after the head of any 
individual of an ordinary class. The closely-shaven beard, as 
well as the carefully-curled hair, were fashions, not only with 
the Romans of high rank, but, I remark, that upon all the 
coins of Cunobelm, as well as upon those of an earlier British 
' stamp, in every instance, excepting where a divinity seeras to 
bave been personified, the heads are dressed with short hair ; 
where the state of the an could attain the expression, it appears 

• According to the vnlg-ar tale of the bphinx'n riddle, as proposed to 
her by CEdipus, wliose solution of it, is said to have been the cause nf 
her destruction; it was: What Hiiiraal is it, that in the morning wiiiks 
on lour legs, at noon otx two, and at night un three ? To which the Hero 
aiuweiedr-^ Man.'' 

t Cah. Fkt, G&fi Mm, Fht, H. No. AM, f . 

i StoMk MBS. Cat. 41, 7. 
. » The talphef ImpiiMiiiiB IfcH I hawe sf fh. BJ»\ li not veiy iSttOntiL 



9 



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fqNnmtftng the ThAm Sfkmg. 



IS 



curled, and tlie feces are ilwAyt beardleM. Mf. Pe|f#k«t 

^fo notioed, dMt allhotigbt aeeofdiog to Omar*, tfie Btitoat 

-s^ ore their hair longr* but shaved it on every part of t!ie body, 
except the head and upper lip, yet that there are no signs of 
the dowing hair upon the coins : the reason for which he ap- 
preheiMjU Id bave been, thaltiMirpiiaoeairafe timpiimitfaia 
geii6fal rale* ' 

I am mcUnad to differ from Mr. Rading, in bit deecriptkm 
of the above coin, No. 2, and to consider that, from the 
costume of the human figure, it is meant for the image of some 
Roman divinity : this idea receives support from the aLtar near 
to it, aa well as hem the reverae of aaoiber eoia of CoBobeiitty 
given by Mr. Radbg in hia Apprndm t* Scaroely eaa the io« 
Terse of the coin, No. 2, be tboagbt to repreaen t the effigy of a 
Roman emperor ; niucL Ic^i a priest> or any one at sacrifice, the 
back beino; turned to the altar. 

But, before any attempt at a conclusion, I refer again to the 
Britiih coina, engraved in Mr. Rnding^a work. Plate ii. Mo. 92« 
Rev. t* Probably a Briton driving bla ebwriol over a fUling 
enemy.*' Nob. 1^3, IM, S6, and 63, following, appear to ra» 
present the same thing ; and in Nos. 28 and 29, the hand un- 
derneath the (horse or orlicr) four-footed animal with a human 
bead, and raised, as it were, in a supplicating posture, seems to 
be a aimilar indication. In- all theae ezamplea, (aa weD aa in 
aome other odna of tlie aame claaa), ^ qoadmped baa tbe 
bead of a man, or rather of a woman; and in Nos. 93, 24, and 
53, it is distinctly winged. Further, upon the head of niany 
of the same monsters, we may perceive a cap or coif, resem- 
bling that upon the head of the Sphinx, in the coin No. 3, here 
engraved. 

Thua, in the abaence of every dianoe k/t obtainmg from bia* 
lory, any by wbiob to penemte tbia daifc matter; wa 

-can only sfttempt to guide onraehrea by stich interpretation, as 

may not be thought too extravagant m an apposition of those mo- 
numents of antiquity, that lure supposed to be remains of nearly 
4ba aame time in thia coontiy. 

* IHBtU.G9lLL,i. t Append, to tb«Anaa^, Pl.Sd,No.d. 



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III a item pvWieate apQ» Uit C^ahflstor BjjhSm^ I bad 
hazarded a sappositaoe^ tlMkt the head of the nutilated TtetiBa 

mij^ht Have been designed, in cuujuuctioii with tlie more an- 
cient emblem of Grecian allegory, to allude to the united wis- 
dom and atrength of the Roman iimj^ having in cp-^peimticia 
nilh • native Trinobaotiae ISoiee, aaecceded ia Ihe deftruolioa 
of the power of tome gfeat chief of another dvrtriet of the 
klaad. 

Yet, further than mere conjecture, I dare not adventure: 
here therefore I dismiss this abstruse subject, with these rude 
iketches of theory perbape presumptaooi. I may haTi» al- 
ready iaouaered the chMga^ of wiidly eipatiatuig npon whut 
tine haa plaood, m I Ite, fiur beyond tike kib of the noet 
learned inquirer. Indeed ooold we see throuf;h all the daik- 
aome distance of its history, the amplest results might prove, 
like many of the fruits of antiquarian labQur, to have been 
aeaveely worthy oarungrateAd toil* 

Dim now renaiae little more, for oar h mnedie ia p«rpoie» 
than to point oat the probable oitoiunelaacet thai nay haw 
preseryed vato oar time, this Stone Sphmx ; which I apprehend 
to have been a principal decoiation of the temple erected at 
Camulodunum, in the time of the first Claudius. 

Thia Sphinx had probably been placed upon a pedaetalt and 
petiiape Gonpenion to nnotiier; aa we tee in Moatfimcoa» tiult 
a Sphkis waa erected upon eitiier aide the eotime to t)ie tem-, 
pie of Diana Pergwu It haa evidently been designed, to be 

seen at au elevation soiuewhal above the level of the eye ; tor 
the only pajts of the work, which have not been highly 
finished, excepting around the base* are the upper edgea id the 
wings at their contact 

The temple at Capnlodanam ia leporded by Taeitae to have 
beeia destroyed by tiie' natives, irritated with the tyraanoaa 

sway of the Romans at that, station*. The lu&torian says e»- 
pressly, that this temple which had been erected in honour of 
the deified Clat^dius, was looked upon by the inhabitaals as a 
fortiess, built lor the pnrpoae of thair aleoiai boidagni ead 



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■ - — ^ II ■ on^^^^M — V tL 



diaillie prietls, appainledy a« m appomiiett lot ab j wti^rty^ 
nUgiom serrioe/ wistsd tlie fftetaaee of peoflB. TW 
soldfeiy, bftTin^ «o proper citadel «l Hie tine of Ae VrilUi 

irruption into their seltlemeut, fled for shelter within the walls 
of the temple; there they en'Uavoiired, but in vain, to defend 
themselves for two days, when it was taken by storm. The 
teaiple would appear to lunre beeft destroyed Ml of 

the cotooial bnildiiigs» wliicli werelmittlor med to Ike gm»i 
hj the exaepenrted Britoni. Hie Splmnc M, at ipe awy sop- 

poae, in the undi:^ criminating rum; and although the statm s of 
Claudius, or of the Roman Mars himself mi^ht be objects so 
hatefialy as to oierit the more particiiiar eamity of Boadioea 
and ber people; yet Ao leie proiaiaeMI mafaiimln of oar 
TeHc might escape the obferratioii of tiM irild d titi o |aii ; aid 
asight bafo lain concealed for centnnesy and wowld probeiMy 
have still remained so for as m any ages iiiorcj had not the 
most unexpected accident brought it to light, from amidst 
the confused rariety gl min whence I so lately asMsted ia dia- 
iaterring it* 

The engiavingt bare pfeienled, are aaficiently eatlAotofy 
fbr a geaeral Tiew of the scalptare; aad» aa a conleaipialioa of 

the original can alone enable one to form a correct idea of Us 
beauties in detail, I shall subjoin only a few words, with 
respect to the chief characteristics of the Colchester Sphiax* 

It oompriaea erery eomponeat part of the allegorie laaaaler 
of dasiic IhUa. The etOBO piOieM na wilb the baat 
of a young maiden of graeeAil deiiea«y, -eoiijojBed m a gra- 
dual transition, that is admitted by the intermediate form of 
the body of a bitch, with the ponderous yet evidently actiya 
powers of a lion's hinder quarter. This portion of the eym- 
bolic figaie, ii com|deted by that moat expreseiTe emblem Iba 
eerpenty which fonns the tail ; and it is intiodnoed with con- 
aidmble skill in tortnons foldings, that keep it, without nndim 

constraint, "wilhia the narrow limits, that the confined size of 
the material has imposed upon the artist. The back of tlie 
Sphinx is furnished with the wings of an eagle, beautifully 
laiaady though not expanded. Thns, our vaiioiia embkaa. 



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16 



Om im amaU Momimmt, 



wbidk mty fieiliapf, wiliidiit offinoe to liititory, be stjled a 
** Gentile Cherub,** m the language of a late writer upon Pa^an 
Idolatry*; or again, a Symboi of the Great Universal Mothei uf 
Mythology ; or in other terms, (to adhere to expressions of more 
common use), this Pantheic Sign combines in a striking manner 
dia priadpal attributes ai)portioiiied to their Itost ofgods, by the 
Imiet of the heathen: we will not wait here to inquire, 
whether t hese W fenX Images were the offspring of gratefht love, 
01 of the more effective impulse of fedi, in the oii^uml i>im- 
piicity of very early thru s ; whether they were altogelher, or in 
fiartj a corrupted copying, or, as some deem them, a perverse 
dqpmvatioii, of eaored record; or otherwise the mere resolt of 
himf paiotiag and poetic fancy. These mystic signs, 
thus arbitrarily adapted and eoii|oined, are now brooght before 
us into one view, by the first antique copy of Grecian ail of 
this occult character, that lias ever been discovered in Britainf. 

With respect to the. origin, of the Thsban Sphinx, of which so 
nuRiy varied tales have been promulgated, and of whose name 
so nanny etymons have been\dvanced; It may be .suiBlcient 
here to observe, that the Grecian Sphinx is, no doubt, imme- 
diately derived from that of Egrypt. The Egyptian Sphinx has 
hitherto been more coinruonly acknowledged the prototype of 
all the otliers ; as supposed to be derived from a simple env- 
blematic reference to the annual inundations of the Egyptian 
valley, by the waters thsii descend iiratn the hills of Abyssinia^ 
and oyecflow the banks of the Nile, while ,the sun is passing 

through the signs of JUeo and of Vir^o I have not however 

. ^ • 

^ • See lAf Or|gj»4f Pugm ISMsfiy, by O.S* Faber, B'J)., for aiiuh cul 
xioiui specnlation on this subject. 

- 1 1 iluHild not omit notlcfiig Oat, widet the verj ioQglilj*iiewa htm 
ti the SfUnz, ii clearly engraven a large and weU-fivned Roman S, of 
somewhat more than fi?e inches in height. It appears from its situation 
(removed altogether from the eye of the spectator) to indicate, not so 

xnuch the arti5?t'8 name, or any circumstance intended to be recorded; 
as simply the intentios of the inferior workman, ^Tho having- been em- 
idoyed to prepare the block f ir the sculi>tor, thus marked it aa a parti- 
cular stone selected and set apart by the latter, for th^ representation of 
the Sphinx. 

i Such an application of the Sphinx %ure by the Egyptians, would 



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fqiraeiUhg the Tkeban Spfmm, 17 

yet fojuaA that any one hai combated with sufficient evidam* 
«a hypofliesis that I hare recently proffered, of this lb- 
biiloat form having been taken 6j the Egyptians, tnm Hm 
Chaldaic or Assyrian Sphinxes. The Mithraic figures of an- 
cient Persia, that call forth the wondor of modern travellers, 
among the wreck of Persepohs, are doubtless cognate with, o? 
directly copied ftom, thoae oC Babylon, which hat^a inm time 
to time been diacorered amid ihm mina of tlmt wait nncaMil 
citij ; and are in nome inetaneea Jbimd fftare of precisely Iftt 

tame form as tfte Eqypfian Sphinx*. 

But wandering amid the mazes of conjecture, Tainly ea- 
deayouriug to obtain a clear idea of this antique matter, the 
leader may be looking anxionaly Horwd to the end of onr 
almoit hopeleaa inquiry; and may well be diapoaed to exehdm 
miStk tile oatwearied patience of M&pkh in the play : 

Si nequeo fmcere, ut abeas, egomet abiera : 
Nmi btiqaktom herole oratioai Oedipo 
Ooaiaelora cfas «al» qui SplijragI iBlmTTCf lUt 



Abt. n. Some addkimgi Faeti fwkHmg to iieiJMmkm 
of the Bigkik Pah of JM^nwf, eommumeotod m m LOtor 

to the Editor of the Journal of the Roj/al LisiitutioH, 
by A. P. W. Philip, M.D., F.R.S. £;d., S^c. 

I CAVirov, in any way, refer to the ditiaion of lihe eighdi 
pair of nerves, without taking the opportunity to acknowledge 
the very candid and liberal manner in which Mr. Broughton ^ 

appear itfll mora Hkely ; if tfie t^nuon ef Us nane be aUowed (accord- 
Ugtuam AJM PhidM) to ba fbund la the Hebrew, stgnif jing wMag 
MKethaiiApflnitawlM^ ^'^Mr^Mdundaatia, JebsdLU.endlltef. 
Ii. 17. aud Famph,CbaIdalo. la Amib.iii, lO. ■ Vlao tweulaiia leduada- 
' Innt."^— IKiMnr ¥tht Heavmt, r. 1. b. 1. o. 1. 

• I allnde more particularly to a mty andiBt Gem in fine pre8erTatllli^ 
lAicb, with Mvcral ettiers of extreme cariosity, has been found within 
these few years, upon the Site of Babylon, by Captain Lockett, who 
brought them to tTiis country, and with a sight of which I have very recently 
been favoured by Mr. E^dsesr, to whom thaj aio intrustod^HBts -4r» 
ekt&:>lo^ia, Vol. xviii., Art. 4§» 

Vol. XIL C 



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18 KJiilipo^i Uw mfects of dividing 

has, in the last Number of the above Journal, stated the result* 
of the experiments lately performed at the Royal Institution. 

It £^ppears, iroiu the observations of that gentleman, that it 
i| «|dimtt«d by a^ «)to witnessed these esq^nn^nts, that after 
the eifjfhtb pair -of nerres are .divided in the neck^ and the lower 
portion folded b^ck, little, if any, progress is made in the 
digestive process ; whereas? if the divided ends are not dis- 
placed, its progress is still considerable. 
. An interesting question here arises, whether in the latter case 
the nerrous Inflnence is still conveyed in .consequence of the 
4}vided ends of the* nerves remaining in actual contact^ or in 
consequence of its passing through iqoistttre or other inter- 
vening bodies. 

' ifk Q(dei to determine this (question, the following experiment 
was made, in yrlaiich ^x, Cutler, Assistant Surgeon tp tiho 
second regiment of .Life Guards, had. the goodness to assist me. 

A rabbit was kept without food Ibr twenfty-lbvr hovrs, and 
then allowed to eat as much parsley as it chose ; as soon as 
it ceased to cat, the eighth pair of nerves were divided in 
the neck, without displacing them. It was evident, both to Mr, 
QntlW and mytelf, that at the mrnnrnt the divisioil of tho 
nama' was 'mada, tb» ands so icetiacted as to oansa them 
tf^sepanilia firom aach other to al^ut th« dii^tance of the sijtih 
part of an i|ioh* The anunal was allowed no food after ^ 
operation. It was iouMd dead at the end of eight hours. 

^p ^e stomach being opened, it appeared that di<^est^on pf 
tte food had made considerable progcei|S« The neck wait 
examined, and the divided ends of the nerves were found to 
have la^iamed at the above-mentioned distance firpm eadli oU^er* 

This experiment was repeated in all respects in the seme 
m^^ner. The ends of the nerves now retracted to tlie Ji^Lance 
<^a quarter of an inch from each other ou both sides. The aiii- 
ntal lived about six hours, and the digestion of the 'UKW Ibod 
was ftir advanced. 

Mr: Brodie exaiin^ed t^ state of the fbod and ' Ihe (josition 
of tlic divided nerves in this rabbit, and hoth. he.^n4 Mr. Cutler, 
allow me to state, that they are satis^d -that ti^ nexvaus ift- 



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the Eigkh Pmr iff Nerves. 19 

to the lower portioas of the divided nenres. 



The followtng facts, relating to the division of the eighth 
pair of nerves and the power of g-alvanism ia obfiatm^ its 
effects, appear now to be admitted on uU hands,— 

lliat after tliMe nenrea tie divided in dia neckband the kmr 
portion! folded back, Uttte, fif vif, progresa la made in llie 
dtgeathre proceaa. 

That if the lower portions, thus folded back, be connected with 
the positive end of a voltaic battery of a certain power, the other 
end of the battery being connected with the skin over the sto- 
mach, the efibrta to vomh winch. ibUow ttie diTiaioa of the 
iimea do aot take place, and digettieii goea on at perfectly, at 
ftr as can be judged fWMB tite appearaace of tiie eontemi of the 
stomach, as in the healthy auiiuul. 

^ That when, instead of the lower portions being folded 
back, they, as well as the upper portions, are allowed as 
much as posafl>le to lemaiti in the natuial pofitkm ; digestion 
makes great progiets, noCwitfiitandmg the divided ends ao 
vetract aa to be separated from each other by the dintance of n 

quarter of an inch. 

That the ditiiculty of breathinc^ occasioned by the division of 
theeigfath pair of nerves in the neck is prevented by the influence 
of the voltaic battery applied in the way above pointed out 
' * The reader win judge how far these Acts tend to eitabfiih 
the identity of the nenrons inllnence and galvanism. 

But in judging of this question, it is necessary in addition to 
the forec-oinfr facts, to keep in view those which seem to prove 
that the nervous influence is altogether distinct from, and has no- 
tiling in common with, the lensorial and vital powafty and poi- 
acisea no propertiai Irat dioae of a chemieal ageat; and that 
the influence of the Toltuc battery is not oaly die beat of 'all 
stimuli to the muscular fibre, and capable of passing along the 
nerves in either direction / but is also capable of raising the 
temperature of living arteiious blood, while it can ptoduce no 

C2 



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20 FhUip Oil the J^ghth Pair Nerves. 

such eiFect either oh venous blood, namely, that which has 
already undergone the effects ol the secreting power, or on ar- 
terious blood, which has lo«t the vital principle. I need not 
here refer to the weU-known fleicts of eleetncity being evidently 
conveyed by the ner?e« and under the power of the will in 
certain %iiima!s, and the newly dead brwn forming, with other 
parts of animals, a galvanic apparatus. 

It has been said that the restored digestion and tree breathing 
produced by the influence of the voltaic battery after the inter- 
ruption of the nervous infiuence, may arise iioni the foimer 
acting as a stimulus to the secreting surfaces ; but it will appear, 
I think, that this explanation which is derived from the laws of 
the muscular system, is founded on a fiilse analog. It is 
proved, by the most simple experiments, tliat after the nerves 

a muscle have been divided, the application of a stimulus 
still <^dls it into action; the cause of which is explained 
by those experiments which prove thai the muscular power 
is independent of the •nervous system, and only affected 
by its influence in the same way as by other stimuli. But with 
respect to the secreting power, all the experiments on the subject 
combine to prove that it so immediately depends on thenerfous 
^stemji that it ceases to exist as soon as the influence of that 
system is withdrawn. 

It may be proper to add, that the experiment which proves 
that the division of the nerves only destroys the secreting power 
when one portion of them is folded back^ is an es^perimentum 
cruets respecting the subject of my late disaussiim with Dr. 
Alison. It appears from it, that it is not the iiyuiy done to the 
nerve, but tbe interruptton of the nervous influanoe, which 
destroys the secreting power. 

Mr. Field found that an opening made in the trachea of a 
horse, large enough freely to admit of the introduction of two 
fingers, had no effect in Relieving the dyspnoea occasioned by 
division oi the eighth pair of nerves. 



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Hineks on iitcrtt WrUing, 



21 



Aht. III. 0» Secrei Writing, in r^y to Mr. CboMfvizli 
Challei^e. By the Rer. Edward Hindui, A.M., and 
formerly Felhw of Trinity CoUeg^, Dublin. 

Tub ezpadients which have beaa adopted hf poma wbo 
have occasien to carry on a oocriipoDdeiiee naceaaary U> ba 

coBcealed, and yet Uable to be interoapted^ have been Teiy 

numerous. More than one might be pointed out, by witich ab- 
solute inscrutability is attained with a very trifling expenditure 
of trouble : but as our re|fiilariy-bred pbysiciaaa refuse to ad* 
miaiater the aoatrnia of a qaacfc» eTea ia diicaaea whereita 
healinip efficacy la acknowledged by evaiy oae but themaelTeaft 
io profeesional cipherers have always exhilnted an nmnltiD^eea 
to have secrecy obtained by any other means than a literal 
cipher. I employ this term to distinguish from syllabic and 
veHxd cipheia thoee in which the Utters of the sentence to be 
concealed ere acfaratdy eaEpneaaed by dhaiacteis, either simple 
or oomplexy in the cipher. I am nat, of conraey snffideatly ao» 
qoainted with the diplomacy of the preseol day, to be able to 
state whether secretaries for foiLigu affairs, imd their agents, 
are so precise in their ideas as to decline to be secret, unlesa 
they can be so secimdim ertem ; but if they • be, tbey are cer* 
taialymore acnipiilotts than their predeceiaors of the 17di 
century were ; and yet I mnch doabt if they can better baflar 
those whom Tiotsnce or treachery might put in poaieasioa of 

their despatches. 

My intention, in the present paper, is to expose the futility of 
literal, ciphers ; among the rest those of Mr. Blair, (Rua'a 
Qnpfepadfait Artiele Cxpbbe J and of llr« Chenerix, {^tmmal 4/ 
Scisnce, te.. No. XDL) I do not mc^to aiiertitetno literal 
dpher can be contriyed so as to be snfficiently secret ; but that 
this cannot be effected without a key, so extensive and com- 
plicated that it might be applied with equal £Eicility to syliabies,. 
as to letters. And if ao^ a syllabic cipher . is unquestionably 
preferable; inasmach as, being 'eqnaUy sectet; it ia written and' 
read with about one-thifd part of the labonr. 

Qf literal ciphers thei^ are two hinds; one, in which the Eig* 



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22 



Hlncks OH Secret Writing, 



nifiettioD of the symbob ii vftried, tfcte other, in vMektt if pet* 

meaicnt. In the former, the number of symbols is j^enerally 
small, and the cipherer depends tor secrecy on the intricacy of 
the law according to whici) tlieir signification is changed, or on 
M liBgth ^Ifte period of the change. IMer nay cxrenm- 
maiMt iMi tteithod ii estfemely troublesome; but, if the hiw 
eif Twietion be not of tfie veiy simplest nntuie^ the lebonr of 

both the reader nnd the writer of the cipher will beprodi^ous ; 
and if the law be simple, it is plain that the period of the cipher 
eoneontnin no more ioct, (as Mr. C. calls them,) than the cipher 
oontalMi cbrnneiei n i snd tlUti I tliink^ insufficient (with fhe 
nmnl montber of chamcters, el least,) to deiy the powers of .a 
deeipfaerer. I consider, tn fSftct, thn Ifaid of literal cipher sor 
obTiousIy inferior to the other, that I should scarcely have 
noticed it, but for the purpose of explaining Mr. C.*s first spe- 
ctmens, (Nos. 1 — 12,) in which he has employed it. 

Tim getm of this uiediod is to be found hi Ae dEial«ci|)lier of 
the Bacyclopeedia Britmndea ; iknd, in ftet, the key to diese spe* 
cimens may be most commodionsly exhibited in the form of 
dtai. Let there be constructed a circle of paste-board, move- 
Me on a |Mrot in its centre, and attached to a larger circle 
eosttentrie with it ; let the interval between the two peripherieSy- 
aad therim of the inner pasteboard circle^ be eadtdiYtded into 
tldity eipialooaspaitraentB, and b tiie former let tiie alphabet/ 
irith Mr. C/s fo»r a d ^ t i ei m l symbols, be arranged hi Ae follow-^ 
ing order ; viz,, abc d e4 fghij k Slmnopqrst d u v w 
X y z ^ ; on the rim of the inner circle let the following letters 
beanenged, 772., ee eaaiinnoossttrrnnbcdfghkl 
spy. Set. the hidioatori or eapitai- letter pteiaed to ther 
dptev to eofteiptNad widi the ftrst of the ihfee c^^ and ht thiil' 
poailieii of Ihe dtafdm etgriffieadon of each letter in die outer 
circle will be the correspouding letter in the inner circle. This 
position of the dial will explain the first (Hvision of die cipher; 
fos the following division die inner circle must be moved f6r- 
msd or badnravd/ {m the poiillon of Mr. C/s arrow deter- 
Munes,) through one OompartmeM r and-so for Ae other dcfision; * 
ahrays moving the inner circle a compartment forward or back- 



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Hincks on Stent Writing, 



« 

33 



ward at the end of each division. If a capital letter occur in the 
middle of the sentence, at in Nos. 2 and 3, set the dial for thai in- 
dicator, and the key of the first dimton foUowtng^ it wiU be * 
glven^tlien proceedf at before. In Not. I and 6 the di?itiont 

correspond with words, in Nos, 9 and 10 with letters; in fact, 
tliey are perfectly arbitrary in their lengths. 

By help of a key, constructed as 1 have described^ it will be 
easy to read the concealed sentence, Not. 6, 4rc*» w bich ia tbit 

Monuments of learning are durable;^ and to correct the key, 
sentence, line 3, word 3, which should be many** and not 
•* five.** Other errata, proceeding probably from the careless* 
BOSS of tlie printer, are to be found in several of the ciphers. 

It will be remarked, that in this cipher (and it is the'catein 
all Mr. O.'s,) j must be represented by and ▼ and w by n ; bot 
the letters q, x and 2, are also omitted in the present key ; and at 
none of them occurs in either of the sentences given, it is im-> 
possible to tell what conu ivuucc Mr. C. uses to represent them ; 
the letter marked k in the key will probably suffice for thc ni all. 
But see Mr. C.*s character of a complete cipher, (p. 92). llow 
caii this be applied to any of those that he hat proposed i 

It would also appear from 'Mr; C.'t being able to cipher 
Europe in dOO ways, Emancipation in 1280," i^p. 93,] that 
he had five symbols for e in ihis key ; tlieic appear, how- 
ever, to be only three. Has Mr. C. any contrivances to repro- 
tentthis letter, not esLhibited in any of his 12 specimens ? or are 
we to understand the passage in p. 93 as applying not to this 
▼ariable key, but to the permanent one of No. 18 ? 

I pass now to the second kind of literal ciphers, or those hi 
which the symbols retain each a peiiuaucnt signification. Se- 
crecy is in such ciphers to be looked for, by having a consi- 
derable number of characters, especially to represent those 
letters which are of most frequent occurrence. It it evident 
inat a tufficient supply of symbols for the most extensive key 
of this sort that could be required, would be furnished by the 
series of natural numbers, eommencing suppose with unity, and 
continued ad Uhitum; a point, or comma, being interposed 
between dvery two for distiuciion. The letters of the Hebrew 



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M HiackA on i^tcret WnUagm 

alphabet, accompanied by the several vowel points that may 
belong to them, would also a^brd aa amply sutticient number 
of cTiaracters ; b«t the difficsltj of dictation by the perdoa 
Wdnfp thft key to bU aiiianueiaiSy it no small oli|iectioii to 
thft UM of thflie* .AlnendofBiuiehaacoiDpM^daeiplierootf- 
•titing of nme radical, ebaracten, iSmt composing the well- 
known figure f) which, with one, two, three, or more points at 
piea&ure, above, below, or in the body of the chajracter, com- 
pose a sufficient variety ai symMs ISnr aaypiirpOBe; hat the 
lasl-DtenfioBed objeetioo applies whh even gteater loioe to this 
iystem* Besides, tfce ose ^ any of tliese sets of symbds, mi 
espedally of the two last, requires very complex characters to 
be frequently written ; while, at the same time, it affords none 
of that additiotml secrecy, which the employment of proiessediy 
complex characters will often coofer on a cipher* I shall return 
to the coasSdeffatkm of tiiis additional secrecy. I now proceed 
to describe some of the principal ways in wlddi cipherers hm 
soug;bt to procure a mnltipUcity of symbols, by combliung to- 
gether characters of a few difierent kinds. The . varieties of the 
complex symbol will always be in number that power of the 
namber of varieties in each part, whose exponent is the nmnber 
of parts. In Lord Bacon's cipher there were five parts, and 
two varieties oidy in each part. This gave ler the anmber of 
symbols 32, the tffth power of 2* fn the fine wiitnig, (Plate tf. 
Cyclopaedia, Art. Cipher,) there are tliree positrons of the line, 
and three Imes to a symbol, which gives 27 syiabols. In the dot 
writing, ^late 3,) fowr dots composing a symbol, we have 81 
symbols. Symbols composed of two letters are in avmber 676 ; 
if with the letters be mingled a point, as Mr, Blair has done, 
there will be formed 7%^ difierent symbols, the square of 27 ( 
and so m other cases. To commence with Lord Bacon's cipher. 
From the smallness of the number of possible symbols, 32, (of 
which, if my memory do not fail me, bat ^6, or 24, were in 
nse,)itis plain that his lordship looked to.ekide die vigihuaoe, 
rather than to defy the skill, of a decq^herar. His professed 
object, if I recollect rightly, (but I htrve no access at present to 
his work,) was to exprei>s omiim per omntut that is, to write 

I 



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My gtrnftMigeiD such a maonir M lo ^mmf mf pnrni^ 
•scseliBMiimgs aiid this in Mck ABMMUMff astoeiQitofOfOft* 
picioa in tfae mtad id aay enraal inspector of the writb|; Hitt 
toch secret meaning was wvolTed in it. It is necessary in his 

Lordbhip's metboti that the secret mcuuiiig should hv much 
shorter thaa the outward visible contenU of the letter ; not cx« 
cfucling cme-fifth of it. For the conveyance of very laconie 
nttsoogni tlui metliod if, i thank» nnrivnlM i tfaonsk an ini> 
provemeni wonld be leqwred in tbe teaatiOB of die Urd elfpiui* 
bets, \vhich, as exliilnted by Lord B., are neitlier sufficiently 
distinct, nor sufin icntly void of suspicion. Perhaps it mi^^hthe 
better to compose the characters of five words, than of ^re 
letters, and to have the Tariation coneiiting in Ae oonectaeMi 
or inooneetnese of tlieir orthography* A mie>epelt wocd* or 
one inproperl y made to oonmence with a capital, or abbiwrietedy 
might supply the place of one of his Lordship's crooked letters; 
and if the outward epistle was iliaL of a servant, or mechanic, 
or other ignorant person, this would create no suspicion; 
while the multitude of expleUvee used by such penone in 
^ir^cottespondence^ would modi teOitata tbe conpootlion ot 
die cipher* Hie emjdoyraent of the names and style of such 
persons as I have alluded to, although in a gomewLat different 
manner, has been, it would seem, a common trick in diplomacy; 
and, unless Privy-Councils and Secretaries of State were egre- 
giously mie t ak en in their snepidoney the endeavours of an exiled 
monaxch to recover possession of his throney have been oltan shn* 
dowed under thdse of a turned-olT servant to get back to his 
place, or of an ale-house-keeper to have his license restored. 

I have spoken at greater length than I otherwise should on 
Lord Bacon's method^ as it has been, I think, unfairly repre- 
sented in Mr* C«'s paper. Tbe difficulty of writing it is much 
exaggerated, and the real sooxoe of its secrecy is lost sight of. 

I now proceed to Mr. Bkdr's dilferent methods of secret 
writing-. Of the dot or line writing with 27 characters, it is 
needless to say any thing, as it can have no pretensions to in- 
scrutability. That with 81 has not yet received a fair trial, as 

Mr. aobempMied his speeinien with a key andinterpietatiott. 



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Uiackfi on Secret Wrkingi 

and the latter served to unravel whatever intricacy was attached 
to the former. I believe that, with a different and unknown 
kcf , It woM he pMtiblB to decipher a long spedmeii of this 
tort of mitiiigy but certainly not o&e of a few sentencea onljt 
or wUdi ooooeaM only the important wofds of the writing. 
I must howevei own, ibat 1 Lhink still greater secrecy would be 
attained if, of the 81 characters, only about 40 were used to 
express the Utters of the alphabet, and the remaining hsdf ap- 
plidl to the tyiktble$ and ikort words of moit frequent fecar- 
fenoe* The' cipher of 7S9 characters has oertahily no need of 
any additional contrivances to increase its secrecy, as' with a 
new key, even arranged on a similar plan to the present one, 
which is by no means necessary, detection is entirely out of the 
question. But wherefore use above 700 literal characters, 
when 100 is sufficient to produce absolute secrecy; and even 
half diat number, if syllabic characters be interspersed? The 
cipher is, beyond a doYibt, sufficiently copious, without in the 
smallest degree diminishing^ its secrecy, to express by soparatc 
characters all die particles, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, and icr- 
minations, as well those that belong to the grammar, as those 
that make up the great body of the dictionary, and will have a 
number yet to spare for the proper names, and other words, 
that may be beforehand selected, as specialty likely to occur in 
the correspondence. But to employ a cipher, possessing ijuch 
means as this, in the manner Mr. B. has done, to denote merely 
^e letters of the alphabet, appears to me a waste of time and 
trouble, to as little purpose as if he had turned the force of ii 
stoanwengine to draw a cotk, or to crack a nut* What I hare 
objected to the dot writing of 81 characters, will apply with 
apply With cquiil f( rce to the fi2:ure-cipher wliicli admits iOO 
characters, each composed of two hgures. Bat» in his appU* 
cation of this method, Mr. B. has adopted a very hapj>y con- 
trivance, ther description of which leads me back to a sub|6dt I 
promised to return to-^-the additional secrecy produced by the 
employment of complex characters, above whuL the same num- 
ber of simple ones would create. This addiuonal secrecy Con- 
sists in: this» that a person unacquainted with the 'key can nevar 



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9 



Uincks OH IS€cret Writing, 27 

be sure before he commences the task of deciphering, how 
many of the simple characters he h to consider aa coalaeing 
into a tingle complez one. The diffienlly tbot occaaloiMd ii 
not eluded at easQy as mi$jbX at iiist be eupposed, namely, by 
trying first one number, then ano&er, till the right one be ascer- 
tained ; for, of the elementary clr.ir ictcrs, some may compose 
perfect characters by themselfcs, wbiie otliers are always fotind 
at ingredients in complex ones. This it the case in Mr. B/9 
%are- cipher in the Cyclopaedia. To accommodate it to the 
same key by which the other ciphers wee read, it was necessary 
to reduce the number of complex characters from 100 to 81. 
This he accomplished by hclcctinnr one of the ten figures for a 
perfect character, while the other umc were always used in 
combination with each other. This 82nd character was used 
by Mr. as a nnlly making the intenrals between the dil^rent 
words. By doubling it, and combining it with anollier complex 
character of the samr nature, the difTerent stops in a sentence 
might, with very little trouble, be expressed; but, if I recollect 
right, tbis has not been attempted by Mr. B. The existence of 
a single character of this sort may be detected by observing 
what elementary character is never fimnd with an odd number 
of characters between its contecntive appearances ; this rule 
howerer fails, if more than one such character be found in the 
system. Other cniitrivances increasing the confusion pioUuced 
by complex characters to those ignorant of the key, but afford- 
ing no additional trouble to kim that possesses it, whether for 
writing or reading, Caveat different timet occnrred to me; and 
' I have formed out of them a tyttem, which I think possesses as 
much practical utility as any literal cipher hitherto published, 
the key being extremely simple, aad yet of such a nature as 
even if it were intercepted, or partially discovered, not to make 
known the- entire meaning to a person ignorant of a particalar 
secret connected with it, which may be readily nndelrttood And' 
remembered, but which could tcarcely be guessed. This may 
be useful in case it should be necessary lo commence a secret 
correspondence with a person abroad, to whom there is no op- ' 
portunity of safely sending a Gopiout syllabic key; for, if this* 



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28 



Hinoks oh Secret /l /i^/^ 



could be done, I am not so partial to my own method as to think 
that this would not be preferable. Though I do not fear that 
any specimens I should give would be correctly and /uliy read, 
jet I shall abstain from making the trial at ptfesent, aft I do not 
feel myself' called apon to otfer any reward for t^ discovery, 
and witboat one, few would probably choose to make the at- 
tempt. 

It will now be expected that I should say something of Mr.^ 
Cheneviz's ciphers 13-— 18» In these he has connected with the 
vse of permanent characters a contrivance hitherto^ I agree with 
him, nerer adopted. I owtti howerer, I snspect ttie reason why 
it was never adopted, to be, not that it was never thought of> 
but that when thought of, it was always rejected. My objec- 
tions to it are very great on many accounts, but as I do not 
choose to describe the novel contrivancet I must decline stating 
them to the public. The want of secrecy, which, when Mr. C. 
reads the remainder of this paper he must be convinced it 
possesses, is alone a sufficient objection to it. On this subject 
it is very plain that he has greatly deceived himself. His 
opinions that the security is at least one hundred times as 
H^reat with a double as with a single key," and that eidier of 
them exceeds in power ^ the limit (m~l)P/ (he should have 
said m*— IX m both very erroneous, and show that he iws 
very little acquaintance with the principles of the art of deci- 
phering:. Incorrectly as the specimens 17 and 18 are printed, 
especially the former, he will here see that they have not escaped 
detecHon, any more than those where a known sentence, ciphered 
by the same key, was given along with them* Perhaps Mr. C* 
maybe surprised toleain that I deciphered No. 17 in consider- 
ably less time than No. 18. Hie frequency of small and com- 
mon words it would therefore seam is of more service to a deci- 
pherer, and of course of more dis-service to the employers of 
the method, than tins trifling diffeceace of one or two keys being 
used in the different parts of the sentence* I am not very 
sanguine in my expectations of the reward ofiered for decipher- . 

those specimens, and yet I think the following sentcnees 

comply with ^all the cgtndiuous. 1 first give the explanatioQ of 



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HtQckt m Sieni Wriimg. 



Not. 15 ud 16. I lukve almdy gifM tluil of Not. 6 ttid 11. 
tlien- gift tho* i nmtbai om Ko. 17, isto Hie dphcr wtd ift 

No. ISy ind wke vends iHat tbowuigf that I can not only raatf 

hntwrite in Mr. C.*8 most secret ciphers. As tu ihc composition 
of these, or similar keys, I am not awuK that it is very difficoTt, 
vhen the method is so coroplfleiy discovered as k bat baaa hf 
ma. Tjhit Joiinial^ at nj ftlt, ivoald not ha tlie pfopar piaco 
for pablialiia^ the tpacimtn of tadi a key. 

Sentence cipliered m Not. i& and 16. 
Should tbit tentence alto escape detection, lha tacority of tha 
oiphec will leceiTe additional cCMfirmation. 

Sobttanoa of No. 17» in eipber of No. 18. 
^y a84naf ezfcaoi rbq4a ^ptmtny aa ivkftt hoop yawMtdh 
vcea faay^ trdxM ttxhnpj qb4yzd nlmoiieTaw Mdd 

8rpp(^q luss^Sd ii mdhiU^ditd luuiia mmm Uaxn kldb^ 

Substance of No. 18, m dpher of No. 17. 
I^IbdSrrt pxod^ ijinfaitinmpn tmc) sx iaodzmp nnmunoK 

nd(fopp efgmtt stllxbprr xfxw4eee nfacrl oxahhaa wwoccoi 
dlxcmadvd cdoipSppil" hisg"dv Ilxcicw mnupp laciiiiponii axy 
cfinld^ee jripmgxfs tt bhkmp 11 plUSs glgamx wxlBfeaa4m 
gitnpM diambgalm pw8lh tt cfcdqtt qklamk tnt pgfcjc 
pccctq. 

gh ddeaa zymijhe bdy^t nhifyyyy oyl lt8?)oj Im. 
The last sentence coutaius my address in the cipher of 
Not. 13 and 16. 



A&T. IV. CiM<ri&tf<toittfoi(m2tfA^ 
MmgraiSubtimeei. Me ItiteMaitin Henry KUproth. 

|;Conti&aed iraaii Page StO, of Vol. XI.] 

^dnd^iit ^ fAe Ferro-aneinco/ SulpkMret Coffeit^ or FaUerx, 
• J^om JPre^erg, 

Turn utoal difficultiet of atceitataing the relative quantity of 
aiaeaic whcie tulphiur alto it pfatant» occnnrad in the emai- 



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jmtiou of tbit ore, and bein^ unable to obtain aatii£actory 

A. 

o. 200 grains of finely pulverized fahlcrz were heated to 
rddaest in a small glass retort ; the neck of the retort contained 
what tUt ofieralioB 17 gpraint fed mlphmnt^ofanenk* 

6, The residuary ore had fcaed iofto a lead-gray naaa ; it was 
puWertzed, mixed with half its weight of charcoal powdar and 
submiucd to a second sublimation, the rcLort being kept at a 
bright red heat for one hour ; it thus afforded a crystallized 
sublimate of pure ar$enic, weighing 22.6 grains. 

c. The residiie was nam taken o«t of the vetoft and exposed 
npoii a 9sUot plate eo aa to hum away the diaieoal, during 
which the fanes of amenio were also perceired to escape. AHer 
tills operation the residuary ore weighed 146 grains, so that it 
had sustained a loss of 54 grains, which, however, cannot be 
regarded as correctly indicating the kiss of arsenic and sulphur, 
fjivkse ill probahle that during the oooibastioii oC the charcoal 
^ poctioii of Qj^gen was aheorhed so as to inmase the vsiight 
of the residue.. 

d. The roasted ore was uow digested in nitric acid diluted 
with its weight of water, and the blue solution passed through 
a ^ter, upon which there remained 7 grains of a mixture of 
charcoal and red oxide of iroui which being sepaqited by muri^ 
atic uflidt 3. grains oif charcoal remained. 

e. On adding the muriatic solution of iron to the preceding 
nitric solution, a porlioa of muriate of silver was thrown down, 
-which being carefully collected and reduced, afforded 0.80 
grains of ^v^. 

The uoLoUou was now mixed with sulphuric ««id aad 
evaporated to dryness; the residue was perfectly soluble in 
water, so that it contained no lead. Excess of ammonia was 
therefoic added, which separated ou-^t/e of iron^ weighing- after 
having been dried, mixed with oil and ignited, 45 grains; and 
beings peiiectly attractable by the magnet, 
•.j^. Hie daiilL*bine ammonlacal solution, swpersatmted 



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with sulphum add md precipitated by aac, pive 82 gcMM 
of copper, • 

B. 

The above processes atlbrelrd uu uidicaiiuns oi' uuUmony, 
which, if present, probably escaped with the arsenic ; 100 grains 
of the ore, therefore, were roasted witliout the addition of 
diarcoal, and then digested in moriatic add and diaaolTed hj 
the aid of nitric add» added drop by drop. Hie filtered aoln^ 
tion, which was of a green colour, wtts concentrated by evapo» 
ration, snpersaturulud wilh pola.i:>a, boiled, diluted, and filtered. 
The tillered alcalitie liquor after having beea neutralized with 
sniphunc acid, and mixed with carbonate of potaiaay w«a 
scarcely rendered perceptibly turbid. 

C. 

To endeavour to ascertain tlie relative proportion of sulphur 
to that of arsenic, 200 grains of the pulverized ore, mixed with 
half their weight of charcoal powder, were snbmitted to sub- 
limation. A. .few drops of moisture and some ftstid gas was 

evolved, and tUe sublimate in the neck of the retort was opaque, 
reddish brown, and of a metallic lustre ; but that in ilic dome of 
the retort consisted of pure arsenic. The sublimate weighed 
35 grains : it was pulverized and dijgested in weak solution of 
potassa in a gentle heat | the liquid acquired a brown colour^ 
and left undissolved 23 grains of metallic arsenic in the form of 
a heavy black powder ; it afterwards deposited 1 gr.au more of 
arsenic, and the solution became colourless; the addition of 
acids separated the sulphur in the form of egg-yellow flocks. 
The colour of the sulphur^ and die colourless appearance of its 
tdcaline solution, ^ndii^ated the existence of a portion of remain- 
ing arsenic. 

Amidst these obstacles to accurate results*, I am induced to 
estimate the proportion,of ,S|ilphur at 10 per cent., and to assume 
the following as the components of 100 parU of this ore ;-r. 

• To the abuve KJaptuih hua added two other aaalysM of Fah|e«, btt| as 
tlj^l are J^e^ly sifl^Iv to thjit givea ia thp te*t»^d equally Qp«n ftUftc^r 
at fiir as cowipiiiB the detetniiiuition og tli< weights ^ sidphur jiml 
amrioy' we havte bnilftled thein. 



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38 Klaproth on the Chemical Amijfsu 

Copper . , A g • . . • 41 

Silver • . . c 40 

. AneDic 24.10 

' Iron . • . / 22.50 

Sulphur \ 10 

Law . • 2 

.. IlqST 

Analym qf on Antmomal Sulphuret of Copper, (GraugulitgerZf) 

from Kapmk. 

«. 300 g] ains of this ore in picked and clran crystals were 
reduced to powder and dig^ested ia a mixture of three ounces of 
nitric add, (sp. gr. 1.230,) andean ounce and a half of water* 
Tliere was lovne evdntion of nlttoot gas, which wat mcieaaed 
hj heat, and when iSstt action ceaied the liquid was poared off, 
and the residue again digested in two ounces of nitric acid di- 
luted with one of water ; the insoluble portion was then col- 
lected and washed upon a filter. 

b. To the pale bfaie nitric solution concentrated hyevapocation 
mnflatic add was added, lAsash pibdnced a slight tnibldness, 
and the miiture being heated, afibrded only half a grain of a 
precipitate, which did not behave like pure muriata of silver. 

c. The soliitioii was next divided into three equal portions. 
1« One-third was evaporated nearly to dryness, and the green 

saline mass moistened with sulphuric acid which presently 
formed a clear solution, indicative of the absence of lead ; tiie 
solution was supersaturated with caustic ammonia, which left 
an insoluble portion of .precipitate, which being collected and 
ig-nited weighed 3.5 grains. It was dissolved in muriatic acid, 
and the solution decomposed by prussiate of potassa. After 
the separation of the blue pTedpitate, caifoonate of potassa occa- 
sioned a slight brown deposit winch wei^bed 0*25 grains, and 
exanuned by 'the blow-pipe appeared to be oamfe ofmanganetet 
so that the proportion of iron may be assumed at about 3.25 
grains. The dark -blue ammoniacal liquor was now super- 
saturated with sulphuric acid, and the copper being separated 
by tiie umnersion of a plate of clean iron weighed 37.d grains. 
2» Another thurd of the nitric sofaition was mixed wttii azcess 



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33 



^ cantic potatta and boiled; when cold, the precipitated 
oxide was separated by fiitratioto» and the filtered lupior iMbf^ 
neatialiwd wiOk muriatic aeid was miied whilst boiltngliot 
with carbonate of potaisa, a witite preeipHate wiM Ihiie fbnned, 

which after ignition weig^hed 6.5 grains. Tlii» prccii>iLait; be- 
came yellow when heated, and again white when cold, which 
seemed like oxide of zinc ; it readily formed a etdoorless solu* 
tioD with dilute solphiirie acad^ and afoded erystals of solphat 
of ane. These 6.5 i^rains of oxide I consider as eqaifaknt to 
5 grains of ztnc. 

3. Since the long digestion in nitric acid rendered ii prubable 
that a portion of the sulphur of the ore had become acidified, 
the remaining third of the solution was devoted to the determi- 
nation of it» quantity; it was therelbre mixed with mnrinteof 
baryta, and the precipitate when collected, washed^ dried, and 
ignited, weighed 66 grains, which I consider as eqval lo 9.26 
grains of sulphur. 

d* The Yellowish-white insoluble matter, remaining after tlie 
action of nitric acid, was digested in muriatic acid; the solution 
was of a straw-yellow colour, and the sulphnr separated in 
yellowish flocculi ; it was collected, washed with very tfnte 
mnriatic acid, and dried ; its weight was then 67JSt5 grains ; 
buriicd upon a hot plate it left 1 grain of residue, which being 
fused upon charcoal with borax, yielded a globule of oop^' 
weighing 0.75 grains. 

e. The muriatic solution, concentrated by gentle erapoiatioa, 
gave no trace of muriate of lead ; it was divided into 3 eqnal 
parts. • ' 

■ 1. One of these third parts was diluted with ton parts of 
water, which reri lered it turbid, muriatic acid was therefore 
added so as just to restore transparency; hydro-sulphuret of 
ammonia was then dropped in, which gave a precipitate of m 
pme orange-colonr* 

2. The second Axrd of the mnriatic solution was largely di- 
luted with jv^ater, and the white precipitate being collected and 
moderately heated weighed 30 grains. The remaining liquid 
saturated with carbonate of potassa afforded a greenish-gray 

Voi. XII. D 



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34 Kl«pf0lh cm the Ckmmml AMofytis 



precipil«t» wludh ooniittwl of osdds of antiwnj foid tappv, 
hmt wfaicli, ^lAim dry» icareely waiglied ^ of a grain. 

3. The remaining third of the muriatic solution was dihrted 
with 6 i>arts of water, and rendered again transparent by an 
adequate addition of muriatic acid ; a plate of zinc was tken 
imiiarMdy wlnoli effect^ tha sapataitioa of 29 graiM of metallie 



The oonipoiientoy thcialbre* of 100 parta of the oie ander 

eiaiuinatiou are, 

Copper . . (cl.) 37.50) . 

id 1.) 0.25$ ' \' ^'^^ 

Antimony • (e 3.) .22 

Zinc . . * (e2.) 5 

Ifon . . . (el.) 3.25 

Sulphur . . (c3.) 9.25^ 

(d 3.) 18.755 • • • • ^ 
Silver . ..(6) . , 

Uacicia of nuuiganaae \e i*} y 

Lou . . m '3.7g 

iocT" 

(Here follow five other analyses of varieties of the same ore^ 
upon vhidk^ the au&or observes, that copper, antimony, iron, 
and snl^hnr, aie aJone to be regarded as the essential compo- 
nenti; siher, mercnry, and zinc, Mog merely accidental 
I.) 



Anal^m qfa Cupreous Sulphur et of Lead and Antimony^ from 

Ckmthal tn the Hiurtz, 

a. It was ascertained by previous trials that the quartzose 
matrix of the purest parts of this ore bore the proportion of 
about 13 to 100. 

226 grains, theiefore, of the ore were heated to redneae in 
a glass retort, bnt nothing sublimed, and tfe ore appeared 
merely to have undergone imperfect fusion. 

6. It was therefore reduced to powdt r, and di^^sted in 4 
ounces of a mixture of equal paits of nitric acid and water. 



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^ Mineral Sub$kmcm, 96 

The mixture was tlien further diluted with four ounces of water, 
ftnd the digestkm contintted al a higher tsniperature till tha 
reiidae acquired aa iiDiibrm g^j colour ; the whole .wm thai 
poufed on a filler. 

c. The nitric solution was concentrated by evapon^on and 
mixed with muriatic add, which produced no further change 
than that the original sky-blue colour b«came green ; the ad« 
dition of sulj^uric acid, howerer^ caused an abundant depoeittoa 
of sulphate of lead, irfaich beipg separated, the rwnainiag solution 
was supersaturated with caustic ammonia, by which the brown 
oxide of inm was obtained, and after mixture with oil aud ig- 
nition, it aiforded 10 grains of magnetic oxide of iron. 

d. The anunoniacal solution was mixed with sulphuric acid 
in excess, and a plate of zinc, then immersed, gave 23*6 grains 
of copper, 

e. The insoluble residue of the ore was boiled in muriatic acid ' 

with the addition of a little nitric acid, and this operation was 
repeated with fresh acid so long as it acted ; the remainder ^. 
placed upon a filter and washed, first with Tery dilute muriatic 
acid, and then with water. It weighed, when dry, 64 grains; 
Its sulphur was burned off at a gentle heat, and left 28 grains of 
incombustible residue ; so that the 9vlpkur consumed amounted 
to 36 grains. 

/. The remninder, boiled again in muriatic acid, was found to 
consist entirely of siliceous sand, and weighed 26 grains. 

0, The sereral muriatic solutions were concentrated by slow 
araporation and afforded abundant acicular crystals of muriate 
of lead; these were carefully collected, and the evaporation 
continued as long as they could- be obtaiaed ; they were then 
washed with alcohol acidulated by muriatic acid, dissolved in 
hot water, and converted by the addition of sulphuric acid into 
snlphate of kad, the quantity ^ which, including that sepamted 
hipsocwc, amowited to igfm$, egniTalant to abom 
85 grains of ted ' 

h. Th'e remaining muriatic solution, now free from lead, and 
which by the test of hydro-sulphuret of ammonia appeared to 
contain nothing but antimony, was decomposed by a suffidhsnt 

D 2 



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36 Klaproth an the Ckemicai Aml^sis 

addition of water, and the precipitate collected, dried, and 
lieatedy weighed 51.5 grains, which by collateral ezperimente 
was found e4ttivaleDt to 39.6 gnuns of aji<temy. 

So that 100 grains of Uie capreom anlpbaiet of tead and 
'antimony consist of 



Lead . 




. 42.50 


Antimony 


. (A) i • 


, . 19.75 


Copper . . 


. id) . . 


. . 11.75 


Iron * . 


. (c) • • 


. . 5 


Sulphur ' . 


. («) . . 


r .18 




Loss . 


. • 3 



Anoint i^the Su^^hmrei qf Bmmikand Cojpper^ 

This is a massive ore of a steel-gray colour, soft, and givmg 
a black streak. « 

A. 

As a preliminary trial, 100 grains of the powdered ore were di- 
gested in a moderala heat with nitric acid ; sulphur and fine sili- 
ceous sand remamad : the solution was filtered, somewhat diluted, 
and tested hy muriatic and sulphuric acids, neither of which 

caused any turbidness, so that neither silver nor lead were 
present. Water in larger quantity being added, a white oxide of 
bismuth separated, and a plate of iron, immersed in the fesi- 
dnarj solutiony thiew down the copper. 

' a. To determine the relative proportions of tl^e ingredients of 
ihis ore, two hundred grains were boiled in muriatic add, and 

nitric acid added, drop by drop, as long as it produced any 
action. The insoiuble portion was carefully collectecl, washed 
and dried, and being duly heated the sulphur burned away 
to the amount of 17.5 grains. The residue was again di- 
'gested hi mtro-muriatic acid, and the portion which resisted its 
action was {uroperiy washed^ dried, and heated so'as to bum <4F 
4]ie remaining sulphur, which amoiinied to 3 grains, leaving a 
siliceous residue weigbinp: 37 grains. 

The solution was evaporated till it acquired the ajqpea^ance 



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•0^ MtiMfmf 3ii6iiMcci« 97 



dihilid, by whidi « milky anztaie wm otoined ; this wm mI 
•tide in ft wftnn place* where it depoeited a wbile predpitate, 

which waii collecied, washed and dried by heat : it weighed p4 
grains. 

c. To determine the proportion of metallic bismuth oootained 
in this precipitated oxide, 100 gnuiie of pave biumith wm 
jetted In muriatic acid, nitric add bein^ grtdnally added till 
Ae metal wat dissolved ; Uut tolution was t|ien evaporated ia 

a sand lieal to a salluu mass, which was put into a hn ire quan- 
tity of water, and the precipitate washed and dried as before ; 
it weighed 122 grains. The remaiuiog acid liquor was neutra« 
-Hied with cariwaate of potana, bj which a loither poiiioa of 
oadde of bitmndit amovntiDg, howeTer* only to i grmn, wat 
obtained. So that it appeart from this experiment that the 94 
grains of precipitate obtained in the analysis from 200 grains 
of the ore, are equivalent to 77 gratnt of idsmuth, 

d. The filtered liquor remaining after tiie teparatioa of dw 
oxide wat of a bltie colour ; it wat aatnrated witih potamm ta 
aeparate the copper, which, though at firet thrown dmni in the 
form of a blue precipitate, became, after having been some time 
gently heated, of a brown colour ; it was collected, edulcorated, 
dried, and ignited, and was then found to weigh 70.75 graint, 
equivalent to 56.5 grains of copper. 

Hence, 200 graint of thit ore have yielded 

Bismuth 77 gratnt 

X^opper 56.ff ' 

Sulphur . . 20.5 

Silica 87 

191 

But at the tilica it to be contidered at derived ftmn th» 
quartzose matrix of the ore^ the components a0brded by 100 
partt cl the pure ore will ttand thus— » 

Bismuth , . 47.24 

Copper 34.66 

Suiphor ^^-58 

94.48 



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IKkfiroth ftttribate» tke 1om» •m o — ti ng (o 5^ p^r oe&t, lo 
oxygei^ and inppotet tluii the buitamtbi it not contaiiied in d» 
oie datirely in tfM uitaliicMte.] 

iliiafym tjlTM^ Irim Ore ttf £ckart$btrg. 

This ore occurs in kidnt y-shapcd masses of an indigo-blue 
coloui ; a tiot which it derives from exposure to air, tor when 
fecently taken irom the strata in which it is found it is neailj 
white. It is soft and easily friable. 



a, 100 grains ^adually heated red-4iot in a small retort lost 
SO grains, and acqniied a brown odoui. The loss consisted of 
pure watsr. 

h. Exposed in a crucible to a more intense heat, the ore 



a. 100 grains of the ore were mixed with a solution of caustic 
soda^ and evaporated : the dry mass being softened with water, 
there remained brown oxide of iron, which was collected, ednl- 
corated, dried, triturated with a little oil, and ignited in a close 
crucible. It gave 47.50 grains <^ black oxide of irm, 

b. The alcaluie liquor was neutralized with nitric acid, and 
tested by ammonia, which afforded no precipitate : the ammonia 
being again supersaturated with nitric acid, acetate of lead was 
added* which caused a fftecipitate of phosphate of lead, 
weighing, after having been washed, dried, and moderately 
heated, 142 grains, equivalent to 32 grains of phosphoric acid. 

100 parts, therefore, of this reoitorm blue iron ore, con- 
sists of 

Black oxide of iron (B a) 47.50 



A. 




Phosphoric acid * (B'ft)' • . 
Water • . . • (Aa). . 



r 



32 
80 



99.50 



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30 



Anal^ ofAi gramdar Ckromk'Irom Orefjhm SkmnmHL 

The specific gravilj of thii ort, freed ftou the taleoee matrix 
in wliicb it k embedded, it =3 4.500. 

a. 100 grains lost by moderate ignitiun 2 j,raiub, uad acquired 
a perfect metuUic lustre ; it was levigated, mixed with a lixivvum 
containing 500 grains of caiiatic potaMa^ pat into a polished 
mm cnicible, eraporated to dryneia, and moderately ignited for 
an Imar; tlie maea at fint 'frothed np, bat aftenranle entered 
into quiet frision, and when eoldiMi of a sap-green colour ; it 
was iLiadil) soiuble in warm water, depositing a reddish-brown 
precipitate, which was collected upon a hlter, washed, driedy 
and digested in boiling muriatic acid. 23 graini remained in* 
solubloi which were fused with potassa^ and treated as before^ 
by which the insoluble portion was rednced to fonr grains, and 
was ultimately rendered entirely soluble by another repetition of 

fusion and solution. 

6. Tiie muriatic solutions were mixed with caustic ammonia, 
by which a brown precipitate was formed, weighing, when duly 
washed, dried, and ignited^ 35 grains. It was again dissolved 
in muriatic acid, when it left two grains of nUeOf so that the 
weight of the oxide of iron was 33 grains, 

c. The green alcaline liquors were carefully neutralized by 
nitric acid, during which alumina separated, amounting, after 
having been dried at a red heat, to 6 grains. 

d. The neutralized liquor, after the separation of the alumina, 
appeared of a fine orange colour. A cold nitric solution of 
mercury was added to it, till no further precipitation ensued, 
and till the supernatant liquid appeared colourless and trans- 
parent. The precipitate, which was of the colour of fine vermiiioa« 
weighed, when edulcorated and dried, 369 grams. The mercury, 
was driven off by moderate ignition in a platinum crucible, and 
there remained pure oxtde <^ c^ome of a dark grass-green 
colour, weighing grains. 100 parts, therefore, of the aijov^ 
ore, consist of 



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40 . Klaprotli on Mineral Substanees. 



Ond«of cbrome 


. ' { d) . . . 


. 55.50 


Oxide of iron . . 


. ( 6 ) . . . 


. 33 






. 6 




. .(6) . . . 


. 2 


Loss by ignition 




. 2 






93.50 



Art. V. A Letter respecting the Consfruclion of a Balatice, 
from Capt. Uknby Kater*. 

Lotidan, Auy. 8tb, 1821. 

D£Aft Sib, 

I OBSERVE in the last number of the Quarterly Journal^ 
edited at the Royal Institntioiiy the description of a Balance 
from a drawing by Mr. Childfen. I shonhl not liave troubled 

you merely to claim this as my own arrangement, bat to notice 
an error in the description where the beam is said to be " of 
platinum i " it should haVe been " of beli-metal," which com- 
bines the essential desideratum ligkinm with the reqoisite 
degiee of strengUi* 

Hiis beam had its origm in a wish to render the hydrostatic 
balance less expensiYe without diminishing its accuracy and 
sensibility, and it has m every respect answered my expec- 
tations. 

Dr. Wollaston has contrived the following additional apparatus, 
whicli he finds particularly conyenient The annexed wood*cat 
represents the bottom of the case supporting' ihebalance, A and 

B the scale pans. Pour slips of wood, or brass, are connected 
by pins forming centres of motion at a, 6, and c, the cent i e c, 
being fixed to the case. Four brass pins, e, f, g, k, of a suffi- 
cient length, pnject perpendiculaHy from the side pieces. These 

« We Bss4 sesieely ohssrve fhst ws weie net awan to wte Mr. 
MMauMwas laMtodfbf IhiplaB oftfae veryuMfal bdaace which 
wehavegivw aasMsiuitinoiirUitNiuBbw. Ws SMNly saw the Mm- 
mvnt in tlie poflMMMMi of BIt. Children, who wis kind snoagh to fiimiih 
th« tMth Inm whkhenr engiaviag wassMde* 



Kater an Ute QjitUmciiou oj a Balance* 41 

pins are to be brought into lateral contact with the ocale pans 
by means of the ends k, I, when the beam is elevated abovti its 




support* The knife edge being then lowered upon tbe agale 
planes, and tlie pins withdrawn* any want of equilibritun be- 
comes iDstantiy perceptible. 

I am, dear Sir, 

Yours very faithiuUy, 

Hekkt Katba, 

W, T, Bratide, £sq. 

' ' " » 

Abt. VI« On Piichstam* J[yJ. Mac Culloch, MJ). 

The information to be procured respecting this rock is so 
scanty» from its limited occurrence and the imperfection of the 
gbserratbns hitherto recorded^ that I cannot pretend to plaoa 
its geological history in a very luminons point of view* lliem ' 
is reason to snspect that some of the remarlcs on its positioB 
bave been warped by theoretic views of the same nature as those 
which have influenced the corresponding observations on tVie 
trap rocks ; while it is also apparent, that the pecnliar ia»p«is 



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49 ' Hac CuUoch on Pitchstone. 

oecorriiig in beds under tttp, hmre been oootnionally con- 
founded with it, as I lately remarked in a couiiimiiication on 
the subject of jasper. Under these doubts, I can only pretend 
to give its history as far as it can be deduced from the facts 
visible in ScoUnnd* Heraafter, when it has been an object of 
more aconiate feseaidi, iti troe history will» probably, be more 
completely elncidated. 

In its geological connexions, as well as in some of its miiieral 
characters, it approaches very nearly to mauy members of the 
trap family ; although it presents, at the saine time, some very 
lemarkable difoences. It is also important to remark^ as it, 
appears to strengthen the connexion between this rock and that 
fttmily, that it is found ^n those districts or countries where trap * 
exists. 

It has been said to occur in the form of strata in many parts 
of the Earopean continent ; but no example of this disposition 
has yet been obserred in Britain. Those masses which have 
been mistaken for strata in the island of Arran, mre no more 

entitled to that name than the masses of trap which are so 
often found similarly placed; they are merely veins holding a 
parallel or conformable direction to the rocks by which they 
are included, as will be more fhily pointed out immediately. 

It will also be found that the stratified pitchstones of Europe, 
so often described, and so well known, do not appertain to this 
species of rock, aad that the whole of the observations on these 
rocks are founded on a* mineralog^ical error; that they ha¥e 
arisen from confounding the resinous looking jaspers, described 
under that head in a precedmg article, with tme pitchstone. 
These substances are, indeed, stratified ; but they differ firom 
pilchstcme, not only in their several characters and chemical 
composition, but in every essenti al tircuiiihtance of their geolo- 
gical origin and position. Tins, at least, I may affirm of every 
Speeimen of pitcbstone from these strata which has hitherto fallen 
UBdffrmyiwpeetian; audi have little doubt that a fuller and 
an nnpr^ttdiced reexamination of these imaginary strata, will 
confirm thcsL; views; by proving that they are truly jaspers, 
^i^d that. whenever real jdtchstone occurs in masses parallel to 



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Mae Culloch on PUehstwc 



•tmifiid^ fodui» thttt tte oonfbnuihk mi, lite ^dm 

In ewery sitaatron except one, where this rock occurs in 
Scotland, it forms veins, generally so decided in their characters, 
and inUrsecting in to marked a mann^ the accomj^anying atraAa 
ataaflM, «• to pemlt no floobi rM p o ct iag Hwir ftnl aolm. 
hi a fcw inilvMsei theie Tetnt are pmllel to tbo bods m i^iA 
they Ue; bnt, mlliit rtepect, they differ in an wnyfton dioi»* 
truding masses of trap lliat so often occupy similar positions. 
These veins are Tartly roniiaued ioi a long* space, more com- 
monly terminaung abruptly among the sorroundmg rocka. 
Hm mnifioatioo of theee veint are to me thel 1 hare bitherla 
obeerfedilonly in oneinetaoee; oaaof thaptfedutoaofeiaa of 
Egg being divided ronnd a mesa at diert. 

The only nvdss of pitchstone in Scotland of w inch the true 
position appears at tirst sight doubtful, is that which forms the 
Sonir of £gg, which is rather, however, a substance intenoodiala 
betwftfin that roek hasaltL and whidi in at the saan 
porphyritic. It stands insohUedin the form of a nanow icia« 
gnlar wall on the snrAuce of a mass of trap* So flv it resomhloa 
abed as little as it does a vein. But liiat ii is nut a bed depo- 
sited on the trap, nor a stratified rock, is evident from this ; that 
the same mass of trap lies above the latest of the seoondarj 
strata eoatsiaing coal, into which it also inttodes ia the nsoal 
manner. If this pttchstmie mass were, therefore, a stoatified 
rock, it nrast be considered not only as later than the latest 
stratified rocks oiW 111 I'll we have any knowledge in Scotland, 
but posterior also to the trap which succeeds these at a distant 
interval of time. Under any Tiew^ -dieiaforei it is w^part of the 
seooadary strata. It is moia probably the remains of a vsaa 
which has onoe e»tted in that trap on wludi it soems now to 
stand. Tlie dep^radation of that rock may easily be imagined 
to have left the more durable pitch stone in the position it now 
occupies : and of this degradation, the surrounding rook, whtob 
is of a loose amygdaloidal eharaeter, gives ample md«Ma< 
The colttmnoT stmctare* is no ob§ection to this view, as that 
Mmoture exists frequently in trap <rauuk * Neither in si aa ete» 



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9 



44' Mm Cblloeh om Psifdlflmew 

jtcttoftlltttliiui itrastmeti pMilel Iiq the lite; tinoe trap 
▼eiiii oocasionally exhibit the same ditpodtion of their ooluiniuir. 
peris. 

As there is so striking an analogy in many particulars be- 
tween pitchstone and basalt, it is very conceivable that, if not 
found ia regular strata, it may at least exUt in the farm of large 
OferljiDgmiSieSy like the trap loeiu ; end probeblj some of the 
fofeigii examples may be refSmd to this wiety pf posttioii. 

If the preceding remarks ere not judged sefBeieiit ground for 
excludmij ])itchstone Irom the regularly stratified rocks, the 
following argument will, perhaps, be considered valid. It is 
found in granite, in red sandstone, in the more reeent jfund- 
fltooesy and in the latest tnqi rocks. It thes oeonpiee a wie^ 
of discordant positions which no loek has yel been known to do 
except the intruding substances of the trap family. In granite, 
or trap, it is obvious that it could not be stratified ; nor are we 
acquainted in nature with any rock which is found in the form of 
veins, and in that of regular and true strata aleQ» JBibb wfaM 
it occnxa apparently inter-stratified among the sandstones, it 
mnst therefore be considered aa a peiallel vein. 
' Pitchstone presents some other remarkable analogies to trap. 
'It is often porphyritic, or contains imbedded crystals, or irre- 
gular grains of feldspar, and occasionally of quartz also. This is 
an interesting cnronmstance in its Ustery, as it is found only in . 
limnniOtatified rooks, (with dieexoiqption of gramtk; gneies,) or 
in those which intrade among the traly stratified snhetancee in 

the tui in of veins. The porphyritic structure is, indeed, so com- 
mon in the pitchstones of Scotland, that the mstances of it far 
exceed those of the simple rock ; particularly in the island of 
A^^raa. It is, perhaps, rare to find any mass whtcb^ inmie 
l^aoe or otiier* does not contain imbedded cty stale of fokUpar» 
er, at least, rounded and irregular grains. 
■ The amygdaloidal structure, which is so common in the 
rocks of the trap family, is, however, so rare in the pitchstones, 
that oi|ly one instance of it has yet occurred to me iathe various 
speoimena which I 'haye examined. This specimen waa fopm 
Baffin's Bay,*aitd il' CQHtained aeolites, that is, mesofype 0( 



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tt«cX>itloch an Pitehdam. 45 

^dditelii ; RMmbliag» in every respect hat Hi bMe, llie 
known basaltic amygdeloidt. ** 

The cnUii^iement of fragments of the includinq: strata in 
trap veins, has always been estf i iiu d a proof of the intrusion of 
ibeie tcibs among the stratified rocks, and at further indicating 
a degtee of Tioleiioe» tinraltaaeont with or preceding the intra* 
'•ion of the Tein. This rery remarkable drcnmtftanoe is t«i0^ 
ciently common in trap Tcins to have Mien under the obsenra- 
tion of every geologist conversant in districts where these rocks 
abound ; but in pitchstone veins it is so rare, that as yet I 
have ooiy observed one example of it. This is in the weU- 
known vein at the end of Brodick Wood in Arran. The Indnd* 
ing strata consist of the rod sandstone, and the fragments of the 
ftme sandstone are insulated in the middle of the vein. If this 
■occurrence is as yet solitary, it must be recollected that it does 
'not happen, perhaps, in one trap vein of a thousand ; so that it 
may be merely a question of chances, depending on the much 
greater rarity of veins of pitchstone. The fact, even if solitary, 
is valuable, as establishing, in another important particular, 
the resemblance between pitchstone and the trap rocks. 

Admitting, or presuming, uitli most modern geologists, the 
igneous origin of the trap rocks, there is found in some pitch- 
stones a remarkable circumstance, which, together with the 
analogies already pointed out to these, seem strongly to indicate 
anigneousoriginlbf them also. Nothing indeed of this peeuliar 
nature has occurred in any of the porphyritie traps tiiat have 
come under my examination. In those pitch- sLunes which are 
of a porphyritie character, the crystals, or rather grains of feld- 
spar, are rounded but irregular. When broken, it will be foutid 
that the feldspar retains its usual plated structure in the centre of 
the grsdn, but that it graduaDy becomes confused, or loses j 
its character; while the outer surfoce is a coating of white j 
enamel such as is produced by the fVision of feldspar. This ^ 
feldspar is in some cases the glassy variety, in others the com- 
mon ; andy the change on the crystal is precisely that which j, 
may be; induced by' the regulated action of the blow^plpe. I 
the smaller crystals, it is also worthy of notice, are entirely f 



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0 



40 Mac Cullock ofi PiiduHm. 

converted into enamel. These singular varietiet occlir in the 
bEl of Glamich in Sky, at well as in Arran ; vad, it is interest- 
iug to femark ftirdier^ tlie connezioii wliich they possess with 
peafl-^stone. 

In tracing tlie progress of common pitch-stone to pearl-stone^ 
it will sometimes be seen that a spheroidal concretionary, but 
indistinct, structure exists in some of these, wbich^ by a gra- 
dually iaereasing distinctneto of the concretions, causes them 
to pass into ther latter substance. In others it may be observed, 
dial the enamel grains just mentioned, are the centres of a 
spheroidal concretionary tendency ; and that such varieties are 
in fact impertect pearl-stones. In the pearl-stones of decided 
character, it will also be found that the grains or spheiules 
contaitt a central enamel, and these varieties have been called 
pearl«stone porphyry. It is, moreover, interesting to observe,, 
that in other cases the enamel and the investing pitch-stone 
spherule seem to have entered into combination ; the result 
being a pearl-stone of a distinct and peculiar character, but in 
which the enamel grains may still in some part or other be 
discovered. ' 

- 1 m^, hMtly, remark, while on the subject of the porphyritic 
stractnre, diat in some rare instances, of which Arran affords an 
example, the Icldspar crystals consist of successive concentric 
prisms, a layer of pitch-stone being intezposed between each, 
so as to produce a compound crystal. 

<* Theia is no stronger proof of resemblance between piteh-stone 
and the tn^ rodca, than the transition fzom that substance to 
basaltr a change ^ich is <hr from being uncommon. The 
rock which forms the Scua of Egg already mentioned, holds a 
place pretty nearly intermediate between the two. Nor are 
aiBiiar transitioas rare in basaltic veins in many other cases ; 
paitienkrly where one such vein traverses another of a larger 
aiaa; • In many places, and remaikably at Loch Scavig in 8kj» 

the basaltic ramifying veins that traverse tiie hypersthene rock, 
become gradually finer in texture as they divide, until the 
^oinute filaments are converted into perfect pitch-stone. 

la the same island,, a vein of basalt of a considerable size is 



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Mac CttUock on l^iukUom* 47 

found m the Cuchullin hills, the outer laminre of which are 
pitcb-atone, gradaating into the eouioMMi maiter of the veitt* 
BqI LamlBfii praenti Hht mott itrikinif iulMm of thia MMwe: 
iiara a Ycin of baaalt pawtt toon^ a t#ft of ganiiitiMiu ; aai 
tlM outer fwiis or ivaOa, to the depth of abottl faalf an iaeli, aia 
formed of flossy black pitch-stone. In some parts ol its course 
this outer iamma is very decided and disiinctf but in others it gia- 
doatet into the basalt of the vein by an intermediate substanca 
aintlar to that iphich forms the Scmr of Egg, A conimiitM 
of tiiia pacuKarity, tiK>ag|& of a lass uunked Mm^ ia taad in 
one of the well-known veint of Egg, where the outer |Mfft of 
the vein is a remarkably perfect niui brittle pitch-stone, while 
the inner is formed of the intermediate substance jast de* 
aotibed. 

' FtomaUtheaecircmBitaiioaattfluybeooBdiidad thttiritfeb* 
stone possesses a strong^ affinity to the trap rooks, both in its 

geological relations and in its origin, being among the latest 
(rfthe intnuAing rocks. 

In one respect it presents an inijiortant character of difference. 
While in all cases veins of trap are very persistent and can hi 
many plaeas be Iraoad to a fandameBtal masa, thoia of pitch* 
atoiio afe remarkaUy limited in astabty and hasia never yet 
hoeii fivad connected with any prfneipal body of the rock. 

Veins oi' pilch-stuae vary considerably in breadth, ran^ing^ 
from many yards to a few inches. In the case above ailndqd 
tOp wheie basalt veiaa become pitch-stone during the profness 
of w m u l katmn , liisy desoand afaaoai to the ilimsiiniwn of « 

In composition they are not always and Invariably the same 
throughout* Independently of the rare cases in which veins 
oamposed of basalt in the middle are formed of pitch-stone at 
the mAm, it sometiines happens that pitch^fSloM of auwy rtiffia 
ent qnaHtiea will be foo&d in tho sma vain, in these caael 
the most perfect or i^tfaoinhltka parte aw pladsd' aa ia tho 
former instances, at the outer sides of the vein; and, in the 
iiarne cases, tliey present differences of colour as well as oC 
texture and aspect. 



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46 Mac GuUoch .o/i FUciistom. 

Occasionally, these veins like those ol'lrap present a laminar 
disposition, the lamiua beiug parallel to the vein ; and, in such 
w^m^r^^ il MDialiBMii happens that there is a chai^ of sub* 
alaiioe wince aacfa lanuna tmuaatat; the pitch-atone paiaing 
iBlo chalocdoAy and iato efaert* In a few hutancea thej preaent 
a.pritinatie tendency at right angles to the courae of the vein ; 
and if the Scuir of Egg be also a vein, they must further be 
conceived capable of dividing into regular columns parallel to 
4t8 sidea« 

Inieapect to the internal diapoaition of pitch-atone aa a roch» 
it ta ▼ariona, pieacntmg many femaricaUe peonliaritiea of 

structure, both on the greet and small scale. In Arran, it is 
found irnpertbctly prismatic on a very large scale; the prisms 
being at right angles to the plane of the vein. In Egg, the 
pviama aaa aaaUer^ bot capable of being eaaily detached, in 
flMny eaaaa, and often of very perfect fonna ; being at ^ 
aaM ttae pieced in vaiiona tntricato dliectiona witii regard to 
the plane of the vein, and in such a manner, that the ends of 
the several prisms are exUnuated, by being cumpicssc d between 
the middle parts of those adjoiuing. The laminar disposition 
of Ihe ▼etna noticed in a preceding pangraph^ aoinetiniea alao 
ooenraL on a aeale ao laige aa to divide the rein into two ot 
three aeparate porticMy whi^ are moat frequently marked by 
some corresponding change of character in the different 
laminae. 

The amaiJer varieties of itniotiiie are nnmerous, sOmI 
oftHi vtiy ihmmIi alili Aomng tibeae, a laminar ooaoetionafy 
atnustare is noC onfiDaqnent; and the lamelhe which vary nmdi 
in aiae, are either atraight or curved. In some caaca they are 

as thill us paper; in others they arc thick, mid further sepa- 
rable by joints at right angles to the planes of the lameUse. 
Thiia they become diviaiUeao aa aometimea to preaent a minnto 

H^e ^B^eew^^^^'^' ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

OepaaioimMy thaea |»iMna pnaaent aho aomecnrved anriheea 

together with the atra^|ht, ao as to foxm colmnna on a very 

small scale, which are further jointed, in some very rare in- 
stances, by surfaces alternately concave and ^convex; and, 



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Mae CuUoch on Piuhstone. 49 

tvkeii ftttdi Johite atf« very near, the purte iipmto iM» im* 

gular spheroidftl forms. In some rare cases of the jointed 
coliJinuar structure, a central atom of feldspar or of enamel, if 
dmnd in each joint This structure pcesenta a coniiderable 
natMann to iluit^^pmA^^ 

oC |iiteh»il(me» and Ibe wpammm of Ait aatm aelMdly pm 
lOtD that (HilMlmee. * 

Analogous to this is a s;phoroidal concretionary structure 
more or less perfect, and varying in size, but commonly minute. 
Bf a traiiutio& from Ibis, or by the greater perloctum of tM 
splietmdal ttnictoiey pilch-ftaae bacoaMt at kngCb aa agx* 
gregate of iiregiilar grama t and it thai paaaea, aa la Aa 
former case, into pearl-stone, which, from this and the pre* 
ceding fact, can only be considered as a variety of pitch-stone, 
and is accordingly ranked here as a variety* The spheruiaa 
.or grains of pearl-atene ftaqoantly also contain a oential atom 
6f 'Mdiqpar or ananal aa abaady notioad, liloa tfaa wialy aM»- 
tlonad in piaoeding paragraph ; a cttaanataaoa wliicli ooIh 
firms this view of Ha nature, and wliidi la peiliapt very iuA* 
mately connected with the peculiarity of its structure. 

The last obvious variety of structure to be noticed in pitch- 
atona^ is tha poq>hyiitio> already mentioned in pointing onl ka 
aaalogy to tha tiap ibcka. Hm variea aaaah in tlw nagaft^ 
tuda, perfection, or maDliar of the iaaMid dyalala, prodaeia|^ 
corresponding dtfiereneea of aspect. It waa already observed, 
that the larger crysUiIs are roiindud, and convei Lud iuto a white 
or grey enamel on the exteiior, while in lieu of the smaller there 
are o^y to be fomid apberoidal grains Dormed eiUiiaiy of tba 
aama anamaL 

'Indepuadeatly of tliaia oMoaa variatiaa of atroetore, pitoi^ 
stone sonietinies gives indications of an Intemal srrangoRiont, 

which, as in the case of tlic traj) rocks, is only detected ou 
wetheri ng. Many of the varieties become of a pure white on 
theaurlkje after expoaava in -air, scaling off in successive omita 
UhiI lesenMa whita anasaei, aa tey stiU rafeaia the vitraa«t 
aspect and ftactttia. At the sawa^ Aa ^pasad ew rfi F a s an 
covered with undulating Unes, fesanUing atitain Tarietiee of 
Vol. Xli. E 



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paper, and evidaidy TOwUing from eo^esponil* 
ing difference of laminar structure ; the lamina most sensible 
to atmospheric action being thus detected, akliough invisible 
in the fresh rock. In a further progress to decomposition, 
pileb-stone ii tt k»gtfi conmted into a, fine olny* foniuag an 
il«ter II TwylemckNis paste; aadit eppeara lo be very teadilj 
acted on by the water, as may be witnetsed in Airan. It does 
not always weather to a white enamel, becoming ucciisionully 
brown, and more rarely turning into a black powder. Occa- 
sionally it exhibits the kind of bloem seea on ft plnn« oi on 
oertatn kinds of bottle^g^nse. 

It most hero also be lemaiked* that notwithstandinip its 
Titreons aspect, pitoh>«tone' often contains a great deal of -loose 
water, which ls easily sepaiutecl by drying, as in many other 
rocks. In these cases it is tetui^r^ but becomes brittle after 
the water has evaporated.* 

- Thelnstnol' pitchHitoBft wtMeneeediiigljpaeoo^ 
- ssif era! stntea or varieties ; pnsaiBg froaa the most perfectly 
vtdeons to one scaxcdy mom glossy than of the finest 
basalt. 

IW^lours are various, greyish white, paJe ochre-yellow, 
htown, olive brown, olive green, dark reddish brewn^ dark 
tinttle-Wne and blaek* In the dsiker' ookNurs* and 

The ordinary tranntions of |nteb«stene afe ehalcedonyy 
chert, and semi-opal : it appears also to {luss into a substance 
not easy distinguishable £roia the conohoidal shimng -jasper 
found among the clay strata that are entangled in tcap or 
volcanic jrocks^ widi irludi» as I formerly ramarhedi it appears 
to hnvo hsMi oce as w i nlly . eanfartd«d> ^ traositioM mto • 
basalt have been alfeady notieed. 

Such is a general sketch of its geological and mineral cha- 
ractersy as far as my hmited knowledge ejUends. . The more 
misate partienlars will be found in tha iyaopsb of vsrisriesi . • 

It Is icagealy neces sary to diioe it, tethsff dMD tosny^that 
la Ofsneral wsy, it is distinguished ikoni all oths? roefcs by its 
vitreous or by its resinous aspect ; and thAt it diff<^8 from 



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4 



Mae CvitcA m Kkhimt. 5| 



<M#aI^ with wiiifik k poMMM, ia iM}t» ao MMj or innii. 
tiom bj lit isMor iHHrdiiM. For • fuller defmitkm I rosy 
refer to the Tarioiis systems of miueraiogy wiiich are ia tlw 
^Mttidg of ever^ one. 



SYNOPSIS OF PITCHSTONE* 



FIRST DIVISION. iSiaiPLE. 

■ 

A. Amoiphous, mauire. 

o. Whli a simple conchoidai iracteraw " 

b. With a flat conohoidal fracture. 

c* Widi a tptititery aoocboidal Itect^ 

A Wi^ aaplmtery -laauhr fracture, and of vanouj» a»pect«, 
afiOoadiBg to the size of the parts. 

e. With a mixed fracture, the coiichoidal being ako gra- 
nular. 

/. With a mixed fracture, the large conchoidal presenting a 
mimite additionairy coikidioMfal snrlkce. 

The eoocfaoidal Iraetore eofereil with minute scales, so as 
to give, on a wnperiicial view, a porphyrittc aspeet. 

& Concretionary. 

' a. Flat, laiueBar: liie UttMm tlMt o» Ate} H afM |a« 
comoa schistoae or papery, or fine acaly; 
' b» CoTffid hnaeftff* 

' c. Minalk; 4fte priamv ilmple or- jeinted ; with planter 
with curved surfaces. 

d. Columnar; similarly, either simple or jointed: the coa- 
cretioB is abo sometimes partly coloomar, aod partly pfftmtie; 
nrhiaphaw lad iiinwl nkm 

c Spheioiiial; large* 'SUa ia gaoiraUy ooidbiiied with Oie 
Qolaiaiiar. The small sjdiefoidal concretlonaiyx is arranged 
with the pearl-stoues. 

E2 



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ear Mac CaQoch on PUchstimt. 

/• Veij imporfectly spheroidal coneretioiHirj ; alf4> fNMM 
into the pofpi y r i iic; 

§. Sometimes different sUuctures are iiucrmixcd in the same 
rock, as the columnar and prismatic with^ tlie lameiiar. The 
lamellar pitch-stone sometimes containg lamelle of cherts or of 
cher^ chakedony 9 iato which it alto pames. 



SECOND DIVISION. Porfhtihtic. 

A. Pitch-stone porphyry of mineralogists, 

'«u With distinet eryatala of glassy feldspar. 

§. These are somietimes so transparent as to be nearly in?isi> 
ble on a fresh iiactore* 

f. With distinct crystals of common ftldspar. 

c. With rounded, or shapeless particles of the same. 

d. With imbedded spherules, consisting of a grain of feldspar 
snnotrnded by a grey enamel^ or of the grey enamel alone. 

|. This enamel is sometimes blended with the snrronnding 

rock. When the spherules are numerous, this porphyry passes • 
into pearl-stone. 

With imbadded ciyitafe or grains <rf qnarts, or of gnartZi 
and feldspar bo&. 

f. With grains of quartz surrounded by chert, and blending 
with the surrounding ropkj or with grains of cher^ alone* This 
variety is analogous to d. ^ 

g, Porphyntic ; bol the grains, which are chiefly of quarts 
nd dbtrtf ava tether, con d e ta ed lainelltty whidi alternate 
with a slightly porphyritic pitdistone. 

i 



THIRD DIVISION. CoHcmwsoMAT-tFBBnoiOAx.: > 

' ' PXAItMVOIIB. 

A. Consisting of simple pitch-stone i the grains irregular^ and 
compressing each other in the manner of coccolite. 



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Mae CttUoek m Pitciutom. 



63 



B. Some, or all of dM gnunt, eootaiiuiif a eenUal *i^nrtn*tnr 
' ^aaoUierkiiids peail'^toiiepoiphyfy. 

0. With grauu of feldsjpir, or of feicUpar aad miBmli or of 
onamei only. 

With quaitiyOr quarts and chert 
ۥ With both quarts and feldspar. 

d, WitU a ccuual atom of clay. 



FOURTH DIVISION. AktodaIoidal* QmiedniM^ 

imbedded nodides q/* cmaiher Miner cd. 

A. Pitch-atone containiog imbedded zeolites. 

5* At yetdiis wie^ hat oeeoned only in Baflio^a Bi^. 

%. The coloart of pitchttone are Tarions. They are princi- 
pally dull white, pale ochre, pink, giLLii, pcreenish grey, 
ochre yellow, ocUre red, yellow brown, fiiwn colour, red brown, 
greeulsh brown, olives of various huea down to blackish green^ 
dark blue, and black. These coloart are tometimet alto inter- 
mized ; and thut» pale and dark green, or pale and dark grey, 
are interlaminated, producing a ttriped turfhce. The colonrt of 
pearl-stone are much more limited, possibly because the sub- 
stance is more rare. Those of the porphyritic varieties are 
numerous, as thi9 rock is upre fre<|uently porphyriU^ than 

• « 

. At Oe porphyritic vanetiet may potseia apy of the nuidi- 
fieatlont of the timple r(>ck as a base, man^ additional aspects 

result from this cause. 

§. Besides the pnssac^e into chert and cherty chalcedony 
already noticed, pitchstone passes into basalt, and, as is sup- 
potedf into opal and teni'^ipal. In the pattage to chert, it is 
tovettniet ibimd to contMn mtnnte gramt or particlet of chat- 
cedony, dttceraible only by the lent. Thit varie^ often pot- 
sesses a remarkable spheroidal concretionary structure, which 
was mentioned in a preceding part ui ihi^ commuuicutiou. 



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t 



54 

■ 

Art. VII. A Tnmsiatutm ^ IU?'« fuiiyt m iU^ Ctd^ 

dnaiion of Mei^Sf &c. 

[Commuuicatcd by John George Children, Esq. F. R, 
Coiilinae4 Ssom Vol, XL p. 271. 

BSSAY XI. 

Air u rendered hemner bjf ike Mporalicm ofUi fighier parti. 

In discussing ilie third method by wliich air becomes 
heavier, aamely, by the separation of its ligliter parts, I begin 
with this incontroTerdble tnith^ that if from any thing its 
lighter parts be takan away, the remainder will be heavier; I 
do not say that it will be heavier than the whole origmal quan- 
tity, but than a portion of it equal in bulk to the remainder. 
Separate the silver whicli lb at knave of a g^oldsmith mixcd_ 
with the gold ifi King Hiero's crown, the remaining gold will 
be heavier than an equal portion of the entire crown ; what in 
this case you do by art, nature effiscts by her indnstry, having 
no other tool but heat, which serves her worthily in tiie woilc. 
Observe the preparers of salt, who receive the sea water into 
their pans, through canals ; they know that the sun's hp at subtil- 
izing the water, will sublime it into air, leaving them the salt, the 
heavier part, at the bottom. The alchymist, true ape of nature, 
desirous to imitate her, places his mfusion of rhubarb over a dha^ 
ittg dish, ^at the liquor exhaling the extract may remain behbd. 
But if he want that part, which being subtilized, flies off, he 
stops it by the way, (sly fellow as he is) ( Cautelcux ^u*il est, J 
by means of the heat which he applies to his alembic. 6^ 
this scheme he obtains the brandy, which is lighter^ than the 
wina, from whtdi it rises, and the wine lighter than the lees 
mainiag after the whole distillation. In this manner heat acts 
pn all suits of liquors, larcfyuig some parts, thickening others, 
and always separating them by the difference it occasions in 
their respective weights, {par peser pita ou moins.J it pro- 
duces the same effects on air; to observe which, turn your 
fiice, I beg, towards that plain over which the sun has all tibe 
day darted his rays* You think, I wager, that the air wlddi U 



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55 



i» iwidliti emilMt wilh it, it lighter than il wa» ia nom- 
ittg? jot tiM imiM; it is aiMii tUekiTy md cooieqwBlly 

fcctifier ( fcr how cut iIm Iwst Hftvo fttbcfliiod th6 ttiMritiKMt 

having: caused it to ascend, and how hare caused it to ascend 
without the dcsceut of a heavier? Nothing rises by its own 
poiw, it is the falling down of another body whioh pushes it 
«p. IKmMleM it has separated Ifae most subtle, and raised it • 
oa high, Wflag the bsftrier Ii6knr» as haiipcBS fai the discUli^ 
tiwi of ttqiOfs* l^t if dds argoiBeiit do aot couvhice yov oC 
the thickening and increased weight of this heated air, at least 
believe the evidence of your own senses. I undertake to make 
yon feel that it is so by the touch of yonr hand^ and see it with 
yiD«r eyes. Now, whilst it is nid-day, do yon ftot M the air 
warmer to Ihe touch, tbanltwas aqnarter of aahooraflersm* 
rise? It is not however that the sun has imparted a higher do» 
gree of heat to it, since that never varies, and it disperses it at 
a constant rate within the sphere of its activity ; for in like man* 
s«r as its rays tnaispwroed the air without resistance, and com* 
numicated all its light to it in a moment, so did it commoni- 
cafe its heat, which has not itself increaied, though its action 
is greater, from the greater density of the matter it acts 
on; for the more subtle parts being gradually raised up, 
the others remain below in greater number, and more 
united in the self-same place; and from this greater union 
comes this greater action. This may be made clearer by 
considering the nature of elementary fire, which although hot 
in the utinosl device, nevertheless does not burn, in conse- 
quence uf its extreme rarity, but red-hot iron burns violently, 
not that it is hotter (for how can its heat exceed the utiQO&t de- 
gtee) but because it is denser^ containiiigmore parts in an equal 
space. So much for the touch, let us proceed to fhe other 
settle. 'When the sun began this morning to send its rays om 
the lioiizon, the air, by its suhtlety, was wholly invisible ; but 
now do you not see how it trembles over the furrows ? ft is 
because it is thicker, and has acquired more body that it is in 
some measure visible to you. Thus, 1 think, I have sufficiently 
hc^uitted myself of my promiBe, hut It is fit that I should go h 



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i 



£6 Tran^ion af Rey*i JSiaN^. 

step fiiclb«r, 99A add» tbat if the uapk InmiI oI Umswi 
tiilekea our lower air» tod mtke it heavier, driving npwerds ili 
mere svbUe perto» end keeping tlie deoeer and more eotid 

( drucs ) below, what will not the vehement and long-continued 
heat from the mouth of a red-hot furnace effect? A quantity 
of toudy placed over it in a vessel will disappear, common 
water, and all 9oirt» of liquor?, will exhale iii a fev liourff. The 
air nevertbelea* will reniaiii thefe, (tbeie being no otfier body 
10 fill its place) bnt it will be an ait of die utmoat fweeibla den* 
•ity and weight; an air, as I may say, no longer air, but that 
has lost its nature, having changed its suhtli: lluidity for a y'l^* 
c\d^ossne^^fCgrossu rettvisgueu96*J Jb'or the violence qf the 
fife, fubtilizing all the air that coqies near it, will drive an in* 
Monee quantity of it to a dietanpe, leaving avonnd itself, of thia 
imnenBe qnanttty, only a kind of dregs^ whidi from iti giuti; 
IM>Qf wdght cannot fly off. . 

« 

EasAY XII, 

Fire, by its iieatj ca;i thicken homogeneous Bodies. 

I know not wbal fatal calamity has seiied the sciences, that 
ivben an error lias arisen in them, and they are, as it were, inured 

to it by time, their proi'cibois wiU not tjiiduro its abulement. The 
docti'iaeol the preceding essay has already been taken iu dudgeon, 
(fmmtdkijwad it has been oli^ec^d to me, thatsincefire thickens 
beterogepeoiwi bodies, )»y separating their more subtle partSt as 
tising of a difierepft natnre, i| canfiot do fhe same with homo- 
geneons bodies, inasmuch as it acts uniformly on all their parts, 
and has no other action than that of distending and dilating 
them equally ^ so that, on this account, ai|:^canno( be thickened 
and made heavy by the force of heat. I recognise this doc- 
trme, (dkas opposed to my belief) as derived from the school . 
of philosophersi whom I honour for their great insight into 
nature ; but I frankly avow, that I have never sworn by the 
words of any of ihtiii. If truth be v. jili them, I receive it;— 
if not, I seeit it elsewhere. l«t us see if Uuiy hftvc laet witfl U 



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67 



ia oaUnr. HomogeiMaiiA bodiei^ th^ tay, are those 
n^oie parta aie all of Um mm Mlare, or iHnek ham lha 
aaMa aava vA dafintiao aa iriiola. I cartiail j agiat lhat 

(de soy et par sa nature,) dilate them but reason tcaclu s 
me, and experience ronfirms it, that, by accident, as we say, and 
in consequence of the subtilization aad separation of aaaMi 
paitt^ the othera lamaia tbiok aad haavy. If thai be dnniad 
ne, and the afoiiaaid doetnoe maat he rigoravilj ianraal^piladi 
aa if fire, neither hy itielf nor hy aoddent, oonld thicken hoaM>- 

gencous bodies, I challenge it as false, and could bring forward 
acioud of instances to the encounter ; but the courteous leadei, 
for whom I labour, wlU be contented with a law* 

Vitriol ia a homofeaaoaa body»lbr ka paita have the aaae 
iMUne and dafinttioii aa the whole. Noir» if tbia be p«t si • 
retort, fire so acta upon it, that it diawa na teparately its 
phlegm, its oil, and its colcoLhar, parts which differ in thick- 
ness and weight. Turpentine is a homogeneous body, the 
smallest part being no less turpentine than the whole maaa^ if 
this be put in an alembiCy fiie, by its actioii) dilalaa sooia eC 
its parta» and thidcena others, aaparating its water, spirit^ oO 
'and colophony, whose difibrence in respect of weight and 
subtlety is notorious. I have already spoke ri of wine, (also a 
homogeneous body,) which fire, displaying its powers on it in 
dtstillationy extends and dilates till it extracts its Iwnmlj 
and weak waterfsoMpefifs^J aa it ia called; aad the leiidmn 
» dtkiterm proportion to the qvantity of this water or phlagn 
that haa been drawn off. But why do I take the trouble to bring 

forward these examples, since it is cvideat, that fruai all such 
bodies, salt, sulphur, and mercury, parts which sensibly differ 
in tenuity and weight are extracted by the help of file ; it ia 
not true, ther^oie> that fire dilatea all their parte equaDy. I 
wdl foreaee lhat aoma wiU endeaTOur to evade this, by aayiag 
Aat the instancea I propose are of eoespound bo&s, aad 
that it would be otherwise with those that are simple. Yet, 
forsooth, have i proved the falsity ol this maxiui, taken, as 
the| lay it dowa, in ito general sense, aud t^t^ioded ta all ho- 



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SB Trmiiatiom of Rey'a M&sa^s. 

Bogcneous bodies. But let us see if it be more consistent witk 

Essay XlII, 

/%rv con liUojIeii IIMf . 

Water* anquesttoimbly, is a simple body^ and it is equally 
mtainy that fire acting on it, dilates some of its parts, and 
tliickens others ; albeit, as I have said already, the first action 
is proper and natural to it, and the second accidental. Pour a 
barrel of water into au alembic, heat it according to the rules of 
art, and draw off first a gallon (pot*) ot it. It is certain that the 
water of this gallon will be more subtile than that which you 
(Hit into the alembic. If any one stimulated by the desire of 
. contradiction deny it, let him be refuted by the chemists ; who 
not l)eing able to make their extracts conveniently witli cummon 
water, are accustomed to use distilled water or dew, (which is 
Mtkbg else than water passed through the great alembic of 
ttitete,) for such water being more subtle, better penetrates 
Ihe snbstaiice of Ae simples, and more readily draws out their 
virtues and tinctures. Moreover, its greater diuretic eficcis, 
and its less weight, (the inseparable companion of a less degree 
of thickness), give ample proof of the truth of my assertion* 
But if the water of this gallon be more subtle than the water 
put Into the alembic, that which remains must be thicker^ 
iiiasmu<^ as a thickening is a necessary consequence of the 
separation of the subtle part. This will be more evident if 
you continue the distillation ; for, drawing off gallon after 
gallon, till no more remains, the last will be sensibly heavier 
and thicker than the first; and this sensible difference will 
ensue by small, but imperceptible, degrees, from the first to the 
"Becond, from the second to the third, and so on consecutively 
to the last. Nor will this difference be only from gallon to 
gallon^ but from glass to glass, indeed, from drop to drop ; 
fbr since the two extreme drops must manifestly differ in thick- 

- • • * A m ss sui i asarly e^aslto agalkw. 



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toM tad wm^iit IhiB dUAntni^ iimteoirttiMfiy telMMMf 
from file bagimiiag totfaetady by Hie Mown cf. tevnate «f 
drope arisiaff ftoni llii dittiUatiaii. From tut it appears, that, 
M in heterogeneous bodies, fire separates the parts that are of 

different natures, so in homogeneous bodies, it disjoins the parts 
which differ in tenuity, and then weight assumes the office oi 
giving tiiem nuik, and of affigiiiiig ta tach itt plaoe» mf^ ^ 
«i«Dy in fluids^ die heaviest poftsoiie of arUeli» atvayi giua 
the bottom, making their way through theee that are less wm, 
and necessarily failing down in them. So that if all die 
water that could distil from the above-mentioned pipe, fell 
in order into a tube of snfficient lengtiii and of the size of 
a qnlll^ it is ciedibley that the leeODd drop voald tiah 
in die first, and the third in theee two» and so eoaaemi 
tivefy to the last,' which befang the heaviest, would pass" 
through all that preceded it, occupying the lowest place; 
so that the drop which sought the hrst, would, at the end, 
find its^ in the highest place. Now, although this eo» 
tinaal traveiauig oecasions some degree of mixtare to thapaits» 
yet would it not be each, hut dial the dlstinetioii ta vieighl 
of the lifgh and low portfams would alwaya boTery diseeraflda 
But as we cannot see this sinking of the drops by the eye, if 
any one call it in question, let him apply and dexterously join 
the month of one phial full of water to the aaoodi of a sinyar 
phial fid! of claret wuie, and he will behold a siadlar thing: Ibr 
the water bdng the heavier, will descend into the lower phAI 
through the wine, manifestly forcing it to mount into the upper. 
Does not the wine itself arrange its more subtle parts at the 
upper part of the barrel, and its grosser at the bottom, by meaas 
of the greater weight itf one than of tiie other? 

The common people thbk also; and not without reason, that 
tiie first glass we pour but of Ae gallon is more subtle and 
vaporous than the following. This difference ol)scivud iu so 
small a vessel mig^ht lead some to imagine, that if we were to 
make a tube only an inch wide, and several toises in lengthy fiU 
it vrith wine and leave it for some time at rest, the upper po^ 
(ion» if not absolute hrandyi would come fisiy near it in tenuity 



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und efficacy. A pretty invention, certainly, to draw off biandj 
witiMmtfiin^ifthft fiiet beao, {nia^hatealiaiiaimni) andtbe 
diflficulty of making the Instnunent did not preTcot the oae of 
it All these obearationt serve me as a bridge to pass to this 

general assertion, that in all fluids, as well compound as simple 
or elementary, the upper parts always differ in subtlety and 
•weight horn the lower ; and that this diiiNcence it diilittgnished 
by as many degreea as their mMfeer is diriiible by th^ height 
Into distinct parts : so that if we conceive a line drawn from the 
lowest part of one of tiie fluid elements (as air) to its iiio^hest 
Burface, just so many degrees of weight and subtlety will tliere 
be in that element, as the line can be divided into different 
{MTts, (I mean materially to aToid sophistry,) and the uppit 
pari of all will always be thinner and lighter than the second, the 
second than the third, and so on to the end. For to attribnte 
to all the parts of each element the same body, {corpulence) is lu 
belie our sense, which compels iis to conpider air (fur instance) 
more subtle at the summit of a mountain, tlian in the plain at 
It! foot. And, in like nianner» when the heat of the snn, or of 
onr fire, subtiliies it here below. It monnts on high, nnqnea* 
tionably, till it meets with its tike, according to the degree of 
subtlety it has acquired. Besides, if this equality pre\ ;ul( d 
throue"h the whole elements, tlu re would be no reason why one 
portion of it should be below, and one above, when the air is 
calm. For to eomniit that to chaaoe and hazard, would be to 
ihock the mcomparahle mdom of die Author of nature^ who 
has made nothing in it witiiont nvmber, weight, and measure ; 
and has established such order throughout, that nothinf^^ happens 
fortuitously and without cause. I conclude, therefore, that this 
arrangement is derived from weight, and no otherwise. But to 
conclude this essay, I say that every one may now see that fire 
ncting mi the simple body, water, does not equally distend all 
its parts, but by dilating some H separates them, whence followa 
the tliickenin^ of others. Thus the maxim in dispute is not 
true. But it will be said this must be shewn of air, on which 
ihe piTOt of the controversy turns. That is their last re&ige, 
and I proceed to deprtvo^ then of that 



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TramiuUon of Rey'a £sfays. Q| 

Emay XIV. 
Fire can ihkken Air* 

■ 

Thk maoot dlioiiMed in tha llth Ewiiy» m ■nffcMitfd 
istitly ft& nnpTcjndietd mind tfiti flri heatinc: air tiMiKtfHi and 

separates some of its parts, and that this separation is neces* 
sarily toUowed by the thickening and increase of weight of the 
Others. But MBOe this truth is obstinately contMled^ m Offder 
to eibilMt it moie cleariyt I demasd that a laboratory be pi«« 
paired fornie in the region of elementary to^ adjqimng tbat of 
air, and in it I will ahev tlitni ocalaTly what tbey are uiiwilKogf 
to believe. For as the vessels which we here call empty are 
nevcrtlieiess full of air, so will they be there full of fire. And 
ainee when we pour water into an alembic, tbe previously* 
eniicloaed ait it e3[peUed, ao will fire gife plaoa to the air wbicb 
In that region diall be poured into the alemfajc $ and when put 
tipon the fnmaee will ^atil over drop by drop into the receiver, 
and the first measure of it tliai is coUecLed will be more subtle 
than the second, the second than the third, and so on to the end. 
What ia more, the difference in subtlety and weight between the 
firat and laat measnre wiil be aa perceptihla aa in thoae of dia«> 
tHkd water. Nov if any one kngh at my demand, let him kmnr 
that the great Arehimedet required, in a like caie, that a «poC 
should be given him in the region of aii where to place his 
engine, and he then promised to lift up the whole earth. (Aoi 
^tff %m ni9 yn9 tutttnt,) Not that he supposed that what fafl 
deminded could be done, (for in the estimation of die wiaeMb 
men he was nmther madman nor fool,) but he made it, confident 
in the certainty of hia demonatratfona, and for clearer evidence 
of the truth of his assertions. M y demand too has no other 
object. Whoever would see a thit^g approaching to this, with-* 
out having recourse to an in^poaBibiUty,let him place an alembiii 
of e» t raofdanaryd lmen a i ona on a fwmace, and horingfized ablad* 
der, emptied of ita air, to the hi^^tpart of the h€Mtd by aamall 
pipe, be^^in to heat it ; the air of the alembic will then begin to di- 
late, and being no longer retainable in its original space, will rush 



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(SH TratislaUon of Key's fuoy^. 

out and fill the bladder. T r t another similar bladder be filled and 
fitted in like manner, and so on to the end. I gay that the last 
bladder will be heavier than the first; wliocver doubts it^ let 
liim make tbe ezperimenty proceeding exactly ai directed* By 
tUa taam ct Aooglit my mM dflnratea htadS to gntler ikiaf^t 
which, howcrftr, I shall not mentioii now, as they are irrelevant 
to this subject, and difficult not only to practise but even to 
understand. I come to another demonstration, by which the 
truth tlMit i dale^ wiU be wmre tha& endaoi (flat qm vaiiiAr.) 
Pkjnit ft canMoa directly od iti breeds, its mimle pgialing 
upwaidsy and throw &to it a led^hol ball d the aiae of ita 
bore. It 19 certain that the air contained in the cavity of the 
gun is so tiiin in substaiice and small in quantity, that the ball, 
ia passing,, will impress on it its full degree of heat ; noti^ith^ 
ftandug duB» if yon pnt your hand into tbe nuudn* you will 
easily keep it tibere at ficat, bnt in m abort tun^ yoa wiH bft ' 
unable to do so ; not that liie mt bat tnereaied m heat, Ibr it 
will rather have decreased, as well as the ball which gradually 
cools ; but, because beinj, tliickened by the beparation of the 
more snbtle parts of a large quantity of air whick will 
rash out quiddyy (d'tm abimtbmee dUmr^ ^ «y f^rtergi: gr0ni 
em) it will act awve pcMwftdlyy aa I bam aaid elaewbera* 
In tbe aeoond place, iha air wbseb 'wiU ba aaeat tcembllng aborra 
the muzzle of the gun, (which does BOt take place at first,) 
compels us to confess, that it is tliickened ; for, it ctinaol be 
aaid that Ibeaa are vapours or exhalations rising from tha gtt% 
Ibroferytba^abontitistoodif «Bdf8o)i4 tosi#»r tbeescap« 
if any of ks am sabatanaa. Thirdly^ if tb« air wnm aot 
# wcfc «w d abof« Hie mmEsb it wattld not fender ike djacta 
beyond it, seen through it, confused. Nor can my opponcuU 
excuse their disbelief on account of the tremulous motion 
^inrndMoMiit) of the air, since I distinetly see that lady's 
boMrties tbroof^ tbe air, which aba agitatea with hei £h^ 9a4 
idio aU aovta of objacu tbion^ an aimospheia liolantly ^ 
turbed by the north wind, when it blows and wfciitlfls hoisr 
teronsly. Lastly, if a flock of wool much ejvLcrided (esparpille) 
be plax^ed oyer the muzsle of tha gna, it wiU not descend; aad^ 



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if it 1m pvtbed 0OM diiltM into titt flMNilli> it irlil wjdMiliy 
iiM up again* wbicfa wcM ftttondly Ml happ^ «it 
w«re .not thicker ihmn on (<l t$mmt) wm of fha nmnon 

where the fiork ut wool descends readily. These reasons 
though noi gross, are nevertheless so palpable that they miut 
conmce every one that heat has thickened the air just ab«i« 
the mttsle pf Ibe giwi. Bni tf il haa thickened it biliDie tha 
aoo^, vhaty I pray yoOymaittt hftve done at the hotton of the 
bore next the ball? Unquestionably when that conee out 
after it is cold, you will see it more inclining to a wiaLiaL hue 
than before it was heated red, as if the thickened and adhe« 
aire air gaie it that colour, which in time taraiihea and weara . 
off, eepedally in a damp place* ance the awsowidanf aii^ 
nu^ialenuif thai which adherea to the ball, vednees It to Ha on« 
ginal state. By way of dcssLit I will serve up one remark to 
the reader, which perhaps will be to lua Labte. They who 
wortliily practise medicine are sometimes called in to visit aik 
asthmatic patient, who panting in bed in a hot obambef , latcbea 
his breath with great difficulty, whidi the pbyiiciana obacfvingp 
they have the window thrown open, conduct the patient to it, 
and make him inhale the outer air, to his great relief. If you 
ask these gentlemen whence the sick man receives so imme- 
diate comfort, they will tell you^ it is because the air of the 
Chamber being too hot cannot fiimish that neceaiaij iefimb- 
inent to the heart, which the eileinal air bj tta ooolnaia af- 
fords. But gentlemen, my honoured colleagues, having imde- 
ceiv( d myself on this puiiit by the piccrdiug meditatitjns, suffer 
me, I pray you, to undeceive you also. It is not the heat of 
the air of the chamber that occasions the panting, as not being 
capal^ of anffirieotly refreahiog the beart* but rather it is ita 
thickneia, which retards ita courae across the oAifrvefion (file- 
yoQ of the lungs, so that it cannot fbrmih the heart reguUu ly 
(a temps) with sufficient matter for the generation of the vital 
spirits, which fresh air being more subtle, can better effect. 
Kov» that you may not fancy I advance dus without reason* 
cfaaacf e die feverish pi^ent who liea in .the aame chamberj^ 
irhom the confined air sufficiently ref^reshes, although he has 



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64 Trmisiaiionqf'Rey'& Es$a^i, 

greater need of it; andj if i>ver wore to come on to the astli" 
matic patient (which you wish for his advantage,) and dissipate 
tbe Blatter that closes the vessels of the lungv, would not th« 
mine air then •officiently refresh the sick nan, now thai the 
need of it ie IncreaMd? Does not the same thing happen if, 
this cteartnf of the hings be afieeted hy the diasnlphtir, which/ 
as you well know, Galen compouiids of sulphur, pepper, and 
muslard-seed in given quantities. Heat then must have 
thickened the air of the chamber, by dritring off the more 
subtle parts which some proclaim (tduatie) as so impossible. 
I already percelye that to elude the force of so many reasons 
and experiments, I shall be told that the instances I have pro- 
duced, may indeed be jjiuved in our gross and impure air, but 
that it would be otherwise in pure air if such can be found in 
nature : and, certainly I desire nothing better to induce me ta 
cry victory. For whatt do they believe that I imagine the 
Sieur Brun and the rest, who have found the increase of weight 
in question, have obtained a purer air by bills of exdiange 
from beyond the conhnes of nature ? 

'(Tq be emUmMed J 



Abt. Vlil, A further Tnguky uUq the Nature of the Pro* 
ductM ofiheihm ComJMkm rfEt^. By J. F« Danielle 
F.R.S. 4Md M.R J* 

SHoaTi«T after the pnblicatton of my first paper* upon the 
acid discovered by Sir Humphry Davy during Us researdies 

into the nature of flame, it was suggested to me by my friend 
Mr. Richard Phillips, that most of the propertie«i of the salts 
described by me, as well as the equivalent number of the acid 
derived from their analysis, agreed very closely with those of 
the acetic acid. Aldiough I mnst own tlmt at the time I 
thought the evidence sufficiently conclusive against their iden* 
tity, yet with the promise of his assistance I willingly undertook 
a further series of experiments upon the subject. The results 

♦ Journal, Vol, Xh p. tlB. 



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rfthe SiiHD CowAmtiom of Eiheir^ 



65 



I shall now as concisely as possible describe^ as being in them- 
seUes intereilin^y and aa fiinushing rather a ouiious aneodot< 
of the progress of the investigation* 

I prepared a large quantity of the acid from sulphuric cthet 
in tlie manner described in my former paper, making use of a 
lamp with three burners, which greatly accelerated the opera*- 
tion. The first product I rectified by drawing off from it at a 
low heat one-third of the quantity* This I did, to gel rid of 
any ether mik which it tbight have beeli' contaminated, to the 
influence of which Mr. Phillips seemed to think some of the 
singular results which I had bdbre obtainedi might have beea 
owing. 

The liqnor cobdentod iironi thift diitiUatioti had not tfie 
slightett smell of sulphuric' ether. It ^aa itiflalnmabie» and 

biinied with a pale blue flame, leaving but a small taste* 
less fluid residue. The spirit had a pungent, suffocating 
smell, and its taste was hot and rather acrid. It did not 
change the colour of litmus. It evaporated without leaving 
aiij ieaidtte» with a very gentle heat. Neidier water, alcohol* 
nor ethdr produced any change in its appearance. When 
dropped into tiie solutions of muriate of gold and nitrate of 
silver, aud warmed^ it produced no precipitatiun of those 
metals. 

The iKtd thus purified was intensdy sour, of. a peculiar 
pungent smelly which when received into the lungs, produced 
great irritation. Some pure acetic acid was procured* with 

which a small quantity of sulphuric ether was mixed, and with 
the two the following comparative e-xperimenti were made, with 
the assistance of Mr. Phillips in his laboratory : 

£xF. l.->-Some solution of the muriate of gold was put into 
a test-tube, with a small quantity of the acid : upon the appli- 
catioh of a very getitle heat the mixture became turbid, and 
appeared green by transmitted light. The gold was instan- 
taneously reduced, and completely coated the inside of the 
glass. Some of the mixture of acetic acid and ether was 
likewise dropped into muriate of gold, but no change ensued 
even when atrotigly heated: 

Vol. XU. f 



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66 DameU o» the Nature of th€ Frodmts 

, Exp. 2. — A liUle of the acid mixed wilh some solution of 
nitrate of silver produced an instantaneous lurbidiiess. The 
mixture appeared blue by trantmiUed lights and the tube in 
vhicb die ej^riment wai made^ was sliortly tined with me- 
tallic silver. The mixture of acetic acid and ether produced 
uo effect upon some of the same solution. 

Exp. 3. — Some of the acid was dropped into a >(tlutiun 
of muriate of platinum. When heated no 'change ensued. 
Upon examining the muriate of platinum it was found lo b« 
very acid. The emcees was carefully neutralised widi sod% 
when upon treating^ it as before a violent action took place, 
some of the li quid was thrown out of the tube, and the v liole 
turned mtenseiy black. Upon standing at rest for a tew 
minutes the tube became coated with metallic particles of pl^- 
tinum, interspersed wil}i a black powder not of a metallio 
appearance. . The ace^c acid and ether produced no efiiMi 
vpon the neutral solution. 

Exp. 4.— Some of the acid was neutralized with carbonate of 
barytes : the solution was set to evaporate with a very gentle 
heat, but it underwent a certain degree of decomposition as it 
became very brown and pasty, and no crystals were obtained 
from It. For the sake of preserving the acid, the barytes was very 
carefiilly precipitated by dilute snlplrarie acid. TTie sulphate 
of barytes was separated by the filter. After this process, the 
recovered acid still retained its property of reducing th« 
metallic salts. 

. Exp. 6.— The acid was saturated wi$h potash, and furnished, 
by very careful evaporation, long prismatic transparent crys- 
tals. The solution of this salt reduced the metallic solution 
with as much ease as the pure acid. No such effect was pro- 
duced by acetate of potash. 

, £xp. 6.— Some peroxide of mercury, prepared from nitrin 
acid, was put into a glaiss with some of the actd, and gently 
warmed. A very bulky white salt was instantly fenned, whidi 

appeared to be nearly, if not wholly, insoluble in water. An 
equal quantity of the peroxide was treated in the same way 
with the mixture of acetic acid and ether, and a perfoetly trans* 



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af tlie 6iQw CombuUion of Ether. 67 

parent colourless solution resulted, whieh was not at all 
alteir(3 by heat. 

Ea'p. 7. — A quaaiiiy of perac«taie o£ mercury was formed 
by dissohiog pMOzidQ of n&amf, prapafsd liroai nHric •cad» 
m aoetic «ctd. Iftto m poition of this Miliitk» a nBdl qantlty 
of the acid was dropped, and, upon Heating ike nixtofe, an 
instantaneous precipitation of th« bulky white salt obtained jii 
Exp. 6 took place, in such a quantity that the whole mix- 
ture became aolidy and the glass tube in wbieh the experiment 
vaa made was npsel vitho«t spiUinf a dfop. U is hudiy 
oecassarf to nentioa* that mo muk aftet was pvodoesd bf tba 
mtxtsre of aeetic add and ediar. 

After these experiments which were often repeats d mid 
varied in ways which it is unnecessary to detail, we thought 
that the distinct and pccaliar nature of the acid formed during 
the slow oombostton of athar waa anfficHwtly aatafalislMdy and 
Mr. Phillips kbdly requests me to state that ho had bo kttger 
a dottbt existing in Ins wM. 

By a curious chance, 1 had no sooner satisfied others with 
regard to this subject, than I had reason to entertain doubts 
myself upon this very point. Being engaged ia foUowiog uf 
another branch of the subject in mf own lafaofalDr]^^(llifr dbjact 
of oor joint inqnirj being conaideiad accomiilishod,) i had 
occasion to prepare sooms pemottate 'of meteniy. For Ml 
purpose I took some peroxide of uitrcurv per se, and put it 
into acetic acid in a gentle heal. To iny great surprise instead 
of disserving entifely as the nitrous red oxida had alwatya donOr 
a largo qnanaitj of whUa insolubla salt was Ibtmod, axaotly 
resembling tha« o bta i naA is fbtmer oxperlmanica by the atid 
irom ether. 

Somethins; of the true explanation of these apparently con- 
tradictory results soon occurred to me, and I immediately set 
idMMit the following ex|»erim^ to eliieidate the matter* 

Sxp. 8.««^me protoxide' af morotiiy waa i^t into aeoCie 
aeid and warmed, a spongy white salt of a silvoty mie a a ea w » 
appearance was speedily formed, which waS'-aearly insoluble in- 
cold water. Some of the same protoxide was treated with^ 

F 2 



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68 Dani^ on the Natun of the Products 

m 

-Mid Iron eUttr, and a* eiactly sunilar tali reralted. Botb 

prodacts were carefully dried upon filtering paper, and set 
apart. At the end of a few days they \vt re exaiuined : the first 
was wholly uaalteied Iq iU appearance, but tlie second bad 
assmned a grey hue, and was found apon examination with a 
lent, to be fall of minute globules of mived mefcnry. 

From hence it would appear that the acid formed during the 
slow combustion of ether is in fact the acetic, but combined 
with some substance of a highly disoxygenising nature, different 
from ether. In this manner we can account for the rapid 
reduction of the metallic oxides in the former experiments, and 
also for tiie instantaneous change of the soluble peracetate of 
nftercury into the insoluUe proton-acetate. In the latter ease it 
js clear t!uLi the tlisoxvgenating sabsLance (whatever its nature 
may be,) took from the oxide of mercury in the peracetate one 
proportion of ils oxygen, and j^ecipitated the salt in the form 
of pioto*aoetate. 

Upon this Tiew of the subject it would seem to follow that 
the peroxide of raeteury formed per se .&ffered.firom the per- 
oxide ibrmed from luLric acid, in containing either combined 
or mixed a portion of protoxide. To bring this idea to the 
proof, I proceeded as follows. 

. Exv. 9«— Fifty grains of the mtric peroxide of morcury (red 
precipitate^) were put into pure muriatic acid. The whole 
dissolTed readily, except a slight cloudiness. Fifty grains of 

the peroxide per se were treated in the same manner. A consi- 
derable quantity of grey insoluble matter remained, which being 
SjBpa ra ted weighed 0.7 grains. It consisted chiefly of metallic 
mercury in aetata of minute division, mixed with a very small 
ppftioii of calomel. The quantity of this latter indicated^ con- 
trary to my expectation, but a very minute proportion of pro- 
toxide» but it is obvious that the metallic mercury during 
the process of solution in the acetic acid, combined with one 
proportion of the oxygen oC the peroxide, {brming thereby pro- 
toxide both by composition and decomposition* Why thia 
should happen during the action of die acetic, and not during 
the action of the muriatic acid, is not p^srhaps at the first view 



r 



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of the Slow Coml^uMtion of Ether. 00 

of the subject quite clear, but I think upon cousidciauuii may 
be satisfactorily expiaioed. la the former, a predisposiug atli- 
aity exists betweeft all the ingredients obviously Uading io 
sadi an airantgameiitv rawltBig fiaom Iba r a mbm a d -altM c tiaa «f 
tba meieiiry for osygan, aad ^ liba* aoatie aeid for tka pro- 
toxide, but in the latter no such predisposing force can exist. 
When muiiaticacid is put to the mixture of mercury mid per- 
oxide, a. double decomposition takes place; tba two propor- 
tiau of cMtygMi in tbe ozida camltimt frith two paoportioas'af 
hydtogen darivad ttom tba adkly and vatar and a bMilonda aia 
fonnad, Ibe metallie AMieary taiwrnriay aanmehad: for, at* 
though we can readily enough conceive in tlic former instance 
that the play of affinities should produce the permanent ar- 
Eaogement of tba pioto^acetate of mercury, it is impossible 
to imagme that any piadispatiag affinity thoald datafSMna tha 
eompoeitKm of pfotosida of namiyt' and at lha sana ttntt 
its decorixposltion, as imttt have been ihm casa tf profeoohlonde 
of mercury had been lui uiLd iioui nnxtu. L ci metal and per- 
oxide ; that is to say, protoxide oi mcrciuy iuusi have been 
fonaed by the aation of the metaiiic znarcury upon the peroxide, 
marely for tbe pnrpoaa of baia§ again decMf^iMad by tha 
- agency of the acid» the whole aEtaagamanl bea^g daierounad 
by the attnttf of two sabttanoet whidiin point of foot did not 

exisL 

I believe that it is the general opinion that the red preci- 
pitate is a more imptire prsparation of tbe ptroside of meratry 
Ihiin the oxide ptr is ; bvt thai^ e nperi ma n ta W9M aeaax to 
prore the oontrary. Certain it is, that^ in nedicina tha former, 
which is of very low price, is 'not considered to answer the 
same pmposes as the latter, winch is a costly drug;. Might 
not a due mixture of metallic mercury with the former assimi- 
late the properties of the two ? It is right to mention that the 
osides whifch i employed were obtained from Meain. iUlan 
* and Co. Flon|^-Mttt» tibe' aecteraey of whose preparaUom ace 
well known. ' * 
. £ut to veUuu tQ tbe immediate object of this p«4p6|i;. I en- 



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70 Dameil an the Nature of the Products 



deavoured in various to 8epar?ite the acetic acid, formed 

during the slow combustiou of sulphuric ether, from the substance 
with which it appeared to b% oambimtdt so M to produee the 
lattir in w itdalid 9t«te» bol indMMt iw^w. It appoared 
a» «ndirgo wwh rapid daoompontkm when expoied to Iwt a 
ttoderate heat, that, combiiwd at Ao aane tbM wUii ^ speedy 
decomposition ot* most of the acetates, I could not effect my 
purpose. The salts which I obtained in a crystallized form, 
held this substance in eonbinatioo with them, so that their so- 
laitoa ptodoeed tha tana cflaeta as acid of whicb tliey ware 
MBpoaad. It ia ommg to Aia eunuaataiice that moat of tha 
salts, as I described in my former paper, burned with flame, 
and afterwards glowed like a live coal, and the results of the 
analysis which I made of the aoad by means of the salt of 
bair3ftaa and chlofata of potash are azpUnnedy and the sonice of 
dia aaMan of hydfOfHi dearly demonstrated. Thus the wy 
aama aaoiaa secwad to Ha diatiaeti?e ciiaractera npon the lampie 
acid as contributed so long to separate the pyroligneous, tha 
iormic, and other modifications of the acetic acid. 

Notwithstanding the failure of my endeavours to separate the 
aabatanoa of which I waa m aeaich, kaak ito combinatioBB I 
am anahlad to throw oooaldavahla lifj^ opoM its natiire and 
fcnaation by the disoovery of an analogooa ooaspooid, which ia 
easily obtained in an isolated form. This compound is pro- 
duced by the slow combustiou of nitnc ether. 

£xp. 10. — When nitric ether is substituted for sulphuric in 
lha aphlogiatis laaip^ tha pUrtiMuii wiia glowi «i laadily, hut 
tl» toaa of tha Cwmar an of a deatar Mmiia than those of tiba 
latter. They p oss ess a more aaft>caltBg and more disagreaable 
smell, and are more inflammable, so that greater caution is 
requisite in adjusting the wire to prevent their breaking out into 
Ihnaa* After the process Ims been oanied.on a short time with 
lha i^para^a desc r i bed in my Ibfmar popsr, an incrustation 
fnay bealMsrvad fbnninf^aboat the wire, a eonsidanhlaqnanti^ 
of liquid is condensed in the receiver ; and by contkraing lha 
|»rocess, around the mouth, and upon the top of the alembic-head. 



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oftks Slow Comlnmtim of Ether. 



71 



it deposited % wmmam9 ki6kmg wbitiiwi «f « bright yeH«v 

Notour. These products were collected aod ei^aiaiaed as fol« 

lows : — , • , 

Exp. 11. — ^The liquid was purified from any spiHtuous or 
tliMM laistaie by Mtltd i^iTtilhrtiiTHT TIm iknd floadtaMd 
from Ibk Mliiettini wu eolottlMiy uJkmmAim, ud «f « 

puftgenl my ^vmgneMm simII. It wmm not sftotad by iw» 

ture Willi water, or alcohol, and did not affect the colour of 
litmus. Hie residual liquor was of a bright yellow colour, of 
a bot, acrid, and nausaow taMy and turiMd litmus paper red. 
Hi tmell WM t«llQOfttbi|p» and mj irwpiwMar Il'«ibolHl ibt 
fwlaetioii of tbt netelt Am tMr ■oiatioiit k tlw ua» way as 
the lampic acid, but even more speedily. It instantly converted 
|ier-acetate of mercury into proto-acetate. 

£xp. 12. — The reMinous substance was highly inflammablo^ 
It bar&ed rapidly with « bissuiif noise aad sciBtiUatUMi» kavio^ 
It vary bulky coal» such as is fonaed by the deeonpoattioa of m 
^iiill or other animal matter. It was soluble both In water and 
elcohol, but very sparingly in ether. Its taste was bitter, 
l^tringeat, aad very unpleasant. 

Exp. 13. — The solutions of this matter produced the same 
^Skct upon the aaelaUic salts es the distilled liquid ; and when 
Ibe aeid of the latter was neutralised by an alkali» mttch of tbe 
fliaiDons substaooe was obtained by gentle evaporation, 

Exp. 14. — Its vapour, when heated, smelted very strongly of 
auitnoiiia. A small piece of it was placed in a glass tube with 
a piece of turmeric paper, atid upon the appUcation of hsety tho 
ooionr of the paper was tnmed to red. 

BiLP« 15.— It did not bum out of the eoolact of oxygen. 

BxF. 16.— With the assittsM of Mrw Faviday, I attempted 

to analyse ilua curious ard iuLcrcslm^ substance by means of 
per-oxide of copper, A quantity, weighing 1.8 grains, was 
taken, whidk was at first rather tough and tenacious. Being 
eipoeed to a very gentle heat, it lost in weight 0.2 grains^ and 
became noie bard and brittle. It was then triturated in a 
HMfiar, tml well nixed witb a large quantity of per-oxide of 
copper, and ej^poiscd to a red heat in an iron tube. The prO" 



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72 Daaieii on the Mature oj the Froducu 



ducts of the decompositioQ were received ov<?r mercury. The 
quantity of gaseous matter, with all correctioos made, amounted 
to 7.37 cubic inch^. Upon examiniog ihe oxide of copper 
•fttttheopmtioB, It tppcarad that lome of the cubon htd 
omipeddec o m p owtiott. ltiiM» tfaenfitfe, ftgain tiitmted and 
mixed in a mortar, and returned into the tube. A IMber 
quantity of gas was thus obtamed, ainountiiig to 0,32 cul)ic 
inch. This added to the Ibnaex produce, made the whole 
7.69 onbic hichea* Thia gaaeoos natter oovld not be fired with 
bidiogmyaad ptodnoediiochaiifaiiinhricosi^ limewater 
was oepioutlj prtdpitated bj it. After tbeae prdtminary triala 
it found llial G. 23 cubic inches were absorbed by potash; 
and the residue, 1.46 cubic inch, possessed all the negative pro- 
perties of aaote. Xhua the calcuiated results of the analysis 
stand 

Grs. 

6.23 inches carbonic acid ss 0.79 carbou 
1.46 ditto azote « • . ss 0.43 azote 

Loss • . . a:; 0.38 hydrogen 

Teo 

I*jow, the ueaie^al deiimie propoitions to tiiese would be 

Grs. 

0.75 carbon 
0.43 aaote 
0.34 hydrogen 

# 

Or upon Uic scale of equivaleuu^, 

4 prapoitioos«aiboii 3.00 

1 ditto aaole 1.75 

11 hydrogen . . 1,37 

Which are further equivalent to 

4 proportions of sub-carburetted hydrogen, 4.00 

^ \ proporuou of ammonia • • « 



of the Slow OmbuUion of Ether, 73 

- To this singular compound, possessed of such diaUacttve 
ebaracters, it will, no doubt, be deemed right to give a naine^ 
cad I will Tonture to suggest that Mfydrthcarhati ^ Axai9, 
win not inappropriately express its compositionu 

Exr. 17.--Soiiie solution of mvrlate of plathmm was taken, 
in which all excess of acid was lieuUali^id carefully hy soda. 
When the solution of hydro-carburet of azote was added to it, 
and gently warmed, a Tiolent action* almost amounting to ant 
aiplosioB, took place ; much of the nixtiife was thrown about, 
tad a very black precipitate was fomed. Iliis consisted of 
netalHe platfnimi, nlied with a laff« quantity of a deep black 
powder. The latter was separated on a filter, and i^ently 
wanned, to dry it. It had scarce parted with its moisture when 
it ex[Med with flame and noise, and nothing was left but 
lednoed platimun. 

^ Exp. 18— a smaU lamp trimmed with nitrie ether with &e 

Tvirc Llowing, was placed under a bell-glass full of atmospheric 
air, and surrounded with water. A great absorption took place, 
amounting to one*fourth, when the lamp was extinguished* 
Upon examining the residual air and the water, the former was 
Ibimd to contain a large prq^ortion of nitric oxide, and the latter 
of nitric add. 'When nitric etheir alooe was placed in the same 
situation, an absorption, after some time, took place ; and ihe 
water contained nitric acid, but no nitric oxide was formed. 
These experiments were repeated, with the same results, after 
having pot some pieces of potash into the ether. 

It was with a view of throwing some %ht upon the changes 
pvodnoedin the afar by the stow combnstion efeted by the 
aphlogistic lamp, that the last experiments were instituted ; but 
as this inquiry has led me into a wider field than I had at first 
anticipated, md in which 1 am still engaged, I shall reserve 
this fortiier discussion Ibr a fiitofe oomnnmication, and shall 
oondnde this paper with a MeffMa|pitid«tioii of the piin 
Iwts established. 

It appears, then, that the acid formed during the slow com- 
bustion of ether is the acetic, but combined with some compound 
of carbon and lq^di>Dfen» diteing from ether or aicohoL Iil 



• 



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74 Faiadajr en nem EkUro^ngmHetU Motiom, 

th» product from lulpbvM etheTy it is less volatile, and more 
eoMipetac ill its ttetion upon oxy|;eittt8d bodliM than ^Iber^ 
Owing to its etty deoonpotitioiiy iti point of vototiliaation, ind 
iglDorasee of its peculiar affinities, it has not yet been separated 

from its concomitants, and exhibited in a dislinct form. 

In the products from nitric ether, this compound proves to be 
a triple combination of cari)oo» hydiogen, and aaote» liitlierto 
unknown. Its efiaets npon metallic oxides appear to be qnite 
analogous to those of the oompoond produoed from salpfaono 
e^er, but it is easily separable fWmk the other products. It 
forms a fulouaating combiaatiuu with platinum. 



Aet» IX^On seme new StmirfhMtigfMUe&l MoUom, mi 
on the Thit(yri/ of Magneiitm, By M. Fainday, CkmktU, 

Assistaui in iltc Uuj^al LuiiUation, 

In making an exptaiment the bcgirmiug of last week, U> 
ascertain the position of the magnetic needle to the cooncciiug 
wire of a voltaic appacatns, 1 wae led into a series, wbioh 
appear to me tp give some new ticws #f eleotro-magneti^ 
netkm, and « magnetism alto^ ethers and to render more dis- 
tinct and clear those already taken. After the great men wlio 
have already experimented oii the subject, I should have felt • 
dottbtful that any thing I could do coald be new or possess an 
tntsresti bnt that tbe expenmenls sesn to me to racenoile ooii« 
aiderably the opposite opnioas tbatava entertained on it I am 
induced in consecpienBa to pnblisW this aoeount of thass^ in the 
hope they will assist in making this important branch of know-* 
ledge more perieot. 

Tlaa apparatns used was that mijei|ted fay Dr. Usioof Phi- 
ladelphia, and ealled by hun a oalothnototft il is in liict H 
aingle pair of large plates, eaeh h«fing its power heightened hf 
the induction of others. Consequently all the positions and 
motions of the needles, poles, ^c, are opposite to those pro- 
doced by an apparatus of several plates i for, if a current be 
supposed to exist ia the connecting wiia of a battoiy bam 



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and on Uui Lhe<mf of Magneiim* 75 

the zinc to the copper, it will be in each connected jjuh 
of plates from the copper to the zinc ; and the wire I have 
U66d u tbat cfMmaation batarsea the two jiiates of one pair. la 
tiM diagnmt 1 mxj have occMioQ lo wtSa^mik tba «nda 

^ tiM connndiBg wii«, airkftd Z and C» m m— did widi 

zinc and copper-platea respectively ; tlia aactioiii ara all hori- 
zontal and seen from above, and the arrow-heads have been 
u»ed^90me times to maik the pole of a ueedle or luagBet. which 
pointa to the aorth, and aanetiaai to mack the dimglioa id 
motioB; nodifficoHy eaa oocarmaioailaiiiiB^ 
tuea asy particalai head k applied* 

On placing the wire perpendicularly, and bringing a needle 
towards it to ascertain the attruetive and repulsive positions 
with regacd to the wire; instead of finding tlicse to be four, one 
attracttfe and ooe i«pi^Ta» for aaeh pok, I fooiMl ttei to be 
ci|^t» two ftttractiYe and two rapulaiTe fa oaob polat lhaa 
allowing tlitf needle to takeite natnral poaitton aeroaa iIm wire, 
which is exactly opposite Lu that pointed out by Oersted {qi 

^ the reason before-mentioned, and then drawiiii;* the support 

away from the wire slowly, so as to biing the north pole, for 
inatanea, aaaiar to k, there ia attrMtkN^aaie ti> jbe eapeelad ; 
Iwt OA ooBtipniaf to andM the eod of the n a o d l a coaM Marar 
to tiM wire, repvkioD takea plaee, though ti» wtmatiU bo m 

I the same side of the needle. If tho wire be on the other side 

' of the aame pole of the needle, it will repel it when opposite 

to iftoit parte betweea the oeetie of motaoB and the end i \mX 

' tlieie ia a unall portkm at the end where H attneta it ,Fif. 1, 

plaie ahoiwa the poiitim «f atUaelton fa the norlli and 
south poles, fig. 2, the potHiona of K^laion* 

^ If the wire be made to approach perpendicularly tow aids one 

pole of the needle, the pole will pass off on one side, in that 
directwn whiah die a t ti a oti on and repulsion at the extreme 
poittt of pale ipould gMW s h»t» if the win be comrina a lly 
iHide to afproaob the caBrtre of motioii»by either ^ 000 or 
other side ol' the needle, the tendency to more in the famer 
direction diminishes; it then becunieii null, and the needle 
is i|aite hMl' #'^ r*^»^ to the wiie ; aud ultimately the nioUoo is 



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76 Faraday on new Electro-Magtteii€al Motiom, 



mmed, tnd tlM needle powerfiiliy etidmoon to pBM <he 

opposite way. 

It is evident from this thai tlie centre of the active portico of 
either limb of &e needle, or the true pole, as it may be caiied, 
H not at Hie extremHj of the needk^ bat may be lepreiested 
by a point g;eiieca11y in the axis of tbe needle^ at Mme littk db* 
taaee horn the end. It was evident, alto, that this point had a 
tendency to revolve round the wiiu, uiid necessarily, therefore, 
the wire round Uiis point; and as the same effects in the op- 
poiite direction took place with the other pole, it was evident 
that each pole had tiie power of aoting on the wire by itsdif, 
•ad not aa any part of needle, or at conaeftted with the 
opposite pde. 

By attending to fig. 3, which represents sections of the wire 
in its diierent poeitione to the needle, all this w^ill be plain ; the 
nedfO polee are represented by two dots, and the airow-heade 
ahew Ae tendency of the wire in ita positiotts to go lonnd 
these polea. 

Several important coticlusions flow from tlicse facts ; such as 
that there is no attraction between tlie wire and either pole of a 
magnet; that the wire ought to revolve round amagnetic pole, and 
ama^netie pole round the wire; Uiat both attraction and re- 
pdeion of connecting wiree^ and probably magnets^ are com- 
pound actions ; tiiat trae magnetic poles are centres of action 
induced by the whole bar, ^c. S^'c, Such of these as I have 
been able to conhrm by experiment, »hall be stated^ with their 
proolk. 

The rerolatioa of the wire and the pole rqnnd each other 
'being the tot important tiling required to prove the natttra of 

the force mutually exerted by them, various means were tried 
to succeed in producing it. The difticulty consisted in making 
a suspension of part of the wire siiSioiently delicate for the mo- 
tkm, and yet aibrding aafficienl naaa of matter for contact 
Thkwaa overcome in the lbUoiringiiiiWMr:---Api^ braaa 
wire had a small button of «lv«r sbideMd on to ita endt n little 
cup was hGllowcd in the silver, and the metal being ama1« 
• gamated, it would then retain a drop of mercury in it, tho.ugh 



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i 



and w the Theory of Mmgiietmu 77 

placed upside down for an upper centre oC motion; for a 
lower c«ntrei a similar cap vai made of oopper* talo i^icb a 
Ktde mercury wai pat; thii iras plaead in ajar of watar imdtv 
^ tlie former centre. A piece of copper wire was dwn beat iatptka 

fom of a crank, its ends amalgamated, and the distances being 
arranged, they were placed in the cups. To prevent too much 
friction from the weight of the wire on tlie lower cup^ it had 
been passed throagh acork dalyadjastadinsias»aad tbat baiaf 
pushed down on lha win tiD immactad bi tba w«ter» tiha ftktiaft 
became very litUe, and the wire rery mobila yet with food 
contacts. The plates being: then coiuiected with the two cups, 
I the apparatus was completed. In thia^ state, a magnetic pole 

being brought to the centra of motiott of the crsnk, the wire 
immediately made an aAirt to lafaha aatil it stmek tba msf* 
net, and that baiag rapidly broagbttoaad la tba other side, tba 
wire again nmde a rerolutioD, giving evidence that it woald 
have gone round coiuiuualiy but for the extension of the magnet 
i on the outside. To do away with tliis impediment, the wire 

and lower metal cup were removed, t\Tifl a deep basin of mer* 
enry placed beneath; at tba boClom of this was a piaea of wia, 
and a smaH round bar magnet was stndr upright m it» so that one 
pole was about half or three-lbnrths of an inch above the ear- 
fiice of the mercury, and directly under the silver cup. A 
straight piece of copper wire, long enough to reach from the 
cupy and dip about half an inch into the mercury, had its ends 
I amalgamated) and afmall tfmad piaoe of carfc fiaedron to ana 

of fliem to make it more buoyant; Ibis being dipped in the 
mercury close beside the magnet, and the other end 
placed under the Utile cup, the wire remained tipnu^lit, for the 
adhesion of the cork to the magnet was sufficient for that pur- 
pose, and yet at its lower end had freedom of motioa foand th^ 
^ pole. The comiection being now mada ftaai tba plates to the 

I upper cop» end to 'the mmary below, Ae wire immediately 

began to revolve round the pole of the magnet, and coatinaad 
to do so as long* as the connexion was contiiuicd. 
■ y "When it was wished to give a large diameter to the circle 
^liicribedby the wire, tba cork was moved from the magnet^ 



L 



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78 Faraday on new Electro-Magnetical Motions, 

and a little loop ol'platinam passed round the mag^net rmd wire, 
to prevent tbem from separating too far. Revolution again 
took plm on making the connexion, but more slowly at the 
dittaiioe ittmiMd. 

The direetkm hi wUch the win noved was acoerdin^ to the 
\v a Y i a which the connexions were made, and to the magnetic pole 
brought into action. When the upper part of the wire was con- 
nected with the zinc, and the lower with the copper plate> the 
motioa nmnd the Borth and tonth poles of a magnet were as 
IB 4 aad 5, looldBip ftom abore ; when the oomiexioDS wen 
rsvcfsed, the motieiis were in tiie opposite directioo. 

On bringing the magnetic pole from the centre of motion to 
tiie side of the wire, there was neither attraction nor repulsion; 
but the wixe endeavoured to pass off in a circle^ stiU haviag th^ 
poleferttseeBtfey and tiiat eidier to the one slde er the other, 
aeeotdiag to theabove Hw. 

When the pole was on the ontNde tiie wire, the wite^ 
moved in a direction directly contrary to that taken when the 
pole was in the mside ; but it did not move far, the endeavour 
was StiU to goromkl the pole as a centre, and it only moved till 
thai power and iIhi power which retained it in a circle aboat its 
own asis ware equipoised. 

The next 'object was to make ^ magnet revolve round the 
wire. This was done by so lo;i(lin2; one pole of the small mag- 
aei with platinum that the magnet would float upright in a basin 
of meroary, with the other pole above its sarface; theaeoor 
Mcttagihe merenij with one p1ale» and brlagia; a wife fton 
Ibe other perpeadicnlarty mto il in another part near the float- 
ing magnet : the upper pole immediately began to revolve round 
tlie wir<j, whilst the lower pole being removed away caused no 
interference or counteracting effect. • ^ 

The aaotions were af^abi aceofding to the pole and the con* 
nanoBO. When the upper parfc^tf the wire was hi contact with 
the sbc platOt and the lower widi thoi copper, the direetton of 
the cui¥e dcscrilH d by the north and south poles were at In 
fig. 6 and 7. When the connexions were reversed, the motions 
wese in the opfposita disections. 



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and on the Theorif of MagJieium, 



19 



Having succeeded thus f ir, I endeavoured to make a wire 
and a magQet revolve on their own axis by preventing the rota- 
tion in a circle roiiiid tkam, but have not bfito abk togttllit 
aiigiuesl mdicationt tlitt wtA omhmtk$ mmi nor dots tl, m 
iKHitidtimtioOi ip^Mv pfotuhifl TUtB noliMS if idMid^ btloB|^ 
ioHhm e&mnt, or whmteyer eUe tlb«, liu^ w pa te n y through thi 
wire, and not to the wire itself, except as the \ chicle of the cur- 
rent. When that current is made a curve by the form ot tiie wire, 
it it easy to conceive bow, in revolving, it iboiild taka tba 
wife with it; but when the win iiitraiffat^ thecwreiat majn^ 
▼olve witbovt any motaoa hehif caamamuM to Iba wilt 
through which it passes. 

M. Ampere has shewn that two similar connecting wires, by 
which is meant, having currents in the same direction through 
then* attiact each other ; and thai two wiiee having omanta in 
imiMM k a AWtt^AvkA AaiMMfK Aam^ wanal ^*^k nthflT t the ittrariinin 

and repulsion taking place in right lines between theea. From 

the attraction of the north pole of a needle on one side the wire 
and of the south on the other, and the repulsion oi ilie poles on 
the opposite sides, Dr. WoUaston called this magnetism verti* 
ginoiiiy and conocifed that the phMMNnena night be ei^iiained 
npon the enppoeStion of an elnetvo^BOgnette cunent fniii^ 
round the axia of the ooijnnolrre wire, its dIfeeiicMi defiendinf 
upon that of the electric currtiit, and exhibiting north and south 
p(]\,eis on the opposite sides. It is, indeed, an ascertained 
faot» that die eonneoting wise hae difieient powers at its opposite 
sideai or rathwr eedk power oondaMea all lomd tho wii% the 
diraelion being the lane ) and henoa it ia evident that the atk 
t^tioos eEBd repokionB of 11^ Aaipere's wtree are not simplei 
but complicated results. 

A simple case which odaj be taken of magnetic motion, is tlta 
eifcle deseribad by the wire or the pole roand each other. If > 

a i i enge men t ta eneh that all tho vertiginona nagnetiem* ae Dr. 

Wollaston has named it, of the one kind, or one aide of the wipe, 

is concentrated in the axis of the helix, whilst the contrary kind 
ia vejry much dif fi wrnl^ u the power exerted by a great length 



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t 



80 FaraUay m new Ekctro-MagmticaL MoHom, 

of wire to make a pole pass one way round it, all tends to cafry 
that pole to a particular spot, whilst the opposite power is dif* 
Itwed and suich weakened in its action on any one pole. Hence 
fte power on one aide of the wire ii very nuichcoiusentmtedt and 
its perttenlar elieeti biroaght ont strongly, whilst that on the other 
is rendered insensible. A means is thus obtained of separating, 
as it were, the one power from the other : hut when this is done, 
and we eanunine the end of the helix, it ia fonnd Tery much to re- 
iemble a magnetic pole ; the power la concentrated at the extre- 
' rait; of the helix; itattracta or repels one pole in all directions; 
and I find that it causes the revolution of the connecting wire 
round it, just as a magnetic pole does. Hence it may, for the 
present, be considered identical with a magnetic pole ; and I 
think that the experuneotal evidence of the ensuing pages 
will much strengthen that opinioD. 

Assuming, then, that the pole of a magnetic needle presents 
us With the properties of one side of tlie wire, the phenomena it 
presents with the wire itself, ofTer^ us a means of analysia which, 
probably, if well pursued, will give us a much more intimate 
knowledge of the state of the powers active in magnets. When 
it is placed near the wire, always assuming the latter to be con- 
nected with the battery, it is made to revolve round it, passing 
towards that side by which it is attracted, and from that side by 
which it is repelled, L the pole is at once attracted and re- 
plied by etiual powers, and therefore neither recedes or ap- 
prottdies; bat dm powers being from opposite sidea of the 
wire, the pole in its double effort to recede from one side and 
approach the other revolves in the circle, that circle being evi- 
dently decided by the particular pole and state of the wire, and 
deducible from the law before mcntionedi 

The phenomena presented by the approximation of one pole 
to two or more wires, or two poles to one or more wires, ofier 
many illustrations of this double action, and will lead to more 
correct views of the magnet. These experiments are easily 
made by loading a needle with platinum at one pole, that the 
other may float above mercury, or by almost floating a small 
magnetic needle by cork in a basin of water» at the bottom gf 



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imd Oft the Tkeortf <^ Mti^nHim. 61 

wbicli it ftene merenry with which to connect th« wires. In 
deftcribing theoi f shall lelrsin from enterbg into alt thdr vaii- 

otions, or pursuing them tosifch conohuions as are not directly 
important. 

Two similar wires. Ampere has shewn, attract each other ; and 
&at H. Da?y has shewn that the filings adhering to them attract 
Hon one to anoihet Ob tho same side. They are In thai 
positica m which the north and south influence of the difoent 
whres attract each other. They seem also to nentraliie each 
oilier m ihe parts that face, for the magnetic pole is quite 
inactiTC between Uiem, but if put close together, it moves 
round the outside of both, circulating round them as round 
one wire, and their inflaenoes t>eiiig in the same direction* 
the greatest effect ts Iband to be at the ihrUier outside sniw 
' feces of the wires. If scTcrai similar wires he pvt togeAer, 
side bv side like a ribbon, the result is the same, and the 
needle revolves round them all ; the internal win s appoar to 
lose part of their force, which i» carried on towards the 
extreme wire in opposite directions, so that the floating pole 
is accelerated hi its motion as it passes by fke edges that they 
fbnn< If, in placeof a ribbonofparailel wiftts, asllpof metal 
be used, the effect is the same, and the edges act as if they 
coiitamed in a concentrated state the power that belonged to the 
inner portion of the slip. In tliis way we procure the means 
of lemoTing, as it were» in diat direction, the two sides of the wire 
from eai^ Other. 

If two wires in opposite states be arranged parallel to each 
other, and the pole be brought near them, it will circulate 
round either of them in obedience to the law laid down ; but 
as the wires have opposite currents, it moves in opposite direc- 
tions round the two, so that when equidistant from them, 
the pole is propelled in a ri|^t line perpendicalar to the 
lino whidi joins them, either recedmg or approaching; and 
if it approaches, passing botween and then receding : henca 
it exlid^its ihp curious appearance of beinj^ first attracted by 
the two wires, and afterwards repelled. (Fig. 8.) If the cun« 

Vol. XII. G 



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89 Ffliaday on Nem EUctro^Maffiieticul j|foliofif , 

nexioQ with both wires be invertedi or if the pole be chaii|fed^ 
the line it describes is in the o]^site direction. If these 
two opposite currenAs be mede •by beading a piece of silked 
wiro parallel to hself, fig. 9, it^ when connected with the 

apparatus, becomes a curious magfuet ; with the north pole, for 
instance, it attracts powerfully on one side at the line between 
the two cuxreuts, but repels strongly to the right or left; whilst 
on the other side the line repels the north pole, but attracts it 
sirongly to the right or left. With the sontfa pole the attrac- 
tioni and r^nltjons are rerersed. 

When both poles of the needle were allowed to come hito 
action on the wire or winjs, iIh; effects were in accordance with 
those described. When a magnetic needie was floated on 
water, and the perpendicular wire brought towards it, the 
needle turned roond more or less, until it took a direction per- 
pendicular to, and across the wire, tihe poles being tn such 
positioos that either of them alone would revolve round the 
^virc in a circle proceeding by the side to which it had gone, 
accoidinrr to tlie law before stated. The needle then approaches 
to the wire, its centre (not either pole) going in a direct line 
towards it. If the wire be then lifted up and put down on the 
other side the needle, the needle , passes on in the same tine 
receding from the wire, so that the wire seems here to be 
both attractive and repulsive of the needle. This efiect will be 
readily understood from fig. 10, where the poles and direction 
of the wire is not marked, because they are the same as before. 
K either be reversed* the others reverse themselves. The 

■ 

experiment is analogous to the one described above ; there the 
ipc^e passed betweoi two dissimflar wiref»,here the wire between 
two dissimilar poles. 

If two dissiimilar wires be used, and the magnet have both 
poles active, it is repelled, turned round, or is attracted in 
various ways^ until it settles across between the two wires ; 
all its motions being easily reducible to those impressed 
.on the poles by the wires, both wires and both poles being 
acl^ve in giviog that position. . Then if it happens not to be 



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' mti mi thi Ukorif of MagneHm. 93 

shidwftj bQlw60u tbe two$ ot Ihcy si6 flot of tf^|Bftl powett il goes 
«iow1y towardt one of them, and aota wHh tt jnsl M iHtii thA 

single wire of the last parasrraph. 

Fig. 11 and 12 exhibit ruore distinctly the directiun oi the 
forces which influence the poles in paaeing between two dissi- 
milar wires : fig. 1 1, when the pole draws up between the wires s 
%. 12, the pole thrown out ftom between them. The poles and 
state of the wire ate not narked, because die d tag t ams ilfns- 
trate the allracLiou and repulsioii of both poles : for any parti- 
cular polej, the connexion of the wires must be accordingly. 

If one of the poles be brought purposely near either wire 
in the position in which it appears U> atlftet most stioii|^, still 
if frsedom of raoCioii be gtyen by a IttUe tapping, the needle 
will slip along till it Stands midway across the wire. 

A beautiful little apparatus has been made by M. de la 
Rire, to whom 1 am indebted for one of them, consistirjg of a 
small voltaic combinatioQ floatiug by a cork ; the ends of the 
little sine and copper sUpa come through the cork, and are 
csnnected aboTe by a piece of silked wire whieh has been 
wrapped four or five times ncmnd a cylinder, end the wires tied 
together with a silk thread so as to fiwm aelose heiiz about one 
inch in diameter. When placed on acidulated water it is very 
obedient to the magnet, and serves admirably to transform, as 
it were, the experiments with straight wires that have been 
smtioiied, to the similar ones made with helioesv Thui^ if a 
magnet be hronghtnear ii and lefel with iteaxis^ the apparatna 
iHQ reoede or tam round mtal that side of the carve neit to 
the nearest pole is the sid^ attraeted by it II will then approach 
the pole, pass it, recede from it until it gains the middle of the 
magnet, where it will rest like an equator round it, its motions 
and position being still the same as those before pmnted out. 
(Fag. 13.) If brought near either pole it will sttU retotn to the 
esMres and if porpoaely pliioed ia the opposite direction at the 
centre of the magnet, it wOl pass off by either pole to which 
it happens to be nearest, bein^ apparently first attracted by 
the pole and afterwards repelled, as is actually the case ; wiU, 
if any oireumstance disturbs its perpendicularky to the ma^t. 



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84 Faraday on Neio EketrfhMagnaieml MoHonSf 

tm half way round; and will then pasa on to th« magnet 

again, into the position firat described. If, instead of passing 
the magnet through the curve, it be held over it ; it stands in 
a plane perpendicular to the magnet, but in an opposite direction 
to the former one. So that amagnet, both within and without 
tbie corre, eaniet it to direct 

When the polee of the magnet are brought over thFe floating 
curve, there are some movements and positions which at first 
appears anomalous, but are by a little attention easily reduci- 
ble to the circular movement of the wire about the pole. I 
do not think it necessary to state them particularly. * 

The sMractiTe and repulsive positions of this curve may be seen 
by fig. 13, the curve in the two dotted positions is attracted by 
the poles near them. If the positions be reversed, repulsion 
takes place. 

From the central situation of the magnet in these experiments, 
it may be concluded that a strong and powerful curve or helix 
would suspend a powerful needle u its. centre. By making m 
needle almost float on water and putting the helix over a glasa 
tube, this result has in part been obtained. 

In all these magnetic movements between wires and poles, 
those which resemble attraction and repulsion, that is to say, 
those whicb took place in right lines, required at leas* either 
two poles and a. Wire, or two wires and a fK>|p ; for such as 
appear to exist between the wire end either pole of the battery, 
are deceptive and may be resolved into the circular motion. 
It has been allowed, I believe, by all who have experimented 
on these plienomena, that the similar powers repel and the 
disnmilar powers attract. ^each! other; and that, whetiier 
they: exist in, the poles of magnets or in the opposite sides 
of conducting wires. TKis being admitted, the simplest cases 
of magnetic action wjH lie those exerted by the poles of 
helices, for, as they oiier the magnetic states of the opposite 
sides of the wire independent, or nearly so, one of the other, 
we are enabled by them to bring into action two of those 
powers only, to the exclusion of the rest; and, firom' experiment 
H appears that when the powers are similar, repulsion takes 



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mnd on the Ikm^ of MagaeHm* 86 

plm, and wlien dhiimiliir, attnetioii ; so that two otiet of 

repulsioB and one of attraction are produced by teoooibiQalioo 
of these magnetic powers *. 

The next cases of magnetic motion, in the order of simplidtya 
are those whera threa poweta are conoaraed or those pio d acad 
by a, pole and a inaa. Thaaa ate the cirenlar ABOtioiM do* 
aoriM in the early part of this paper. They lesohre then- 
selves into two, a north pole and the wire round eadi other, 
and a south pole, and the wire round each other. The law 
which governs these motions has been stated. 

Then foUow the actiona between two wires, these when sind- 
lariy eleetrified attraet as M. Ampeie has shewn ; for Uien die 
opposite sides are towards each other, and the four powers all 
combine to draw the currents toj^ctlier forming a double at- 
to*action; but, when the wires are dissimilar they repel, because, 
then on both sides the wire the same powers are opposed^ 
and cause a doable repulsion. 

' The motions that resnlt from tiie action of two diasimllar 
poles and a wire aevt follow : the. wire endearonrs ta deseribe 

opposite circles round the poles ; consequently, it is carried 
in a line passing through the central part of the needle in which 
they are situated. If the wire is on the nde on which the circles 
dose together, it is attracted ; if on the opposite side, from 
whence the circles open,- it is repelled, fig. 10. 

Tlie nM>tions of a pole with two wires are almost the same 
as the last ; when the wires are dissimilar, the pole endeavours 
to form two opposite circles about the wires ; when it is on that 
side the wires on which the circles meet, it is attracted ; when 
on the side on which tiiey open, it is rspeHed, figs. 8, U, 1% 

Fiaallyythe motion between two poles and two dissimilar 
wires, is an instanoe where serecal poweta combine to produce 
an efFect. 

M. Ampere, whilst reasoning on the discovery of M. Oersted, 
was led to the adoption of a theory, by which he endeavonred 
to aceoont for the properties of magnets, by the existence of 

* Tin's is perhaps not strictly true, became, though tiw iiffnrite pewMS 
are weakened, thsj fttiU lemain in action. 



» 



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%d Faraday om Ne^ Ekaro-thgifttical MoH^nSf 
ciwacatriccainntt of elflcli^^ 

of tlie magnet In support of thb theory, lie tetfoonedtlieapifal 

or helix wire, in which currents could be made to pass nearly 
pejrpendicular to, aiifl round the axis ot a cylinder. The ends of * 
such helices were fouudt when connected with the voltaic ^^^^^ 
zataia to be in oppoaile mgnelic etatea^ aiid to premt th^ 
aace of polea, Whilat puauiiig the mutaal actoi of pdba and 
wifea, and tiacing out the dvcakor m of e aw iita, it aeemed to ma 
that much information respecting the competency of this theory 
might be gained from an attempt to trace the action of the 
helix^ and compare it with that of the magnet more rigor> 
oaaly than had yet been done ; and to fomi artificial electro- 
magneta, and analyse natural oaea. In doing tbia» I think I 
have to far saeceeded aa to trace the aotioa of an electro- 
magnetic pole, either in aLLiacLing or repelling, to ike circulating 
motion before described. 

If tluee inches of connecting wire be taken, and a magnetic 
pole be allowed to circulate round the middie of detcnbiiig a 
Ofcle of alittle less than one inch diameter, it will be mofad 
with equal force in all parts of the ctrele, fig. 14; bend .then 
tlie wire iiilo a circlt:, leaving that part round wliicli the pole 
revolves perpendicularly, undisturbed, as seen by the dotted 
liaesy and make it a condition that the pole be restrained from 
moving out of the circle by a radias. It will immediately be 
evident that the vrice now acta very difoantlyQa the pole m the 
different parts of the ctrele it describes. Bvery part of it will 
be active at the same time on the pole, to make it move through 
the centre of the wire (log, whil&t a% it passes avray from 
position the powers diverge flrom and it is eithev removed 
firm their action or submitted to vfipmB^ obcs» aatO on. its 
arriving at the opposite part of the eifda it is asiged by a very 
small portion indeed of those which moved it before. As it 
continues to go round, its motion is accelerated, the forces 
rapidly gather together on Up until it again reaches the centre of 
the wire ring where they aia at their hiffaes^ and aftarwards 
diminish as before. Thus the pide is perpetually urged in a 
cireley but with potfm eeostaatly changing. If the wire ring 



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aud on the Theory of Magmtum 



87 



\it 4DQMeiTed to be occupied by a phme, then the centre of tliat 
plane is the spot where the powers aie most active on the pole, 
aad iBOve it with most force. Now this spot it actii&il,y the . 
pole of this magnetic apparatus. It leeMi lo haie powen Offer 
tiM ciieiikitiny pole^ nakiDg it i p pf o t d i or tttmot&if it o* the 
one eUlA, and nakiag it vecede or repeUtag It on iIm other, wMb 
powers varying as the distance ; b«t ht powere are only ap- 
parent, for the ibroe is in the rint^, and this spot is merely the 
place where they are most accumulated : and though it seems to 
lunre oppoeitepoiveity iiaady» dioeeof attracting and repelling; 
yetthii ii neiely a eoMqueaee of itt liteatioii in the circle^ 
• the niotioii h«ig muform ia itt direelMMi, and reoily and truly 
impressed on the pole by its motor, the wire. 

At pag^e 81, it was shewn that two or more similar wues put 
together m a hue, acted as one ; the power being, as it were, ac* 
onvolated toiraide thaextfOM wirof, bj a ipaoloe of indoelioii 

taking plaoa among Ihem all: 'and at the eame time wae noticed 
te tiaular eaee of a phme of metri connecting ^ ends of the ap- 
paratus, its powers being apparently strongest at the edges. 
If, then, a series of conceuuic rings be placed one inside the 
other, they having the eicctric current sent through them io the 
aanne dinotum; or if, which is the fame thing, a flat epiral of- 
eilked wive paari^g hpm the eeatra to the cireomliefeneo he 
fotned, and ite enda be m connexion with the battery, fig. 15, 
then the circle of revolution would still be as in fig. 14, passing 
tiifuugh the centre of the rings or spiral, but the power would be 
very nuieh increased. Such a spiral^ wlien made, beautifully 
ittaetratsi this feet; ii taieei ap as enommae qoaotity of Iron 
flinge» nhick approach to the form of eanei, so itfonglsthe 
aettcm nl the centre ; and ite actioft m the needle by the difeaai 
sides, is eminently powerful. 

If in place of puttii^ ring within rmg, they be placed side 
by aide, so as to form a cylinder, or if a helix be made^ 
thai! the same khiditf nantoaiimtien takea pteee in the iater'^ 
mediaie wicei, and aocuhmkled etttat in the eartreme 'an^^ 
ak before. The Uae which the pole would now travel, sup* 
pQsing the inner end of the radius to move uvcr the inner 



. * ♦ ! . • Digitized by Google • 



88 Faraday m Nn9 EfeUro-JIbimtietti Moiumf 

an4 <mt«r vuhet oi the efUoA&Tt woiild h% ihiong^ tiba aiii 

of the cylinder roiud the edge to one tide, back up thaHi eida, 
and round to the axis, down which it would go, ai^r Ix (ure. In 
this case the force would probably be greatest at the two ex- 
toemeft of the axis of the cylinder, and leaat at the midiUe 
diftasce oa the oattide. 

Kow coBsider the ialeraal space of the cylhider filled up 
by rings or spirals, ell having ^e current m the same direc* 
tiou ; the direction an4 kind of force would be the same, but 
very much strengthened : it would exist ia the strongest degree 
down the axis of the mass, because of the circular form, and it 
would bare the two sides of the point in the centre of the sim* 
pie ring, which «eem€<^ to possess atftractiva and rapMfe powess 
on the pole, removed to the ends of the cylinder ; giving rise to 
two points, apparently distinct in their action, one being at- 
tractive, and the other repulsive, of the poles of a magnet. Now 
conceive that the pole is not confined to a motion about the 
sides of the ring,, or the flat spiral, or cylinder, it ia eyident that 
If placed in the axis of any of them at a prope«dtstanea te 
action, it, bcin- impelled by two'or more powers in equal circles, 
would move in a right line in the intersection of those circles, 
and approach directly to, or recede from, the points before 
spo)cen of, giving the appearanoa of a direct attraction and te- 
pulsipn : . and if placed out of that axb; it would move towards 
or from the same spot ia a curve Uaa, its direction and ibree 
being determined by the curve lines representing the active 
forces from the portions of wire forming the ends of the cylinder, 
spiral, or ring, and. the strength of those forces. 

.Thus the phenomsaa of a haltz^ or a solid cyliadsr of 
spiial. silked wire, aia ledocad to the simple lavblution of 
the magnetic pole round the connecting wire of the batleiy, and 
its resemblance to a magnet is so great, that the strongest pre- 
sumption arises in the mind they both owe their powers, as M. 
Ampere has stated , to the same cause. Filings of iron sprinkled on 
paper held over dus cylinder, arranged in curved lines passing 
from one end to the olfaer, shewing the path the pole woal4 
IbUow, and so they do over a magnet ; the ends attract and fe^ 



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and im the Theory MoffMtum, 89 

pel as do those of a magnet; and in almost every poinl do tbey 
agree.' The ibilowing ezperimeiits wiO illastrate and confim 
the tntth of tliese remarka'oii the action of the ring, heliz, oi 
ejltnder; and will sheir In what their actions agree with, and 

differ (for there are differences) from, Uic action oi a magnet. 

A small magnet being nearly floated in water by cork, a ring 
of silked copper wire, fig. Id, having its ends connected with 
the battery; was brought near its poles in different poeitions ; 
sometimes the pole was repelled' from, sometimes attracted into, 
the ring, according to the position of the pole, and the con- 
nexions with the battery. If die wire happeticd to be opposite to 
the pole, tiie pole passed sideways, and outwards when it was re- 
pelled, and sideways and inwards when it was attracted ; and on 
entering within the ring and passing through, it moved sideways 
in the o|)posite direction, endeavouring to go round tlie wire. 
The actions also presented by M. de la Rive's ring are actions 
of tliis kind, and indeed are those which best illustrate the re- 
lations between the ring and the ])ole ; some of them have been 
mehticiied, afld if referred to, will be found to accord With the 
statement given. 

With a flat ^ral the magnetic power was very much 
increabtd; and when the rinL,^s were not continued to the 
centre, the power of the inner edge over the outer wns well 
shewn either by the pole of a needle, or iron filings. With the 
hitter, the appearance was esctremely beautiful and instructive; 
when laid flat upon a heap of them, they arranged themselves 
in lines, passing through the ring parallel to its axis, and then 
folding up on either side ns radii round to the edge, where they 
met ; so that they represented, exactly, the lines which a pole 
would have described round the sides of the rings : and those 
filings which were in the axis of the rings, stood up in perpendi- 
cular filaments, half an inch long and so as to form iui actual axis 
to the ring, tending neither one way nor the other, but according 
in their form and arrangement with what has been described ; 
whilst the intermediate portion also formed long threads, bend- 
hig this way and that from th^ centre, more or less, accoiding as 
they were further fifom, or nemr to, it. ' 



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90 Faraday on New Ekotra~Magnetical Motions, 

With a helix the phenomena were interesting, because ac- 
ooidmif to the view given ol" the attnctimis and npnUtioiut, that 
»of the motionf toward and from the eiidsy tone conelasioiis 
thoald follow^ that if found to be tme in ftectf and to hold alto 

with ma^ets, would go far to prove the identity of the 
two. TliUb the end which seems to attract a certain pole on 
the outside^ ought to repel it as it were on the insidci and that 
which seems to repel it on the oittside» ottg;ht to i^ipeer to 
attract It on the inside; u that aa the motions on the mside 
and outside are in d^rent direetions for the same pole, it 
would move in the one case Lu und in the other case from the 
same end of the helix. Some phenomena Ox'" this kind have 
been described in explaining figs. Qfll, 12, and J13 ; others are 
as follows. 

A hdix of silked copper wire was made round a glass tube, 
the tebe bein^ about an tnoh in diemlster; the helix was about 

ihrcc iiiclics long. A magnetic needle nearly as long was floated 
with cork, so as to move about in water with the slightest 
impolse; the helix being connected with the apparatus and 
put into the water in which tiie needle lay, its ends ap*> 
peered to attract and ret>el the poles of the needle aec0rdbg 
to* the laws before-mentioned. But, if that end whieh at- 
tracted one of the i>oles of the needle was broug:ht ii era that 
pole, it entered the gUss tube, but did not stop just within side 
in the neighbourhood of this pole (as we may eall it for the 
moment) of the Uelixy but passed up the tube, drawing the 
whole needle in, and went to the opposite pole of the heKx; 
oi the one which on the outside would have repelled it. On 
trying the other pole of the magnet with its corresponding end 
or pole of the helix the same effect took plaoe ; the needle^ 
p<^ entered the tabs and passed to the other endt taking the 
whole needle into Ihe same position it was in before. 

Thus eadi end of the helix seemed to attract and repair 
both poles of the uL cdle : but this is only a natural consequence 
from the circulating motion before experimentally demonstrated, 
and e»Bh, pole would have gone through the helix and round 
on the outside, but for ihe aMmtaraeliga of thoiOppoiiti pota. 



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91 



It lias been stated that the polei dnmlnte in off o wf diM- 
ttons rouod the wires, and they would consequently circulate 
ia opposite directions through and round the helix ; when, 
tiierefort^ om end of the belU wfti mk tbat pofe, wbkk 
wvmldy «ooQidia|»to iBtkt law wMtAf i&t«r h aad tmdnw^u to 
go tfarcmgh, it would «aier» wd it would ooailiiiM ilt.eowto 
vitil tlie other pole, at first at a distance, would be brought 
within action of the helix ; and, when they were both equally 
within the helix and consequently e<|aaliy acted on, their 
tendency to go in different directiooi woald conntwholaftce 
eiu^ othtf , and tko acMlle wonld remain mortonleei. If tl 
wete poeeihle to separate the two polei Iron each ether, they 
woald dart out of each end of the helix, being apparently 
repelled by those parts that before seemed to attract thezny as 
is evideat from tiie &rst and many other ex|>ariments. 

By rerening the needle end placing it pnipoeely in thohelia 
in that position^ the poles of the n ee dle and the oomipondiaf 
peiee of the helix as Aey attract oti the entside, are breeghi 

togetiier on the luside, Ijut boUi pairs nuw seem to repel ; ;\nfl, 
whichever end of the helix the needle happens to be nearest 
to, it will be thrown out at. This .motion may be seen to exhibit 
in its peaeiag state, attreetion between eiauiar |iQles» since the 
inner and actiTe pole ta drawn towards thai end on the inside* 
by which it ts thrown off on the oatside *. 

These experiments may be made with the single curve of 
M. de la Rive, in which case it is the wire that moves and 
not the magnet, but as the motiona are reciprocal, they asay^ 
he readily eaticqpated* 

A plate off copper waa bent neeify Into a ^linder, and ite 
edges made to dip into two portions of mercury ; when placed 
in a current it acted exactly as a helix. 

A solid cylinder of silked wire was made exactly in fashion 
" like a helix, but that one lei^^ of the wke aerfed a» the 
aula, and Ihe folds were repe^ited over and over agiw. Ihia. 

r 

* The magnetizing power of the helix is so strong that if the experiment 
be made slowly the needle wiM have its nmaiftetisin chaD^ed, and the 
resiAt wtt^be fiiHaoiueB* 



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92 Faraday qu New Ekdro-Magmluui MoiioMty 

ttS well as the former helix, had poles the same in every 
respect as to kind as the north and south poles of a mag- 
net; they took up filings, they made the conoectiog wire 
revolve, they attraeted and repelled in four pacsaliel posilioiHi 
as ie deMoibed of commmi magnets in the first pages of this 
paper, and filings sprinkled on paper ofer them, formed eurves 
from one to the other as with magnets ; these lines indicating the 
direction in which a north or south pole would move about 
them. 

Now with respect to the accordance which is found between 
the appearances of a helix or cylinder wben in ihe <voltaic 
circuit, and a cylindrical common magnet, or even a regular 

square bar magnet; it is so great, as at first to leave little 
doubt, thai whatever it is that causes the properties of the one, 
also causes tlie properties of the other, for the one may be 
snbstittttedfor the other in, I believe, every magnetical ezperi^ 
nkent: and, in die bar magnet, all the effects on a single pole or 
filbgs, 8fc., agree with the notion of a circniation, which if the 
magnet were not solid would pass through its centre, and back 
on the outside. 

' The following, however, are difTerences between the ap- 
pearances of a magnet Und those of a helix or cylindtf: one 
pole of a. 'magnet attracts the opposite pole- of a magnetic 
needle in all directions and positions; but when.tfae heHx is 
held along- side the needle nearly u illel to it, and with oppo- 
site poles together, so that attraction should take place, and 
then the helix be moved on so that the pole of the needle 
gradually comes nearer to the middle of the heliz^ ropulsion 
generally takes place before the pole gets to the middle of the 
helix, and in a situation where with the magnet it would 
be attracted. This is probably occasioned by the want of con- 
tinuity in the sides of the curves or elements of the helix, in 
consequence of which the unity of action which , takes place 
in' the rings into which a magnet may be * considered to be 
divided is interfered with and disturbed. 

Auotl)( r difference is that lUc poles, or those spots to which the 
nee41e poinis wUtn ^>erpendicuiar to the end oi sides of a magnet 



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or helix, and where the motife pawamBLj beooMidered p«lMf» 
&i most conceotratedy it ia the helix al the extieaaty of ita axiti 
and Dotany diftanoein fiNMHtbaend; ivfaibtiii themoalMfilw 

magnets It is ahnost ah^sys tkiiate In the axia at tome distance 

in from the end : a needle pointing ptr^cadicuiaily towards the 
end of a magnet is in a line with its axis, but (>erpendicularly 
to the side it points to a spot some diataaee fiom the end, whikl 
in the helix, or cyliDder, it still points to the end^ TUa ymm^ 
tion is, probably, to be attribnted to the distribatioii of the e»* 
citing canse of magnetism in the magnet and helix. In the 
latter, it is necessarily uniform everv where, inasmuch as the 
current of electricity is uniform. In the magnet it is probably 
more active in the middle than elsewhere : for aa the notth pole 
of a magnet brought near a south one ineitasaa ita actinty, aai 
that the more as it is neater, it is fhur to infer that the similar 
parts which arc actually united in the inner part of the bar, iiave 
the same power. Thus a piece of soft iioii put to one end of a 
horse -shoe magnet, immediately moves the pole towards that 
end; butif it be then made to touch the oIImv end also, the 
pole moves in the opposite direction, and is na ah ei isd; and it 
mores the ihrther, and is made weaker as the aoatact is move 
perfect. The presumption is, that if it were complete, the two 
poles of the magnet would be diO used over the whole of its mass, 
the instrument then exhibiting no attractive or repulsive powers. 
Henoe it is not improbable thati caused by some induotioB,ia 
greater accumulation of power taking place in the middle of the 
magnet than at the' end, may cause the poles to be inwaids, 
rather than at the extremities. 

A third difi'erence is, that the similar poles of magnets, though 
they repel at most distances, yet when brought very oear to- 
gether, attract each other. ' This power is net strongs hut I do 
not betieve it is occasloiied by the superior strength of one pole 
over the otiier, nnce the most equal magnets exert it, and since 
the poles as to their mae^netism remain the same, and are 
able to take up as much, if not more, iron tilings when together, 
as when separated; wheieas opposite poles, when in contact, do 



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M Faraday on Nem El€€tr<^Magnetical Motiom^ 

not take up so much. With similar helix poles, this attraction 
does not taike place. 

Tliaattamptv to make magnets resembling the helix and the 
fiat apiralSf hare been yerj unenecessfiil. A plate of steel was 
Ibrmed mto a cinder and then magnetized, one end was north 
all round, the other south ; but the outside and the inside had 
the same properties, and no pole of a needle would have gone 
«p the axis and down the tides, as with the helix, bat would 
have stopped at the dissimaar pde of the needle. Hence it is 
certafai, Aat the rings of which the cylinder may be svpposed to 
be formed, are not in the same state as those of which the helix 
was composed. All nttempts to mRfrnetize a flat circular plate 
of steel, so as to have one pole in the centre of one side, and 
tfw otfisr pole in the centre of die opposite side, for the pnrpose 
of indtatiBg the Ant spiral, fig* 15, fiuled; notinng but an irre- 
gntfir difltribntioa of fiie magnetism coald be obtained. 

M. Ampere is, I believe, undecided with regard to the size of 
the currents of electricity that are assumed to exist in magnets, 
perpendicular to their axis. In one part of his memoirs they 
an said, I fiiiak, to be eoaeeatnc; butthia cannot be the ease 
wifii those of the cylinder magnet, except two be supposed hi 
opposite dir ee t ions, the one on ihe inside, the other on the o«t^ 
side sn 1 face. In another part, I believe, the opinion is advanced 
that they may be exceedingly small ; and it is, perhaps, possible 
to explain the case of the most irregular magnet by theoretieaUy 
bending sndi email currents in the direction reqaired. 

fofim pferiotts aMempt to explmn some of fiie cic et to magnelie 
motioDS, and to shew the relation between eleetro and oChet 
magnets, I have not intended to adopt any theory of the cause 
of ma^etism, nor to oppose any. It appears very probable 
4at in the regular bar magnet, the steel, or iron, is in the 
9tme stale as the copper wire of the Mix magnetr; and, per» 
hepa, as If. Ampere eappmts in hie theory, by the same meantfi 
namely, cmrents of eleelrieity ; but stfil oiber prooA are want- 
ing of the presence of a power like electricity than the magnetic 
effects only. With regard to the opposite sides of the connecting 



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aud oa the Theory oj Mogin^umm 



wire, and the powers emanating from them, I have merely 
•pok^ of them as two, to distioguish the one set of effects 
Ipom Ike other. The lugh Mthority of Pr« WoUaston i% at- 
.taefaed to tho opiaioii tint « tingle elaetio-fluignetie current 
passing round the axis of llie wire In a dtrectton deCeruiined br 
thepnsiticm of the voltaic poles, is su&cient to explain all the 
j^enomena. 

M. Ainpere, w1m> Iws been eng;aged bo actively in tlusbfaiich of 
natural philosophy, drew from his theory, &e coudn ahm thatm 
dicnlar wire fenning part of ^ Gomexion between tiie poles of 

llie battery, should be directed by thr t arth's maf^netism, 
stand in a plane perppndirnlnr to the magnetic meridian and the 
dipping needle. This result was said to be actually obtained, but 
iu aocaracy has been qaeatimied, both on theoretieal and eqpari- 
mental grounds. As tho magnetdirects the wire when m iHm 
ofacHnra,and the curve aneedk, I endeanMned to repeat the 
experiment, and succeeded in the following; manner : — A voltaic 
combination of two plates was formed, which were connected by 
a copper wire, bent into a circular form ; the plates were put into 
a small glass jar with dilute acid, and the jar floated on the sur- 
ftice of water t being then left to itself in a (jniet atmosphere* 
the instminent so arranged itself that the cnnre was in a plane 
perpendicular to the magnetic meridian ; whoi moved fttm this 
position, either one way or the other, it returned again ; and on 
examining the side of the curve towards the north, it was found 
to be that, which^ aceording |o the law already stated, would 
be attracted by a south pole. A voltak cirde made in a silver 
capsule, and mounted with a curve, also produced the same 
effect; as did likewise, very readily, M. de la Rive's small ring 
apparatus*. When placed on acidulaUd walei, the gas liberated 
Crom the plates pevented its taking up a steady position ; bat 
when put into a little floating c«U, made out of the neck of a 
Florence flashy, the whole readily took the position mentioned 
above, and even vibrated slowly about it. 

As tlie straight connecting wire is directed by a magnet, there 

*See MisceUauea. 



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is every reason to believe that it will act in tba tajne way ytkk 
tba eaitli, and take a diiectioii perpendkulai lo the i»^gnf4^ 
meridiaii. It alio should act with the magnetic pole of thu 
earth, as with the pole of a magnet, and endeavour to carcalale 

round it. Theoretically, therefore, a horizontal wire perpendicular 
to the ma^ietic mt^rldian, if connected first in one way w ith a 
voltaic battery, and then in the opposite way, should have ita 
weight altered; for in the one case it would tend to pass in a. 
circle downwards, and in the other upwards. This alteration 
should take place differently in di£ferent parts of the worid. 
The effect is actually produced by the pole of a magnet, but I 
have not succeeded in obtaining it, employing only the polarity 
oCtheearth* 

Sept* 11, 1821. 

Art. X. Letter from Dr. Hastings tu lite Editor, respecting 
the DiviiUm of the Eighth pair of Nerves. 

Sin, 

As the accuracy of my experiments on the par vagum, eon^ 
tained in a former Number of your Journal, has been established 
by those since conducted at the Royal Inst itu Linn, I should 
not add one sentence to what has been already written on the 
subject, had not Mr. Broughton in his reply made penottsi 
alhisions, which compel me to state, 

' That my observations were made in consequence of the ac* 

cusatiou of inaccuracy, brought agaiust me by that gentleman ; 
and that I have again, with great care, compared ihem with his 
Jirst paper, and can perceive no instance in ^vhich they are not 
fully applicable to it. In what part of Mr. Broughton's first 
paper does he say, that the contents of the stomachs of tiie 
rabbits operated on, were compared with those of the stomachs of 
healthy rabbits, similarly fed, and killed at the same time ? where 
does he say that the eighth pair of nerves in the dog were found 
after death divided, or that he took care to place the animal in 
such a situation, that he must have observed it, if it had vomited 
any part of the milk ? where does he say that he found the 
ends of the nerves uniformly s^pait from each other? what 



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Haitings* Utter t^ iXe Bditar* 97 

cbwifB doet'be mantioii in wbtttlw caUt d^eMed panlej, ex- 
Mptohaage f^ notour? ttnd doei he not talk of the chyme of 
the rabbit resemblmnr mucus, and being often found in greateH 
quantity in the cardiac portion of the stomach ? 

I am jBonry Uiat the dtsooMion of this qveitian, which 
it hat Ifaen'my wiih to direst of all ptownuOi^^ thoukl 
liftTo pffodncad any aiif^ faeUnga m Mr. BroughtonV rabd ; 
aadranain, 

Sir, Your obedient Servant, 

CHAELBa HAaYivoa. 

Wi>re9§ter, Jmfy 1821. 



Abt. XI. JHeteorologkal Obgervatioru. By J. F. 
Danisll, Esq., F.R.S., and M.R.I. 

f HAYS iMMT completed the aec<md yeai^a obaerrationa with 

toy hygrometer and the instruments connected with it, and 
propose, in this paper, to give a condensed abstract of their 
results. I have ceased to publish, quarterly, the Meteorological 
Jovoal Iftt £nmb a convictioa that its atilitjTt iii such * 

itale^ ia very donbtfd^ and that it would imiirofitably occa|jj 
fli'e n6m of more important or aitertaimng^ matter. Mr. 

Howard, in his late laborious work upon the chnialc of London, 
has shewn the proper use to be made of such accumulations of 
•liuita; it ia (mly by collecting the means of different seasona, 
Ifaaraby neutraiimng enora of obaervaAion and accidental ino- 
.gntarities, by arranging them in perioda chosen according to the 
influence of particular circumstances, and by careluily collating 
and comparing them, however tedious the operation, that we 
can hope to arrive at certain consequences and aaefiil reaalta 
'torn the preliminary labour. Many^indeed, i^pear, at pupaant, 
tnbe the observers of meteorological phenbmena, to judge by 
the registers^ which regularly contribute their expletive powers 
to every magazine and journal which issue from the press ; but, 
for want of proper direction and concert, their perseverance, it 
is to be feared, is wholly fruitless. The obserrera th^maabea 



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wadyiiHilit wtiMoaiyotitheitobgcrfatk^ 

ever be found willing to sacrifice hit time in arranging 
volumes of materials, when the ver3^accaracy of the instruments 
with, which they have been collected, may be doubted. But 
vlMttui woader at Hub wasi «f ««-openti<*» or to whom thaU 
ifelooktotrntkisUkbow uMo a umM duuuMly wbea mn 
AaemeetMii of (Aie taMet |Mil>lwhed In th« tVanfMelioaa <4 
the Royal Society, has been publicly called in question by Mr. 
Howard, Mr. Dalton, and Dr. Thomson ? The parade of such 
observatiooiy when oonidenoe in their care has oaee been soi- 
pendedt ia worse than usdess it is tnjniDiit.lo'aoieatoa. 

Mr* Howard, in my hamble jadgment, has done more for iSko 
advancement of meteorolo^ than all his predecessors or con- 
temporaries, by his careful digest of observations contained in 
his admirable, and, I may add, entertaining, work. He has not 
mdy coUeeled and amnged stores from which all latnre cnlti- 
falM of tfiascieneamast bacooleailodiim, 
the path of wsef ol applioatloB. At an h^iMe to t awee I shall 
endeavour to tread m his footsteps ; my only motive for holding 
|he same course being a wish to estabUsh the use of an instru- 
ment, whic^ niy own eiperdttace, as woU as <l» aelmiowla^na^ 
^odieriyaasmme^iseirtitMiobo ooasidendas n gUniiawl 
Had Kt, Howard ftlHoivod nptba paUieappidbaCion wAmbMk 

he has been pleased to honour niy hygrometer by its adoption in 
practice, I should most willingly have surrendered into his abler ^ 
hands the labour of observation ; but as no one has yet under- 
taheatoreaocd its Msdieatinms I ahaH iadiilmMly» if fti$Miff, 
famvfntMtow^ A» neainafy difialon of my ttSM It on% 
fonongst other causes, which unfit me for the task. 

With regard to the construction of the instrument, I have 
made om alteration which facilitates tfva otaMnratiottk.' The eoi^ 
dwe t io a. hall is now fiMnwd of Uadk or other 4sa|MaloMl 
f^kMS^attdthedair ia musk by wtenrfi light >aa aym:»iiAtiflf> 
iPhe most oareless poison may thns seize the exaet nHHuenl of 
deposition with certainty ; and, as no previous practice is ne- 
cessary, the improvameot mayi probably, conteibute to render 
it mere yopdMnr. 



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mgMter, tiaiee of olwarvMig^wid HiadlTiikwiof thtp€gHi i g» 
ate Ant Anigt ib«t loqvire imtik* I here constracted 

^uree tables, which will be found to contain the greater jjart of 
tke results necefsary £or our purpose. The first is similar to this 
o«e for t)ie preeeding yeat , pvbladbed in the tenth volnaM of the 
13t. IlmtatetheiMnofthftdiibittlpMi^ 
Ik large figures, and airtranM u MuUar, sbawiagte tange «f 
the several instruments in the respective intervals. The division 
of the year is into halves, quarters, and half-quarters, which 1 
have im s A to oonfaaiaiit and comprehensive. Hie ^oufMag 
^ Ae qwtaii f^pmaila Aalsnui^ Wwtir» 0pni|f and gamwiin 
audi agraa# willi tlni adopiad Bif • Hovaid^ cxa apl dnt ba 
commences each quarter with the second, instead of the first, 
week of the month. The reasons which he has assigned for de- 
partase from the customary division, are conclusive; miaa^ whick 
waaaaadAbafbaallMdaaQfllMwiadfa of kia vosk* ap|M»iialiaa 
aigflii iitly vdm l» aaBawa la from the toboriooa dfadgaty pMt 
easily apprednftad tat liy €koaa liafe fm dartah ia attah • 
task,) of recalculating the results. The commencing" with Ati- 
tumn was acddeatal* It was witli this season that I began first 
la obsam fegulaiif, aid ol ooitrsa at thia aaason tha firat yoav 
airfad* if tfda 'm^s^amSB$ almld \m tbangiifc iaeomnieMiy 
AMtbeiiaitefaoNhadMiiflii^ltMagpbaoasily raediad. Tha 

hours of the day at which the observations are made, are a con- 
sideration of greater moment ; they are, nine in the morning, five 
ailmaoaa^ and alaven at nighi; ?ary taialy» iadaed, yary^ 
w^^}mm*%m$L^mgiKkmakikf^ na«aiiiiiiiiiaadiilM* 
anniof tamperatBO^ % m^gtfim thafwa«fialir» may haaddad 
to these; ' If the seleetion of three periods m the day had been 
guided merely by meteorological considerations, I do not mean 
to say that thaio would have been the most proper ; I think not: 
hititiaaal^^fiHaia tfcaUaaaaay diKiaayiiid, Tliaf«iaBol» 
Im«w» dialHata of faOBKu advHitagea. Thatotoljaatof 
repeated meteoeok>g«sal obierndiaM ia torotoia aoc^^ 
results. The most proper method of effecting this, even for tha 
iamperatmey where we are assisted by an ijistrua^m, whicid 

H i 



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100 Daniell on Meteorological Observations. 

marks ttie chaoges in the absence of the observer, is tdU a suIh 
ject of some dist>ute. The most we can hope for is a near ap* 
prokimation. Vow the results of the barometer contained in 

the first column of Table 1, and those of the hygrometer in the 
secood, third, and fourth columns, must be regarded first as the 
iheans of the particular honrs * at which the respective obser- 
TAtions were made. It is further probable, that the former may 
be taken y without much' fear of serious error, as the medium of 
the wluile 24 hours. No particular known cause tends to pre- 
vent this assumption. But with regard to the latter, it is very 
diflfereut. The &11 of the temperature during the night must 
exercise a very important influence upon the atmospheric vapour; 
shid ' therefore the results of the second, third, and fourth 
columns , cannot be received as 'thoser of the 24' hours, without 

further inquiry. • • • ' , . . 

' The register thermometer has been the means of our attain* 
ing'to a mach greater degree of certainty vrith regacd to tern* ^ 
(ecature flian we could ever h^ve hoped to have anm^^'at 1*7 sny 
' other meOibd. The same instnfment wflV assist \bis much in our 
present inquiry. By referring to Tab. "3, (which is a table of 
temperature only, and which will be more fully explained here- 
after,) it may be ofaHterved'that the inean lowest temperature^f 
the night is constantly several degrees below thiS mean consti* 
tnent temperature'of the' vapour derived ftom' the three Uefote* 
named periods of the day. Now it is obvious, thai once during 
the night the constituent tempcr.ature of tlic vapour cannot 
exceed that amount, nor is it at all probable that it sbonid 
fell below it Speaidng firo^ experimsnt, obiervalion, and 
caTculation, 't havn no doubt thai' a precipitation ' of 'Vnpoor 
takes place during some period of every night in the year. I 
do not now allude to the deposition of dew from the cold pro- 
duced by radiation, (the amount of which for the whole year 
is likewise shewn by the table of tempemtufe,) bof to a^'preei^ 
pitation in the 1)ody of tite 'atmospheffe 'itMHL '' In the moi£ 
Cloudless nights of the whole year, when the stara are bright, 
and the disc of the moon perfectly sharp and well defined, by 
bringing the hygrometer out of a warm room, it will be found 



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that the point of depoiition is often Uiree or four degrees abone 
the eztttng tanpefatore of the air ; pronriog thereby that parti- 
dea of water, thoi^ mnsibtey arefloatmg in the atmoaphero. 

The ban of the mttrament, being hotlei^ ^an the inrrounding 
medium, forms an atmosphere of vapour, from these luuiid 
itself, of greater density than the general one^ aod which, con- 
s«|iientiy» ia precipitated at a higher degree. The notice of 
sacb an effect, ia perpetnally tecnrrtng in my register, Thnp 
then we are jnadfied in adding another obsenratton of the 
hygrometer, thoui^h indiiectly obtained, to the thnc already 
recorded, by assuming the minimum temperature of the night 
as the minimum temperature of the Tapour, The mean of 
these fonr obsenrations form, I have no doubt, a very neap 
. approzimatiott to the mean of the whole day. I have calculated 
these results for the last year, and have included the pressure 
of the vapour so corrected in the fifth column of Table 1. The 
constituent temperature of the vapour, corrected for both 
yeara, is included in the seventh column of Table 3. The dilP- 
fereDce is not so great as might at first be supposed* 

The mean decrees of dryness require correction upon the 
same principle, but in a somewhat different manner. The same 
fourth observation, so obtained, is available for this purpose ; but 
the register-tfaarmometer furnishes us with another datum of im« 
portance to this correction, namely the maximum of beat. I 
have made this the basis of another observation, by assuming the 
medium of the constituent temperature of the vapDur found 
by the fore and afternoon experiments, and taking the dif- 
ferenoe of that and the greatest tempjerature. The degrees of 
dryneas, ^o corrected, are included in the siath column of 
TU>le 1. It will be observed that they scarcely differ from 
the former; so that h;ilf the dryness of the day, at its maximum 
heat, may be coiifijUtred as the average degree of the twenty- 
four ho<ira» 

llie same remarks apply, in a great degree, to the amount of 
evaporation contained in the seventh column ; but the correction 
in this case would be so exceedini>ly small that I have not 

thou^lit it worth while to calculate it. The method of esti- 



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102 Dttalei m MeUoniogkml OitenaHom. 



wfttiBg iht ftm of evi^wratioii fkom tlio mAikt 9t Iha hygit^ 
-meter eipi^eete t» m to be Adly ee cmreet ee tbat nk eonmum 
and, If any meUiodi codd be defvieed of taeeivTiag •ccnratdy 

' tihe velocity'of the wind, would be infinitely preferable. The ca- 
pacity of the atmosphere for moistme at any given time is mea- 
«ired ; the fdpidity wilb which that capaelty is aatarated w 
dependant upon tiie temperatuie of the body whioh ytride the 
noiBtare. These eonditioiia yary ahnoet ml w^kmHtm* They 
vary on the land and on the water, they vary in sunshine and in 
the, shade, they vajry as land is more or iess clothed with 
veigetatlon, or as water is more or leaa deep. The hygfometer 
H ei^lo of following and appredatiBg all these cha^gos^ \mt 
ooiniiioii gauge can only gi?e the amovnt of evaporation 
from the shallow body of water in the place where it has been 
fixed. After all, the estimation of the mean evaporation from 
the surface of the earth is the most difficult problesA of metero- 
logy. Ffosft the sea^ and other deep bodies of wader, whose 
temperature is tolerably equable, the proosss is pretty regidar ; 
but one part of a field exposed to the sun is often yieldic^ 
moisture at the rate of eight or nine grains per minute from a 
circular surface of six. inches diameter, while soother part is 
only yielding one grahi and a half. 

The ^^th and ninth columns eontain the quantity of ialn» 
and the means of temperature, measured and calculated in the 
usual way. In Table 2, are inserted the mean results of both 
years in small figures, and the general mean in large. My 
great obfeet has been to study fadltty of OQMparison, and I 
purpose, if I should eonthiao my taA, to odlaito in sneh « 
table Ae results <Jf the current year, with the general average of 
all. This average will increase in accuracy as we proceed, and 
will, in a course of years, furnish a perfect standard by which to 
judge ofthe progress of the eeasons. I am happy as find that the 
results which I have obtained with the barometet said ther- 
mometer correspond very doaely with those dadaosi bgr Hr* 
tioward from a long series of years. 

Tabic 3 is ^ general table of temperature, in which I have 
collected some particulars whidi were never befoio attmlsd 



% 



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9 



Draiea on JCtf Mro(qgk«l OtenNHtoni. 103 



tOf but vludi I an IncliaQd to Uiisk may hinw hkhcIi infloMiee 

upon the general question. The first column contaiiib tl.e im uii 
temperature, as usually estimateid ; the second and third, the 
meaa highest and lowest ; the fourth, the teqa^peratifre at niglUy 
<m the earth's sivface, of aach aubatancea aa aie best fitted for 
radiation; tlie fifth the mean temperature of similar bodies 
exposed to the full influence of the sun's rays. This last is 
only complete for three quarters of a year, the idea having 
OQcurred to me last winter. My motives for adopting it 1 shall 
{HifBently eiplaia. The sixth colomn registers the mean coi(« 
atitnent temperatora of the Tapoitr, and the seventh, the iama 
corrected for a night bbaenration as before explained. Hie 
extremes of all are included in smaU figures under their respec- 
tive columns. 

I shall 4ivide the remarks I have to offer upon these par- 
ticvlaia inio ^oparta; the first shall include snch obserrationa 
as r^ard general consequences from the whole series, and 

the second shall couskst of a short comparison of the several 
particulars of the two years. 

The total weight of the atmosphere, and the grand problem 
of the variations of the barometer, are the first things that 
require onr attention, and here it is worthy of remark,' that 
no connexion can be traced between these fluctaatioBs and the 
variations of the vapour. The barometer, in the last iiall c^uarter 
of the winter, when the pressure of the vapour is least, averages 
considerably higher than in the last half quarter of the summer, 
when the same pressure is greatest Avery cursory examlo 
nation of <he first and second columns of Table 2 will furnish 
plenty of instances of the like discrepancy. This result was 
certainly contrary to my expectations. Mr. Howard has in- 
ferred from his admirable system of averages, that the winter 
barometer gains in Its average .021 inches i^on the autunmal ; 
the vernal .030 inches or half as much more upon the winter; 
the summer .045 inches or half as much more still npon tbe 
vernal ; but in the autumnal avera^^e, the whole difference is 
lost again, and the barometer comes back to its lowest level.'* 
In reasoning upon iliia gradation he ascribes the loss and gain 



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104 . DoBieU on M§t€orQlQguai Oimroaiiam* 



to water ; which is at one time converted into Tapoar, perma* 
nent as a part^ of the atmosphere for tfa« Mason ; aao^Mr 
diRBim4 a cm. in dnekbrtiag ^ oonnesioii be oontiBuei; 
" Kcnr m Iks krum&l quartert lAmewm $aA iSb» «veragc of tbe 
barometer lowest ^ the temperature is lowest also ; and there is 
every reason to conclude that the atmosphere in our district, 
and for many degrees of latitude and loogi^iMie around us^ 
eoBtaim thii Mam» the lovctt* ptoportkn of poodmble 
vapoow" Bst tbit mMnng doetnot agree wMi the tot 
which he had just before stated ; namely, that the average of the 
barometer is lowest in the autumnal quarter. Neither is the 
amount of this difierence nearly suiEcient to identify it Mdtb 
^a* of the Tapoiir: it doea aot foach 0.1* inch white the' 
esoaat of the timimar vapo«r of or the winter oseeeda 0.9* 
inches. Mortofor, if tins inftienco w0fe vaally appfoeiaMe in 
this manner, it is vine of so constant a nature as must have 
shewn itself invariably in every recurrence of the seasonsp not 
nqniiing u> be elidted by a long aeriei of ttreragaa. 

But that there ta a connexion between tlie great Ibetintiona of 
the' atmosphere and the Taponr which it contaba at leaat in ita 
precipitation, is evident from the following fact : of 674 observa- 
tions of rain, hail, and snow, during the two years, only .94 took 
place, while the barometer was above the average of the season 
ai deduced in Table 2. Of these d4 tbe greater part were 
Tery partial ahowerSy chiefly in the winter qnartera. Of the' 
general resnlts of tbe barometer elone, I thdl not atteiAptto 
speak: the subject has been so ably elucidated by Mr. Howard, 
with such ample provision of observations, that it would be 
piesamption m me to follow him, eiq^ectally with sncb abort 
eaperience. I am happy to observe that the mean of bodt 
y^ara' observations agree with the mean as dednced by him for 
London: those periods where I differ,'! consider as only oscil- ' 
lating round the true pointy to which in a series of years ihey 
will be amenable. 

The variations in the qnantily and pfetanre of the aqveona 

* In Mr. Howard's matk, Vul. IL, psge-SSl, this cttfliBniice is aaisprieted 

QMuaiBkdBiat jBae> 



» 

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DameU on Meteorological OhtervaiioMn 106 



vapour Lippear to be more equable, and to be rcgi:latetl by 
more certaia laws. la the wioler the amount is lea&t, and im. 
the mumu gnaimt, tm^tm^ Ymty mtmAj to dodblaw 
i|iiiB^ widi iMtinnB ^pMfften tnlsnMliiiliy liilair hMvii^ 
a slight «xeM of«r iHm ftmer. Tbrn iff t h twfcue , m 

(lent, connexion l.)ctween these fluctuations aod tliose of the 
mean temperature, which exactly follow the same gradation^ 
Efea liie acddental m/mSk wMlkmi of the mem ttn ip <r md re» 

alftenitioii hi the vapour. Hie utmost rang^ appears to be §nm 

0.090 to 0.631 inches, tiic mean j^ut ssuro 0.327 inches, or lalher, 
taking into the account the correction for the nighi, 0.313. 

As no here boen unable to tnce mj fgeomik effect produced 
upnk the motma of tho bamHilsr bf tht wittkmi of the 
vaponrytomwovaaMitiodiioomany inlhime ofteDofMi 
upon the latter. • 

But although the force of the vapour increases with the mean 
tenperatine, and reaches Ha maximum at the same period of the 
yaw thay do not travel tofsther wUh equal slepe. Mr. Hosmid 
ded«oe» the diffimuee of the heat of Hie aeasoui exactly equal } 
vig*f 1 1^ degrees for each quarter. Hiere can be no doubt tlmt 
this is correct. My own tables agree as nt aiiy with the determi- 
nation as can be expected, from so short a ser i es . The difierence 
cfMMs out from them, sprmg above winter, I ; summer abortf 
spring, 11^; autumn Mow summer, 12**; trmler below autumn,' 
14^. But ^e gradadon of die consdtutent temperature of the 
vapour is as follows: — Spring above winter, 9°; summer above 
spring, 11°; autumn below summer, 8^; winter below autumn, 
U^. The ciroamstanees of the case ptove, I thmk, that this' 
seriea approamnates very nearly to die correct progression. U 
the diifereiice had been equal, as in die mean temperature, the* 
dryaess also of the seasons would have been equal : but now, 
from winter to spring, the capacity of the air for moisture in- 
creasing faster than the supply, the degree of dryness must ' 
alsolacfeaae; we accordingly find it hi the table rising from . 
1 JO to 7®. From spri n g to summer the increase is nearly equal, ' 
consequently die degree of dryness rGattaiOS the same, 7^. 
From summer to autumn the temperature of the air decreases 

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IO(i DanteU on M^eorologkal ObfrnnUum^ 

W, ttid tiMt fl£ <Im ▼«po«r odiy abool 9^. W« amtdingly 

find that the dryness falls to 4"", which again diminishes, though 
at a lesA fate, from autumn to wiuier. The exact correspoodeaca 
«f tkM tnnnrqnrnrri anii timi pracsiM VMicb, we cannot aaqpMSt 
«» imrtM% b«l tea tht i^WVE^ of » Mnei of yem; boi 
MOTiglit I llnk» ii ^HTfiTflirtt te mahift va to aptavlata a litda 

upon their causes. The saa, and other deep bodies of ^vater, 
are^ no doubt, the g:rand reservoirs from wheoce is supplied the 
greater part of the vapour of the atmo&phere ; and the oooUag 
aad faatiti^ of aack bodiai tie nfnlated by pwttcolar lawi^ 
It ia m waUkaoim fcdt that tha beat of water cauot ba niaad 

above 40®, till every particle of the mass, however deep, has 
attained thai lemj)erature ; l)ut that beyond this, the superficial 
water may be heated, without a^cting the lower stratum. Sq 
li coolii^ the wbcte foloBM Bait ba cooM down 
the gnpeifidlal water can fall below thatpoiat Novthefipi^ag 
^«arter« ffom Mai^ to Itfaj, inokidet, probably, the period 
when the whole body of water, in this climate^of the globe, rise^ 
to tba iKuat of 40®. A large portioa of heat muat» tbere£orep 
ba aspoMlad, ia wanalag iU en to balk ; attd, nnmia|nfntl|: 
kg tneiaaia oaaaot keep pace with the eanoasdiag alr« la tka 
Mxt qaartei, faowaver, having attataed ila laaatmnm of density, 
the whole heat is expended upon the superficial watei alone ^ 
and the increa&e of heat in the upper stratum of w«).ter« an^, 
oeaeequenUyy in the vapour, is commensurate with that of the, 
air* Hie antamn again iadadea the point at which tha whale 
■Mil of kenled water smst fall to 40^; which point beiiK|' 
passed, the cooling of the upper stratum keeps pace with the 
coolmg of the air. Daily obseivations upon the superficial 
temperature of tka sea would greatly tend ^ elucidate thia 
tnljf'flti 

The rate of evaparatton is in componnd pnqportion to 4m 

heat of the water yielding the viq;>our, the degree of dryness, 
aiid the velocity of the wind. In the calculaLiun taken in the 
ta(>)iee, tha temperature of the air has been always taken as the 
temperatnre of the eiaporating fluid ; whereas it is obvioas that 
this can seldontifeisai^be.lhe true state of the case. Did we but 
know the teniperatate of the sea at different hoars of the day. 



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DanieU oh MeUoralogkud Ohurtiatiau, 107 

and at different {)eriods ot the year, we should obtain, by tho 
BubstitutiiMi^ ft flmeb iBore littfiii xaaait* TIm mrffom^km inm 
telaad Hit be math mmt temgilv iSkm tat item ta 
oMn Mid otar deip anwiliHttiM of kwHlmy 

ndlli almost eveiy moment of the 4ay» and every variety of 

situation. The fallow-field, and the field of corn, yield their 
moiiture with diiierent facility ; and Biin^hinfi attd liuMia JWHfc 

Ilw»eigud»6m«ipmwnt|dlerftdMi«iir of ftii^iiUlt 
the i M firatun a of ifaa aSf Imw lMtii66, and that of thsTapotfr 

CO, that the temperature of a running- stream has been 62 ; of 
wet grass, when the sun had been shining i]|>on it, 69 ; of we| 
wnd,7^; of sUfyit iwiiar>67{ of d«apf«idiMMUI»hita 
mn^H. go Ihrt ot tho nry mwwii of thM Ibi tkm - 
tim ipera l oipoo li ^y yielding «C ta toto of (XldgniM, 0^ 
grains, 1.82 grains, 0.67 grains, and 3.16 grains, per minute, 
from a surface of 6 inches diameter. Not that va|K>ur of these 
various dogrees of foico esisled at one ttmi fbr it is ovidoat 
that taoo whU worn obooa iha looipoiatme of ta air unot 
hofolioiO'lMUuilIy pnoipitatodi and aa bolMlj lodkoolnd ot 
the general temperature. 

The facility and rapidity witli which vapour of such diftt rent 
, tlygrfii^f of £orce in its nascent state is resolved into one genenl 
»««f o^al douttty> iavocy irattiiy of oiMemt^ Ihovo 
oHeoendeavowrad. to dalaot it bofoie ita diaDg%mth the hy- 
grometer, but wHh equivocal aoooess. For eiample, when tibo 
temperature of the air was 6G, after sun-set, and the hygrometer 
denoted the dew-point to be 47^ X |»laced myself in the middle of 
a itfoan whose temperature was 63 ; the prooqutatioo took 
fiaoe at GO^ only 3^ higfaicthaa before. Aa tho water was hen 
yielding vapour of 16** higher temperature than the general 
average, I t xpecu d to have found it more nearly approaching 
the point of saturation ; especially as tliere was veiy little air 
stirring. From hence we must conclude that it diffuses itself 
with buneasa velocity, which, perhaps^ wo shall have the lesa 
difficohy in conceiving, when we call to mind that the rising 
vapour possessed a force of 0.578 inch, which was only Oj^^ed 



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10% Dameli on Meieoroiogkai Olmrvatum 

by one of 0.339 inch. When the geneml af niosphcrc approaches 
more nearly to the point of humidity, this rise of hotter vapour 
firoto witer it my vlaiUe in the ciood wfaidi i* oftai obierviMl 
to faw^ tfie oomeof riVm in % calmeTediig. Inoirtaai 
ritwttkmiy alio, where the free rise of ▼epeer le eppoeed by 
impending obstacles, a small increase of elasticity may be 
observed. Thus, ailber a succession of wet days, when the wea- 
ther bed agaiii becoaie deer and settled* 1 have obeerred die 
teaperature in ^e open ootintrf to be 64^, and the point of 
depeettioii 58^, when in the heart of a large wood they v^ni 
respectively 62 a.uii ; Liu? fuli i^e of the trees forming a me- 
chanical obstruction to ct^ual diliusiou. 

It voald be easy to xeduce the data contained in the tabks to 
die anmberof inches erapoMed from a given tarflice, bat is 
the pment state of oar knowledge it wi^old be nselees, or» what . 
is worse, might tend to mislead. It is amusing to observe the 
attempts, that are made to make the results of the common 
evapdiPating-gauge tally with tiioee of the rain-gaage, when 
the fofmier, so from repitseating the circnmstaneee of those 
bodice which yield the great body of vapour on the earth's saHhee 

prububly does not correspond in all essential jfarticiilars with 
a dozen puddles in the course of the year. The it suits ol the 
hygrometer aoeommodate themselves more easiiy to the ever^ 
varying circamstances, but e?en from these we can only ait 
present infer the capacity of the atmosphere for moiscaiet modi* ' 
fied by the velocity of the winda. 

The quantity of rain which falls in diiierent seasons is pro- 
bably the most variable result that meteorology affords ; but 
aevertibeless some genecai priacipies may be derived from the 
abaervatioik The greatest quantity frdls in the driest half of 
the year ; and this quantity, when no odier circumstance mor 
difies the conditions, a}jpearb lo be in direct proportion to the 
quantity of vapour in the air. Thus, in tlie two half years 
from September to Fehcuary, and from February to Augaat, 
the aterage of die barometer is exactly similar, hut the quan^ 
tity of vapour in the latter esioeeds that in the former by one- ' 
tiiird : tlie quujuULy ui ruui uiau as 3 to 2. Al liic &aiue 



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Danieil on Meteorological Obmvatkm$^ IQ^ 

time, the degree of dryness is more than double, and the force 
of evaporation more thaa treble. It it also perfectly evIdcBt 
that tfarlieiglit of the baraeter Im'm wtirjf mUnM^MMoty 
trnwdk as the temprntore. To OlnstMlefliefMrMryWlllKNrt 
the' latter, let us take the quarter of a year from Masch 
to May 1820, and compare it with the sanu quarter of 1R21. 
Theiioree of yapo^ir was nearly alike, and the tamperature of 
latter rather higher than tliat of the focuwr t aei aitbeleai 
tiie rain of this quarter waa moie tfaaii'doahlei the h e ig h t of 
die barometer, in the first, bemg rather abo^ the neui, while 
in" the latter it was 0.14 inch below it. The power of tem- 
perature in modifying the precipitation is strikingly illustrated 
in the two half-qnartm of October and Nofreonber. .b Ittll the 
bafOflBetnr was lower, and the Ibroe of the vapoor higher, than 
in lOtO. NererthelesK, the quantity of nun m the ktler was 
double that in the former, for the averao^c itk ui temperature 
was lower. The joint ioHuence of the two will not fail to 
strike any one who takes the iroehle to inspect the taUes. 

We now come to the oonsiAeralion' of temperatotei 'and i 
have endeafonred to give a complete view of tlie liubject n 
the third table. I have therein included three series of obser- 
vations not usually taken into account. The first is the 
greatest effect of radiation at nighty the second the highest 
.tanperaAue of the san in thecoane of the day, and the third 
die oonstitueot mean teenpeiatnie of the Tapdur. 

I can add nothing to the ingenious views of Mr. Howard with 
tesrard to mean and extreme ttmperiiture in general. My motive 
for including observations upon radiant heat both posa, and to 
'tlH) eai^ were, first, their pnlbahle i ap oit an ee lo >»egetati o 
and'agrienhure, and, aacoodiy, their ohvfoas ca nne Ki ow both 
' with fte prodnetion and precipitation ef vapoor* Ae nedinni 
effect of l adidtion from the earth at night, it will be seen, is 
about 4° : the maidoHim which 1 have observed is 13°. It wtU 
'pinbaUy- stiike awny peofde'widiiorprise, to find that dieeais 
hntone period of six wedks. in the year in whi^sb vegatnlMii, 
in particular sitoatiOBS, is not exposed to a freearng tampe- 
ralute, and only one <iuarler of a year in which the thenno- 



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m iteated is not subject iiU as much as six «r 
htkm the potpi el co^gnlftiinn ThtaAtt^l 
k Mtranely curi t l m Modifying ibis ptot&m* Im 

the latter end of the month of September 1821, in a garden 
placed in a sheltered situation in a valley surrounded by low 
billa, I obftMved that ail the vines and DaUiaft ware firostr* 
Uttm md tumi qfiilft Uuk^iM^ik mBAet gatte not 
100 y— it fliU lB l^ npon the Qeaa»m&dMtfdl • Mill M8%at 
of frost were to be seen. At another time, early in the autnmn» 
in the same situation, the grass has been quite ri^nd with hoar 
imt, while upon the hill nothing but a iiglit dew was to ba 
p asc Mf d. Tkaetfbct of ttoeotd upon vpour isaonMdinee 
wjvkftle. la shrftsreditt— rtons, aad ia, rmy oaki wMudwr, 
> low miifcaMy qllsa l»e mm ifaing in the —ad iw pi , wtetfa* 
surrounding spaces are quite clear. If the ground which this 
mist coyers be examined* it will constantly be found to be 5^ 
«r 0^ btiom «l«s heat of the clear t^ffam. Tkm sU^^iliat 
«»«iffieM0t toausllMJir «f Utt tisOy tad lo diaalpate 
b ifill«ta«iimltteA«led by a pcMiiMnlf 

walking through it. 

. With regard to the quantity of dew deposited upon filamen- 
tavi eubst^cesy I have found that a piece of cottcw eajpoaing 

mMa± mmmIav mti^Mt itf two iMiMi dittMlir. staiMd in wtUkt 
twe n ty gHBM» wiMtlM int ollhn vninarwaa ^401 Uh» 
and the radiating thermometer 8*^ below the lowest standard, 
that is to say when the two therniometers were respectively 
and 60* At another tune» lAen they were oakf 46 and 07, 
wum pirn of nottoa M nnly gnhiiii etene girfnif Ihe 

rature the same. It is most probable, that in neither instance 
had there been any lots from evaporation, as at the time of 
tbe hygrometer denoted the oompletaaatnintion of 



teenof ▼apoir aai HdMntinn, Ikn ntm^ diftaHbn nf 

dew for every night in the year, upon a like nwtkm, wmM I» 

about six grains. 

> The retuitfi of the ax^MBrimeats upcuL *^ dir ec t radiation 



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oi the son axe stiil very iiicom|i>ktte ( but I cannot help hoping, 

Mf^adtAm. What u tfaa ilMftiMnn A» ifcl i« ilithiMI 
jpem? Wkat w in cffirtt in wMtfuhmg ^ftwitxf Atti^l 

Wiiat is its connexion with the production oi vapour 1 How is 
ito eaorgy spent when veiled from, the earth by doiuk ? its 
inmftt fiiv (U half tem litt^ 
llw mmu liij^ in ll» iliid% Its Mudwi fAsI IM^ 

but it would be premature to indulge in thc in at present. 
The xuean constituent temperaturt of the vapouc atttids in ai^ 

IpsMm Iti ooiMsaoft irith tfMfi if BMM it fwy 

«bviMt, aad it appean ta 1m iaAMBCttd, in mm neame, by 

llui mean iovvc-st, which it never exceeds by more tlian 4 J*. 
The average degrae (^dxyneM £or the whole tweuty^four hours, 
kff dia riilTiaiiinfi wanld to ba 1^ hakwr liiat obtaaa^ 

1^ tltf Uiraa ^Ifaet mpmammp «nd ^awiiilini baiMa 
appUad. Bat it vmal toiaaaanbeaBd, llM aMiaugh lima 

of the vapour is afiected by the maximum cold of the night, 
the degree of dryuest is not liable to its influence. After the 
point of humidity ia imce attained, "which itfanawJIyia htm^ 
ImAmi llia ft ftuthff fadMstion of tmparafeaaa doM 

m allv lha otaaHHtaMaa; ao that an ataamtkn af Ae 
lowest temperature of the night as included m the general 
^ean temperature, is not applicable to this purpose. 

1 il^va mw» in conciuaiant a few remaiks to malse upcm the 
ii»BiWilfii:af<|M'tir»yaati> Xlnyvittmit iia Awid «adjAr 
mak in. tiiair tananl mragca, hat itt tWr paiiiimlMi vvjr 

materially. The year 1819—1820 was, however, drier than 

the year 1820 — 1821, and a greater depth of rain fell, in 
•lha iaiter 4ban in the fonner. The hrai was also distinguishad 

^9f^^^^^ ^I^^Ot^^^^ ^taj^ ^BIBIJ(8BB^^^B^ ^^Ij^i^R t^bl^^ ^l^t^9^)lftjL^ ^fcJl d^MRbl^^t^' 

-amntK -asaaixt ^ baaaaiatiHr daaatiag a Mah wite 

i^ange. • ' 

The autumns diiiered very essentially in their characters, 
ii^te first haU^iaarU^ .the year 18J19 was If^ ^iar, and 



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11^ Daniell on Mgteoroiogicai Obsmmtmu* 

wanner, than 1S%0* The depth of rain was, howcTer^ greater ; 
fer tiw baraneter was ooi m> high, aad the mpem was nm 
dmt*. Ab miSbe seMoiior tht yw when die most hn- 
poftni fMli of Iheearth oome to nm tof ity, and die seevring 

of tliein ill good order is the most anxious caie of the human 
lace in these latitudes, the state of the weather at this time 
ao^priree a pfoporCkmale interest. la 1819 it was remarkable 
§K beiag dry, dear, and warm* The finest hatrest Aat had 
iMisn known Ihr years was hovsed in die most satiefhetory 
manner. Not only iu this country, but throughout Europe, it 
formed almost an epoch, and corn-fields, orchards, and vine- 
yards, shared in die general benefit. The mean resalts of 
this period may dietefete be eonsidered as the standard of a 
fne season. Hie tnmip^eldi^ indeed, so importsnt a part «f 
English agricnlture, suffered from great drought and never 
recovered, bat the grasses, and pasture in geaeral, though 
burnt in the beginning of the autumn, remed with die rains in 
llie last M^qnartsr. 

In dM year 1880 the harvest was mueh later. The erops of * 
■com, though abundant, were not of t?o fine quality as the last, 
and were much mildewed; but upon the whole, this was also 
reckoned a productive harvest. The weather was still too dry 
for the tamip-crops. 

Hie second half-quarters of the aaCmnn were preicisely 
•similar in point of dryness, but in 1820 die temperature ex- 
ceeded ihaL m 1819 as much as it fell below it in the first six 
weeks, making the averages of the whole quarters precisely 
•the same* This accession of heat probably pieventod die pre- 
fjpitation <tf dia vsnel qnanti^ of water, for dm amonnt of 
raia was less dmn half. ' 

The winters diiiered still more widely than the autumns. 
-The first was remarkable for its severity, and the second for its 
'nnldneBS : the respecUve mean temperatiSies behig 33 and 38. 
<In diis quarter die latter regained die dryness which it was 
behind in the preceding ; and the means of the two half-years 
•were exactly similar. This state of the atmosphere is reckoned 
by no means un^avourabie to 4he former, and neither in the 



Digitized by Google 



lis 



cold season of 1819-1820, or in the dry season of 1820-1821 , 
were any complaints made. The last winter hall-quarter of 
1821 was pttrtieiiluly remarkabie I6r a very high average eC 
llMi.barpiiieler. 

In. the fifal hali^aaxter el tiM tpring the yter 1810 waa 

very backward ; the wheats looked very indifferentj and vege» 
tation altoG^ether very unpioiiiiaiiig. ' The bloa.*(/ius of fruit- 
Iceea were very much injured by frosts and coki wiada* In tba 
fiormpondiiig. peiM el l^^U the veatliar, eo ooatrwqf, 
waa exUaordinarily .fine and epeo. The efWfatkMH of hm^ 
hendry were lunwitally formm^ t ^ wlieat • wtt vigofoes and 

firmly rooted, and every appuarance of vegetation as ilul- 
tering as could be wished. The former period was diatia* 
gaiahed irean the latter, by being diier, and 2^^ ooUer, a 
mneh hi^er barcwnetery and half the qaaatilf el rain. 

In the second half-qnarter, the advantage began to torn im 
favour of the first year. The temperature was higher, and the 
dryness continued. There was a sufficiency of rain, in the 
form of warm showers ; the appearance of the wheat improved, 
and barley and oats promised very well. In tbe second year 
vsfftatioa was checked by cold- north winds : pastare was not 
ibrward, but still the whole prospect was prood. - At tfie com- 
mencement of the summer of 1820, the weather turned extra- 
ordinarily hot; the change was very sudden, and the produce 
of the fields made astonishing progress to maturity. Tba 
harvest commenced early, and, altboogh tba waaAer waa.rcdier 
unsettled, waa well aewed* The praduce ol all ^juada was 

abundant, though not of the first quality. ' 

The summer of 1821 was extremely backward, but favour- 
able for growing wh^i^ The lowness . of temperature was 
considered, at t)ie times ; rather favaniabl^ aafeBodingcto check 
over4uxttria&ce <tf vc^getatoi : barlcf , howevjnr, snffeied urn* 
terially from this cause. Near the nsnal harvest*time, the 
corn, though full-eared, had hardly completed the flowering 
process. Oats were heavy, fuU-eared, and proniising. Turnips^ 
and all kinds of pastnre, particularly fine and luxuriant. A 



Vox., lia 




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114 Gfoe&'A Okmvtitiom 



air 



of boi dajTfty at the latter part of the suouaer* 
qoartar, raiaad tliA awafe tmperatiure above tlie crnn^ . 
apondiDg peiiod of the firat year, asd lapidly brought on the ^ i 
ripening of the grain* Nothing was now wanting, hat a 

favourable dry period to house the harvest. The reaping did 
not begin till die 25tb or %()th Auguftt» more than a fortnight 
latar than the uanal tune. 

Thw attmaer moat be raoluned allogoter wet ai^ |33 
owing to thia* it is feared that the Tintafe on the Rhbe^ the 
Elbe, and in Switzerluad, will entirely fail. 

The great characteristic features of the two years were, in i» 
the fir«t» a cold winter and a hot summer ; and in the aecondy |06 
aTeiy 



' u 

BREATA IN TABU^ Yd. X, p. Itt. |0a 

of Tcmporatare, Febrwy, /or 31 read 93| 

— t» — SI 



Ak i . XII. An AccoiuU of name Observations umi Expert- 
mefUs mack by Mr. Guebn, during his ascent in a Baliom 
JhmFortmhOt^tkeetktfS^imket^mu « 

[Commuoicated by &. H. SoUy, Esq., F.RA and 



.2) 



Mr. Green has the merit of bein^ the firsi person who has 
tried experiments upon the buoyant powers of coal-gas. In 
eome of lua preliminary triala^ he aacertaiBed tiiat the aacenriTe 
fotee of a amaU balloon time Ibat in dtaneter^whenlllled with 
this airyTraa eiynal ta ebvM omioee, and when filled in the com- 
iiiou way with hydrogen not more than fifteen ounces. He has 
smce iiiade three voyages in a balloon tilled from the street- j 
pipea, thereby reducing the eipenee of each aacents to a mere ] 
cmpaiativo tiiAea ; 

Dminghaalaat aeoent he made eone experiments of mndi 
Interest to scienoe, and which, as he has promised to repeat 



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J MEAN 

EV^APORATION, 
A ami £Ulrt 'iues. 


1 QUAHmT OF 1 

•Am. 


1 ttBAHmPB&ATURE, 


Isiir 1 
■trterj 








Year 


Yew 


HMf Qinrtcr Qn-irtt-r 


Hatf Year 




■33 

i% 

06 

k 








1.90 








n 

53f 

1 M 








.19 






1.57 


3.47 




« 


j or 
43^ 

48 38J 

31 


W 

56 41| 






.08 

i 








3.32 






• 


3§ 

38^ 

41^ 36 








.06 


M 

.07 


.13 




.49 


3.81 


7.28 

- 




37i 

41^ 33 
«» 


38 

4li 34A 
•« 


43 

48 39 

41 




.78 








3.80 
















i.ao 

,53 


t.S9 

.38 






2.00 


5.80 






1 

61 i 44 J 


H 

56J 41^ 






I.M 

.52 








3.52 








56i 

[65J 47| 


• 






.51 


.52 


.45 


.29 


3.04 


6.56 




1M4 


w 

. 4» 


69 

60 


54| 

62^ 46^ 

30 


48f 
55 42 



Digitized by Google 



Digitized by Google 



tii6m at no dhmmt period, mtj,' ffobabiy, ffmuk d«la of Ite 
tttmoit unpoftaaee. The operatktt of fining tbe baUooii con- 
noDced alwut eimn o'clock on Thundaj tbe 6tli of SefHoaber, 

at Portsea, under the superintendence of the cn niiLi i ot ilic 
company; the operation was completed by halt-past twelve. 
The morning, although cioudy, ^^ceme d nevertheless to presage 
ikrowrably. At balf-pest one, Mr. Qnen took hit teat an tke 
car, and iaunediatelj began to aacend domij and n^iaatkally. 
On leaving tbe ground tbe baroneter stood at 99.7 and tbe 
thermometer at 74°. The balloon took a N«E. direction, and 
he found that he could ascend to a great height without enter- 
ing the clouds. After be bad attained n beight of about 4,500 
ieet, be biondied a paiachnte with a cat wbicb fell in aafety ; 
its deacent was Teiy rapid for about 900 ftet, it afterwards 
became distended, and its oscillatton was rery inconsiderable: 
it reached the earth in about eis:ht or nine minutes after its se- 
paration from the balloon. He uow ascended with great ra- 
piditj to npwaids of 10,000 feet. After oompletiug bis obeer- 
tations wUcb are annexed, Mr. Qreen at twenty mbratea after 
two determined to descend. By repeatedly diacbargbg balhtst - 
tbe descent was renderedgrndnal, tili balf-past two ; at diis time a 
heavy sliowor of laia added considerably to the weight of the 
balloon, and occasioned likewise the condensation of the gas, 
aeeelecaltng tbe ftdl in a manner that migbt bave been dan- 
bad it not been dieeked by tbrowing ont a laige qnaat- 
tity of ballast. He at last landed in safety in a meadow near 
Frimky, Surrey, having completed a voyage of forty-five miles 
in forty-five minutes, in a direction N.N.E. from Portsmouth. 

During this voyage, the attention oi' Mr. Qreen was chiefly 
dBiectad to tbe bxUcationa of tbe bamoeter, tbermomeler, and 
Danetl*^ bygrometer. His obaermtloiis on tbeae instnmients 
are indnded in tbe fclKowing table. 



12 



Digitized by 







« 

Thsrai. 


Point. 


15' before 2 


29.7 


74 




11 — 2 


26.8 


70 




7—2 


23.2 


72 




4 — - 2 


21.4 




() i 


10 afler » 


20^. 


45 


32 


12 — 2 


20.3 


38 


25 


26 — 2 


21.9 


40 


37 


28 — 2 


26.1 


48 


rain 



At the point of greatest allitudt- Mr. Green filled two bot- 
tles, which had been previously pi&pared and filled with, dis- 
tilled water» with the atmospheric air; theie have baenr aince 
axaMined at the laboratory of the Royal Institutioa by Mr, 
R. H. Solly and Mr. Faraday; the first wa«i weighed and 
opened under distilled water of the temperaLuie of 60°, 660.5 
grains of water entered, the whole quantity which the bottle 
would hold being 1,910 grains. The «^nd botde, when foU^ 
held 1,916 grains of water ; - tha quantity whioh entered when 
opened- was 636.7 grains. 

The average of these two experiments gives rather more than 
one-tbiid i'oT the diminuUuii of density ol'llie atmosphere at the 
height to which Mr. Green ascended. This agrees very nearly 
with the results of the barometer. The analysis of the air Oon* 
finned the observation of M. Gay Lossacy that no difference can 
be detected in the atmospheric air taken from great altitodes 
and at the surface of the earth: the experiments were made by 
explosion with hydrogen, and the comparison of the condensa- 
tion made over mercury between the air of the bottles and that 
of the laboratory ; the differences were perfectly immaterial, 
Mnetunes on one side and sometimes on the other^ «ridently 
arising tem miavoidable errors in experimenting. 



Digitized by Google 



Bemofis by Mr: DameU, 

It is ttndi to be Mgrettad that Mr. Oreen omitted to tako 
the poiak of dipoiitioii bofofo ho oomimBccd lus osoBoty or 

after he had again landed, as such an obserration would have 
added greatly to Uic value of his experiments; as they stands 
Uioy will, however, form a valuable addilioa to any future ob- 
•M^alMMEio whaeb it w to bo hoped that ho noy be ind u ced to 
nake. Some iolerestiiig pattieiilan nay em aow be deriTod 
hem Uien. I hftre enfafoiBed e celciilatk« of ihe Merent 

heights as observed by the baron u trr, iuid tlie density of the 
vapour at those heights, agiodicatfid by the hygrometer. The 
difiefent degrees oC dryneee are also added in the IbUowiBg 
table. 









Dew 
P«tet 


Force of 
Vapoor. 


Height. 
Peet. 




15 before 2 


29.7 


74 










11—2 


26.8 


70 






2952 




7—2 


23.2 


72 






7288 




4 — 2 


21.4 


69 


64 


.697 


9893 


5° 


10 after 2 


20.5 


45 


32 


.200 


11059 


13° 


12 2 


20.3 


38 


26 


.166 


11293 


13° 


26 — 2 


21.9 


40 


37 


.237 


8813 


3° 


28 — 2 


26.1 


48 


48 


.351 


3630 


0° 



The state of the atmosphere on the day of Mr* Qxeen'Siae- 
cent was evideaily not faYottiable for ascertaining the grand (|ie»* 
tion of the rate of decrease in the density of the aqueovs va- 
pour, when the atmosphere is undisturbed. By aa experiment 
which I made myself in the country not very distant from the 
point at which he descended, the degree of precipitation on tiie 
earth's suriace» at two o*ok»cky was 64% exactly the same aa 
he found it at the height of 9»993 feet; so that it is Tery pio»^ 
bable that there was bnt litde difference in the density of the 
vapour in that immense stratum. The very small decrease in 



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1 18 Mr. Greea'g Uimrmtuim, &c. 



the temperature agrees with this supposition, which also ac- 
counts for the great height to which the balloon ascended with- 
out entering^ theclottds ; tkns the dryness would have decreased 
from on the snrlhce oTthe eiaih to 5^, and before the next 

observation I should conjecture that tlie ucronaut lausL have 
passed the point of precipitation througii a bed of clouds. After 
crossing this plane the temperature and the force of the vapour 
rapidly decreased, and the degree of diyness incieased with the 
ascent. 

Hie condition of the atmosphere appears to have varied con- 
siderably with the progress in-land, and in receding from the 
sea the force of the vapour seems to have decreased, and the 
temperature of the air still more rapidly. The point of deposi- 
tion in die descent was passed in a shower of rain; at m 
distance of not more than ' 3y030 feet above the suffaoe of Ami ' 
earth, the constituent temperature of the vapour having fallen 
16°, and the temperature of the air not less than 24° in the 
short space of thirty-five minutes. The increase of the densa^ 
of the vapour towards the snrfhee of the ear^» was mnch more 
gradual during the descent over the land than during the a»» 
cent over the sea: was the difference owin^ to a large body of 
vapour rising iVoin the sea? The temiKiature of the water at 
the time would have been a valuable addition to tiie observations. 

It is to hoped that Mr« Green will be enabled to persevere 
in his exertions, as a continuation of such observations cannot 
fiol to be of the utmost use to sdence. It would be denrable 
also that he bhould be a little more particular in noticing die 
dilTercftt indications of tlie atmosphere, that is to say, the course 
of the wind on ^e surface of the earth, and the directioii of the 
difierent canent8*-the height of the clouds and the temperature 
when crossing them, and whether there is more than one stratum 
at different heights. Now that he is aware of the tendency of. 
the different experiments, there are, no douin, many particuhirs 
which will readily suggest themselves to him, and he will not, 
of coufse, negleet to make observations before his departure, 
and after his r«tum» if ctMnmstances will permil. 



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119 

Art. Xni. Proceedings of the Rojfal Soekiy, 

The foUowiDg pttfieis have,beeo read at Uie table of the 
Royal Soetety, uace our lai t report 
JMay 81. Sone esperwMott on tmfutMte^ with a fiew 

of determiniiig the ratio of temperature, and tbe point of 
absolute cold, by John Herapatu, Esq., commuuicated by 
Davus GiLBE&Ty Esq., F.R.S. 

June 7. An acooiwl of the wmmwteiqmIL of the cube, 
eylindfr tad ■phere, md by the hite Sir Gaoaox Sbucc- 
BVROH Etxlyw, in his inquiries respecting a standard of 
weights and measures; by Cupt. Ulnry Katf.u. 

21. An account of observations made at the observatory of 
Trinity College, Dublin, since 1818, for investigating the paral- 
UgL and aberration of the fixed stars, and the effecti of lunar 
aatation; by the R«r» Jok«« Baivkut, D* D« 

28. On the effects produced in the rates of chronometers by 
the proximity of masses of iron: by PsTSa Ba&low, 
communicated by JpttK Bar&oWj, Esq. 

July 4» Some poeitione respecting the influence of the vol- 
taic battery> in obviating the effects of the division of tbe 8th 
pair of nerves, by A. P. WiLSON Pbiup, M« D.» commnnicated 
by l>. C. Biioiiiii, Ksq, 

On the magnetic phaenoinena produced by electricity, and 
. their relation to heat^ occasioned by the same agent: by Sir 
UvumT Davy, fiart^ P. &. 8. 

H. An inve8tig;ation of some theorems relating to the 
theory of the earth, and the principle of equilibrium in 
fiuidi, by M. Hoene Wrun^^ki, comuiumcated by Jous 
Pond, Esq., Astronomer lioyal. 

On the peculiarities that distinguish the Manatee or Dugcng 

of the .Weet ton that of the East Indies, by Sir Zteram 
HoMs, Bart., V. p. R. S. 

On a new compound of Chlorine and Carbon, by Messrs. 
H. Phillips aadFAHADAY«coffliauuicated by the President, 
. On the Nerves; giving an account of some experiments on 
their structure and functions, Which lead to a new arrangement 
of the system, by Chaklxs Bxli, Esq., commaoicated by 
the President. 



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m 



Art. XIV; ANALYSIS OF SCIENTIFIC fiOOKS. 

PkSmphical Tramaetiom qf the Boj^al Satiety ^ XowbMh for 

^ Ym» \^\* , P^att I. 

iv the limili auigned to this portion of our Journal, it will 
BOt be poMiblo to enter into a detailed account of the im* 
portant papers contained in the present hatf-Totume of the 
Phik>80phiad Transactions; we shall therefore aim at pre- 
senting otir readers with a saccinct view of the principal no- 
velties which they contain, and with the heads of the leading 
subjects which they discuss. 

The chemical pjmers, onrn forming so promiiioit and nnport- 
ant a feature in tne pubUcaLiuas of the Royul Society, have* 
lately sutfered u serious defalcation, both iu u umber and inte- 
rest : in the part now before us there is, however, a very inte- 
reittnf essay on the conpoanda of chlorine and calrbon, by 
BIr. Faraday, the chemical assistant in the laboratory of the 
Royal Institution : there in also a communioation from Dr, 
Henry on the aerilbrm compounds of charcoal and hydro- 
I gen, which may be considered as supplementary to a memoir 

on the same class of • bodies ioeeried in the Traoaactiooa 
for.l80«. 

Physiology was so favourite a study with the late pre sident, 
and his means of patronising and propagating the pursuit were 
so extensive, and generally so well directed, that the Trans-- 
I notions, during the long s^ies of years which he filled the diair 

i of the Society^ were the depositary of the principal inyestiga- 

I tions and discoveries fai that department of knowledge) and' 

comparative anatomy, which may be regarded as its basis, was 
proportionally promoted under the same auspices ; it is, how- 
ever, remarkable, when the botanical propensities of the late 
Sir Josr])h Banks are triken into t!ie account, that the structure 
aiid physiology of vcgeiabics have been vei"y sparingly and ioiper-' 
fectly noticed in the publications of the scientihc body over 
which he presided ; whereas the anatomy and functions of the 
animal creation are prominently treated of, and sumptuously 
illastfatedj in*ahnost effery Volume of the Traaaoetions fmb-- 
lished during the last five-and»twenty Tears. For these ooi^ 
tribotions we are .principally indebted to the indefatigable 
exertions of Sir Everard Home, who has thus shown that the 
abstract pursuits of science arc not incompatible witli laborious 
I and extensive surgical avocations, and who, in furnishing the 

! student with an example of the true means of acquiring pro- 

I fessional celebrity, has also opened to himself an inexhaustible 

! mine of occupation and amusement dunng tliose hours of 



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P k Hoa d ^ c al Tr4uimctwm, 121 

ieisuif diul letiituient which deoliiiinc: years iieces^^nrilv bring 
with tiitiiii. This part of the IVansactions contains ivvo com- 
raunications from Sir Eveiard ayon physiological subjects ; 
mder the same head we may class an account of the urinary 
^HnuMT of two species of frogs, by Dr. Davy ; toad tiro letten 
wtiess ed to the PrarideBty slMwing a swgvhir tnflMioe of the 
male upon the ptogmj of ^ femala. 

Geolo^ has not of late years constitutod any prominent fea- 
ture in uie Transactions of this Society ; this is partly to bo 
attributed to the speculative tone of much that has been 
written upon this subject, and which renders it unfit for the 
Transactions of a society for the promotwn t>t natural know- 
ledge ; diid partly to the niag^nificent publications of the Geo- 
logical Society ; hi which, wiili much that is light and Lnding, 
thm are many papers of stuidard exceUenee and laborious 
ieseaich« How hx this and otker similar plitloBophical ajno*- 
datiotts affect the geaertl inleiesti of British toiefleay is a 
4|tMstioa of such pith and momeat, as to require extended and 
serious consideration. In our opiaiotty (which has eerteinlT 
not been hastily, and we trust not superficially formed) with 
much good, they have been productive of more harm; they 
have in some instances perhaps brouffht talents into the field 
which might otherwise have lain dormant; they have also 
excited a temporary interest in the welfare and pursuit of 
science among a class of persons whose names are only known 
as oontfibotors to the teds of the establishments ; mit tlien, 
t^e<f hafe created petty dissensions and peltry jealousies anionic 
ftose who once were friends and colleagues, and have 
tended to scatter and subdivide the forces of scienee in a nwf 
most unpropitious to its true welfare. We remember when 
all that was eminent in philosophy and excellent in art was 
to be found at the weekly mppting of the Royal Society in 
Somerset-Place; he who wanted information sought and 
found it there; strangers assembled to converse with the 
learned of the land; and, though a hostile breeze now and 
then ruffled the good nnderstandin^ and friendly iotercoarse 
of the membisiB) it soon sabsided into a prosperous cahn. Bat 
now, the forcea of sd^ioe are not merely seatteied bat dia- 
united, and among^ phikaophers as among politicians, we 
haw, under odier names, tories, whigs, and radicals. He who 
wants to consult the learned and examine the records of 
science, is driven from the east to the west, and from the 
north to the south;, up stairs, down stairs, and even some- 
times into iiiv Uidv's chamber, before he caii Hnd the object of 
his search and inquiry ; losing that time which might be occu- 
pied in digesting and exten£ng his information, in traversing 
the most opposite quarters* of -the metropolis, moonttng into 
hqik-iaoas ^ tw^ pair, ealliiigr in Bfoor-fielda for what in 



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only to be had in Albemarle- street, or the agreeable reverse ; 
and at length tindmg that, for want of method and L;(tod under- 
standing, he loses a week in London in search ot that which 
a day would effect in Paris. We, however, bv no means intend 
to hold up tbe literary and adentific «atabluliiiieiiU of Fnino 
aadeierYiiig unalloyed piaiae or unqnaUfied imitatioii; tlififa 
is about theoiy that jobbing servihty, and cringing subBar- 
YWajt which betrays their shackles and dependanoe. 

fiiitt not to lose time ia the further enumeration of tha 
serious and multiplied inconveniences which obviously result 
from thi' divisions mid subdivisions into which the scienlitic 
establiiihmeats of tin mk tropolis are spht, let us, briefly as may 
be, inquire wliolUcr any tangible remedy is at hand, which, 
while it includes the advantages of tlie disunion, may at tlie 
same time heal the dissensions which it creates, and fill up tlie 
chasms which it has induced* 

.. Should government be seriously aMmorialiaed and appealed 
to in behalf of the semi-bankruot s'tate of our scientific Qodaea 
in general? should we humbly pray relief, and suggifl 
the benefit that would accrue from the establishment of hono- 
rary rewards, and other distinctions, which very moderate 
pecuniary aid would confer ? Should they be told tliat the 
apartmeists of the Royal Society in Somerset-House are alto- 
geliiei inadequate ; that they are out of repair ; that the 
valuable library is scattered through vaiious rooms for want of 
one large enough to receive it; that the Society has been 
obliged to dispose of a variety <^ instnineols and apparatai 
in consequence of the expense of hiring an apartment for thaix 
preserration? should not the Society at once pray for ajpalaca 
in the new street, appropriately convenient and magnificent, 
and humbly request that the sum of 50,000/. be further granted 
to the body to defray various necessary expenses, and to esta- 
blish a fund for its future exigencies? Should we not hint at 
the Jardin des Plantes^ and its sumptuous museum and amphi- 
theatre ; at tlie palace of the Institute, and the mas:nificent 
hall of the Louvre appropriated to its members. To this and 
much more, the Chancellor of the Eidhequer might r^ly 
Qcarly as follows: Gentlemen; HisMajes^sgov^fmaent na 
at all times shewn its dispositkm to promote die objects of scieaoa 
when fit opportunity has presented itself, but under <»? fi ^yg 
circumstances, I should not feel justified in advising the in« 
creased expenditure which the adoption of your request would 
involve ; the Parisian establishments, to which you have 
alluded, have not conferred such exaltation and improvement 
upon science as to render them objects of our imitatio?i, for 
with means derived from private sources, you ijave achieved 
conquests in the dominions of knowledge which are without 
^ual; and as neither the late Mr. Cavendish, nor Sir Joseph 



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Banks, who, as president of the Royal Society dumi-j; n very 
extended period, luu&t iiave been well ac^uuinud wait the 
real interests of sdeoce, thought fit to bequeath a small 
fractum of Ibeir onomumt property, to the oetabUshnmt of 
•eHmtjfic fnatMp or to any other similar puipoio, it notdd be 
{weeaaiplioii on the part of His Majesty's goverom^ to adQ|i€ 
a jneasure» which^ however plausibie in appearance, must be 
open to objections and liable to misapplication/* We do not 
mean to conscTit to this reply, because we arc convinced that 
even in the present state ut thurj^s, a very few thuusniifl pounds, 
granted with discLTiiment to the calls of science, would f)ro- 
duce effects incalculably beneficial ; we arc also cotiVHiced that 
- the Rumford and Coplev medals, which are so judiciously 
hmlomed by .the eovneil m die Bom Society hare baen {hto- 
duetire of much bonourablo eondatioos bot yet we think the 
«l>posite argiunent ftirly iafinable horn thapnauMi. 

If, however, we are not in error, the leoMdy of the evils 
adverted to is not necessarily dependant upon extraneous aid« 
That the Royal Society, as the parent establishment, claims 
precedence, will not be disputed; let it therefore stand at the 
head of a ScienUtic College, and let the other Societies arrange 
themselves as committees, each as heretofore puiiiuing their 
individual dvucations, under a chairman, a president, and 
officers of their own ; let the meetioge of the Boyal Society, 
and of the Tariona ecieatifie committfiee, be held under tCa 
same lool^ and their pubtioalions appear in the eame volttne^ 
either ae commwiieations to the Royal Society, or as the 
Traneactions of the various committees ; let the books, instxii* 
ments, and collections also be preserved in the same building; 
and let the expenses of the whole be defrayed from a general 
fund raised as heretofore, by subscripUons to the Society and 
its committees, but rendered inhmtely more effective by con- 
centration upon one object, instead of being fntteied away in 
the small iiewu ci separate ettablishments^ 

We. axe qaite aware that this scheme will be called Utopian 
and chimerical, but mueh that has been thoaght impowiUe has 
o^e to peas ; the steamrengine has done wonders in this ways 
and when gas-lights were first talked we lemember one 
of the most eminent and profound men of science in thw 
or any other country, asserted that a company might as 
well be formed for li^lmn^ London with a slice of the moon, 
as for carrying the gas iroin pit-coal through the streets of the 
meUupolis/^ It is not Uierefore impossible, we even trust, not 

* We with it had been permitted to us to quote Dr. WuUastoa's admirable 
J iBoo e w e to the Royal Society, upon the Svk of Koveaiber last, whim the 
Copley m. dal was aeljiul-. d to FiefBWMt OcuM QefetUMfgrn* 1| 
spoke voluxavs to the point before u»* 



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imprabdUe, that if there were that desirable union among flclcn- 
tific establishments to which we have advertpd, the nation miL^iit 
at least attbrd such assistance as wonldenal)h them to be suitably, 
and even sumptuously, lodged. We liave indeed heard that ic is 
in contetnplatioii to remove Carltoo Palace, to coiuiiiue the new 
street down to Westminster Abbey, and to erect in an open 
part of it, opposite to tbeHorte^ardt and Whitehall, almndni^ 
approprtiled to the Royal Society and the Royal Academy: if 
im be to, we trait that the Britith MnBeum will not be forgotten 
and that its treasures will be removed to some repositofy lest 
frail than that which now contains them, not one of those eva- 
nescent combinations of lath,plaster,cement and brickbats, which 
adorn Waterloo-Pkce, but a j^^ood honest stone building, which, 
m our opinion, could not be better situated than upon the site 
of the present ediHce. it has. indeed, been rumoured, that the 
Duke of Bedtord has thrown diiiiculties in the way of such an 
undertaking; but surely the ungracious impediment of which we 
heard ewiM not come directly from a person postMised of leu 
palriotwm than his Grace, for the houses which surround the 
^rden of the present Museum would be rather improTed than 
ii^red by the erection of a series of courts and galleries for 
' the reception of the rarious collections ; there is " rottenness" 
somewhere, or something would, lon^ ere this, have been nccom- 
plishcd towards redrcssini; those grievances of which we have 
only given a scanty outline, and of which not only 'the scientific 
world, but the public at large, have a right to coiiii)lain. 

The casual mention of the Geological Society led us to Lhisi 
digteeston, wfaieh is not* we liopc, altogether misplaced in an 
ezaflsimrtionof the labonis of the Royal Society, to which we 
now revert. One geological paper is contained in this part of 
the transactions, relating to a subject which requires more at- 
tention than it has received ; and if the author be not in error, 
he has discovered a fnct of much curiosity, and some impor- 
tance. The mountain limestone of Plvmonth lies directly upon 
day-slate, and is remarkably scanty m organic rcm uiis; it in- 
cludes certain caverns, perfectly insulated, some of which are 
incrusted with stalactite, and present notliing remarkable. In 
others, Mr. Whidbey, die author of this communication, has 
discovered certain fossil bones ; these caves were without any 
sMdaetitical iocrastation, having only a Ittfle dry clay at the 
bottom, and we beg the reader's attention to the following par- 
ticulars : "The cavity wai entirely surrounded by compact 
limestone rock, about eight feet above liigh-watcr mark, fifty- 
five feet below thn snrfaco of the rock, one hundred and seventy- 
four yards from tlie otigmal face of the quarries, and about one 
liuudred and tweiity yards in that direction from the spot where 
the former bones were found in 1816." The bones, as appears 
fvtm Sir E. Home's annexed catalogue, are those of the rhino- 



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c^ros, the bear, and an animal of the deer kind, and of another 

animal of the size of the hf^nr. Mr. Whidl ey ^^hstains from nnv 
speculations rpspoctniL;- the catastrophe by whirli these* huues 
were thus entomlK d m Uh' solid K ck, and properly enough real* 
content witli a uaked statement oi what he considers to be th» 
foot. 

•bonnded in importmC oontrtUrtio— to physical MiaMi^ and 
the part bafore na is, in this leipeett sot d aHe iaat; it indadea a 
paper on tha magnetio p h gua aa an a produced hf alactiicity, by 

Sir H. Davy ; tw^ important commanications, remits of the 

accurate diligence of Captain Kater ; and a notice from thr ^saine, 
respecting a volcmic tippoarnnce in the moon ; and lastly, aa 
account of a micromi ici made of rock crystal, by Mi. I^ollond. 

Having thus gfenerally suiveyed the conieiUa ot tins \olunie, 
we shall proceed in a few instances to pavticuiaiizc their 



i« 0» <fte biaekRete Mncotum of Negro j being a Defence 
Qaaim$t the seorchmg Effects of the Sm'$ JSoyt. By Sir R* 
HoMs, Bart., F.R.S. 

As black surfaces become infinitely more heated than white* 
by exposure to tbe sun^a rays, it baa long puzaled physiologista 
to aoconnt for the black colour of the nagro; or to davalope tba 

ends attained by that intensity of colour bestowed by the on- 
erring hand of nature upon the inhabitants of tropical climates* 
In this paper Sir Everard has rendered it probable that tha 
blistering and irritation which Europeans, not accustomed to 
much exposure, suffer from tlie scorching rays of an equatorial 
sun, IS attributable to a peculiar pffcct of the solar radiant matter, 
unconnected with the heat which it excites. By the bluck 
colour of the negro's skin Uie radiant matter of the sun is ab- 
sorbed, and converted into sensible or thermometric heat, and 
is thus disarmed of its mischierons tendency. 

If we expose the back of die band to very intense tanshinei 
uncovered, or covered with any thin white tissue, it becomea 
inflamed and blistered ; but if similarly exposed under a cover- 
ing of black, it suffers no inconvenience, though the temperataia 
ID the former case falls far short ot tliat excited in the Irttter. 

Having described a variety of experiments to this point, Sir 
Everard very piopeily takes opporlunity to observe that " the 
same wise Providence which has given so exUaoidmary a pro- 
vision to the negro for the defence of his skin while living within 
the tropics, has extended it to the bottom of the eyoi which 
otherwise would suffer in a greater ok lesa degcaawhen axposfd 



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to a strong light, the retina from its transparency allowing it to 
ptM thioiigh widMMiiBjury /' ^< Tbat the nigrum pign^tani is 

not nrcessary for vision, but only provided as a defence against 
strong light, is proved by its beingr darker in the Negro than in 
the European, and liuliter in fair people than in dark, and there- 
fore lightest in those countries farthest removed from the effects 
of the snn/* ** In the monkey it is dark, and in all aiiiinals 
that look upwards. In all birds, exposed to the sun's rays^ it it 
UMh. Ik' fithMy the btiking shaik trliieh lies upon tbe avifoee 
of tlieoMuif hat a The tnrbot and skate 

wMdi Im upon baaka of sand ia shidiow water, have nigrum pig- 
laentam. laall ruminating animals and birda of prey, theie ia 
a broad tapetum at the bottom of the eye. The owl, Oiat ncfwr 
sees the «?nn, has no nigrum pigmentum." '* The cojip de soldi 
I attribute to the scorching effects of the sun's rays upon the 
scalp. The Egyptian ophthalmia I consider to be the efiect of 
the sun's rays, and the glare of reflected light.*^ 

n. On the Magnetic Phcsnomeria produced by Electricity, in a 
Letter from Sir H. Davy, Bait., F.R.S., to W. H. Wol- 
x.Amv, P.R.8. 

The intimate connexion, if not the identity, of magnetism 
and electricity, haa long been aiispeoted, and indeed pwtly de^ 

monstrated ; the recent discoveries of M. Oersted have com- 
pletely proved the subsisting relation of these powers of m^itter, 
and have set a number of persons to work at the repetition and 
extension of his inquiries. In our last IS amber we have trans- 
lated M. Biot's communicatioQ to the Parisian Academy of 
ScieDeea upon thia subject, and npon a former oecMion (▼0I..X. 
p. 361,) oar readera have heen presented widi an ontline of the 
recent discoveries connected with it. Since the date of thta 
paper, Sir Humphrjr has himself extended his interesting experi- 
ments and observations ; and in July last, he read a second me-' 
moir to the Royal Society, in %vhich much that is left incomplete 
and undetermined in the paper now before us, is perfected and 
cleared up ; of this we shisdl give an account ia due course. 

iii. C<mmumcation of a singular Fa4:t tfi Natural Hixtory, B}f 
the Right Hon. the of Mouoir, F.R.S. 

It. Particulars of a Fact nearly similar to that rdoM ^ Lonn 
Mo&TOK, by Daniel Gilua, £sq. 

Under these mysterious titles the following facts will be 
found. Some years ago Lord Morton, desirous of domesti- 
cating the quagga, endeavoured to ptocure a male aud ieiuale 



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.Fbiios<^iical TraiisaUiom, 



137 



of that species, but succeeded only in obtaining a male ; he 
therefore tried to breed from the male quagga and a chestnut 
mare, and the tmah was a fende liybiid of decidedly mixed 
origin ; the tnareiw aftexwuds hnd horn br ablack AaMtm 
hon»j and tUf latter produce toAMu in OMoor and maM a 
atriking leiemblance to tlie qaagga. It is curkMi caough that 
features not belongin|^ to the dam should be commmiicatBd 
through her to tke progeny of another malo. 

Mr. Giles says, I will now trive ilu best account I can of 
my sow and her produce." She was ot Mr. Western's black and 
white breed. Ten years ago she was l>red irom by a boar of 
the wild breed, of a deep chestnut colour ; the pigs, (her first 
litter,) were duly mixed, the colour of the boar b^ng in soni£ 
of then very predmahiai^ The tow was aAsfwaids twice bnsd 
from by Mr. Western's boars, and in both iastaoces chestoitf 
marks were prefsleat in the titter* which in other iastaaess 
had never presented any appearance of the kind. 

• V. The Croonian Lecture. Microscopical Observations on the 
following Subjects : On the Brota wid Nerves; showing that the 

Materials of which they arc composed exist in the Blood. Oh 
the Discover!/ of Vah:rs in the Brandies of the Vas Breve, 
lying between the villous and mnsndnr Coats of the Stomach, 
On the Structure of tfie Spleen. By Sir Eveba&d Home, 
Bart. V. P, R. S, 

This lecture win be read with mnch interest by those who 
ttre bold enoucfa to fathom the depths of modern physiology, 
auad-wfao put that confi dence in Mr. Bauer's microscopical ob« 
aenrationa which we think they deserve. He examined the 

optic nerve and found it to consist of many bundles of fine 
fibres, formed of very minute globules united by a soluble trans- 
parent jelly. " By the discovery of this transparent substance," 
says Sir Everard, we become acquanited with the nature of the 
ijaeduliary structure ut Liie nerves, aiid cau form some idea of their 
action, whidi tiU aow 1 confess myself to hav^ been totally 
unacqaaiated with. The aervea as well as the retina are cooh 
posed of this newly-discomed tiansperent substance which is 
very elastic and soluble in water, and globules of and 
\j*-o-Q parts of an inch in diameter. Its transparency and solu- 
bility account for its having remained concealed ; and were it 
not coagulable, in which state it becomes opaque, its existence 
mi^h't even now be considered as equivocal." The brain is 
^Iso, as Mr. Bauer's observations show, a conglomerate of 
globules and soluble mucus, the former arranged into fibres and 
bandies, held together by the latter. It is pervaded by blood- 
wesseU, bat the arteries nevef anastomose, and the veinsy wMdi 
«fee Wy saialiy are supplied wHh valves, aad-peHbrm the 



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128 . Ami^mf^ Sdmlf^ tidoki. 

oQice of lymphatics, carrying the abiorbed mattttr into the uuf^ 
rior lon^^itudinal sinus. 

Our readers are probably aware that au>oiii;^ metaphysicians 
there is some slight discrepancy of opinion respecting the head- 
quarters of the sensorium and the seat of the soul. Physio- 
logifli hum abadiffisred retpeotmglJie fonctiou of the variim 
|MrU of the brain ; after the traeh that has lately been current 
apon these subjects, we feel particfilarly indebted to 3ir Ereraid 
lar the foUowiog eteriiog teta : 

** That the cortical part of the brain is the seat of memory, is aa ophrfoB 

I liiivc long^ entertained, t'roni iindinj; that any continued undue pressure 
upon the ujjper anlerior. purl ut the braiu entirely destroys memory, and a 
less degree materially diminishes it. PrMwnre vpon the dura roater, where 
the skull has been trepanned, puts a temporary stop to all sense, which is 
restored the moment llmt presiiure is removed ; and the ors^an appears to 
receive no injury from repeated experiments of this Jdna havmg been 
made. In hy>Irocephalus, when the fluid is in larsre quantity, and there 
only remains the cortical part of the brain and pons Verolii connecting it to 
the cerebellum, all the functions go on, and the memorv can retain pas- 
sages of poetry, so as to say them by heart; bat a Tiofent shake of the 
head produces instant insensibility. Pressure in a slight degree upon the 
sinciput, produced in one cdse complete derangement, with violent excess 
of the passion of lust, both of which went off upon remoTiog, by the orown 
of the trepan, the depressed bone." 

A little furtlier on, adverting to the abundance and office of 
the transparent mucns, Sir Everard says, " There can be no 
doubt that the communication of sensation and volition more 
or less depend upon it.'* Indeed, it is evident that those func- 
tions cannot be ascribed to any individual component of the 
brain and nerves, bat belong to them aa entire atruetarea. 

The remainder of this part of the lecture is taken up in 
attempting to show that the above-mentioned mucus exists 
ready formed in the blood, and that it is the medium by 
which the colouring matter is attached to the surface of the red 
globiiieay'* and that fat may exist in the blood. 

Havin|f dismissed the fetructore of the brain» the next portbn 
of ^8 lecture is devoted to a subject whidi some of our 
leaders wfll peihaps consider aa of paramount importance; 
namely,' to the provision for carrying off the fluids taken into 
the stomach, wheneTor the quanti^ or quality faiterferea widi 
fhe procaas of digeatioa. 

^ To do tills by the nmfteof the thoracic duct, was not only too circuitous 
to correspond with the general simplicity of the operations of nature, but ^ 
was mixmg; these heterogeneous liquids in too crude a state, with the ge- * 
Beral circulation of the bloo<I. That there was some unusual mode of 
conveying fluids from the stomach to the urinary bladder, I have upon a 
former occasion established, since they arrived there when both the pyioma 
and thoracic duct were tied up, and the spleen was removed out of the 
body ; but till the fact of valvular vessels supplying the office ef^lwor- 
Mnbi was ascertained, any opinion respecting ue rente of Mda ftaai tiM 
■loaMuh, malt ooatiaae to be eattaely l^potaeticel.* 

O^t author then proceeds to demonstrate the existence of 



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Philoiophicai Tramojctiom* 12d 

iMk f ■■e ll, aad to deaoribe diAir aitiialion and appearand^ 
aided by ea^vinga of Mr. Baoer't admirable drawings. 

To show the cojirse of the absorbed fluids, as well as to give a clear 
idea of erery thio^ oounected with so imimtnd a diMaf«qr» a drawiaf oC 

the spleen, the vas breve, and cardiac jiortion of the stomach, is annexed 
[PI. IV;] and as th« trunk of the splenic vein forms one of the trunks of 
the vena portae, the liquids are directly carried to the lively teaiing a part 
of the materials enployed in producing tlM biia| tiM lOMiBmi Qftijr 
reiumiog by the vena cava to the heart. 

This additional quantity of liquids passin;^ alon; tte splenic vein, 
•oeounts for its being five times the size of the artery, as well as for the 
blood in that vein having a greater proportion of Hcruni than the blood in 
anyotheTi which has Men long asserted, and which I found by aetual 
experiment to be the case ; but being unable to account for it, us 1 can 
now, I was willing to admit that the mode (.>f measuring might be ei» 

MMSVUUSa 

The rcmaiaiug secliou of this lecture is dedicated to the 
■tructnre and nses of the spleen. It is shown to consist of 
blood-veasels,' between whicn there ii so oellalar membrane^ 
the interatiees bdng filled with flermn, and with the colourmg 
matter of the blood from the lateral orifices in the fmna 
when these vessels are distended^ which ■emm is aflerwardf 
removed by the absorbents belonging to the organ, and carried 
into the thoracic duct by a very large absorbent trunk ; 
so that from this mechanism •* the spleen appears to be 
a reservoir for the superabundant serum, lymph globules, 
soluble mucuSy and colouring matter, carried into the circu«» 
lation immediately after the proceia of digestion ia €om« 
Uleted/' 



vt* On two new Compounds of Chlorine and Carbon^ and on a new 
Compound of Iodine y Carbon^ and Hydrogen, By Mr. M. 
Faaaoay, Chemical AsmtaM ta the Royal Imtiiution* 

Tn a former number of our Journal we have abstracted the 
material facts contained in this paper*, (vol. x., p. 386 ;) our 
readeia will there observe that the aikhor has described the 
properties of tvro new compounda of chlorine and carbon ; in 
conjunction witfi Mr. Philups, he has more recent^ ascer* 
tained the existence of another combination of the aame ele* 
ments in different proportions, so that chlorine and carbon 
which a year ago were not known to be susceptible of chemical 
union, are now shown to constitute three distinct compounds. 

The various direct and colhiteral researches bv which the 
nature and properties of these bodies are determined and 
illustrated, are amnly and explicitly given in the paper before 
US, which We eomdet aa a truly valuable oontribattoa to che- 

Jj iVftr" ^ pabHshad at hngth ia. Mr> Mffl^s Jsasfe^W. 
Vou XIL K 



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150 Anaij^iis qJ iici€ntiji£ Bookb, 

mical scieucti j Mr. Faraday is sim^jlt; anci perspicuous withoui 
being superficial or hasty; he has sometimes bandied the 
sMft mtrafit parts of diiiaiBtry, but fa«i alwajft ksapt dear 
ef tlwt aftctod jargon wfaach chaiaeteriM a seloi writm that 

may be dangoated the Berzelian Schooly and wbo are fond of 
aijetif{nng luid obacuring the simpleit fitcts and doctrines of 
Ibe aetenca^ by symbols and algebra : nothing is easier than 

to write a, h, r, instead of 1, 5, 3 ; to represent carbon by a 
great C, and chlorine by a liult e, rind then to call the chlo- 
ride of carbon C -f c, and the liichluiide C + c«, and so forth; 
hut whattlien? chemistry is liul yt t lipe for these innovations; 
and wiieii iL lay they luudi come from abler heuds than those of 
their present propounders. 

vii. An Account of the Comparison of various British Standardt 
linear Measure, By Captain Uskry Kater, F.H.IS. 

Captain Kater*s communications to the Royal Society have of 
late been numerous and important; they are not^ generally speak* 
iufff of a popular cait^and have not therefore attracted that gene- 
ral notice which is bestowed qponprodnctiona carrying more sail 
with less ballast; independently too of their intrinsic value, they 
are written in a style peculiarly clear and intelligible. Nothiug 
is hastily thrust forward in an unfinished state, with the mere 
view of prc-occnpying the ground ; no immature opinions are 
started for the purpose of anticipating the results of others 
engaged in simiUu j pursuits 

The paper beiure us, one only of several connected with the 
same subject, contains the details of a laborious series of in- 
quiries connected with the Reports of the Commissionen of 
Weights and Measures ; for the third and last of which we refer 
to the last volume of this Journal^ p. 378, Our readers will 
also there find the results of some further inquiries instituted 
by Captain Kater, relative to the re-measurement of Sir George 
Shuckburgh*s cube, sphere, and cylinder, the details of which 
he has also given to the Royal Society, whose Transactions 
are certainly the fit repository for these and all similar docu- 
ments. 

Yiii, All Ac count of the Urinary Organs and Urine of two SpedM 
of tlie genus Rana, By John Davy, M.D. F.A.S. 

The bull-frog, (rana taurina, Cuvier,^ and the brown toad, 
(bi^ofuscus, Laurenti^) are the two species to which the author's 

* These remaiks lie suBBSlad to us by the fwe«>ing and unbounded 
suna isw in whioh aonte cowmpoiaiy afoxwu are aocitstiNned to iB(t«is%*r 



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\ 



FkOkmipkMi Trmmtimm. 1»| 



tibiervatkmt «• UkUai ia flus paper, vfckli it dOtd 
Oeji«n : the formtr Inhibits the Jake of Colombo: Um 
•buuBds in the kouaes and streets of the Pettah. The 
^avity of the urine of the bull-frog is about 1003, and comni<m 
salt, with n little phosphate of lime, and a trace of urea, are 
the only ingredients detected in it. The specific gravity of the 
urine of the brown-toad is 1008; its constituents similar to 
the above, but the proportion of urea more considerable. For 
the anatomical facts we must refer to the paper itself ; the fol- 
lowing physiological observattom m uiportuit in vdttioii to 
tire treeftmeBt of fonuuj dimdMs it mitk wit qMt tlm 
lengHi. * 

*• Perhaps additional facts are not required to prove, that the secretion 
of the iddaeys of animaly depends more on the intimate and invisible 
structure of these organs, than on the kind of food tlio animals consume ; 
were such ihctl wanting, there would be no diflu ulty in furnishing; them. 
How different is the urine of the brown-toad and that of any species of 
toiaU Jiffaids ! vet flies are the favourite and common diet of both animals. 
Otker reBwrkable instances might be mentioned, of similarity of diet and 
difference of urinary secretion : and, vice versA, instances might be afforded 
of difierence of diet and similarity of urine : I will mention one only » it 
Islbat of parrats and snakes ; their urine, as I have found, being much tiia 
same, consistin^^ chiefly of uric acid, though their diet is altogt-ther differ- 
ent, the birds teeding eatirelf on veselaole matter, and tJto reptiles en- 
tirely on wihiitli— Her. Bnt let tie not ^ supposed to ndttein tlMtt 1k& 
urinary secretion depends entirely on the orj^an, quite independent of the 
nature of the food or of the blood, from which ihe elements of the urine are 
derived. It appears to be pretty satisfiMterily proved, that ealerit pmibm, 
there is a certain relation between the nature of the food and of the urine. 
Whilst this has been generally admitted, the relation between the organ 
and the secretion has oeen less inriated OB, tlMNigh perfaa^ aoftloatanitat 
and deseryiag af attentiiio.'' 



iiL Am Accmmi qf a Micrometer made of Uodk Crjfgtal. By 

G. DoLLOHDy F.R.S. 

Rock crystal has been applied to telescopes in various ways 
for the purposes of micrometrical measurements : Mr. Dollontrs 
improvement consists in making^ a sphere or lens from a piece 
of rock crystal, and adapting it to a telescope in the place of 
iht mm\ eye^glaat^ aai mm itt natiual dDuua i«firacting pro- 
petty rendeHog it nteftil ftt t n^romtter. 

llie advantages of this application of tha cryttat consist in 
the tamg of the time required to find the proper angle for 
cutting it, and working its surfaces with sufficient accuracy ; 
in being able to take the angle on each side zero, without re- 
Tersiog the eye-tube* and alto to take intermediate angle* 



tlieaiere purpose, as we» presume, of layink claim to the merit of -fofaro 

discoveries, to which they are less entitled than the Marquis of Worcester 
to t he lAventioa of the steam-engine, or Roger Bacon to that of j^a- 

K2 



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Analjfsujof' Scienlific Booki. 

between ze ro and the greatest separation of the images without 
exchanging any part of the eye-tube, it being ouly required to 
more the axis an ivliieli iht is plaoed. It ilio possesses 

the property of an eve-tube or lens not intended for microme* 
trical purposeSt fiof wnen the uus of the crystal is parallel t9 
that of toe object glass, only one image will be formed. A 
plate is anneyed to this papec^ tllnstrative of the conkri* 
▼anoe. 



X. The Bakerian Lecture : on the best kind of Steel and Form for 
a compasS'Ticedle. By Captain H£N&y Kater, F.H.S, 

On the return of the expedition under the command of 
Captain Ross, which sailed in search ol" a north-west passage, 



it appeared that the comoasses became nearly useless irom uie 
dimroution of directive roroe, in eonse^ uence (mT the vicinity 
of the magnetic p<4e» Some of the aamuth compasses then 
employed were of Captain Kater*s invention ; he was therefore 
naturally anxious that the next expedition, (under the command 
of Lieutenant Parry,) shouhl be furnished with instruments 
conibiniiiL;; as mucli power and sensibihty as possible ; with this 
intention, our author undertook the experiments which form the 
"subject of the valuable practical document before us, and from 
which he draws the following inferences ; 

" 1. Thnt the brst material for ronipass-needlrs is dock sprins^ ; but care 
must be taken iuforniing the needle to expose it as seldom as possible 
to heat, otherwise its capability of receiriBg iiw|;Bellsiii will be nradi 

diminishrrl. 

** 2. That the best form for a compass- needle is the pierced rhombuSf in the 
jMN^portioB of about five inches in length to two laclMi Ul widti^ tUs tern 
being susceptible of the greatest directive force. 

" 3. That the best mode of tempering a compass-needle is, first to harden 
it at a red heat, and theato soften it frum the middle to about an inch iroia 
each extremity, by exposing it to a beat aufficient to caase the blnecoloBr 
which arises again to disappear. • 

** 4. That in the same plate of steel of the size of a few square inches 
only* portions are found varying considerably in their capability of leoelflimF 
magnetism, though not apparently difierinff in any other respect. 
5. That polishing the needle has no effect on its magnetism. 

" 6. That the best mode of communicating magnetism to a needle, 

EiU"s to be by placing it in the magnetic meridian, joining the opposite 
of a pair of bar magnets (the magnets being in the same line), and 
g the magnets so ioined flat upon the needle with their poles upon ite 
centre ; then having elevated the distant extremities of the magnets, so thftt 
they may form an angle of about two or three degrees witli the needle, they 
aae to be drawn £rom the centre of the needle to the extremitiesy carefully 
preserving the same indlnatlon, and having joined the poles of tbo waga sl S 
Ht a distance from the needle, the opeiation is to be fspasted toner tvrelvo 
times on each surface. . ^ 

7. That in needles fimn fire to eight inches in length, their weights 
being equal, the directive forces are nearly as the lengths. 

" 8. That the directive force does not depend upon extent of surfoce, bnt 
in needles a£ aeaily the aano length and lonn, is as the mass. 

Thattbedefiationof a compaaa needle occasioned by the attiaoM 



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PkUosapkkai Trmuactum* 



l»f soft iron, depeiiiis, as Mr. Buriow has advanced, or extent of surface^ 
and is whauif IndepeiMiaiit of tibe mass, except a certain thickneM of IM 
inm. amounting to about two-tenth<^ nf :\ri inch, wlucll if rcqiirite Ibf III* 
couplete deveiopemeot of its attractive cuerg>. 

jd. Notice respecting a Volcanic Appearance in the Moon, in a 
Letter addrmed to the President. By Captaiu Han&y KAXB&y 
F.R.S. 

We have heard af Toleanoe in the moon, bat when we con« 
aider the fallacies to which obtenrattonB of her sufftice aitf 
liable, even when made with the most experienced eyes and 
perfect instruments, we are indaced to doubt the identity of 
most of these appearances with terrestrial volcanic phenomena* 
and to applaud Captain Kater for the caution shewn in the 
title of this letter, where he calls the hiininous spot which he 
discovered, not a volcano, but a volcanic appearmice. On 
Sunday eveninp:, the 1th of February, 1821, the moon being 
two days old, and tlie evening cleai, Captain Kater observed 
a Inminous spot in tl^e dark part of her orb ; its appearance 
was that of a small nebola, subtending an angle of three or 
four seconds, and of variable brightness. ^* A luminous 
point/' says our author, ** would suddenly appear in its Gentre. 
and as suddenly disappear, and these changes would some- 
tfrnes take place in the course of a few seconds. On the 5th, 
6th, and 7th, it was again observed, but not afterwards." We 
should have mentioned that the telescope which Captain Kater 
used was a Newtouian, of 6| inches aperture, with a power of 
seventy-four. An engraving accompanies this paper. 

xti. A further Account of Fossil Bones, discovered in Caverns, 
enclosed in the LiinestOfie Rocks at Pit^fnoulh. By Jas£Pu 
WaiDBET, Esq. 

We have already given the essence of this paper; it includes 

Mr* Whidbey*8 account of the situation of the caverns, and Sir 
Everard Home's catalogue of the relics, which we think are 

not quite proprrly cnjlrrl fossil hones ; this, however, might 
easily be determmed by chemical analysis. They are deposited 
in the museum of the College of Siugeoos. 

' xiii. On the Aeriform Compounds of Charcoal arid Hydrogen^ 
with an account of some tidditional Experiments on the Gases 
from Oil and frmn Coal. By William Henry, M. D. 
F.R.S., j-c 

.The labonrs of Dr. Henry have tended more perhaps than 
those of any other individual to elumdiate the natnre and pro- 



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AmisfUM of tckfUific Book$0 



pertM* of tiMie ooapocud Inflwmnwhle gaseoitt bodict «C 
niiich cluircoal and nvdrogcn are the principal constituents, 
and which are evolved during the destructive disttilation of 

various vegetable and animal products. Much, however, still 
remains to be eflfected ; it remains to be ascertaiued whether 
tlu re are two or more detinitp combinations of carbon and 
hydi ogeu, or whether the supi)osed varieties are merely mix- 
tuics of one de6nite compuuud (olefiaot gas) with vaiiaUc 
proportions of pure hydrogen ; the exact nature, too, of the 
faiet from coal and oil is by no meant made oat; indeed we 
do not know whether the anomalies which they nretent to 
the analyst, are referable to the presence of some highly in- 
flammable and volatile oily vapour, or to Uie existence of some 
hitherto unexamined compound of hydrogen and carbon ; we 
are inclined to lean to the former opinion, for the illuminating 
ppwer of the gas tVum oil is diminished by violent com- 
f>ression; by su};].jction to intense cold ; by lont; exp isure to 
water ; and by jt issing it through alcohol ; and in ail these 
cases it loses oily matter, and requires consequently less oxygen 
for its perfect combustion. yHiether there be two definite 
compounds of carbon and hydrogen, or one only, is a question 
which should be determined before the other ramifications of 
this inquiry can bo satisfactorily traced; in Uie Bakerian' 
lecture for 1820* Mr. Brande has advanced the former opinion ; 

Thomson was the first to oppose it in the late edition of 
his System ; but we have already canvassed and quashed his 
criticism *. 

Dr. Henry also argues in favour of the existence of light 
hydrocaibuuate ; such parts of bis argument as hinge upon 
Jh* Thomson's authority we shall not notice; the others are 
eUefly the following. Hie gas obtained from the clayey 
iMfttom of a stagnant pool contained ^ its volume of carfoonie 
acid, and of nitrogen; the pure portion required two vo- 
lumes of oxygen lor combustion, and gave one volume of 
carbon to ncid ; its specific gravity wn? about 556. Now as 
these results agree with those obtained by Sir H. Davy in his 
analysts of Jire^dampf Dr. Henry says there appears no reason 
for refusing to consider carburetted hydrogen (li^rht) as a 
true chemical compound, and were any additional argument 
necessary to establish its definite nature, he observes that it 
might be derived from the action of water, which absorbs it 
ift A constant pro|poftioii» and again ewlvet it mialtered when 
liealed. Bat with grant defereaee §at Br. Henry's opinion, 
we suspect that this latter point has not been sufficiently veri> 
fied, and even if admitted, we doubt whether it would justily 
tjia inferenoe which is here drawn from it. ' 

. ' * Vo^, XI., psge 145. 



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PMlosopkkal Trtametiom. 



^ Br. Henry tlieii ny; Uiat the proceM by which caibnretted 

h]Fdrogen jg^is eToIred in natarai operations is no doubt the 
decomposition of w atrr, and admits of being explained o» the 
atomic theory of Mr. Dalton, by supposing two atoms of char« 
coal to act at once on two atoms of water," c. Now we con- 
fess that we have great doubts as to t!ie above origin of car* 
buretted hydrogen gas, and rather suspect that the decoraposi- 
tion of vegetable and animal liiiiLler, is its principal, if not 
exclusive, source in nature; arising perhaps in cou'-nunes, from 
the action of whin dikes upon the coal, as suggested by Dr» 
Hutton ; and derived in stagnant dooIb from die decouposttiov 
of the or^ic relics contained in tne mud. As to die abaenoe 
of carbonic oxide in the products of stagnant water, we wonId» 
In tlie first place, ask, has its absence been satisfhctoriiy ascer* 
tained ? and, secondly, admitting that it does not exist, why 
should we expect the presence of a compound which neither 
fermrntation, putrefaction, nor re:^pirntion prodnrr, and which 
is oniy sparingly and equivocally generated during the action 
of heat on pit-coal ? • s 

The next portion of Dr. Henry's paper relates to the action 
of chlorine on carbnretted hydrogen; a subject, j^uttin^ the 
puri^ of the earburetted hydrogen ont of the qneation, so foil 
of diflficulties, so mixed up with the joint Itgency of light, hesl^ 
and water, upon the mixed ^ses, that we cannot prcamne hete 
to review it in all its bearmgs, and shall therefore rest con- 
tent with thanking Dr. Henry for the new facts which behai 
stated in relation to it. 

In liis " Experiments on the gas from oil,^' Dr. Heniy has 
shewn that the gas oblaiiied at different times from oil of the 
same quality is by no means uniform in composition. The 
readers of this Jonmal will probably require an apology for this 
mere mention of the oil qnestion bnt the following remforfci 
coming from a person of Dr. Henry*s experience and accuracy; 
we think weighty in relation to it. " So far,** he says, ^* as my 
experience goes, no tempmtore short of ignition is suffieient 
for the decomposition of oil into pcrmaricnt combustible gases ; 
but the Infertile heat that is employed, provided it be adequate 
to the ettect, the iieavier and more combustible is the g^as, and 
the better suited to artiiicial illumination/' Tliis paragraph is 
also important to the manufacturer of oii gas for domestic use, 
but least he should be led into errpr, we would observe that 
although Dr. Henry is perfectly correct, it still does not answer 
to the mannftcturer to obtain the gas in Meaars. Taylors' stoves^ 
al the lowest possible imiwiatUre, that is« a dnli red heat ^ fbr 
at that temperature, tnucn empyrenmatic condensible vapoiir 
is produced, and the bulk of the ga« proportionably diminished : 
and though it be perfectly true that ilu in creased bulk of the 
gas obtained at higU&r temperature)^ is partly referable to the 



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ia6 



Anal^sit of ScuMtific Boola* 



df»composition, and consequent expansion of the olefiant 
portion, and therefore attended by a certain diminution of illu- 
minating: power, still, as far as economy is concerned, it will be 
found advantageous to make oil gas at a bright, or cherry-red, 
beat. 

The next section Qf Dr. Henry^s paper contains the restdti 
of hii experiments on coal gas, whicn are conducted with bis 
vsnal skiU and padence, but the analyses are so mndi affected 

'by the questions discussed m tbe cooiclnding section, that we 
shall prefer employing our remaining space in calling the reader's 

attention to the author's " inferences respecting the composUion of 
that part of the gas from coal and oily which is condensed by contact 
with chlorine J' By a variety of experiments, Dr. Henry ^con- 
siders it as proved, that that portion of oil and coal gas, which 
is condensible by chlorine, (light being excluded), is of a spe- 
cific gravity of 1.4 to 1.2, and consequently, that it is not pure 
olfiant gas. Again, both Or. Henry ana Mr. Dalton, agree 
that the portion of oil and coal gas condensable by chlorine, 
requires for its entire coBO^stionmot three volames of Oxyeen 
(which would indicate olefiant gas,) but four Tolnmes and a 
half ; so that as our author himself remarks^ 

** It is evident from these facts that the aeriform inpredient of oil gas 
And coal gaa. which is reducible to a liquid form by chlorine, is out identical 
Yfilh tbe okwmt gas obUdned by tb« aedoB of anlplmiie aeid cm alcohol, 

but considerably exceeds that in speciGc gravity and combustibility. 
Two views may be taken of its nature ; for it may either be ajras no 
mfHf, hifh«vto mkiHywii, and cowB titu tg d of hydrogen and ehareoalui dtf* 
■irent proportions from those composing; any known compound of those 
eUiuents ; or it may be merely the vapour of a highly volatile oil, mingled 
fti various proportions iwlth olefiant gas, carburetted hydrogen, and the 
other combustible fjrnses. Of these tvfo opinions, Mr. l^alton is inclined 
Xi\ the first, considering it as supported by the fact that oil gas. or coal gas, 
aiay be passed through water, without being deprived of tne ingredient 
in question ; and that this anomalous elastic fluid is absorbed by agitation 
witn water, and again expelled by Iieat or other gases, unchanged as to its 
chemicalpropertics, as we have both satisfied ourselves by ispeated experi- 
ments. On the other hand, I have found that hvdrof3;en p^as, by remaining 
several days in narrow tubes in contact with duid naplitha, acquires tlie 
property oi being affected bjdilorine, precisely as if it were mixed with a 
small proportion of olefiant gas ; and I am informed by Dr. Hope, that oil 
gas, wlien forcibly compressed in Gordon's portable gas lamp, oeposits a 
portion of a highly volatile essential oil. The smell also of the liquia wUflh 
is condensed on the inner surface of a glass receiver, in which oil gas or 
coal gas has been mixed with chlorine, denotes the presence of chloric 
ether, evidently however mingled with the odour of some other fluid, which 
seems to me to bear most resemblance to that of spirit of turpentine. This 
part of tte subject is well worthy of further investigation ; but having de- 
voted to the inquiry all the leisure which I tun now able to command, 1 must 
remain satistied at present with such oondusious as are safely dednciUe 
fltMD the foregoing investigation." 

We entirely agree with Dr. Henry that this sulject deeenres 
tether Investigation, and as no one oaa be better qualified for 
its pfosectttion than hunself» we trust llhat he will resustie and 
oomplete that which he has so ably conunenoed. It is not only 
interesting as an abstract ehemical inquiry, but may also prove 
important in its relations to the eccmoiny of gas illumination. 



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Aht. XV. ASTRONOMICAL AND NAUTICAL COL* 

LECTIONS. No. VU, 

• 

i. An Essay on the easiest and most convenient Method of 
calculating the Orbit of a Cornet from Observations. Jfy 
William Olb£&s, MJ), Syo. Weimar, 1797. 

[Gontimedfffmn Vol. Xt. p. isi.] 

Section IL 

On some Equations of the First cuid Second Order, which have 
been proposed for determi^nng the £qua H oii $ ComUi^ 

• § 40. 

Now the chord k!' being 7) = v' {[^"' - ^^1' + {f'-yy 
+ (z " — ; if we develope this tbrmula, and remember 
that r' » =: a' » + y • + 2^, wd r"** =a ^"*^f^"^ ^af" w% tbaU 

we had je' = / cos » — R' cos A', y' — ^' sin — R' sin A' 

Z = / tang 0 ; and x'" =: cos a ' — R" cos A", //" M ^ 
sill a" — R'" sin A"^ z'" = M^' lang; R'" ; wc obtain s x" + 
y /" = R' R'" cos (A'" - A')' - ^" cos (A" — - M^' 
W COS (A' - ) + Mg'« cos - • ;) and z'z'" M^'f 
tang 0^ tang so that the whole equation becomes £s 
+ - 2 R' R'" cos (A'"- AO +2 / R" COS (A'"-«') + ^^M 
j'R' cos (A' — a") - 2 M^'' cos (a. - a) — 2 ^ tung ^ 
tang : for which we may write k V + + ^'^)* 

§41. 

Now T being the time between the ftrst and third observa- 
tion, we have, from Lambert's very elegant theorem, j 

(l^'*' + *'0 i - + r'*-r) ^j, Butif we I'V 

substitiited, in this equation, the values of r*" and H*, we should 
arme at an equatioii of enormous difficulty: it migihty Juswr 

ever, be reduced to the 12th] degree by substituting for Ac 
equation of Lamuert the approximation of Dusejouk^. 

T« = ^ . — ; and even to the 6th, by supposing 
~ — r= ^ .T , which is, howeycr, only at all 



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« AsirQHOimcai uad Nautical CoUectwrn. 

sible uhen r' and / ditlci but Httlcfrom each other, and k and 
T are very small. There is, however, uo occasion for these 
aiiricwud abbrenatioiit ; I6r aldiongh the value of ^ cannot be 
fiwnd unniedtately from Lambskt's fonniil«t yet it may be 
obtftmed by a ftw easy trials^ linoe wo bave tbiee eqnatii»w» 
r' = ^/ (R'« - 2 R' cos (A' - c' + sec« ^' 

= (R"'« - 2 R'" cos (A"' — »'") M^' + sec^ 0" W 
= ^/ (F + Q^' + in all which the ooefficientf of |' 

axe known magnitudes, expmied in nombert ; so that we 
bave only to assume a Tslne for / » and we obtain those ott* i^ 
and by the extraction of the square root only. From these 
we may iilid without difficulty, by means of the table of the 
descent towards the sun in a parabola, or by an easy direct 
feckoning» the time that ought to elapse between the observa* 
tiomi^ aceoidbg to the assumed Tslue of (\ This time, com* 
pared with the observed time, immediately shews whether we 
ought to increase or diminish the value of/, in order to come 
nearer to the observation. In this manner we approximate 
fa{»idiy te tile truth, and may at last employ a simple interpo- 
lation. It will seldom be necessary to make, more than four, 
or at most five, suppositions ; and the first of them will not 
require any accuracy of calculation : at least the determination 
of the true value of ^' from these three equations will always be 
much more convenient than the solution of a single equation of 
the 6th degree* 

As soon as the value of is determined, the determination of 
all the elements readily follows ; for the computation gives us 

at once r' , / , ^ , and M/, Now if we call the heliocentric 
latitudes, in the first and third observations, x' and V, we have 

gitt X' ss .^Si^, andsmx''s^^Si|l<^. If also we put 

%"* for the heliocentrio ebngatiopis of the eomet frw the 

r, . ' , /sinCA'-*-) . 

earth, we find sm t = ? — i, sm — --^^ — • / 

r cos K r cos A 

whence we obtain the two heliocentric ion|;ituUes, which may 



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Oiben*s Suayiui CmaA, 139 

be called C and C", If now we put cot = ; .-t^ — — 

— col (C — C), we shall have o) the dislcHice ot the cumet in 
longitude, at tlie tune ol the hrst observation, from the ascend* 
ing node ; and consequently C — w the longitude ai ^ 9o4iu 
The incltmlKA of the orbit is obtaiiied ffo«i the formiila taof^ 

i = . For the two heliocentric di&tances of the comet 

from its node in the plane of its orbit, u\ m"', we have cos u' = 
cos cos #9 and cos u' =: cos a'" ccm (C'— -C'-f *>) » &iid u"' — u* 
is the difleniM of the two trae aneoMUes* Now if wa maka p 
the trae anomaly, in the firat olMemtion f , we haTe» ftom dia 



known lyopertiaa of tfaaparah*^ tang cot '"—■-^-" CO ie c 

" ^ • \/ whence we have the longitude of the perihe* 

linm; and the diatance w at the perihelium is found = / cot* 
i f ; the time may also readily be found etther by direct oom* 
fialation, or by a tabk. [Or since wa mast prasioaaly^kaTa 
determined the Taloss of t\ and i% we may obtata thataf 

, ftom !!>« eq««ti«A,Note3; c: ^,-^^1^---, 
and then oos p — ^-p — 1. The longitude of the 

node may alio be deduced from its tangent = — 5^ \ 

Note 2. Til.] Note comimmicaicd by the Au i nou. [U may be 
somewhat more convenient to employ the formula tang (« + 
C"-C' sin (A'" 4- ^0 ^ /C'-C'N -I 

It is natural, as soon as ^' is found, to have the curiosity to 
calculate all the elements of the orbit, although there is no 
actual necessity to do 90% tmtil further corrections ha^^e beei|,iii^ 
troduced ; and« as Laplacs has justly remarfcad, in lo kn^ « 
compntatioa, we onght to s^e owraelTes ewy uapeMwy % 



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140 AOrominM ami NmUieai Coikcihns. 



labour. W« might dierdfore be coatented to determine eitlitf 
Hie longitude of the node and the indinatton of the orbit, or the 

time and distance of the perihelium, according to the mode of 
correction which we might prefer. Thus if be = n'" — ?/', or 
aa^ formed by the two positions of the revolving radius, 

we have cos x — 2f^f^ ' thence ^ by the formula 

1 

tang 4 ^=cot 1 • -= — ; — » which enables us to de- 

tennine the time and distance. We may also 6nd (p more 
directly, since I — aod cos* \ — — , 

wh€njce cot* I X =^ — jp — ^ » consequently tang i 9 — 

§44. 

It will be ooBveoienl to recapitulate the fovmnlsB immedt* 
•tdy neoesMury for Ae compotalioiit that thfe whole may be 
Ibond together. We first 6nd «si tang ff^ _^ 



(m sin (A' — a') — tang ^0 



, and the eoeffidents of 



(tang ^" — m sin [A" — ) <' 

R'* — 2 R'cos (A' - »') i + sec*^^'* 
f^** ss R'*' — 2 R cos (A" — Mg' + sec* jT* M*^'* 

IT' = r + r"'* ~ 2 IV K cos (A" - A') + 2 R'" cos (A'" -«') 
4.2MR'*cos (A'~a — 2Mcos j'^— 2Mtang^, 

tang g'^; hence we obtain ^ by a few trials, and from it 
all the other elements of the orbit, by means of the formulas in 
§•42 and 43. 

I 45. 

Even a superficial comparison of this method with any other 
Ibat has been hitherto proposed, will be sufficient to show its 
•dperior oondseneas and conTenience. It has also the ad- 
mitnge of being iinirersally applicable, whenever we have tbree 



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Olhcn's Mmjf m Cmttt. 



141 



observations of a comaL It is true that tiic pcoi^riM, ia 
which the chords wn Mipposed to be divided, is not m«tbem»> 
ticall J conect ; bat tfati loviiee of airar it by no mcMu very 
material : EoLsn and LAMsamT have suppoaed the Miae te 

the orbiL ul the comet ; I have only extended the supposition to 
that of the earth, and by thU exteju&ioii the inaccuracy will 
never be considerably increased, and frequently even diminished. 
None of the direct methods which have been proposed it so 
accurate ; for they all take for granted, either tacitly or ex- 
pressly, that the portion of the comet's orbit is a ritrht line de- 
scribed uniformly ; or if the arcs be assumed, v»Uh I.aplace, 
so small that the supposition creates no enor» these arcs must 
be determined by meant of an awkward interpolation* I thall 
alto show, in the next tection^ how eatily the error anting from 
the imperfection of the suppotition may be conrected. 

§. 46. 

This method of calculation may, however, be more com* 
pletely illnttrated by an example; and 1 thall take Ibr thit 

purpose that of the comet of 1769, partly because the ele- 
ments of its orbit are so well established, and jiartly because 
it hat been the most frequently employed i'or an example of 
Other methods. The observationt are Irom PiHOBif^t Gom^<^ 
graphle. 



Timet 


« 




0 




Sept. 4 14h 


80° 56' 11* 




51' 


39 " S 


8 14 


101 0 54 




5 


% 


12 14 


124 19 22 


23 


43 




For these three observationt we hare 






« 




A 










4«' 5" 


.003132 






166 


35 31 


.002665 






170 


20 20 


,002184 







t" 

Consequently "=:4 days, y =1," and Ts5« dayt. 



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inr M niU i tend tint 
Log taag 0* 9«6O0337 

=Log m 

Log m (A"-*') 



9.959299 



{ 



9.648938 
9.998760 



Log »m (A'-^**) 

(Log m sin {A"— « j 9.647()88 
iLogmsm (A"— 9.47 67 U4 



Tang/3* 

m sin (A"-0 



.43963 
.29971 



Tang 0"-M siu (A"-«") ,13992 

»nm(A"-ai') .44431 

Tang jS' .32221 

M sin (A''— «')-Uiig ^ .12210 



Log .12210 
-Log .19992 

2=Log M 



9 086716 
9;i458«0 

9.940836 



We pext compute tlie formulas 
/•-tfi'«— 2 R' cos (A- «') ^' + sec "0 and 
f^R*^— 2 il'^' «o« <A'"-»") M f' + oec *r M* vfaiofa 
become r^ssl. 01463-0.28854 /+ 1*10393 

r'^s! 1.01011 - 1.21482 .90869 ; then for the 
chord , ;^'=:r'*+r"'»-2 R'R cos (A^_A') + 2 R'" cos (A"'-«') 
/+2 R' cos (A-^* )M^^-2 M cos 2 tang 0 

tang M ^nd the calculation stands thus 
(l)LogR' .003132 (2)LogR'^ .00218 



+ Log R*" .002184 

+ Log cos (A'"- A') 9.995976 
= Log 1.00298 0.001292 

(3) Log M 9.940836 
+ Log R' .003132 
+ Logcoi(A^'")9£94274 

ss Log .689035 9*838242 



4> Log cot (A^-^0 7.89400 

= Log .007875 7.89618 



(4) Log M 
•f Logcoa(*" 
85 L4)g .68418 



9.940836 
0 9.861377 

9.802213 



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141 



(Si hog M d.940836 

+ log tang 0 9*508173 

+ Log tang 0" 9.643090 

5s Log .123€2 9.092099 



Then adding twice each of these numbers to we ham 

/•+r"'«s=2.02464- 1.50336 ^ -f 2.0126*2 
— 2.00596-4- L39382 c - L61560 

A'^s .01868*- .10954^'+ *49702e" 
Our three equa^ons therefore become 

r"'=V(1.01011— 1.21482^'+ .90869^'*) 
•/=r V(1.01453— .288.^4 10393 
r=>/( .01868- .10954 e'+ .4^02 ^'«). 
In which if we take f^l, we have r^szlAO,.^, f^s.84...y 
and irs.62..., giving the time in which fhe area it described 
26.88 days ; while the observation gives only 8 : consequently 
this value of ^' is much too great. 

We will therefore take r=.5; then r will be i.07, r'"=r.80, 
and A''s^7» and the time 11.83 dajs, which ia stiU too gnMt. 
We may next try giving /sl.02» f^=.84y iK*sa94, and 
the time 7.79 days, or somewhat too small; Hence it may be 
iiiierred that the true value of ^' cannot differ much fiom .35. 
We may tiiereibre compute more accurately for .345 and .350, 
and we shall find 



Consequently the error of the former sapposition is .07299 
of the latter +.0410 ; whence the true Ttdiie of is .34820 ; 
and by an easy interpolation we find i^s 1.02367, /':s:.83504 ; 
and Log {'"=Log Mg'=:9.482665. 



In Older to determine the whole orbit, we obtain the heliocen- 
tric latitudes firom tiie formula. 



;':s350 



r^sL02294 

r"'=: .83616 
*"= .20012 
T= 7.9271 



/=s 1.02409 

r'"=: .83441 
i5r2= .20304 
T=8.0410 



§ 47. 



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i 



144 AMronomi&ai ami Nanikal iA^Utctiom. 

8tQ x-.li5^; Whence x's!0*.17'.34*, V"=d*^.12Md*. 
r 

For the elongations from the earth, we have 

Sinirs ^"^ <^'^^X hencet's5l9°.47'.47%and.''=15°.25M6': 
r cos X 

«oiuieqiiently the heliocentric longitiidei of the comet axe C's^t 
O.'20.29'.5% and C*s(K5^.54'.d'. £j meant of the expresMon 

tane V 

— • -cot (C'-C), we End irs 

7°.ir.45'^; whence the longitude of the dcF;cending node, since 
the laatudea are aonth, will be C'«-«ssO«.2''.29'.6' — 7<>.ir.45' 
=5lK25^.16'.7'* The inclination ig foand^from the eqnatkm 

tangYc ^^^,s41^2r.30\ in the next i4ace, we have 

^ sin <y JT # 

cos ie'=cosA cos and cos it"'=co8 x'" cos (C'"— C'+i#), 
consequendy ii's=9^.32'^4', u"'=z 14°.0'.40% and u"''^u'six 
s:4^«27'.46*. Hence we find taking the third obeervation^ 
becaiwe it ia ncanr to the aon, by means of the Ibrmula tang 

f^' 1 

If sscot -^1 ; whkdigivea J^2r67*>^'.l2% 

r sin I ;^ 

and the true anomaly of the comet in the third ob&enration 
ld6^,52'«24". If we add to f the distance of the comet from 
the a , or n^", = 14^0'.40*, we obtain the distance of the peri* 
heUttm from the descendmg node ss i49^.5d'.4'; consequently, 
the longitude of the perihelinm is 4>.25^.1 IM 1'. The distance 
«■ at the pcrihtlium is ?• " cos ^ ^ (p t=i . 1 1782 : whence we find 
the time from the third observation to the perihelium, = 
24d«20h.22m. ; and the time of the perihelium October 7, 
10h.2dm. 

[Noie. — ^It mnst here be remarked that it has been nsnal 

with all astronomers, since the time of Halley, to ajjply the 
term Longitude qf the Perihdiitm to the sum of two angles 
lying contiguous to each other in different planes; one the 
longitude of the node, reckoned on the ecliptic^ the other the 
distance of the perihelium from the node, measured on the 
plane of the orbit. To reduce the longitude of the perihelium 
to tlie ecliptic, in the common sense of the term, would be of no 
practical advantage. Ta. From a letter of the AuzHoa.] 



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• Olben's £siay on Cometi* 14$ 
^48. 

The elments thus foond are these : 

Loti^ritudr' of the a 5«.25° IS'.?" 
Inclination of the orbit 4P.2V.30" 
Lon^tttde of the perihelivm 4**25Ml'.ir 
Distance %t the perihelhun .11782 
Tiine of the periheliiira 1789 October 7 KHi.^ta. 
* If now we compare these elements with those which are 
already known, they will approach very near to them, and they 
agree almost exactly with those which Laiibe&t has deduced^ 
firom obser^attoDf , like these, belbfe the peithelittm, but com- 
puted with much greater labour and bjlirequeni repetitions. 
The inclination is somewhat too great in botii cases, probably 
from some irrep:ularity of the observations. Pinore' has com- 
puted the orbit by Laplace's method from the same observations 
which I have employed: but the distance and time of the 
peiihelinm, ivhich are fhe only elements that he has determined^ 
difler mnch more from lihe truth than mine : and a ^ery super- 
ficial comparison is sutiicient to shew the superior conciseness 
of this method. 

§ 40. 

The errors of the meihod and those of the observations bein^ 
combined in tliis ezample» I shall add a secoadf from wfatcb 
0ie latter aie excluded. The Ibflowmg longitudes and ktitudes 
of the comet of 1681 are not derived from obeeivution, b«l 

computed by Halley, according to his parabolic theory of 
this comet; So that it will appear from this instance, how 
accurately we may determme^Hgain, by the method here ex- 
plained, the distances from the earth and suur 



• 0 A Locft 

Jan. 5. 6 li 0 8 49 49 26 15 15 9 26 ^2 18 9.99282 

• 9. 7 0 0 18 44 36 24 12 54 10 0 29 2 9.99303 

IS. 7 9 0 26 0 21 22 17 30 10 4 33 20 9 99325 

Consequently ^'3=4.0411, <"r=4.0055, and T=8.0466. Hence 
we find Log M=. 137562, and the three quadratic equations 
r'si ^(-^764- ^9292 ^' + 1.24328 
r*s= V(-66»41 .40185 ^'+2.^87 
r= V(0 197a6— .122756 e'^^- ^^85982 {*) 
Vol.. XII. L 



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14G A:iLroHomical and Nautical CoUectious. 

Now Mminitng ^'=1, r' becomes L27, /"sl.^S, *'=:.40; 
and T= 19.75, instead of 8.0-46(3, that is 11.7 days too much. 
If we take '.5, we have r':=:.99, r'"s=1.14, A"=.155, and 
Tsz6A5 days, or 1.9 too little. Hence we may conclude, thai 
/ cannot be very different from •SG ; and we find for 
^•=.56' <'s=.57 
r'= 1.01262 r'= 1.01662 

r'"=:l. 19773 r"'=:1.20641 
i^:!s.l8546 ^=.19020 
Tss8.0121 Ts=:8.2402 
Hie error of tbe former supposition is —.0345, the differ* 
ence of the two vahies of T .2281 : consequenliy, the tiu« 
curtate distance ^ is .561^1, aud we have 

fs: 1.0139 r"= 1.1991. 

Now, according to Halley's theory, the true ▼aluea were 
r'ss 1. 0144 and r"'ss: 1.2000; so that our method gives these 
distaiices periecily correct to the third place of decimals. 

^ 60. 

. . These ezai^plai are sufficient to show Uie couTenience and 
conciseness and certainty of the proposed method; npov^ 
which I shall make a few further remarks. In order to deter- 
mine the time iVom the distances aud the chords we have the 

formula T= ^(jr'^t'''^U'']^ ^(/•k'f'''-k'')^ ) ; ami in 
icdir to find il the moie nadily, tables have been ewnpntcd 
upon these jmnciples; taking Bs: ^ ^ and Dss 

' , we find the respective times in the tables, and 

2 

their difference, or, if the angle is greater than 1 80^, their sum 
gives the value of T. Such tables are to be found in the Berlin 
collection, but they are not very accurate: FtXQ&k hasL im- 
proved and fi^zrected them, in his Cow^le^n^i&te. 

Since ih^. tables are only calculated to hundredth parts of 
B and I have only found it convenient to employ them 
AvliL'n no great accuracy is required, as in the first preliminary 
experiments with a value of If we wish for great precision, 
the proportional parts are troublesome, stn^ the fiitst differences 



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Olbers's Essay m Comets* 147 

■ 

alone are scarcely ever sufficient for the purpose. In this cate 
it is njuch easier to compute tbe prO{yer times immediately from 
B and D. Tliii may be done very eonTeniently by the fonaolaa 
Log «'= Log B+i log B+1.4378117 and Lc^ /'ssLog D 
+ 1 log D + 1.4a78ll7, tbe time T, in which the space in 
question is described, being expressed by s — s", in days. If, 
for instance, we take r', as in the last article, = 1,01262, r'"£= 
1.19773» and k*s=A%&i6, the computation will stand that 

+ r''= 1.19773 
= 3.21035 



Half 1.10517 
ik" .09273 

Bs! 1.19790 

Qs 1.01344 

LogB .0784 2! ' LogD .00.'3G9 

^ Log B .0392 11 i Log D .002685 

Const Log l«4d7812 Const Log 1^37812 

Logs' 1.555444 LogiT 1.445866 

s 35.9290 7* 27.9169 

Hence s^— s''£=Ts=8.0121 days. If we require the time to 

seconds, we must take out the fifth place oi decimals, fur 1"^ 
.0000116, and .0001 day is 8".64. 

^ 51. 

In calculations of tiny length, it is always an advantage to 
have some check by which we may from time to time examine 
their accuracy. In the present instance we httve several such 
eipedients. At the end of the calcalation it wiQ be alio of 
advantage to compute x ^g^in from the elements which have 
been determined, and thence to find the geocentric longitude 
and latitude for the time of the middle observation : tlie one of 
these steps checks the calculation, at least the latter part of it, 
the other serves as a test of the accuracy of the eltaents of 
the orbit I ftid, fbr instance, from the elements of the comet 
of 1769 determined in 47, 48, for the 8 September 14h, the 
true anomaly 138°.19'.55", and the logarithm of Llie distance 
from the sun 9.969155, whence the geocentric longitude is 
3*. 10''.5'.57", the latitude 22'>.5^52" S. The error of longitude 

L2 



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14$ AMtrmomkul mtd Nrntiietti C&Utet^ 

in — 2^57", in Ifttitude +90"; quantiiies noiailillmMidenible 
Ibr llie first roagh estimate. 

We have many tables for finding the true anomaly of a comet 
from tlie tune given, and the time from the anomaly, which are 
to be found in astronomical works and collections. But the 
most oonYenient and complete is nnquestiona)>ly that which ts 
contained in a book not very bulky and bat little known, 
though extremely valuable, entitled, An Aicoujit of tlie Dit' 
coveries concerinng Comets^ by Thomas barker, Gent. 4. Lond. 
17^7« Pp. 64, 1 plate. The second table in this little work 
giveSy for every five minutes of the true anomaly, ihe cor- 
responding parabolic area, and the logarithm of the distance* 
with the first differences, supposing the distance at the perihelium 
unity; and hence the true anomaly and distance from the sun 
may be found for every comet, and for every given time, with 
perfect accuracy, by a calculation which is much simpler than 
that which is required by the common tables. It is much to be 
regretted that Barker's essay was not known to Ping re'. The 
mode of finding the orbit, described in it, is that of Newton, 
adapted to calculation by the author, and illustrated by a 
particular specification of all the triangles and proportions re- 
quired in it. We find three valuable observations of the great 
and ^debrated comet of 1744, almost six weeks earlier tlum 
those which are more commonly known, communicated to 
Ba&keb. by Morris ; they are 

Long. Lat. N, 

8 O , » O ' 

1743 Oct. 22 a 26 46 7 35 

27 2 24 14 8 28 

Nov. 1 2 21 24» . 9 26 

The hovr was not recorded, but Babker supposes that it 

may have been about 8 or 9 in the evening, or 8h. 17m. .; and 

he finds that these observations agree with the parabolic 

elements of the comet. [The table is also reprinted in Sir 
Henry Engl^eld*8 Essay On the Determination of the Orbits of 
Comets, according to the Methods of>Father Boscovich and M. 
de Lafilaee^ 4. Lond. 1793. Pp.. 804, 4 plates; but without 
corrections: it is here preseiited in an improved l[>rm, having 



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I 



OltOT*> Emaf (m C omi h , 149 

^ beoa oonplately ve-cilcvlated, m an af^tendix to Dr. Oi.B£ma'a 
Ettay, together With a table of tbe anomaly in a very eecen- 

tnc ellipsis, computed by a. ibrmula of Laplace.- — Preface of 
tbe Editor, Mr. you Zach.] 

% 53. 

Before I conelade tbis section, I must observe in the kit 

place, that Mr. Schulze has proposed, in the Memoirs of the 
Academy of Berlm for 1782, a method which somewhat re- 
sembles mine in flie prindples on which it depends, and in the 
general progress of tb^ calculation. But tbe compatation is 
much more dronitoits, and less convenient ; principally because 
the chord of the earth's orbit is not supposed to be divided in 
proportion to the times, and because instead of tbe curtate 
distance from the earth, the distance of the comet from tbe 
sun in the first observation is employed as tbe principal uih 
known quantity to be determined. Hiere is also a slight over-, 
sight with respect to tbe choice of observations. Mr. Scruizk 
observes that Lambeut has demonstrated that when the in- 
tervals are nearly equal, the revolving radius in tbe middle 
observation divides the chord of tbe comef s orbit very nearly 
in proportion to tbe times : **pourvu qu*im mplme dm otemi- 
<iofis amz distantes enir^eUesJ* Tbis might have been supposed 
to be an error of the press ; but in applying his method to the 
comet of 1779, he actually selects the remotest observations 
which he possessed, making an interval of more than 80 days, 
and very naturally obtains elements of the comet from tbeie» 
wbicb differ from tbe truth in an unusual degree. 

SbCtion 1V» 

ChrrecHon Ms ffonwiifr on OrStf mMk ha$ ten ^ 

\ 54. 

Some correction of tbe method explained in the preceding' 

section will always be required : partly on account of its own 
imperfection, and partly on account of the errors of observa- 
tion, wbicb must have so much the more efiect on the elements 
as tbey ninst neoessaiily be taken at short intervals of time. 

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160 AMimmm^ 0md Nmtkid Colkeiimu. 



hS5. 

Supposing U8 to be in possesaion of a long aeriet of ob# 
s>ei vaLious, we may proceed immediately to employ the most 
distant of them for the correction of the eicmeiits, in a manoer 
which will heiMftar be cspiajiied. But if, as (^len happeni» 
fhe comet hu only bem ie«ii fiw two w thcee weekip it wail b« 
tnffieient to omeet the depending on the mode of com* 
putatiuu, by a process which is very easy and con\ cni( : and 
in this case it will he best to h^gj^ with distances somewhat 
remote from each other, for instance, at an interval of 1^ 14^ 
or 16 dajSy especia% when the appaTent distance of the comet 
from the smi is nd too small. 

§ 56. 

It haf often been obsenred that our method would be ma- 
IhematicaUy coned if Ihe r^rol^g radii actaally divided the 

chords of the orbits in the precise proportion of ^ tnnes; fbr 
then in fact we should have correctly yi=M^' : since, however, 
this is seldom exactly true, we have in reality {M+v) 
f ; and knowing the elements pret^ nearly, we may now 
find th^ Tslne of the conections v and h» 

% 57, 

For the orbit of the earth, we have ad : dc—K sin (A" — A) 
: R"' sin (A"'- A"); [since Sa:sR' and Se=R% and the sines 
of the angles at <f are the same in the two triangles compared]. 




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Oibers's Essaj/ on ComU. 151 

For the orbit of the comet, having obtauu d / (§ 41), we must 
determine the lioie and distance for the perihclium, aud tlien 
the true aaomaiy at the time of the middle obserratioii. 
Henee, «• we hsve already p and x« ^ dMtarenee of iht trao 
attoinaliee between the first and second obeemrtion bein^ r, and 
between the first and third cr, we have t—^^— ^ and azsztp-^-x 
— li-rrp^^— t; and then for llie chord of the orbit of the comet 
we have AD ; DCssr' sin r : r'" sin <r : [(p being however here 
the true anomaly at the time of the Jlr^ obaenration]« • 

[Jo U comimmtL] 



Yi. An ett»y Method of ampuHnfjf the Aberration of the Stars. 

By the Rev. John Brink ley, D. D., Professor 0/ Astronomy 
in the University of IhtbUn. 

Tables for imduig the constant Arc and Maximum of Aberra- 
tion in Declination for any Star. . 

■ » 

RUL£. 

Tab. L X sin DelcL e + Tab. 11. a 
Tab. III. X sin DedL e =s a' 

a' 

tan K (or Arc for Abeir. in Decli) s — 

(K nearer 0^ or ISO*") m c= 
(K nearer 90° or 37(^ m s 

sm K 

Aberration in K.P J). = m cos (K <^ 0 Long. 

When a is + & a'-— K is in 2d Quadrant, 
a + & a + K is in 3d Quadrant, 
a — & a — K is in 1st Quadrant, 
fi — ds a' + K is in 4th QnadranL 
I NiB* When Decimation of Star is & Its sine is negative. ' 



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l&i AM^rmiatmettt and Sauticai CoU§ctifm. 

To find K and m for Cai>eUa 

TAR 1920 as 2. Ifi** 61' 

Tnb.I&=— 1800 lof. 1.2553 T«b.ia.ss +4,96 log. 0. 0^5 
DecH. * log. siu • 9. 8655 Log. siiu Becli. • 9.8556 

— 12,^ L1108 +«' log. 10.6610 

Tab.II.=:-f 5,62 —a log. 0.8627 



ass ^7,29 log. 0.8627 can. 9.6883 

Ar.Comp.cot. K 0. 0463 s 

mas 8^11 4 . 0.9099 

For Abenralum in AR in Time. 
Abenatioii in AR s mcoa O Long*) 

log tan K log tan AR 7f log sec. 23^. 28^ 

K is in the Quadrant opposite to that in which ARis €) , 
log m = const, log, 0. 1303 + log sin AR + log sec D -f 

log CO-B^ K 

EXAMPLX. 

rAR • CaasiopeiKs^ 36^ 



JAR • CaasiopeiKs^ 7^ 36^1 

1 DecU. as 65». 33 N / 

tan. r*.d5' 9.1243 
860.23 28 10.0375 



s 



Ksi6.9P.l6\ tan. 9.1618 

J. ° ' 

const, log. 0. 1303 0 Long. 8. 5. 4. 

im7^. 35 9.1205' K 6. 8.15. 

aec. 56^. 33 10. 2474' . >i 

CO MC : K 16. 8432 cos 1. 26.49 9. 7382 
0. 3414 



«»s2»20 0.3414 



Aberr. in ARsx + IfiO 0. 0796 



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Bnjakley on the Aberration of the iitar%» 



163 



« § 
CO 

< 



Q Q 



o 


+ 


GO ;0 Of 
C Oi 00 

r« ^ 


00 Q 
'O «^ 

^ #>. ^ 


00 00 

O* ^ 

^ 


O CO 
00 t>- vo 

#^ #<k #k 

o o o 


CI CO ^ C 
C* — O 

»■ » ^ 

o o o o 




+ 


o o o 

M » 

>c »o •O 


O O 00 
<^ eo 

•t •» 

»o 


00 00 CO 


;^ OI c* 
^ ^ HP 


4,40 
4,28 
4,14 
4,02 


o 


+ 


o ^ o» 

00 !>. K. 

r» ^ 


00 <^ 00 

^ r» 

fc^ !>. t>- 


O CN 
»0 »0 

^ #k 

t>- 


<o o 

CO CO OI 

» ^ 

b» fcs. K> 


00 OI CO 00 
^ O 

«h ^ ffk «k 




• 




00 o 

<-i — r^* 


0* CO 
0* OI c* 


»0 CO 
OI OI OI 


N. 00 Oi O 
CI 0» OI CO 


o 


+ 


OI O 00 

O CM^ 
^ 

tJ» CO CO 


CO o 
CO »o 'J' 

^ •* ^ 

CO CO CO 


3,28 
3,l6 


O ^ 

r» •>» c» 

0» 0< OI 


00 ^ O* 

-1" 00 OI 

^ *> •» 

OJ Of OI 






00 

9^ 00 


CO 00 c 


CI Tfi ^o 
*0 00 

•> » •> 


00 00 O 

Q4 V* 

•* ** 

CO <oco 


CI CI OI 
O O) 00 

^ 

CO »o 


O 


+ 


^ ^ 

00 CO CO 


8,06 
8,04 


00 r) 


CO ^ CN 

r" »^ 

N. h-. 


0 00 'It 

01 CO 00 

^ ^ ^ 

b«- 1^ 1^ 




Q 1 


«o ^ *o 1^ b»oo |okO 1 





■ 

^1 



5§ 



CO 


• 

Q 


C< o 
1— t 1— 1 1— < 


Oi 00 l> 


<o »o ^ 


CO e* *^ o 




l« 


11.5 


1 

+ 


«0 CO 

c» to 0» 

^ ^ ^ 

CO CO CO 


c* o> 

Oi »0 O* 

^ ^ w 

Oi OI ot 


1 CO O 
03 CO CO 

^ ^ 
I-— 1 I— ( I-H 


CO »o o 

a> CO CO o 

^ »»■ 

o o o o 


1 

+ 


0 

CO 


10.4 


1 

+ 


CO o> CO 

Tt r-l 0> 

^ 0* 

o» o» ^ 


05 CO l> 
CO ^ 

^ ^ ^ 


—< CO 00 
Gi CO CO 

^ 

o o o 


O* ^ CO O 
»— ' 00 ^ CO 

^ «k «k ^ 

o o> o> o> 


1 

+ 


1—1 

• 


CO 

• 


1 

+ 


CO »>. CO 

CO 

«s 

i> t>» 


Tf CO o 
CO o» »-» 

«^ tf^ 

l> t» t- 


00 Tf 00 

03^00 cq^ 

CO CO CO 


r}< O «5 00 

uo rr o» o 

•% ^ 0^ 

CO CO CO CO 


1 


o» 
00 






00 o> o 
»-« 1— • o» 


— ^ CO 

OI OI OI 


s s s 


00 0> Q 

« ^ CO 


Q 




oj 


Q 


O O) 00 

CO M 


CO w> 
0^ OI C4 


CO o» 


<-< O OJ 


00 l> CO 
(-4 f«4 |M4 


CO 


11.5 


1 

+ 


o 04 e« 

CO o t> 
«k «k 

Ci Oft 00 


CO CO «o 


CO 00 

t>« i> <o 


CO CO »o 
CO CO o 

«. 


5,75 
5,44 


0 0 l> 

00 »0 


10.4 


1 


OO O* uo 

o o> l> 

•« « 

CO »0 W5 


OC O CO 

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2 


20,25 
20,25 
20,8a 


17,54 
17,36 

IT IT 


10,12 
9,82 
9,50 


30 

29 
«o 


18 

19 
20 

21 

22 
23 


19,26 
19,15 

U),04 


13,55 

13,29 
13,01 


4,21 
3,86 
3,51 


12 

n 
10 


3 
4 


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20,20 
20. 1 7 


l6,9ii 
f6,78 


9,19 
8,87 


27 

26 


18,77 


I 0 '7 K 

1 2,70 

12,47 


3,10 
2,81 


9 
8 
7 


6 

7 
8 


20,14 
20,10 
20,06 


1 6,38 
16,17 
15,96 


8,23 
7,90 
7.58 


24 
23 
22 


24 
25 
26 


18,50 
18,36 
18 20 


11,91 
11,62 
11,32 


2,11 
1,76 
1,42 


6 
5 
4 


9 

10 

n 


20,01 

19,95 
19.89 


15,74 

15,51 
15,28 


7,24 

6,92 
6,59 


i?" 

20 
19 


27 
28 

29 
30 

D. 


18,04 

17,71 
17,54 


11,02 

10,73 
10,42 
10,12 


1,06 

0,71 

0,35 

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3 
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13 
14 


19,82 
19,73 


15,05 
14,81 
14,37 


6,25 
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17 

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+ - 


+ — 


D. 


15 
t5 
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19,56 
19,47 
19,37 


14,32 
14,07 
13,81 


5,24 
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Digitized by G 



AUT. %\lr^The Clovk*s dally Rate and Error at one tiwm 
^ ike Da^ being known, a TMt to find its corretpmdmg 

Error throughout the dajf. By James South, Esq. 

F« R.* Sty . 

To the pmon attached to the pursuit of practical astraaomy, 
the employmeiit of obaerfing it by no meana an ungrateful 
one ; but It too often happens that obaervationB, when niadev 

require some reductions or corrections before they can be 
converted to any useful purpose ; a circumstance which has 
ft consideiahle share in causing the science to be pursued with 
leii adTtat^o^by pMvato indifidotli^ tlwa U ottienriBe voald 
be. Indeed, in Uiis respect, astronomy aeana to labeor under 
greater incooTeniefices than any other department of natural 
knowledge, unless it be that of chemistry, iu which perhaps 
the amusement of making experiments is sometimes not a little 
Mned by the cousctouuiesa that the washing of i^paratua, |na., 
DMat be, tbe inwhablo eonaequenoe. 
UnaUe altogether te lemeve dnidgery of ri du ei n g eliicr** 

vations, it behoves us, where we can, Lu lessen it; and, for tliis 
purpose, i beg to offer the accompany iug tables shewing the 
error of the clock for any part of the day, its rate and error at 
one' time of it being known s nor can I allour thiy opportnoity- 
to escape me, without earneitly recommending the anaaleur 
observer, to ascertain the precise state of his clock every night, 
previous to his quitting his observatory. He will find that 'a 
constant and uniform att^tion to the dock, will ioeeusibly 
entail, upon^htn, hahita of acciuniOj|^aa hia othrv obaemtiom ; 
nor do I know aiiy qne thiogj which diatuoiguishea the aeearate, 
from the slovenly astronomer so much, as the manner in which 
the performance of the transit-clock, is watched and registered. 

%* The calculations upon which this table is founded, were 
extended to five places of decimals, so that the third place' 
here g;iven may be considered correct; and, for the conve- 
nience of the travelling or nautical astronomer, n table for 
reducing sidereal to mean solar time is suhjumcd, lur winch 1- 
stand indebted to tlie industry of the late Rev. Mr, WoUa&lon. 



Digitized by 



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Digitized by 



15S Given the Clock'ii Rate 4 Error at one Ijme the Daif, 







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to find its Error throughout the Day. 



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its Error throughout the Day, 



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123 
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185 
216 
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.163 


.165 


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.188 


.190 


.198 


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1 
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11. 


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6.83 


6.84 


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.853 


.862 


23 


0 



/ 

Digitized by Google 



t9 Jmd k$ Emnr fftronfAdiil tkt 1%. i95 



li . 




0.91 


6.92 


0.93 


6.94 


6.95 


6.96 


6.97 


6.98 


6.99 


I'.eo 


H. M . 


0 


5 


.003 


.003 


.003 


.003 


.003 


.003 


.003 


.003 


.003 


.003 


0 5 


0 


10 


.006 


.006 


.006 


.007 


.007 


.007 


.007 


.007 


.007 


.007 


0 10 


0 


20 


.013 


.013 


.013 


.013 


.013 


.013 


.013 


.014 


.014 


.014 


0 90 


0 


30 


.019 


.019 


.019 


020 


.020 


.020 


.020 


.020 


.021 


.021 


0 80 


0 


40 


.025 


.026 


.026 


.086 


.026 


.027 


.027 


.027 


.028 


.028 


0 40 


0 


50 


.032 


.032 


.032 


.033 


.033 


.033 


.034 


.034 


.034 


.035 


0 50 


1 


0 


.038 


.038 


.039 


.039 


.040 


.040 


.040 


.041 


.041 


.042 


1 q 


2 


0 


.076 


.077 


.078 


.078 


.079 


.080 


.081 


.082 


.083 


.083 


9 0 


3 


0 


.111 


.115 


.116 


.118 


.119 


.120 


.121 


.122 


.124 


.125 


3 0 


4 


0 


.152 


.153 


.155 


.157 


.158 


.160 


.162 


.168 


.165 


.167 


4 0 


5 


0 


.190 


.192 


.194 


.196 


.198 


.200 


.202 


.804 


.206 


.808 


A 0 


6 


0 


.228 


.230 


.233 


.235 


.237 


.240 


.243 


.245 


.248 


.250 


6 0 


7 


0 


.265 


.268 


.271 


.274 


.277 


.280 


.283 


.286 


.889 


.892 


7 0 


8 


0 


.303 


.307 


.310 


.313 


.817 


.320 


.888 


.827 


.880 


.333 


8 0 


9 


0 


.341 


.345 


.349 


.353 


.356 


.360 


.364 


.367 


.871 


.375 


9 0 


10 


0 


,S79 


.888 


.888 


.899 


.896 


.400 


.404 


.408 


.418 


.417 


10 f 


11 


0 


.417 


.422 


.496 


.431 


.435 


.440 


.445 


.449 


.454 


.458 


11 0 


12 


0 


.455 


.460 


.465 


.470 


.475 


.480 


.485 


.490 


.495 


.500 


12 0 


13 


0 


.493 


.498 


.504 


.509 


.515 


.520 


.525 


.531 


.536 


.542 


18 0 


14 


0 


.531 


.537 


.543 


.548 


.554 


.560 


.566 


.579 


.578 


.583 


14 0 


15 


0 


.569 


.575 


.581 


.588 


.594 


.600 


.606 


.612 


.619 


.625 


15 0 


16 


0 


.607 


.613 


.620 


.627 


.633 


.640 


.647 


.653 


.660 


.667 


18 0 


17 


0 


.645 


.652 


.659 


.666 


.673 


.680 


.687 


.694 


.701 


.708 


17 0 


IS 


0 


.688 


.690 


.698 


.705 


.712 


.720 


.728 


.735 


.743 


.750 


18 0 


19 


V 


.790 


.788 


.788 


.744 


.759 


.760 


.768 


.776 


.784 


.792 


12 0 


20 


0 


.758 


.767 


.775 


.783 


.792 


.800 


.808 


.817 


.825 


.833 


20 0 


81 


0 


.796 


.805 


.814 


.898 


.831 


.840 


.849 


.857 


.866 


.875 


21 0 


22 


0 


.834 


.843 


.853 


.869 


.871 


.880 


.889 


.898 


.908 


.917 


29 0 


23 

A 


0 


.872 


.882 


.891 


.901 


.910 


.920 


.930 


.939 

1 , 


.949 


.958 


28 0 



Digitized by Google 



166 



OkJc's Mate and Error, Sfc. 




Digitized 



by Googli 



TaOle Jot reducing Sidereal to Mean jTime. 167. 



A TABLE, 

SU£WIHO THl^ ACCI LL RATION Of SiDEKEAL 
oil MEAN aULAR TiMft. 


Hoars 


Miii. Stc, 


M. 


s. 


s««. 






1 


0 9 K30 


0 




0.014 


28 


4.587 


2 


0 19 659 


0 


10 


0.027 


29 


4.751 


3 


0 29 488 




20 


0.055 


50 


4 915 


4 


0 39 388 




30 

civ 


0 082 


31 

w A 


5 077 


5 


0 49 147 




40 


0 IOQ 


32 


5 242 


w 


0 58 977 








33 


5 406 


• 


1 S^06 1 


I 




0 164 


34 




8 


1 18 636 


2 


• • • 


0 328 


35 


5 '^34 

• * '-/X 


9 


1 28 


1 
o 


• • • 


0 491 




5 898 


10 


1 38 296 


4 




0 655 


37 


Of)! 


11 


1 48 125 


5 




0 810 


38 


G.225 


12 


1 57.9.5r> 


6 

1 


• •• 


0.983 


39 


6.389 


13 


2 7.784 


7 


• 


1.147 


40 


6.553 


14 


2 17 614 


8 


• • • 


1.311 


4i 


(i.7l7 


15 


2 27.443 


9 




1.474 


42 


6.881 


Id 


H 37.373 


10 




1.638 


43 


7.044 


17 


2 47.102 


11 




1.802 


44 


7.208 


18 


2 56.93^i 


12 




1.966 


45 


7.372 


19 


3 6.761 


13 




2.129 


4^ 


7.536 


20 


3 16.591 


14 




2.293 


47 


7.700 


21 


3 26.420 


15 


» * * 


2.457 


48 


7.863 


22 


3 36.250 


16 


• • • 


2.621 


49 


8.027 


23 


3 46.080 


17 


• • • 


2.785 


60 


8.191 


24 


3 55.909 


18 


• • • 


2.949 


51 


8.355 




■ 


19 


• t • 


3.112 


52 


8.519 




m i 


20 


« • • 


3.276 


53 


8.681 






21 




3.440 


54 


8.846 


4 




22 




3.604 


S5 


9.040 






23 


• • » 


3.768 


56 


9.174 






24 


• • • 


3.932 


57 


9.338 






25 


• • • 


4.099 


58 


9.502 






26 


• « • 


4.259 


59 


9.665 


m 




27 




4.423 




9.830 



Digitized by LiOOgle 



168 



Aet. XVII. Mkcelioiieom ItUdligence. 
I. Mechanical Scibncb. 

1. ApplicaHon of /Ae iltr PtCM|».^Mr* John Oldham of the 
Bank of Ireland* has lecenUy applied the air pump to many 
operations in the arts, and in which substanoeB are to be im- 
pregnated with fluida, and with great succesB; thtia, in the 

sizing of paper, for instance, the paper is piled up evenly in a 
vessel capable of being rendered air-tight, an exhaustion is 
made, the siie introduced, and the air's pressure admitted; 
when the tiuid passing into the pores of the paper riits it regu- 
larly, and without injury to the fabric. In the same way paper, 
silk, flax, cotton, and woollen staples, either raw, spun, or 
woven, may be dyed very regularl v. hk the processes or boiling, 
soaking, or jHcklin^ food, dire, this process may be used to r»> 
move &e air and mtrodttce the fluids, and its applicatioo is 
easy and evident in numerous similar cases. An apparatus of 
this kind is erected at the Bank of Ireland for wetting bank-note 
pnper preparatory to its bein^ printed on; an immense quan- 
tity of this paper ia wetted without delay, and witliout any in- 
jury to the paper. 

2. Adhesive P«tt.— Mr. William Wood of Bow, Middlesex, has 
dbcovered that a light felt of hide or hair, or mixtiiTe of hide, 
fiair, and wool, when saturated with tar is highly elastic and 
water<>proof, and conceiving the useful application of the snb- 
stance as a lining for the sheathing of ships, he manufactures 
it in an expeditious and economical manner, in sheets of suit- 
able size for that purpose ; such sheets being attached to the 
extcniul sides and bottom of the ship, by simply nailing with 
copper nails, are covered with planking. The substance he 
terms adhesive felt ; it possesses the property of elasticity in 
SO, considerable a degree, as to stretch unifbrmly without frac- 
ture or injury either to its texture or its complete impermea- 
billty to water, whenever the ship's seams are opened by strain- 
ing in hard weather, or in more dangerous cases of the starting 
of planks, or the breaking of timbers as in stranding. In aO 
such cases this material forms an impenetrable and elastic case 
or garment for the whole ship's bottom, and in the case of the 
opening of seams by straining, it recovers its first dimt usions 
with the return of the part so opened m tlie release of the 
strain ; in such cases it generally falls into the openings in a 
certain degree so as to render them alterwards more secure 
against a recunence. He also finds it lo be a complete pro- 
tection agamst every destruction of worm in all climates ; this 



Digitized by Google 



Ckmkai Sciemx. 169 

destroctlfe animal ii amr known to penetrate dM aiateriftl ui 

the slightest degree. The hair, or hair mid nool, is pM- 
Iparad for felting by the operation of dressing or bowing, m 

m the practice of hat-making, and is filted in the usual manner. 
Sheets or portioas, thus felted, are dipped into the melted tar 
and pitch, certain stated proportions to each other, and then 
undergo a sliglit compression to take away the extraneous or 
dripping quantity of the material ; tliey are then exposed fur a 
short time to air to dry and coo!, mm tie eofieldmd fit for 
JM^'^Nem MimAlf Mtu^azimf July, p. 347. 

3. TTie Apograph. — This is a newly-invented instrument for 
copying drawings upon paper, copper, or any other substance 
capable of receiving an impression, and upon any scale . It is 
said, the arts furnish no instance of an instrument resembling 
it eitiier in iu opmtm or appearaocot eicept, perhaps, the 
fMAtograph, ftom which it differs ia the position of the beam In 
an horizontal plane, and in the addition of a counterpoise to 
letuni the hand when the beam is not vertical^ and in other 
spects. Mr. Smith, of Ayr, is the inventor. 

4. New Madder Xo^e.-— Mr. Field, after seven years of much 
labonr, has nrepated n kke from nndder which) in point of 
brilfiancy ana strength both for oil and wnter-eolours has, till 
within a short time, had notiiiing comparable to it in the arls« 
it is also of a yery durable nature.— -ivsio ifoatiU^ Miig. Sept 

5. Coniamuiaiiou of Salt Jor Manujaclories. — The following 
Question having been proMwed to the Academy of Sciences by 
tte Fkench Ministry : what are the prooesses to be adofMi 
in GOntambatug common salt without injury to the soda mi^ 
nufiMCtories, which will not permit of its rerappcqpriation to the 
uses of common life by any secret process, or at so little ex- 
pense, as to make the chances or the profits encourage fraud ?" 

The academy in answering say, that it is impossible to re- 
solve tlie question because of the high price of salt, but that 
the folluwmg means will render the fraud the most diiS&cuit. 

1. Colour the salt by of wood charcoal. 

2. Infect it by of oil» distilled from aniiual substances, 
or hy^Jj of tar. 

3. To make the mixture m the magasmes. 

II. Chsmical Scibnob. ' 

S CiiBifiaTnT, Ei:.ncTniciTT, Maovsttsm. 

\. On the Analysis of Alkaline Minerals^ by M. Berthier. — 
M.Berthier, remarksinuB|)aper on this important part of Analyti- 
cal Chemistry, l^at the use of barytes is mconYenient from the 
necessity there is of repeatedly heating it with the mmml to be 
analyzed before the action b complete; and uncertain firom the 



Digitized by LiOOgle 



.170 MiiMiimmut hMigmee. 

lillUlMltini f that 6v«ry time an alkaline glass is heated verf 

highly with fixed bases in quantity sufficient to combine with the 
sihea a portion of the alkali is volatilized, amounting iu some 
cases, even to one half. Burai ic acid complicates the analysia, 
and especially that part of it wliich relates to the alkali. 

Here M.Bertliier has been induced to suggest, in place of either 
those substances, the use of oxide of lead, and has found it so 
mifwtttat in hit own •xpuiiMats m to have •nployed it eon- 
MDtiy Cor moM than a year at r£6ola dM Bfni«f« Atfictt^ car- 
bonate of lead in the proportion of tfaMato«iaof ifaettlMMWaa 
niedy bat on fusing this m platinum or sliver vessels, though a 
mass was obtained perfectly soluble In acids, yet the crucibles 
were frequently acted upon, because a portion of lead was some- 
times reduced by something in the stone, or by the fumes of 
the fuel. 

To obviate this inconvenience, nitrate of lead was used, and 
the following is the process : i he mineral is to be pulverized and 
then exactly mixed widi two parts of sdtfate of lead and one 
part of «aniM also pulvefimd. Hie mixtm Is to be placed in 
a snuill covered fdatnmm crndble^ and this placed m another 
cradUe also to be covered ; they are than to be li ited red for 
a quarter of an hour without being unco?ered ; the fusion takes 
place tranquilly and without swelling, and a yellow or brown 
transparent liquid ^\^'^% is obtained. The crucible is then taken 
out of the furn icc, and its contents poured into water, as much 
of it being taken out with a spatula as may be, and then the 
crucible itself plunged into the water. The glass splits into 
small portions and is readily acted on by acids. It is then boiled 
vith nitric acid, and fiom tune to thne the portions of silica are 
cradled ivith an agate or poiodain pcetle. The silica remalaa 
in a gelatinous state. The lead is precipitated by sulphnrieaeid^ 
the liqaor being tested altimately by sulphuretted hydrogen that 
no portion may remain. The solution is then boiled with car* 
bonate of ammonia, and the precipitate analyzed by the or- 
dinary method. Finally, the liquid is te be evapornts d to dry- 
ness, the salts calcined in a platinum crucible, the residuum 
collected and weighed. This residuum contains the alkali in the 
State of sulphate, and almost always mixed with sulphate of 
magnesia. It may be treated as follows : 

1« Precipitate the wslphafic add by aeetate of harytes, ccQect 
die precipitate and weigh it ; precipitate the barytes by caibonate 
or oxalate of ammonia. £vaporate the clear solution to dryness, and 
collect the salt left : it will be a mixtare cC alkaline subcarbcHoate 
and caustic magnesia; weigh it, and expose it to the air. If it con- 
tains potassait will deliquesce; wash off thr nlkali from the mag- 
nesia, ;uid weigli the latter, then ascertain whether the alkaline 
carbonate be of potassa, soda or lithia. When the sulphates 
first obtained are neutral, it is sufiicitiut to determine very 



Digitized by Googl( 



exactly the quantUv of galphapc mad and 

the nature of the alkali. 

Or, 2. Precijiitate the magnesia and sul}>liuric acid by liaiytes 
wat<ir, and the excess of barytes by carbonate of ammonia; 
evaporate, 'calcine, and the alkaline suljcaibtinate is left pure. 
The maguebia ma^ be bvij^aiaied iium tiie sulphate oi bar^U^ 
by meMw of aa acid. 

Or^ 3. Pwcipitate the magnaM by Uom watar, tlie liaK by 
carboaaae ar osalala of anmonia* evaporate, €aldna> tfuftM 
magn^i* ia obtaioad inBadiatf!y» aad tba alkali itt tliaatala of 
ialph«le> 

In examining- a mineral for alkali, in the first instance, ona 
part of it powdered may be mixed with three parts of ceruse, 
the mixture put into a crucible so large to half fill it, 
that criicii)Ie placed in another, and the whole licated to white- 
ness, until it be perfectly fluid. Remove the small crucible, and 
when cold, collect the glass^ and those parts to which it adheres. 
Pidveriia it and boil in cooibmii munatie add. Whaa it baa 
acted iufficiaallyi a!va|pofate to dryaatai and Iban waab wUk re- 
peated aaMdl portions of boiling water, Tba silica will be left 
with most of the lead in the state of muriate. Precipitate tha 
solution by lime water, which throws down all the otncr eartba 
and oxides, and then precipitate the lime by carboHate of am- 
monia, boiling both tuurether, evaporate to dryness, add a little 
sulphuric acid tu the residue and heat it, the alkali re mains as a 
sulphate. If. there be no magnesia present, the lime water may 
be spared, and the precipitation at once made with carbonate of 
anunonia.— iliMk A GIm xvit. p» 28* ^ 

8. Chn^umls of Molybdenum, Ckrmmum, Tungsten, Antimomf^ 

jre^— Tha Ibllowm^ rasoHa m ftom a paper on tha oompotatioB 

of several inorganic combinationB by M. Beraeliaa. tney ate 

to be considmd as like most aceurate resnlte to be obtained by 

diat cheniiat' 

1 X * 1 J fMoWbdic acid 
Molybdate of U»i [^^^^^ 

U<AjhXc add \ ofjXT"^ : 

Chromic acid 
Oxide of lead 
Chrominm 
^Oxygen • • 

Chromic oxide (green)|^Q^*^''*^ | 
Sulphnret of timgsten I J^"^*]^ • ; 

The blue snbstance which remains after the decomposition by 
heat of tODgstateoC anuDoniaincloseTesselsiisofapartiealar 



Chromato of lead 

Chromic ^id 



39.185 


• 100 


60.815 


- 156.2 


66.613 


. 100' 


33.387 


50.12 


31.853 


. 100 


68.147 


• 213.924 


53.98 


- 100 


.46.02 


85.65 


70.11 


- 100 


29.89 


42.64 


74.891 


- loa 


25.109 


33.53 



Digitized by LiOOgle 



§ 



m Mucelianemu hUdUgmce* 

nature. It dissolves in caustic alkalies rather more slowly than 
the yellow acid of tungsten, and loses its colour. The solution 
yielof jthe ordinary tungstates. If heated in an open cylindri- 
oii f ltd , H iMeoiM ^ow at te toiteet b«it lematnt blue 
iMiIb; apio^tetitfcliaiigeof Golowttpiodiioedby tbeao- 
twt of air. When heated until the yelknr ookmr was perfect, 
it gained in weight, bat the increase was nem more tbaa 
a0025, or at the vei^ utmost 0.003 of its weight 

I hare found that tungsten forms an oxide beneath the acid. 
It may be produced by passing hydrogen gas over red hot tung- 
stic acid in a tube. When the hydrogen passes without deposit- 
ing vapour of water, the acid is reduced to the state of oxide. 
This oxide is a chocolate-coloured powder which does not in 
the molrt way oomMne either with acidi or haaea. Hiakaa 
fire at. a temperatare much bdow redneas, and bums like lfai« 
der : 100 parts of the oxide produce 107 of tnngatie aeid, from 
wheoee it follows that the oxygen In tiiia oxide is to that in llw 
ai!id as 2 to 3. ' ' 

On the much disputed and uncertain subject of the oxides of 
antimony, M. Berzelius after remarking on the difficulty of 
giving an accurate result, states that he has found two data 
which are easy to verify and important in their evidence : the 
one is, that 100 of antimony oxidated by nitric acid, and heated 
red, and sufficiently to deconipose all antimonic acid, gtvea 
194.8 of anlimoiiiona icML ne aeeond mmUj hmnible 
point iSy thatwhen anHmeniotta add la misoM wim y ar a ati- 
>ttOiiy» pulyerized and heated in close vessels without access of 
air, the acid is converted into fusible oxide combining with a 
portion of the mixed metal, equal to one-third of that in the 
antimonious acid, proving that the ratio between the oxygen 
in the oxide and that in the acid is as 3 ; 4. The compoa^ioa 
is as follows : 

AaUau.oiou.acid ; 

A *• • iAntimony . 76.34 - 100 

Anumomcacid joajgen ^ . 23.66 - 3t 

The ojEygen heuig as 3, 4, and 

(Silicum . 49.641 49.716 

• 1 0xygen . 50.359 - 50.2S4 

* T^— A-u^j-.-.fr!^™«^Copper . 79.825 - 100 

Deiilc»deofCa|iper|Q^^^^^^ . 20.175 - 25.272 

AnndUs de Chim. xm I* 
(Mdeqf Cftremtimi.— If thehydratedgrenioxideofchro* 



Digitized by Gopgle 



Chemical Science, 



173 



niam be beated by aa afcohol lamp, it will loM iti ivtlv« „_ 
become of a deep gteen, nearly milfk» Let It be weighed^ and 
then healed to redness, it will appear to inflame at the moment 
vividly. The cold oxide is of a fine gieen, has lost nothing in 

weight, hut is insoluble in acid^, or at least the loss in weight 
is so small as not to surpass 0.0025, and is occasioned by a 
little acid that adheres to it, notwithstanding its being precipi* 
tated with excess of ammonia. The acid becomes evident to 
the smell at the moment of ignition. This phenomenon is of a 
similar nature with the ignition of many metallic antimoniates, 
gadoUnlteyand tbebjdrateof aieoii.^2ilfrf.ilii* Olwi. XfiL If. 

4. Carburet of Nickel, — Carburet of nickel, when obtained 
bj beatiDg the oxide with leein and oil, is, aceoi^ng to Mr. 
ttMSy a amlaiiee veiy mnch resembling plumbago ib Its appdir- 
aate, but it moia nicaoeoQa. When nickel, rednced aa iuki^ 
aadeonaeqneBtly caataining carburet, waa cheated to fusicnAy'a 
portion of the compound roee to the surface, having the ap- 
pearance of micaceous iron. It is not acted on by nitric acid^ 
and may therefore be obtained by dissojlving out the nickel by 
tb»t acid.— il7»»a^ ^ PhiU ii. p. 149. 

5. On the Alloys of Chromium^ Iron, <in<l Sfcd. — M. Berthier 
has lately been engaged oa these compuundi, and has ffiven 
much interesting information respecliiig them, in a paper pub^ 
lished tn the Anmttki 4b CUmur, xviL p. 65, Chrpmivm has so 
atmg an afBoity for iron, that the presence of the latker motal 
tary modi Ibeflltrtea the rednctioii of the former, and the com* 
biaatioiii which retalt are, according to M* Berthier, more ana« 
logons to snlpharets and phosphureta than to alloys. The 
oxide of chrome also has so strong an affinity for the oxide of 
iron, a? frequently to prevent its reduction, an effect that is not 
observed with any otlier substance. 

Oxide of chromium heated very intensely, in a ci ucihle hned 
with charcoal, was completely reduced, and gave a button that 
had suffered hast^ fusion, was brittle^ hard, grey in some 
places, grey-Uack m odiers, perhaps oontabiing caibon io com* 

DDMaOII* 

Mfartuiae of oxide of iron a»d oxide of chromium, in various 
proportions, were heated in crucibles lined with charcoal, and 
reduced, giving perfect combinations of the two metals. These 

alloys are generally hard, brittle, crystalline, of a whiter grey 
than iron, and very bright, less fusible, much less magnetic, and 
much less acted on by acids than iron, and these characters are 
more marked in proportion as more chromium is presenu An 
alloy, rehulting fiom an equal mixture of per-oxides of iron and 
oxide of chromium, gave a rounded button^ full of cavities, lined 
with prismatic ciyatals» iu ftacturci oystallme. . J[ts colour 



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174 



Alisceiitineous InUlligence. 



whiter than platinum, and hod encmgh to scratch glass like a 
dlmoiid* It WM ctfltly i'6iiiiuibl6 to powdcf is u ttioftar, and 
ili powder was metaHic. Strong acida, sod 
lie acid, scarcely acted on it *. 

Chromata o#iron, being heated m a craeible lined with char* 
coal, the iron was onlj redaccd into a minor state of oxidatkm, 
and acted on tho magnet. Witliout the prescnwa of the okida 
of chrome, the iron would have been reduced. 

On heatinj:^ chromate of iron witli an equal quantity of g-la«:<5, 
containing 16 per cent, soda, there was reduction of part ot the 
metaU, and a loss of 10 per cent, which M. Bcrthier thinks is 
iron and chrome Tolatiiized, because a metallic scoria appeared 
OH tfwiiniSiaa of tk» cnidhiat: aad tUa loas waa graater on 
aMiiif barax^ and inereaaed with ks quantity. 

Tiia baal method of (Staining the alloy from chromate of iron^ 
Is to itisc it in a erocUde lined with charcoal, with .30 of liaM 
and .70 of silica, or with 1. of alkaline glass, or better atiU 
with .40 of bortix; and to obtai;i as much chroauuna aa poa* 
Kiblc, a poiuon of oxide of iron S!;oiild Ik- added. 

In consequence ot liie experimi iits dtisciibed, p. 319, Vol. ix. 
of tli is Journal, M. Berthier was induced to try the effect ob- 
tained by adding a portion of this alloy to steel. Two alloys of 
cast-tteel and ehraniiuii were made, one with O.Ol, the other 
witl^.015 of ohromiiim. These boUk forged well, the first bet* 
tar tnan cast^staaU A knife and a raxor were made from them,, 
and both proved very good ; their edges were hard, and solid^ 
but their mosi remarkable character was the fine damask thev 
took, when washed over with sulphuric acid. This damask 
was composed of white silvrrv veins, and nearly resembled that 
given by the alloy of steel and sdver. The white parts are pro- 
bably pure chromium, on wluch acids have no action. There 
is room to suppose that chromic steel will be fouiid proper fur 
the manufacture of damask blades, which will be solid, hard, and, 
hare a fine appearanca» aod also for nmj othar iastrumairts. 
It was prepared by fusing together caat^lael and tha alloy of 
duKupiw aod iron. 

6. 0» lib Ovm&jMrfiofs ^OsMet wUh OUbrma, Mtm, md- 
Offtumg^Hf % M. GraaviUa. — ^The componnda loanad by the 
mmnaf mudaa withchlofma, hava nMr been aKa s ia a d 

in a general manner. Messrs. Vanquelin, and Thomson have 

been nrj^anred milIi %r,mc of them, but still a chasm exists 
in the clieniical knowledge of substances with res^ard to these? 
compounUs. iVl« Granvi&a has added to the number which w«bu 

* Query, the pioportiauof tteis pioperties doe to carbon combmation 

with ike iron f - 

tMyiMiablMbaalMif . 



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I 



I 
i 

Ckemkal Sckme. 175 

kvown to exist, and has gifok the o o anp o ri ti on of many of them 

obtained by direct analysis. 

T1-»e substance known in tliisrmintry bv tVie name of bleacb* 
ing-powder, is a subchioride of lime ; it consists of 

Hydrate of linM^ 1 atom - 67.914 

Chkiriae - 1 atom - 32.086 

I wbeD put into water, half flie lime it liberated, and a adatton of 

neatra) chloride of lime is obtained^ trbick aonfiila of 

I Hydrate ot iime, 1 atom - 51.416 

• ' Chlodne - % atoms - 48.584 

This solution is not altered bj long boiling^, for it still destroys 
the colour of indigo, and that even after evaporation, provided it 
has not been perfertly drifjd. Acids liberate chlorine, evea the 
carbonic acid of the air can effect this decomposition. 

The chloride of hyd rated baryta is not a sub, bui a neutral 
chloridei being formed of 

2 atoms of chlorine - - 29.28 
I atom of hydrate baryta - 70.72 

Its properties are the same as tboao of the nentral chloride of 
Imie* 

Hydrate of zinc dbsolvet nodUy in chlofitte» and the solnt- 
tion, when boiled for a quarter of an hoar* strongly discolours 
indigo ; evaporated to dryness, it leaves oxide of zinc, and 
disengages a UUlft chlonne^ On being analysed, it was foand 
to contain 

oxide of zinc, - - 53.2 , 

chionue, 1 atom - - 46.8 

The chhmdes of ma^esia and of the oxidn of oepper re- ' 

semble that of the oxide of zinc. 

Hydrated per-oxide of iron, dripd between pnprr, when 
placed in chlorine eras, ^mediately iiquehed, and gave a deep 
red solution tliat discoloured indigo. When boiled, the chlo- 
rine was disengaged, and oxide ol iron deposited. 
^ Oxides of alumium, bismuth, antimony, tin, tellariom, were 
not diMMifodby dilooae ; per-ondaof baitem* wan lednoed to 
proteodde, and then a ohloinde of that onlde formd;- pf o* 
toside of lead, niekel, eobalfey sttd manganese were peroiidand. 

Hence chlorine appears capable of combinine with most of 
the metallic oxides, whidi are not reducible by heat : of those 
with which it will not combine, some do not act at all on it, 
except at high temperatnres ; others peroxidi^e, and thus lose 
their tendency to combine with it, just as they lose in part their 

• affinity for acids. Desiccation converts the chlorides ot oxides, 
either into metallic chlorides, or chlorates ; all of them, except 
the s ub-chloride of lime, are,ua thai composition, aiialogow te 



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176 MuceiUmom bttIHgimee. 

the metallic chloridety into which they may be tiaiiefoniiad bf 

]os[n<x their oxyf^f*^- . 

Wheii red oxide nf mercury is boiled with solution of chlorine, 
or when treated hv a bo ilmg solution of con osive sublimate, a 
black crystalline matter i& obtained, which is a combination of the 
red oxide, and the deatocUoride of mercviy. It is idso formed 
by precipitating a hot sdlatioD of eomstfe tublunate b;^ potassa, 
aotin excess. When analysed it gave es Hs composition, 

5 atoms of deutoxide - 79.942 

1 atom of deutochloride - 20.058 

This compound, M. Granville remarks, tends to strengthen 
the opinion, that the chlorides dissolve ia water, without being; 
converted into muriates; otherwise it must be ad mi tied that 
decompositions and recompositions of water are effected by very 
weak causes* such as the sffinity of chloride of mercury for 
made of mercury, or the cohesion of the oxido-chlorideu 

The precipitate obtained by pouring; muriate of antimony into 
water, is an oxido-chloride of antimony. It fuses without de- 
compositiont and is composed of 

Protoxide of antimony, 7 atoms 82.01 

Chloride of antimony, 1 atom 17.99 

The similar preparation of bismuth is also an oxido-chloride; 
it has tile game properties as the compound of antimony^ and 
when analysed gave, as its composition, 1 atom chloride of 
bitmuthy 4 atoms oxide of bismutn« 

Chlorides combine with ammonia as well as with oiides. 
The composition of the following three are given :« 
chloride of phosphorus, 

Chloride of phosphorus, 1 atom . , . . ; 63.502 
7 atoms m.4ld9 



Ainmoma chloride of tin, 

Chloride of tin, 1 atom 79.06 • ■ 

Ammonia, 4 atoms : » » 20.94 

Ammonia cUortde of mercury* 

Deuto-chkiride of mercury, 1 atom . . . 94.09 
Ammonia . * ' 5.91 

Iodine appears to combine with oxides in the way that chlo- 
rine does. The compound with lime and strontia appear each 
to consist dfdflbS atom of ^e oxide, and one atom of ipdine. 
Hiom fonAed by oxide of rinc, potassa, l^c, appeared to be 
perfect ; but the composition is not given. 
■ ^ In addition to what M. Gay Lussac has said of the combina- 
tion of cyanogen with oxides, M. Granville adds -that the hy- 
drate of strontian instantly absorbed much cyanogen. Hydrate 



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177 



of limo did the same, and became black. Hydrate of matjnesia, 
diied III AH, also absorbed ihe gas. The cyanides of iinic 
and stronUan contaia 1 atofli of oxygco, and 2 atom» of 

cyanogen. 

A combinutioii of oxide ui mcicuiy and cyanide oi mercury 
alio exists ; it is probably formed of 

3 atoms of cyanide of mercury 1.737 

2 atoms of peroxide 992 

Am* de Ckm. x?u., p. 37. 

7. On a New SaUfiable Uoiey by Dr. G. Ci u^uaLelii.-— Dr. 
Qrugsati^, in pursuing hU ezpertmentt on uric acid, ha* dii* 
covmd a new sali6abla bate, iliis subatancei with bts experi* 
4»eiita on it» have baea deacribed in a utmoir read to the Royal 
Institute at Milan, on January 4> 1821. An abridged acoonnl 
of it is imrted in the Owmale de Fiska, t. iii., p. 464. 

The new substance is produced by the action of liquid acids 
on uric acid. Tbote that have b»^en used are the sulphuric, nitric, 
muriatic, and acetic ; and the uric acid may be eitiier that of caU 
culi or of birds or snakes. It ib formed by adding concenUsvted 
sulphuric acid, for instance, in small quantities at a time, to 
uric acid, until a thick paste is formed ; it will occasion swelling; 
tfie ltbai«tio» of gas, and a pankular odour. When these ' 
signs hmee ceased, add water, the mass will become very white i 
and on standing, will separate into two parts. The solid por- 
tion is a neutral combination of the new base with sulphuric 
acid. The fluid is a portion of this compound dissolved in the 
excess of acid, and contain in ^i; impurities, 'i'lie sulphate it but 
little soluble in water, but the solution, decomposed by alkaline 
subcarbonates, yields a white ligiit flocculeiit substance, winch 
is the base m question. Muriatic acid la, peruaps, better tlian 
the sulphuric for the preparation of this siibstaiMie» inasmuch as 
Ibo miffiata is mm yoW** AMia amd saqnivea bailiiiy to 
form Uf and nitric acid produces it among otlwr prodimts al Ui« 
lime of Its violent aiBtioii. 

Tbs floceulenft matter collected on a filter, appears like gelflp 
tine; in drying it contracts and splits, and when pulverized has 
the appearance of an earth. It has no taste or smeU. It is 
slightly soluble in water, alcohol, acids, and alkalies. The im- . 
pure acid solution is eminently distinj^uished by its property of 
giving a very fine azure precipitate with tiiplc prussiate of 
potassa, and which may readily be distinguished, after a few 
experiments, from ihat caused by iron. It may, perhaps, be ap- 
plici^le to dyeing or painting. The neutral coml;»ination of tha 
substance with sdds dees hot g^ve the tSne precipitate, it ce- 
quircs for this purpose excess of acid^ 

This 8ul»tai*ce combines with variou< simple bodies. With 

Iodine it forms a compound at conuuou temperatureS| of a 
Vol, XU. N 



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178 



Mhceiianeoui InieUigeme. 



dull yellow colour, resolved by heat iiito its two priociple^r 
When fused with sulphur they unite together ; its com- 
poimd with phosphorot w of a me red colour, and wbeii db- 
iohred in water, ooceeioQt tbe toaetion of phosphontted Iry* 
dvofen, and a p h o i p h at e . 

'niis substance luu eatraordinaiy powers of resisting beaL^ 
It might be taken for an earth, or metallic oxide, in this re- 
spect. The following are 2:iven ?s experimental demonstrations 
of its properties. An acid solution, put on a plate of zinc, 
gave a yellow spot with metallic splendour. This, well 
Wcislied, dissolved in an acid, and tested bv triple prussiate of 
poloiisa, gave a blue-white piecipilalu ; liie ij»lue culuui bein^ at- 

ttitated tolheneir eabetaooew The eolation that had actea on 
the lino ^^ava no Uae ooloar with the teet| hot only a white* 

A portion of it mh^ed with lanm-bkclL and oil, vdA heated 
violently in a crucible for half an boor, left a reddifth crast, the . 
solution of which, in aoide, gate an aaare preeipitate wUb the 
triple pmssiate. 

The azure matter burnt in the fire with facility, and left a re- 
sidmim of a bright red colour, it the heat had been intense; but 
» if moderate and coiiUiiucd, the residuum is scarcely red, and 
when placed m water produces tiocculi of the substance and 
bubbles of the gas. ' 

■Anunonia diaaolvea the eabftance, making it Hreiyellow^ then 
green ; when heated modevetely, a tesidttuni ie obtained of a 
yeitow metaUie colour ; if more heated it beoOMs white, and 
lloes not seem to differ from the enbstance fint dissolved. The 
yellow matter dissolved in dilute acid gives a red tint to ferro- 
prussiate of potassa, which expoeed to the air beoomet groan' 
Other changes take place* * 

Nitric acid appears to alter the nature of the new substance. 
\Viien it is added in a cunctnlialed state to tlie substance or its 
salts, the pruenate does not then produce a blue precipitate, but 
n yellow tinge. Mphmie acid, wh^ aMietid bj heat o&s 
' itiailar phewMaena. . 

One eennot help anepecting, that the blae precipitates ia 
^Aese experiments are occasioned by wm^ and yet it la dttficnlt 
to conceive how that metal, if present should eseape the ob* 
servarion of Dr. Brugnatelli. Further experiments are reqdired, 
and of a more deoiMTe nature, to dear up tiua matter. 

8. Mffccis of Copper on Vegefation. — -Some time since (says 
Mr. Phillips) I accidentally spilt some solution and oxide of 
copper near the root of a young poplar tree, in a siiuit time the 
tree began to droojp ; the leaves ou the lower branches dying 
iMtt wl eventaaily thdee on the upper ones. Ou cutting a 
bnoieh fitnin the tree, I cpbsenred that the loDtfe war coTeied 
ooppttr to ihe ivhole bieadth of the bitnob, shewrngthat 



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1 



the coj)}>('i' li:ic] bfPTi nbsor^efl, and had unddliblidiy fHWiA 
iktai to the hie oi the tree« — Ami» Jt^ldl, ii. p« 77. 

9. On Succiyiic Acid, h/f M. .Julien, — Thv (jistijlatu n of this 
acid from amber in the general way produi cs it. in a very siniall 
quantity; by coarsely powdering the amber, and then mixing 
villi it previous to distiUatioii part of auhihuric acid, di« 
Kiled with an «qiMl wtlghl oTivMr; tkt iMuie add iiill 
prodnoed in abMit twice tlie qwntity got J« the old im, Tbt 
acid is easily pariiied by cryfttallizat ion from NIUMSPMI 
and sulphuric acids with whidi it will be found costumiMAid* 
I believe the adding of sulphuric acid, in order to increase the* 
production of succinir acid was first noticed in a late German 
pa]ier; T have forirot tf ti by wlrom it was there advised, that the 
diluted acid after beinir niixed with the amher should be eva- 
puraLed ; this rnakcs the process tedious, and is not necessary; 
the distillation of the mixture without any previous evaporatiou 
win be ftMfnd more M d f 9ui»^to kM^AnmAi ^PlmL ». p» 76. 

4 

l^.^Wmiflft AfftfrtOm ^Mprootri.-'^Ite Mowing fcrai of 
Woulfe's appamtus ii dito to tho Marquess RidoM. Tlie bol*" 
ties have lluree apertureo as vsual, and tlMmiddle one intended 
for the purpose of cleaning: the bottle, or tb^ introduction of 

material'^, is closed either by a cork or a stopper; tubes de- 
scend by the other two into the bottles, as is usual, one a little; 
way in the other ncariy to the bottom; these tubes are small, 
they are fastened into the neck of the bottle and do not rise far 
above, perhaps three indiMi before tiloj tefOUMite : each of 
tbeee tebes it Mrroonded on the exterior of the boCde n' 
coneiderabiy for^^er tube as bigh as tbemtelves, end Aiatened 
by cement on tome topof tbe necics or tubulars, so as to form a 
little veMel to Meive mercury ronnd the outside of the'nnaller 
tube, 'rte connexion is then easily made between one or more 
of these bottles by j^lass tnbrs bent twice nt ri jht rin(i;les, and 
of such size as easily to slip in between the two tubes before 
described : when the lower ends are immersed in the mercury 
all is tight, and the apparatus may be set to work. This con- 
tiivance allows a little motiott to tbe bottlee wi^KWt eadaneer- 
tng tbem ; they aiwiNtendy connected or unoonneelednt plen* 
•nra, and tbey borto a eertam eMA ne tnbei wf wCi^* 

11 . FvuB OMbb^ft.— The flocitU of Apothecaries of Paria 
;have offered a prim of fiOO frane?^ xot-^l. The best determiner 
tion in what manner charcoal acts in discoloration, and what are 
the changes it undcrnrocs during the action. 2. What is tlie in- 
fluence exercised tlunnj^ the operation by any foreign subslaiu es 
which the charcoal may coui uii. And, 3. To establish whether 
tbe textuce of animal chaicoal is not one of the essential causes 

N t . 



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ISO Misc^lltineous Ludligeiice, 

of its mote marked action on colouring ia lmanct i* A pom of 
300 torn will alao be gifea lor im best vegetable analysis, 
such anai^ni 4b lie made on a aobetance used in medicine, 
erlftihatffts. Ilie lime is limited to Afurll I, U2!^; 

12. Laws of the PrapagaHm of HeaL — In consequence of 
the investif]^ntion of M. Bellevue into the nature of meteorolites, 
M. Eivier lias been led to examine tlu; manner in which intense 
heat 18 suddeiilv propagated in solid bodies. He is engaged in 
drawinj^ «p a niLnujir on the movement of heat in solid budies, 
in which he considers the points oi' C4uul heat, and the points of 
mal motioa of heat ixr bodies that split and break by the ai^ioD 
ef ta^ mid aie vmSam itt ell paite. He dedaeei the law by 
wipehtlm f S 4it « imlemfM aief timee drt» m a t^ ^ 
eaused by violeat dUrtatieii mna farmed, and conchtdeiH- 

1. That it is at protiibefaimeiy and partioMlaily ateDnmrs and 
edges that this sort of mutilation should commence. 

2. That the fragments should o^enerally affect mamillary 
farms, or those of pyramids complete or truncated, or prisms. 

* 3. That tlie bases of the pyramids, and one tace of the 
prisms are the surfaces of the fracture, and are always con- 
vex towards their middle, and over the larger part of thaic 

4* Tlittt^elber faces aveofttti eimcaviat tf tor tfa^ most 
fmi they wees llm ^actured svrflMMS ef the pfevious fragments. 

5. That in general the fracture saifaee eC a principal frag- 
ment is its largest face, and that it is only the smaller fragments 
vrhich are ooGMkmed by the hnakiag up of these that pressMt 
anomalies. 

6. That each frapfment separated is impelled by the result of 
llie forces of dilatation, which result in perpendicular to. the 
•mrfaoe of the fracture. 

II. toer Ime made mukj «eaM enplieitbnaof his thepiy 
ta tiie «ti and soieocea^^-^eiim. dc Pk^i, leii. p. IdS. 

■ « 

' 19. MoipAeymmee of WamiA.'^lt k tawvn dmi light is 
emitted from ergmdied bodleit when putieiletimi tskea plM 
imder eeitaitt elmftnstances : the eemsi phanemenea eenin 

ocenrs fa wounds, and doubtless a greater number of instasMt 
would be recorded, were they often dressed in the dark. Baioa 
Percy who, during twenty-five years of war, has had under his 
' care more than a million wounded, has often been deprived of 
the advanta2:e of light. It was thus that he observed in a young 
soldier the phosphorescence of a slight wound in the leg-, for 
more than fifteen days. In this case it might perhaps be at- 
tiMed to tiie muht hiving appUed oenpeaisea dipped in urine 
to the w&M r batsoMCfaMaftsrwaidaM^«e9eo# AifaalMi^ 
r fividliglrty atroe Igidsiiilite e«Med» far am tlma aii days, 



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m 



over tbe wound of an officer, who had bf»on dressed wilh com* 
presses wetted with pure writer only. Baron Percy kif WIM 
bad frequent opporlufutiefl oi tibserviog cunikr iteli. 



14. Onthe Phoiphorcscence of lummom laaecU. — This subject 
« trealad by M. IMr ia % McoMMTiMb^^ 

yiiv wmim^ mm% the hampymt i mi i he a and yfe nrf i rfah i Maawm 
hf Oeeomion name ef gMnr^^wonM* Tbe mUowiny we eaM 

or the general and striking resvhs. 

Solar liL':ht appears to have a constant influence on theiHS 
animals. Some were put iiiio boxes, from which the hi^ht was 
shut out, and when llie boxes were opened in the evening, they 
rarely gave' any hght; but the same worms, in the j»ajne boxes with 
glass tops, and placed in the :$unshine, shone brilliantly m the 
dwuing evening. 

HeateevsedtbesewmnililobaeoMliiii^ aadtlMnrie* 
mamedsoatloiigrftstebeetMieovtiraods itbtgaii&t23^R. 
was brightest at 33° IL,1iie inseet then aeon diedjbottbelic^ 
coDtinaed ; at 46° it ceased. When the animals were thvowa 
into water of 36° or 40°, they died instantly, but the light con- 
tinued briilianl : at 10^ higher all light was extinguished, and 
could not be restored. Gold, on the contrary, destroys tbe 
luminoiisness of the insert. 

When lUu luminous part oi the animal is cut uB, the light dir 
mtnisbes, and ia Ibar or ive adautes is goae* In a lew minutes 



then fades away. This ODBttnaes two or three days, bat tbeli|^ 
is fbaat; if the part be wanned, tbea the light is brilltaat, and 
by feoewiag it may be restofedlbr twoor tfarae daya together as 

.Often as is desired. 

When the abdomen of a worm is opened the luminous matter 
fa found within, formed by a particular orp^anization. It appears 
as a yellowish wliite matter on the last three rings semi-trans- 
parent, wiiich in the microticope appears organized, and consist- 
ing of grains confined ia a xamitying fibrik structure, shining 
ibrightly in the dark. Tbe jatsrioc sarfsoa ti the lin^ is very 
.transparaat* bat aal pbospboresoeat labstaaoa ts trans- 
lucid, becomes opaqae by drying, and then eaaseatoshiae. It 
is heamr thaa valsr. Pressom^ openly in water it shhuss with 
a yellowish-green light for two or three hours, and then ceases 
shining. Heat and galvanism reproduce the light as lonp: as the 
substance is not quite opaque. Up to 33*^ R. the light increases ; 
at 42« it ceases • and tiie substance is then white and opaque like 
albumen. In a vacuum it ceases to shine, but reshines with air. 



^Tes aaimonioal results. Ceoeevtiated adds evtimpiish the 
light aad aoagulata the aabstaace. It is oat soluble ^ia oils* 
Ether aad alooh<^ destroy the light, and coagulate the suIh 





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!89 MiiceiUmeouM IntdUgence. 



stance. Potassa diisohrei tiie snbttance. It is not soluble in 
boiling water, but becomes more consistent in it. From the 
cheniirn] rhnmctor M. Macair concluflp*? thc^ PTihf^tincf* to be 
albtimea pniic!]):il!v, and the cause of the cessation of light to 
be the coa^ulatiuii of the albumen and its consequent opacity. 

The g-eneral conclusions are — 1. that a certain degree of heat 
h necessary to the voluntary light of plow-worms. 2. That a 
•lightiy mereased hest mcreaaes iht light, but mudh mofe heat 
destroys it 3. That ell bodies capable of coagttlathkg albumen 
destroy the phosphorescence of this matter. • 4. That the light 
does riot appear except in gases containing oxygen. 5. That 
the pile excites it, but common electrk^ity does noC 6. That 
tike tommoos matter is prmctpaUj altmineii. 

15. Relation of a rtmarlmhU electrical Phenomenon. — ^The fol- 
lowing relation is made by M. Allcmand of Flcuvicr Neuchatel, 
to M. Pictet, and is published in the Bib. Univcr., Juno 1821. 
M. Allemand, ou the 3d of May, about ten o'cl u k in the 
evening, was caught in a violent storm of wind aud rain. TTic 
thunder becoming frequent and strong, he thought it proper 
to close an umbrella he had with him, and h^d the upper 
metallicjpoint in his hand, lest it should attract the light- 
ning. ' The night, dark of itself, was made more so by the 
great rain. Suddenly he perceived a light from above, and 
KM>lung upwards found the edge of his hat luminous.' Sup* 
posing at the moment the hat was on fire, he, without reflection, 
passed his hand over the lig^ht to extinguish it. It however only 
shone more stronrrly, a circumstance which caused some con- 
fused ideas on the nature of the light. The hand being filled » 
with water from the hat, on shaking it, M. Allemand saw that 
|he i?|terior of it shone as if it were a polished metal reflecting 
a strong light. 

Being at this U\no near the farm of Chauz, about ten or twelve 
minutes* walk from Fleurin, and fifteen or twenty from Motiers, 
M. Allemand, considered for a moment what he had best do, and 
concluded on continuing his progresf;. Having once filled his hand , 
with the electrified water with impunity, he ventured to repeat 
the experiment, and did it fifteen or twenty times, endeavouring 
to ascertain whether ithad.odour, or produced any decrepitation 
or sound ; but nothino: of this kind could be perceived, nothing 
but the bright light nAiich seemed like a brilliant varnish on the 
]^and. The light remained for an Instant only. At a ftiw hun* 
dred paces farther on, the light on the hat stol continuing, M. 
Allemand was surprised by the appearance of another light less 
bright than the former, on the smooth surface of the umbrella- 
h^indlo, at the placo where g-enerally a plate of mptnl is placed 
for the name, but which plate had been removed from this um- 
Ibrella. At first the finger was passed over it to e;ttinguish it, 



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i 



Wt the phenomena were jui^ it before, and both the rubbing 

and rubbed surface shone brif^htly. Afraid of the metal about 
the umhrella, it was thrown down, and M. AUeroand went on his 
way, rnhbino: his hat on the sleeve of his coat; bnt in this way 
oniy reuUenii}j the light brighter. The thunder was more frequent 
than before, but still at some little distance. The crown of light 
continned until JVL Allemand arrifed near MotierB, and he at* 
tribvted its cisislion to higli pc^plar tMt in the neighboiir- 
hoodof thelpleoe.. 

Stopping at Motiers only a short time, he took a gaide with 
a lanteni to Hud the umbrella. Having done so he seat back 
the man, and went on himself towards Fleurin. 

As the tempest had diminished, he used the umbrella; and 
as soon as the light of the lantern wa<^ suthciently removed, he. 
again remarked himinous appearances. These occurred at each 
end of the whakhune ribs, on the metal point which terminates 
them; the light was not so. bright as tlie electric star, but were 
brilliant pointi like a yellow led metal, highly polished, and 
would, M« A. remarks, have appeared yery beaatiAilif bebad 
been collected enough to admire them. 

M. Allemand explams these effects by supposing the atroosphefe 
sursaturated with electricity, and that a portion of it was con* 
tinually passing to the ground, through his hat, umbrella, and 
himself. 

16. On Voltaic. Electrkiipy by M. Pictet. — The following 
' thoughts on Voltaic Electricity are by M. Pictet of Geneva. 

Id reflecting on this snbjec^ we have been led to a few con* 
nderaAioos that tend to explain the well-known fact of the great 
heatii^ power, and weak chemical action of the voltaic appa- 
ratus, with few plates of large surface, compared to the appa- 
ratus of many small plates wiiidi produces little heat, bnt haa 
flUlch decompo'^inf!; power. 

Two very diiierent actions maybe distinguisiu d in the voltaic 
apparatus. l.The chemical action of the fluid which, in at- 
tacking the plates, disengages the electro-caloric, and in quan- 
tity greater as the action is move rfipid. 2. An electro-motive 
ibroe roMlting irom the redpiocal action of the two m^tsls of 
each pair of plates, and by which the eleetrOfcaloric is pnt ill 
■mement in a dirsction according to the position of the jplatet. 

This electro-motive force is probably exerted in aseries of ac- 
tions separated by very short periods of time, or time prescribed, 
and equal in each apparatus for a time g:ivon. The existence 
of these vibrations is indicated bv the characteristic trembling: 
produced by the voltaic action on tlie nervous and muscular 
system by the galvanic shock. Let us suppose 100 of these vi- 
' brations in a second. A little more or less is of no consequence. 
' la the voltaic apparatus, with few plates and large sur^e, 



L. 



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IS4 Misaiktmu* hiUUigmu. 

an immense number of points in \hv same pair are acte<l on at 
once !)Y the fluid ; heuce rapid and considerable disengagenienf 
of elcctio-caloric which is immediately urged lurward by tlie 
electro-motive force, and conveyed by tlie conductors. These 
large plates without being numerous, ought tu piuduce a grt^at 
> calorific effect, because Moh roltaic alaiaemt or pair, produces 
in a lawymcnto gim^ a quantity of flactro-calorio at kaat pio* 
INKUoMla to iU fVf fihoa* and perhaps ef en ia a ratu). 

It Uk not die same widi the apparatus of many small plaloa* 
Tba qtfantity <tf oloetro-caloric diaeogafod in the tempaaeala 
given, being proportionate to the surface of the plates will be 
inconsiderable, because of the smnllncss of tliat surface. It is 
urfred forward by the electro-motive force at the ius taut of its 
production, and it traverses the series of elements without ever 
bccomiug consKicrable) because the initial disengagement was 
amaU, aud cooling would diminish its quantity whilst passing 
tba nwaeioaa aiettJlio wMimkartiona firooa oiia coitp]« to 
aoolher* 

On the other kaiid, this apfMiatna wXi bo fiyr moce effaelwd 

. in producing chamical decompositions than the other, becaaso 
the chemical action is probably dependant on the electro-motive 
action, and it increases with it, and this in a elven interval of 
time ; it is much more frequent, and consequently more produc- 
tive in an aj^pfiratus with many platt than in one with few : thus, 
for instance , siiiJjxjbe lOQof the elecUo-motive and decomposing 
vibrations ui a second of time, an apparatus with six pair of 
large plates would only produce 600 of thesa aollfo viiratioiit 
m a aooond, wlulat aa apparatus with 500 |Mir of «miU plltet 
would produce 500 X 100 s: 50,000 aimiUur vibfations u Ao 
same time. 

It may be also that the extreme abundance, and so to speak, 

violence of the electro-caloric current in the apparatus with 
large platrs, injures its chemical effect by the mechanical im- 
pulsion which the current exerts on its entrance into the fiuid 
to be decomposed; whilst in the many small plated apparatus, 
the current of elt^ctro-caloric being less powerful, and the vibra- 
tbns more numerous, the polar dacoiuposiDg efieci is auuo 

Tbeao Ifawgr/Ui, BL Pictet judioiooaly adds, ora marelf given 
m conjectures ! they wait the result of experiments, to bo oiiiMO 
oooimad or nyected.*— Utmef. m» p. d9d* 

17. Flee tro- Magnetic Instruments invented by M. do la Rive. 

Two excellent little instruments have horn invented by M. 
de la Rive, of Geneva, lo illustrate the various phenoiuena of 
electro-magnetism, with very little trouble, and at a very tii- 
fiii^ expense. The first consists of a small voltaic combination 
•ttoobea to o oork; tho plate olaiiic is asailybalf an inch wida, 
•Hd exieuds about au inch and a half below the cork» its 



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t^^ptk m& pasting throvgfa the cork to the upper smrteB ; 
the slip of dropper is the same width as the zine, but passes 

round the zinc, being" opposed to both its surface? in Dr. 
\Voljasto!l^s construction, its upper end cihu u|>}!cars tliroue^H 
ilie ( ork. A piece of copper wire, covered with silk thread, is 
coik d five or sir times, and tied together, so as to form a ring 
about an inch in diameter, and the ends ol the wire are con- 
nected, one with the zinc, and the other with copper dip above 
the cork. When this smfill apparstm it plaoed hi water 
slightly acidulated by sulphuric acid, Ae vomk n^^Nuratas it 
active eno u gh to midce the rin^ highly magnetic ; and by pre* 
scnting a magnet to it in difierent directions, it mav be aN 
traded or repelled, and presents all the phenomena of a mo- 
bile conduciiog wire. 

The other apparatus is also a little voltaic combiuation hung 
from a cork, but the plates are connected toc:ether, nof hy a 
ring of wire, but by a helix. The helix is made of similai wire 
to the ring, it is about one-third of an inch in diameter, and the 
two ends of the wire are retnmed thr ou gh the helix till near 
the middle, when they are made to pass to the oaCslde between 
the spirals, then being connected witii the vpper ends of the 
plate?, the helix lies on die COth, with its two ends equally 
distant from the centre, the course of the electricity being along 
the w ire, from one end of the helix to the other, and then bacK 
to the plates. When placed on acidulated water the helix be- . 
comes magnetic, and its extremities become opposite magnetic 
poles, being attracted and repelled by the poles of a mag-net, 
jast as another mimiet would be in the same situation. — BiL 

ten 

These little instruments took their rise horn the flOS^thg 
needle of M. Na^. This iM ooonoaad of a sti^ of silm 

and one of zinc connected togeter, bent, and float^on cork. 
These, when placed on acid, were attracted and repelled bf 
the magnetic poie.— J9i6. Cruiser, xvi. p. 120. 

18. Contact in Voltaic Electricity. — hi making experiments 
in voltaic electricity and electro-rnagiietisni, where numerous 
repe^ons of contact between wires are required, it is ex* 

' tamely useful, if these wnes ame copper, to rtlb the ends over 
with a litlks nitrate of mercoir 9 an amalgam Is ^hns femed on' 
the surface of the copper, which does not oxidate or become^ 
dirty as copper itself does, hat remains bright, and fit fcr voltaic 
-contact for a long time. Af • P« 

19. Magttcfhm hy Electricifj/.—M. Van Bech has remarked, 
that a very slight degree of conimon cioctricity is sulricient to 
produce magnetism in a needle. A helix was made, and an an* 
magnetized needle placed in its iaterior ; then one end beiog 
hdd in the hand, the other was brought near the conductor of 



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19i iUiH i/failMiH JMimmctB 



an electrical machine, and sparks passed to it. After n nnm- 
ber oi these had been taken, the needle, on ftyaminfrtion, 
pfQ%'«^ to be magnetic. — Bib, Umver, xvii. p. 23. 

90« KmSkehra^Magnetic Aj^paratui^-^Siact the paper in the 
pveo^diog pages liat oeen printed^ I have had an apparatitt 

made by Mr. Newman, of Lisle-ttraet* lor the reroltittODt of the 
wire round tbe pole» and a pole round the wire. When Hare's 
calorimeter was used to connect with it, the wire revolved so 

rnpiflly round the pole, that the eye could scarcely follow the 
moiion, and a single galvanic trough, containing ten pair of 
plates, on Dr. Wollaston's construction, had power enough to 
more the wire and the pole with considerable rapidity. It con- 
sists of a stand, about three mches by six, fioai one end of 
whidi a braae pillar rieet abcmt six incites high, and is then 
eontinned horiaontally by a copper rod over tbe stand ; at the 
other end of the stand a copper-plate is fixed with a wire for 
cooioinnlcation, brought out to one side ; in the middle is a 
similar plate and wire ; these are both fixed. A small shallow 
glnss cup, supported on a hollow foot of glass, has a plate of 
metal cemented to the bottom, so as to close tiie aperture, and 
form a coniiLxion with the plate on the stand; the hollow loot 
is a socket, into which a small cylindrical bar magnet can be 
placed, so that the upper pole shall be a little above the edge of 
the glass ; mercury is then poured in until the elass is nearly 
IbU s a rod of metal deeceods from the borizonta! arm perpen- 
dicularly orer this cup ; a lit^ canty is hollowed at the end 
and lunalgamated, and a piece of stiff copper wire is also 
amalgamated, and placed in it as described in the paper, except 
that it is attached hy a piece of thread in the manner of a lisra- 
Inent, passing from ihe end of the wire to the inner surface ot the 
cup; the lower end of the wire is amalgamated, and furnished 
with a small roller, wluch di{)S so as to be under the surface of 
the mercury in the cup beneatli it. 

Tbe other plate on the stand hap.also its cup, wfaidi is nearly 
cfUndnca], a metal pin passes through ilie bottom of it, to 
ramect by contact with the plate bdow, and to the inner end 
of the pin a small round bar magnet is attached at one pole by 
thread, so as to allow the other to be above the surface of the 
mercury when the cup is filled, and have freedom of motion 
there: a thick wire passes from the rod above down perpendi- 
cularly, so as to dip a little way into the mercury of the cup; 
it forms the connecting wire, and the pole can move in any di- 
rection round it. When the connexions are made witii the 

J miliar, and either of the wires from the stand plates, the revo- 
Ution of the wire, or pole abore» takes place ; or if the wires 
be connected with the two comins from the plates, motion takes 
place in both cups at once» and in acooraance with the lair 



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stated 111 the paper. This apparatus may be much reduced ip 
. >ue. aud. ouidc verv much more delicate aud sensible. 

. M. b\ 

m. 

' IIL 2i AT URAL History. 

1. 071 </ic Use of loiinc in Medicine, hy Dr. Coindct. — Since 
the ilrst discovery of tiie use ol thi:3 substance, in cases of bion* 
chocele, j^rticular notice lias been taken in thii Journal of the 
results of its application» and the conclusions to be drawn fro» 
thenu See z. 191| sad xi. 407* In another memoir » published 
by Dr. Goindet, and of which the princinal points will be con- 
densed below, a new, and in many cases better mode, of admU 
nistering it is pointed out, and its good effect in schrofulous 
cases detailed, with the advantages which will probably result 
from its use in this disease. 

It appears that many of the dangerous symptoms ( ausod Ijy 
iodine, may be attiibuted, some to its local action upua tlie 
muc<|is membrane of the stomach, which with some persons, 
' cannot bear the rmedy uninterruptedly administered« or in In* 
creased doses, with impunity ; ana others to its particular actioa 
on the lympbatic system. 

' The symptoms belonging to these two actions differ essen- 
tially. Trie second action is that which, when properly directed, 
gives the remedy its usefulness. In order to avoid the first, 
JDr. Coindct endeavoured to introduce it into the systetn by 
other ways than the stomach. An ointment was made, of l| 
ounce of hogs*-lard, and half a drachm of iiydriodate of po- 
tassa. A piece of llie siase of a nut 'was prescribed night aud 
Bomingy to be rubbed in on the gottre, or the enlarged scro* 
phulous glands, or those of die neck. In the ^st case of iti 
• administration in this way, the tumour softened after eight days 
of friction; in fifteen days the diminution was much greater, 
and the tumour had divided into many small lobes, distinct 
one from another; at the end of a month it had entirely dis- 
appeared, Without any other effect bemg produced Ijy the iodine. 

After that twenty-two persons were treated in the same wa^. 
Above half the number were cured in between four and sul 
weeks^ and the others to a greater or less degree. 

Iodine, thus introduced into the absorbent system, presents 
the same resulu as when administered internally. The dura.* 
.lion of treatment, the thickening and softening of the skin, the. 
softening of the goitre, its diminution and separation into many 
cists, tumours, or lobes, the ce«i«^tion of oppressed respiration, 
and alteration of voicerAre e^tly the same. 



18i MiictUamm JiUeiUgence, 

In most cases this mode oftrcatinent sulTiccd alone to leiuove 
the tumour; when it did not, a smaii quantity admiuifvtf red 
internalJy completed the cure. In one case, when the remedy 
had been applied by the stomach, but uuly with partial success, 
extenial application of it almotl entirelf ramovea the gottjce. 

Tlioiigh none of the dangerootsymptomty tometimet attend- 
ing the former mode of administiatiOB had been obaerved ac« 
oompanytng the latter treatment, yet Dr. Coinclet took all his 
usual precautions, and when the ac^tofiron the goitre was well 
established, suspended the application of iodine for p\'2:'^t or 
ten days ; it was then resumed, and thus any evil resultiu^^ liuin 
a saturation of the system with ioUiuea or a too rapid action ou 
the lymphatics avoidfed. 

In all tiiesc cases the utmost attention was pdid to the local 
treatment the goitre, inasmuch as it contributes powerful^ 
towards the cure« It consists principally in the application of 
leeches, and sometimes emollient fomentations. Theleedies fre^ 
qnently removed pain, and sometimes when iodine alone woul4 
not act on the croitre, the application of leeches decided the 
ctirr>. It is not suHicient, therefore, in cases of the goitre, scro^ 
phula, 01 other disturbed states of the lymphatic system, to 
prG^^cribe iodine in a careless or common way, but tiie^other 
indications must be attended to, to .esiiure the success to J)€ ej^- 
jpected from so powerful a remedy. 

From the power, pf this remedy on the al^sorbent system, Dr* 
t!?Oindet was induced to try its ^ects ip oases of scfophnia 
irithont fever» or ipdolent swellings of the glands of the nefkp 
and with frcat success. It was given in solution^ in aaralhy 
doses than for the goltrOj ai;id combined with bitters or some 
oromatic syrup. The course of the cure was the same as for 
the goitre. The tumours became loose, mobile, small, and 
'soft, but the enlargement of the cellular structure ieclmi^ like 
an empty cist, was sometime before it entirely disapprare4» 
In two eases mentioned the cures were decided and rapid. 

The application pf the iodine externally iu these. cases waf 
almost as e&ctnaf as, internally, bat the latter mode was gane- 
rally preferred^ because of the tonic elTact of die remedy in 
*smiul doses, ftometimeii iodine would have no efied at afl^^^ 
result which occurs now and then with the goitre. 

Dr. Coindet, led by the powerful action of tin's remedy on 
the absorbent system, then extends his views to some further 
apphcations of it. The use of it alternately with mercury, or 
the iodide of mercury, is proposed in complicated cases of scro- 
phula and syphilis, and in those cases where the syphilitip 
^virus of the parent causes the devolopement of scrophuLa in 4hia . 
child. . From the analogy existing between diseased ovariest and 
the affections of the thyroid g^anda^ the probable use in the Ibr- 
mer cases Is pointed out, and as in soma goitres which appeared 



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I 



Naturi^l Histortf. 

l»bt NKM 0ati» % mn wit tAoled, il li tfao suggeMvd 
tibtit Miae niay be vmAiI in cMes of dropsy. 

Ib pfopoiing these variouf views of the probtble aie of 

ipdine, 0r. Coindet disclaims any idea of nuJuDif it ill vmYersal 
medicine. He remarks that all these diseases have something 
in common, and that the action of the remedy on the absorbent 
system, is the principle on which he founds his hope of its utility 
io them. — Bib* Univ€r^ xvi* p. 320. 

t. Ute o/Nitraie of SUver in Medidne.^'The CHomaU di 
FkwBt <ott. xL» e&amm al p. a paper by ftC. SeaMnthu^ 
OB the Hie of nitrate of tihrer m caoeo of epilepsy. Afi&t re- 
narkiog on the difficulty which OMBIi -in treating such cases, 
and the good effects that have been obsenod'tn Bnng the ni* 
trate of silver, and its superiority in this respect over all other 
remedies, both as to the etfect it produces, and the little incon- 
venience it causes ; the Cavalier states, that to secure the good 
effects belonging to it, the nitrate of silver should be well tritu- 
rated with the vegetable extract, in combination with which it 
!• given ; that the first doses should be small, and the quantity 
ffTMBBlly iBCMMd to-tix or eight grttins, or eveiniwrt^ in a 
Say : ^at ikt Mahovld AOl bo coottwiad very long together ; 
and mnl tbe fotient shoolA kaop 0«t of tlio action of lighl* ' 

. Tbe loiter precaution it Boeamry, to prevent the discoloration 
of the skin, which sometimes happens after a long and copious 
use of this remedy. The precaationy bowover^ qnly^f^i^^idf 
avoiding the meridian sun-hght. 

It frequently happens, in the use of this medicine, that a 
apocies of cutaneous eruption, consisting of smalt pustules, 
oooBiv* This may be regarded as a certain proof .of the good 
oftoCaof the MMMi 

b tho oarly port of Ibb papcn n a SaoMBliai, m ovaeaar^^ 
to fMOVO lihB twywurfon existbig Bgamst nitrate of siii^y^t^ 

. Mae of its poisonous qualities, remarks, that being mixed with 
vegetable extract, it is not really the salt, but the oxide, that ia 
given ; and, therefore, the observations of M. Orfila, on the ni- 
trate as a poison, have nothing to do with the power of the re- 
medy. At the same time, as an argument for using the nitrate 
isL place of the oxide, it is remarked, that at the moment of de- 
OOmpositioii a Qomfaliiation is, probably, effected between tha 
irtiiotB>aifci0<ii6i aniOMIioiBallyteaaUitiiMidmoit 
offioaoiooo* 

Bafa« assured o^Aovleof Altraltfof tiher in epileptic affec* 
1im», and reasoniflf^tq^ ila tooic effect, II C. SooseBtuii was * 

induced to try its powers as a remedy in cases of paralysis. The 
first instance quoted is of a gilder, who, probably from the fumes 
of mercury, had become very paralytic. An eighth of a grain 
of nitrate of silver was prescribed at first, but the dose was in- 
creased every other day ; by the time that three grains were 



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i90 



taken the good efTects were evid#nt, aud in twenty days more' 
' the man was perfectly restored, la suodier instance every pan 
«f tiie body m liam tveito pandysBd btat the- head. A mall 
^MDttty wee given at first, mit it was increased to eight graine 
per day, and it e Acted H eiMw 

Three other instances are then addoeed, in all of which cures 
were eflPected : and the Cavalier expresses his hopes that in the 
Imnds of other medical mexi| it wiU be found as efiectire and as 
important as in Uis own. 

3. Use of Chlorine in Hydrophobia. — In a book published by 
Doctor Pteviudit of which mmee is taken in the CKprtMtfe Jk 
FkioOf torn. Ui., p. 367, an extended acoovint is given oiT the 
tnocessfel adniimstratioa of chlorine in eases of bydropbohia. 
Several persons were bitten by a dog, some of these died with' 
idl the symptoms of hydrophobia, others were treated with the 
chlorine, and thon^^h i\n; symptoms returned once or twice on the 
earlv cessation ot llio iimedy, vet fhey were vanquished bv lis 
continuance, and a perfect cure etiec ted. The im dioine oonsistg 
of four scruples of saturated sohition of chlounc, wiiIi four 
ounces ol aromatic watei and hall aa ouuce of syiup of lemons, 
to be taken daily. The cases seem perfectly antlienticntedi for 
the anthorities being etfbest to oltan dl poseihlie kndwledge 
nnon the sttUeet, a cone^pondence took ptaceln coniequence, 
which Is pablished; and contains the progress df the euies.* 
The symptoms which occurred when me renmdy was inter- 
mitted ; and the immi^iatc effect of the ffemedyi' On ddnihis^ 
tration, wore of the most decided nature. 

Some account is ^riven in the Oazetta di Milemo of September' 
13, 1820, of the a] ^'licaliua of solution of chlorine as a remedy' 
in cases of spoiled fever, by Dr. Sacco, of Milan. Reasuum«j 

from its e£^ on Infections matter, aiid* finding that two, or 
evm thrae, ouiiees of the aolatlon might be dnnk at once with-* 
ent injury, he administered it in cases of spotted fever, and fttand 
tiiat in two or three days the effort was to reduce the disease ftf 
a simjple fever, to shorten the period of its duration, and to lessen 
the diminution of strength, and other bad consequences, tliat 
remain after the fever is removed. And from the constant good 
effect produced in these, and similar cases, Dr. 8ac<*d 
states his conviction that it will be of the uuaost service in 
the putrid fever, yellow fever, plague, and all other contagious 
disorders. 

The ^ose'pmeiibed'h^ Br. Saooo is' one trance of- thn sdltt- 
lloir in llMee ooaces df wnter, nspeafed fonr tlMs nday; a 

spoonful of honey bein^ taken after eachtloie^ He also dlirectn 
that the hody should be washed Unee'ttmes a dajwith tfaeiuune 

solution. 

4. itfedtod^ Priz€ Qite«<»ait.^The Academic Society of Nantes 



Naiural Hktary, 191 

have {MTopoMd • prise V 300 fhuMt for tii bait iniw to th» 
atttfi«t» Whtiare theor^in, CMMeSyttidUieMtore, ol 
tbe yellow fefer?" WlMtaiethemeta* to premiUr. 

S II. M INBRALOGT, GBOLOOT* MSTtOlOLOOT^ dttU 

1. iVezv' Mineral Substance. — Mr. J. Deuchar found, a few 
weeks ago, a new mii^eral substance imbedded in lime- 
stone. It melts at a candle^ and bunit on a.wiqky or oo paper* 
In the cold it is insolable in alcohol, potash, or oil of turpcn* 
tine, nor is it acted upon in the cold mtm five days* exposure to 
solphuric» moriatic, or mtiic mM^^^AimaU qf FkUotopkif, u* 

2. Remains of Art in a Limestone Formiiw/i.— The toliowiiig 
gcologrical fact is stated by I'l utussur SilliuuUii as tsanslate^ 
Ifoiu Oouat Bournon's Mmtraloyy : 

During llie years 1786, 7, and 8, they were occupied near Aix, 
ia Provence, in Fmce» la qnarrying; slnna €m the lebuilding^ . 
upon avast scale, of the Palace of Jiistioe.. The stone was a dee|i 
grey limestone, and of that kind which are tender when they com^ 
out of the qaairvt but harden by exposure to the air. The strata 
were separated trom one another by a bed of sand, mixed with 
clay, more or less calcareous. The first which were wrought pre- 
sented no appearances of any foreign bodies, hut after the work- 
men had removed the first ten beds, ilu y wcic astonished w hen, 
takiujj i^way ihc clcveuLh, lo liud Us inferior surfuce, at tiic 
depth of forty or fifty feet, covered with shells. The stone .o( 
llus bed having b^eo removed, as thev were taking aw^y the - 
sand which separfitcd the eleventh bed from the twelfth, thiey 
Ibnod suimps of and fragmnte of stones half wiouoi^ 

and the stone was exactly similar to that of the quarry. They 
found moreover coins, handles of hammers, and other tools, or 
fraprments of tools, of wood. But that which principally com* 
muiidcd their attention was a board, about an inch thick, and 
seven or eight feet long"', it "was broken into many pieces, of 
which none were miasin^, and tt was possible to join them again 
one to another, and to reji^tore its original fonn, which was that 
of t)ie boerds of the same kind used by the masoiis and qnar* 
rymen ; it was .worm in the same manner, rounded, an^ waving 
on the edges* 

The stones, which were completely or partly , wrou^^t, had 

not at all changed in their nature, but the fragments of the 
board and the instruments, and the pieces of instruments of 
wood, had been changed into agates, which were very fine, 
and agreeably colourea. Here then (observes Count Bour- 
non) we have the traces of a work executed by the hand of 
man, placed at the depth of fifty feet, and covered with eleven 
beds of compact Unest^i^ ; every thing tended to p«ove 



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tint this work had been executed upon the spot where the 

trnces existed. The presence of man had then preceded the 
formation of this stone, and tliat very considerably, since he 
was already at such a degree of civilization lliat the arts were 
known to him, aud that he wrought the stone, and ior.i|\cd co- 
lumns out of it. 

$. Oft Mtteorolittt, by Bf« Fleofiaii de Bdlvnie.— A paper, 
by M« Flettrian de Beilme, read to the Academy cf 
Saences last year, on meteoric stones, and particularly on 
those which fell near Jonzac, in the department of Charente. 
This paper is long, and contains mwch Tninute investigation of 
those appearances, which, accoinpanymg these phenomena, af-* 
ford the only means of ascertriimn their real nature. We 
sliall, probal)ly, take an opportunity of ahstractinof and con- 
densing this paper ; in the mean time the following cuuciusions 
m pmeatea ti tfaote dnram by M. BellevM. 

THe appeartneet piesentM by tlM cntit of meteorolttes 
■acm to prove that their snfiico bao been fnsed whilst rapidly 
tnmaingf the flame of the meteor* and rapidly solidified Into a 
vitreous state on leaving that flame. 

I. They prove that in the first moments the movement of the 
meteoroiites was simple, that is, that they did not turn round 
on their own axis whilst those two effects toot place. 

3. That the impulse each meteorolite has received has almost 
always been perpendicular to its largest face. 

4. That the largest &ce is almost always more or kia 

OOBVOIU 

5. Our MteoroHtes (those of Jonzac) oAr amrpmAl of the 

pre-existence of a aolid nucleus to bolidea or meteors. 

6. This nucleus could not contain the combastible matter 
which produces the inflnmmation of the meteor. 

7. It cannot have suiibred fusion during the appearance of 
the phenomena. 

8. The gaseous matter wliicli surrounds this noclens is dis- 
sipated without producing any solid residuum. No trace of 
this matter appears ever to ezistiB tlie cnial of flie wteovo» 
Htes* 

9. HeteonRtea are ftagments of tboae nuclei wbldi have 
■ot boaa allerad bt thur uatno* but sbnply vitrified aft their 

surfaces. 

10. Many of the irregular forms which these fragments 

present may be referred to determinate i:ccometric forms. 

II. These latter forms are the consequence of the rapid ac- 
tion of a violent lire, according to ^a law of the movement of 
heat in solid bodies, discovered by M. Emer. — jQurnai ck Pky- 
sique^ xcii. p. 159. 

4. BhMJttmdin a 7to.^A v«ry precbe deseripliott; ao^ 



r 



1 



Gmteral Jditraiun* ' IM 

X 

oompanied likrood-euU, is given in the Monthly Magazm^ 
for September, p. 102, of a skull found in a tree. The tree 
was an ash, and was cut down about two years since ia 
P^nley Abbey Farm, near Warwick. It was supposed to be 
about eiq^hty years old. The skull was closely imbedded in 
the build part oi tlie irunk^ about nine feet from the ground, 
and was discovered when tbye trat waa tawn up into raftarat 
Tike piece in wbich the sknll lay being cat cat a section of 
it baa been made. The wood around the boae was every wftere 
p^ectly sounds except in one small place^ when it ia cfeca^rejl* 
but this had no comnramcption with the exterior at the time 
the tree was ^iit. The grain of the wood wr^s completely 
deranged, and seemed to embrace the bone roimd which it 
bad found. The skull is supposed to have belonp;( d to a deer. 
It is now in the possession of the Rev. Thomas Cottle, of 
Warwick Borough. 

* I 

■ w 

. . IV« G$N£RAL LlT£ilATURB. 

I« iliideiif MS&r^M, Mmo still continaes to be sucoessfttl ift 
bia seaardk after loft works of ancient writers; be has lately found 
several parts of the books ofPoIybius, Diodorus, Dion Cas- 
sius, some fragments of Aristotle of EphornSt of Timens, oit 
Hyperidety of Demetrius, of Phalaris, &c., some parts of the 
unknown writings of Eunapius, Menander of Byzantium, Pres- 
cius, 'and of , Peter the Protector. They were discovered in a 
MS. containing- the harangues of tlie rhetorician Arisiides, from 
a large collection of ancient writings made by order of Con- 
stantius Porphyiogeutes, of which only a small part are known 
to be extant; Uiewiitii^ appears to be of the eleventh canlBij, 
M. Maio has also found wiitii^ of the Gfaceek and Latin fiitheia 
priorlD St. Jerome^ with oAer nlnable works» 

2. Stattiary Marble. — Some remarkably fine statuary and other 
marble quarries have lately been discovered at Scravazza, in 
Tuscany, much superior to any thing of the kind at Coanara, 
which threaten to rival and lower the pride of the latter-men- 
tioned place. His Royal Iligluiess the Grand Duke of Tuscany 

S'vea great encouragement and protection both to commerce and 
A fine arte within bis dominions. 

3. Inventor of the Sieam Engine. — A letter was published in 
the Gentleman's Magazine for 181 1, which Mr. Tilloch has again 
brought into notice. The writer of it refers to the Harleian MSS. 

for proof that the real inventor of the Steam Engine was Samuel 
Morland, master of the works to Charles II. Moriaiid wrote a 
book upon the subject, in which he not only shewed the practi- 
cability of hk plan, but even calculated the power of di0ei-ent 



194 



^jUnders. The book is extant in the above coUeotioa. It 

presented to the French king* in 1683, and copies were then 
shewn at St. Germains, The author dates his inventioQ ia 1682, 
seventeen years prior to Savary's patent. The description of the 
MS., in which Morland explains his invention, will be found iu 
the improved liarleian Catalogue, Vol. iii., No. 6771, and iL isi 
also pointed out in the preface to that volume. Sect. 22. 

4. MrrlicO'Chirnrffical !^cicfy of Edivhirgh. — It is with 
pleasure that we announce the formation of a Medico-Cliiriir- 
gical Society in Edinliur(rh. The Society is formed upon the 
model of tiic Medico-Clururgical Socie ty of London, and has 
ia view precisely similar objects. Most of medical professors 
in the univecsity, and many of the most respectable practi- 
fioners in the city, have co-operated in its forniation« Pr. 
Duncan, aeniory has been elected its first president* Its sittings 
eonmence in the appioadiing^ winter session. 

In addition to oratnary and honorary members, provision is 
inade for the admission of corresponding: members ; and it is 
hoped that many, in almost every part of tlie world* and 
such especially as retain a srateful recollection of the advan- 
tages they <lerive(1 from their Lihiia-mater, will not be backward 
in supplying interesLing commuaications. 

Commumcations may be transmitted to tbe^ preudent of the 
Society, or to either of the secretaries, according to the foHow- 
ing addresses : 

Dr. W. P, Alisov, 44, Herlot-row, Edinburgh, 

Dr RoBT. RikMiLTOlTy a« Northumberland*8traet, Edinr. 



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( 



LONOONs 



Ly GoOgU 



AN ANSWER 



TO THV 



ACCUSATIONS and ASPEliSIOiMS 



Of 



Mr. RICHARD PHILLIPS, FRS. Ed. 4 c. 

Which were published in a Letter addressed to Mr. Pabkes^ 

the Twemty Mcond Kuilier 

OF TUB 

JOURNAL OF SCIENCS^ UTEBATUHE, 

AND THE ARm 



By SAMU£L PARKES, FLS. 



Nec qmaqnam nooaat aipido whi pacisi alille 
Qui me oomnftnt (HMlna udd tangeic^ daoio) 
FMityetiiingmtotftcMCilN^ hob« 



LONDON: 

EIHTBD BY B. CLABEBi WBLI* 8TABBT. 

♦ 

1821. 



d by Google 



ADV£RTIS£MENT. 



The wimexed Letter wiU shew that these pages 
were not eriginally intended to apfear ae a seforaie 
Pamphlet* litis mode of publication I Imve^ how- 

been tektctmuhf oompelkd to adopt: far I 
amid not cmisent to leave any part of the charges 
nmmnoered, lest, bjf thus weakening my line ef 
defence^ I might he again exposed to the shafts of 
igw^ance and maievolence. 

• S.P. 



To W. T. B&AHDB, Eiq. FRS. 

D£Aa Sib* 

Whex you inserted in your Journal my *• 0 ! »e r v atimw on the 
Cliemical Evidence* given in the Action Messrs. Severn, King, and 
CanpuqTy agaimst the Imperial insurance Company/' I apprehend 
you had no tmpicion, any more titan I lutd, that it would produce 
llttCkmtrofeisywhidiUhaaoceaaioiied* That, lookingp at the lan- 
guage ivIimIi tlua Cenlmaiiy has aaaii^^ 

rid of all further altercation, is natural for one of your habi 
I would not, unnecessarily, '^ivc you pain. Kindness, however, must 
•oaieteM be. aacrificed to jttatice» and, as yon iiavc unwaciiy admit- 
UA^m^on^m^'Bvmbetf fmcmkij in plaee of aei cne e ■ att a icka 



4 

upon my character as a man instead of my knonrledge at m diflwist-* 
I do claim as a rifrht, and expect, from ymn candour, that yon will 
aUot^v the refutation to appear in the same work which has admitted 
IIm dander* V«rf little iPom.viUffiiffifi# tke p«r|MMe ; vaA, as 
my feauutka an not iateadid toi«of<DlBB vepl^, fiie Oil qnetlM*' 
Bi«y,bfiiti»re, bebanifhedltoiii yovrpagee. Prestnniiig^ tiiea on 
your consent, I hci cv. itli send you, for insertion in yoi|r Journal, 
an Answer to Mr. Phiihps's charges : and I am. 

Deaf flir^ 

Toiiia» w 

$i€€ktmihrrgk Square^ 



e 



AN ANSWER, &c. 



Hatiho neitlier ktaare nor in elln a t ion to say avoid udre Um 
I eonceifetobe acoeMary for my own de&nee^ th# reader of Uie 
foUowing pages is requested, in order to prevent mistake* to 
refer occasionally to Mr. Phillips's Letter in the twenty-second 
number of the Journal of Science, Literature, and the Arts^ 
and also to my Observations on the Oil Question in the two 
former numbers of the said Journai. Tlie charges to which I 
am now about to reply, conveniently for me, are summed up ta 
the last paragrs^h of the attack. They are Ten in nsmber, and 
eMI benotieed* one by one* withoat anbterfugc. Two^oly of tkeie 
charges regard my Knowledge ae a Cbanist; the odiers are levellea 
at ra^ Principles as a man» with respeet to candour and to truth* 
I begin with the ibnner, though they ate the leet in the list, be^ 
cause it wotild, in qiy qpii|ioa»be oC »m QOaeei|i«Mm abonld.)^ Mi 
in thek (eluUUOAt 



■ 



I 



5 

In tbe first place, then, I am accused of M$jmg tiiat ^ Oil 
vapour at 60Q^ U awl Ir moI inflammable.'' 

It will he seeriy from mi/ own acknowledgements^ at pages ^"22 
and and in a Note at page 329 of my " Observations," that, at 
the time of the first Trial, I was not sufficiently awai LMjf tiie dis- 
tinction between " Oil vapour" and " Oil gas." The former iii pro- 
duced and is inflammable at or a little below 600o; but must be 
kept up to that heat» else it ceases to be inflammable : and, if al- 
lowed to cool, it wukmet again U&to oil. Gas reqiuret a much 
lan^ac beat for itsfiroduction; but» wlien produced, may bo lighted 
at any temperature : and it remains iMmulemibig hj cold. The 
two ca(|e8> tken, which are quoted as contradictory, relate solely to 
Oil Vapour; and, whether Oil Vapour will inflame or not depends 
on the cooling which it receives, after being raised from the oil. 
In a Pteturl, lujldin^- only a few Pints, and surrounded with llame, 
by which its beak was icept at a high heat, the vapour might burn, 
altheogh the oil in the retort might not exceed 60O*; but/ in the 
Experiment with the large vessel at the Sugar-house, where tlie 
fire was applied only to tbe bottom^ and where the vaponr was 
carried up sixteen fieet above the top of die Vessel before the taper 
could be applied, it was found imposnble, when issuing from so 
distant an orifice, to preserve the heat of Uiis vapour to the point 
of inflammability. If, after the varied and extensive investigation 
which the subject has undergone, Mr. Phillips be not well aware of 
all this, he is sufliciently ignorant;— >if be know it, he is guilty of 
a wilful misrepresentation. 

II. I am next charged witli asserting " tliat if a vessel contain 
Oil and Vapour, and the vapour be generated so fast iliai the 
vessd cannot contain both, that the vapour would be expelled 
and notAe oil, but, aflterwards, saying tb&t the Oil would be 
f expdled and notihe vapour." 

This pretended contradiction Is more fully detailed at page 33d 
of Mr. PhiUips^s Letter, to which place 1 beg the Reader to refer; 
when, by comparing the Extracts with tlie pages from which they 
are taken, it will be seen that it is, by cutting out parts of scn^ 
ienceSf that he endeavours to make them express what they do not 
mean. 

^Either of the solutions may ex^ain the phenomenon, according 
a« dkft dfcnmstaBces may be supposed to have diffend. If the 
pipe allowed tbe issne of the vwpour, as Ihst as it was generated, 
certainly the vi^ur would have found its way out, and not Ihe oil; 
but a, as there is reason to suspect, the boiler was so foil, and the 
pipe so narrow, as, when rapidly urged by a strong fire, to imprison 
the steam, its elasticity would have thrown out llie oil in jets : and, 
if the vessel was so full that the Huid would have wanted room for 
.expansion, and at the same time the pipe had been suiiieienlly wide 
nut lu produce the couipiessiou of the yapour, the oii woald 



hm fUxmd <nit io ft stream. Wlueliof lh««ftflm«ami>«i Oie 

cne in qi^Rtioa, I aoknoiriedge tbact, «• I was Ml praaent, I tan 
unable ip determine. 

It may be still objected that I have not sufficiently exfilaiiied the 

cmisp of the spoiitinpcs and bum]>in'^M. the jerlcs and concn s?f ions „ 
so pathetically described a?* haviiig^ been observed in oi! at the, 
comparatively, low temperature of 460 dt'fzrees. Be it so. The 
f.K I i:> that, adverting to all the circumsuaices, I am wiiling-, if it 
Will bt:Ltcr plea^ic IVlr. riiillips, to consider the whole of tlie Expe* 
rimaat in WhtasroaSHitMal aaaBfirade* Iiidaed, it hn 9ltwmjn 
had ao nraeh of that chaiacter, in my eathMttiMy thai^ had ft not 
heen witmeaaed by aome whitse honim I eauiot dooky' I coiM 
never hanre bell em H. 

I now come to the graver accusations ; but, as even Crimes them- 
selves nrn not all cquaUy hetooos^ I wiE take them m Ike order ta 
they atiect me least. 

III. I am chari^d with stating ** that two calculations of the 
. ** capacity of a boiler are niujieous whicli are clearly correct* 

Something to Uiis clitct 1 did say, in a Note at page 9% of my 
*< Additional Observatkma,*' htt tma remark waa unacoonipamed 
-vUhaay^matiHistkHiof atpad defign m eMierof the Odeautofi; 
Mr. PMDipa has dioeghl fit, hovcnrer, (aftir fliaft denying tl^ eziil* 
ence of th^ erxors, and then apologizing fbr tbeaaS to say that I 
did not point out Mr. CKUdtea's am, because, to oacie made the 
correction would have convicted me of greater error. This is 
verily a pretty specimen of candid reasoning^! I drew no inference 
whatever from the mist<ike of c ither. If I had, thai of Dr. Bostock 
would not have been against nie, for his error makes the vacuity in 
the Boiler 100 inches more than it would otherwise have been, 
'fhe truth is that this Note about calculations mi&;ht as weU have 
been omitted* Ittvnaindeedof no serious tnlne, we llheoomnaiit* 
ety of Mr..FbiUip8 himself mi^t equally be the siib|e«t of aninmd* 
teiaioiu Hia numeral Equation ia marked in such an uncouflli 
and inaceuraie manner aa would have procured him chasd^meait 
when a pupil in his early years. But wny break a Butterfly upon 
the Wheel? AU these three Gentlemen are Men of Science. 
They are also Members of Koyal Societies ; but assuredly they 
were not chosen for their knowledge of Mathematics, 
. IV. The next Accusation, rising in the scale of enormity, is that 
1 have stated ** Mr. Faraday to have resisted solicitations which 
« heiiever'heaid'of,*'andaLetter IromlhfttGMlainan^ 
in urluch he aaya that he rmimUrs ^nfy on0 oeeaaion on vttdi It 
"was proposed to him* A part of my asseetion is thus, Idiidl^ 
substantiated ; and the remainder is left uncontradicted ! V. 

V. That I have " suppressed repeated evidence as to the quan- 
** (ity of oil which a boiler contained, and in defiance of that evi- 
" dettce stated it to have been nearly fuU»" is a harefaeed xepetitiosi 



T 

of a f'ormrr charge, which was sufficiently replied to in pa<re3 98^ 
99, and 100, of my " Additional Obfterw-itions." Surely f^lMpg 
ntt«tha¥6 beea the mm% oi Goldsmith's ^choolmailer : 

" For, even iStamfjk Tanqnith^d, he auM trgne itiH.*' 

It is obnoas that some of The Aiaociates'* are still tm villi 
nipeot to Mr Opeiilw WilhinMy mictow 1^ 
M depend «|mliM«mir«ey«f hit MasMTrat a ferth^tdd^ 

VI. That " I contert Evidence {mBminr Witkinfleiili evidea^ 
*« g^iven to the best of belief into paeilivt «Mmm^ m Older teimili» 

" it contradictory." 

In the name of comraoit sense, wliat h to be done with the erU 
dence of this Wilkinson? How much of it are we to belicTc, and 
how much are we to doubt? I see it only in the printed Trial, and, 
for augiit I know, some one may again come forward and telFvie 
that it IS erroneous ; but, as it there stands, the whole of hig en« 

denoe ie daubtfui^-^h^ is eeitain of nottiiir. ** fie |»«l Sn 
^SSGailoBe." To be ewre, might Imw been 31 9$j n M&m f 
or any quantity npfatcli those, who Itnow better ibibi he 4lo» imif 
fog^st; bathe ynm equeBy tmatUiH aboat what it was astonish- 
ing that he did not certainlg know. He knew the exact nnmber of 
deirrecs to which thn Th^nnometcr was raised, at all times during 
the experiments ; but knew not whether that thermometer was 
open at top, or hermetically sealed, or to what height it was gra- 
duated t He kept a regular journal of his operations for twelve 
successive days ; and only believed that his Experiments continued 
dnring that period ! Thetmttt le, Ae whole appears io hmt been 
Merely ^neee-woilr. 

VII. It Is said that I " suppieeeed evidenee of two Oentle- 
^* men out of three who spdBs to ime particular point, beennaatwiQ 
^ out of the three difierea ftfm me in opinion.'* 

In reply to this Charcre, it may be noticed, as I have before 
remarked, that my " Observations'* were professedly confined to 
the ** Chemical part of the Evidence," and, that, when mentioiu 
ing Mr. Robinson's, I made an apology for the deviation. Except- 
ing in opinion^ there is no discrepancy between his evidence and 
Ibatef Jifv Daniel* *l|lMif boA'aifaioiAsdge danger if tesugar 
toil oferineo the fttt; b«t Ut.VmMlikong^ .HHtitMld 
saeily get there. I Wi«v«*tiM Oil omI Snnr hm^ mM 
fpmr* 'MeiiiMr win bM without ihe, As to Mr. Martinean (the - 
other suppressed evidence) he is one of ** the Associated Wiir 

npsf^e?;' and he, ^n rely, wiU Oqmpiain thai ko <b«i iMid mm 
share of my attention. 

VIII. He " asserts that the Globe Insurance Company declared 
** their opinion that the oil process lessened the danger, when their 
** counsel declared that tliey reserved their opinion on Uie subject." 

To thie I reply that I certainly wi de rtto e d at life line, as did 



a 



those who wrre near mo, that it was admitied by the Insurance 
OlHce that the risk was lessened. Tlie mistake, if it be one. was 
inmiatensil. It has no 4 licet upon the Chemical evidence; and 
could, therefore, be of no advantage to my argument ; but I wish 
to elucidate even the sh^htest shade, and, for that purpose, I 
•olidt bidul^noe, while giving mm attaDtkm to tlm triflfaif aocu- 
tfttMO ttian il may appear tD otlwrt to detam. The IbUownif 
correspondence will, if I was inistaken, acquit me of d^ign. 
Dr. Paris is well known, and enn Mr. Mllipi will not data to 
imimnite that ka is not an honoarabfa man. 



hi midmomd Obtervatiom on ihe Oil QuesHon^ I said thai^ 
on ihe hit Trial f ihe Globe Insmnmm Office directed their Cmnm 
eel io declare in Court ihat ihey were $ati»fied ihai ihe Oil appOm 
ratu^ lef!sened the dan^er,^* From the Nofr^ of that triat^ as 
quoted by Mr, Phillips in his Letter to nic in tJtc last Nunthcr of 
mr, Brande*s Journal^ il would appear that the Counsvl only 
a^eed not to contend that ths fire arose jrom the Oil process ; 
and consequently i viust have been mistaken in the extent 
pj iheir admttiM. Or. PkOUpt ineim^Ue thet this trivial 
tmreeMm^be mmAKU%btitMa$-d9ngm» YmnereinCeeat 
mihoHme^md I wOi b9 Miged im gou^^ wHittadie the 
mttent in mhkhffeu then wniefMtoed ihe.admisthm ; bmrnm I em 
anxious to knout whether fir i woe ike mi^ erne mke SMt Mil* 
lioi^an e% ihat eul^ct, 

J ami dear iS/r, 

Your^s verg truly ^ 

Samuel Parkes* 

To Dr» John Atrton Paris, 



Dover Street ^ Jugmt 17, ISIU 

In tephf to tfonr QnailANi rtMag In tha (kmne^9 tdmMtm 
m Ifta Ml TMl^ of Severn^ v the €Me kuurance^ I beg ta 
ffl^) liktf; as far as I undentaod ihe expre$sion of Mr* Serjeant 
Bosanqrtet^ the Defendants were ready to admit ^ for the seke of 
sparing the Time of the Court, that the '* iVew apparatus was 
kss dangerous than the old;''* and this Declaration called forth 
expressions of surprise and ammadveraion from the Judge* 
' ' I remain^ dear Sir^ 

Your^s very faUhfutly^ 
^ ^ JoBN Atrnvnttt FdmtB, 

n SjmtSMt PdMmMy Eta,- 



uiyiu^eci by Cj<^'^ 



9 

IX. 1 am cliargofl with having said, " that oil does not g^ivr ont 
** inflammable vapour without depositino; charcoal, nnd wiihout 
*• beic^ heated beyond what our Thtinn<jiiiet<TS will rneiistiro, and 

jet, when told of tliese iactS| deny that auy uew Kxpcnmeul 
« Stated." 

fiv tunung to page 530 of my Obeeryations'^ it win be Men, 
as I nave aweady noticed in iki$ paper, that I distingtush between 
Oil yapour and Oil gas, .wliich ( w hether ttcm ignoranoe or desi^ 
I knownoi) Mr. PhiUips continually endeavours to confound wi^ 

one another. I have not said *• that Oil does not give out inflam- 
mable vapour without depositincr charcoal." I have only asserted 
jny conviction '* that no inti immable is produced until a por- 
** tion of the oil becomes aciunlly decoinposed, and charcoal 
** formed:" and this opinion I still hold, notwiUistanding the £jLperi- 
meat detailed by Mr. Philip Taylor. 

He aayatliatby diattUing oil in a glaitieitxMt (widcb dibeiled at 
OtO*I) he pfocmd^ rapidly, a krge ywtity of gas, **9trff 
** timUwr to Oil Qea;^ and which, amr eUanilhig' mre than three 
weeks, oontiinied " to exhibit the appearances of Oil Gas/' 
«* There was,** says he, " no formation of charcoal in the retort 
*' during the production of this gas, and the oil which passed over 
*' in the receiver coiUains a considerable proportion of volatile oil, 
** similar in all its characters to that called Dippel'soil." Dippel'ii 
oil has, hitherto, been procured only by a very tedious process ; 
and Mr. Philip Taylor himself is, I beKerve, eonneeted witii 
Patentee of an invention ftr otataiinng oil gas, by passing the Oil 
erer Rcdhotlninf Aii0|rbydhif* If be Ine not aitice foind any 
enor is the above mentioned Eiperiment, his Mmia Imve 
great reason to oongratnlste him npon his very ivpottnit disco- 
very : that of procuring^ at the same iime^ these two hUkerto 
intractable substances^ DippeVs oU oad Oil gm^ k$ «M §imfle 
distillation, in a vessel of glass. 

But why did I not, before, take notice of this unexpected and 
extraordinary Experiment? I answer that, in the first place, it 
had no bearing on the cause; or, if it had, it contradicted all the 
Experiments of the Aasodates** Aemselves: for it diowed no 
A inflammable emanatioQ." below 000*^ tdieieaa iJ^y had flame, in* 
Whitec 1 o s s - street, at 380^. Furdier, I oonsideied tbe expenment 
as brought forward for no other purpose than merelv to shew that, 
contrary to my conceptions. Gas could be produced without cAar. 
ring the Oil ; but it is the heat at which it can be produced, not 
the charcoal, Uiat is connected with the cause. Accused as 1 had 
unjustly been of wishing to throw out insinuations against the 
j^ood faith of the Messrs. Taylor's, I had no wish to drag furwHrd 
inio pubhc notice this solitary experiment of the Junior partner. 
What I have now said haa been relnetantiy drawn from me. I 
have alleged nothing against bim 9» a Man; but I am not bound 
to admiva bimee n VbiamU 



10 



X. I comc» al last, to the heaviest of ali the Ciiargcs, that is, 
taking advantage of a mispriat'ln the Tnal, to misreoresent the 
** opinitBof a Jwmm, ana emfoppniaiiigOMMa of what 

By referring to my ObaerHtions, it will be aeen that die 
JiijeiMi'a opinion, whatever it mi^ht have been^ could by no 
means change the point in dispute, which was the nature of a Che- 
mical Fact. It had been given in Evidence, for the Insurance 
Office, that certain oil, in the possession of Messrs. Taylor's, began 
to give out inflammable vapour, at tlie various heats of 365**, 545", 
ana even 280° — sometimes one and sometimes another, as if the 
oil had had a will of its own. This to me was so astonishing, that 
I wm etiBiHeMfid Ir Court to dtohie my opinioa of the bimmty of 
tlioOill aftdoviHi though the whole of the.JoKy ihouldliaTe CKt 
pressed themselves convinoed of its puntyi I agam affim, without 
the ri^ of bong cofitndioted by aav Chanust of character* that 

the oil mustlme been adulterated. 

Resting, then, on the facts themselves, and appealing, as I do, to 
all who have any pretensions to chemical knowled<^e, how can any 
candid man believe that, even supposing that I had had the power, 
I should have, knowingly, falsified the words of a nameless Jury- 
man, whose opinion could have added no strength to my argument? 
I Ciflwnly now had eny thing to do» directly or iauduectW, wi^ 
tkm eating of that Trial, and theiefiiie couul not posaihfr hate 
iaitilid award to aervo my purpoBo, efea had f been so induicd; 
bvt it aeems I have been wrong in treating the inBimntiop with 
maitinit. The chwgehaslmBKeiteieSed^aiid can BOW no longer 

be passed over in silence. 

In pages 58, 59, and 60, of the Associates' " Remarks,** an at- 
tempt is made to reason us into the belief that, in the expression 
** we are not satisfied that the oil is pure," the word not must have 
been an interpolation — a designed misprint It is sickening to see 
dM iouadennfls^f F<dly, in the quagmires of its own creation.— 
8uDpoao the Jory had been aatisfiea that the oil was pure, what 
is the consequence tobedraEwn from this somKMition? tbej mns^ 
then, necessarily have believed either that tne whole party were • 
set of bunglers in Chemical experiments, or that they were not to 
be believed ; for, otherwise, the Verdict must have been given in 
favour of their Theories. But neither the Court nor the Jury ever 
intended so to insult these Witnesses. Lord Chief Justice Dallas, 
in endeavouring to pacify Mr. Taylor, said, speaking of my expres- 
sion about the purity of tlie oil : — " It went only to say, in spite of 
human skill and observation, there might be a mixture in oil, 
bnt thai no person oodd be leii suspected than joa:^ and a Jury 
UMn added, The Jury agree with lAat* 

Tims much for the Reasoning of these Associates^ irfndiy in 
avoiding Scylla, would wreck them upon Charybdas. 

Bat Mr. Taylor has gone Still further: He ea^ page 61 of the 



Digitized by Goo 



le 



11 



** Remaikii," — the putting in a negative is a manoeuvre af ano- 
tlier order, and I wiw I Icnew whom to cliwge il upon; lunrevery 
tiiat no doubt mairfemain as to Ifae foct, I beg leave to flay» that in 
Mn QvutnesfB original notes, ^tn vUMi llie printed report of the 
trial is said to be taken, the irord 110I is not to he tand.'* And 
again: 

" Who was tlie Author of the hook, wo phall not easily learn, 
after the strong reprehension which was given from the bench upon 
the last trial, upon complaints of its mis-statements by different 
witnesses. There are many who think that it bears internal evi- 
dence of being edited by the same autlior that has now appeared 
to us^ it as his Text book; but as I cannot pore this, and I do 
not wish to rest on supoositions, I shall end this eubject with a Mp 
baik, that whoever wiU pervert what has been said ror the purpose 
of his own argument^ may expect sereie anhnadversfon when he is 
exposed*" 

It is painful to accuse ony one of a direct Fnlschood ; but I am 
compelled to do so in my own defence; and 1 will now demonstrate, 
to every eye, Uiiit ihc falsehood wns known to be so at the time it 
Was ^vl•itten. Pray, Sir, when and where did you inspect Mr. (lur- 
ney's Ofi^inal ISutes ? If you did see them^ were you able to 
read thcim? if you^d not see them, what mortal was it whose 
fakehood you have reppaled, for the purpose of fixing upon me the 
fouleit of Crimes? Clear your Character, then, if you cafi> from 
Ae effect of the following document; or, if you cannol^be con* 
tented with the Htle nf a Calumniator : 



To ALL WHOM. IT i>iAY coNCERS. /, Charlcs John Green^ 
the Shorthand Writer employed by Mr, W. B. Curue^ to astitt 
him in tailing Note$ at the Trial in the Qmri ^ Common PletUy 
MveMi Meesfi. Severn, JEi^, and Co. and the hnpoHd Lumn m ce 
Company^ in the month of Jpril^ 1820, having been applied to 
respecting the accuracy of the sentence line 5 pa^c 212, of the 
Jhrinted Report^ viz, we are not satisfied about the oil being 
purs,'' do deeiaro ihat the words there printed were exactlif thoto 
' mted^uJurjfmmu i mn mt otifg pmfoetfy etOiffied retpecUng 
the mmracy of my Shorthand Notety hut 1 perfectfy well rmnem 
her the icord nut having been used in the manner there expressed^ 
as U made a deep impression on my tnind at the time* As wU» 
nea hand this eighth de^ of August^ 132 !• 

Cbableu Jobs Gbemw,** 



uiyiu^cd by GoogI 



12 



Httriag nmr pleaded to each of these ten Aitidet of Impeadi- 
mtnAp I have to tluuik Mr. Philiips for having so leduced them into 
lonn, as to have enabled me to reply at once to all that can be 
alle^ged against mc. Never before nia I so completely comprehend 

the. force of the exclamation Ob ! that mine advfrsary harl written 
u l)i)(>k!" If I liave overlooked a smgle particle of the accusations 
so written, let iiim liug it to liis breast, for I shall not readily renew 
tlie cuulesL It were cruel to snatch the last straw from a cli owning 
man ; but let him not foieet tliat Aoae wiio bave braina of lead, if 
enfoctanately th^ axe adrift on t fiagile bark, ahonld be eudfol 
Aotto cany too higba aailyletty intM blaata of oppostttoiiy they 
suffer shipwreck* 

In thus taking a final leave of these Associates, of some of whom 
I have little cause to complain, I am sorry tliat I have been forced to 
mention any name except that of the Arcli-director of the combat. 
Whatever arrows I had in my quiver, it was towards him alone that 
they were intended to have been directed. He is the Representa- 
tive of the Party. He has added to their vituperations, and con- 
gregated their absuiditiei. Bu^ Itoigb be bM endcofcored to 
blast m J character, I baTe no wi^ to be vindlotive* Hia TUbnii, 
wbatever they were, never stood in my way ; and, high aa be may 
imagine bis name to be, I was willing that his insinuations agabist 
me, whether public or private, should be taken at what they were 
worth ; but he has, in nis Letter, reiterated every attack, in lan- 
gi!a<z:c that cannot be mistaken : and I am not to be blamed, if, in 
his foolish attempt to affix a Stigma upon ino, he has uni'ortuaately 
impressed an indelible Brand upon his own forehead; 

Quern Deus vult perdere priilui dementat. 



THB' 



QUART£RLY JOURNAL, 

January^ IS22, 



A ST. I. Comparative Analifsis of Black and Green Tea. 

Thb follovtai: gKp ofi nw ate , Mde in dM hibonitory of the 

Royal Institution, were chiefly undertaken with a view of as- 
certaining whether the ditierent eiiiects usually attributed to 
black and green tea, are referable to any peculiar principle existi- 
ii^ m the one wliich w not to be foond in the other. They 
w91 aleo tend to throw lome ligjit upott the celiitif)e oompoeitioa 
of teas of dUTeieDt prioee. To aeeertihi oHtare nad eilenft 
of adulterations of any kind is not our present object: the vari- 
ous specimens submitted to cxuniirKvt ion wi re oht a.iiied from most 
respectable sources, and undoubtedly geiuiinc as imported; 
' what processes Ae tea may be tabmitted to in China, or what 
mixtores'and additions it ms^ there receiYe, are curious and in- 
teresting matters of inquiry, and desenw farther inrestigatios 
than they have yet received. 

BspmmeMwiA Black TmL 

A 

One bundled parts of the finest black tea sold in the shops 
at 12*. per lb., were digested in repeated portions of boiling 
water until it entirely ceased to act upon the residue ; the leaves 
were then dried, and were found to have lost thirty-five per 
cent in weight; they retained Uieir original colour. The in- 
fusion was evaporated, and yielded a dark brown transparent 
AiftTftptj very astringent,^ and of a nauseous bitter iiavour* 

B 

The leafes, eibausted of aU their natter lolabla im wteiv 

were digested in alcohol, (sp. gr. 8JMi»), » which they tmpartsd 
Vou XU. P 



302 



a deep brown colour, and considerable, odour of tea. The 
alcohol being evaporated, yielded a resmous extract of a more 
agreeable tnieU and flaroor than that obtained by water. The 
leaves were now eotouf less, and witlk«iil tbe mrileit maining 
tatte ; thej weve dried and Ibad aiiatamed a forther low of tweWe 
per cent. 

One Imndred parts, therefore, of the finest black tea contam 
forty-seven parto of soluble matter, thirty-five of which are 
taken vp by waller^ and twehe by abohol. 

C 

A ■oMon of itniglaea WM onoMly added to tlie aqneona 
isAiiieii of onelnmdrad grate of llie tanebkoktea^ aa loaf no 
ft. canoed a precipitate, wMoh, being dried fit atempermtnre not 

exceeding 212^, weighed twenty-eight grains. 

D 

The above experiments were repeated with a sample of the 
commonest iaiack tea sold at 6s* per lb. The weight of the solu- 
ble Biall«'>inqparted to water was preoisely similar, nearly 35 
gnuBi from 100: bat the laavast having been eibansted bj 
water, only imparted six gcaina of aolnble natter to alcohol. 
The flavour of the aqueous extract was nearly tlie ^aiue ati lixat 
of the former two. 

£ 

Avarietyof sampleeof black tea were submitted to distilla- 
tion with water, but the distilled water had acquired iu ail cases 
a very slight vegetable flavour on^ ; it contained no appreciable 
foantiky of vogetable matter^ and waa not obvionsly difoent 
turn tea of diffenent dqgnea of eicallence. 

JSqMftmanlt loi^ Chrwn Tea* 
A 

One hmidfed parts of flue green Sea digosted la repeated por* 

tions of water, sustained a loss amounting- to forty-one parts ; 
the leaves being separated and dried, still retained a greenish 
brown colour. The infusion, .carefully ofapocatadt atfwnittd • 



m 



brown transparent extract, highly astringent and bitter, mA 
having a pacaUar flavour uniika that of tha origpnal tMu 

B 

The ratidaarj leavet di tiM laal eaparimaiit weia tianilKred 
to aleohol, witk wUch thay ibmad a graM tinotaa; uliaa tiM 
vrholaof iMr aoliibie witUm vaa lliaa iMllidnNPa, they 

dried, and were then of a pale straw colour, brittle, and quite 
insipid. They had sustained a t urihcr loss of ten parts. 

The T^lrohidk nolution being evaporatad to dryaass^ yiaAded 
a highly firagimnt oliva-oolonradiaraMMM excrafltv ■oaioely uSimA, 
upon hy cold watar^ hut perfectly redisaolnbla in aloohoL I(a 
. aoMandllvledwidi walarbeeaMataibidytadiiapM^ 
oliTe*green precipitate of a slightly bitter flavour, and smeiling 
very strongly of green tea. 

One haadved pafte* theiaibre, of tha baei graaa tea contaia 
flfty-ona paru of toliiblaiifeattBrf fbf^-ooa «f vrhiflh, haviag lia 
propertiaa af tin aad extraotlva, aca inpntad to iMrtar $ aad M 
aabflequently abatractiBd by alcojhol, of aretiaaua natare. 

C 

An aqoaoiis infuMOQ of one-hundred grains of the iame tea 

was mixed with solution of isinglass ; the precipitate, when ren- 
dered as dry as possible by a temperature not exceeding 212% 
wei|^ed thirty-one grains* 

D 

A series of simdar experiments were made upon a very in- 

Motaaail^ <tf giaan tea, sold at 7a. per lb. Wsonly un- 
partad to vvalir tUrty«aix par cant, of salaUa matter; hattlia 

leares, subsequently digatted In dcaM, lost alaran grains $ so 

that the tiitue soluble contents of the good and bad tea, are to 
each other as 51 to 47 ; but as far as the mer^ agency oi water 
jui opaoanie4 as 41 to d6« 

B 

Green tea was mixed with water and submitted to slow distil- 
latiopi the liquid which passed over had acquired a little of the 

fragiancy of Ihe tea, aiyai^ly of the hoar jumiplas» but not the 

P 2 



lie drtMwlli H*. 



IW abm esptriMili ihew tfait the qtwetity cf estrioi^Dt 
netter precipileble by gdiMMie ie eonewliel greailer in giecD 
Aen in black tea, though tiie excess is by no means so great ea 

tfie comparative flayours of the two would lead one to expect. 
It also appears that the entire quantity of soluble matter is 
greater lu gfeen than in black tea, and that the profiMioa of 
entiaeliTe Mttai not pndpitaUo by geiatina is greateal in the 
latter. 

Sulphuric, muriatic, and acetic acids, but especially the first, 
occasion precipitates in intnsioiis both of l)hiok and green tea, 
which have the properties of combmatious of those acids with 
tin. Both tiie inAiiiont also yields as might be ejtpected, 
nbnndani hlidk pieoiiMtatea wiHi tololionaof inm; and whoa 
mixed wtdi iMsetate, or more espeeially wiCh tob-ecetate of lead, 
a balky biiti-coloured matter is separated, leaving the remain- 
ing fluid entireiy tasteless and colourless. This precipitate was 
diffiiaeri through water, and decomposed by sulphiiretted hy- 
drogen ; it a^ded a solution of tan and extiact, but not any 
Iraee of any pecnliar principle to which eertain medical effects 
of tea, especially of green tea, conld be attributed. 

One property of strong infusions of tea, belonging equally to 
black and green, seemed to announce in them the presence of a 

Wiibdmple water, and diew df an ooice «r voj odnriMS and pdhicid 
waten ftce ttam oil« waAwkkk, sotrial, ibswed noiigns of astringency.'* 
lOTSMi's Ntamta mtmf ^fJh* Tm TVm^ London, 1799, 4to. 

g<ei»sf l>r. I i iH io m' s«psiiaMnlswenMs«mteiliiw 
c0Mof tsaars rtftrabfe to the volatOs aad otooas prmcipls wUdi 
thw ptMssoff in diitiilatiiMi; and he Hiinks that tiieit whesoflbr fiom 
lhsai» but yet cannot omk this fiivoarifebcTeraciet mighttaks it nHh moie 
safc^ifpKfvimii(|)rhDil^«»raibrniBntMtodiisipftte prin* 
dftB, InallAaftifM wUdiDnHalde cdatioibradbihiliieriiq^ 
'*" *''idi) HMlMae aawi^ CUomi^ It b sMmt eMiied to bs'lMilMl 
w otewiM to pnipaNa M to distifaAs its fri«^^ 



uiym^LU by 



of BiMft mi Grtm Tea 



906 



^iHMiet vigitihit fmcqhi muimIj, tluiilliey dtpmh, w libsy 
eod, ft brown pulvmleat pMcipitftte, wUch {Maw tlnough 

ordinary Biters, and can only be collected by deposition and de- 
cantation ; this precipitate is very slightly soluble in cold water 
of the temperature of from 50^ downwards, but it dissolves vitk 
die utmost ftidli^ in water of 100^ and upwards, forming a pale 
brown transparent liquid» wbidi fiinnshed abundant p iecipit a ia 
In solutions of ising^lass, of snlpbate of iron, of muriate of tni» 
iind of acetate of lead ; whence it may be iiii'erred Lo consist of 
tannin, gallic acid, and extractive matter. 
• When tea kaves have been exhausted by water repcfiatedly af* 
fused, tbe above experiments shew that alcohol is still eapebla 
of .extraetbg a considerable quantity of difficultly soluble mat* 
ter ; this substance, again infused in boiling water di8s<dTe8 with 
difficulty, furnishing a liquid which smells and tastes strongly 
of tea, and which, were it not for the expense of the solvent and 
the trouble attendmg its separation^ might perhaps be profitably 
emjdoyedL 

Though the above experiments shew that tea contains^ upon 

an average, from 30 to 40 per cent of matter soluble in boiling 
water, it is not to be supposed that so large a proportion is taken 
up in the ordinary process of making teas on the contrary^ 
firom tea leaves in the state in which they are usually thrown 
away, there is still contained firom 10 to 14 per cwL of solubla 
matter, cs^pable of affording a sufficiently pleasant beverage, 
though it must be granted that the most agreeable portion of the 
tea, consisting probably of the purer tannin, or astringent matter, 
and of the whole oi the aroma, is taken up by the first afifasitm 
of hot water; and that, subsequently, the bitter and less soluble 
extractive matter aiA dissolved, temslung what is usually eaUed 
$trmt§ #fa» but infinilaly less agreeable than the earfier inftiaion. 
Hence it is that the real epicure in this article imitates, in some 
measure, the Chinese process of infusion; and only drinks the 
first made tea, using a fresh, but small proportion of the leaves 
ht each suooasaive cop* 

. . Tha kHlkfma^ table shews the respective quaatitiiMi of soluble 



206 Comfnraiwt AMtdym vf Ttm 



matter in water and ui akobol^ ibe veifht of the precipitate by 
iiiiigiiffTj and the propoftioa of iaart woo^ fibre in ptm and 
black ten of Tariona pricaa ; It it gif«n» not aa throwing any im- 
portant light upon the caoie of tiie dUfefentqnatitita of taa> Iml 

as containing the results of actual experiments; it nuiy also per- 
haps save some trouble to future tn4|uirers. 



Qm llMMll«d pMtiOf T«t* 




AMaol. 


Precipitate 
with i;elljr. 


raritac* 


GhreenHjaon 14f. per lb. 


41. 


44. 


31. 


Ov. 


Ditto 


12*. 


34. 


43. 


29. 


57. 


Diao 


10«. 


36. 


43. 


d6. 


57. 


Ditto 


8a. 


aa 


43. 


25. 


56. 


Ditto 


7i, 


31. 


41. 


24. 


59. 


Black Sou-1 




« 

35. 


36. 


88. 


64. 


Ditto 


10s. 


34. 


37. 


28. 


63. 


Ditto 


8«. 


37. 


3^. 


28. 


63. 


Ditto 


7s. 


36. 


35. 


24. 


64. 


Ditto 


6s. 


35. 


31. 


23. 


65» 



AftT. 11,^^ th$ Chart of Shdiand. By J. M'Cvlloc h, 

M.D., F.R,S. 

II A V IN (; been lately engaged in a geological survey of the 
Shetland islands, I had occasion to lament the deficiency which 
British Geography labours oader in the want of a map of this 
district; n want which waa pcodnctbe of oonaidefmble laboif 
and much uncertainty* and which eventaaiUy rendered h im* 
possible to deduee any satisfkctory conclusions respecting the 
geucicii direction of the strata, or the dependency and connexion 
of those of a similar nature which were separated by wide ifr* 
tervals. Had even the maritime outline been tolmbly eotreet^ 
ihese difiudtiOB wooid have been easily orMome, aa the into* 



Br. Mao CuUoch m the Chai i of SUUand. 207 



tfior country iS so little distant iVom the sea iu aay part, thai ft 
map capable of answering tiie ends ia view could have been con- 
•teitlad walh vary lUtU Uboar. Tbo aea-cbart of Sbetland it, 
am dui amtnty^ aol only gMfsly iMMflrect ia its general geolo- 
fieal diteiliy bat» wilK » vecy f«ir fwpticinii, utterly unfit te 
Ike purposes of navigation. It would be better, indeed, if no 
such chart existed ; as, except in the very Tf w iiisiaiu i s which 
I sbaU presently point out, a reliance on it is in danger of tenqiU 
ing n VMitl to atn dflntraBtion. ItlmmQi tberafom mtt Um 
n^gaikivn q^M% of being umImw 

Hie dnfid«Eicy of tkn chail it not eo gmeiiily known ne it 
Mgbtto be. The name of Captain Preston, which is attached 
to it, is no less likely to mislead those who are unacquainted 
wiljb itjs iBoo£rectoeae» iban tbe apparenl deokion with which the 
fodke, fonndingt, and anchocaga» am Und down ; and it ia too lata 
to aaoertain tbe position of nroek wkea n ▼esiol is on it» or tibo 
b adn e a a of an andiorftge when sho is embayed on a be shore. 
In this respect, indeed, there is a striking constrast between 
the chart of Oikuey and that of Shetland ; while the excellence 
of the former may also have the bad efiect of tempting those who 
Imva navigated by it| to piaoe tho samo reHanoa en the latteri 
wunrm that the anrrsy of Orhney was oondnotad by M*K«n»a 
with the greatest eare and anxiety, and that the chart of Shet» 
land is little better than a map-seller's compilation, supplying 
the want of documents with conjectures. 

To render these deficiencies better known through the medium 
of this Joumol^ is an act of justice which puUio benefit daiaa; 
erittctsm is not alwnys employad in so pore and good a canaOy 
nor can our defects be remedied till they are pointed out ; and 
it is by no means generally known that this part of British hy- 
drography is in so imperfect a state, if it were known, it is cer- 
tain tbnttho department of our govamment which takes chaigo 
of these nattnrsy wontd h«fo long ago Ibnnd n lenady ; aa ia 
prored bythelandable anxiety it has always shown to improve 
the art of navigation. The recent establi^^ljmeut of a light-liouse 
on Sumburgh-head is, indeed, an eamest of a desire to render 
the navigation of Shetland more safe than it has yet been ; and 



Dr. Mac CuUocU on the OiurL of Shetlatid. 



it if to be hoped that it will, ere long, be Mhw^d by^^namticdl 
survey of all these islands*. 

The present chart is stated to have be^n drawn up from th0 
obtemtions of Captaw PvmIoii^ and tbe l a t ttodas «i4 
tadet of Adminl Loireiiom. A leetol additiott h«i htm madt 
to it, of a very aociurate aarvey of Bratsa Soaad by CSaptaair 
RMtge, who has also published a correct chart of Balta Souod, 
which, however, is not appended to the general chart. Some 
alterations have also been made in the original chart, down to 
1820, which ara saidi in the^roii^, to be coaaideral^ IM- 
provamenta.*^ These altetationsafo, how«fver,tfiffii9, and talala 
to Ittlle else than soane of the latttudes, and lo a oocfeetion of 
the longitude of Brassa ; a new scale having been fitted on the 
old plates, and a rock added, conjecturally, to the east of Fetlar, 
as the cause of the loss of the Hound 8hx>p, of which the plaee 
is, nevertheless, at this noneat nnknown. 

It is, however, not possible to disoovar from what attdioriliaa 
tiie chart has actually been drawn up. It is nndsrstood in Shet- 
land that Captain Preston did not survey the eastern coast, 
having been drowned while engaged on the west side of the 
island. It is certaio, from internal evidence, that he could not 
.have examined the west side throughout, as the coast fram 
Papa Stour toward the north is exceedingly incomct His 

* The CommissioneiiB under whom this degaat building has been 
erected have doubtless proceeded on the best evidence in chousing this 
piece, but the eituation is unfortunately too high. la the thick wea* 
thSr w comiBoa in Shetland, particularly with easterly winds, this light- 
bouse, must always be involved in mists and fog;8 ; and» even in the 
ordinary westerly winds, it arrests the flight of the clouds, it is to be feared 
that the light will frequently be invisible^ and pafticuhirlj|:/whe& it is must 
wanted ; and that it will thus become an additional source of danger 
rather than of security. There is unfortunately no lower point at the 
soiUhem extremity of these islands where it could have beeu built, so as 
to serve the purposes of ships coming from the eastward as well as the 
westward ; but many seamen give a preference to Moussa Island, as the 
chief want is that of a night-mark for vessels intending to make Lerwick. 
Such a light-house, together with a small light ou the Nab, woukl render 
tbAt harbour accessible even in the darkest night. 



uiyiu^ed by Googl( 



Uk iQ 0m WW pnibtJaky Innitid to Vaiiey Swmd aad llw Vog» m 
fiur as Sealtowmj ; ahboogfa^ mtn-^kemm'to ineonectly snr^ 
▼eyed, tint it ia pw hd bi B ^'.eompSlmr had no aooest to his do- 
cuments in a complete state. Neither has the compiler taken 
advaiila§;e of Collins's lurvey; which, limited as it is^ is far 
MWMiirato than the preBent chart » in tha fame plaesss m 
Vfif OM itef Ma wfa6 inD take Uia tranUa of oonpatni^ hit 
ciiartof thet#oBiurTaainth tiialirUch is given, and with tba 
actual form of these islands*. 

, It is not my intention to go throug;h all the details of this 
dMtt; aor would it indeed serve any purpo&e, unless I could 
faava aocompanied it by a large copy, whiob the dimeawoM of 
thn Jowanl do not adout I ahaU- thorefine limit nyidf to a 
km otw erv a tMi s on some of the moat renarlcahle points, for the 
purpose of establishing the justice of this general censure ; those 
who may be possessed of a copy, may follow these obsenrationi 
without difficulty. The enumeiation of even the few particu- 
Ian whidi I hare selected te lemark, wtU amplyjjnstily this 
g e ne r a l oriticbni; Mid it b hoped that it wOi hare, the efieel 
whieh is intended, of exeiting the attention of some indhridnalt 
or that of the government, to the subject; the object being, not 
to censure error or neglect, but to instigate to a remedy. Hav- 
ing entered almost every harl>oar under an excellent pilot, I am 
the moffe easily enabled to point oat where .the defects he^ b«t 
shall limit myself jto the most piomhMntt« 

One of the most important circomstanees in the navigation of 
all the groups of islands which beset the coast of 6hetlandj is 

* Although not au advocaie for monopoly, the publication of maps, or 
at least of sea-charts, ou the correctness of which so mauy lives, aud so 
much property depend, oug-ht to be restraiued to the hands of g'overn- 
menf. The temptatiou arising^ from a little profit, is too often an iiuluce- 
ment to publishers to construct these chail« fruiu imperfecl and iniasrinary 
documents, careless of the consequences which must result from Ihcir in- 
correctness, and, it is to l>e hoped, liot aware of the fatal results which are 
so often produced by their inaccuracy. 

•f" The accurate and uuiversal knowltdje of this pilot, whose name is 
Peter Anderson, would afford ^rcat facility to any one intending to con- 
struct a chart of these islauds; aud it is an opportuuity which, once Utst, 



I 



210 l>r. Mac Culloch m the Chart of Shetlaad^ 

the nature of the tides: their strength, or y^octty, their dtrec- 
tion, the times of change, their interference, nnd the currents 
n^ich are formed among thsau Without aa accurate knowledge 
of fkimmkaff the beat gMgraphnml wamj wuM be 

k aH diiM irtwtaf dbMnels, it will cIImi ba fiMwi impof 

to reach the destined harbour, or to etTect the intended passage; 
a& tlte periods of ebb and dood are so materially influenced by 
tba Ibfina of the laud in many places, tha coUlii—i of t«9 
flaada avabfaalMiii difeaat quvtaM, ar by Iha mmfeiaaa^ 
MriHDa. af tkft flaad of mm cIhuimI widi ika abb ot aiiodNr* 
Not tinfreqnently also, it becomes neoessary, in shifting from 
oue harbour to another, to to time matters as to secure a poi Lion 
both of ebb and dood ; ttiace, ia consequence of tba aanaaUy or 
iipiha aiiwiUMf ia aadi bagbo«a» er ^ aantenaa af bam aaA 
■haalty tbaa V f ^Liaa y m ifti Iwl ly ba l igfc ti i by tdBby taa 
larfa ar too Iktfe aportioii af tba OBa> aa by niioaknlating tha 

tiie lioie required to eii'ecl the passage. With a h:adinor wind, 
or a. faTourable breeze, it is true, an accurate attention to the 
tidas is often of little coaoaqaaaoe; bat ouai anaoastantly oc- 
aamg^ ia wbidH if tba pwaaga ia nal aftaM by tba ti4% il 
fpilliiot be a ftctod at all; or Ilia veaMl May ba cangfat at aaa 
in a daik nigbAy aa avaat i^rieh if ahvays a source of great peril 
on coasts of this nature, or else be embayed on a lec shore sub- 
ject to any casual change oi adverse wind, which, in these 
regions, oftan rise with great Tiolence and isMdibk rapidity* 
Very aftan, saounty ia to ba obCainod by taking ibalter in aa 
addy» or in dia Stillwater wbidi is often fonnd to the lee of the 
current that sets on some island ; but it is unnecessary to detail 
all the cases, too well knowu to seamen, and particularly to 
those acquainted with the Scottish islands^ in wbiab an 
bMvMiaof tba tidsi is as indispansshto as tet of Iba 
and batbaiifs 4baiiiaelras. 

is not easily replaced : a«i he is the only person in the blaads who &ae» 
qua'mted wilb every rock aud h€u:bour in them. I need not point out to 
surveyors bow much Ume is savodin iavestivMians olthisnslasa^sofi 
acqadjuu,r. . ^ 



ci by Google 



la this important part of every sea-chart, that of Shetland i» 
kimentibly dtieient; and it aflfordft a tm i g eOBtrast with thai 
of OikMT^y wInn ikH iImh piitftMlin bio lOCMdMl iivl^ tibo 
g^reAliMlMtitl^iHd MMMy« Tlwniir^i' Hi^lMFiAMtOf 

^tedftnd, not ^ tli^htest indkSaHkm ev«n of the direction e# 

the flood, except on the west coast, far from land, and for a 
smitll space <« tlie eattoni i in both of wkich it is little better 

«aiA iMMf ibMMy lihelt » feftowledge of it 4tf hmmI l > tiaii i» 

but it is not even rwticed on the northern extremity of these 
islands, where the yioJence of the tide is such as materialiy to 
iflbcft tiie pta 6f ft temeii ft^ttpting iitft ptMage, and li tx- 

^^^Khji^ ^ ^^^^^ S^L^. ^l^^^^^^^a^^ ^^^^^^^^^ JBla A^^K^^k ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ i^^^^^mI^B.A^ 

■ WW oi iDo mwiiwi wiiiiv nw nws 00 inovc uuuuu' 

Aome, or where th« defeel df Ais part of the chart is most likdy 
to be felt. In all thciSe cases, it must be presupposed that there 
is not a leading wind, or a sufiicient breeze ; and when it is stated 
UNtt tiie tdMltgr of tlkeio fides often leaobes to five or six kaott 
tt howr^ Of ofon sitM^ iftofo^ H wiD eai0y bo midentood diot 
Md^ m utad mtf Mm bo WMMfog, partfeolariy^ to deep ond rfoir 

vessels. 

■ Passing over the navig-ation of Brassa Sound, since a pilot 
iMiy always be obtained there, I shall tiibt remark, that neither 

die inclumiifo nt SioibiiOer Bay m Wholsey, nor ihtt of tlio. 
Oot^keftiee^ coft h% talm iridiotit en aoeiimce kAovledgo of the 
tine and ifOIUM Of Idle tidee * owlo^'liy llio thaRowAefs and in* 

tricacy of the channels leading to them. The same renrark may 
be made on the sound of Uyea and that of Balta; particularly 
if k veseel attempts to take the latter harbour by the norths 
pOMOffo^ Jii rihiftfay fitm the fonndt liatboui* to tbe lottor^ tC 
•meoMtt^ Id tttakouM of the latter fiaft of die flood and dio 

first of the ebb; since, without the first of these, it is drfficnltttf 
beat out of the harbour of Uyea ; and, without the last, equally 
inconvenient to beat into that of Balta* If a vessel, agaiii» is 
deiboM of goidf ftom Balta Sound to Cloap Voo, or tbe 
woateMLpartt of Tirtl^ or from Uyea hatbonr to the same inaoea. 



212 Br. Mac CuUocli on ilie Ckatt oj Shetland. 

the chart does not indicate that the pasa^e tmuA idm fieaw ni 

the former case» or that of Blumc I Sound in the latter, are mexr 
pedieoty or mB> in certain circuoidtaBcas, dangecoss; and 

^^^^^^^^^r^K^w ^^^W ^W^'^P ^^^^^ ^^^^^^P^W^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^B^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^r ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^v ^^^^^^P 

So«Bd. Unngtk fbe omat thfoagli C ol y fp &mih1» 
though far lata tm thtt of the atraeta wkidi ma with 

velocity through Blumel Sound, renders it also necessary to be 
well acquainted with the times of ebb and iiow through that 
paaaaga ; bo less in marahf aailing.thKNigh it, than m attempt 
higlOMkftthalMalxMnrof BattaVoe. Ait m teavi&g a te> 
boVf 9Wtf vMMil haa opfMRNunily of MMitifanoi^tlM -ibubf^ 
of ^ tida, it it o n e tessa ry to point <wt ^ pecnliar situstiofli 
in any of these islands, in which it is necessary to possess thia 
knowledge for that purpose ; but I may remari^, generally^ thtut 
Vtth faapect to the making a great proportioB of theiiif,a imwal 
■ay o i lwi fiiii in ita otjeet wdaaa tht wcpaaataaoa ii fc m imkf 

In passmg round the Skaw, or Papelnieaa in Tdl or Fedakad 

Point ill North Maven, it is equally necessary to be accurately 
acquainted with the times of change ; as the strength of the cur- 
MBt ia coaaidarabU in aU these situationsy aad it is. nqviaila to 
take advantage of the ebb aad flood both* te doaUaag iSmm 

^¥60 no iBfofflMfiOO* 

The whole of the flood or ebb is equally required for making the 
passage from Fedaland to Hills wick, or througji Swarbuck's 
Min ; or £roia Papa Stour to the southeia harbours of ^thsting, 
ortlMieTeno; and, inalitfaoM caaaii a niacakiiktion oftfaa 
lime OK Telocity of tibocoiroat, if tliaraiaaahortwiiidoralMad 
aaa, or hoAh» may be prodoetive of the moat aerknis inconve- 
niences. The same remarks might be extended to ail the re- 
mainder of the western shore; but it is unnecessary to enter 
into miouto details of. oaaea whidi have occaaod iii my own 
oa p a i i fl Ba o , aai viiioh miiat oooor to all veaada attanpti^gtlua 
aavigatka iHtlioat a weUHufofiaed pilot 

To a stranger, attempting to make any harbour, it is essen- 
tially necessary to have some physical marks, or picturesque 
apjpeaiancesy if that tana may he usad^ by .whi^h tho spot .caa 



uiyiu^cd by Googl 



Ik, Mm CMtoA m Um Ckmi ^ Siiifciil, 



•tkwt, « vMiit ttiaiNl liUtf.4» 

MpiMMiirtMM q€ cMste Mid Inttdfaads id smi i^wrCt sre not 

often accurately or characteristically given; and the necessity 
that every surveyor should have a facility in drawing landscape, 
hi bat too obvicnH in many batter charts than thai of Sbalkad. 

K gratt aid to tfat jwdgwimt ia ofadtd,' ia aO liww cmm, 
by the udo cf aM|aaaiiii^ the ahowoalfac geograpfaiQ ooHiMy 
whether it be low and sandy, or skirted with low rocks, or con- 
sisting' of cliffs of different degrees of elevation, in the chart 
of Shetland these circumstances seem often to have been plaoaid 
aHandoB; irhfloeqialiPofaMiaoiteB gnnloioaiqf ahofwof« 
ftNT ftai iB'olml^ and to dift-riiMrtmg to lunfadi. 
fb'^odteesanplialobvttooteay; The fPaat aod eaat aidao of 
Fouia arc laid down as if they were of the same elevation ; 
whereas, on the former side, the cli08 exceed a thousand feet 
in height, and the latter is almost wiitiam^ low, aad» im 

fmmk is many parte of Ya]i»- Itat, eedk Battar; wh— a lew 
iiiom,«ad«veBeoady bays, aaa laid domna if they cnmaislsd 
of lofty cliffs. Trestra Bay in Fetlar, and Uyea Sound in Unst, 
are remarkable examples of this error. The island of Balta rs 
another ; in which the high clidii of the eaataok ahorOy and the 
Iwr and ofttn aandy ootitoa of the n e tU ce ^ en icptesanud \gf 
tho tome Mw e gln ilne* I neod ent awMniiain ote atriUag 
M M H e ncca cf theMaeiwfoeBfeey; as, to gooparlbMBin^ktiil» 

would be to give an analysis of the whole lenglliened outline. of 
this intricate and indented coast. 

'To the mere geographer, tho most gross inaccuracy of the 
ebaii'Qf .Shetlead, ooMMta, not only in the diaplnfiownt, 
»»t intiia ehaoiilt qniaiiiie, of Mnyof tibe aneOef iaUndas 
some of which m far fawa beiqg of trifling dim ant ioea , I shall 
content myself, as before, in pointing out some of the most re- 
MWrfcaldfi of these ; as the want of an accompanying chart on a 
lai^a aoalo woidd render the detail of trifling particulars as un- 
itfiriligildeaaitmddh^thmM ft wiM be anriiy im d nnto adt 
that, MepaeiMllr ^ mt^ saogi^pldoal dlfiMd^ Unm 



by Google 



^14 Mac Cullucli on iJie Citart qJ Shtiimid, 

errors are of important conseqiMMeQ w Ami «lMvt, M ftr M 

iuteiidt d foi a p;inde to navi jators; not only tending to mislead 
tbm respecting tbeir position with regard to any given poiot of 

An island which lies of!' Seuit Ness is entirely omitted ; and 
this is the more unpardonable, as it is the southemmosl point 
of all Shetland, awl Ihiniati inttniKlj rs— rhihls Xm 
iMiiiriMi^tetfi>woitA«rito>wHwd,MWgfliiii 'Wxhhum 

firth Voe ; where one of the two Glitness Islands is left out of 
the chart. The How Stack, near them, which is a green island, 
ii also laid down a& a naked rock. In Oure Voe there i» also 

UmIbmI MBiliidt aaA wMAiat kaa hMn HMrvflllaD aisr Hm 

iiknid9} otAj o€ wHn^ is M ot ic ud , bsit the ootiiKHMHi 

of small islands on the eastern coast of this spot is utterly un- 
accountable. There are four islands where only one is marked : 
thntoC them called the Holms of Ibtster, and another, de- 

Orief flkntrf m tlto ntMijMplttosd } tlie fomwr being a «nli 
«rmMO«t«r it»tnMi|MNMoiif to tlw Mrthwvpi, cndHM fai^ 

tor appearing to have been transposed from tlie north lo the 
south side of East Linga, over a space of more tkm three miles. 
^Qm Out Skerries «re nprMated in ninl y i a c o i Mt al « 

onktod, so ai to prodnoe the nost iimctrieslhto «0iiM09. fa 

consequence of this confusion, it would be quite impossible for 
any vessel to recognise these islands, or to attempt to make the 
■oohorage. The geologist is equally puzzled in attempting to 
feeoneils th« piqnical feognphy of the ^KntiMc^A m iA Mk lii 
Is fMBiimmg, wiflh the pcrfilM geograpliy wfaMi map-mriwf 
kspi thought ^ to MsigB to Ite remote tenants of tiiis nelsa- 
choly and stormy spot. 

To compensate for the loss of an island in one quarter, the 
same artisl-faM -eoniiBRiit <m Uasi one whioh-hos «o sokli—s | 



uiyiii^LU by GoOgU: 



£lr. Mac Coiiodi m the Ckesitt Sktdtiad. 21^. 



namely, tbat of Hoima, near Norwick Bay ; treaung as a rock 
tile real Uoiuia, which lies at tke eatraoce of Balta Sound. It 
voald fm •fttUy difiwnU to if\iiitirmi for tiM mm§mi, piwa of 
HMoiei, widvid nM ten two mIm in iMglk, ly%ia« 

breakwater to Basta Voe ; il is moved more than a mile to the 
southward, so as no longer to perform that otlice. 

In Yell Souai, tfe proportion«j or coUtWB poaitioDS of nearly 
olfc the iihado mt a ii fdy p« f M Ud L m at to iBw ia i it dMfaiii^ 
Mi'iMiyigKiBg thw,to kMr vAkk aiJHMatrhy mtf tm of iImi 
kdd down in the chart. This mis placement is moat remirkalrie 
in llie Brother Holm; while one of considerable size to die 
north vrard) called Little Holm, is oautted. Similar irreguiari- 
tiaa oflcnr in the position of the Rannafltacks, and is that el 
Oioilwilmi offFoda>»aAPoiiii»whikfla» of thaffiiiii iaeleo 
■■lilliiiL JU the fMaaago mod tibm Bowkof Noffdi Mrnm^ 
which forms the northernmost point of the mainland, lies be^ 
tween Grccnholm and the landy thia error is the more inconvo- 
nient and cenaasable. 

To pata omjanton of kas consequence in the potitiea of 
IklOmWf^uAOm^Skmrjtmihm^mmimam tmd paairiuu of 
Hktdt Linga wUflbliaaat tbaiMthof OtefMi Voe, io dte 
omission of a small island at tihe eod'Of flelie Ness, I may re- 
mark, that in Wisdale V oe, an island containing not less than a 
square mile, is converted into a loek. The position assigned 
tote moha aaad j ak m i i a sdwohJiBWOi the hay, rn m tp ^ ^a- 
WtmMkMti Kaaaand Bum, 0f0«b»lnMM8t; Wfba 
ooBTenleooe lliat asight ariae ftom thia ia, in a g^ioat neasnre, 
obviated by the channels which lead into Scalloway having been 
laid down. It is for this part of the chart that the compiler 
appauvilokhaiaa haqi iodebtad CiftaMi«{Veaton'a rartey ; omI 
U ia cartaiadj tiM loait asoopteaUa pot ^»^w9At tfaoogit 
1 wnataajpirtififfamifi ft at at appendodfolMul of Tilley Bond 
and Qruoting Voe, on a larger scale, m alio oocy oifioolly kit 
down. 

MfkuBsauch ercoiaoilat'Ui iio positions of islaods of such- 
^mmmm^i and ariipe-oo VBHiy ^-aio loMttai, it -a ma o t ho ob«' 



316 J>t.MMcCMaAmikiami4ofSkiUmd. 

^gf^^ iW* fhmmm ia «« acciuicy in tbfe pia<»g of rcx:ka, whe- 
Ibtr jfkiUe Off «iiik« in «bioh lo nuaiy ports of tlie coasioof 
Shedond aboood^ It u not too mich to toy, thit» witfi wy 

trifling exceptions, ihe whole of them ore inoofteot; oilbar by 
lOAion of omis&ions, misplacemeut, or cbaracters wrongly ex- 
|Mtted. It will Mifioo here to mention a very few of the most 
fomoAoble coMtt MiOMOof tbon will again come under notice 

in pdioting oot OMO ID loyl^ir^d^ How 
important it ft to* bo aeewlo^bi ibis part of Ofoqr***^^^ 

chart, it is quite unnecessary to remark. If there isoiio rnmoB^ 
Stance more tlian another which is a source of perpetual anxiety 
diitraat to a vessel attenptaig to make a harbour, or navi- 
0itf a Mmdf it is odoobt raspoetmg tho place, existence, and 
dioioofeor of looks; and, som paitieolsfiyr of tboso wUdi sio 
not always viwblo. It dowmot, Woed, ftll to tbo lot of »B»y 
mLiiincrs to experience the anxiety that is felt by hkn whoee 
late it IS to navigate coasts of this nature ; but those whose 
hoiinnsS it. is to be often engaged among islands and channels 
laboHioss, fcoow woll the hourly nsk to wbiohtboyoMSidifsot» 
wbsiolbosiMite of OM daeyokns expcMMs tfaean to giwtor bo- 
zard than couid be crowded into owboloMfcifont ill oawigotfcifr 
the ocean. It is not too much to say, that, the circumnaviga- 
tion of the Shetland Islands is attended with more Ira^^ard rhrm 
that of the glob^ A ooneot chart woold ledaoe that hazard to 
Uttlo or ootbut ; yot tfiaft is QOt only wontnif , bottbesonaoo 
is oiposad to Ibo additlonol fisk wfaidi anst em joiso 1^ 
necessity of placing confldsMOO m one wbieb is groaaly of' 
roneous. * * 

■ A number of sunk rocks are flMcked in this chart as lying 
nsaa to the NooUof Eswick; whacoM fliaio is doop water hers- 
doio4o iboto, with a solo passage Ibr sb^ of any dianglit bSK 
MM tbo How Scoek and the land. 

Respecting the very intricate and dangerous navigation be- 
tween Whalsey and the main land, or that on the east side of 
tius island, it is only necessary to say, that not a single rock is 
lodigaWrt I UiolvMabelngsosboesaaoafoonMon k 
tM ctaut, that it ia toni to atfeaoipt to t^knify the ORWia 



Digitized by GoogI( 



Dt. Mac CvHogIi mi >At Chmi'of SkeHand. ilH 

words. That wbidi was remarked respectiiig iIm ibIiumU at the 
Oat SkexrieBy wmj also be obsetTed of Uie rockt^ winch aie 
eqaally inoCNnMet n ^ir poritioiM. 

la eDlerinf Gate Voe, it ig aot indicated that there is a rocky 
shoal between Ballasetter Hoim hikI the soutlicrn shore, respect- 
ing which I had the disagreeable experience of haYing struck 
on it in nine feet watct. 

. A roek ia laid doan off Petlar, on aMeh Ihe Hdaiid tloi^y 
aa.iMiaQriy remarked, was said to have been lost fai 
Now ibe Irae plaee of thb rock is aet ascertained, important a 3 
it is; nor diil our pilot believe that the place indicated w:is at 
all near to that in which that vessel was wrecked ; certaioiy, at 
ioast» none of the fishermeiiy who are pairpetaaUjf oa tfaia oeastf 
wm aoiiaaiafeMi Willi the spofe» Heneaaowiiel cam appitah 
Fallarfiam the east with any coaidtiane, aad tkosa eleeriaf 
aorth or eoaft naet eltfMr losep a vmy wide offiog, or sail doee 

in shore. 

There is an utter confusion respecting the rocks which lie to 
the eoittbwatd of Yell, of which the inowledge is exoeediii|^y 
inpoftaaly ae they iie ia the way of ire s ee i s ioteadiag to pesa 
fipoai (ha aoith ihvoagh Tell SomkL At to the Ranaa Staeke* 
which weee aheady notioed in raeatieiraig' the adsjplacea Hi a t of 
islaTids, the omissions are of less consequence, as the principal 
are sufiicientljf conspicuous to form marks for themselyes. 

There is a pesss^ between Papa Stoar and the roam laad^ 
whioh woald oftea be my comreniiat/ai enaMing ships to save 
a^iklahigoingibf St liegaas'eBay; botHieeo tUleiddoWn 
that no Tessd can yeataieto take it. Not to pT<4ong a part of 
the buV)jcct, however, on which it would be useless to insist fur- 
rier, I sliail lastly remark, that there are great doubts in the 
minds of the pilots and fishermen, respecting the true place of 
the Hare de Grind rocks, which he to the eaMaid of Foala; 
Stich a want of oonfideace/hNieed; was fsit by oar |iik)t, eipe- 
ftenoed ae he was, that he declined takiny dMrge of the Tsssel, 
and those who have been in similar situations may judge of the 
aneasiness experienced in standing oii and on, in a heavy sea, 
Vol. XLU Q 



218 Or« Mac CuUock w the Chart of &huiattd, 

duriag a whole mi^i ou Ihia Coa»ty with a view oi making Foula 
in the morniog. 

The pcolatHtt of eic«Uent harbom in ShatlaBd it Moh« thai 
•▼eiy seaman iilio baa ez|Mrienced the vant <tf Btmilar lefiige 
in dMdian&flla of Bii^and> U melined to expieta a chSdisfa 
regret at the waste of a commodity, nn lin is inclined to view it, 
which, if properly distributed, might almost supply the whole 
ofEaropewith anehofagaa. Efeninthis proCoaion, however, 
|i tlM bomi^ oCaatain iliainii aa» withent iba lefiHC* iribieb 
Ibaf afleidat alaioat aaary pointf ttwoaU be iBipoei9»b» at 
least in the short days of winter, to nayigate^theie coasta at alL 
It is not possible for those who have not exp^enced this kind 
of navigation, to conceive the anxiety which the coming on of 
darkness or thick weather peodma in anib intnoate ehannela» 
mmd sacka cad am laa-aboc«a^ and i*OB|p caneata and tidai^ 
vbicbprennlthe piI<%ftaBafama|:aa^ai4ittaasiiCtbeTeaael*t 
piece. In soeh caaea even all the baiboBii of Shetland are not 
too many ; and yet of these there is a larsre proportion in wliich 
the compiler of the chart has placed no anQhor» whik in other9 
be baa maifced atocbtd ancborages» Where no vaitel wanld em 
fcntnra to atop a tide* nnleaa in dna and twnniiir veatbar* I 
diaU annaMwato thaae anova and onuaiieMt in aonmb^ 
detail^ aa it ia a spacieaof information whidi can more advanr 
tageously be communicated by mere words, than that which 
was atttrriptcd in most of the preceding remarks. 

The anchorage at West Voei .near Sumburgh Head, may of> 
taabeTeiyccwnrenientwithaa eaat vbsd, of vith a wind from 
^ west» when Qnendal Baj waoid be too open. The graand 
ta dean and good, and tbeie is no difficnlty in beating out, un- 
less the wind were to shift to the southward. It is far more 
spacious tlian is represented in the chart, owing to the western 
promontory having been laid down of more than double its aetaal 
breadth, and front tbe otmaion of the island off Scant Nesa.. 

The bnfanuja innediatelj north of Snmbnripb Head» namely* 
Seat Voe and die Pool, are both exposed and dioal, nor are thej 
*afe, even for the smallest class of li:>lung ves&el», although in 



the' 4^«cl^ blocked iiidior » bid do#n Hi eidi. IMimiek^ 
SAlidiwickt and JGth'Si Voe, are alMoat ^ally bad; Irai 

locorrectDess in these is of less moment, as no vessel u o\ild 
incline to stop in them when equally able to reach Brassa 
Sound. On the subject of that sound, the minute sobrey «C 
Ci^taia Ramage, ktdj i^^twnded to tliegentel dmn^ liimm 
mi^Ang to be deaited. Tbera m Mtbiiig to objdettiD thaaMnd 
anehorages laid down in Catfirdi, Wadbester^ LaiEMi, M 
Bale's VoeS) nor to those in Dune Voe» siiice an andior may be 
let go in almost any part of these inlets^ 

But in W halsey the chart of the harbour is so incorrect, that 
the real andunage could not be dtteorered by it witbout tiUb 
aidof a{iilot;aotbat ID tUi veqpecttbe chart k» tost^tbe 
leiit of it, nieleaa. If theandwi«geattiMO«t8k«Tiea|wfaidi 
may often be very convenient, had been properly laid down^ thert 
would h^ive been no difficnlty whatever in taking it , by attending 
to the tides. For want of any direction respecting these, from the 
abaeaoe of marked aoendings; and from the eartremeif »coficet 
position giren to tkeie iilaiide and (he iotermediale chamiftk» 
nomeelwoiddnowdafeto^atirliheint akhenghi so lir Irov 
the barboitr being fit for tttaH ireaiels only, as die tehart eays^ 
ships drawing- twelve feet water and upwards may lie in it with 
ike greatest safety, and may q^uit it with any wifid» as there are 
two entrances* 

T%e entnm to l^dloo Voe is peifeetly simple j andliefie 
Aediart has very properly laid dow« anchors, as it bat» with 

much less propriety, in Burra Voe, at the southern point of 
Yell, since that barbonr is superseded by tlic much better and 
neighbouring one of Uamna Voe» although in neither have any 
soundings been laid down. From this part of Yell to Refirtk. 
Toe there is no anchorage, and» althougk theie is Ibstunalely 
no difficohy in entering this harbour, exoeptbg tbat arising 
from its narrowness, it is extremely ill delineated in the chart, 
nor are any sounding's placed in it, so that it cannot be entered 
without the lead; Basta Voe forms one of the finest harbours 
in Shetland^ or perhaps in the world i but no indication of its 
natme is given in Ike chart, and, as naual, it is deficient in the 

Q2 



320 Dr. Mac Gnllodi on tk€ Chart of ShHiand. 



^ disential drcnmitanee of MWidings ; so that in thick weather, 
in ^Mdk it waimj Ihle to eater it» it it neoetiary to keep the 
lead alinqfi goiog^. In speaking formerly of the iaeorreetiieM 

of the islands^ I remarked that this harbour was principally 
formed by tlic island H:is( os( a, which covers it, while, ac- 
cocdiog to Uie chart, no vessel would venture to run for it io a 
•ottdMaet windy to wfaiehy aoeording to the draught, it appears 
to be^i^Mk 

' Fetlar oontaiae no hatbour, yet, for want of eoan^ngt m Uie 

chart, vessels might be inclined to take Trestra Bay, where the 
shoal water of this very bad plarf^ ou<^ht to have been noticed. 
Uyea Sound is properly marked as[an anchorage, but the anchor 
it laid down too near to the shore of UntL* 
* Captain Ramage^s dbart of Hie important harbonr of Baita 
floand has supplied the deficiency of the general chart in this 
place, but a reduced copy ought to liave been added to it, as 
it is impossible otherwise to venture on this harbour, particularly 
by the ttorth^n passage^ where the relative position of Balta 
and Unat is extremely erroneous. It has been long enough 
before the pubtie to leafe the proprietors of the Shetland chart 
no exeaie for not having appended ft to the editions sc^ft in 
1820. • ' • • . 

There is no other harbour in Unst, and although an anchor 
is laid down in Cloup Voe, at the north end of Yell, it is not 
frequented. The difficulty of beating out of Whalfiirth Voe, 
against the western swell, also renders that ah inconvenient 
harbour, a circumstance of which notice ought to luu c been 
taken in the chart. To the southward of this, near Sandiwick, are 
two harbours where vessels may lie securelyi but in neither of 
these is an anchormaiked. 

It is scarcely necessary to notice the omission of anchorage 
marks hi the voes to the iuiuth of 'Waterhohn, as these bar- 
bours are not wanted in a channel where so many others are at 
band ; but it ought to have been remarked that there is a very 
good and a very convenient anchorage in Urha Voe, for vessels 
which are either employed in Yell Soun^ or have not Uia good 
Ibrtunis of wmd' or tide to elfect their passage through itV lUs 



«imMoaifp«tao«larlyeMfH8ble, w dbedeplii of Htgmler 
VoeMkMitiaDomoiMt, and Mtbm it a scwd^ ciPgwid 
>W M %o w , enmpmrtd with MoeMtty fcr them, whicli nty 

oileu be felt in this channel, on the east side of North Mavcn. 

Jn Hagraster Voe no anchor at all is laid down, although, 
for a iq>ace of aear eight mUes, vessels may anchor almoet any 
«h«P6 mthia very aaem and ^patt plaee, in dean fad good 
gnrand* 

OoKfirth Voe alio fbrmt a very conYemeBt harbonr for vessels 
losinL^ the ebb tide in the chaiuitl, yi t no aiu lior laid in it. 
The draught of this harbour is indeed so incorrect, that no 
veesei would be awara of ita contaiabg a smaller bay within^ 
fitatt tbaia ia alwaja iUMioth aralery and aicallflDt loft holdmg 
gimmd. 

No anchorage is marked in BurraVoe, to thenotthward of 
this, or, as it is sometiim s called in the country, North Ru. 
Yet it IS peculiarly convenient for vessels intending to make the 
passage round North Maven, as, by taking the end of the ebh 
ftoaa ki they may enawe their pasaage loond Fedaiand Point, 
with awhob dood»to raich any of the hailnmia m8t Magmn^ 
Bay. IndepeBdently of this, H h laid down hi oneh a manner 
that no vessel would expect to find a harbour in it, while a 
sunk rock in the eatrance, which is not easily seen in the smooth 
and dark water of a bay, receiving ao much fresh water from 
4ha hUla^ ia entiialy omitted. I may aa well add here, that 
wUoh more properly, belonga to the enminatioa of the coaat 
outline, thai there ia here laid down in the chart a hay eaUed 

Husater Voe, which has no cxistcnre, tlic whole coast from 
Colihrth Voe to Bura Voe bemg nearly straight, instead of 
bciag defi|dy indented* 

AlChoagh aii amtoage la laid down in Sand Voe^ on the 
wiaataifoof Noidi Matent no vesiel can posaildy tnVe this har- 
bour, unless under -extreme dittrees. From ita narrow entrinee 
it is utteriy impossible to beat out of it, and, from the preva- 
lence of weateiiy winds, and the almost unceasinc^ heavy swell 
ftam that quarters si vaaael once at anchor here might be de« 
l«pad.|pr rnontha. Tha aawa laaMmng apfiaa, aMl almoal 



Ltoogie 



tB the same degree, \q Ronas Voe, lUthough the eiitraoce is 
amoh WHkr* Tbf 4ifficttlty of gelUng out ^ Umm iMilwara is 
iiiili hif inaiftil 11^ imiaiiii iiftiii mnilinfinil fiitffmiihi iriiiMiialiii 

V^W^^B^^M^^^ 

by iIm •qnalbi iMh Hmt Ilia i u»n — ai nghigh l«id,«di kf 

which a vessel is so often baffled in her attempts to stay, wbile 
the want of room to wear renders the missing- of stays a veiy 
dangerous accidwt, m I have more tUan once experienced. 
To avoid fiitm xopotttioDy I may here fonarks that Ronas Voa 
]nsi(df«pMtotaraijr«tiigbl ttglMi tetha eatnnat^ «UbIi» 
lo the chart, is entirely oimttad. Of Hamoa Voe, on Hhs shore, 

where an anchor is also laid down, it is only necessary to ob- 
serve that, owing to its breadth, it might be safer for the puT'- 
pose of M<OHi*»g a tide in, with a wind from the sastward, bat 
tiart ia a westerly wiad h affords no shelter wfaataw. 

AltlMa^ aa aaehec lalaidfkm at Hiibiiiqi^ no fie aiel , 
lookinf at the draught on ^ chart, isoaM «tlBn{»t to tsloe it, 

the liuc of the coast is made nearly straight where there is a 
f^onsiderable bay. Thus, aB happened to myself on getting ial^ 
thp k|ay, a seamaq is tempted to run for Hane^a Voa ; a most 
■tenia ImiImk iiie traa*hstQnioC whieii li iaeeaseele oesoUa 
191 beal igiPit % etioi^iveitwiedf ftoM^haMtHnaMBofiiie 
mlreaee, wlale ^tenife ia alee eitsaasJ vitfi a iMMd 
Unhich nearly cost the loss of the vessel in which I sailed. I 
ought here also to remark, that there is aa mlet from Uill&* 
v^i^ norUi^vard^ of two nUe^ depth, whinh as itagotkm m 
Umi oMit. TlHe» hoienreci ie a mam qfMkm of larrsatoiri 
f9^pa|^,a«1hd«alviitQoeliMlteTeieslap AailupaiM^ 
aaebor by the leadelmeal any intoa to liw weseof Mudde 
Roo, tha chart is here sufficiently correct, as are the directions 
to enter by Swarbucks Mio. But there are two sertpias defici* 
eaei^s in the saiU^g directions for Ma^ne^ Bay^as tnll ae 
iat<|ia.i?N«t9f#«l|4aai^vlMi loiiaiia aolioe, maia fai ^w* 
Myaiy |bft«aiiliir|M|ieriaiMiaatiea, a Raseiao iposeel nee 

lost here not long ago, when she might probably have escaped 
without much difficulty. The taiiow, which formed part of ttie 
cargo, is Btili picked up on the shores, being mtaltea by tba 
mikiM fur Bianpprfc aad baviag uadergoae eeae liieagea 



Um aolioii of th« M water, whiab m lil wfaiMtiiiaf lo 

VmmU •aoght la St ilitgM*^ with %iN^^ 
Mindly M6 4favoltA io tMi fv SwtvbMfai Mia. MttiTf if ilia 

wind is to the soutfiward of west, a vessel, in attempting 16 
weather Muckle Roo, may fail in this object, and become so 
dfi^y embayed as inevitably to go on &hoi« oa £gUaha, th« 
LoaglHidy or laU bigii in^ m that ahum mrtinnwl 4id. 

^rifikotBMMt*a¥«a, aawMia tokaimd, flmdwiM tbaaa* 

trance is attended with no difficulty. If once to leeward of the 
Longhead, it would be too late, with such a sea as the westerly 
aweU sets in here m a gale of wind, to attempt Hiilswick, and 
4i|wdfy Mi^MaiUft to waaibcf ^f k ^}^ Roo* It ovybi alio la 

for boata, in Rote 8o«nd, wUoh ia, on the ooatrary, laid dam 

as a Wide channel, and without soundings, since a vessel, de- 
spairing of weatherino^ the land, might make for tiu« opeuiog* 
where she would infaiiibly be lost. 

la Papa fitawt ao aaobor ia laiddowa in Hoaae Voe, wbieh 
ia.aataalQf agaad aadianigi te M§n af antoiia botap 
bak la abaolately nemmuf.fim tbe purposa of waitiaf Hm tida 
to the southward, supposing' a vessel to have left the harbours 
within Swarbuckit Min with the ebb. Two or three anchors, oh 
the caots^f are placed in barboora at the no rt h of WaUa^ 



agitata aanaf off Vallay Soaad aad Qraetiag Voa an 

oo raa at, aMiough, in a geografduoal Tiow* tba lallar ialat ia aairy 

improperly contracted in its dimensions. It ought also to have 
been noticed, that no vessel can beat out of the east sound with 
a swell ftiMB the south-west, and that tb& attempt is attended 
witb <bafwaliit hii d, fiKwn tim aanrowness of the fkumA^ 
mAkam tlMWgfUof thakiid» whicb fMdiKMi boOiag «tflliD% 
aad ftiOi ^baaa being no taoai to wmt ia Iba passag^t m 

^ound to let CTQ an anchor if" a vessel should miss Stays. Of tba 
pedloua nature of tlus attempt 1 can also speak from experience, 
ia^a Btudlnid anchor laid down in Selie Voe which Qughj^ 



224 -Pr. Mac CiiUoch mjtie Umrt of iiketiund. 

Voe ouc anchor is placed ; tUe wliolc is, hovvevei, one immeHi>^ 
iMurbooTt cap^bi^ of oootaining ail the QaaU of £iUN)pe» b«t U» 
ctot bftft BBglflolfd to Mtioe the shoal wafcftc jl the Mtiaawi, 
whiflh raadM it iMtily ai uipnustkahlo.M iti« «tdau oa lluf 

eoast. In Wisdale Voe no anchor is maiked, although thm 
is an excellent anchorage near Sand, with a clean channel. 
Of both theae latter bays I may further remark, that the outlina 
is Teiy.iaconaet; in Wisdale Voe, in paiticalar» a di^bay 
baiog giataitooaly plaoad whaca thaahave fomu a ataaigfat liaa» 
Itiafiroiaaiiora of thia nataia thatiha opiakn vaa fooaa^ 
givaiiy that Captain Preston's documeDts could not have been 
applied to the oonstiuclion of even this part of the Shetland 
chart* as such mistakes could not possibly have existed in aoy 
real •anrej, had it even been executed by the moat .oidiaaiy 
fiabaiman. , 

No aaohorage bein^ maifced in StMMnnaaa Voa, it ia ainwal 

superfluous to say that the entrance is too narrow, as well as too 
bhoal, for any vessel ; but a singular omission of a geographical 
nature is here deserviiic; of notice. This is the total omission 
of the ptahaigatiQa of tlua voa* which laachoa for naaiiy three 
BoHea iato.the intatior covatfy* hiiag coBawled with the 4iiaea 
opaa bay by a narrow, chaaaelf oter whidi there ia a bridge. Aa 
apart of the sea outline, this should have been inserted, alt lioug-h 
other inland lakes and objects were neglected, as appertaining 
rather to the terrestrial geography. The hafbour of Scalloway 
ia auffide&tly waU iaid down* bot.tiiera is a vary ■*Fy*Vy nua* 
take in reficeaai^ip the two hJum of TingwaU aa xaa^ awl ia 
eoBiieoting^ thein with die lea^ as if they wate salfcialDea, whaN»t 
as the southernmost is separated from it for more than a mile 
by a tract of meadow-land , which certainly has not been foaaed 
slaoe the chart was constructed. Anchors aiaL laid down in 
aeVanil parts of Cliff Soandt where no seanui woald think af - 
•adioringtowingf tothede{ith of water, and ths.aqnuiila.iWH»' 
Ike high land, and where, in fact, there is no occasion for any 
vessel to stay. A similar remark may be made on an anchor- 
age marked between the two Burras, which can only be son 
paired ^y the smaUeat cUsf ef fishiag vesaela^ is4 la aaii.fof aa. 



Dr. Mac CuUooh m the Chart oj Hhedami, 2Sk 

utber, while the extremely incorrect way in which these two 
islands are drawn, renders it nearly impossible for any stranger 
to conjecture where the channels are, or where his position is. 

IfMir 8l» IHflim'ii Ills 8K laid ^€ivb llniw MMihoni^ tiid it 
wmlA b6 diflMt to tay nkMh of IliMa plaoei It wont bar* 
boor, if Mood theyat«UdBoerf»llwB«iMof Imbovta* ' la aa 

cast-wind, a vessel might stop a tide inuler St. Ninian's ; but, 
with a wind from the west, no seaman in his senses would make 
mmIi aa attempt. I may also here obsenre^ that the bar which 
ooMMOls St Niaiaii'a toland with the swin Uui, » fadddowa 
tn -jtwnMi^plaoe} being nearer to tlie adddla of the iilmd . 

Tbe laet Iw tf bour in tbo cbeul is Quendal Bay. Here Collhiire 
chart is more correct than that which is here reviewed ; ahhoagh 
deficient with respect to the point that covers the proper anchor- 
afe mder QMndai boaae, Thie is a wide and eaceibnt bay, 
ovwbi wiadalhumliiowaet; nor would tbere be any dificahy 
ia ealtiaig to aea, tboaMlbo wfaid efalft todie eoatbwavd, rnileee 
there was a very heavy swell ; as it is sufficiently wide to enable 
a vessel to beat out without difficulty. 

it would be an endless task to go over the subject of sound- 
ingay and I shall therefove be content widi mnarking, in a 
Ipnend way, tiieir ineofveetoess 'and dofieieucy* . Where dieio 
w«i»^flMMthDpeflaaee« thay have abeady been notSeed ae 
far as is necessary for the purposes of thie criticism, in the pre- 
ceding remarks on the liarboiirs. 

Neither is it necessary to make any detailed remarks on the 
ntfj'fsw eafliBif diraoticiui.wbidi tta appeoided tothedutft; 
Ifait whieb'rdatei to flc Magnaa'i Bay faarhig aheady been ex- 
eaihrtd. I ehall'only «A»erf« hi additlen, t&aiif dw passi^ 

through Cliff Sound, either into, or out of, Scalloway, is 
always inexpedient, owing to the squally nature of this bay and 
narrow ehaonel, and . the idoaty reqaired in paseing the bar of 
Teoadny, oa-whii^ thero are.only twMve ftet at? high water. 

With xaapaet to .te gaMMlcHiihiaef Aetiand ae:gimm 
^ ^art, I met Horit wyaelf 'to a fm enmoiy lenaiks oa eone 
of the most prominent errors wliich are to be seen by the eye 
alone as.i hadvBo opfioriiiiuty of making my aoourate observ- 



1 



22Q Di. Mac CuUuclioyi ihti CharL uj 6httluud. 

ations by the M ^ uwU iuiicut iw ' Nor Meed em any correct 

notion of tlic heap of errors wliicli it displays, be g-i veil in words, 
la a oauiicai view, this species of error is certainly ot far iess 
inpMMMtiiiB IkoM ftkttdy poiatid oat ; yet it is not the leei 

NBMNe m il may be, sImM hMMMiMrf lo long negladsd at 

it is, but as it cannot now continue much longer; The interior 
geo^aphy is, in fuct, not merely little better, but somewhat 
WOGie than a blaak; as that which is given is incorrect, and as 
thsfooarflof My am ohjaet only ftaoda to ■iilnd, by caaritg 
dia fmamm tar mfifmt, tet hImm mAm§ » hiA 4mm 
■oAoig ii HfltelbcB ptuMnt Near fiaadHugli Hiady it it aol 
indicated that the connexion between this promontory and tk% 
main land is so slig:ht that it is almost insulated by a tract of 
laate laad icarceiy highec than, the iey«i of the sea ; nox would 
A* BMor t^Pffoaoii «r tt» ma a» 4ia aaiia^ 
ha «iqiIMad» im lla oiMlaa ta Ite fta^ llaia ia aialaaaa- 
iMaaM af Mnidb MOMnt* at fiv as tha alftala of the ahail am 

concerned, from this point to the Naull of Eswick, where a small 
but deep inlet is entirely omitted. I may remark indeed, once 
ioM ally to avQi^ tadioat mtatitiona, that throughout the chart 

la ftaiial, tl|e wt ttania^caniadta aaafititatdqpth miW^ 
Hia Itui, and ate aftaRaqualiycaatiaoted ia Atb imm 

«iof«. : • 

The incorrectness of the outlines of Wlialsey Island, and of 
the Out Skerriea, were already mentioned in speaking of the 
anchojragt in tiiese plauoea ( bat il it fair la teaaiky in extemia- 
liaaar'tim»aadallicrmn» tfaal Oata Voa aad IMte ¥^ 
mf <ia tha whflit, imj. well daiiaartad. Im YMU^Hlwita^air 
bay at Quy on which it very slightly marked in the diart; but 
as it is not used as an anchorage, on account of some rocks at 
the entcanc^, the ersos it of the ieaa moment. The extcaordinary 
incantataatt of tha coat* aad haribaan ialMdia^'ialii^ 
MMdniisd of Utit, iratabtail^BHMii^Miiii iptalfiagi^tlftaa 
ha ih o a tt^ aaJ of the m itpl a o ea i eat af Iftitcataa' MaaA '> 

The outline of Balta is extremely fiaulty, but there is a much 
•le§a fiaidQiudiifi ^jyofur^^tfiu^ ,in xajgiattaliim tii6 waitih i g ii 'iii pfMWii^j^ 



Ik. Mm O^Mk anttt Cimi ^ yitrtiiirf. m 



awMdi wotwpM both by |iBiiiiiM ^ adli» •aiby a bomiify 
«f low rodcs. 

Of Yell, it is sufficient to say that the general outliae is no hjss 
incorrect throughout, than are the draughts of the harbours ; 
Vidy on the viiole of Yell Sound, the iaeorrectDesft of which 
nflfi i iWHl ui MMMkiHF of IIm MMller irimli. ii it 

dutft ia llm fiaee BMurly utMltw. 

Havins^ already observed upon the incorrect outline of the east 
tide of North Maven, I need only here add that a singular omts« 
mom ifiU be found mmx Mahoid Pomt, which k ladoed ^aitft 
laaeio— tibie, if eTir any in i fc y of thia ihofe wMintde* Tht 
extmnity of North Ifawi here Inn a pewhwwihi toaitdwa 
ble dimensions, separated from the main land by a beach of 
jihin<2;le and rocks ; the indentation on the east side formi nir i 
QO¥e for boats, and containing a very important lishing station. 
The omiiticNi of two fresh-water lakes hi this neighboinhood, 
w<ttf<ifaapiaotbaoaa<|iiarodctf aayaioiajaMt; batywhrntoM 
of aMliid4t«m,Hia anatmleximttte^lh^ 
•hoald equally be IbaadU 

On tlie west-side of Nortli Maven, the land under Ronas 
UiU is carried too far to the westward; and the same sort of 
Saoofieetness ptavadet the whole of this shore. Independently 
al tha m^atkm of <ha bays fciiaul y aotioid at MBawict, 
ihmiiathMiBniy h^ a« tha wesi tide of that penhitah, 
where a boundary of rocky clKRi it indicated in the chart. In the 
same manner, there is not due value piven, either t o the diincn- 
»Hpa or form of Uamers Voe, which, as 1 formerly observed, is' 
a «flpy fanportaatobfM to vasieli embayed m Si. Magnui'tBayi 
nannsiag Ae oatUaet ftvwk Ihif jpartat ftr at Seaflofway, thie' 
f eUaf lo u iftAi , aa far as the ate of *lhe chart it eoacemedy bate 
already been anticipated in speaking of the various anchorages ; 
and it would be superfluous to enter into more details respect* 
'tu^ 80 eifeaaoas a specimen of geography as it eihibits. Yet 
Wmitf ba fenatfcady Aat&a veiy inoorcect outfinaof tliatWo 
i M i ai ts p a rtkatoly aapaitaiabla; aathe tvvey of Collins; 



d9B Mac CttUock m the CJmri of !ikeUuud» 



to which the compiler might have had access, gives a. fiir more 
oomct view of fhtm It is indeed difficult to conceive how aaj 
«oe 4iawiag Uim at aU^ oovld liftf« oonlrived to do k ao ui- 
mndlf; m the «oat w pt ifin i il wwwimtina by Iha aye/ia wtf- 
fioiaal to OQffBQt tbe glaring enofa wliidi oeamr t« tiM chart' 
The bridge which connects the two is not uuly omittt d, l)uL lU 
place is indicated much too far to the southward. A deep bay 
an Aa east side of £aat Bona, wkkh ia reduced to almost 
Botbhiff in tiba diarL ia ao ait^ated of ancb' dimieniiflna in 
natoia^ aa to tiMpI n boat iai» k Ihw Cliff Soond* anik thna^^ 
pectation of finding the passage between the two islands. At 
the southern extremity of each of the islands, there is also a, 
peninsula separated by a low rock, m one case indeed nearly 
inanlated ; bot tiieiaaie totally omitted in the chart 

Hat it IB amnniinf J tn pmnrnii fwrrtiar and T ■hall lliailliwii 
condnde thaiafainarlai on the ganaial ontiinaa of the Bhatfaad 
Chart, by noticing the incorrectness of the draught of Foula, 
which the most superficial view might have given in a better 
fouB, and which it would require no great ezpeosaof tinia to 
aa r way widi anffiff ian t n cn M raay iot ail ganaiai pni pai a ai 

Intanninatingthia comawmication» lahaUonly add, that n 
aat of dM asoat ooaMMin aataanoaiiaal irtrtt T T TitifMH ontbaJati* 
tudes and longitudes of a few leading points, would materially 
improve this chart ; and that, with the assistance of the pilot 
bafore-mentiooed, the industry of an active person would, in 
oa»or tivoamnniara^aapply nMMMof tbocUaf dtaidifatolntbe 
paaaeat inqpaitet docoaMntapontit a laal anitay al^alt thn iiilarti 
canbaeffisetad« It is in Tain to attaaspa to aaoaaraelaiHha 

chart by the ordinary operation ot' boat surveying ; as the rapi- 
dity and uncertainty of tbe currents, render it absolutely impos* 
sible to determine points in this manner with aay toh*raMft accu- 
raoy. lahaUtheiafoja traapaw aoloqgaron<haiia|laiieaollha 
raadara of thia Jouraaly to moat of whont tha namfatkin.of Thai- 
land is, perhapa, aa bftde i n tweat in gaa thatof dia Cald>etot £00 
Choo. It is sufficient to have justified, by the details already 
given, the general censure with which I commenced this com- 
mumcation; and ita objea wtUbe fidlyattainadif kaha)lniU«i^ 



Dr. Mm Cnioeb Ml lie Cjbf« ^ SlidM. Ml 



tncnKO uKN6 WHO wIM MUMNIIy IMQinHW lit *0 €QMMMi 

this neeeitary work ; or pomt ootto wnonploy ed ottMCi m Hmm 

liiiws of peace* a svibject, ftoin wliicliy If Atff do not reap profit 

or fame, they will assuredly acquire the thanks of many who, 
like myself, hare hourly hazarded their lives during a storsiy 
sttimner bt a dangeioiit sndl ioxiom iMrig^OB* 

SieUmid, Avigutt, 1821. 



Abt. III. Accmtnt of the MeLkod of illuminating lite Clock 
Dial OH the Steeple of the TroH Church m GUugom, 

[\Ve are surpri^eii that no attempt has yet been made to illumiuate the 
dials of the Londuu steeples, more cspedall^ m ga& has been coaducted 
into Mwtnd of oar drndiM, and to ilsMl tJmwy Aua i lw l l y kid m 
is Hm vtoitti9» flu lbs yi pas s <g Hjhting np vkm t r ^ y s rf i , w§d ikm 

|mv«nting tl^ imhaUowed visitations of a class of people, wbo, under 
powerful patronnirc (l!';«;ra( o i^iis Tnctropolis and its suburbii, commonly 
<-al1fd resttrreetin)! jnctK Several of our city cluck?, arc, a« it were, con- 
structed for tbe purpose ^ such as those ot bt. i>uui>taa*» iu Fieet-streett of 
Bow diurdi in Cheapside, sad others which project after the lilce ftuihlon. 
The Parkh Churcfi of 8t teies is also very advaalagea wly iHaatt d Tur 
nocturnal iUnmination, one of its four i k fcw bdaf isan fWWi a aiMlitaiC 
of streets at tbe west end of tbe town. 
The followini^ is a description of an ingenious plan successfully adopted at 
Olasfow, under the superintendence of Messrs. John and Robert Hart.. 
We aadcvatand that tha hours aathaclodc-dialyWbiohfn^ 
of streeti, areteKiUeatnighttoasgrcst adistanoeaswhenlihaaiin is 
Aracdy shininf upcm His tower.] 

Ta£ Troa steeple of Olaigow is of the Gothic order, consist* 
ing of a square tower surmouzited with a pyiaaudal top ; the 
aqaaro tower termtnafcea with a rail, or balooay» beneath which 

the clock^dial is placed. 

The gas is introduced into the bottom oi the steeple and convey- 
ed up the wall by an iron pipe ot one inch bore : this pipe passe s 
witliia eif^teen Inches of the wheel-work of one of the dials, and 
a wheel* of doable the diameter of the boaf-wheel, is so placed 
as to be driven by it; this, of course makes one revolution in 
twenty-four hours. The hours are eng;raTed 00 the rim of this 
wheel, arid a moveable arm attached to it, which can be fixed 
at any hour or half-hour by means of a clamp screw upon the 
centre, and a steady pm and holes in the rim ; this arm serves 



Google 



tad . Omtke JUmmtmtim ^tke Dmi 

miimmf^ a catbh tbai liatds up the hand of the mam stop* 
cMk, ib tel by thk MM fim tikmk aliutioff IIm gMm 

- - • A , , - t„ » - M ^^AA^J afc ■ Ml, -fa - - ■ - ■ >» 

lioitTS 80f¥cs to ^ivBCt 1ii6 p^Mft Imm oliafgc ity to 

shift the arm as the season alters. The pipe afterwards ascends 
and branches off to the respective dials. 

The lamp is formed of a eopper bowl, eighteen inches dianie- 
tflT, nd«f apanbolieifvfi^ of Ibne iachea and a balf fiiM : 
ft k lined in Ae imide with small pieeet of looiking-glaM) im- 
bedded ih wWte paint aiid pntt^, similar to some of the reflectors 
used for light-houses; the front is enclosed with glass. The 
burner used is a No. 3, A remand, with each alternate hole shut 
op, and equal to a Ko. 1, Glaxgow Argand. 

Tka ItmfH ptof^aiigr inclined ao aa to UUunimifta tbe dial, 
ii tulipeBto MM ftMii ftk fton Ite bMtfmg* ibe 
centre of the dial, the bottom of the lamp is on a line with the 
top of thp dial plate. From the situation of the dial it was 
necessary to fix the lamp from the balcony ; and that it might 
Immmtf got al» Ae bna^ isjooitodeo thatit oaa bediawn 
up to tte penbfi wil]ibi_ ttSL^ to be cfeeoned HfkiA Metih- 
sary. It Is lighted ftom the inside of the steeple by a Jtash pipe^ 
or separate tube, pierced along one of its sides with holes^ and 
partiiiUy covered to protect it from the weather; so that when 
the gas is admitted and a light applied at one end, each hole 
ligbts tbe next till the flame reaches the farthest extiemttj, and 
thus kindles the gas issmng from the buraer; Ibe Jkt^ pipe is 
then shut The exterior of the lamp represents Bagle of 

Jupiter armed with lit^'htning, and the whole is surmounted with 
the city arms. From the cheerful appearance of this dial, it is 
likely that other clocks may likewise be lighted, where the build- 
ing wiU admit : a simpler and neater method dian that which the 
peculiarities of the Tron church steeple rendeied necessaijfv 
n^ight be adopted ; namely, to cut a small circular window 
about two feet in diameter above the dial, from which the lamp 
might be put up and cleaned when necessary, and when lighted 
pushed forward : here a straight rod only would be required to 
suspend it, which might be run out oter a wheel having a balance 
weight in the inside to return it again to ihe window in {he mora- 



231 



ifig. The back of the lamp might be made to represent thecitf 
ams* or aajf othtf appropriate device. Whia tk» clodL dit* 
fn^gaifad til* gM atopcMMk* it nigbi tlio 'tfttfi f^ Iht caldi tlai 
lalnM llie]aap»aiidalIawillD iwii^ lotette perMnfa* 

lighted it) would only have to hook up the stopcock, lif^Ht the 
lamp, and push it forward into its proper situation f(Ji illuniinatinfi^ 
the dial; a aimpie foldinf^fieoB af thm joimsy like a £DOt-riik, 
ip«iild wpwart ikA knip or ianpa to ilAOMlnorniiB gut 
pipe* 

Fig. 1. is a section of i)art of the steeple — A, the dial and 
hands — B, the gas pi[H , with C, the flash pipe branching otl^ — 
DD, Joiat oa whiok the bfaach tmmi whea ilrawa ap— itaya 
larUajtapport 

Fft« 3. sham flMana of abrttiag alF Hm ga»«-tAy tha aa- 

canding pipe aad nam Btopcock open, willi Ita hand ti|MMi the 

detent — B, the discharging: wheel; 1, the moveable arm, 2,tlia 
detent — C, the hoiir-Vumd work of the dial. 

Fig. 3» faction, oH tha reflector and bamar— A« glased cover. 



Art. IV. On the Difference of the Functions in certain 
Nerves of the Faee^ iiiu$trated by their Anatomy in the 
Inferior Ammah, and by a eomparison of their Uses in 

Mem and Brutes. Bf/ John Shaw, Estj^. 

Ih a paper published in the last Volume of the transactions 
oftheRoifal Soeietff^ Mr. Charles Bell haa shewn that two sets 
of nerves, differing in stmeture and ftmction, go to the face in 
man. One of these has the property of controlling the actions 
of the muscles of the mouth and nostrils in breathing, and 
of giving expression to the features in emotion; while the 
bdier appears to be for the purpose of regulating the muscles 
in masticatioD, and those actiona which are independent of 
respiration and eipreatiott^ and for bestowing aenaibility on tlie 
skin. 



tiaviagbeen engaged with Mr* BaU in mriring the experi- 
miMTir by mhmk th«M- teols ««• fMOvdU my atteBtloii wms 
wlnntty calkd ta a fitf&tr obtttftliiiB olilie eoaditihii 4tf tlw 

cases which 1 have examined during this inquiry, have induced 
mc to hope, that by iuiluwiug up the observations which led to 
the UiMXivery of tba difierence between the functions of the two 
■yttmi of mrm, we •hall ui— tuaily ba abia la aworlaia* tlM 
cama oi tbe Tariaty aC aynptoaM Ib paialyauL 

la Qua maa, 1 eould tec nofymptot of palsy aatil ba laagjiaJ 
orgncezed; while in another, the features distorted by paralysis 
regained Lhcir j)roper balance when the actions of Inuj^hinL^ or 
sneeaing were excited, iu a third* tbe pacalysis was apparent, 
not only while the features were at latt^ as ia tba cata of eoai* 
sum palay^ bat tba dtatortian of tba c oMat f ai iaa» taitrii cf 
betag diiainiibfld, vaa iamaiad to a nuMt aamaiial d^ree, 
when the patient laughed iir sneezed. 

Before attempting to account for the variety of the symptoms 
in these cafie^, i propose to give a description of tbe nnrfae of 
tbe £Me, and of tbe cbaagas prodaead on ifaa aspMaioii ia 
difierent aatmals, by enttfaif a bvaacb of aUier sat of aervee. 

Twonerres wbicb arise from distinct parts of the brain, and 
which differ IVuiu each other in structure and function, are dis- 
tributed on the face in man, and on the corresponding parts in 
the greater number of mammalia. 

The one bitherto called PctHq J>mra of tba V Ilth. bab»gs Id 
tbe system of AddUwrnai^ or Sapermditd Nmm, and yiasses to 
every mnsele that is in any way connected with respiration or ex- 
pression; while the other, called the Vth, or Trigeminus, is one 
of the original, or symmetrical system, and goes not only to the 
same muscles, but also to the skin^ and to tba deeper mnselesy 
whose action is principally that of mastication. 

The proportion of tbe Facial Respiratory Nenre to tbe VA. 
is greater to roan, than in any other ammal. If wc descend to 
the next link in the chain of beings (the monkey,) we shall find 
the proportion of it to be much diminished* and that of the 
Vtb increased. The distribution of tbe nerve is mors connpit 



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Mr. Sliw «B «Jk JSmmI Nmt. M 

cMid w Hit -wkir tin ii km- whkmirf bmw^ 

ywUy m propodiwi t» tfai miMfcir <l tiie ■wn a h i olwppe » > 

sion. From the lion, the dog, and cat, we deseend to the horte, 
as8, and cow; in these animals, there is a marked diQerence in 
the riiitiibiitWB of the aw^t, from that of either the numkey or 

of tte«xlenial Wytiid to tlieoydid^ thowMoof AoMopin^ 
lory am* b oonfinod to t!ie nmoclet of the nootrilt and tide of 

the mouth, while in the carnivorous tribes it is spread in great 
ptotiuftiou overthe cheeks and side of the neck. 

llMffe ore, homtmn, tome varietioi in tlie classes of grairfp 
nivofoas OBiiiMb. In tho gasene, Aitep, tnd deer» tho diitri- 
botioa of the nenro is still more simple than in the horse ; 
while in tlie camel it is more profuse, and is, in this respect, 
intermediate Ijetween that of the carnivorou^i and the gra- 
minivorous animals. The expression of the enraged camel 
fssafficieatly f e rock m , and the mamier In which he shewi 
bis tnsks, when dyings is very similar to that of a camtvorons 
creatm*. 

We are told by those who have seen an elephant in a rage, 
that he is most sublime and terrific; but the anatomy of the 

* The anatoQiy of the ccrvous system of the camel is very diifiertnt 
from that of the greater uumber of quadrupeds. 

We had &u excellent opportunity of examining it last sprint:^, in the 
courier camel, or maherry, whicli \vas liiou^hl Irom the interior of Africa, 
by Captaia Lyon, ass a present to Lis Mnje ly. In the dissection of this 
animal we noticed many interesting facts, which have becu overlooked 
by comparative anatomists, and particularly the dlflference of the distri- 
bution of the iiei^es of the neck and stomach, from that of the same 
nerve in the horse and ass, aud from that in the greater uumber of rumi- 
nating animals. 

We foandthat the nerve of the neck, in Uieir uuiuber and distriijution, 
resembled those of a large bird, as the swan, &c., much more tlian those 
of a horse or bolloclc, and particularly in the spinal accessory, or superior 
leqpiratory'of the tnmli., being either deficient altogether, as in birds, or 
frftodMbsMitto what it is in the greater ntunber of quadrupeds. This 
■■itwnical iMt Is a strong pnMif of Mr. Bdl Mag correct in the opinion 
wWohhohssftnii^oftlie use of this nerfo. WUio hi Paris last Sep. 
tmkm^ IwwMldllMttherewaiaipeelBienoff die brain of a camellia 
Vol. XII. R 



I 

I 

934 Mr. Shaw on ihe Facial Nerves, 

rorlio Dura leads me to suspect that the expression of rao;e, 
lujwcver terrible, nuist 1)C quite rlitlVrcnt IVom that of the t'lToci- 
0HS iiuarl ot the iuwi. In the face it must be lu a great meaMire 
coaiMd to tlM cmtaHmm of tke pmbotdt^ wad to tlw 0y% 
Ibr, OTWftiiig a inr Iwctiw to liw «filidt, OirtiiMrtif of 
tlMMTvoof Nf|ilfaiioii«a4 i fim fan b Mdbsd akasft » 

iirdy to the prol>08Cis*. 

« 

V.Ohifiei^ Mlleelloo» In nfciclithe tptoU ac e w iPiy <em wight be >ecn ; 
but ii€*wiiaittile f w p wwtiw y 1 9tM §adm twmrf it ^ tfci> 
wtMOftllttU flliMOrtiiKitiHtd out to »•» M th> <iigii of tlM ii«rv«^ 
baltotiiiil oonld not WMrnc* If Umm II1wm» (wUd^ h^wwrer, in tlie 
^pptieDt state of the preparation are very obscar^ be compared with tho 
prigin of the spinal accessoiy, even in the sheep, we shall be forced to 
conclude that* if theie be a nerre of this Icind in the camcl^ It Ii lo small 
tekthe truth of tbe«|iiDleii,ai tatheoMof the nerve hi tlher aatoBolib 
•nHMt ha affected. 

• Daiieg theiaet wlnlBr 1 often visited the Menagerie in EmUn ChaBg% 
to atndf the inetions and usex of the proboscis of the elephant, and thia 
I bad a good opportunity of doing, as the small elephant tliere, was so 
pntky that he permitted me to handle Ins trunk freely. From the great 
power which the elephant faae orer his tnmk, as a machine, I was certain 
that there must be large nerves running to it, siaeUnr Id those which sup* 
pip the logins in man ; but as the prob<iscis tmama an Important part in 
«he respiratory system of this animal, I thought that, in tlue dissection of 
it, there would be the most distinct proof of the accuracy or fallacy of 
Mr. Bell's opinion- on the ^tibject of the Portio Dura. The animal died 
in the month of May, and, tlu ouf^li the kindness of ray friend Mr. Mayo, 
T was enabled to make an c\a[iuii:it"imi of the iiur\ es of the trunk* The 
dissection was most satisfactory, for the trunk was found to be supplied, i 
not only by t)ra'nche«; of the Vtb. pair, as described b|y Cuvier^ but alco liijr 
a very large branch from tlie P rtio Dura, ' 

The Poriio Dura iu this elephant was found emerging from llie i>aroti«l 
£^laiid, as in other mammalia. It gave off some descending branches to ! 
t!ic ueck, Imt passed from belnnd the jaw to the probosci^^ almost as an 
iiuiic nerve, and of the size of the sciatic nerve in man : in its course it 
had only piven some small branches to the muscles of the eye, to those of 
the ear, and to a small muscle which corresponds with the platysma, 
Before it passe<l into the substance of tht proliosi is, it ijnited with the 
second divibion of the Vth. pair, which ( ouies forward from the infra or- 
bital hole, in two lare;(j hraiiclics. Thv two nerves })eiii[; then (loscly 
uuited| passed between the layers of tbe mu&cieS| wttich iomi the greater 



If wtt eoMMn ihft iMkMiT of tiM flrrial r M B intoiT ■itwa, 
MliMviBmclnHiorbMi^wetWlfiiid iu diitrilnrtiM lo 
1^6 W i s l oy oui fii> tii&ft. oT iIm mum iicm in iIm ^bfisMHt: tiibM 

quadrupeds. In the game-cock, a few branches of the nerve 
pasb to the loose skin under the jaw, which is dilated in crow- 

mgf the greatar.imber baiu^ distributed on the nmcifi* of 
Mfiky wfaieli OMMt the ekwHrtaoo of tii» fflrthtw wbm h% prti 
kinwelf in an altitiide fiir fighting* BhI in daek» which, 
whoa enraged, hit litHe or no powtr of esEpratiimi, tbo mm 

nerve is not larger than a cattibiic thread, and pa&ses oni^ to 
the skiD under the jaw. 

The efied upon tho mnicles of the face, produced by cottiDg 
the filial t&sfiniorj namt it in the ratio of the intricacj of 
die diftributioii of the branahest and aooofding to the proximity 
of the part cut, to the origin of the nerve from the brain. 

I cantiot detail any examples of the effect of cutting tliis 
nerve in man, for, though i have witnessed operationa where it 
was doBe» yet, as they occurred before I wae accfnaiiited with the 
ftcti wow eitablished, I did not take nolee of the oenieqneBeea 
wlach <pe«ed. Honover, I ahall fKMmOy detail oaaaa wheie» 
by diaeaae or accident, the whole Mfve m eoaM inelaaeee, and 
part of it in others, has been injured. In those caaes the symp» 
tomi very nearly corresponded with the phenomena presented, 
when the whole, or only a part, of the nerve hae been divided 
manunala. 

Aboai kmt moatha ago, I divided tha left final fiipifap 
tory nerve of the moat a»p reat iv e monkey I oonU ind in Ifaa 

laaas of the trun^ . J 'u- /^ y ^w X>K»a becatne quickly diniiuished in size, 
as it gave off its branches in great profusion to tlic jimscles : but tJie Vth- 
was continued down, as a very large nerve, to nearly the extremity of th© 
trunk ; in this respect resembling the nerves to the fingers in man. On 
making? sections of the pruho'^ri';, near its extremity^ a great oumber of 
these nerves were seen in its s ih-tance. 

A few branches of the Portw Dura ran to the valvular apparatus in the 
upper part of the trunk ; but this peculiar structure \?as supplied prin- 
cipally by a branch from the Vth. pair, which winded round under tbe 
prbit. 

R2 



Ltooole 



Mr. ^law 021 the Fuaial Nervea, 

Menagerie in £xeter Change. The effect w» IwMdnfte ; \in 
power of expression being' destroyed on one side. Wlieu 
\m wiA 'TTTf*tfHi he snarled and ahowed his teeth on the right 
ait €Biy» Paiaf the first mamlkf Iw cmUL not ahut 
M«fi,lMfcoriale,thoi^h«ii abto t» «l0at cyiB, hs Ims 
t»littk powirofer Mima of iba eyelid, that be is 
attacked with a stick, the orbicularis muscle appears to become 
|0 convulsed as to render the eye useless. He then seems to 
avoid winking with the other aye* that hA may be on his guacd. 

11m dte iigory to thk am 11 Mm diil^ abnmcB 
tbehiiDUUk face. In the caae of a UtUe giri, vluohvUl be pei^ 
liodarly lehled b another paper, Ae ceeieqaanee of dlaeaae 
of the right Portio Dura is very striking. When she laughs 
heartily, the right cheek and the same side of the mouth are 
unmoved, while the mf^^^ of the left aide aie convidaed with 

IftoUtteendeftmrtolanirb with the i%bt aide, Ae mam 
A» anfle of Che taontb, bat by an actioB whiek i» evideatly 

regulated by the branches of the Vtb. nerve. This attempt to 
laugh gives a peculiarly droU expression to her face, and I 
think it ia the same action which amuaea ua ao nnch in thefiMe 
efthefiunouemianekiwboiifvileelheiHibfio.to w^iamiUham 
evfltj^ejprio^. 

After hairing made the ezperinenta on the ^rfia Hera of 

sereral animals, and observed the effect upon the human coun- 
tenance, where the nerve had been injured, I was so much struck 
with the resemblance in the action of aome of the muscles, to 
thoae of the actor alluded to, that I went to the Theatie to 
4)biecre the expression of hia fiice. Althoegh there weie evi- 
dent marks of paralyBis of the PwHo Dura, there was e cob- 
sidciabic deji^ee of expression exhibited on the same side, for 
which I could not at the time account. It, however, appears to 
be now explained by the state of the little girPs cheek, for when 
the aUMpts to langh with the right aide, tibe expresaiim is so 
shnilar, that H almost emoonta to a preof that this perfocmer 
has, by practice, gained such a power over the actions regulated 
by the Vth., as to be able to bring them into a state siioilar to 



Mr. Shaw on the Facial Nervet 



237 



Aat in ii«tiir«l laughter. Bit at this It done 1iifoii|^llie Vtii., 

iDsteatl of the Vlltb., it makes the expression on one side q\iiLe 
dilkient from that on the other, and consequently gives a pecu- 
liarly ludkroufi appearance to the whole countenanoe. 

The experiment of cutting the focial retpUatofy nerve wm 
p e tfain tdoa * The fonowiAg^ k the ttote made a hw 
days after the nenre WM cot : Thedog^itii6v<|«HelMill,h«viiif 
suHl red very little from the opr ration ; when he fawns, the ri^ht 
side of his face is completely motionless ; (the nerve of the right 
aide waaeut) When I threaten to airihe him, although there te 
aliemnlova motion ezpceiitve of fear in all tte mntciea of Uw 
left aide of telhee, the other is perfectly ftills he camotefMi 
close the eyelid, and instead of winking when he cxpecti to ha 
struck, the eyeball itself is turned up. When he is excilcd, 
there is an expression of alacrity in all the mufcles of the left 
aide of the face, and a hrillianey in the left eye« while the right 
if perfectly hnoiimate. Thb k ahewn in an eHraoidinafy d*» 
gtee arhaa he k fightfaigirtth anodiar dog. 

The diferenee between the two ears k not ao dialhic^ mmA'* 
ed, f or though the left ear be more elevated than the li^ht, still 
there is an expression of alacrity in the erection of both ears. 
However, at this I was not surprised, as I had fonnd, in a 
d iae sc tlop whidi I had made of a pwnm to p cti W M u g Aa 
experiment, that Ae prindpal brandias, wMdi pasa to the 
muscles of the ear, were so deeply situated, that to haTO cut 
them, would have proljably endangered the animal's life. The 
efiect upon the respiratory muscles of the right nostril, was 
not so distioot as in the experiment iqiOB the aaa,(whMli will be 
detailed presently,) but the power af grrhtg that peculiar twka 
to the nose, which is so distincdy seen in a pointer settbg, was 
destroyed. 

This dog, in the course of two months, perfectly recovered 
the ttseof all the muscles which had been paralyzed; but this 
ciieamstance involvea the ^piaition of the re-anioaof nerves^ 
vpott which I flhall not at piesent enter. 

I repeated the expetiment on another dog in the month of 
May, and at the same time cat the infra orbital nerve of the 



1 



2;i8 Mr. Snaw on the Facial Nervei*. 

opposite side. This dog ibsliU in very good hf aUh, and iiowailbrds 
M ilrikiiy AD example of the effect of cutting the respiraUnry 
nem of om lide, «nd % braaeb of Ihe Vth, of the other, «>' lie 
did on the dey^ after the operation wae performed. The eliecto 
produced by eettnif the Vth* will be deteOed presently. 

I cut the same nerve of a cat, as near its exit froni (he stylo- 
mastoid forameu as i could. When she was irntattil, she 
afforded an excellent example of paralysk of the actioa of the 
Miiseiee regslated by thia iaipiiatory Mrte« She epata with 
that tide only, en whidi tfayierve wai entire* Here I eoeceeded 
in paralyzing themoscles of the ear ; for, while she spate, the 
, ear of the side on which the nerve was entire, was pulled backy 
while the otiier stood erect, and mouoniess. 
' The same ezp«iinieiit is easily made on the ass, or it may at 
any tune be done on an ox in the slaa|^terhioase« Ibr while the 
animal it btensible, and dying from lota of bloody' we lum only 
to divide the nerve, as it pastes from before the ear; the con- 
vulsed motion of the nostrijl of the same, side will immediately 
f tasfrw 

Ithe eieci npon the nottril is die most obva6ua symptoaiy 
whenthenenreiscntoitheass*. If^ after havng cat the right 

» I ptrfcittMdddseiiivlmentoa a hpne at CbarentoD, at the request 
<f ll«lfitfeadie, and witli the sisiltswwi off M. Dupuy, Pnifessor of die 
Tfltsriasry.OoUsfa there* Ai Iwassexious to execute the experimcBt 
^■icklyv sad eroidlho hemorrhage which is generally a oonsequenco of 
■coking for ^ nerve in the middle of the parotid gland, I cut throngh the 
•Us saterior to tiie jugum, in the hopes of fmnedistdy findiog the nerre. 
Ak^ft biaachy which I ttippoMd to ho the^ FMtio Dura, was exposed, but 
m settiBf H tfaruugb, no paralysis ol the nostril ensned. 

There was BsturaBy a dsgiee of incrcdnlily on tho part of those who 
Wissvoclston^astotbolsctof thsactionsof the nostril beinf paralyzed 
hy enttinf tho P«rM# JDtim» Bet on saying to the gentlemen present, 
nmoDg wbsnt was Dr. Spurriielm, that this being the first time I had 
■MidotheespsriSMntoaahorMylwss sMdl had not cot tho prineipel 
hfseoh of the PmU^ 2We, Oicy, with great liberaUiyt sAirded :ne every 
s iri t i Mm. On e s s min ing the wennd more ps r ticuia rt y» 1 discovered one- 
thtr.laigs oerve^ and on cutting this the nostril was imasedistefy psra« 
lysed. 

As I had some difllcalty hi understanding why the result of this experi- 



uiyiu^ed by Googl^ 



Mr. Shaw on the facial Nerves, 



23d 



nerve, we hold the nostrils fui a short lime, so as to prevent the 
asiinal irom breathing, he will, when freed, begin to snort, but 
wkh tke left nostiil only. If we hM' carbonate of ammonk 
40 the paralyied nottril, lie will not be affected; bttt if il be 

■leut was at fjr»t i,o ditferent from those wliic-h wc liad tnadc in L<Jiidou 
•on the ai>, and in which the ner^'es are so similar to tlui^c ()1 ihe horse, 1 
took the first opportunity of agam examining tiu anatcjin) (;f the nerve. 
I then discovered a good reason for my failun-, a« a lar-c branch v, \nch 
passes from the second division of the Vth. j air aftor ruiuiing: for a short 
Hay, paralki to tu the J'ortio Dura, joins with it. It was this branch 1 
bad cut in the first part of the experiment. 

I have since, with tlie assistance of my friend Mr. Ca>sar Hawkins, re- 
peated the experiment on the horse, and which, I am happy to say, can 
be dooe without giving tlie iidmal any pain, for the actions of the nostrils. 
Mid the initaMlilj of V M ne , ctpedally of die mpinttory class, cunti- 
aue so long ate ^ 0ai9uAit iBicaaible, that, by cutting the PmHo Dura 
we may stop tbe ooovoliloM of tbo a oi tfib, tad afterwavis, by exciting 
aMoervo Willi the galfadte ftfoeps, exhibit tlM piMijiir Mtflf actloM 

The experiment was made in the IbUowingauumert 

As soon as the animal became insensible firom loss of blood, 1 1 m iWai^h 
aUn omifaa fngam, M as to esfote tbeaervet paMiaf dofwn tothe check 
andnoctrib llie not toils, daring^ tioMyWcm ha eooivaJiftveacCionxaad 
e uw— p eaicd with dMt of the chest. <Me«tthsg across the soperierhraach 
(which thoagh pRBcipaQr of the Vih., hadioase bmaahci of theVnth. iMr- 
aUngied with It at the part cot,) tcafcefy an^ change waspevoeiTed j 
hot oocnttli^p the lower brandy whieh Is almost catlialj famed by Iho 
P^rih Dmrm, the conTolsivo acHoas of Ae maidcs asoving Ac aodiU 
immediately ceased. When Ifato was repealed oo the ^fecr side of the 
faoeytbesaoMConseqaeneesiBllowod. On aftamai d s ifrttatiag As satio. 
wM» of the BMwres with the galyaalc lbtBipt» the adlsas ef the WMdcs of 
the nostrils wereeadted when the inMorbranA was t cw cht d,bwt HHio 
or: no cM.was pndoced on taacUag the iqi^{thobraaA of thoVth.) 

These drcoinstaiiees aflbrd a stcoogpioof ef the necessity of payhif parw 
ticular attention to the anatomy of the nerves, before we draw any con- 
clusions firom experiments upon them . 

I may, Iwwever, observe tfui^ ahhoogh there was m this instance a 
degree of culpability, all the experiments which have been ■mde in the 
pfeeoiC investigation havahcen liDiioded on views taken from eoasparativo 
anatomy, and from observations made on the habits of the various dosocs 
of aaimals ; by following' this plan the experiments iiave Iwca sddeni or 
aenr atteaded with ooofUcthig resoks. 



340 



Mr. SiiiW on th€ Facial Nenm* 



held to the oilier, he will ^nufFit up, and then cur! ilie nostril, 
and have aa expressaoa in tiie whole of this side of the SBtcOf m 
if iii noe gOMg to memt, while the light viU wmum qnte 
vniioted* 

After diseofirinf thet the 'plexet of the Porih Dmra pei^ 

ed lo Lhe muscle vviuch moves the feathers of ihe neck in some 
birdsi I cut the nerve of one side in a game-cock. On opposing 
him to another cocfc, ^cre w«a a marked diffBience in the 
erection of the feathers of die two aides ; biA as the action of 
the nascles of the entire side i^ysaied to operate on the fei^ 
thers of the other, I attempted t04;ut the corresponding neire, 
but while doin^ this, the liook, by a sudden struggle oi the 
bird, became entangled with the branches of the par va^um, and 
Other nerves of the neck, which lie close upon the Portia Dura, 
and the aninal immediately^eipiied. 1 hate aot^Bbce vqpeated 
the eTfMTiBiflnt 

Though I haife generally nsadAeoUl noaMneheafe, Partm 
Dura oj the Vth^ yeil believe it to be quite an error to consider 
this nerve to be it in any way connected with the auditory nerve. 
In the duck, the distinction between the two is most complete, 
there not being the slightest casmaiioii between them* Com- 
jwuaiife anainmy wonid induoe as lathsr la consider the 
PotHo Dura M connected with the Vlllth., than widi tiie 
Portio Mollis. Perhaps the name of ** Respiratory Nerve, 
to the muscles of the face,'' as given by Mr. Bell, is the most 
apywptiate,as it is indioatETe of its princq Md lanctions. 

OMsaornlhw Aamtamm e^lie ¥lh Pimm>^ 

This nenre is, in eirery respect, di HU ' wi tnm the faciei 

respinitoiy iicrve. The observations which have been made on 
its minute anatomy in man, and in the lower classes of animals, 
aiKl the result of experiments, warrant the opinion fonued by 
Mr.BeU; imu> that die Vth pur is simihur to those nerres which 
nttselifoin Ae spinal manow, and which, in their origin and 
distrtbntioni are so essentially diHertot firomthe class of respira- 
tory nerves. 



TIm rariiMMli of tkm Vlh lanj be discovered in the lowesi 
clttMM of ninali* If olMte of anykindpfCjioelfiwi tebotd 
ofaBMWMl, to it die Mrtiaa of a lofa i t ii v tto mw n ^i ieft f of » 

phoca, or the trunk of an elephant, it is a branch of the Vth 
which supplies sensibility to the member, and rc2:ulates the 
volimUiy aciioiis of itn muscles. Thus it may be comparad to 
diose nemt hi iiia% wfaiflli pMt to-tewMMki of Uhi anit tad 
to tlM tipft of tlui fii^uiL 

But this norre it oLio, im tke gvealer wMlber of tatetlt, ee«« 
nected with the organ of taste — and consequently it is very 
lar^e ; its magnitude being- ia proportion to the size of the 
appafatiift connected witli maatic^on and taste. ThiUy ia 
the iowericaJoof aaimak, iIm atmiiiiMMii lotf«ruipnpeff» 
tioft Ifau in Mil; indo id, its mmp oonpmd to dial of ditf 
ParUa Dmw, may give m a bettor attimatw of the oaaipai«lit% 
degree of the power of expression, than can be deduced from any 
other fact of anatomy. A ^ood example is atiordcil in the 
i;Ooae or duck. In the latter bird» the six branches ot the Vtl^ 
wbett laid Uifetk«r» fom a laaas equal in size to that of tbo 
lavgttdt oem in » man*a am; while all the ^candMi of die 
P(0rlM Ikum weold aot fam m Mm laifor diaii a eowawwi 
sewing thread. 

In the cat, and in the hare, the branches of the Vth pass not 
only to the muscles, but also hito the vhiskers; while the 
brandies of the facial leipiratOTy nerre go past the hiiii» ted 
enter into the mmdeeyawffaigtN tip of the nostril. Itisiadier 
difficoiit deaMastieto the nerves goiii^ into the hnlh of tiie 
hair in these smaller animals, but it is easily done in tlie phoca. 
A preparation illustrative of this fact was shewn to me some 
years ago in Amsterdam, by Professor Vrolich; and in the first 
nnmber of the JcunuUdePkiftioloffia JSasperimmtalep by M. Mar 
gcadiiH dMra k an aoeonit of lea Ner& ipii sa poftant aax 
■MOftadMS do VliDque," by N. Andrei This f^t of anatomy, 
i*hich has been denied by some, is farther demonstrated by 
the dissection of those animals which have tufts of hair, or 
whiskers, OTer the eye« la tb^ American squirrel 1 have traced 



242 Mr. Shaw on iJie Facial Nerves. 

brsnelies of the first division of the Vth into the bulbs of the 
hairs over its eye-brow. 

It will be unnecessary to give more proofs from anatomy of 
tiM dittrilmiMB aad Mt ol tlut aerre bei^ 
iikm P&rihJlHam. I Ml iier# cofiobonte Aam by mi^^ 
MMh «f two ezperinemt. 

In the same ass, of which the Portio Dura, or facial respira- 
tory nerve of the rigiit aide, had been cut, the infra orbital 
branch of the Vth of thi left side wu divided. 

Upaii eatliBg Ibie Mm 110 diuge tmpiednoed ill tito 
^ atttebe nofiaf^ <h« left noiliil is t t epim t k »i» tad llns 
eoold be euSj obeervvd, es tke other noetrfl hod been pert* 
lysed, by cutting the Portio Dura of the right side. Tlie effect, 
however, upoii the muscles of the lip during feeding was very 
difttiiict, for although the same muscles were not paralysed in 
die od ol letpiration, still they weie rendered incapable of nuts- 
ticotRiD and vokntary motion, aa the enbttal oonUl no longer 
nte this tido of hit lip in gathering his food*. The se n iib lKty 
of liiis side was destroyed, for the animal did not start wlieii 
it was pricked with a needle, as he did when the otiier was 
touched. I performed a similar experiment on a dog, which ie 
atiU alive. When he ia quiet^ Uie nose ia twitted to die 
aide upon whidi die Vdi ia endit,aDddie P9rti$ Jhtra defi- 
cient, bat die nunent he ia eietted, thenoaa ia paM totbe 
other side. 

* lu an accouDt wMch M. Mag;ci]die has ^\ven of some experiments 
similar to those detailed in this paper, which be repeated at Chai t nton, be 
says, Ijq r^sultat que nous avous obtenu s'accorde parfaitcment avec 
eelui que nous venous de rapporter, a I'exception toutefoia, de I'intiueucc 
de la section du sous orbitaire sur la mastication, influeace qui u'a pas 
^vidente ponr moi.** 

The idea tbat %ve had, in our experiments in England, I'ound tiie power of 
mastication destroyed, must have arisen from \he difftcuhy I found of 
expres&ing ujvseif correctly in French, when (iiscussinc; the results uf the 
experiments with M. Magendie.— ITiere is one act of nanstu atloii dcsti oycd 
by cutting the infra orbital nerve, but to destroy the power aliut^etlier, it 
woulu be Qecessai;y to cut through tbe tnuik of tbe Vth nerve of each bide. 



Jiffs Shfcw Ml iKc JhsMii iMmvu* 948 

fhe dMftmieo «r the d«gfM o# MM&flllj m tht tiroiklOT 
comtpoods with tfatil Ibaod in Hk oparimtttoii iIm 

A description of several different kinds of palsy will be ^ven 
in my next comniunicauon, to prove that the changes produced 
oo tiia human coontenaQce in palsies, dd{Mnd on Um particular 
lyMMU of otffea dwaatady aad dMil IIm two ijatmit aupa aaMon 
or wsmaAietail attbeaamatiM. It vilalao boahtwa, Aaft, 
by oKoMnif Ao aattoaa la^idalad iba omo ayiteHi a^ narvoa^ 
the distortion caused by paralysis of llie otlier will disappear. 

By a knowledge of these facts, it may be expected wc shail 
not only be able to form a more correct diaynoaia of IIni nntm 
and aanfcof palayiiwn teaioloio, tetatoo to aoliHala tha ia> 
fwa of dangar ■tteidiinf aach oiaM'of gymptoMi, 



JiRT. V. Letter from Dr. CoiNi)&T« of Geneva, to the 
, Editor rftkeJourmd 9f Sden€€f on the admimttratumof 

Wbeh I published my second Memoir, I already possessed a 
gcaal nnmber of good obsarvations on what I ragard to be tha 
conq^lameot of my dttoovaiy» that ii, the ampbyment of iodina 
by friction in ttnmvu- awaUingBy and olbar addhlona aiae* 
tions. An e ipayia n c a , mmA antandad and wiad siace, has 
confirmed me ftiliy iu the belief that iodine is the specific of 
this class of maladies, against which we posse ssed only second- 
aiyfaBiadia% namaly» tiioae which act indirectly, whilst I fiod 
that thia aoMitat daiaetly and aicbiaiTaly tba lympfaatiQ ayatein^ 
vhanca no obtain aarprismg aaoeiaa in tba above caaaa. 
. I prescribe ^Lpommade, cooaiatiog of bog'a-lard an ounce and 

« Though most of the facts commiuiicatcd hi this letter have aheady 
appeared in our Journal, we have BO doubt that our medico-dwadcal 
readers will iHirasc it with interest* 



CoiadH m ikt ltoiiiHiiliiiii<|r 



a iarff wliilt wax two drachms, fused tagathar, and united by 
^g^iim^wkfkmpmmid hf^Mmf^ polall^ ar al aada. 
Hit aiaa <la hwaliairt of tte to bi ralM iooiaffy 

mormng and evening, on the goitre, gland, swdM joint, chfowis 

tumour, &c. Various effects result from this practice. One 
oCtlwaa is a local iriitation, or chapping of the skin^ an incon- 

Ao amaftilo ol tto wmk^ or w wiy of diaaa niwiiiiii willhigi» 
iiiiianlwiMil tij harihwiii, lianwoliif palM, womtoM^IlM 

above treatment till, by leeches, emollient cataplasms, ipeca- 
caau, and saline purgatives, we iiave paved the way for the 
aaooess of the iodic frictions. Bttt it bappans pretty frequently 
Aaty in tiiair tnat Aaaa Aic ti o M piodnoa a tort of phlegpHMia 
m teiiiiietiMiliBgty tiMt ia^ after a oartain nambw of apf^ 
cationa tha oiataMot dcfolopaa an afa chan n l of 4m lymphatics, 

characterized by hardness, pain, and exteeme sensibility of the 
scrofulous glands. We then must immediately suspend all fric- 
tion, andjpursue the antiphlogistic plan, sometimes very aotivaiy* 
Whelker it be tlwt dio aotaia of the inflaamiation bae been uo- 
diiody or (hetllio aheofptkm alone baa ben powailallj ang* 
MBiad, llie Ibet ia, tbat tba pabts give way, and, aHer a Aw 
days, we are surprised to find that the obstructed glands arc 
s 0 lie n c d , smaller, a n d that the cure has been accelerated by 
tbat accidental disorder. 

Ubappent alao» bat mncb more larely, tbat wbentbo iodina 
baa beeapreeeribed inwardly^ tbera arisee a ooutitatknal ae^ 
tioR (agreeably to wbat T bave stated in one of my Memoirs,) 
which we must regard, as an iodic super-saturation of the system. 
The patient becomes pale, . he takes a complexion peculiar to 
the efiecta of the iodine, he turns lean, first of all wbeie the 
frietioiia are applied, otpeeiaUy if tbal be Ibe oec^, and tbea 
die ewamtfon estenda over fbe whole body, if liie fHdione be 
OODtiniied. %e pnlae becomes occasionally frequent, but at 
the same time the goitres, or scrofulous glands, dissolve during 
this action with great rapidity, so that in soma cases the cuie 
excites astoniafame&t Yet» by tbeae meeoay wo make the po- 
tient aofier unneoeaaary inconyenieiioe and lia^ iajoring the 



946 



rapmstioB of thii povPflfftil Mi6diBiPB Id bo pvipois* As wmm 
at wt porceiTe Him (taiidiy tummy te. foll» cud aiMdtb 
we mtl8«0pend Hh finetimy awl laaiima dtem after the Intef- 

val of a few days. 

I have ascertained, in a preciie and certain manner, dial 
the aetioB of iodiiie oontiaoae eone time after its adsmoistrar- 
tionk slopped. hisUMiefaie absaid meielf to eaf^aallMWi 
lieaid sonie ^^Toaliafe the goitre, take iodias.** Tbese scratfb* 
leas eiistractkws demand a careful treatment, which moet be cb« 
served for some time, both iiUtiinally and externally, with regard 
to this remedy. It, in fact, requires attention somewhat aisM* 
lar to tiMise adadi we give to coifosifie suUiawH es whsn pM> 
aerttsed ia Vfpldltie cases* 

I continue always to prescribe iodine intenraify, bat less 
frequently than I formerly did, becnn^e the frictions <rive the 
same results, without running the hazard of injuring the sto- 
maeh ; and it is a siagalar fttci, Uiat half a drachm, or 36 graias, 
of hydriodate of potash, ander the form of inanetion, cares or 
dMpatei a goitre, or scrolhloos tamoois in the neck, la the 
Tery same space of time that the fbHowing solution does : Hy- 
driodate of potash or soda 36 grains, iodine 10 grains, distilled 
water 1 ounce, which are united together. Of this solution 
10 drops are taken three times a-daj at first, and thea grada- 
ally augmented in quantity. 

T shall he partkmlarly obliged lo you, Sir, for commnnteating 
this letter to my medical brethren in Great Britain; and I re- 
main your moat obedient servant, 

Z. COIHDKT, M.D. 

Otnevay September ^ 18SI. 



Aim . VI. Process for procuring jmre Platinu??i, PaUadi- 
Uffif Rhodimif Iridium, and Osmium^ from the Ores of 
Fkaimm, Bif M. Bakhbl, ChemiaU Uperatwm the 
Sehoat ^ Medkim at Paris* 

ConiumuicateU by the Author*. — Willi Suppicwcnurjr Kemarks by the 

Translatar. 

1. Two ran of plotkwiM oio oooor in eommMf «m of 

vhich is white and brilliant, the otber is blackish coloured. 
The latter contains much more iron f than the preceding; both 
oro» exist alwaji in th% Sorm of wiaU «{>anglfls, which vary in 

sides IIm Avo iMtak obofo noted* Miforal 01^^ 

especially two khidt of fenm^noas innd, one of them ottrsc* 

tible by tlic magnet, the oLher not, and which is li combinatioa 
of the oxides of titanium and iron ; there is besides chromate 
of iion, soma cofppnr, particles of gold aUoyed with silver, with 
oo||per» and mercttiy. It eontnins, moteoyer, somo snlphnmt of 
lead and copper* Wo as^ iMOOe jndfs ef Ao singnlsr cooi* 
plexity oftbis nuaersi, and be reedy to ocknowMgt that its 
exact aiiiilysis, in regard to the piopoi tiun of its constituents, is 
nearly impossible. In order to separate the platinum, palla- 
dium, rhodium, iridium, and osmium, from each olher, and the 
rest of Ifaobodiesy the foUowing method is the one wluoh long 
o» pe ri cnc e has proved most snooessfiil. 

The ore is triturated in a cast-iron mortar for a considei> 
able time, d uring which a stream of water is constantly passed 
over it, to wash away the ferriferous sand, the titanitey and 
chnwiate of iioOt rednoed to sn impelpable powder. When 
the oie is veiy bnUiant it is left to lettle for an Instant; the 

• This valoaUeinenioir derives pecoliec interest ttom the large impor- 
tatien ef the above ore^ daily expected from South America, in comeiiaeoee 
of the segocielioii between M. Zee and some London mercbenti* 

t Kmher the fine black powder, or oie of iridium end oemnmi, noticed 
^ PMiaraph e.-^e. 



1 



Ly GoogI : 



J or procuring pure Platinum* * 247 

miter IS decanted off, and it is then exposed m ft crwIUo to 
a red heat during a quarter of an hoar. The whole mercury 
is thus volatilized, when we can readily distinguish the spangles 
of alloy of gold and wpgtT by their colours* 

3. Tlio calcined ore being introdsoed into a tabulated retort» 
w pour orer it half its weight of nitroHnuriatie weld (aqua 
regia) composed of one part of nitric acid, at 26^ Baume (1.210 
sp. gr.) and three parts of muriatic acid, at 18° (1.14), and heat 
the mixture for half an boar. Such add distoUei all the gold, 
all the lead» the greater part of the copper, and a very small 
quantity of platinum, palladium, and iron,wbile 0ie sihrer it con- 
▼etted into a chloride, which remains mingled with the ore not 
attacked. After decanting the acid liquor, the ore is thrown on 
a niter, and washed with a sufficient quantity of water. The 
filter'^tnael being transibrred to another ?esael, Ifae Alter is to 
be vuihedwilb a very weak water of ammonia. By tUt means 
we dissohre all the chloride of silver, wbicb is recovered by 
satuialiug the filtered liquor with muriatic acid. 

4. The solution which contains the gold, lead, copper, and iron, 
with a small quantity of palladium and platinum, being added to 
iSke water which has served for the washings, the whde is now 
evaporated to the consistence of syrup, which is ifiluted with 
thrice its volume of water, and treated with sulpharic acid, 
drop by drop, to precipitate the lead in die state of sulphate, 

to be after wards separated by the filter. 

Into the hitered liquor a solution of proto-sulphate of iron 
must be poured, which throws down the gold and palladium in 
the metallic state. We decant the liquor, wash and dry the 
precipitated metals. The platinum remains in the liquor wtdi 
the iron and copper. We conoentrate this liquor by evapora* 
tion, tlif n pour into it a sufficient quantity of a saturated solu- 
tion of muriate of anunonia^ which throws down the platinum 
in the state of ammonio-muriate* This must be washed on a 
filter and dried. 

6. The gold may be very easily separated firomthe palladium 
by melting these metals with four times their weight of silver, 
and acting on the alloy with concentrated nitric acid, winch 



948 M. Biml on the iVocm 

diiiaifn tli« pdkidM«i ttid saver, Iwt l&wm the gold in tbt 

CDrm of ft bfown powder, which may fused into ft tmUon in « 
crucible. Into the niu ic solution of silver and palladium we 
pour muriatic acid, wluch throws down all the silver in the 
state of chloride. The liquid freed by the filter from the chlo^ 
tide cantatnt only paUftdium.' We edd to it & hw drops of s»» 
ktm of sel-aiimioiBftc, dien saftunto tlie redtiiiAuiit^edd by en* 
monia ; the whole palladium is thus precipitated in the state 
of ail rurimonia proto-submuriate of palladium, which exhibits 
small needles, of a delicate rose colottr. This salt is to be 
washed on the filter, amd dried. 

7. The oce of plfttiniuii which has been successively tieeied 
with weak nitfo^innrialtc add^ and then with ainniosiiacal waterp 
to carry off the chloride of silver, is to be strongly desiccated. 
Having replaced it in the retort, we pour over it a weight equal 
to its own of nitro-muriatic acid, made in the same proportion 
as the above, but with this difieieiicet that the acids ought (o be 
as concentrated at possible. I ^ploy for this p/npose niUio 
acid, at 40^ (1.387 sp. gr.) and muriatic ncid, at dS^"* (1.196). 
The retort is placed on a sand-bath, with a tubulated receiver 
adapted to its neck, and it is heated moderately. A brisk 
effervescence soon arises, owing to the disengagement of much 
nitrous vapour, and a little chlorine. The action of the heat 
most be so modified as to produce the most beneficial effect on 
the solution, without volatilising the acid. Finally, when the 
efferv^K^ence ceases, the fire is to be augmented till the liquid 
boils, and till no more orange nitrous fumes are disengaged. 

When the action of the acid is quite exhausted, we decant 
the hqpid into a matrass, and pour on the portion of the oie 
not attacked the same nitro-muriatic aeid, equal in quantity to 
thefirst 

The mixture is to be heated anew, observing the same pre- 
cautions as for the preceding solution. Finally, wo treat the 
ore five times in succession with the compound acid. By this 
process six parts of this acid are sufficient to dissolve the whi^le 
platinum, palladium, and rhodium contain^ in the ore. 

9. 4^r the last digestion, whidi yields only a slightly 



for pruLurwg pure Platinum, 249 

reddish-coloured solution, there remains a residuum, undei \hv 
fortn of a IniJliantblacki'ih powd( 1, \shich consists of an alloy 
of indiiua and osmium. One part of this ia a fijte powdec 
Note to pftiag^iph 1,) and the other fonns bdlliant ipetgl— ■ 
We iihallretiiiiiym the seqne!, to the vetidiuuat let «• employ 
omelm at present on the solatioii* 

9. We have said that all the jjLiLiauDi, rhodium, and palla- 
dium, were dissolved ; but the acid also dissolves a Iittie 
ixidiuia aDd osmium, as well as the iron alloyed with thejphUi- 
mm gratne* Dunqg the action oi the acid on the oie^ ^ ^ 
same time that tfie mtroatgaa and chlorine are evolved^ theie 
is TolfttiUwd a little water and mnriatic acid, whleh carry orer 
with them a notable quantity of oxide oi osmiumj which is con- 
densed in the receiver. 

10. All the successive solutions of the oie of platinum are 
nnited and iatrodiioed into antort of (foper capacitji to which 
the recciTer containing the^foimer cdndenied Tapooia is at« 
taohed. Hie retort is now heated on a ssnd4>ath, till its contents 
acquire tlie consistence of syrup. By this means we dxive oil all 
the excess of the acid, which carries along with it into the re- 
ceiver the whole oxide of osmium which ^bat solution contained. 

11. The product of the last distiUatioa being satoiated with 
lime» we distil, over to one-half the Tolnme. The product ot 
ti&is new distillation has an extremely penetrating odonr, on 
^count of the large proportion of oxide of osmium which it 
contains. It must be preserved in glas3 bottles, furnislied 
with well-groand stoppers. 

12» The concentrated solution of platinum is to be diluted 
with from fire to six times its weight of water, then filtered* 

13. l%e black powder which was not acted on by the nitro- 
muriatic acid, is also to be washed with water, dried, and 
kept in a phial ; we shall distinguish it by the name of the^ 
biack powder, 

. 14., Into the filtered solution we ponr a saturated solution 
of nrainate of ammonia, till this ceases to occasion any pre- 
cipitate. In this operation there are formed ammonib-nmriates 

of piatiuum, iridium, rhodium, aud palladium. These two 
Voju Xil. S 



m 



M. Baniel cm tkn Pr^eu 



Itfl MUt Mag my taiaU^ mMla w the ii^pid witii tiie 
hm, hat iim wmmomo>wmi$$m d flMmam mA mSbm hma^ 
Tery sparingly MioMe Ibrm tiia preeipltste» nUck hu ft trnmnf 

or reddish-yellow colour, of more or less depth, arcoidnig as 
the proportion of the salt of iridnuB it more or \m& considerable. 
WhM Ibt IMw additiM of the nmriate 
hd iMis fmtkfXiMtf the wlmle ie Id be ^ttifovti on e flhef of 
eotfeon, and wadied wHk water of aa great coldDesa as po8«Me; 
whick is conyeniently procured by putting; a bit of ice into the 
water intended for the washin«Ts. When the precipitate is suf- 
ficieotly washed, which is recognised by the water that passee 
batflig merely a Mat yellowish baet U is to be dried. Hue 
|iieeS|illBlB^ aa we have lenafhedi ia an aewwoaiaH W iyiate of 
jpladam, the ^we yellow of whicbta alteiedby ittnmrtarewilft 
the ammonio-muriate of iridium, which is red. 

15. lliis impure cimmoniacal salt of platinum is calcined in 
a crucible, observing to heat the crucible at first in its upper 
ftsHf HI Older to aYO&d tiM folatUiaatioft of a iiortiaii of the aalt» 
edtfaoetita haniy deoompoaed. He heat ia tobe puhcdfeo 
flodaairty at irfiidk teaupcratnte il flmt be liefit wp fof ao hoenr. 
By this means the salts are decomposed, and thuc remains in 
the crucible only the platinum and iridiuiu. To separate these 
two metals we put them into a retort, sad dissol?e them anew 
ift the aitVMmniBtic aeid ; bet to Ihk caae the nitrie aeidBniat 
be only 9it^(lM% aad iha mnnatic add at 1^(}MS). Two 
aad a*kalf parts of diis aoid saffioe to dissolve one of platinum 
thus reduced, without adcctiiiL,^ the iridium. This uiutal re- 
mains at the bottom of the liquor (which is of a fine orange- 
yellow coloiUTt) ttader tha fonn of a grey powder. Oafilteringv 
pare iridtem remains above^ whidi is to be waAed aad dried. 

16. The sohitioii of platinem mast Se pfedpitoted onoe nsore 
by muriate of amasonb; and the fine yellow ammonio-mu- 
riate of platinum thus obtained, is to be reduced by strong cal- 
cmation in a crucible, observing the precautions already indi- 
cjOed* T)ie pure platiaum remaiae ia the emcible, mider the 
form of a gfeyish-ooloored spoegy mass^ which acqiiires me* 
tallic lastie by friction against any hard body. 



uiyiu^od by 



17. As platinum can be fused mkj in nwU iMMM it m 
time, md aiaimt iippiied with oiyyngtHyO Ihtc W iye na i 
fltaM of oxjipM imI fcjiiragitBf it ciMNt MiilidI €9 lbs 

large sesfo like moit oAm. ft««rtv«ry dwi i tolB Kave luo- 

ceeded in { Di iiiins: this m^tal into ingots of u very ronsidetable 
weighty by uniting the particles with strong pressure at a very 
high temperature. For this purpose, a certain yiMHHjf «f fkm^ 

•fllt| if Mni|if6tMd in ft cmoftlif dMA imm IfMnoMilwfty' In* 

troduced, even to the amount of 20 or 30 pounds. The cni- 
cible is then covered, and heated to whiteness. The platinum is 
now transferred as speedily as possible into a s^uajra atwat mA* 
triz, (a atnmg htiap oC atieri, jofntod^ woald mwmm annHyiweiiy 
ttidc«pabi» qpMiag Into two piaeti Bywati df tiif ii. Oto 
the top of die ignited naaa, « naat WMdril, aAapM to llio 

cavity of the matrix, is to be applied, which is to be rapidly 
driven liome, by three or foui l)lows oi" a stronc::; coining scr< \v- 
press. By this powerful pressure, which the spongy platinum 
czperfeiieea at a white heat^ it dtminiihag greatly in bnlk^ m$ 
iUpartideealfeady acqviieftpMl^tMf oeiMfkiik llie»ft^ 
trix, or eblhur, it opened, ttw aaae of pMsw ititrimrod to 
be heated anew in a crucible to a red-white heftt, fit a fire acted 
on by two good bellows. It is again introduced with tlie utmost 
celeri^ info the matrix, where it receives five or six blows of the 
lijr-preaa. In tiieaeoeiidopeiiaioii, allllitfpMlidea of liM 
ttmiii aie evficiently approxnnalod to ftmii % hoaao^eMni 
fufnf be fheneeAMFfli lieaCcd, wllliMt liMowMDiMto, 

among iiaktid charcoal, giving it the greatest possible heat, and 
Condensing, with two blows of the press, each face of the ingot, 
in thus trantHutiiigr die mass of platioiim iuccessively, from the 
Ibrge to the piets ai>oul tbirty tinet, we cMin as Ikigfdl pcir* 
hcikf sound, poateaaed of great malMbfOly anddaotfiy. ma- 
Lin um thus made into ingots, is delivered to the #MlnnMiy wiio 
fashion it like ^r(i\d and silver; that is to say, all the ])ieces are 
i^retefaed at first under the roUiog-press, an d then fashioned by 
llie hammer, tairhig care to anneal it from time to time. Unia 
are prepared, in France, the great maaMs* of platinum, widi 

S3 



252 M. Bamel on the Process 

m 

which are lubricated the large al^mblcty detliaed tKe oqH" 

Ceiitranoa ul su1[j1iuik: acid. 

JL&r TIm JGBO^i^-wiMier, ti:om w^uch have b«eii pneciiutaXiiii 
mmm9 wmmUm ^ |totiminMduUiiiil& by pgaring^ nrar. 
nm jrf ■wwwiii into the •oMo&oC onMie jJatiMimi has a. 
rtddisb-brown colottr, end oootaint «ll the tiUMWO-iiimtei 

of palladium and l iiodium, as well as a curtain quantity of the 
ammottio-muriates uf pl^itmum and indium » because, ab we have 
okiwrodt these salts are not coiii|iletely insoluble. It cont a ins , 
iMIom* aU dw inm .whidi wa» «U<iyi4 with Uie flatiDBoit md 
■BMitunflt alittle copper, wluek hn MCi|ied die actm of die 
tet portioA of nitro-nmmtic acid whidi was poured on die ore 
to dissolve the gold. This muthci-Iiquor is put into matrasses, 
and plate&of uron are plunged into it. The i(on precipitates all 
the wolrii? (except the oxide of iroo) under |he «Nf a black 
pavdtf- Whaa die whole melallic mattef ji durowtt dowa,. 
whiehae keom hf the liqiKir etuming a gr^ odbiir« die platef 
of iron are fenofed, after detaching (rem. dieir snrfaees the ad-r 
hering powder. The liquor is decanted off, and thrown away. 
The black precipitate must be washed several times, till the water 
employed passes off* tasteless. The powder ii then treated with 
WMk. aitaeaiaidy whidi diMolvei die grealett part of the iron, 
wMohthy the.jQAift.of the.pceoq^itatiaBy had been allofed with 
theieiiietalt^s and which takes up also whatever copper may 
remain. Tiie residuum, is washed anew, and treated with nitro- 
muriatic aci(l» which dissolvea all the platinum, palladium, rho- 
dtap»:.aiMi remaisa of the iron; but does not affect the iridium, 
VhM^Wifuilspiuaal die bottom of diesohitton in the foim of 
a black powder* or metallic spangles. The iridium^ bebg- se- 
peimted by the filter, is then washed, dried, and united to that 
formerly obiaiaed (15;. 

l9. I'he liquors are now to be united, and eva|^rated to 
dia cw" t ^<^ ^T'uPt to <^vo off* the greater part of die 

» 

Or, dmmg ttie jJiicifitution had fallcr, down in alloy with these metals. 
The oricKii^ wards ar«, " £er, qui par I'effet de la |)r<^cipitauun, s ctpii 



for procmrmg fmnt PUtimtm, 



253 



wad. excess; then this is to be diluted with four or five limes^its 
weight of wftter, as cold as ponMe, into this a loliilloii of 
MriateofaaiMMi It tobepouKd, Iflltf Mieff lo oeeiilioii 
ft precipitate. Whit Mm i« «& wnmomthWnmM «f pl aUw nn , 

which must be separated by filtradon. The soltiiion is then 
concentmted, and allowed to cool several times in succession, 
to separate all the ammoniacal salt of platinum which it may 
eofttatiu ¥rh«B the hqaid n completdy dej t riv ed of ^lieUmuu , 
or when it jUMm no longer tfie ydiow pfocipi Cn t g, wb dflnlo it 
with fi^e or six parts of cold witer ; end ft* oogtft to here e M- 
sible excess of acid. This, if wantinf^, may be supplied by 
adding a little of the muriatic. We then pour into it water of 
ammonia, drop by drop, but not so much as entirely to saturate 
the edd-ekom. ' Immedintelj there is formed, hi the liqaidy « 
predpitftte far Ae shape of mnll wbtSe&f Mkstte en4 Mdng, 
possessing a beaellfid pale rose-cokmr. This crysteOhie pre^ 
cipitate is an ammonio-subprotomuriate of palladium. Since 
this salt insoluble, there can remain none of it in the liquid. 
It may be separated by the filter, and washed with very cold 
water. By heating this salt to redness In a cmcible, tfie pallfr> 
diuin remains pure. It may be afterwards melted in a caTity of 
ignited charcoal, on which a stream of oxygen gas is made 
to play. 

20. The liquid freed from the salt of palladium, possesses a line 
currant4:ed colour, derived from the ammonio-ntnriate of rho- 
dlnm, which it holds insolutionyand which is verysoleMe. fteon- 
tahis, moreover, a fitUe muriate of iron, and occasionally a llt6e 
ttmriate of copper, when this metal has not been entirely dis- 
solved by the first portion of nitro-muriatic acid, which was 
made to act on the ore, as has been stated above. 1'here are 
two modes of treating this aalt, to obtain pme rhodimn. The 
first consists in eraporating this li^nid, at a gentle beat, to dry- 
. ness; and boiling the residiinm sereral times along wftfi aheo- 
lute alcohol. The spirit dissolves all the muriate of iron and 
copper, with the excess of sal ammoniac, and does not affect 
the ammomo-mnriate of ihodinm, which remains in the form of 
asalme powder of afinecarmhie-redcoiottr By cateining dds 



M* Baruel tm the Frocm 



salt to redaess in a crucible, wc decoinpo&e il, auil llie ihodiuDi 
remains pure and perfectly metallic. The second means of ol> 
totoing the rfagdiw itam tbe abore iypa» W M i tl ii in phmgiBg 
nto il plitiBt of iioft. Tht ibodlrai Md tiiB copper m pnci* 
pitatedy carryfnf drnrn vHk liMm « Hide irm» Wlm every 
thing is fallen down, the liquor is decanted, the precipitate is 
washed, and boiled with an excess of strong; muriatic acid, 
which dissolves all the iron. The tiqild If now poured off» the 
tttkbuuk k§ wnliodl iillli ft nftoHpt ^[wiitity of wfttBf » smI h$ 
next boiM eemel tsmee wi^ Meeatreted nitiie eeid, ulikji 

copper. The rhodium being completely niee- 
luble in each of these acids separately, remains under the loim 
of shining pellicles, which must be washed and dried. Rho- 
4ntti being the meet infusible of metals, caoooi be melfeed )niI 
iiiearflltiecieybyi^eidefeAutefidwkboiygeii g«i» or bj 
tiMeom|io«adfiiMofhydK)9«iaBd«Kyg;eii* 0MeA»MeiatiiMM 

infra.) 

21. Let Us letuin to the black powder separated from the 
platinum ore, by treating it with nitro-muriatic acid, ^^'c have 
••id thefc thtt l^adc peirdar «M w alloy ef ofn^^ 

it le ■coredy aActed by any a i tro- w r ia tie add. Il ieqaiiei» 
bideed,' a« e normoes quantity of tiiie adbd to di«Mlve a nimite 
particle of it. The only means uf attacking this alloy, is to cal- 
cine it with nitrate of potash. With this view, we triturate the 
black powder wttli twice its weight of a mixture of three parts 
oC ailre aad one of canelic potaah, aad iotrodaee tbe wiMie 
iito a allrer erneible» wlikdi la to be kept at a diefry^ed beat 
IbrlMflf an hour. In consequence of the affinity of the potash 
for the oxides of osmiuin and iridium, the nitric acid of the 
nitre is decomposed, and oxidizes these metals. The crucible 
ie to be whbdmwB from the fire, allowed to cod, and oold water 
ie thfinpoptedoAtbemaloiiBbi. TbiadMolveefbepolaab, the 
wMe oxide of Oiniiui» aod a litde U the oxideof iri^tei. 
The whole being thrown on a filter, the oxide of iridium reinaiu^ 
above, which is to be wabhed and dried. 

22. The filtered liquor wbicb oofitains the combination of polh 
adi and oxide of oniomy ae anil as a MltU oxideof iridmai»ia 



2&5 



put into a flask, and saturated with nitric acid. The liquid is 
then put iato a retort, to which i^^ tilted a tubulated globe, sur- 
rounded with isfl|ijiii»nfl<i> cloths. On dijiuUiog, tkt waier wbidi 
tiiMiii iwpqateuam wilh it aU the <u|id» «f omimi. ^ Whm 

volftdtiied. Tlit liqiud reipsyuiiog ui tht fttort cqntaias the wir 

liute ui polasii, and a tiace of iridium. The ^.qi^^us solution 
of osmium is as colourless and limpid as cli^tilLed water* Itiia^ 
a strong and peculiar ofkMur^ ert^ywaaiy iiptatinf tajteAoatala, 
aadwlnchitttdaiifaroutto labalafiir aaf Iffi^diaf tei^ Im 
Older to obtahi tha otauim fnm this folatioB, it ia ptt into a 
matrass, and we add a little muriatic acid Lo acidulate iL slightly, 
and then insert a piatc of pure zinc. The oxide of osmium Is 
decomipoged by the ^ioc^ which is dissolved ia-tba HMrifllii) a/cid* 
imd the ownm if. paacipitated to tl|e bottaip jif tho lifMv jo 
thfi fiuaa of a hlarViah Mm nowdar* Whan tha addda nf nawiiH 
is eomplelely decomposed, whibb aaay ba reoognisad liy tlie 
liquid losing its odour, we decant the fluid, pour the. powder of 
osmium on a filter, wash it copiously with water^ dry ity aad 
jput it imn^iedisitely up in a w^-^op|^ phiaJu 

33. Tha oxide of iddiiuo, procai|iiag 6oin tba jaloinaliiM of 
tha Macic pQwdev with aitoa auji gp$mk» MbM sMinai an 
the filter, is by ao naans pure. It 4a a waitm. al aoride of 
iridium, ot a certain quantity of ti|^ black powder, or alloy of 
osmium and iridium, which has not been affected by the nitre, 
.and a littia ig^iid^^of .fuWer, di^ive^ fsom tUe cnioibla. This 
lantnxe ta to ba ti|ttti4 wtth.nilRhittttijalia aaid» wUphdia- 
toltaa oaiy tha osida of iridian, oonvada tha oxidaiOl aitar 
into a chloride, and does not ifo^ on the alloy. - We next fflter 
and wash. Tiie unattacked alloy, and the chloride of silver, 
xemaija on t^e fiUfir., This residuum is to be washod with water 
.ooataining a little ammoj^ia, whjah d^aolvea tha cUapade of 
.flilvari whila.tha aUoy of aaiatiHii and indiam Kwmiiii 
Thia may be again calcined with wtaia of nitQB aad pal- 
ash, to decompose it completely* 

24. Into the solution of iridium, which is of a very deep red- 

diihrl^wa 6()iQur, ja;Muiate of i^oa^a i)> W be pQtt(fi4*.aftdibe 



266 



rLiidiuHii is to be then treated with alcohol very highly itell* 
fied, which takes up the excess of sal ammoniar, and occfti- 
iicmally » little munate of iron; because the alloy sometimes 
tmi^m • Htflid Hm Wlm UMtkioM it no longer 

qrfowidt tin MWiiirtn — iiN %>l illdiMB iwiriiw ym. Hw 
Meeatary iftfi^ly lo cakto* k ■li iif l y In • tsraeiMe to 
|Hire iiidium. This metal, being more infusible than rhodium, 
can be mdted only in very small quaoUiies by the oxygen on 



The preceding process was obligingly' Avwii up by M. 

Baiuel, at the re(|iu'sL ot a chemical gentleman from this coitn- 
Ury, who inabcd to kaow tiie actual method now practised at 

Cotmii^ §mm hm bmMA Idemblci; 'Petldlssioii itaB ^ndk 
to inAliih Ae proocM In ft wolit futk pfirt^did cAi^taitfiti^/' how 

in preparation; but as the period of its appearance is a little 
QDcertaui, it has been thought fit to give it to the vorfd in the 
present forni. Though it be fVindaroentally the sam^ with that 
fbKiinit U. VnipwiMi fai 18ia> fatbeMliVdliitebniie 
GSMtr yet H b wnoh tmpeifer in the ddaraesf, 
i-^ndl diftrilmw of tfie Apcfftttloiiff. T^etcrinde^d afe 
so explicit, that one of the most delicate processes of chemistry, 
is thus brought within the compass of almost every operative 
ciwrniat. Th« paragraphs <ire )iei« mabered, for feference to 



» 1^ ■ « 



not given by Mi Vauqncifai. M. Bamel is judicious id pre- 
scribing, with M. Laugter, a retort and receiver for conducting 
the aqua^regia soluti<wf . In aU cases where nitric or nitro* 
mfi is ooiiMMd, « gtMA -Wftite and ftimayluice aire 
die aioipft of aeld taponra. ' Aas^ may M ef- 
fbetaaliy saved, by coMieetiii|f, ^Ih a'soinewliatloiiif an^widle 

tube, the first balloon to a second containing a very little walci . 
The ficsl baUoen should have ihree apeftujres ; one connected 



Ly Googl 



for procurutg pfure J ^ia it rtu m* 



257 



\*tUi the retort, a second in the same line toniiacted with tkti ' 

The lih» ^hiBh jqiw 4ht tPO-Mtoei^ aWnW ham mi^M^ 
difUy fioB tlw rvteri, and sboaUi dip aHts miA, <ii4»iM««iMHr< 

of the second. The outlet of ^is last must be ciosed with' a 
Weltei^a tube of safety. Wiien nitroiis Tapours are coming over 
open tha «b«|p-«M)^ 4tf tfaftfUOOMtW^ MdlnBsniit into che (irBt 

M'Midify thft bUms gas^ which itflgaai—t hi dwfcfta<if 

niferic or nilroaa acid, in the second receiver; while the azote 
will pass off. By M. Barrel's arrangement, ^ 7 and § 9, much 
of the oBopiMiitt is pceseiveU ; wiiich by followiog 'M» VTimywtitt'g 
directions is lost s%fat af» ImmI dliiyilnili • 

\2, M * QarMi Mm-uft^to tfhrte 5'Dr.6 of 
watei^ |b«.o(i«ic«iit«i$ad<p)MiMi mIumb. M> ViW|tilii|Oi>yi 
that " ten parts of water and one of the solution in a state of 
great concentration, appear to me Iq be the best proportion." 

Without the^l^eoiuiUon pt 4il»*UQa,'* be observes, v it woqld 
bevary diffiQultiJta ^ash the precipltoft^ and il waaki raMiD 

present, liiMlBrlfaottha whote pIoimMi ikttM M>t hoipnp- 

cipitatedy than that the precipitate should be impwe ; because 
the plaLiiium remaining in solulioii is separated in the subsequent 
processes." Ammonio-muna^ 4)f i^^tiaiim iamotpurey" he 
•abjoiiviy milw U l^.a lemoftMlQiHV^orti ■otboottnohMim 

<n dtjing, Md iiOM% jB^iiiprt W ^w it ^ - 'i 

In a attba<qoeiit port of hi« mtopiatfay Mawoir, U. Van^ 
lin states, that on treating the black metallic fn'ecipitatB, (ob- 
tained by immersion of iron plates into thesoiuiion freed iVom 
platinum by sal-ammoniac,) successively with oold nilcifi^ and 
Muntia 9ahi mtMa^aad 4i3finf the i Mid hi i iw, vmfmtM 
white vapom fOMi» ^Aich he ■ionrtninodly hy I w di n ^ a portiwi 
of the residuum in a cracible» to be a miictnmof oilonMl mA 
muriate of copper. " The sublimate," adds he, ** contained 
llk ^ wigt. globvi Wif of mercury^ and a black matter, whicii I sup- 
^^Uom tho UfttAk wl^ii i^ayjaO, tp aw n ina " Iha 



TIm MDi* ttt pant^aph 18, hat iii eaMMStaif in thtt faibw. 

in^ cbst rs atioa of M. Vauquelin. ** The muriatic acid em- 
ployed ftiter the nitric, contained likewise a great deal of iron, 
some copper aad yafMw*", and even piatiiMun and rhodium. 
Wa alMiiM te» A lartianaf tkaaeiaaltimiiilidviaimoip^ 
MidliyllMimmliMMlaoCoiida} cAliarwiaa Mswlio wpi 
would not have diBSoWed them. Tins seems to prove likewise 
that these metals in precipitating combine with iron [\\v\ c:o):>[)er, 
and (uevent them from being attacked by lutrie acid, even when 
aasployed » c4MUMdanbk ^pianUtf gneat quatily «f 

diaiih md fliodiiiiii, is psbuuMI^** 

The process in J 15 and ^ 16, is a refinement on the former 
methods. M. Vauquelin contents himself with the hrst precipi- 
talt of piatiamn by aal-ammooiac^ regarding it as qaita pare. 
A gwrt M W» t» <if aiieaMcalanalyilg, to wIm^ tfalt pfceat nf M. 
Pufwl was idwam, raMoM, thatUi} nm jagjaooatwimf li too 
flNMii aHrie arid; Ihat if the mitable proportkM ^ nurfalic 
acid be eniployed, then tlie platinum may be thrown down pure, 
at hrst, by bai-ammoniac ; and that M« Baruel dissoiyes by his 
■wnstfttum, a portion of irtdin. 

Vmmipm$ma^ pmlkM^m^uadimt the hm of aa rnnmgmUm* 
mthmmui»mmil9t w fveoisely Vauqnattn** laelliod. Of Mi 
plan, M. VtaiUfKtfli speaks with complacency. " This process, 
more simple, and more exact tlian that of WoUaston, depends 
I. pn the insolubility of ammonio*muriate of palladimiiy even 
IB irater i^ghUy aoidBious. 2. Oa the aehdiNlty of tke mvmm 
of oofiper aadim uiikoliolyaAddittiMolBUUly-of nmrnmak 
nariate-of iMUm in the aame Ikpiid** Yetlfae tJloawiig e«- 
tract ftOHi the same elaborate Memoir, seems to invalidate the 
above certainty of separation. *' Now to obtain the rhodium, I 
'Ooncentrate the lipoids from whk^ tba palladtaw has beeni s#- 
panilad^tUlthayaryetaUiie totally on cooling* IpitllMoryMii 
^Md« todniDsth^ are frequently of tarokkdeaiMlaf tiMColoM. 
Vom hatve the form of hexehedral piatee, and a fiaa rubyi«ed 



fw ^rQcui Mg pure IHalumm. 



colour ; wiule uLlieis, fewer in number, '.\rc s([ULirc prisms ut a 
yellowish-green colour. These last are ammomo-muri^ of 
palladiiuB«" Thus we see thai liiA aiMMao^wnciafti id jftiJ^ 

]2r«WdiMtoa'«<in«iaidnBlMof mgm$ki^ lAiodhm 

palladitun aad plattamm w pMuUtfly elegtnt and e^^oaomical, 
while it is [Juiiccily exact. Into the sol on deprived ol the 
graater part of platmuiu by sal-aj3uuoiucuSp he immeraea a 
piflteof ckaaaiac. ThiatlnovadoiniaUthanataUialbailala 
of a black powdarv axoapi tba iroat wlMh nmioaiii tha aols* 
tuNu The copper aad lead of the pwcijatata, waigliiBg froaa 
40 to 50 grains, bciiiii; reiriovcd by very dilute iii In c-acid, the 
rcnmiiidei after being washed, wa^ digested in dilute iiitro-muri- 
atic acid, which dissolved the gcaater part* ** To this solution 
waittadiMf)OgBiii»ofoaiikflumaalt» tufuX to OM-fiftliof the 
oia Aaplojad: aad aHban tba «liolahadbaeaava(Mvatad to diy^ 
aeaa with a yery gmitte heat, the reaida«m« mhkk I had foand 
from [n\oY cxpcriiaents would consist oi" the soda-niLinates of 
plaluia, palladium^ and of rhodium, was washed repeatedly with 
aaudl ^antitias of alcohol, till it came off nearly oakMukaa. 
TlimiaaialMda tHplaaaliof ilM)dknii9 vhioli by thaao anoaaa 
ia liaad fimnn aU unpttritliaV Annd the aolotioa of lUa loda* 
muriate in water, zinc tfarowa down tlM oMlai » a black powder, 
which TTifiy be agglutinated iato a somewhat spongy metallic 
mass, by the heat of a very powerful furnace. Dr. Clarke, of 
CaaaJbridgat ia the only cbaaaiatv I baliava»vbobiaaoooaadad«a 
gifiiig to Aodinm a hi^ teii^f fay Ibaioa befina bia 
hydrogen blow-pipe. la an obliging f^omimainKioii to the pro- 
sent annotator, this gentleman states, that ''Dr. WoUaston^s 
own rhodium, taken from tht; pure specimen ho g-ave me, is ren- 
dered perfectly malleable beforatha gas blow-pipe, and in this 
maUeable atata, alUr being bammmdi ita apacifio graaity> (aa- 
*inffited ia ^iffflM waiat* at the laaaanatto of 60^ of Fana* 
bait,) eqttala 51CU)8» being as high aa that of para hammwrad 
platinum." Dr. Wollaston's rhodium, fused iu his own air-fur- 
aaca^.bas a specihc gravii^ oi only 9.74 by our experiments. 

* PhU. Trow, for 1804, page 4$S. 



uiyiii^eci by Google 



965 



lieniurks on M. Baruel's Process 



The separation of the salt of rliodjuni from iliose of jilatiuunl 
and palladium, as performed by Dr. Woiiaston for the mstruc* 
thm of his scientific friends, is one of the most striking^ pheno- 
ineifaof (AmimM Mialsfiis. He nfsief diSBthiw triple salts nrlth 
ft titfle water, in m wateh glass, and evaporatas to sueh a degree 
as leaves the mass apparently dry, yet with as mach combined 
water as would give it the watei y liision at a higher heat. He 
pours on this a little alcohol, about speciBc gravity 0.850, and 
applies a ^ta^ heat Instantly after fodon, two tery dlitmct 
and diisiBiiiar fluid strata are fbmwd ; a red-coloared liquid 
above, and an oOy-eonsistenced liquid below, of a darlt-brown 
colour. The former is to be irmiKdiately pourtd off. The hitter 
after being washed with a little more alcohol » yields a pure soda- 
nuriate of rhodium. 

The plan of separatbg paliadium from its metallic associates 
hi the platinaDi ore, originally inrented by Dr. Woiiaston^ is very 
beautiful , and certainly in no respect inferior that prescribed by 
M. Vauquelin. "To a soltition of crude platina, whether ren- 
dered neutral by evaporation of redundant acid, or saturated by 
addition of potash, of soda, or ammonia, by lime or magnesia, 
by mereiiry, by copper or l^ iron, and also whether die platina 
has, or has not, been precipitated lirom the solotiott by ssI- 
ammoniac, it is merely necessary to add a solution of prussiatc 
of rneicuiy, for the precipitation of the palladium. Generally 
for a few seconds, and sometimes for a tew minutes, there will 
be no appeanace of any precipitate; but in a short time, die 
lAole solution becomes slightly tuibld, and a flocculent precipi- 
tate is gradually formed, of a pale yellowish-white eolour. This 
precipitate consists wholly of prussiaLe of palladium, and when 
heated will be found to yield that metal in a pure state, amount- 
ing to about four or five tenths per cent, upon the quantity of ore 
disserved. 

^ The prassiate of mercury is peenUaily adapted to Ihe pre- 
cipitation of palladium, exclusive of all other metals, on account 

of the great affinity of iiiercury for the prussic acid, which in 
this case prevents the precipitation of iron or copper ; but the 
propurtioB of maicary does not by any mmaa iaflaeiNa the 



J 01- procuring pure Platinum, 

quantity of palladium, for I have in vain endeavoured, in the 
above experiment on crude platina, to obtain a larger quantity 
of paliaiUum tb^ I l^ve ^tfud» by uiing mort^ of tbe jpciiMuUe 
of niecciiijr* or lo procnn my precipi t a te by tho Mine, wtm 
ftom ^ ablution of .pm plutiia. Tlye pmsuate.fif qusrcnry ii 
ooBseqiieiitly a teat by which the pveaence of palladinm maj bft 

detected in any of its solutions*.** 

In paragraph 22, M. Baruel directs to saturate tlie potash, 
im the alkaline compound of oxide of oamiuin, with nitric acid, 
and. then to dialii ; but aa the alighteat eioeaa of thia add would 
canae it to come om with the volatile oxide in the anbaeqnent 
diatillation, it aeema preferable to employ anlphurie acid, aa 
enjoined by Mr. Tennant. This excellent chemist also suggested 
the collection of the oxide that nses durini; the solution of the 
iridium ore. Aa a certain quantity/' he says* of thia oxide 
ia extricated durins the aolution of the itidium in marine acid, 
that part may alaQ be obtained by diatiUationf.'' M. Thenard 
does not seem to have been aware of this fact, since he lately 
ascribes to M. Laugier the merit of the same siip:gestion. " II 
a reconnu que^ dans le tfaitement de laimne de platiiie par Tacide 
nitro-muriatiquey une partie d'oamium 4tait attaqu^e, etque 
eette partie se vaporisait avec une certaine qua^tit^ d'addet." 

It ia hardly necessary to allude to the coarae .n^thod of the 
Marquis Ridolfi, described in the first volume of this Journal^ 
page 259. To fuse crude platinum with luilf its weight of lead, 
to reduce the alloy to powder, to mix it with sulphur, to expose 
it to a atro^g heat in a covered crucible ; to re-m^lt, with a little 
leadi the brittle button firat obtained, and to hammer it at a 
white heat, upon a hot anvil, to extrude the lead, are directions 
nearly impracticable; and useless if they could be practised; 
for the foreign metals cannot be thus separated from jthe pla- 
tinum. 

The practice in Paria of alloying tiie pulverulent pure plati- 
num with one eighth of i(8 weight of arsenic ; and of exposing 

the ingot of aUpy to an op^ heat, progressively i aiaed to wlute- 

* Pm. 75'««. 1805, page 3S». - f Phil. IVon. 1804, page 4t& 
X 7W«^ire€MMie,v0l.U, pege690, fint«ditioii. 



Ltoogie 



1262 



Kkproth m the Ckmicai Anafym 



nest, in order to eipd tlie oaddhed meife, it, I Miere, gene- 
fwfj HNHKRNWQ* tiBcwn puiiiuiw Of HM snomowBO 10 lOri: 

in the platiiiinii, and to dGterior;...tc its valuable qualities. The 
platinum of Eoglaad and F rance seems to be at pre&eat equally 
|Nii#, malleable, and itetifo; and the price is oAaiij tlie laoie. 
TbsM iiy ihtnttiKp jw gfumt ftiv tfaow Jciloiii jMsisnsDeei 
wbidi tlMnarrowHBiBded of botii Batkms tre apl to gifft to their 
laibonni in this respect As they fonn the roost enlighten^ 
poiLion of Europe, 80 they should unite in the moti cordial and 
generous co-operation, for the improvement of Science md the 
Arte. These teflectioDt have been raggetted by the foliowiiig 
handsome remarks of M. Vauquelm, mitten during a period 
of national hostility Hough Dr. Wollaston operated only 
on 1000 grains of the ore of platinum, and of course had only 
six or seven grains of the new metals at his disposal, yet he 
determined their principal properties^ whxcb. does in6nite honour 
to his sagacity; fbr the thing appears at first view incredible. 
Por my part* though I employed 60 marcs (about 39} troy 
pounds) of crude platinum, I found it very difficult to separate 
exactly the palladntm and rhodiam from the platinum and the 
other metals, which exist in that ore, and especially to obtain 
them in a state of purity V ludeed, &e most eminent men of 
the one nation are most ready to allow due merit to their rivab 
IB the odier. Jealous detraction is cultivated only by ihe 
snbaltettis, to lessen the sense of their own inferiority, or to 
gi aiil y the prejudices of the great and little vulgar, whose suf- 
irages they court. 



Art. VII, Contributiom towards the Chemical Kiwv'1cd<ie 
of Mineral Substances^ Bif ^Ae /a^e Martin U£^fiv 
Klaproth. 

[Coiitiiraed fimn Page 40, of VoL XII.] 

Analifsis qf CereriL (Cerite,) 

I mECfiiTBD the specimens employed m the IbUowing Ana- 
lysis from M. Geyer, of Stockholm, in the year 1788. 

« Amuae*H« Ckimie, for Nov. 1813. 



968 



A. 

1 . A piece of cererit was heated to redness in a platinum 
crucible ; it U»t 2 per cent, of its weight, and its orlgiaal red 
ooidtr beetBW browa : ite htm tmtm^d mahanged. 

ttmg nod loet 5 gntai» iBdacq[iiiiid • dttlnr u tk um , 

B. 

100 grains mixed with 200 of carbonate of potassa^ and ig- 
nited in ft platinum cradbie, shewed no tendency to fusion, but 

assumed the appearance of a light brittle mass of an ash-grey 
colour. Being saturated and washed, the Altered alcalioe 
liquor was colourless. It remained transparent when neutralised 
with nitric acid, and therefore contained no oxide of tungsten ; 
nor was any o<her add present, tiaee &e solution was not af- 
fected by the addition of solution of silver, mercury, lead, iron, 
bar^fta, ^c. 

Tlie lixiviated residue was decomposed by repeated boiling 
in nitric acid. After the separation of the silica, the nitric so- 
lution was supersaturated wMi caustic potassa, boiled, fiHared, 
neutralised with muriatie acid, and mned with carbonate of 

potassa; but nothing was thrown down, nor did it become turbid. 

a 

a. 400 grains of the leytgatad tosil were digested in 4 ounces 

of boiling muriatic acid, to which U ounces of nitric acid were 
afterwards added. When every ihiag except the silim appeared 
to be dissolved, the liquid was filtered aS^ and the ieaidne» 
washed vsd ignited, wdghad 138 graina. 

The excess of addin the atraw^^olouied soliAion was'ffaca 
neutralized with liquid ammonia, taking care Aat nothing was 
thrown down; succinate of ammonia was then added, which 
caused a precipitate of succiuate of iron, and which, ai^ wai^ 
ing and ignition, afforded 14 grains of omde qf vwu 

€. The eftlntkn, dina ftead from iron» was pmiplntiad by 
cauetio ammonia; the onde^eemnn iSam timm down was 
edulcorated aud ignited ; it was of a brown eolonr, and weighed 
218 grains. 



264 



Klaproth on the Chemical Anahftis 



d. The remainiog fluid was boiled with carbonate of potassa ; 
it afforded 9 grains of carbonate oi lime, equal to 6 grains of pure 
Htm* Hm iaki was tlien satwnlfd with aitric acid, and teated by 
ftmthU of potamtirfaidk |pve atiKkt traoet ai the piaieiioeof 
aopper. Oae Inadnd parta tfaenfoe of caieiit cotttaitty . 



Oxide of cerium « • Ce « « • • 54.50 

Silica -^a , « • • 34.50 

Oxide of im « • . ^6 • . » • 3.50 
Ume « . . . « d .... 1.25 
Water ..... A2 . . . • 6. 

98.76 



Properties qf the Oxide of Cerium, 

m* Thrown down ffMa Ua nttrie aolatioa hf anmonia^ oiide 

of cerium a|)[)( ars in the form of a nuiddy-red precipitate, which 
dries into a u anspareut and hard mass ; when igntted, it acquires 
the form of a eiBiiaiiicHi4yiowii powder. 

b* CfvboDated alcalit aepaitte a wldia oailmiala, of wbieh 
100 grains (precipitatedhyeuhonateof aBiflMmia)loal£99caiiw 
durmg soIutionT in nitric acid; 100 grains of the same OMrbo- 
nate lost by ignition 35 grains ; hence it is composed of. 



Oxide of ceriam • 65, 

Caibomc add 23. 
Water 12 



100 

e. Bcfote the blov«pipe, oxide of «eiiiim beiMUttis brilHaatfy ' 

luminous, without Aieioa. With phosphate of soda itprodnoet' 
a yellow bead which becomes colourless when cold. Borax 
produces the same appearance. 

d* It undergoei no ohaagpe by loag^oeatinaed avpooura to a 
biigM Md beat ta a ebareoal orodble. 

e. EoEiployed aa an enaaiel, it gives a light-hMm oelottr* . 

f. Neither caustic nor carbonated uiciilis dissolve the re- 
cently precipitated oxide of cermm. 

g. Carbonate of cerium is easily solnble in the acids, form- 
ing a sweetish astriogcait neatral tolatioa; when dihUedt the 



Goo 



pj\ Mineral Subitances. 20$ 

solutiuus aie colouriesji^ but become rcddibk*purple ii couceu- 
trated. 

k. Sulphate of cerium crystallizes in truncated octoedrm df • 
|«Ie amethyst ocfloiirt aiid very dSfficolily aolnhkL 
i: NittMtf of oerium it dlfficoKly' AyftallltiUe alid diM« 

%. Muriate of cerium forms prismatic crystals. Cliloriiic is 
evolved during the digestion of oxide of cerium in muriatic 

t Acetic acid tcaicely ads iq^ oxide of ceriam» but it easily 
disiolvet the carbonate^ forming a yery sokibla white salt. 

in. Sulphate of soda added to nitrate or muriate of cerium, 
forms a diflicultly soluble white precipitate of subsulpliate of 
cerium. Tiiis precipitate boiled in a solution of carboi^te of 
soda, yields a perfectly pure carbonated oxide of .oerium. 
' • m Bilp^Mcmt aci^dMaelv^i oaude,of ^eiuiint and thfrsola- 
' tiai aiindB pri^matiul crystals «t a pale aiMthyst eobwr* * 

0. Hie neutral phosphates, tartrates, and succinates form white 
precipitat<;ti ia^trate imd muriate of curiiim, which are soiuble 
in acids. 

f» Oxalic acid and the neutral oxalates occasion a precipi- 
tate incllBjnl«tiM4if4«riiiB^ uMiyriniacvthd is in- 
soMla'in'iiitrlo mri Moatie addt- y . 

q, Prussiatsrof potaasA ipiMttas frwhit^prec^tM-aDhible 

in the acids. 

• r. Tincture of galls occa&ions no changb. - ' 

f. Neither does sulphuretted hydrogen pfoduce any change 
in the oxide of cerium; the predpitale occasioned in its sota- 
tloiis hy hydnHSttlphmt of anftonia, is of the same irfaitish* 
ydfow Colour as when pure ammonia Is used. 

i Analysis of a compact Ore of Titanium from ArendaL 

a. 300 grains of this ore in fine powder were fkised with six 
tiaans tiieif "weight of eafbonale of po«assa ; when cold a ^rey 
p m i Wii i M i l i ft miiil^WdB^^ 1^ dlgestfi^'in water 

iMMi^caiMiiitd of 'iiirttt afbr havhig been 

-washed aad diied, S^^O grains. - • " 

Vol. XIL T 



908 KUproHi onlAt OWmpmI Awd^n 



' riiMiiiili iif potiMn iiiil filirtntn nf fl>Hi£;fnT rhnrtirtrriitiin 
and nd pndpitatat ia Ibe anmtie folstion of tlM«liof» 

6. The alcaline washings of the ettbomte did aot iMoome in 

the sroallest degree turbid when neutralized by sulphuric acid. 
This miDend therefore is to be regarded as pure oxide of 

ilfid^^ qfike Topaz, 

This mineral is especially chamcterized by the changes which 
it undergoes when subjected to a white heat ; it then com- 
pletely loM iti origuial appearance, becomes soft, dulUwhtte^ 
•ad opaque, end iom coimiigrtMy w weighL 

[Hm Mowi en eeeofnu of liie eentee to wliich this loss of 
weii^ht have been erroneously attributed, and to the experi- 
nif nts of Margraaf, Bergman, Wiegleb, Vauquelin, and Lowitz; 
the author also alludes to the probable existence of fluoric acid 
in tbe tepea, and tim proceeds mik his Analysis.] 

Anallftk Ae 8mm Topag, Sp. gr. 

' Ad 

100 parts of eoaresly-poipdered topes healed till Cfte tn%- 

ments began to fuse, in a coated retort, connected with the mer- 
curio-pneumattc appacatnSy afibrded no gaseous matter, and 
lost little in weight 
The itDe poftion, lMal«d to w h i t enaii In « bliaUtenace fn 

an iMmr; beenae winto aad p«lfenli&t» and kit 9S per cant 

weight. 

K 

300 gcaint of powdered topas, diatBled to diynesa wiUi lol- 
plinric acid, prodnced a coRosion in tbe necik of die letoit, 
niembling that of fluoric acid. 

C. 

• SCO grains of powiivad topax wan profeolad into $Mimm 

of 'nitre, fused in a platinum crucible; the mixture after a time 
concreted. The alcaiine mass was then foftened in water 



907 



^ ■ ■ ■ iItHMi,4 ii ■ > | i rniti ifc ni fcwayth* rtwUm int 

100 parte of levigated topaz were fused in a platinum cni- 
ob^ with 400 pertt of nitrftte of baryta ; the fused mass was 

powdered, diffused through water, and mixed with excess of 
sulphuric acid ; the precipitate being separated, excess of am- 
monia was added, and the liquor was filtered off and evapo- 
rated to dryneflt ; the dry lalt was wholly diaaipated by heat, 
and gave no traces of a fixed alcali* ' 

B. 

^ a. dOO grains of topax were famised in a steeknortart and 
afierwaida trltufatedas fine a» possible in one of agaile. The 
powder, had sustained an increase of 4 grains. It was mixed 
in a ^ver crucible with 3 ounces of ley, (composed of cquLil 
parts of pure potassa and water,) evaporated to dryness, and 
fgnited for an hour. The grey mass was then softened with 
water) and digested in murialio acid, which entirely dissolved 
it^ foimiag a dear yellow liqvot. This was evaporaled to dry« 
naasy wa^r.inui poarad upon jt» and the iasoliiUe. aWoeous 
residue thus obtained being completely washed, dried, and 
ignited, weighed 74 grains ; deducting 4 grains derived from 
tbo mortar, the quantity of siUsa in 100 of the. topaz is thus 
found to amount to 35 grains. 

6, Tha muriatic sdution, heated to its boiling point, waa 
saturated by carfaonate of potasaa ; the edulcorated precipitate 
weighed 218 gndnt. 

c. 109 grains of this precipitate were re-dissolved in muria*" 
tic acid, and the solution tested by oxalate of potassa, which 
occasioned no change. It waa then precipitated by caustic 
pMasa^ wkich being.addad In iMicasi.ra-diasohedtfae i^e of 

tiieprecapitatah(f<tiiaaldaflwalrti>i^ 
PWiUlhla y^lliOP of ofidg trsw. .TImi alaaiia» Mqaar, supe»». 

• T fi 



hf-MMb ieidy wm mm»d wilh carbonate of po* 

tNil|teid mcadf tad ausid wHh Mtato of potMMy aftnitd 

nothings bat crystals of alum. 

d. The other half of the precipitate b was digested ia dis- 
tilled vinegar ; the solution saturated by carbonate of ammonia 
ajSwdled « pceeipilate wbicli» after due olatriatkMn and igiiition,, 
wni/M M giaiDSt and had tire prop o rtie a of olnmiie* 

e The liqaid maaiaHig, after the eeparation of the precipi- 
tate bf was tivaporatcd to a siiuiU bulk, rendered ueutral by mu- 
riatic acid, and mixed virith lime-water : a precipitate was thus 
ibrmed, having the properties of fimU of lime ; acted upo» by 
•dtphoric acidt it evotred gket^anodfaig faoMi* 

The aboft eaq[»eriiaeata eofficttatly deiBonatfate tba eizlileBce 
^Jimrk hi the topaz, wMmI aceavately detemininit >^ 
relative proportion. Experience leads inc to believe, that the 
loss in the eartliy constiluents does not exceed 1 per cent.; 
hence the deficiency of S per cent may be referred to flnorte 
add, and the oompoaeiitt of tepak yeiiow Saarna topai may 
he stated a* Mkrwa : 

8ttidair»««*« •••••*»••• •«•••»•••••••••••• 3S 

Aknflhia , d SB ' 

Fluoric acid e B 

Oxide. of iron* e •••••• a trace* 

AnaXifm oj Zomi^rom CarintJua. 

The specihc gravity of the cryslaU of thia »n^nartti^ amd^i» ny 
analysis, wae£:3,dl4k> 

a.-100 grains in fin&yovdir memxed uMi mi 
dsagiahiaef ioda, and evapoMlai aaA:ftMad k- a «Maiv« 
elhla^ihanaaaiMtvoftmd^villi^arafer.-aiid dissolved in ex- 
ir of inuriatic acid, wiiii which it iormed a clear yeUow^ soltt4 



Ly Goog e 



of 9fiiiMl' AiAflMMt* '360 

WW! I 'OMi'Wi' >y • Wp Of llW l ID OTJWM^naVM fCIHMfy 

* h» The liquid was mixed with caustic amnionia, and the pre- 
cipitate separated by filtration ; carbonate of floda was then 
•ddadf by which 33.5 grains of carbosata of lime were Ihromi 
d» W i i e yiiy ele t to \%A gftlM ^Hmm. 

e. Hie f»«el|iliete dmm 4eim Iqr ctmtie eimiMiiiifc ww 
MM iiiiNuntic potassa, irlileh ^KMobed Ity wMi Ae emo- 
tion of some brown residuary matter. This residue, dissolved 
in nitric acid, and precipitated by ammonia, aiibrded 3 graini 
of oxMe ofim; carbonate of ammoniey subsequently adiei 
«o<flie wMi^teiMMa es^eddMoMl pndpHale eTee il w m 
ef limei efeel lo ef Hmv. • 

A To «%tain the ittgre^Kent dissolved by the caw<le poUUM, 
the solution was slightly supersaturated by sulphuric acid, and 
precipitated by carbonate of potassa; the precipitate wai 
twadiid, and belied in »dWlled viaefer, whick being again 
eaAiinited with eanmie,''«i«d pfceipHete mriied, 4ried 

Bence 100 parts of eryttellitfed eoWt ooaritf of 

SUica.«« a 

Aiumina. ••••••if • 

}.ime •... h 18.50) 

c 2.50j 

Qxideof iroa«*««« e •••••! 

Anafysuof thefUiated Augite of CSann^Ata. 

A. 

' tMf l i toMat iiditteqMytolbieiiiewtotirft^ IItms 
Mbie Hielilow-pipe fefto an opaque olive-eolmed slag. Its 
powder IS c;i ccnish grey ; heated to redness, it becomes pale* 
l»>own, without loss of weighty 

6. 

e> 100 ymMi were mjmd mish a soUtioa containing UiOQ of 



45 
29 

%l 

3 
M 



■ 



270 



Klaproth on tke Ckemual AmU^fm 



ctMtie M4ft,-Mpoi«tod to dryness, aad iffatmL Tfc^ffiidh 

iug mass tinged the water which was affused of a pale-green; 
dUftolved in muriatic acid, evaporated to dryness, and again 
treated with very dilute muriatic acid, silica reauuned, wiucii 
•ftir b^ag betted ndp|iot» weighed 62^ gteine. 

k. The Buniatic loliitioa ww Mteated hf caMtie emmnaiii 
which caused a bulky bfOWB ptecipitate ; this beukg sepmted 
by filtration, a clear colourless solution was obtained, which, 
fcf the addition of carbonate of soda, yidded 16^ grains ol 
cMlNMte of luM» 8d9 gniae of Apm. 
' TIm pieBi|iitiilii by tSMMoia wee t miefct ii d wUb yai 
»Qiet> klft a boillii^ eohitkMi of eeiielie poiMSft ; a poftioi 
was dissolved, and Ae remainder collected upon a filter* Mo- 
liate of amuioma wa& added to the alcaline solution, which 
threw down 7.25 grains of ahmina. 

d. The roBietiihig portion was dlMC^ved in diUifte aHf»* 
wiiAtioieid; to4hie aolatiMi ceiboiittteol eodawta -odM^ 
to Aiew down oaida nHmtt^ amoanting to 10.35 graiev 

e. The residuary liquid was boiled, and completely decom- 
posed, with excess of carbonate of soda; carbouate of magne- 
sia was thus thrown down, which yielded, on iguitioo» 12.5 
grains of aw y a eria . 

C. 

too gndmi of levigated aagite weie fbeed wi& 500 gtaim 

of nitrate of baryta ; ^ rctulting: mass was powdered, mixed 
with water, neutralized by sulphuric acid, and the precipitate 
thus formed separated upon a hiter. The dear liquid was 
predpitated by amiiioiiia» tlie precipitate removed, avapoiated 
to dryness, and tha dry salt ignited ; at Uiia oontained lal* 
pliate of magnesia, it waa again dissolved and deoonpoeed bf 
acetate of baryta ; the filteiied liquid was evaporated, and the 
residue ignited; there remained a blackish matter, weighing 
.1.25 graius, which was washed, to separate the charcoal 
lesultiog from the coadHistion of tlie aoetie add ; tke washiagi 
afforded a portion of oarbonate of polasaa, eqnb a knt to 
aboQt half a grain of potafsai. 

100 parts, therefore, of this lamellar augite consist of 



of . Miiii€raL Subkimcts. ' 271 











\-b 












• • • • • C' 



• ••••• •••••••« 



12.50 
9 

7.25 
16.25 
0.50 



98 

AnalymofCvmihmM AftUU^fivm ZiUerthakL 

Xbe f4ieGitic gravity of this mmeral is 3.190. Afibw ignition 
it becomes colourUw, wttkcNU loiiaip Ht Imnnwirrf |, or d»* 

nfmi ImI ootla* it adulMti bo phospharatpom. 

Having') by previews trials, ascertained tlie presence of phos- 
phoric acid and lime, its deeomposilion was eftected as foiiows : 

a. 100 grains in powder were digested in muriatic acid^ 
wMi ioon fomed « tolBtMMi, a Urn partielM of talc oaly fe» 
i««faiu^,4M^d mgbiiig 0.76 gnui. TU> Iom oa tfi* hmdmd 
parttwf^madkgoodbyllift •dditkttolaMi^ oltiM 
pure mineral. 

h. The muriatic sola tiou was nearly saturated with caustio 
ammonia, solution of oicalic acid was then added as long as it 
fonned a precipitate pf oxalate of lime, which «as eollected, 
washed, dned, and strongly heated in a platinom enieiUe; it 
naethen diaeoUed in nmriatic aeid» and ihmwn down by oar* 
bonate of soda, in the state of earbonate of lime, which weighed, 
when washed and dried, 91 grains, =50 grains of pure lime. 

c. To separate t\)e phosphoric acid from the liquid, from 
which the iime had been abalfaeted by oaaho acid ; it was eva- 
poiated tadiyiMMi, and thaanKaa leeidaa giadaaUy ignieid in 
a platiuam oraetUe, daaag which opatttbn mariate of aauno- 
nia passed off in white fiuoes. Hm ranaiader, when cold, ap- 
peared as a vitreous mass, blackened by a portion of charcoal 
derived from the decomposition of the oxalic acid. It weighed 
4B^«6 giaiat* Vl was dissolved in boihng water, by whidi 1 
yrsiat «f ittely-dinded chmoal wm lepeiated. 

d. The acid liquid w«a aeatralised with anuaonia, wUeh |ho- 
duced some Uubidne^d, and a precipitate, weighing 1 grains, 



by Google 



Mbf6 the bkMr-pipc iaia a pciweHww beiid. 

Deducting these 7 grains, and tlie 1 grain of coal, the weight 
of Uie phoi|lioric acid is 39.5* If ve consider the 7 ffmm 
of vodecoaipiMed fhotpkate m empoted of 3.75 of lime, and 
9.85 of phoaphofie idd, tbo ooa a ponerta of the apatite 
obfainad ittlhia aaalyaia ana, 

• *50 J 

d 3.75$ • • ;•; ^^ ^^ 

' FhospKoric acid.««* d d9.50| 

3.25) 

9^,50 

But a tmall portion of pboaphorie acid was pvabably vola- 
tilized by heat, so that tlio loss, ainountmg to 'A. 5 grains, may 
be attTfbutcd to that soHrge» and the QOiapoii^^tfi.of this nuner 
lal ib€A staad.lkMS.; . 

.63.76 

Phoaphorio acid 46.25 



100 

A trace of iron and of manganese was also discovered intiiis 

apatite, but in quantity too smaTI to be appreciated by weight. 

The analysis of the Saxon apatite agree^ with the above 
results : it consists of 

Lun^. 55 

Phosphoric acid • . • • 45* 

V auquehn*s analysis of tlie ciiryftolitfiy ot aspaia^s Atofl^ of 
&l^tmt idio •flhrda4 oeaj% the awaa yo|Mr<iWi>iry »ia»ly» - 

Lime 54.28 ' ' ' 

■ . Phosphoric acid, • 4S,72f ■ • •■ 

Anafysis of the Columnar Brmn-spar of Mtxko* 

This mineral is among the treasure^ impoft^ fr9m .^j^^^rica 
by M. Von UumbQldjU - 

• Berg. Joum. 1788. 1 Band. S. 296. 

t •four, MmeSf xuviLg. 26. . » . 



by Gpogl 



• ■ .Am » ly* 

100 parts were heated b a ooreved cniclble;'h deereplCatetf 
mto ft cowrM powd^/losing S per cent of weigbt, but tetnill^ - 

in^ white. The lie;it was increased to rcduess, wheu it lost 11 
percent., and became ot ft blackish-grey colour. ' ' ' 

B 

Digested in cold aod.ifkoderalely ^tcoag miac mad, Ui,dMH 
solved aMy* aad willi q^tdag .affim«c^m.foinl«f A4m» 
aparoat atraw-coloared aoltrtlott* If ihf aoid ba hailadl^ it 
eforeiees straafly Janmagp a.raddkh-brown aoMoft, aad flie 

undissolved portion of the fossil appears orange-yellow ; 
when perfectly duiadlYed» the colour of the solution is pale 
leddiah bnim. 

* a 

100 grains of the coarsely-powdered mineral were dissolved 
in nitric acid, and the solution neutralized by caustic ammonia. 
A brown flocculent praeipitate fell, weighing, when dry, 14 
giains ; this was vS'^soWedin nitro-oniriatic acid, the excess 
of acid was then iwatraliied by aoda, and the iron a eparal ad 
by Buocinate of ammonia. The succinate' of iron yielded, aftat 
ignition, 5.5 grains of magnetic oxide of iron. But, since 
the iron exists in this mineral in the state ol caiboiiate, the 
aboye result must be assumed to indicate 7.5 gr?Jns of carbo^ 
Mis ^iim. The lM|Uid from which the iron had been dirowii 
down was jheaM |o ita boiling poittt,aafl mixed wilb eaibonate 
of s#a, wlueh gave a wUta preeiipitate, becomittg blade wheii 
heated, and weighing, after ignition, 4 grains. Digestedin nitric 
acid, the greater portion of this precipitate was dissolved, but 
there remained a black residue, consisting of oxide of manga- 
nese, and weighing 1.2d grains, whidi I consider as ecpud to 2 
graiiv qf tmrh^ttdie (fnmgmmse* CSaibonailo of soda tinaw 
down from the remainii^ nijtric solntioo 3.5 grajlns 4)it,ewi(m*^ 
of mwjiicsia 

h. The excess of ammonia, in the original solution a, was , 
supersaturated by pitiic aod, juid carbonate of ^odfi added to 
thdcuid soltttion as long as U occaiinned a pneipiiale, whidi, 



calkcted, edulcorated, and dried, weighed 49 grams, and coa- 
o( carbonate lime. . 

tmUmtf^. JifW «Mk poiied, it becawA tw\pid, 

|fetedl^ ili»>diiirtw rf» U«a<» Mda. WmM tmd dmd, it 

weighed 31 grains. Dissolved in sulphvffio wsid sad tfvtpo- 

rated, it furniahed crystals of sulphate of magnesia, winch 

4 grams of sulphate of limfi, =2.5 grains 



100 parts, therefore, of tliii 
Carbonate oi Itme. . . . 



C 6 49 



Ik*, • 8.501 
e W.50 j 



a 



Carbonate of iron 
Carbooaie d manganese a 
Waltr...... A 



•••••• 



3a 

7.50 
2 

'5 



98 



' " . Ana^sis of J^ohmite, 

. (In tlMM matyia«» K b iHf od i diMolirid Um MiMnd ui dilnle 

mtric acid, and satarated with caustic ammonia, which threw 
down oxide of iron, when present; he then added carbonate of 
ammonia, by which carbonate of lime was precipitated ; and 
laativ tlM aiiirniiiia WM aaMfalad* Mtliar ht * «tli ou* 



« 

/ V 


1 ■ 1 ll III 


< 'oni|if<rl 

I>oli>iniu 
OMknd. 


from tl>e 
ApcnniiM*, 


D«lmai«B 

(rom ditto. 


Antiqne 
DolomiM 
fWtM 

T«»e4io*. 


V 


CvlMMKIeof Um . • . 


58 


59 


t5 


51.50 




Carbonate of Magnesia. . 


46.60 


40.60 


35 


48. 




Oxide of Iron and of 2 
Mai^iatteae • • . . ) 

toss . . , 


0.75 
0.75 


■ ' 

0.50 




0.50 



uiyiii^ed by Googl( 



1 Mf Ail— «M tf WBtSk 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^v ^M^V 



* f 

A frag^aeAt VhMi'tiiliydrite (ftoiA Mi «ll'Uf» Htdutf) 

w^ighin^ 300 grains, wti» kept red hot in ia plalhiTifn crucible 
for half an hour; it became soft and ydlowiib-whitej butloat 
no weig;ht. 

B* • « 

Tluv^ gnint of the powderad fltenl MM fa If 
owwea of water; 8 grafm wm dteaoMd, M At aoMkNiM 

Dot render nitrate of silver iu the least turbid^ so that it con« 
tained no muriatic acid. 

C, ■ . ' 
A, 200 gmina of fwhwIM anhidrita w«fe boiM wifli 400 
gniiit of caiMiilaiiif po<aita in 8 vmeu of wilir lbc^aq^artar 
of an hour. Tbo aleallM liqttor was then filtered off, nevtraliaad 

by muriatic acid^ and mixed with muriate of baryta as long as 
a precipitate was produced. The dry sulphate of baiyta ipeighed 
345 grains = 114 grains of dry su^kuric octd. 

6. Tho feridne i^QB tho fiUra diitohFod with offismaoeiioo Im 
dilute nitric acid, esoeptiiig M gnmiof itffoa; rapMttmM 
with canitio MBmonia the soIotioD gavo no precipilitfe; it waa 
therefore again rendered neutral by nitric acid, and tested with 
prnssiate of potassa, and after a while it deposited a small per- 
. tion of pinsalask Mne indicating not more than 0.20 grain of 

e. TUs being sepatnted flw Mlttlifm wni •ilnpMid wUlal 
boiling hot, wHh cailKMiati of p o lai fa ; OT b o na t e of limo waa 

thus thrown down, weighing when washed and dried in a gentle 
heat, 153 grains s 84 grains of lime. This carbonate was then 
aentralized with sulphuric acid, evapcMrated to dryness, and ig» 
sited; itthnf afforded 198 graw of fegeoeraMMpMiBi^ 
100 parti theiefora of tlua Mna inhydiilB wm laMrad i»t^ 

Lime .42. 

Sulphuric add • 67. 

Oxide of iron 0.10 ' ' 

Silica (probably advcntitioiis) • • .0.26 - 

90.36 ^ 



t76 KhtpnA m IfaGlMndri jIm/jwm 

talned 

^ Lirr^e 41.75 

^JNlMii^j9C<lliia • I. 

97.75 

The source of loss iu this analysis is not adverted to. The 
eOMpoMxm of sulphate of Kme, deduced fron tiie mean of 
Claprodi'i Anah^* of li< iUlyArttey i^imi ezaetlj with the 
equivilento upon Dr. WdHaftcm't tcaie.] 

Analysis o/BiHer Spar fiomHatt im^ TyroL 

This spar accompaoaes the anhydrite described -ia the "laafc 
{»ragmj(»h. Iti compooeitt peste m 



Carbonate of lime • . • . ^ 


*, « 68. 


Carbonate <if Biygnewa * • 


>t . 25.50 












. . . 






: ^wwlMii ef ifte ^<en Jhr* 


k»e^li^nMB» 



This substance, found at Monte Baldo in the Veronese, is 
much esteemed as a green pigment. After having been heated 
red hot it acquires a brown colour, and additional hardoeie^ 
losing 6 per cent of its weight It is notsolvblein'weidsyiior 
do they alter its colour. 

A.* 

r 

o* .100. jfjiains were mixed wiih 200 of caustic potaissa dis- 
sqjlTedinwMert and the Kpixwe evaporated and ignited^ In this 
case the colour remained unchanged till the mass became red 
hot, when it grew yellowish bi own : it was dissolved in muriatic 
acid ; the solution was evaporated to dryness, and the residue 
Mng «g%yi 4^gested in v^ry dilute mi^iatic acid» 53 gfuins of 
^Uka werp gi>taii|ed« 

^. Carl^n^ of soda was then added to the lemainrng cold 



by Googl^ 



of Miner ai Substances* 



27f 



liquid so as to sfttufate it, which tiifeirdowa oxide f^irm^ weighs- 
vlMtt'iMuriMk Mbl^^iMly 118 grains. 

Mi Mi|4 b w li B g 'lm^" Mi* utitoMili -ei' MhitdUM » txoMt^ 

whi|:h threw dcma mc^imMi we^hing after igiatloiv'Sf ^cains^ - 

. . • ■ ? • » . 

One hnadrcd grains wets fined indi 500 of nitrate ef 'fam^^T^y 
tenAntatf imkm*^ snpetiatnfated 'wttfi*' dfhice su^phibic 

acid. The precipitate being separated, tlic clear liquor was 
mixed with of carbonate of ammonia, filtered, evaporated 

to dryness^ and the residaum ignited in a platinum crucible. 
Aim (bfr eampt b$ the aolphata of taittmik, tliM St&tii j mi 19 
puini 4€^eidpiMiB*to^ pstiiii^ %0^gt§Jku crf'^ptefMir 

Saica 5a 
Oatide of iron . • • SB 

*■ ' 

' Magnesia 2 

Potassa ........... 10 ' 

Water 6 

Analysis of the Alum Stone of f^ftt. 

As this mineral affords alum by lixiviation, solphuric acid^ 
akmina^ aiid potassa, were to be looked for among its com* 



A. 

One hundred grains were strongly heated in a coated glass 
retort; sulphurous acid, water, and sulphuric acid passed over, 
but there were no traces of uncombioed sulphur. The losa of 
weight amounted to 99 grains.. 

B. • ' • • 

Two hundred grains were gently heated 80 as, to drive off 
toa^r.only,; the^ loss amounted to 6 gmns«. 

«. 200 grains in fine powder were fused with twice th*if 
weigU^ pf4(f .^arbonate^of sod@u) tha cold tbais^ wins powdereU, 



by Google 



<diisolTed in diiatofnUTiatfc add» evaporated to dryness, redis- 
in wftt«» attdfiltMid^ thMMMUMd liie fiUsi lid 

ooe of which was mixed wltk loliitHM iof Bwwri i te oiTInTytS} ^60 
grains of atil{ihatA ni baijtass 16^ dry ra^Aitrtc ocm^ wete 




oorated aad ignited wei^^d Id gniaf. 

D. 

of sulphuric acid, eyaporated nearly to dryness, and then boiled 
in water and filtered ; tbe clear liquid was neutralized by am- 
mOBky and ^aftier the separation of the prec ipitate was eraporated 
to diTDeH and ignitadf there wnauMd 7 |;ramt of Ml|^i»le of 
polam as 4 of piiro pofaiM. 
' Hie compoMiitt dwcefore aie * 

Silica . . . . Ca 

Alumina ... o 

Sttlpfaouie add • h 

Water / » 

AmOlfM of the Aim SlMt ^FnimmaH. . 

a. 1000 grains wm boiled for half an hour with 20 ounces 
of diatilkd water; Hmh filteitd and tbe swdne oduloQeetedi. 

^^^^ t 

no fltand Bqaid wai coUwileM, did iiol dMoiga TegietaUe 
WmBMt but tiad ft slightly yitriolic taste . 

b. Half of this solution was mixed with muriate of baryta by 
which 23 grains of sulphate of baryta were separated ; and after- 
waidi»pciieiialeof anmnia ducew dowa 40 gtaiai of iirasalale 



o 



. . 56.50 
• . 19. 

. . 4. 



reiuhii^ flom a little oxalate' of 

slowly clear, and the precipitate beings collected weiglied after 
ignition 2.5 grains, and had (he properties of liffleTsiightiy.ooa- 
liintMicd bj onda a£ iwu 

The BMHter thawfaw, achitto iniwiwf, Miniini jaifilati <f 
Knie and talphale of ifoii, 4ilie nlaltfe proportioM of iMbMf 
be estimated as follows : 1000 parts of the ore gave 46 of Iphate 
of baxyta =: 16.18 dry sulphuric acid, of which 7 parts satu* 
Tatad the 6 of lime, piod a dMg 15 pavtt of orplaUiBii gipMi 
Hie remaining 8.1$ of add conbaiad willi SJi of ooddoof im 
would produce 18 parts of ^Somaed talphate of Im. 

B. ' 

Two hundred grains of the ore were boiled in water with 400 
of dry carbonate of soda ; the filtered liquid was of a dark brown 
colour; neutralized with muriatic acid, it afforded no trace of 
anlphttialted hydrogen: thia nentiid floUtion g^raduaUy depo- 
aited a bulky daik hrpwii matter which» collected and drjiedy 
weighed 12 grains, and which, heated in a platinum crucible, 
burned away without any odour of sulphur^ and le(i 1 grain of 

m 

white alumina. 

a 

Two hundred grant were digested m niriatic acid, during 
which not the smallest trace of sulphuretted hydrogen was per- 
ceived, nor was there much action ; but during the gradual ad^ 
dition of nitric add, nitroua gfta was eiolved and th«i black 
poloor of die oce became hrom ; iStm mteiedl^ Mdntiott waa jell0ir 
and Bused wtthoBniito bwytn tenWrnd M (ndni^'Md* 
phate of baryta (after ignition). 

D. 

o* 1000 grama of tiie ora ieoenlly firom Hmmiiiey MJttfe lieilid 
Ifl a retort, die ledpient being connected widi ^ pnemnatic ap* 

paratus. 220 cubic inches of gas were evolved, having the pro- 
perties of a mixture of sulphuretted and carburetted hydrogen. 

b. The liquid produced weighed 133 g:rains ; it was yello# 
^^mat^hf^ti>'Mj[i^ itdMj^ie(MMd 



2B0 Kiajproth on the Cksmkal Aiudjfm 

litnius paper to blue, and produced fumes when brought to ti 
glass rod dipped in muriatic add ; ii occasioned a browa pre- 
xMfk;^ l|i MlttlMi Of iMd; b«MuMiMlky wlieii nemtnUued faf 
wwitiMwUs fitted iiadevtpotlM^ itkft 9 gnnttofittttiiat 
of ammonia. 

c. The black residue in the retort weighed 750 grains ; its 
charcoal was burned o& and there remained (>tiO grains of a 

tidMi<h4if^ttt OMttir, 80 that tl» carbomttam Im WM 90 

- « 

dlr 1^ gMte this bcown residiiiim, (one fifth,) mixed with 

twice its weight of caustic soda and fused, furnished a greenish- 
brown mass which, digested in water gave a pale green sohi- 
tioD ; supersaturated by muriatic acid, evaporated, and again 
digested wilh water acidulated by the same acid, iiUca remained, 
weighing, after ignition, 80 grahis. 

c. The remaining liquid was saturated witii carbonate of 
potassa, and the washed precipitate thus obtained boiled in 
liquid caustic potassa to abstract the alu7nina^ which, thrown 
dowii by muriate of anwaonfa, washed and heated^ weighed 39 
griAit** 

The brown residue, insoluble in the caustic alcaline solu- 
tion, was dissoivcd in dilute sulphuric acid, and evaporated to 
dryness ; during the evaporation sulphate of lime separated, 
wMeh' wai carnally c ollec ted ; it weighed, lathec ttoce than 2 
gtt^: tiiedryidMtMuiigiiitedaiidwariiea,udiheaa^^ ^ 
t^^'-wlMr tMh rebuSmed, being cdUeeted M nwxed^Hii oil 
and ignited became magnetic, and weighed 14.5 grains. Thfe 
washings saturated, when boiling hot, with carbonate of potassa^ 
ypMud a alight traee of carbonate of magncaia. ' 

E. 

a. 900 grains of the ore were slowly distilled ui a eaiid4ieat, 

so that no gas was evolved ; 21.5 grains of water very slightly 
sulphurous, passed into the receiver, and an extremely^ tbia 
coating of sulphur was remarked in the aeckof th^ reti^ 

. 6. IhA di^ ore was tajken oirt of the ratoft and.beql^ «^ 
^ tile ; ii fxhaled a alight sneli of anlphur, wjbthout either ^m^ke 
9r flame. The loss. daring tlie oombustioa amounted to 45 



281 



grains which nidy he esumated as charcoal and sulphur witi^ 
perhaps a little water. 

c. The reMdaam wit inaed wiih ^00 graiot of sulpiiimc ftoid 
md 400 of wttfeer, eraponiled^ ud itrangly ignited Ibr half ta 
Iionr: it was then washed in water, and the filtered washings 
were ^^nimaied with ammonia winch threw down half agraia of 
magnesia. 

d» The liquid was then evaporated to dryness, and the salintt 
mass heated till it no longer evolved fumes ; the dry salt weighed 
4.5 grains, and had tiie properties of a mixtttre of snlphate and 
muriate of potassa, the sulphate b( inp^ to the muriate as 2 to 1. 
[It is here not very evident how the muriate of potassa escaped 
the actioQ of the sulphuric acid, during the ignition in c] 

F. 

It appears from these experiments, 

1. That Ihere is no bitumen, but only diarooal in this ahun 
on, since neither bitumuMms oil, nor smoke, nor flame, are 
produced during its distmation and combustioB. 

2. That the sulphur is not combined with iron in the state of 
pyrites, but in some peculiar combination with the carbonaceous 
matter ; no pyrites is visible in the ore, and alcalis do not exr- 
tract it, nor does muriatic aicidievolve siilphiiMlted hjdfOfcn. 

G. 

The estimatbi^ of the relative weights of the constttoents of 
this ore is therefore attended with difficulty; the ingredients 

that distinguish it as an alum ore, are alumina and sulphur. 
Direct experiment gives the proportion, of the former =160 in 
1000. The proportion of sulphur may be deduced from the 
result of jwooess C, which affords 270 grains of sulphate of 
baryta from one thousand of the ore. But of these 270 grains, 
46 may be ascribed to tlic vitriol and gypsum, and 20 to the 
sulphate of potassa (supposing 15 parts of that salt to be con- 
taiMd in 1000 of.ihejOKe), We must therefore subtract 66 £rom 
lao, mad «heitt nmm jM>4 parts of snlphate of baryta, as the 
equivalent dt the sulphur of the ore. These 204 parts are equs^ 
to 90.75 of sulphuric acid, (specific gravity 1.850) or =:28.5 of 
Vol. XIL U 



282 



Klaprotli on the Chemical Amfym. 



tuiphur, which being deducted tVom the joint ainoimt of the s\il- 
phur and charcoal , amounting to 226 grains {Eb) iettwe 196.5 
gfWBtlbr tbe weight of the charcoal. 

H. 

AamoDuig that 1000 peits oif crystallized aT ^w n yield ap(ui 
aferage, when deeonposed by mariate of baryta, 945 grains of 

sulphate oi barvt;\, it follows that 1000 parts of the alum ore 
of Freieuwald, contaiaing 28.6 of sulphur, should produce sul- 
phuric acid sttffident (with the due addition of potasia) to fom^ 
260 parts of alomy for -which scarcely one-sixth part of the 
almniBe in the ore is required. Bnt the quantity of alom pro« 
duced at the w orks, falls infinitely short of this estimate in con- 
of the very imperfect acidification of the suiphur. 

I. 



Tlie following yj^w of the components of this alum ore is sug- 
gested by the alcove ^xperimeiits. 





G . . 




28.50 




G . . 


• • 


I9f3./i0 


Alumina 


De • . 


• • 


160. 




Dd . 


• • 


400. 


Blaek onde of iron (with a very] 


►72.6 


V 


slight trace of manpranese D /J 


> 64. 


Of which deduct for the 


compo-^ 


\ 8.5 


sition of sulphate of iron J 




Sulphate of iron • . 


Ac . 


• • • 


18. 


Sulphate of lime . . 


A e . 


* * * 


15. 


Magnesia .... 


Ee . 


• « • 


2.50 


Sulphate of potassa . 


Ed . 


* • 4 


15. 


Muriate of potassa 


Kd . 




6. 


Water 


Ea . 




107.50 
1012. 



Some of the above resulu, however, leqairelhrtfaer inreatiga- 
ti0D» and idagnesia is probably in the state (^sulphate in the 
«•». The eseesB of per cent, in the analysis is insignificant 
in such experiments. 



28a 

far the EMbiikmtfBUidot^ Miotic ByM.FAKAOAV* 

CAem, AMtst. in the Royal Imtkution, 

The account given in the MisccU<inta of the last Journal, of 
the apparatus invented ia illustration of the paper in the body 
of that Number^ beiog abort and iaperfeot ; a plate is given in 
Ilia present Number, presenting a sectkm of that apparatus, 
and a view of a smaller apparatus, illnstratiTe of the motions 

of the wii'c and the pole round each other. The larger appara- 
tus is delineated. Fig. 1. Plate VII. on a scale of one-halC It 
consists of two glass vessels, placed side by side with their ap- 
peodages* In that on the left of the plate the motion of a mag>- 
netic pole ronnd the conneeting wire of the voltaic battery is 
produced. That a current of voltaic electricity ma)' be esta- 
blished through this cup, a liole is drilled at the bottom, and into 
this a copper pin is ground tight, which projects upwards a 
little way into the cap» and below is rivetted to a small rovnd 
plate of copper^ formii^; part of the foot of the vessel. A slmi-> 
lar plate of copper is fiiced to the turned wooden base on which 
the cup is intended to stand, and a pit cc of strong copper wire, 
which is attached to it beneath, after proceeding down- 
wards a Uttie way, turns honsontally to the left hand, and 
tomm one of the cottnetions. The sni&ces of these two 
plates intended to come togelher, are tinned and amalgamated, 
that they may remain longer clean and bright, and afford 
better contact. A small cylindrical and powerful magnet has 
cue of its poles fastened to a piece of thread, which, at the 
otiier end, is attached to the copper pin at the bottom of the 
Gopi and the height of the magnet and length of the thread is 
so adjusted, that when the cup is nearly filled with clean mer- 
cury, the free pole shall float almost upright on its surface. 

A small brass pillar rises from the stand behind the glass* 
tisaals : an arm comes Ibrward from the top of it, supporting 
al ill extieiaiiy * cross wire, which at ^e place on the left 
hand, where it is perpendicularly over the cup just described, 

U2 



284 



Mr. Fuiud.i^ OH an 



bends dowii wards, and is continued till it just dips into the 
oealre oH the mercunai surface. Tlie wire is diniinislied in size 
tot A fthort distance above the surface of the mercury, and lU 
lower eztfemity amalgamated^ for the parpose of ensuriiig good 
contact ; and so also is the copper pin at the bottom of &e cup. 
When the poles of a voltaic apparatus are connected with the 
brass pillar, aud with the lateral copper wire, the upper pole of 
the magnet immediately rotates round the wire which dips into 
the meronry ; and in one directioa or tbe other, according as the 
connexions are made. 

The olher vessel is of the form delineated in the plate. The 
stem is hollow and tubular ; but, instead of being filled by a plu^, 
as is the aperture in the other vessel, a small copper socket is 
placed in it, and retained there by being fastened to acircnlar 
plate below, which is cemented to the glass foot, so that no mer- 
cury shall pass out by it This plate Is thmed and amaJgamated 
on its lower surface, and stands on another plate: ;uid wire, just 
as in the former instance. A small circular bar magnet is placed 
in the socket, at any oonvenient height, and then mercury poured 
in nntil it rises so higK diat nothing bnt the prcjeetiog pole of the 
magnet is left abore Its snrfitce at die centre. The forms and rela- 
tive positions of the ma^et, socket, plate, &c. are] seen in fig. 2. 

The cross wire supported by the brass piliar is also proiong-ed 
on the right hand, until over the centre of the vessel just de- 
scribed ; it then turns downwards, and descends about half an 
inch : it has its lower extremity h<^lowed out into a cup, the 
inner surface of which is well amalgamated. A smaller piece 
of copper wire has a spherical head fixed on to it, of such 
a size that it may play in the cup in the manner of a ball and 
•ocketrjoint, and being well amalgamated, it, when in the Oap» 
retains sufficient fluid mercury by capillary attrsction to fom 
an excellent contact with freedom of motion. The ball is pre^ 
vented from fill ling out of the socket by a piece of fine thread, 
which, being tastened to it at the top, passes through a small 
hole at the summit of the cup, and is made fast on the (wtside 
of the thick wire. This is more minutely explained by Fig* 3« 
and 4. The small wire is of such a length that it may dip a 



EUetro-nutgiietkai Apparatut, 



285 



little way into tbe mercury, and its lower end ii amalgamated. 
When the connexions are to made with the pillar and right 

hand wire, that the current of electricity shall pass through this 
moveahie wire, it immediately revolves rumid the pole oi the 
magnet, in a dircotion dependant on the pola nsed^ and the 
manner in which the connexions are made. 

Fig« 5, 18 the delineation of a small apparatus, the wire in 
which^ revolves rapidly, with very Uttie voltaic power. It con- 
sists of a piece of glass tube, the bottom part of which is closed 
by a cmk, through which a small piece of soft iron wire passes, 
so as to project above and below the ooik. A little mercury 
is then ponred in, to form a channel between the iron wire and 
the g'lass tube. The upper orifice is also closed by a cork, 
through which a piece of platinum wire passes, which is termi- 
nated within by a loop ; another piece of wire hangs from this 
by a loop, and its lower end, which dips a very little way into the 
mercnry, being amalgamated, it is pmserved from adheiing 
either to the iron wire or the glass. When a Tery minute ?oI- 
taic combioation is connected with the upper and lower ends of 
this apjiaratus, and the pole of a magnet is placed in contact 
with the external end of the iron wire, the moveable wire within 
rapidlf rotates round the magnet thus formed at the moment ; 
and by changing either the connezioq, or the pole of the mag- 
net in contact with the iron, the direction of the mutiun itself is 
changed. 

The small apparatufi in the plate is not drawn to any scale. 
It has been made so small as to produce vapid revolutions, 
by the action of two plates of zme and copper, oontaimng not 
more than a square indi of surface each. 

In place of the ball and socket-joint, (fig. 3, and 4,) loops may 
be used ; or the fixed wire may terminate in a small cupcontaining 
mereury, with its aperture upwards, and the moveable wure may 
be lient into the Ibrm of a hook, of which the extremity should 
be shaipened, and rest in the mercury on the bottom of th^ 
cup. 



286 



Art. IX. On the Atmme Weight of SUfaer, and m iki 

Constitution of JJfjuid Murialic Add at different Demi-- 
ties: ^Andrew Uke, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of t/te 
Jndenonian InstUvHon at Gia^om, M. G. 8., Sst. 

fThis paper forms the iutioductioii tt> an elaborate Memoir on the iiatnrc 
and umuufacture of Chloride (Ox^ uiuriate) of Lime, and on the atomic 
wtfighttof MIWMldlfuCttMt*, i»lth«lMiMlimb0Mift0PoaMdby 
0ib Uf% Md wUch wiD ■ffMur In oar ntxt Nnnher.] 

UrwAftM of four years ago, I pubhihed an account of a sei 
of experfmentoy whidi I had made on the aataratiag power of 
Bqoid wnnatie acid of l.IOft, with a taUe of its progveeaife 

densities, and corresponding acid fltrengtliA. TtAn table wai 
favourably received by the chemical world, and has since been 
adopted into most of our respectable treaUses on Chemistry. 
Haviag had ooeaiioA lait apfing to aaliject manatic acid la 
diibnDt states of dilatioiiy to a Tory rigoions exasuBatton, I , 
perceived tmall deviatioiit in die new results, ftom 
tabular quantities, which induced me to revise the whole with 
tlie greatest possible care My first business, however, was 
to settle tlie prime eqoivaleat or atomic weight of stifer. For 
dds paipose I revired ftom the washed ddoride of this metal a 
portion of silver whi^ I fe-dissoiyed in pure nitric add, fl- 
tered tlie solution, I'e-produccd tlie clUoride, and once more 
revived the silver by ignition with pure carbonate of potash. 
The metal l>eing well boiled ia distilled water, wasliedy and 
dried, I rogarded as psilMstly pure, and dissolved a known 
wdght of it in a salieieBt quantity of nitric add. Tlie eolation 
was then diluted with water, so that the silver formed one- 
twentieth of the whole. I next dissolved, in some of the same 
doable distilled water, 76 gnfais of pare sal gem, (aattve muriate 
of soda, which stood tlie tests of muriate of barytes and oxalate, 
and pliosphate of ammonia,) and mixed wMi diat solntton one 
of the nitrate of silver, containing 137.6 gi ains of metal. Gentle 

* SohMqaeot researches have not enabled ine to make any improve- 
ment on my tables of Sulphuric and Nitric Acids* I believe then to be 
veiy near tiie troth. 



Dr. Ure oh Mmnaik A6d^ ^d* 287 



agilatioM was employed during tha nuxture. In 24 hom the 
iiaptfiMtiiit MqiiMi^ biimip btfccD liiapid, wM UiM» 
•■diB«iiidli»ooiitaiaf«dKiBd«iilnimt^ SnuJiqnintitiiwiof a 

very dilute solution of nitrate of silver were progressively added 
with much agitation, till the clear supcrndtant liquid was found 
free from every Testige of dOohne. Nor did muriate of seda 
diewtiiit any tnee of silver* The total quantity of ailver 
pendad to pcodaee diie aiect was 139*75 gvaiaf. Thk expert- 
neat was repeated on dUfereal qaaatitiee, and with a variation 
ill the mode of mixture, but still the same proportion obtained 
in the result. JFrom the quantity of salt and of silver ia their 
r«H>ective tolottonfy and fion tiM daicaoy of ma bateMt I 
could add eUfaer ingredient to the mixtnia within ij^vi^^ grain. 
In three expertnienta» howarer, in whioh I need aea eali» !•» 

crystallized with care in reguhu cuhcs, lobtaiiud anomalous 
results, in consequence of minute portions of adhering muriates 
of l^tash or lime. From such salt the prime equivalent of silver 
aiipeared to be at diffecenl timet 13.73, 13.76, and 13.7* H 

M thii tttideac¥ of the sliahfteit admixtase of Iheae salta. or of 
flolphate of eoda, to lower the apparent atonic wei|;ht of eilver. 
If therefore the |)riine equivaleni of cliloride of sodium be called 
4^ chlorine sodium =7^, then we must infer from the 
ahove experimente that the prime equivalent of silver is 1^76; 
Qfp takui§ the faoportaonid weight of hydrogsn in water m the 
radix of the equivalent scale* chloride of sodium will become 
60, and silver 111: or, in volume on Sir H. Davy s plsWt 
and 222. 

The same solution of silver was used for detooninipg tha 
quantity of dderioe in liqnid muriatic acid* kmmg feaad by 
experjcnee that its eataialion fay cailionata of potash, soda, or 

lime, and evaporation of the cliiorides, did not afford results of 
the minute and consistent accuracy, required by the theoiy of 
equivalents. Liquid acid having the specifie gravity of 1.200, ' 
was dibited with 9 times its weight of waeler, vhea ito deaai^ 
at 60^ Fahr. bacame 1.09O. On Ihie dilute acid I made many 
experiments with the nitrate of silver, and satisfied myself at 
last that 1000 grains of it were equivalent to 122^ grains of 



^ J . 1 y Google 



288 



silver, which, from tbe aboTe-recited experiments, represent 

-Mid, al dMMly of 1.800/ If toa0^5 ironidMepfiM 

equiyaient of hydrogen eiXY^V^ssl.lOtl, ^««m4il77Tl wiU 
represi'iit the currespoiiding quantity oi" muriatic acid gas. Hence, 
for ordinary practice, if we estimate in round numbers, the value 
ofU^wd acidf tpMificgntirity 1.20» at 40 jmt C6iil. of chloiiiic 
«id41 of mmUwgMy wealiaUmiaKiiatiiorof cMt^ 

The correspondenoo botween ^ alNm eipoiiiMiiUil vemilli^ 
and those g^iven by Sir H. Davy in his valuable Elcvicnf^ of 
Cfttmisfry, is almost exact, though iIr two metliods are sufii- 
cilirtiydMMt 8ir H. tad Mr. £. Davj fovmd that 47.36 
gnlwofirataral43^Fftlv.birom., aO.Sabmbed34.8 pmm 
of gas, and formed a ool n tioe of tpeeific gravity 1.21 ; and the 
whole precipitated by nitrate of silver, afforded about 132 grs. 
of dry horn silver. Again 57.6 grains of water, at 4A^f barom. 
biiBg d0.1» gained noariy 38 giaina by absorbing ncid gaa, and 
fcrmed a lolatlon of apoeific giaviCy 1.2*. The only other 
fofait wtneh they detomined by experhnent wmt ftr the speciife 
gravity 1.114. Let us compare a little their direct experiment 
of condensing the gas in water (whose result agrees very nearly 
ivith mineO with their result from chloride of silver. If 82.05 
graine of acidof l.ftl resalted from the combination of 47.85 
water +84.8 add gat, then 100 of nidi acid, at 43P, thoald 
contain just 42.41 parts, as given in their table. But if we 
calculate the acid ^as present in the same 82.05 grains of li- 
quid acid, from the weight of horn silver which they obtained, 
ira ahall have a eoneideiaUy different mtdt Naming the 
equivalent of ehknide of eilm, 18.975(4.5+18.875) we shall 
have this proportion; 18.875 : 4.5:: 132 : 32.7 of chlorine, cor- 
responding to 33.225 of acid gas, instead of 34.8, as by their 
direct experiment. If, with Dr. Thomson, we call chloride 
of silm 18.95 (ld.75H-4.6), then we haTe the proportien 
18.95 : 4.5:: 193 : 88.548 Hi chlorine, or 33.453 of muriatic 
fSA, Finally, by Dr. Wollastons scale, 132 grains of muriate 

ft 

e Mlmmti, p. S&S, Not«, 



Dr. Ute on Mmhtie Add^ &c. 



28 



of lilfwr Wb e qri y almt to 33.5 of the tcid gas. Ttie tnt nam* 

ber makes the quantity of muriatic gas, in 100 parts of acid of 
1.21, to be only 40.5; the second, 40.77 ; the third, 40.83, 
vbiJe the Dumber in their table is 42.43, In like manner, when 
I attempted to get nice resoha by weigfaiDg the chlonde of 
ailTer» I ibond a peroeptMetBd flootoatfag deficiency. 

From the excellent accordance which exists between Sir H. 
and Mr. E. Davy's experiments on tlie direct combination of 
the acid gas and water, and my result drawn from the silver 
equivalenty I ahall ooMider that 100 grains of add, apeoific 
gravity 1.20» contam 39.675 of chlorine. Tilol aeid wat miied 
*wfth diatilled water in saccessive proportions, and the mixtures 
being placed in well-stopped phials, and agitated, were left to 
cool to 60° Fahr. Their specific gravities were then taken with 
e?eiy requisite care. 

The followhig table is the rasalt of these aiperiiaettts. The 
densities narked with an asterisk are experimental, the rest are 
interpolated ; but the latter are, I believe, as well as the foi- 
mer, entitled to the entire coniidence of practical chemists. 

TahU 1^ Muriatic Add. 



Acid 
Of 1.S0 
IM. 



100* 
99 



95* 



97 
96 
5 
94 
93 
92 
91 



SpMliC 

owfHr. 



90* 1.1882 



S» 
89 

87 

86 
85 
84 
83 
88 



Cbloriae. 



1.9000 88.675 40.777 
1.1988 89JS78 40.369 
1.1984 88.882 39.961 
1.1946 38.485 39.554 
1.1928 38.089 39.146 
1.1910 37.692 38.738 
1.1893 37.296 38.330 
1.1875 30.900 ;J7.923 
1.1857 36.503 37.516 
1.1S46 36.107 37.108 
35.707 36.700 
1.1808 85.810 86.892 
1.I78B B4.8U 86^4 



1.1768 

1.1741 
1.1721 
1.1701 
1.1681 
1.1661 



34.517 

34.121 

33.724 



Muriatic 
Gas. 



85.476 

85.068 

34.660 



33.328 34.252 
32.931 33.845 
32.535 [88.437 



Acid 
of 1.20 
In 100, 



81 
80* 

79 

78 

77 

76 

75 

74 

73 

72 

71 

70* 

69 

68 

67 

66 

65 

64 

63 



Specific 
Gravity. 



1.1641 
1.1680 

1.1599 

1.1578 
1.1557 
1.1536 
151.5 
1.1494 
1.1473 
1.1452 
1.1431 
1.1410 



1.1869 

1.1349 
1.1328 
1.1308 
1.1287 
1.1867 



Chlorine. 



M86 
81.746 
81.848 

30.946 

30.550 
30.153 

29.757 

28.964 
28.567 
88.171 
87.778 



Murintic 
Gas. 



1.1888 pr.878 



86.9711 

26.583 

26.186 
25.789 
25.392 
24.996 



88.029 
88.621 

32.213 
31.805 
31.398 
30.990 
30.582 
30.174 
29.767 
29.359 
28.951 
88.844 
88.196 
87.788 
27.321 
26.913 
26.505 
26.098 
125.600 



2Q0 Dr. Uru on Manatic Acui, &.c. 



A. id 

111 1<H>. 




Ctil«irui«. 


Gm, 


; A ( id 
ot i.'iiO 
in loo. 


Specitic 
Gravity. 


Chlorine. 


Muriatic 


MA 








81 


1.0€17 


12.300 


I8«841 


ol 


1 . 1 z«0 




«4.o74 


30 • 


1.0697 


11.903 


181888 


GO 


1 1 9f\fi 
I . I ^uo 




%>A Aati 


29 


1.0577 


1 1.506 


11.826 


59 


1.11 


!i:3.40b 


'«4.u.^h 


28 


T .0,;.;7 


11. 109 


11.418 


CO 

OO 


111 « J. 
1,1 1 U'i< 


<3.0i 55 


«0.000 


27 


1 .O.JO 7 


10.712 


nolo 


57 


111 J.Q 


an ii 1 £1 

««.u Id 




2o 


I.U017 


10.310 


10.602 


ou 


111 94 


OO O 1 Q 


99 Q Q/l 




1 .0497 


9.9 19 


10.194 


56 


111 no 




•JO 4 O 


24 


1 .0477 




9.786 


54 


■ 1 AAO 


81.425 


SS.019 


23 


1 .0467 


9.\2(} 


9. .379 


09 


1«III01 


Ol ^koo 


OV 41 1 




1.0487 


8.729 


8.971 


o» 




OA ttO 


Ol OAO 1 


SI 


1.0417 


8.332 


8.663 


ol 


1 1 AAA 


Oa BtkC 

8(l.X8o 


OA fVAA 1 




1.0897 


7.935 


8.155 


50^ 


1 . lUUO 


19.887 


ooa 1 

90,988 


19 


1.0877 


7.688 


7.747 




1 r^ooA 

1 .Ulf?5LI 


1 9.44-0 


19.980 


18 


1.0857 


7.141 


7MO 


A C 


1 no/jr^ 

1 .Ui/OU 


1 y.u-i-4 


iy.o7Sc 


1 ^ 
17 


1 .0837 


6.74o 


6.932 


4i/ 


1 OO'iO 


1 h . D 4 / 


in 1 A K 
19. lo5 


16 


1.031 8 


6.348 


6.524 


■ff) 


1 OQ 1 O 


1 O . O U 


1 ?>. / OV 


15 


1.0298 


5.9ol 


6.1 16 


'to 




1 / .004 


1 'tin 


1 A 

1 4< 


1.0279 


^ P" IT' M 

5.654 


5.709 


A.A 


1 ntiTQ 


1 i .'hoi 


1 / .y4 1 


1 o 

1.3 


1.03o9 


5.158 


5.301 


4o 


1 nQ<CQ 

l.vloOSil 


17.00U 


17.034 


12 


1.0i31> 


4.762 


4.893 


4» 


X«v9il9 




17. ISO 


11 


1.0220 


4.365 


4.4S6 






lit acv 


lo lyio 


1 10^ 


1.0200 


8.96S 


4.078 




1 A<yfta 


1 K OIVA 

lOkOTU 


1 4 Ol A 

10.810 


1 A 
1 ' 


1.0180 


3.671 


3.670 


89 


1.0778 


1&474 




8 


1.0160 


3.174 


8JN8 


.•?s 


1 .0758 


15.077 


15.494 


7 


1.0140 


2.778 


8.854 


37 


1.0738 


14.680 


15.0S7 




1.0120 


2.381 


8.447 


86 


1.0718 


14.284 


14.679 


5 


1.0100 


I.9f>4 


2.039 


35 


1.0697 


13.887 


14.271 


4 


1.0080 


1.688 


1.631 


84 


1.0C77 


13.490 


13.863 


3 


1.0060 


1.^91 


1.224 


S3 


1.06.57 


13.094 


U.456 


2 


1.0040 


0.795 


0.816 


82 


1.06a7 


12.697 


13.049 


1 


1.0020 


0.397 


0.408 



At the density 1.199, Mr. Dalton's table* hu 26.6 |wr csni. 
d ml mnriatic acid by weight, eqiiif alent to only 88.9 cbloEiiie> 
initMd of 3M?» iviudi I beliere to be tlie exact value. If we 
teimllie eomet quantity 100, then iVk. Dalton*s number would 
be only 83; which is aolessthan 17 per cent, of defect from the 
triUh. I have purposely omitted in this aevr table the cohmia of 
dijy or» as H was alto called, real muriatic add ; first, ihecanse 
thsfe is 00 evideooe st present of the existence of any such body ; 

ii> p. SW* 



Dr. Ure on MmrMc Acid, 8ic. 



291 



and secondly* because, though it was a con^eiueiit coUunn for 
finding by inspection tbe increase of weight wbich any saliiSable 
base would acquire by satoration with the liquid acid, yet that 

conyenience may be obtained by tlie i'uliovviiig simple calcula- 
tion. Since the prime equivalent of chlorine is to that of the 
supposed dry muriatic add, in the ratio of 46 to 35, or 9 to 7 ; 
if we nmhiply the number iqiposite to the giTen specific gravi^, 
in the chlorine column, by 9, and diyideby 7, we shall hare tha 
relative quantity of the Jixahle muriatic acid. 

Heretofore, several diemlsls have, witliout due considerationji 
assumed the half sum, or arithmetical mean of the specific gra- 
vities of two substances (water and acid, for example,) to be 
truly the cahuhUd mean; and on comparing; the number thus 
obtained with the expmmtnial specific gravity of the compound, 
they have inferred the change of volume due to chemical com- 
binatioQ. It is a singular fact, that the above arithmetical mean, 
which is always greater than the rightly computed mean, (see 
my paper on Mean Specific Gravity^ in this Jwamalf rol, ir. 
p. 151,) happens to give in the case of li<|uid muriatic acid, an 
error in excess, very nearly equal tothe actual increase of density. 
From this curious coincidence we derive a very simple rule for 
finding the approximate value of chlorine in the liquid acid at 
any density. Multiply the decimal part of the number rcjire- 
sentiiig the specific gravity by 200^ (he product will be the dilo- 
rine present in 100 parti. Thus, the specific gravity is 1.0437, 
what is the quantity j^er cent, of chlorine ? 0.0437 x200=rS.74. 
Now the tabular number is 8.729. The sp. gravity being 1 .059, 
what is the value of the chlorine in 100 parte ? 0.069 x 200=: 
1 1,8. The table has 1 1.9. Towards the head of the table this 
rule gives a slight error in excess ; and towards the Coot an 
equally slight error in defect, but the approximation is always 
good enough for ordinary practice, seldom amounting to one- 
haif fer cent. If to the number thus found for chorine wo 
add ^ party the sum is the corresponding weight of muriatic 
aekl gas. 



292 



AftT, X. On on tm^ wnd $ecupe Metkod Seem 

To the Editor of the QirAibrKRi.T Jooewa t. 

London^ Dee. llOky 182h 

The ingenious paper on secret writing, in your last Nuiu- 
ber, by Mr. limcks, shews how little reliance can be placed oo 
the methods suggested by Mr. Chenevix ; and the dot-writing, 
as described in the eleborate article on Cipher, in Rees* C^c/o- 
prndiOf is not only equally inseeaie, bat wonid be liable to great 
perplexity if separate keys were furnished to several correspond- 
ents. ISIinisters and ( u in rals, however, are often oblig-ed to 
communicate in cipher with many agents at the same time, and 
perhiqps with more than one person even in the same misaioB. 

The mode to whidi I am about to advert was given to me 
many years ago by my father ; but whether it has ever been pub- 
lished 1 do not kaow. Its preteusiuus are simplicity, impossi- 
bility of detection, and the capability of multiplying its keys to 
infinity. 

Let &e key for each of the correspondents be a line of poetry, 
or the name of some memorable povon or place, that cannot be 

forgoLteu ; and icL them all be provided with a copy of the fol- 
lowing table ; which may be printed, as it matters not into whose 
hands it falls. 

When the despatch is composed, write the key-sentence un» 
demeath the text» letter for letter, repeating it as often as it 

may be necessary. For example, suppose the key-sentence to 
be " Sir Humphry Davy,'* and the secret clause ol the despatch 
to be Protract the negodation as much as possible.** These» 
when written as above directed, will stand thus : 

fir •trad th9 m€g otiat%»n a* mmeh m$ p^tttblt 
9 I Thumps rgs mvf » it humph 4 mpp » i r humphrg 



^ J . 1 y Google 



On Secret CormponAme* 



293 



a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


/ 


9 


h 


i 




k 


I 


m 


71 


0 


P 


9 


r 


8 


t 


u 


V 


w 




y 


z 


b 


c 


d 


(i 


f 


9 


k 


i 


J 


k 


I 


m 


n 


0 


P 




r 


s 


t 


u 


V 


w 


X 


y 


z 


\^ 


c 


d 


e 


f 


9 


h 


i 


j 


k 


I 


m 


n 


0 


P 


9 


r 


s 


t 


U 


V 


VJ 


X 


JL 


z 


a 


b 


d 


e 


7 


9 


h 


i 


j 


k 


I 


m 


n 


0 


P 


9 


r 


s 


t 


u 


V 


w 


X 


y 


z 


a 


b 


c 


e 


f 


9 


h 


i 


j 


k 


I 


m 


n 


0 


P 


9 


r 


s 


t 


u 


V 


w 


X 


y 




a 


b 


c 


~d 


7 


9 


h 


i 


j 


k 


I 


m 


n 


0 


P 


9 


r 


s 


t 


u 


V 


w 


X 


y 




a 


b 


c 


d 


\e 


9 


h 


i 


j 


k 


I 


?n 


n 


0 


P 


9 


r 


s 


t 


u 


V 


w 


X 


y 


z 


a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


f 


h 


i 


J 


k 


I 


m 


n 


0 


P 


9 


r 


8 


t 


u 


V 


w 


X 


y 




a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


f 


9 


i 


j 


k 


I 


771 


n 


0 


P 


9 


r 


s 


t 


u 


V 


w 


X 


y 


z 


a 


b 




d 


n 


/ 


9 




j 


k 


I 


m 


n 


0 




9 


r 


s 


t 


u 


V 


w 




y 


z 


a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


f 


9 


h 


i 


k 


I 


in 


n 


0 


P 


9 


r 




t 


u 


V 


IV 


X 


y 


z 


a 


b 


c 


d 


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/ 


9 


h 


i 


j 


I 


m 


n 


0 


P 


9 


r 


s 


t 


u 


V 


w 


X 


y 




a 


b 


c 


d 


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f 


9 


h 


i 


J 


k 


m 


n 


0 


P 




r 


s 


t 


u 


V 


w 


X 


y 




a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


f 


9 


h 


i 


'J 


k 


I 


n 


0 


V 


V 


r 


s 


t 


u 


V 


V) 


X 


y 


z 


a 


b 


c 


1 


e 


/ 


9 


li 


i 


A 


k 


I 


m 


0 


V 


9 


r 


s 


t 


u 


V 


w 


X 


y 


z 


a 


b 


c 


d 


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7 


9 


h 


i 


J 


k 


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m 


n 


V 


9 


r 


s 


t 


u 


V 


— 1 




V 


z 


a 


h 


c 


d 


e 


7 


9 


h 


i 


j 


k 


I 


m 


n 


0 


9 


r 


8 


t 


u 


V 


w 


X 


y 


7. 


a 


4| 


c 


d 


e 


f_ 


9 


h 


i 


J 


k 


I 


711 


n 


0 


P 


r 


s 


t 


u 


V 


w 


X 


y 


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a 


b 


c 


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f 


9 


h 


i 


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k 


I 


?fi 


71 


0 


P 


9 


s 


t 


U 


V 


w 


X 


y 


z 


a 


b 


c 


d 


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f 


9 


h 


i 


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k 


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m 


71 


0 


P 


9 


r 


/ 


u 


V 


w 


X 


y 


z 


a 


b 


c 


d 


€ 


f 


9 


h 


i 


.;■ 


k 


I 


m 


n 


0 


P 


9 


r 


s 


u 


V 


w 


X 


y 


z 


a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


f 


9 


h 


i 


j 


k 


I 


m 


n 


0 


P 


9 


r 


s 


t 


V 


w 


X 


y 


z 


a 


b 


c 


d 


e 


f 


9 


h 


i 


J 


k 


I 


m 


n 


0 


P 


9 


r 


s 


t 


u 


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X 


y 


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a 


b 


c 


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€ 


f 


9 


h 


i 


j 


k 


I 


in 


n 


0 


P 


9 


r 


s 


t 


u 


V 


X 


y 




(L 


f>\ 


c 


d 




9 


h 




J 


k 


I 


m 


71 


0 


P 




r s 


t 


u 


V 


w 


y 


z 


a 


b 


c 


d 




/ 


9 


h 


i 


j 


k 


I 


m 


n 


0 


P 


9 


r 


8 


t 


u 


V 


w 


X 


z 


a 


b 


c 


.^1 


e 


/ 


L 


k 


i 


L 


k 




m 


n 


0 


F 


7l 


r 


8 


t\ 


u 




w 


X 


y 



Now look in l]ie left-band vertical column for the first letter 

of the text P, and in the upper horizontal column for the cor- 
responding letter of the key S; where these columns meet h 
will be founds which write down. Proceed in the same man- 
ner for the representation of the next letter r» (that is, at the 
jnnction of the columns r and t) which wOl be z ; and so on 
&ough the whde of the paragraph. It will then appear as 
follows : 

Htfmlmra kfh nzegkzknudu tq j^uxf $a gvmexicc > 

The inverted process for deciphering needs no explanatioB. 

I am» Sir, 4'C. 

B. 



294 



A«T. XI. A Translation of Key's Esmj^i on tie Cal- 

cnuOhn of Mitaiit &a* 

£C'ommiiiiic«i«ili by John GRonoE Cuildren, Esq., F. R. S.} ^c,2 

Coulmued £roiB page 64. 

EstAT XV. 

Air diminishes in weight in three vmyt. The haUmce i» deceitful^ 

the means of remedying that. 

I EBtoMK the thread of mj disoome, which I had somewhat 

interrapted to solve the objectioa advanced agamat me, and by 

so iiiucli the better clear up tliis mailer; and I say, tliat in 
three preceding essays ; viz., the lOtb, llth, and 12th, 1 have 
•hewn the three different waya by which air increasuig ui 
weight* nay manifest that iacnaae wh«i balanced in a fieeaad 
pure air^ If ow the law of* contrartes Tccjiiifes, that, hy ifaree ways^ 
the reverse of the former, it may diminish in weight. These 
ways are the separation of any heavier foreign matter — its exten- 
sion to more ample bounds* and the abstraction of its heavier 
parts. But since the knowledge of the fomer throws sufficient 
light upon the latter, I omit any fuller explanation; only 
begginc^ the reader to observe, that this increase or diminution 
of weight, of which I have spoken in the said essays, always 
refers to a portion of air compared with another of equal bulk. 
For when we do not take the volume of a subalaace into ac« 
count, if we examine its weight by reason, I say that nothing 
gains weight but by the addition of matter, nor loses it but by 
its sublractioQ — so inseparably are matter and weight uniled, 
as has been shewn above in the sixth essay. But if we inves- 
tigate the subject by the balance, a case occurs in which, with- 
out any addition or subtraction of matter, a substance will ap- 
pear more or less heavy ; namely, by its contraction or expan- 
sion. Now this was the only mode of investip^ation known tu 
the ancients when they contended that the elements, in their 
mutual conversion into one another, increase or diminish in 
weight in proportion as they increase or diminish in'dimension, 



Tramiiiiion of Key s B»say$, 



295 



by the sole aid ot nature, very expert m this operation — not that 
ait ii QiMible to imsteMe or duniiiuh tlM veigfat of tliiiigs, di-- 
littng or oontnttting tiiein. Hammer a pmee of cold iion for a 
considerable time ; 70a wUl mote ila parte aad dimtoish its Iralk, 

and then it will appear heavier when put into the balance. Like- 
wise, if you put a bail of feathers, closely tied up, into the 
•cale, it will wei^ more than when the feathers are left at their 
full iize. Prom this I infer, what has been already enrsortly 
touched on, that the balance is so Ihlladoiis, thatit nerer indi- 
cates the true weight of substances, except when two portions 
of the same substance and figure, as two leaden bullets, are 
comiterpoised against each other. But two ingots, one ibr ia- 
stance of gold, and the other of iron, which appear by' the 
balance to be eqoal, are nemtbeless not so-^fcr ^ iron is as 

much heavier than the gold, according to reason, as the air 
which it displaces is heavier than that displaced by the gold, 
which difference I coald shew exactly in every thing we weigh, 
and conld redace the whole to its jnst weight, if I had made the 
trial I hare snggested above in ihe 7th essay. 

Essay XVI. 

Fun/wl answer to the questwu^ Why Tin and Lead increase ia 

w$i^ when they art cakmtd* ? 

I have now made the preparation ; laid as it were the foonda- 
tioas of my answer to the Sieur Bnm*s demand ; namely, that 

John Baptist Porta, a Neapolitan gtntleinani author of several works 
on Natural History and Agriculture, has recorded the same fact* 

«« nmlronk pondcroshis leddeiv, dooet Gatenus. Nan comprobaas 
^hMBlMiD paftieepe ana aifWB sabs taalias, hoc aArt cxperiiuntuni. Oai*> 
atom qws aoWmus, umcum plaasbani, turn mok ipaft, turn pondere an* 
gctur, si eondatur hi ndibus snbterranets, aSrem habentibus turhidum, ita 
nt qUBCumque illic ponantur, cderiter sitnm oolHgant. Turn etiam plum- 
bea ttatnaram vfaicula, qnibus earum pedes annectuntur, a^pe numero 
ecevhse lisum est^ et qusedam adeo faitomnisse, ut ex lapldiboB depeude- 
leaft eiTMam, aodo larnicB.*' (Lb. cap* ll.)— M««a NaimnOiB, 
librivigmtL^anovhs^ 1619. 

Bacon says the same,— S^ioarum,J 



having put iwo pounds six ounces of fine English tin into an 
iron vessel, and heated it strongly on an open fire for six hours, 
•tirrmg U CQGUinuaUy, without having added any thing,, he ob* 
tahiflri Im jhirtttat MMfiflB ft vhita 4m1xs trkifdi al 

first occaaiooed him great suipriie, and tbe dattie to Wfftain. 
vliCQoe these se^en oances of increase were derived*— *Now, to 
augment the ditiiculty, I $ay, that we must, not only irupiire 
whence these seven ounces are derived, but, moreover, whence 
tbat which has replaced the loss of weight, n e ce s sarily ariebg 
from the enlaigesQent of Tolnine of tbe tin, by its convecaioii 
into calx, and from tbe vapours and ezbalatioos that have 
escaped. To this (question, then, resting on the luunckitions I 
have laid, I answer, and proudly maintain, That this increase 
of weight comes from the air, thickened and made heavy, and 
in some meatoie lendeted adhesive in the vessel by die vioknt 
and long^continned heat of tbe fnmace— which air mixes with 
the calx (its union being assisted by the continual stirring), and 
attaches itself to its smallest particles — no otherwise than as 
water, when sand is thrown into it, makes it heavier by moistCA* 
ing it, and adhering to its smallest grains." I imagine there are 
many perBons who wonld have been siairtkd (ejfarouehies)^ at the 
mere statement of this answer, had I given it in the outset, that 
will now receive it willingly, being, as I may say, tamed (af 
prtvoiseesj and rendered tractable, by the evident truth of the 
preceding essays. For dcmbtless they whose minds were pre- 
occupied with the opmion that air is absolately lig^t, would 
have mshed to the encounter, exclaiming. Why do we not ex- 
tract lieat from cold, white from black, light from darkness, if 
from air, a thing absolutely lights we can extract so much 
weight f And they, who might have given credit to the weight 
of air, would have been unable to persuade themselves, that it 
could ever increase the weight of a substance balanced in itself. 

On this account I have been obliged to shew, that air is j)us- 
sessed of weight ; that it is proved by other investigation than 
that of the balance ; and that even by that instrument, a portion 
previously altered and diickened, may make ite weight maai* 
^est. This I have done as briefly as possible, without having 



297 



advanced any tbiog not bearing fully on the mili^ect; to clear 
«oaM ind liArtalioo <if llw opinim 

«rMli»ir; and to solve the objectioiis tkit aigM ba Mil la 

my aoswer. 

Bbsat XVIi. 

Hm maHnB ^Utappearance of fA« mMW • AM 10AM mtKkim$8$ 

the Lead, or the death the UUter that increase$ i($ weigU 
in cfilcituitiftn 

01' all, as far as I know, that have written on this question^ 
Cardan is the first, who, in his fifth book, JJe SubtUiiate says, 
. that lead, by conversion into ceruse, or by calcioation, gains 
one*thirteenth part in weight, and gives this reason for tt^The 
lead dies, for the celestial heart, which waa its soul, vanishes ; 
whose presence gives it life, and renders it light ; as its absence 
occasions its death, and makes it heavy. This he confirms 
by the example of animals, which become heavier after death, 
inm the axtinetion of tha celestial heat, the soul, (as he thinks)^ 
both of animals and all other mixed and eomponnd bodaeak. 
Hiis opinion is defective, to say no worse of it, in many re* 
spects. First., in attnbuttng life to lead. Secondly, in sup- 
posing that the presence of tlie ceieattai heat makes- it lights 
and its abaanea faaavy* Tbnrdi bsaansa it as rign a tha aan» 
leaaon ftar the tocraaaed weigbi of lead by calcination, and of 
animals by death. There ia nothing of the kind* For as to 
life, how caji lead j^aes^it,. sinceit.is^a kumogeneoiis body,. 

* Note by M. CM>ei. 

** Nam plumbum cum in ceruBsam T«rtitur, ac uritur, tertia decimAi^ 
parte sui ponderis aug^etur. Hoc fit, quia calor iUe ooelestis evauescit: 
nam ccrtum est, adjtci nihil, et iamm crescit : ciim igitnr par raUo eiiam^ 
in aiiimalibus videatur, quae graviora morte fiunt, quoniam exbalanta 
anima, secum calor etiam, ac quicquid ab illo est elaboratuin evauescit : 
mauifestum est corpora roetaUica, et lapides ipsos etiam vivere." (Lib. v. 
de mistione et miBtit,)^CsLrdain\, de SubHlUatef lib. xxi. IParisits, lA&U 

This author also otMsnrsd* tlMit a tik gaaas w»i|hl ia bamiag • 
Vol.. XU, X 



TransiaUoH of iiey s EtmtfS^ 



witliout difference of pnrts, without organs, and without any 
vital effect or action f 11 it move downwards, so does ceruse, 
which oily Ht eorptv; tl H 6i coriuig (n|^a<ioii>)» w mi 
giwafc T%eft bow oodbd U prt iarv tiiit Hfe» mwlir a nllBoa 
it SMiy be mftde te msne md to mmI off, yet 

always continuing to be lead ? How, in the furnace (which 
would be a much greater wonder), where it may be kept in 
hmwk % da^, « month, or a whole year? It must have a very 
tiMiioM mmI to pa d fo to uwk wA/okA \Mm% diaiodgid 1 
Mww ler, all Ao worid ia ayc d, ibafc Ikmi dcstk to Uft tlm 
is no return. Yet the chemists assure us, if we moisten the 
calx of lead, and mix it with water in which samphire (salicot) 
bas been diaaolved, then, baviog dried it, put it in a crucible 
^Mk a aauJl vent, and beat atrongly and qnidtlyy diat we eball 
tednee it to ita original atate. Widi regard to tbe ealeatial beat 
making bodies light, Scaliger* very properly objects that Uie 

* ** In lapitle, iifquis, viu. — Quia ulii calor, iU auiaia. Ubi an'ima, ibi 
▼ita. I^^itur in layide vita. Osieiide mihi tii in lapide calorem, et ego 
oflteiidam tibi cahirt m sine auima. Fortassc neg-abis in igne calorem ; 
anima carerc non ne^bis. Nam quod ats, amnem actionem ab aniinfi pro- 
venire, si vcrma est, dabis animam etiam ccnisir. Descendit enini. Kr^;a 
per terra; fr-im am, quae est ii>i terrac anima, qua movetur. Sic enim et 
sapis, et st rihis. At ais, mortuaiu ccrusani, quia facia est e plnnibo, a quo 
calor ille to U'stis cxhalavit. Calorem hunc, inquam, o^icnde nolji^. Nam 
calor, Bon nisi tactu cognosci potest. Equidem la])idis caatactu uuuquam 
pilo factn'^ sum califlior. Effectioimm, deces, nenipe descensioaem. Nego 
tibi fieri a calnrc. Si enini a calore fieret descensio, a calore titm ficret, 
asccnsio. Exemplam verd de cerusa ridiculura. Cerusa, inquis, plumbo 
gravior: quia calor abiit coelestis ille. Ergo ccelum habet levitatem, et 
erit qtiintum corpus cum aliis univocum. Namque viventia, O ! aubtilis- 
simc Pbilosophomm, non propter animam levia sunt, sed propter calorem 
elementarcni. Alioqui omnia tua entta essent levia. Quippe vivunt cm- 
u\tu Vivunt autcm propter formam. Forma ilia anriina, anima ilia calor. 
Ga&wr ille autor tovttatis. Levia igitur omnia, quia materis forma domi- 
Mtur: et ccelestia potiora, atque cfficariora. Tactu autem percipimus 
calorem elementarem. Qnera in plumbo qui sentit tactu, sentiat etiam in 
ifn6 fn^. At pkirabnm ahMiroptis partibus aereis gravius fit. Qua de 
caus& later quoqne coctus crudo gravior. At contra, amndo combusta 
leviorfit. Vere tamen ilia, atque sine controversial viveb At ejus abiit 
aoima^ ita de aliis atbocilm* dk«aduni. Igiiwr.aBiflia neque cravisj nc- 



I^rmisiaium of IUy*i Etui^ 



m 



heavens, which abound ia this heat, as being tlie source of it, 
must be Ught (feut leger), and consequently univocal (univoqm) 
with the other bodies, which it ftbciird. Nflither caa tlie lott 
oC this lieat raider iImbi heawy^ ferllMmaliiMdjpnmdtfial 
Mtiiing increaM in weiglit bat hf the additioiii mt milter, or 
by diminution of vohime ; but here there is nothing of Uie 
kind ; so that the disappearance of the heat cannot add any 
thing* and a« to ita bulk, it is Tiaibly eabuf ed ; the coapaet 
and. tolid anbilKnoa of «ba laad bcia^ ndMcad (ammmihy 
to to many troall fiareelt, that iMr nmidMr ia almoat ininilab 

Plants too ought to become heavy by death, the celestial heat 
being expelled : but the contrary is evident to all. As to the 
increased weight of animala by death, the troe canse, far re- 
mote from tliat which incieaaaa Ibe wmght of laad whan cai* 
dned» ia tfaii : in the liriag anhnal ita natttral heat aabtiltaaa, 
dilateS) and augments the dimensions of the humours, the flesh, 
and every thin^ in it capable of dilatation — ^but losing this heat 
by death, the whole on this becoming cold, contrail and di- 
minisbesy whence the increase of weight, as I have often aaid 
already* What ia there like this in lead ? Thoa the opmion of 
Cardan appears so Irivolons, that I am grieved that a great 
man, and one who is justly esteemed by all the world, should 
have lately declared to me that he iucUnes towards it. 

que levts ; Deque ctslum ipsum. Id quod & secundo d« animt, piimo el 
teeoBdo de cako coUifi point. Ideo cenita friabllls, amlsiopiiigel aereo. 
TuroqusroatttplmBl«B4|aoawdo viynm sit. Namqoeeit exroctum 
ifui, sicuti ceruta aoeto excocta est Ignis aatem destruit : ut pMrim» 
q^iiiltaris, apod te vizerit in fodini, in apothedt, in fornacibas inffii wef 
turn noquit ▼ivere. AlioquiD ab igm^ nostio codsttis Uto tans esset i,u m 
ntmJ* (Exerdt. d. cap. 18.) And ftirdier on, he tayg, Pluaibinn 
qnoqtta ainm mgegcen, Calcem in fbnaeeftMia Tidtnuis ads6 tmgeii<rsy 
aft tigiMiatque teg^ulas snstollereti'' 

[Td be eontlnned.] ' 



X2 



300 



Aet* XIL Pfoc«fd£i^f ^ Boyal &aety^ 

TsB mMfUngs of tke Rojal Society were resumed on Thursn 
day the 8tfa of Vovember, efter lihe long vacatUm. * At this and 

the succeeding jsiccting the Croonian Lecture was read by Sir 
Everaid Home : it contained an accouat of the means by which 
the eye adjusts itself to the distinct vision of near and femot» 
ob|ects« 

Tlhirsday, Nao, 98.' Hie JMerMM Lsdnre by Caplaiii 

Edward Sabine, was read; it contained an account of experU 
ments to determine the dip ot the magnetic needle in Londoix 
in August 1821, with remarks oa the instruments usually 
employed in such detemilnatioiii. 

Friday, JVbv. 90, being St, Andrew's day, the Society held 
their anniversary meetiug. At this meeting the President 
announced the allotment of two of Sit Godfrey Copley's prize 
medals to J« F. W. Herschel, Esq. and Captain Edward Sabine^ 
in a very appropriate and impressive discourse, of which the. 
Mowing is an onUine. 

The progress of discovery, said Sir iiumpluy, even when 
belonging to past times or distant countries, is always an 
' agreeable subject of contemplation to philosophical men, but 
the pleasure derived from it is much higher when it artsei^ 
tnm the exertioii of the talenta of our own countrymen, when 
it has originated in our own body, and when there is the power 
not only of acknowledging and rejoicing at it, but likewise of 
distinguishing the persons to whom it is owing, by a permanent 
mark of respect; hcyiherefbre, had mndi satisfticlion in announo* 
mg Ae decision of the Coundl oltlie Sotnety, upon the preseal 
occasion. The President then took a review of the labouis of 
Mr. Herschel, and more particularly of those which were con- 
sidei^d as entttltog ^him to Ijbe present mark of distinction 
He saidrthere was no farandi of scienoe more cahsulated (o 
awaken our admiration* tbaa that which Bfir. Herschel had so 
successfully cultivated : the sublime or transcendential geo^ 
metry not only demonstrated the i^ovvers and resources of 
human intellect^ but also th« wisdom and heaiity of ttm lawa 



Pmmlings of the Roi/ai^ietj^, 301 

^^Icfc gown iIm tmiMFM. " U is, periiaps, said tlbe P^sidc tu , 
tiM Uglhwt triumph of human intelligence, that proceeding 
from the consideration of mere unities, or points, iioes, aad 
surfaces, it should by gradual genctatizaltoiis, raUtkatKMii, Md 
•b^raodoBfy be abis to mm wot only at 1^ ksoiviedge of all 
IvoMAble eoidilkikis ofmndNMraod qvaaUty, b«tlik«pit« oftino 

and motimi; aflld bj employing its own pure intellectual creations^ 

• 

in many cases anticipate the results of observation and expe- 
riment, aad determine the moveueata not only of the bodies 
wfakh form pemuaMt )pwt» of mt tyiteia, Iml lilMiae off 
Omm iibicb MMi ody oooasioiidly to tisH il» «ri nlMi 
btiooj^ as It mm to the hmMntfty of sfaee. 

Sir Huniphiy thcu paid an eloquent tribute of applause to 
the zeal and success with which Mr. Uerschel had pursued 
tbese k^uiries, tmd proceeded to mmmtnM» bio lothiimatwoi 
ooMBMiieatioDS to tbe Royal Sooioljr^ prmtod ia lliek tmmh 
•oAotm. Ha sboald aol> bo said, attasa^ an aoaiyiis oftbaso 
pBfers, ibr tbey required profound study; they were especially 
distinguished by the siinpliciiy of the processes, by perspicuity 
of arrangement, and by the absence 'Ott metaphysieal 
abatioolioMii and tbegr ptovod bi tbo ovtber m iatiwsOs ao* 
qowtaaoe wilit dio'vodrt of the grtot nraatofo oiP aMl|oii|> 
be had not, however, limited bhoeelf to ft>rmo]ee, but had a 
higher ciaim upon the approbation of the Society ia their appli- 
oatioo; lor» though as a mere exercise, the higher mathematics 
atreagtben tbe leaeoeiBg htcMok and aibid inteUeetaai 
p kawue, yol b ia ta-'oaMuig' oi to aoIrO tbe physical j^mo^ 
Mona of tbe 'Mhetie tba« tbey bate iSkmt grandest end and 
use; in these respects, said Sir Humphry, they are really 
power, and they may be compared to that power which we 
ivitOM biiMvapoiir of water, wbioh passiag into tbe fioo 
aAKospheie^ ^dMlo only a atriking spectade* bot ydhkk op- 
plied in Ibe steam-engine, becomes Ibe moving prineiple of 
the most useful aud extensive machinery, and the source of 
the most important arts of life. 

Sir Hoflipbry tben idfoitod man portteolarly to Mr. Hsn 
ohoro w^isaMf atbrni oonmeiBd tvidi tbo poteiiMiliQB'of llfbtt 



302 Pf^Bmlmgs of the Royal SmUy. 

ttd tote impoittm m f^meM iii 

aberration of compound lenses and object-glasses ; «id iMnring 
stated to the Society the leadin]^ features of these communi- 
eatlODitMid that ho felt couvinced they could not but approve 
of Ite dieWoM id th«r Council upon te girads he had 
aliMdj OMitioMd, and ahoold thoMim nol ottHipt fuitec<to 
expatiate upon the diligence and merits U their aathor* 

In addiessing Mr. Herschel personally, Sir Humphry alluded 
to severai subjects of inquiry which he recomnieuded to Mr. 
Heiachel'a «tt«itMB> he trusted that he would continue to 
dev)ate him# to philosoflueal innmiits/aad Uiat he iMNdd 
receive the medal not nersly as » auak of reepect fer aefMoe- 
ments already made, but as a pledge of future exertions in the 
cause of scifioce, aod of the Royal Society. Believe me" he 
addedy " jo« oaft fltwnmiTPVfft** your labours to no puUic body 
by vhoBi they wiU be better noeiredy or throtti^ whose 
they will be aMxre honourably transmitted to the srimtiir 
world. And these pursuiU, you will find not only glorious, 
bat dignified, useful, and gratifying m every period of life ; 
thie» indoadj must know best in the example of your 
iUnstiioui &ther» wbo> foil of years and of honours^ mini now 
your eiertions with infinite plsasaney and who, in the h^ies 
that his own unperishable name will be permanently connected 
in the annals of science with yours, must ^o<^ forward to a 
donUe immortality/' 

The President then spoko of tha laieairhaii of Gaptom 
Bdward Sabme; he eukgiaed hia industry and pearsswranre 
in conducting his inquiries in the Arctic Expedition, and his 
fortitude and patience in enduring the hardships and privations 
to which he was then exposed : his experiments he said, were 
p ri n c ipall y condoded on the ice of the pohut S6a» .whsce the 
Teasel was for several months £roien up ; during a eonsideiable 
portion of the time, he was in darkness, or only guided by a ^ery 
doubtful twilight, and the temperature of this inclement spot, 
probably as cold as any belonging to the norAh<Hm hsmisphere» 
was suehf that the artificial horispn of meroury becaBaa fioaen 
.during an obsefvationf y«t Captain SaKuia'.s inquiriaa sesai to 



Pi w aeHagt of the Rofti JMeiy. 509 

IwM bom condiietad widi M mdr em precifknliis If be 
iM betk powwd of ^ ^aumamam aad iwaroties of > Itoya! 
Obwmtory, and tlie wlYaiitagM and repose of tke happiest 

climate and situation. 

Sir Humphry then entered iuto same historical details 
retpeeting tkm iwrel i oa co—actod witii tiie Vettpk of the 
Mcondt' pendalnm in different latttndeB, and its appfieation to 
determine the figore of the earth. ' tlie tme investigation of 
the properties of the pendulum as un universal standard of 
measure was owing he said to the zeal and enlightened views 
of Mr« Devies Oilbert, who had directed all the icietttifie 
talenla and reaonms of the coontry Id the otject, by making it 
n 4(veation of national importance in parliament; the tbrtnnate 
result had been the invariable peockilum coiitrived with such a 
happy spirit of mvcntioa, and examined with such uncea^iag 
nctivity and minute accuracy^ by Captain Kater. 

** Captain Sabine did not accompany tiie Arctic expedition 
now absent, becanse,'* aaid ^e President, he canceired that 
he had effected all that he was capable of performing with the 
pendulum in northern latitudes, which was the great object of his 
researches in the two former voyages; but his scientific ardour had 
induced him to endearoor to complete his investigationsy even 
to the Line; and hamg braved ihe long night and perpetual 
livinter of the Polar Regions, he was now gone with the same 
laudable object to expose himself to t\y& burning sun and con- 
stant summer of the Equator."- 

In Captain Sabine's absence, the President delivered tiie 
medal lo his brother. " In informing him," said Sir Hnmphry, 
** of what has tdken piaoe tiiis day, you will, I trust, state to 
hhn our deep sense of his merits; his knowledg-e of this ex- 
pression of our opimon ma^, perhaps, animate him during the 
difficult enterpriae he has nndertaken, for he has alr^y shown- 
liow highly he vnlnes the praiae nf the Boyd Societyt which, 
ivilh the geod epinimi of his conntrymen, has. been hitherto 
the only reward of his labours. Assure him how strongly we 
feel his disinterestedness and genuine love of science, and that 
4Mir anient wishes are expressed for his safe return, aad for the 



504 ProGudmgs of tit Ayrf feiefy . 



will ensure to iwui additioiial cliums upon th* gMlilwl* <lf tU 
loveift of science." 

The Soiic^ then yrooedd^d to the electioa of a Council 

fMMtoWtki flirts of 



1. jrem6ers<2/'(A«.OIiCbiim»Il0O 



BM&de, Esq. 

Tiflar C«stab 

UnriM Gilbert, Esq. 
dttte Batebett, Emi. 



Thomtft Yonft MJ>. 



C w m^ MMlcfA liii lii L ii. 

BLCBfodk^ Sm* 
WUBmHMBiltaii, Etq« 



Sir Sotet Sqnpinfiy KaL 

3* Qficer$/or the Year emtmmg, 

Presidmt, Sir Htunphry Davy, Bart. 
TVtagwrer, Davies Gilbert, Esq. 

^ rWiUiam Thomas Braodei 
^'Xll^lor Combe^ Etq. 

Tkandti^y Jkc. 6.— A paper wm eomnnmic&ted by tSk>- 
«iely te the Improvement of Animal Chemistry, entided, ** On 
Alriae Concretions found in the Colon of a young Man, 



in Lancaibira» a£Ler death." By John G«ocgft QiUdn% 

ThuKnOa^y Ike* 13^A paper mi iead» Ob the Con** 
centrie adjnstm^t of e triple OljadlOliai.'^ %W. RWol- 

laston, M.D. and V.P.R.S. 

On the game eyeaiag a com municaJaoft was aUo read, entitled^ 

On a new speeieK ef RbiBOceiiee« ftMiad in the ialeiior of 
AUriea; the skall of which beats a doee vesemblaace to that 
found in a foetti state in Siberia^ and other Covatiiee: by Sir 
Everard Home, Bt., V.P.R.S/' 

Thursday, Dec. 20.— A paper was read on the Electrical 
Phenomena exhibited in ▼acuo, by Sir H. Davy» Bart, P Jft«& 

The Society then ai^ouened over the Chriitmat Vaeationt to 
Met again on Thnreday, tbe 10th ctf January, 1832. 



Art. XIII. Account of the Frogrtu of Foreign Science* 

The daily increasiug mtercourse between this country and 
foreign nations, has enabled us to extend and sysiemadze tlii:^ 
Tahiable department of a sdeiitific joamaL In future, the 
aoconnt of foreign actenoe wiH Iw presented in the following 
order: 

I. Chfmical Science. L Principles of combination, 
2. Repulsive power or caloric. 3. Siniple bodies. 4. Inor- 
^nic compounds ; acids, bases, salts, ^c, 5. Organic com- 
pounds, vegetable and animal. 6. Analysis and chemical 
apparatns. 

II. Applications of CiiE:n istry, to Medicine and the 
Arts ; Agriculture, Bleaclung, Dyeing, ^e, 

TLh Physics; Optics, Electricity, Magnetism, Acoustics* ^re. 

IV. MECiiANics. 1. Statics, Dynamics. 2. Hydrostatics 
and Hydrodynamics. 3. iErostatics and Pneumatics. 

V. Natural HisTonT ; Zoology^ Botniy» Mineralogy, Geo- 
kgy, Meteocology. 

VL Economics; or miscellaneons applications of Science to 
the ordinary uses of life. 

The defidenoies in any of the abo?e departments which 



306 Fff^gtiit ijf tempi Bdme. 



may exist in one Nvwbfr, we shftU endeavour to mippiy in 
MK^ther. 

I. Ckmkal Smnce* 

L Paivciplbs or CoMBtliATioir. It gtfes us pleaaure 

to observe, that the accumulation of new facts in favour 
of the chloridic theory first pn»nal^ated by Sir Humphry 
Davy, has at length forced something like an assent to 
its truth, from the ablest and most obstinate partisan of the 
French oxyrauriatic hypothesis. Professor Berzelius, after 
waging a war of obscure and ineffectual words, like Priestley 
wit£ Phlogiston, against the English system, says, in his late 
paper on ^e Suipho-cyanides : " What I have just stated, both 
on the cyanides in my preceding memoir, and oa the sulpho- 

Sanides in the present, proves tnat the phenomena relative to 
ese substances* can admii of explanaium only, on a tfaeovy 
quite analogous to that vbi^ in those latsr times bas been 
adopted for the muriates, in considering oaiynuviatio get, as a 
simple body-chlorine. This theory becomes more general and 
at the same time more interesting, by extending it to all the 
acids combined with wiitt r (hydrates), as well as to all the 
salts, in the manner proposed by M. Dulong, by considering 
the acids and the salts, as compounds of hydrogen and of metals 
combined with the radical of the acid, and tiie oxygen both of 
the add and of the base, together forming one body/' The 
deoompoiitiotts and the recom^sitioiis of water, wbioh I bwre 
ooi^ointly with other cfaenists, regarded' as a gieat obieeCton 
agamst the new theory of the nature of muriatic acid, take 
place with the sulpho-cyanides in a manner which leaves no 
doubt of their reality ; and, we may add that the cyanides, and 
especially the snlpho-cyanides, have a perfect analogy with 
the salts formed by oxidized bases, and oxygenated acids ; that 
is to say, formed by a combustible radical and oxygen*." 
This Palinodia would have been better without the errors 
tacked to it. The above view of the constitution of acids 
and salts was giveu ion^' ago by Sir H. Davy, as may be seen 
in his paper, On the analogies between the undecompounded 
snfastanoes, and on theeonstitution of aoids," published in the 
first volume of this Journal. ^ Thus ; it is a simple statement 
of facts to say, that liquid nitric acid is a compound of two 
proportions of hydrogen* one of azote, and six of oxygen; 
and, as I shewed long ago the only difieceoce between nitre 
and hyperoxymuriate of potash is, that one contains a propor- 
tion of azote, and the other a proportion of chlorine," p. 287. 
And, with regard to these decompositions and recompositions, 
they are mere fictions conjured up by liiinsclf and the late Dr. 
Murray. Chloriue dislodges oxygen from potash, soda, iiuie, 

* Annales de Chiin, et de PbyMqa*^ Tome XVI, pp. 35^ S6, et 87* 



CLR WO know b}' indubitable experiments; and, wbat reason !• 
there to fancy or to assert, that on putting any of these chlo* 
rides into water, the oxygen of the latter displaces llic chlorine, 
which ^oes to the liberated hydrogen to form muriatic acid? 
In Ikct, the water quietiy couibiiies with a chloride as it does 
with aa oxide ; so that the ghost is entirely of their own raising^, 
and ih^ may la^ it at their leiaore, U beat be apjplied^ indeed^ 
then aaecomnoMtion may be induced onder new circmnttanoas^ 
as happens with some peculiar chlorides. 

The jeakroty of Engliah predominance in Eonpean aAun» 
which was somewhat natural, and perhaps excuaable in a 
military and political point of view during the late war, is quite 
absurd and ludicrous, as now displayed by many eminent 
continental chemists with regard to the theory of che- 
mical equivalents, or the English atomic theory. Berzelius 
and many other philosophers, wlioru we could name, still con- 
tinue to refer all their analyses of oxides and salts to a sup- 
poied princiole, that the oxygen In the oxidea ia a anb-nuu- 
txp]e, Of a mole nnmber, of me oxygen in the acids. Now, 
thia shews a very limited and impenect comprehension of the 
generai laws of equivalent combination, aa taught by Mr. 
Dalton, and as represented on Dr. Wofla«ton*8 scu^. In fact, 
tbat supposed principle of Berzelius, is merely a partial and 
accidental corollary of the great system of chemical proportions. 
Thus, as carbonic acid contains two atoms or proportions of 
oxygen, its combinations with protoxides will give the ratio of 
oxYgeu iu It, lu that in them, of two to one ; but with deut- 
OKiaes, the ratio of equal quantitiea. Again, as sulphuric acid 
contains 3 atoms or proportions of oxygen ; ita combinationa 
with protozidea will ftunush the ratio of oxygen in it, to that 
in these bases, of three to one ; but with deutoxides, the ratio 
of 3 to 2, or I^ to 1. And, aa nitric acid contains 5 atoma 
or proportions of oxygen, its combinations with protoxides 
will give the ratio of oxygen in it, to that in these bases, of 5 
to 1 ; but with deutoxides, the ratio of 5 to 2 ; or 2 J to 1 ; or 
that of 1 to 0.4. Hence this partial conception and imperfect 
representation of tlie theory of equivalents, leads to very con- 
fused and perplexing results, which we altogether avoid, by 
tracing up the ratio for every simple or compound body, 
directly to its place in the general aeale of proportiooa. 

We ahall give an example or two from a rery recent and 
otherwbe very raluabre paper of Berzelius, on the coniposition 
of several inorganic combinations, which serve as the base 
of calculations, relative to the theory of chemical proportions*." 
** Bucholz found by a series of very exact experiments, that 
the sulphuret of molybdenum contains 60 parts of metal to 40 
of sulphur ; and* that these 60 parts of metal absorb 30 parts 

* Anutos dt Cbioh et de Physique, Tome XVII, p. 6, et seq. 



308 



Progress of IMgH Seimei* 



<d oxygea to becoM iMlybdic add. It foilowa llitt for 
moljbdaDitlii* Ihm is batwasa the sulphur and the oxygen of 
the acid a Ratio analogous to that which we have found, for the 

sulphuret and the add of arsenic ; that is to say, the sulphuret 
of molybdenum is proportional to a degree of oxidation mh nor 
to that of the acid." Now, tins proposition is true no doubt, 
but very much mystified in the Limriciation. The sulphuret of 
molybdenum is evidently a (x>ni})OtiDd of one atoiu metal 4- ^ ' 
atuiiib bulpliur ; or is a Ijisulplmrtit : and Llie acid is like all the 
well-marked metal acidb*, a compound of one atoaainetal + 3 
atoms oxygen. Hence the ratio ct 4» (=s2 x d) to 3 as found 
by Barhofii 

Tea gfamiaoi clnitnto of lead, aqaivaknt to 6.731 oxide of 
lead, yielded of molybdate IIMB gcammes, according to B«r* 
aelius. He then proceeds : By a very simple calcalakioii ve 
fia4 tbatthenolybdato of lead b coaipoged cf*- 

Molybdic acid 39.186 . 100.0 

Oxide of lead eOM5 . 155.2 

Kow> 155.2 parts of oxide contain 11.129'paTti of oxygen, which 
ire a lubmultiple of 50 (the quantity of oxygen absorbed by 
100 of molybdenum, in ilie experiments of Bucholz,) by 3; for 
11.129x3=33.387. It follows thence that, in the neuUal 
moWbdates, the acid contains three tinua as much oxygen as 
the base. It is then composed of— 

MflMdBBam • eG.G\3 , 100.00 
OaqrgM . 33^387 . 50.12 

Now, this marvellous prolixity and obscurity of inductioni 
might have been all savencl, by referring molybdenum direcdy to 
its place in that general scale of equivalents of which oxygen is 
the radix, or modulus. He would also have avoided tbp un- 
warranted position with which the quotation concludes, ot llic 
acid containing three times as much oxygen as the base ; for 
molybdic acid forms an insoluble precipitete with some of the 
deutoxide salts of coppei, which compound consists, in all pro- 
bability, of an atom of acid to an atom of base ; and theretbre 
the fonaer will contain a quantity of oxygen, to the latter in the 
fatio of 3 to 2, and not, as he says, of 3 to 1. Again, when 
Ireatinc^ in the same paper of the composition and the capacity of 
•atoration of chromic acid, Berzelius says, It thence follows 
drat ^e chranate of lead ought to be composed of-* 

dhromicacid « 31.853 • 100.000 
Oxide of lead . 68.147 . 213.924 

* Thus, as to the acids of Chromium, Man^nese, Arsenic, Tungsten, 
consist each of one atom metal -f* 3 atoms oxygen. Selenic acid has two 
aftom^ but its base caa hardly be called a metal. AntLmonic acid has 
alto pfobaUy two ; hmt it rasembbM aa oskk mora than an ackl. 



Pr9grm of Mor^a Scitme 



m 



Now, the 213.924 parts of oxide of lead contftin 15.34 parts cf 
oxygen. This number, then, expresses the capacity of satura- 
tion of the chromic acid.*' That is to say, that weight of every 
base whidi 100 imoU of drnMic wM iMvtraltiet mmt jcxmbi^ 
15.34 parts Of oxysoi. AgaiB» finwi die daecmgoMoa of 8I» 
berianduooMle ofMad, tie thas ^ Tbe loss in tUs e»* 

lament can bt Ii0tluil|^ but oxyg:en ; so that 24.25 parts of 
green oxide of efaconinim will afford, with7^T parts of oxygen^ 
31.62 parts of cKtomic acid. Now, the oxygen conteined in 
the 68.38 parts of oxide of lead is 4.9, which, multiplied by 
o;ives a product of 7.35 ; that is to say, chromic acid, when 
it is reduced to the state of green oxide, loses a quantity of 
oxygen, equivalent to 1 J times its capacity of saturation," " Th& 
analysis" (of chromate of barytes) " has then given— 

Barytes 59.68 
* Oxide of chromium . 30.43 
Loss . 9.69 

These 59.88 parts of barytes contain 6.26 parts of oxygen, aad 
6.26 X 1-^=9.39. The result of this analysis accords, there- 
fore, with that of the preceding experiment (on the Siberian 
chromate.) The small difference (=:0.3,) can be ascribed only 
to SB error of obsemAioiii insepsitble from tiik mode of ope- 
vatiog.*' 

Now, we must confess Uiat, thouch the experiments were 
jadicioiis and accurate, and though the reasoning be oltimaiely 
nol untrue, yet it is presented in so involved a manner as to 
create very superflnons confusion to the rearler. Instead of 
hanging" his results upon a little peg of a corollnry to tlm sys- 
tem of equivalents, why dues he not ftssig-n them their due po- 
sition in the general fabric, so that we could at once see their 
relation to every other chemical Ixjdy, on the comprehensive 
plan of Rich ter? Direct experiments shew that chromic acid 
Das the eqnmlent weight of M on the oxygen soak (or 6.54 
by the above synthesis of the chromate of lead ;) and that it 
Bontains 3 atonss ofosvgen.to one of netil, While its grem 
oxide seems to consist, oy the preceding experiments, of 3 atomi. 
of oxygen to S of metal. On this point we shall s%y a word or 
two in its place ; onr sole object here being tbe general priii» 
ciples of combination* 

M. A. le Roger et J. A. Dumas, Pharmaciens, have subjected 
a number of bodies to a nice hydrostatic process, in order to 
determine their specific gravity very exactly, and theoce dednoO 
a general atondo law* They eiiq>loyed boOi aloohol and oil of 
turpeotiDe fbr the liqmds of immersion. They justly obsenre 
that M. Kassenfrats, by employing mercury as the faydfosiatic 
liquid in the examination of salts, fell into gross errors, such as 
that caustic limo and oatoioed were lighter than water. 



310 



Froffrm of Foreign Science, 



errors which are ingrafted, without comment, into the larsfcst 
system of English chemistrv. The above experimentaiists ima- 
gine that, on considering the quotients obtaiaed by dividing^ 
&e weijphtA of the atoms by Uie nnicctm f|Moiio gmntwt or 

which pcmdM the greater nvahn of timple wib rtatt fl «« ; Ai- 
tiioueh we concern tUo MM to ho ft Milfr of fllmkM, fet «• 
Iho hydfOBtatic OKperiments seem to have been eseoutod wMb 
oaio, we ahail iucrt tbek teitaUt of Moftu. 



of the ItabMMK*. 



Trc * . • • . « 

Silica . . . • « 

Boracic acid . 

Arsenioiis acid . . 

Protoxide of copper , 

Oxide of bismuth 

Oxideofload • . 

Pemide of msicury 

CaostioUme . . < 

Carbonate of lime 

Solid carbonic odd inthocof- 
bonate of lime . . 

Anhydrous siilph. lime 

Solid sulph. acid in sulphate 
of lime 

Crystallized sulph, of lime 

Alumina ... 

NepheUn^ silicate of 

Water in cryst. sulph. lime 

Solphor 



Weight of ike 



P*'»»itv re- 
'■cMum and 



112.4354 
596.42 
S69.65 
1240.77 
89 1 • S9 
1973.8 
8789.0 
8731.0 
718.08 
1M&78 



1 



1714.^ 



2164.12 
642.32 
1238.75 



0.950 
2.650 
l.S.^ 
8.69S 
5.749 
8.449 
8.010 
11.89 

s.oa 

8.717 



8.960 



2.S22 

4.200 
3.270 



8.086 



117 
225 
920 
335 
155 
233 
347 
840 
831 
464 

116 

679 

174 

932 
152 
378 
88 



2 

3 
2 
2 
4 

1 

5 

H 

4 



In the preceding table, the common divisor emfdoyed by 
these gentlemen is 116= their volume of the atom of ice. 
Their atomic weights are mostly taken from Berzelius. They 
seem perfectly unacquainted with Dr. Pi out's happy generaliza- 
tion; which renders it more than piobabie that the weight of 
all the atoms are multiples of the atomic weight of hydrogen, 
by a whole number. Indeed, we have little reason to be sur- 
prised at Ihis ignoreiioe in lliese ge«tleiiiait when M.Bendioe 

* Our experimentt on the t|>. gr. of ice cive tlie atmber 0.9133. It was 
taken in oil ol tuipeatinc, at Fabr.— IWMff. 



PlNfffW of Arajgll ScMiM. 311 



and M. Qnlong^, two of the most distinguished chemists (m the 
Continent, in the ^er^nel of their late elaborate memoir on the 
f^perific *n"avity of some clastic fluids *, speak of Dr. Prout*8 
speculations in the followinLi, words : — Ikf'dre concluding we 
shall observe, that the new determinations, which ^vo now 
present, differ little from those which are to be found in an 
anonymous memoir, printed in the AnmeUs of Fhdomphy, 
for Noraober 1815, ud Febraary 1816. But the English 
mtboT haimftdft no expcrimenti, uA the hypothtMs^ whm I19 
employed to oomet bii adopted mimbets, alieoliiteh' 
mtaitovB or Meoi his reevHt could not inspire any coti&> 
deiiee/' lliie we consider as a henh and unjustiBable criti- 
etsin. Can any thing be a better proof, that the hypotheses 
Were not gratuitous and not false, than that q/?er the progr^ 
sive investig-ations of five years, two French chemists, bv ap- 
piymg the most refined and rigid mctliods of experiment, should 
arrive at precisely the same resultSi which the English authcH* 
had theoretically deduced ? 

IL CAtORxc. — Hie prlncipel paper on this siil]|jecty wlu<A 
has recently appeared on the Contiiieiity is that of M. Navier^ 

Professor of Practical Mechanics in the Eouik da PonU ei 
Chaussees of Paris ; and it is entitled, " Note on the Mechant* 
cal Action of Combostibles f." Several writers have endea* 

▼onred to e=;tablish a comparison between the mechanical ac- 
tions, capable of being produced by the snme weight of a com- 
bustible, employed to vaporize water, and to beat atmosphe- 
rical air. It has been advanced, that the latter process, mak- 
ing allowance for the variable causes of loss which occur in 
machines, might be more advantageous than the former. Se- 
ven! artists have endeavoured to constract madiines on this 
principle X' 

In the cakiilatiotts presented on this question, there exists a 
eause of error* wbtch has been remarked by M. M. Clement 
and Desormes, in a memoir presented to the Academy oC 

Sciences, in 1820, but not yet printed. The authors of those 
calculations had not taken into account, the quantity of heat 
wliich the air absorbs, when it dilates, without changing its 
temperature. Mr. Navier takes for his unity of heat the 
quantity necessary to raise by 1** C, the temperature of a ki- 
logramme (about 2^ pounds avoirdupois) of water m the liquid 
state ; this unity he styles a decree qf heat. The number of de» 
greet of heat necessary to raise by 1^, the temperatote of 1 

* jfnnaiet de Chinue ei de Vhjf$iqm, torn. xv. p. 886. 

+ Jh^d, torn, xvii, p. 357. 

i By far the most ingenious of these is the healed air>en^inc, for wlucb 
A palcBt wiigy a few years back, granted to tli* B«v, Mr« SteHiaf , «f 
Kilmarnocfc. Of thisweahBagiveafbort aocoimtina IMBieNinmr; 



I y Google 



512 progress of Formga Science- 



kilogramme of aii, of which the volume, which WM w at die 
temperature OX., under the atmosf^ieric pmrnre 0*76,=; 

g9M Ewlith inchetX W beoom 0, lie Mpmettti by the 
Dowmg toraula 



0.26 /o.76 -1 + 0.24 

By means of iho^e rf suits, he soeks to establish a relatioa 
between the quantity of action (power) whicii it is possible to 
obtain, in heatmLT and dilating the air, and the quantity of 
heat which is consumed. Wli* n the vulume of the aLmosplieric 
air is thus made to vary, the quantities of iieat, which it ab- 
sorbs or diseiigages, are proportioual to the variatkMi of the 
specific heat. So tibat, cafiiog C the prinitiTe nedfic heat, 
e the specific beat alber the ehaage of woim^ weiiavB Ibr the 
quantity absoibed ; (e > C), « beiag a eonstant co-effi- 
cient, whose value in round numbm may be stated at 1200^« 
After a train of algebraic formalfle which we cannot here insert, 
he concludes, that in expending a degree of heat to warm the 
air, we cannot obtain a ({nantity of action which surpasses the 
elevation of a weiglit of 33 kilogrammes (72.8 libs.) to 
the height of one metre ; considering always 500° C. (=: 
932° F.) as the highest temperature to which it can be car- 
ried. In treating of the comparative powers of heat, whe^ 
employed in the vi^ur of water, he endeavours to shew, that 
thare » an adfantage in producing the vapoor at tiie hisfaeii 
possible temperatnre. Svppoainf the vaponr produced under 
the pressure of 5 atmospheres; that is» let H (the elastic foroe 
of the yapour) ec (149.6 E incln and V (corresposdtDip 
temperature c= 165° C. or 329 F *. The value in this case 
most S!i!tablp to V (temperature of the condensed water), as. 
may hv found by calculation, \vonld be less than 10° C. (50° F.) 
which has been adopted for the exterior temperature v. Sup- 
pose, however, tliat V r-r 10° C. and of consequence H' (the 
elastic force of vapour coi responding to^V or 1 0° C.) O'^.OODS. 
our formula will then give for the maximum of the (quantity 
of action which it is possible to obtain, 

123300 IJ kiloj^icininies X metres; and for the nurujiium 
of the corresponding expenditure of heat ; 685 degrees. 

The ratio of these two numbers being 180, we see that by expend- 
ing a degree of heat to produce aqueous vapour, the limit of 
the quantity of action which it is possible to obtain, is the ele- 
valkNito one metre in height, of a weight of 180 kilogrammes 

* This temperature seems to be calculated from some erroneous for- 
maUi of the force of steam. Tlie temperature correspondiiif^ to five SUDO- 
qpben») by Dr. Ure*g experimeiiU, is only aOo k or ii)i.(iC. 



Progress Foreign Scimet, 313 



(368.58 lbs. avoirdupois), sujtposing the steam generated uo- 
der tlie pressure of five atmospheres*. 

From these results the theoretic hmits of the cjuan tides of 
action which it is possible to obtam iot heating air, or water, 
m neaiiy to estk othir in the proportton of 33 to ISO ; or of 
1 to 5f. The dUferoBoe is fo eoiiMCfablei» Unity notwilfaftaiid* 
iog the uncertainty which may exist io some of Ae pfeoeding 
asmaical vakes, the preference dne to steam appears to be, in 
no respect, doubtfiiK 

But steam entries present always a very considerable abate- 
ment under the theoretic maximvvi of effect, now computed. 
It appears that the best steam engines, possessing the average 
power of ten horses, consume 2* kilogrammes (5{. lbs. 
avoiidupois) of charcoal (coal?) to obtam a quantity of action, 
equal to 28800 k. x m. Admitting that a kilogramme of 
cbareoal eonsamed to tbe isaloriikieter gives 7000^ or lieat« we 
see that we obtab, for one degree of heat, only a qnantity of 
aotioB cK 1^8300 

2 ig X 7000 ^ ^^'^ lulog, X met. ; which is very far 

ftom the Ifanit 180 k x m. found above. It would be im^ 

portant to investigate and to appreciate exactly the causes of 
this considerable loss. We b >|)l to see many of these import* 
ant problems, referred to l y M. Navier, treated io a clear and 
conclusive manner, in M. Clement's new Treatise, Theoretical 
and Practical, on Heat, and its applications to the Arts. 

We are indebted to M. Navier, also, for an ingenious me- 
moir, in the same number of the Annales, on the \ cii uitK)n uf 
temperatures, which accompanies the changes in the volume of 
gases. His reasoning is founded on the experiments of M. M. 
Clement and Desormes, Delaroche, and Berard. From his foi^ 
ttnlis H appears^ that on reducing the volume of air to f, so 
that the pressure becomes 149.6 £ inches, we can obtain an ele- 
ration of^temperatore of about 237"^ C. (426.6 F.) 

It further appears, from his mode of research, that the rise 
of temperature obtained by tbe condensation of atmospheric air, 
is 8U8cepti!)le of a limit, somewhat confined. The formula srives 
360® C. as the maxunum effect. As to the cold producible by 
the dilatation of air, the formula does not assign it any limit. 

' M. Flaugergues, the astronomer, has made, at the Observa- 
tory of Viviers, a series of nice observations on the heat pro- 
duced by the sun's rays, during the eclipse of Uifs lununary» 

« Tbe fbrmuUB for the maximwm is, . 

n 1 4*0.00375 V , H 

' 059 TaTi— IF' »3568 k the 

VPtiglit of the metre cube of mercury. The other lonaulaiy it 

n(530o + V — V). 
Vol. XIL Y 



the 7th of September, 1820 *. He emi -loyrd for this purpose 
the thermeliomcti e, described in the Ji>u) nnl de Phijsique^ vol. 
Ixxxvii, p. 2J(j. Ue concludes fiom his oU»efvalioa8, that the ex- 
perijauental heaU are equal to those calculated on the hjfpo^ 
tbetiiv thii «fiiet fif UMi»4mms » propofiiawl to tli* 
ttUwt of Miilioa of iko portioa of tbodttoor thotim meo- 
wad; and of eooaequence that this hypothoria iatha tiue 
one. Whaaoo we may iofer, that diac of tko am ia oqaaily 
Ifuninoiia over itt whole oiteat, and that oie part taken near 
the centre, emanates no more rays than an equal portion taken 
near thn border of this disc. The opposite opinion was raain- 
taiaed by Bougiier • who said, that if compare by the he- 
liometer, (an insti tim( iit < ! Ins own mvention), the sun's centre 
to a spot distant iruia it, 1>y ? of the diameter, the quantities of 
tlie rays, which we receive, are m the ratio of 48 to 35. But 
thladiatinguished philosopher ingenuously admits, that his expe* 
rineotoontaiiiod diflicaHiaa wUoh ha had not aiawpo— te d , and 
tiiat it, tbavefora, loqiiiied verificatioii. Hie eqoafitf of Inatio 
mam Unud by M. Flaagwghes, over all the parte of the disc of 
the aim, shews, moreover, he thinka the incorrectness of the 
geometrical hypothesis admitted by several philosophers, that 
the portions of the surface of a body, project in all directions 
an equal quantity of light ; for on this supposition, the lustre 
of a spherical iununous body, ought to increase from the centre 
to the circumference, and become even infinite at tlie Hmb t 
whic li docs not take place, as we may satisfy ourselves, in con- 
sidering an uuu bullet heated to wliiteness ; or a white paper 
^ globe exposed to the Uf^t of day. These spherical bodiea 
wtU appear equally Imnmoua over their whole aaifiuse* He 
alio imn from his observationa, that the ooinioii of H. Iia* 
place, who pretends that the sun is sorroundea with an atmo- 
sphere such, that were it stripped of it, " this luminary wouU 
appear tmdot timaa noie baUiaaty'' ia voidof fiMmdation* 

Some remarks oo the temperature of minea will be found 
mider Geoi.ogy. 

We shall conclude this subject for the present, by ex- 
pressing our suipriye ut the i^uoiance of the state of English 
science, displayed in the following introduction to a Memoir 
of If* Deaprete, read at the Inatitiite, 29ikk November, 
1819, and maerted in the 16th volume of the AmuJa dg 
Chime ei dePhfsique, p. 105:—«' It ia admitted with Mr. 
Balton, in all die works on phyaica, that on departing from the 
point of ebullition under the same pressure, or for greater ge- 
nerality, on departing- from the point where the elastic forces 
are equal* the variatioa in tha elastic force of the vapour for a 

t JwrmU de t'hysiqiiCp ton. Slip p» 43&« 



^ J . d by Goog 



316 



like number of degrees of the iliermonieter, is the same for all 
liquids." If M. Dcsprctz will consult Mr. Dalton's New Sv^^fnn 
dymical Pkdosopky, vol. i. p. 20, published uuwaida of 
wrtMi years ago, ne wiU iad mat lha EiufUsh ptiilosopber 

aftMRi -m ft Paper m Umk, pablUMd ni nUm^MmA 
f^mmttkm te 1818* Ml to accord with exparinent. We 
ava iSbsn a>fvd Ilia tnHUa of analjaiB^ If • DanpNrtifli M amoir. 

IIT. Simple Bodies. — In the number of Gilherfs Annalen 
for last May, Counsellor Gicsse, Professor of Chemistry at 
Dorpat, commuaicates the account of a new metal, which, he 
thinics, he has extracted from the residuum left, on distilling to 
dryness diHt^rent varieties of English sulphuric acid. One va- 
riety left oat^of 16 ounces, 9^ grains of a white residuum, which 
difeted htm Aa gteator part of lhaaa mldmna by tlia toM 
alHMBoa of Bulplnla of leMt ** The data of colovr fays, 

ware sorprisiDg, idudi liw iwwhiaa a «iliibitad» when it wii 
heated alowlj and repaatedlf im ftplatORBo crucible oyer a 
lamp. Fhnn ckron-^ellow, it passed on cooling back again 
to vvhite. At the second jrradiml hcatinn", the mass appeared 
preenish yellow, then of a fine reddish yellow; and, on cool- 
ing, it passed once more through lemon-yellow to white. 
Strongly heated, a third time, it became sulphur-yellow, le- 
mou-ycUow, and reddish-yellow ; it then fused with iutumes^ 
cenoe, and dilKiaed a vaixmr, amallnif of aalplnifio aeid. On 
faaiMBiing ooldy tlia vfMa part «aa ivlrilidi; tfaa baidata 
af • bnMnidi ham* llioiigh the complete aaiiaa of azpen* 
manai, which he medjtaaed, were in i a iMapt a d bj a ft of sick> 
iieaa, yet he tUaka anftwant hava bean made to satisfy hiai« 
that the above reakhmm contains a new metal, which must h«fe 
dhne from the sulphur employed in maniifactiirin*Tthe acid. 

The appearances characteristic of the new metallic substance, 
are produced by pouring on the residuum, after it has been tho- 
roughly edulcorated with water, a httle caustic alkaline ley. 
Immediately after the addition of the first drops, the white co- 
lour becomes yellow, which with heat assumes a gcrfden tinge. 
HepowadiBttRatiaaaidosthalaaniiaatadhaalad mass, so as 
Mftmlf la diaaaifa h% be tfaaa dUolad and dltarad Aa aahi- 
Mly and poured in sulphuratied hydrogen water, which occa* 
aioiild a ptaoipitate of j% \k m ^ fmm docks, of the hydro-sulphu« 
fet of the aaateL Ateteaa ware sepamtadt the liquid yielded, 
with ammoma, a hydro-sulpbnat of im ia dooka, wiiich 
8|paedily became dark g-reen. 

The metal He substance is susceptible, he says, of diBerent 
degrees of oxidation ; and becomes first yellow, then passes 
into a lively brown, bluish or dark grey ; and it finally changes 
to white. At a ct^ftaiu sLat^e of oxidlzeBMUt itaxhibiU more the 



316 



properties of an nrtr!, than of a base ; as it miitcs in this case 
enf^Hv ^vtth caustic alcah ; but not with fit ids, such as the sul- 
phuric and muriatic. The alcaline cuuibiouUoas oi this newtnc^ 
tallk oxide readily form double salts with acids ; those with the 
above acids, are all-crystallizable, and when ^HtulwfA'hf ibmwid 
oi heat, yield, with ammonia, a precipitate of the nrtilho oMs. 

TheM MHne triple or Quadruple ooaibiMtioae» doneielways 
•ibrdvtfh sulphuielted hydrogw, a brownishi^fillow predpi- 
Ial0 • oocaeklMeUy give one of a bluish tinge, which com- 
mmicalae He ooIm to the whole liquid. The hydro^sulphurets 
of this metal, readily teke fire with heat, and become white. 
A simple voltaic pair, consisting of zinc Lind |)launum, 
throws down this now body from its solution, bluisb-a;i t y and 
with a perfect metalHc bistre. The metal dtiposited at the pla- 
tinum wire, dissolves in dilute nilnc acid, with disengagement 
of gas. We must confess that the above account, coaUisi]^ 
the bubbLaiice of the Professor's details, seeoM t9 m itrf iomi- 
dusive; aiidimalMidinotbeeiii'priied toBndthetpeis^^ 
«f ifOA it ODBoemod in tiMe pheiMMiift. 

Tkt BOtieeiRrliieliwes inserted in the Jammal of Science and 
ihe Arts, vol. ii. p. 385, relative to the tnmsudation of melted 
fin through cast imn, was slightly incorrect. M. Clement, the 
author oi the experiment, had formed the cylinder of a pnmp, 
out of a copper tube, which being rather ieible, he wished to 
strengtlien, by an outer case of cast iron. The interval between 
the two cylinders beine: filled with melted tin, this metal trans- 
uded on the outer surface of the cast iron, in the cotton-like ef- 
florescence, which burned at the flame of a candle. This ex- 
perinent thefre the pomity of tiie ctst iron enj^loyed, wMch 
w twpect mnst hate been of infotor quality, or ilMonnded. 

IV.Inoroakic chemical Compounds. — ^The French che- 
mists and artists have been nmdi occupied of late in repeating 

and v^irying- the experiments on the alloys of steeb which were 
ninde m uiii" laboratory, and which are recorded in the ninth vo- 
lume of this Jounial. M. J. B. Pnjnssin^anlt, lias made several, 
in the laboratory of the school of niiners at Sainte->£tienne, par- 
ticulaily oa the combination of siliciuia with platinum, and on the 
partMce of silicium in steel. When platinum was placed in a 
cnieible, tiaed wHih a paita oompooedof a muttoie of powdered 
diaicoal* and a litlk da^j^, {Xkn^trMMHhrasqui of :tfie Fkench 
c^mists^ it always fneed, m a powerAil air inniace,inlo a button; 
and the mion "was mofe easy, when the metal was covetadi with 
charcoaL It wae obeerved that the platinnm had increased a 
little in weio^ht. The properties of platinum thus fused, are the 
loiiowing- : it has a greyish-white appearance; it is scarcely 
aiiected by a knife, and with difficalty by a file ; and has a 



specific giavity of 20.5. In the cold it yiddift little under t\m 

hammer; but it presently cracks, and presents a g^raniilar frac- 
ture. Forg'ed at a cherry-red, it crumblos in pieces; at a very 
dull red it flattens at first slightly, and then breaks. It is not 
softened in its temper at the blast of a forge ; cemented with 
oxide oi mangauese for an hour, to remove its supposed car- 
bon, it remained mtractable. During iht solution of the above 
plalinwa, no trace otoherooel ww pemeired ; bat when tlM 
pmeee was fKn a ewhet advaaeed, a Uanapareni jelly wae ob» 
tanred to cover the fragmenta of iiietaU and to under its idb> 
tion very difficult. Alter long action of the acid, with frequent 
agitation, the platinum was at last dissolved, and a white 
powder remained, which turned out to be silica, which M. 
Bonssingault believes to liavc existed m a state of silicinm, in 
the metal. He thinks it more than probable that this siiicium 
comes from 'the wood-charcoal employed ; for on biirnins' it, the 
ashes yielded a notable c^uaiitity of silica, and from auoilier ex- 
pecAnient he. satisfied himself that the silica was not derived 
froin:the cmoible. Peilia{Ni the lilica, he says, may he in tha 
deojudated atele tii the charcoal. 6 gxanunee off pose piatiwwai 
afforded 5.02^ of the siliceous compound^ 1 gramma €i whidi 
yielded 0.010 of eUica»beuif; double the iocveaae of weight on 1 
gramme of platinum ; thus mdicatiog the conversion of 0.005 of 
eilicium into 0.01 of silica, agreeably to Berze1ius*s proportions. 

M. Boiissingault next examined different varieties of French 
steel, as aUo a specimen from Moiikland near Glas«^ovv, made 
from Dannemora Swedish iron. His process consisted in dis- 
iioiviug the steel in sulphuric acid, diluted with six times its 
weight water. The, leetdimm, heia$ well diied^ and weighed, 
is then burned^ and he infers theoarbon firom the lost. He con- 
ewe in opinion with SCr. Daniell, that these residuums, as well 
as those of cast iron, eontatn siiicium ; possibly in the state of 
A persilicate of liron, as the carbon is in the state of plumbago* 
It is to be remarked, that the residuums of the carbonaceous 
steels take fire in the yjlatiuum crucible before it is red hot; 
sometimes indeed the hand can endure the heat at which inflam- 
mation happens. What remained after the combustion, was 
digested With dilute muriatic acid, which dissolved the metallic 
oxides, and left, the silica sensibly pure:. it was. calcined, and 
weighed, while hot In this process the manner of eitiaiattBg 
the oarboii was ihr foHn rigorous; butthe dbdefolsact waetibe 
silica. The following is a table of the results ; 



a Copper, 

lion of Rive • 99.S25 • traces 0.175 traees 
Steel of cementation 99 .325 0.450 0.225 traces 
Cast steel . . . 99.442 0.333 0.225 



^'S^^. A^-^" ^ 

It woold appear lirom these residts, that in the oemeatetion* 



318 Fmgrm ^ Mtnig^ ikmme. 



at the saiiie time that the iron combines witii the carbon, it absorbs 
also a small (luanfity of silicium. It tiua fact, wliich at present 
is soniL'wliat douhttiil, wore rstablished by a great number of 
aitalyses oi iron, before and after cementation, we could conceive 
the utility of certain substances whiehcMtdMi Id tht ^tamwl 
Ml the dwiti of twmltioi*. By expowof a pm ra, vUoli 
OflilMMd so tiliM* toftMltingh6iit,k«MtMt viHi ]mmmtA 
day, he obtained mjpQftte «f the steel of Cl«Ml» tHiinh WMwIH 
•dy by asalysiti of iron 9d.^ silidmm 0.8* Fim 100 parts, 1 .6 
Mfts of siUca were obtained. There was no carbon in it. This steel 
nas the property of hnrdcning with water in the usual way, but 
it is not tnisted to by woikmen. Ten fri ammes of slender iron 
nails (whi( h yielded nu residuum alter solution in sulphuric) 
were fused m a Hessian crucible. The brilliant melted button 
was more diliicult to liainmcr and to file than the iron emploved. 
It consisted^ in 100 parU of iron ^.46, silicsum 0.54 ; wiiidi 
kstjiekM 1.0S of nIkNL 

We cannot llienlbie judge (tf te da^^ of taba of im 
vlMitliis operation is condneted in a Hessian mtcible, ainoe it 
•earns to be sufficiently demomtiated, that at a high tempera- 
ture, the iron reduces the silica, combines with the silicium, and 
forms a compound more fusible than the metal . The same thin^ 
happens to platinum, when it finds silicitini ready reduced; and 
if it does not fuse in a Husslau crucil)k' like iion, it is because 
from ifs slic"lit atlliiity i'or oxyt^en, it cannot, like iron, decompose 
Silica. In a vreaael bfanjuc, steel melts iir&t, tliea silicated pla- 
tinum, and lastly manganese, in the same state of combination 
wlllktlieolliariiietek. M. BcqMstefonltiiiferattiatpuremaiiga- 
Qaae ia nocie diflkolt of fiiaioB, then pure platinaiii. 

Onmmm CkmbkuOhM ^ChM, ^ M. J. Javal f. The object 
of this paper is to prove by experiment, that M. Pel letter's late 
notions concerning the equivalent number and combinations of 
gold are erroneous. M. Javal shews by varied researches on 
the oxide of gold, obtained by adding barytes to the chloride 
of that metal, that it consists of 11.909 oxygen united to 100 
of metallic gold ; a result whicli approaches nearly to 12.077, 
iSsMt obtained by Berzelius, by decomposing the neutral muriate 
of gold wiUi mercury, and estnmrting fironi the quantity of gold 
obftiiaad» of mercery which supplanted it, and rale of oiidaiticNi 
of mercmry, the rate of oxidation of gold. M. Oberkampf had 
shewn that the aidfdinret of gold obtained by predpitattDf this 
metal from the muriate, by sulphuretted hydrogen, consisted of 
24.39 sulphur + 100 gold. Now iJ&p s l%d96, ia very 
near the preceding number. 

The yellow crystals which are obtained by eveporating the 

^ There is nothing added at Monklaud to the charcoal ; it nwj howerer 
contain a little silica. 



^W^^fWm ^ AW VigJI OOPi^<t will 



mcid soMmidr gpoMlMtid jpolMb, im iwiiilmia by M. 
P^M«r M a Here nriUm of tte two chlorides. By •f«po» 
rating a mixture of the muriate of fold and muriate of potMk, 

M. Javal obtained crystals of a fine golden yellow, having the 
form of clonp-titcd quadrangular prisms. These crystalis difl 
not losr theii- colour by washing ; on the contrarv, tlicy coti- 
tinue to possess the colouring;- power in a very hiL;li (leoTcc. M. 
J aval afterwards analyzed these crystals, and lound tiiem com- 
posed as follows : 

CUoride oTpotMitai UM 1 •torn by toitlMi $Ml 
■ ■ <tf gold . • 68^4 SilQwi < » • • 68«71 

W«fflr 7.10 9«loiMi .... 6.08 




JMr. Grottvelle, (not Granville^ as misprinted in the last 
Number of our Jonraal, p. 174), has pubhihed in the Jnmle$ 
de Cftnme tt de Phy&que for last August, a paper on some 
compounds of chromium* and on several compinationi, in 

which one of the elements enters only in a very small propor- 
tion. He says that bichromate of potash, when calcined 
strongly, melts, and passes to the state of neutral chromate, 
giving up the half of its acid which is decomposed, and leaves 
a crystallized oxide of chromium in spangles of a magnificent 
green colour. The neutral chromate obtained was anidyzed by 
a solution of sulphurous acid, which converts it instantly into 
sulphate of potash, suljghate and sulphite of chronium. Hie 
metallic oxide was precipitated by ammonia, and the sulphate 
of [ otash evaporateOi 

M. Grouvelle says, that Vauquelin, by pouring sulphuric 
acid and potash into chromic arid, obtamed a brown preci- 
pitate, which he regarded as an oxide of chromium, with 
more oxygen than the green oxide. It is not, says M. 
Grouvelle, an oxide, but a carbonate of chroniinin. Surely then 
it must have been a carbuaate of potash wl»icU M. Vauqueliu 
employed. It dissolves, he adds, with effervescence in di- 
lute acidst When boilcjd in distilled water^ it is decomposed, 
and we obtain green oxide, and carbonic acid« Consequently, 
we must avoid washing it with hot water. 

We can also obtain this carbonate of chromium, by eva^ 
porating to dryness, a mixture of nitrate of ammonia, chromate, 
and carbonate of potash, or of muriate of ammonia, and an 
alkaline nitrate, carbonate, and chromate. The matter dried 
at a gentle heat blackens. It is to be re-dissolved in water, 
and a drop oi water of ammonia is to be poured in, to separate 
a small quantity of carbuuate of chromium, which, he believes, 
the nitrate of ammonia had r^dered soluble. If it be too 
strongl;^ heated, the excess of nitrate would re-produce some 
chromate. Here it is ihe protoxide of azote in the nascent 



state which deromposes the chromic acid ; once <^ascous, it 
has no lonp^er ibis power. The mixture oi uiUe and sal-am- 
moniac acts as nitrate ot ariHiionia, because a double decom- 
position is effected, in vn tue of the facility wiiU which the 
nitrate of ammuiiia is converted into gas. This doable de- 
compositioQ always happens whm me oMl» along wttb 

>i«.fffyyyp.^ fhf watwmi^ ^ Miatol mteaflMiA nf totting a farf 

cUotiaa. Itt Mder l» ateoa tba pvolouae af ai«la» m aMf 
Iherelbfa «se, instead of mtnta of awmonia, a miainra «f mIm 
and sal-ammoniafly m tiM{WDportioD of dof the former to 1 af 
the lattar, laaviag an excess of nitre, to prevent sublimation of 

the sal-ammoniac. By Dr. WoUaston's scale, 3 of nitre are 
equivalent to 1.58 of sal-ainniomac ; so that M. Grouvelle's 
excess seems supprfltiously trrt^ at; 2 of nitre to 1 of sal-ammo- 
niac would be good piopurUuns, and, to secure intimate mix- 
ture, they should be dissolved together in hot-water. 

M. Grouvelle, in a short section on the chromites, ofiers no- 
thing very definita or satitflKtory. In treating of d^mate of 
lead, he aays, we may obtain a reddish cbTonate, by employing 
an alcaline chromate of potash ; or, if we make use of a sab* 
acetate of lead, and a neutral chromate, boiling both together, 
a yeUow precipitate is formed, which passes in a few secoodt 
into a very brilliant orange-red. We may procure a still deeper 
tint, by boiling a little alcali with the red, or ev( n \v\th the 
yellow chromate of lead. He has analyzed, comparatively, 
the yellow ciiromate, the red, and the red ore of Siberia. All 
give exactly the same ratio between the acid and the oxide. 
They are neutral chromates, only the red chromate contains a 
assail quantity of alcali, vbich appeara to him about 1 or 1| per 
cent A red chromate may be obtained, by boilaog together 
chromate of potash and litharge. From some experiments he 
infers, that the alcali is combined with the oxide of lead, and 
that this combination, united to the chromate of lead, gives rise 
to the red chromate, which thus contains a little more oxide 
than the neutral chromate. A few drops of dilute nitric acid 
deprive it immediately of its red c<ilour, by dissolving the alcali 
and a little oxide of lead. He has found in the Siberian ore a 
little lime, but he is not sure whetlier it may not have been ac- 
cidental. The abore drcumatahcea explain the fact known to 
|»abteTa, that the yellow chromate of lead mixed up with whit* 
mg, for painting walls, produces as gieat a body of coionr as 
the same weight of the aeep orange chromate. 

M. Grouvelle precipitated magnesia, by caustic soda piirt« 
fied with alcohol, washed the precipitate till the water no lon- 
ger reddened turmeric paper, treated it with nitric acid, cal- 
cined strongly and repeatedly the compound, then washed the 
magnesia, and obtained, finally, a nitrite which, with sulphuric 
acid, gave well-pronouuced crystals of sulphate of soda* With 



^ J ^ 1 y GoOgl 



polash the same result was obtained. We must take cafe to 
treat the nitrite by nitric aoid, MMe btittg Vtrj idcftUM it WOlld 
not fuse on 1)11111111^: coals. 

It wf! evaporate the washings of masriesia when the wat^ 
ceases to be alcaline, reduced to about one-quarter it deposits 
a very uotable quantity of magnesia, and then I'eddens turmeric 
paper. It is probable that the water decomposes the neutral 
QombiBitMii wrmed, al iIm vonMat xi precipilitiiNi, into a tok 
Idbfeflmapoaad^inllieamM of oloaliy and aa laiohMo oiMb* 
pound* widi eneua of baoo.* Hie only means, tl^el^, of 
ootiB^rthii exactly the quantity of magneiia wUeh a ioMoa 
contains, is to precipitate by phosphate of ammonia^ 

Map:nesia. treated %vith barytr?, presents the same pheno- 
mena, but iht^y are easier to ascertain. M. G. acted on the 
compound of magnesia and barvtes with a quantity of nitric 
acid, lasuiiicient to dissolve tlie v^hole. The re«ae*ents indi- 
cated both magnesia and barytes in the part dissolved, as 
well as in the pu't undissolved, which proves that there was 
reaiiy a oombmatioa* for o<lK«wiM llio baryteo woald havo 
boMathofimtaniltdwIlfa the acid. About 4 per Mit of l«- 
rytes is thaa aoaooHlod with the magnesia. In Uka nMAnRV 
cnde of copper retaiaa a mmU pottson of the potasb, or barytof^ 
onployod to tiuofw k d ow n f rom ita aeid solalionB^ 



In treat inor of the pnncipb s ot combination at the commence- 
ment of this article, we promised to return to one of Berzelius's 
speculations. Wc shall now bestow a word or two on it. He 
i» investigating the combinatious of chromium. " Not having 
at my disposal,'' says he, any motanic dtrondoniy I bats 
endMTOuiod to dadsce Ibo oompoMtion of its treea osride fnm 
its oapadty ibrtho aetds. I (UMohPod die bywste of ebrtmian 
in muriatie acid ; I ev^aporaled 'tUa solution to drynesiy and 
beatod the antriate to a levperature sufficiently bi^ to expel 
every trace of muriate of ammonia which might be present. The 
muriate thn;? beated appeared under the form of a red, pulve- 
rulent, and bulky mass ; it dissolved very slowly, but without 
residuum in water. The solution was precipitated by ammonia, 
added in so small an excess that the liquid only re-acted 
feebly ; it was thereafter digested with this excess to remove 
the mttfiatie add precipitated witb tbeoside, mthe form of a 
aubmiiriate. The oxide thae obtained weighed d»05 graine. 
Tbe liqiiidy nentreliied with nitric add, and piectintated by 
nitrate .of stiver, produced ld.61 grains of mnriate of silver. 
The experiment has then given, for 100 parts of muriatic acid 
102.3 parts of oxide of chromium, which makes 28.5 parts of 
oxygen in 100 parts of crreen oxide. If the acid contains the 
metal combined with twice as much oxygen as in the green 
oj^ide, this laat must contain .29.89 huudjredths of its weight 



322 Pr^ftis of Foreign Science* 



ol oxygen ; if, ou tbe other hand, liie ratio of the oxyf^^cn oi the 
Cixide weie to tiMil of tibt acid as 2 to 5, the oxMe ou^lit to oon- 
tMH only 20 ptftiol oxygen. If, finally, the oxygen cf the omJi 
vM to lhil«r AiMidiB the lattoorst^ls tttaempoMtm 
Msld recede WfmXtw hnm fkm result obtained by exp«riinbt*.'* 
As Dr. WoUiyrtmrt soak eoiacides for muriate of nher ^Hth 
Bnelius's aUme WBrnSbmSf we shaU employ it in the examina- 
tion of the above passag;e ; 15.61 muriate of silver contain 2.98 
of what Berzelius still reckons iimriatic acid, which were pre- 
viously combined with the 3.05 ot oxide of chromium. And 
2.98 : 34.12: :3.05:: 34.92, a number representing, by Berze- 
Has's experiments, the equivalent of oxide oi chromium, on 
Dr. VVoUaston's scale. And 2.98 : 3.05:: 100: 102.3, pre- 
dsely aa M. BerzeUos haa stated. He addi, fritteb umkm 
Mrti of oxygea in 100 putt of green oride;** hmte, by 
pnpiitio^h 3.00 M^oie^ Olid m ZM, or(to btrngih^ 
Olom to round numbers), in 3.5 pOftSy ohBDOtonctly 1 of oxyw 
gen. Tkmm 1km atom of chromium woold oppoor to be %Jl^ tMit 
of the g^reen oxide 3.5, and that of the acid 5.5, the latter num- 
ber of which is quite discordant with that deduced from hh 
experiment on chromate of leadt, which gave 213.9^ oxide of 
lead to 100 of acid; whence the latter becomes on the equiva- 
lent scale 6.54. One of the canons of combination laid down 
by BerzeUus is, that 100 parts of muriatic acid neutralize a 
quantih^ of base, which contains 29.4 of oxygen, and from this 
oMMii ftii obovo ookdhmoa tOMO to bo Mido. Now» tUi 
ptppoftion k pBO ci aa ty vlnt no find by sliding 100 oo Dr« 
Wniloolww^o 00010 oppoaito to dry Bwiriotic acid, for 29^ to tben 
opposite to oxygoo. In like maBoer» by oKdiog lOOoppooHo to 
each other body on that instrttment we may aoko oa many 
canons as we please, but they all mero^e in the general system 
of equivalents. Dr. Thomson, in his account of the atomic 
theory J, says, " According to Berzelius in order to saturate 
100 parts of muriatic acid, a metal must be combined with 42 
parts of oxygen." We shall not attempt to unravel this atomic 
UOt While we entertain Uie highest respect towards the 
:£hPodiflbchetoiit Ibr bis nnweoried and voluaMo naeoichot, wo 
Monoi bolp thakiog bit manner of rlewing chonueal propor* 
^tiono to be unocoountably perplexed and dofecCivo. Wo oon 
.«ioro eooily undentood why bis partial mode of notolkni iboidd 
be preferred by many writers in France to the universal sys- 
tem, as taught by Mr, Dalton, and so clearly exhibited on Dr. 
WoUaston's scale, for the same reason that vaccination was so 
All received in .that couotry.^because it was diaoovered by an 
Englishman. 

We are lately indebted to Professor Berzelius also, for a 

• Afuuiles d§ Ckimi€€tSeP»iftiguc^ Tom. xvii. p. la 
t im* Tom, svtL p. 7. I Ammia o/PhiL ii. aS. 



pretty loni^; memoir, on tlie mode of analyzing tlie orea of otckel, 
aud un a uew coaibiuatiou ot nickel widi arseuic and sulphur. 
;We shall re9erre an account of thiB for our next Namber, ia 

IM46f to MWMKt it vHb MBM MPa CMliiail CbiMfflliOM 4M 

n»lyiia» tha» we hmf foona far m Hm pB M t »L M9*BMfm€k 

^tonrations on the memoir ^ M. Bm^i«H inlitiwj !• iIm 
iNiniposition of the triple prassiates or hydrocranaiHtCQaMW 
ft tubject too intricate and important ta oe Uently paated ova*. 
Wa aMl, lbaMl«% boBf k adtar iwOT 

V. Organic Compouxbs. — Under this head we shall con- 
sider all chemical combinations, which directly or iikdirectly 
result iiorn vegetable aud animal orgaulzation. 
. M. Dive, apothecary, of Mont-de-Marsau, ha& formed prua* 
aiatoef fcKaui by calcining imAoowad onMiUam analMaf 
MgravM^tlMdry po«tea#tr«dalMlw^ ndagMMM 
«f.plalvflriaedMlaaUMBiao. Ha <GMa«a thrt ti» MiiBiiiit ca^- 
l^of tfaalirtar» Wag presented to llw aiMaal imwonln, ^ 
anfmad tem tha muriate by tlw potosh, acts so as to fens 
cyanogen ; and that this action is favoured by the tempera- 
ture, which weakens the combination of the hydrogen and azote 
in the ammonia. The latter element being, in every jjoiiit of the 
mass, in immediate contact with particles of carbou, easily 
unites to it, m the requisite proportions tor forming cyanogen, 
vhicb ia iwiadiately fixed by the potash. Tha same gentleman 
finda that a miiaul aC aaibaaie ^fF^ pHtially daoBBipBaai 4ia 
—toil tortiato af potadis taAlm aaonbaa to lUa aaaie 
fomaliim of the bitartrate m Ihe juice af Aa gnpa dntog its 
faaaentatioD. Accordingly, on niaiag neutral tartrate with 
jMiiflid^ahla wafiiriaii; hfi fhnari fwaiw nt tartar mi tha fanaMrtai 



In a report mada to the Institote, 15th Januarr last^ fajr 
M. M. Thenard and Berthollet, on M. Chevreurs 8th memoir 
on Fat Bodies, we find the following results of their decomp<^ 
sition by ignited oxide of copper. 

1 . That the fat of man ana the sow contain nearly the same 
proportions of elements ; that mutton suet contains more carbon 
and hydrogen ; and that in the three fats the carbon is to the 
hydrogen, by volume, nearly as 10 to 18 ; which approaches to 
the constitution of percarburetted hydrogen. 

2. That the stearines contain less oxygen, and more carbon 
and hydroeen than the elalnes; and that the ratio of the car* 
lion to the hydirogen m the stearines is 10 to I8| whilst it is a 
little less in the ehlnes. 

3. Thai the sum of the weight of the saponified fat» and the 

• Jimnu d§ PAm. Oct 1821* p. 487. 



3;^ 



, Prognss of Foreign Science 



sweet principle, which are the result of saponification of dif- 
ferent bpecies of fats, is greater than the wei|;ht of the fat em- 
ployed. If wemdOeet tiiit*tltt (wq w i i c itifln t«h— pkMwvi 
tMutR^ ulibout ftifj ollwf mlMitngo tinn Aft ^httpoteah, and 
HkB mutor, «iid tfaaldMie i» no disen^geoitnt of liydrogon aid 
0xygfii^ irs nrast necetMUrily admit the fixation of ^ter in one 
of the products of the sapomficatioQ. Comparative tables of 
all the products and of their elements, whether in weight or in 
volume, establish these conscqtiences ; and the author observes, 
that, in llie aciditicd fats, the hydroicen is to the carbon in the 
ratio of ilie elements of oletiant gas. When we heat gently 
with massicot (yellow uxide of lead) the margfaric and oleic 
acids, and consequently the acidihcd iaLs winch are lormed 
from these acids, there It disengaged a quantity of wvter, which, 
i«llMMiiiOTilNWi,^iilbnMdof4Jie<^^ h^dro» 
Ml 0f A— e n eid* widitiit oxygeo of th« laMBlcot, onHuehii 
OMMigaged simply by the combination of tiM DMMieot wkli At 
drf ami* The author adopts the latter opnioa. < He exhibiHv 
in comparative tables, the elements of natural fats, and the pro- 
ducts of their saponification, both of the mMKnio wui oloitt 
acid. There results from tbeir comparison : 

1. Tliat in the three margai ic acids which he has examined, 
the carbon is to the hydrogen perceptibly in the proportion of 
the elements of olefiant gas. 

51. TiMt the oxygen of tl^ naargnic ttoad of the sheep, it t« 
IIm oxygen of IIm annrie Midi of mhi oimI iImi bog, nearly m 
1 UrJi.. Fiom lihii ofa e r ra l io B tho' waAm propoM to -WKm 
liie margaric acid of mutton suet, OMVyonMi MM. 

3. That u iim oWe ocids of man and the hog^ there is moti 
oxyc!;en than in the margaric acid ; and that ia that of wboej^ 
there is more than in ?nargaron<i acid. 

It is remarkable that the composition of oleic acid is repro* 
sented by olefiant gas + oxide of carbon. 

When potash or any other alcalme base acts on the fats 
which have been examined, the greater part of their carbon and 
hydrogen, id a ratto'Tery near to that of olefiant gas, retaim a 
portioa oif oxygen to eooBtitnle ^e margaric and oleic acids» 
iHiiltt the rest of the dements of the fat, that ia to say, of the 
carboDy hydrogeny and a quantity of oxygen, which seems less 
by one-half than what would be necessary to bum the hydrogen^ 
form the sweet principle, by fixing probably a portion oi water. 

The elementary analysis of cholesterine shews, by its excess 
of carbon, the reason why this compound produces no maigaric 
acid, when it is exposed to the action of aloaliea. 

At page 389, vol. x. of this Journal, we have given some ac- 
count of the chemical researches of M. M. Pelletier and Ca<* 
Tontou, on cinebonine and quinine. But the mode of obtammg 



Progress of Foreign iicience 



325 



these n^w vegetable bases was omitted ; we shall qow lay it 
litfiMe our reiMlers. 

Two kiiogfUMMs («b(Mit 4^ poviid* «v«ird.) of eindKma, 
Imiwadf wm wUd on by 6 lalogrimoMi (about 13^ libs.) of 
strong alcohol. Thii operation was repeMSted four tines* Tbt 
akxteik tinctitm WOfe iraitod, and distilltd,-tOwithrli avv the 
alcohd. Care was talcen to add 2 kilogrammes of distilled 
water, in order that the matter dissolved in the alcohol should 
be protected from the immediate action of the heat, after ihe 
separation of the alcohol. This substance, received on a filter, 
wliicli allowed the aqueous liquid to pass through, was of a 
reddish ( olom, aiirl a resinous asp<pct. In this state it was 
washed ou tlie tilter with water rendered slij^htly alcalme by 
P0ta«b. Tbe liquor which bad jiassed through the fillsv Mmd 
m the fret Wiiehiiifft after hftnagp been prenovilf elenUied. 
After sevenl days of ednloonitioB, the aleuiiie liqnide peaeinff 
limpid end celoiirleis, the matter leH on Ae ilter wae wie h ed 
with n.prattj oonsidenble body of distilled water. Tbe^si^ 
stance was men of a greenish-white, very fusible, soluble in 
alcohol, and crystallizable. It was the cinchonin of Dr. Gomez. 
It possrsscd in this state some of the characters of resinous 
substances ; but, on dissolving it in an acid very mu( li diluted 
with water, it deposited a considerable qnantity of a fat matter of 
a. green colour, which had all the characters of the green fat 
wttv.ohtaiasdfcr the fttit time by M. Lanber, bj the- difeet 
aetioo,ol ether on enicboBa. We may rsoBnik, thai if teo atroBr 
am acid be employed, a great qiumtity of the fat matter woald 
remain in sohttion in the liquor, and the cinchonine, wlii^ we 
should subsequently obtain, would be polluted with it. 

The acid liquor (dilute muriatic acid wns employed) was of a 
golden-yellow. Evaporated, it yielded crystals soluble in alco- 
hol, and in water. Its taste was very bitter. It fell down 
readily with alcalme soiutions ; the gallates and alcaline oxa- 
lates occasioned precipitates soluble in alcohol. The above 
solution was treated with pure magnesia at a moderate heat. 
Themiitne; after dioroiigii' cooling, was thvown •vpon* a misff 
and the wwigiieeian piecipifeafeB was washed with water. The 
first waifain||B .wen jeUow bat -ther soon became colourless. 
The magnesum precipitate, sufficMOtly' washed and dried at the 
halnevm maruEy Wfia treated three serenral times with alcohol of 
40"^ (0.817). The alcofaolie liquors, very bitter and slightly yel- 
lowish, ^^ave by evaporation crystals in needles, of a dirty white. 
These crystals, re-dissolved in alcohol, and made again to 
crystallize, gave a very white and brilliant crystalline matter. 
We may also obtain very white crystals by washing them in the 
cold with a little sulphuric ether. These crystals are pure cia- 
chonine. 

Qnlnfaie b obtained from yellow Penivian bark, by employ- 



Fr^gnu ^ Foreign Haatc*, 

ing- the ditiereiit j)rores5es indicated for tbe extraction of cm- 
chouine. lo case of a iiaturul or artiuciai mixture of cinchonine 
and qumine, crystallization and ether may serve to separate 
these two bodies. Quioine is veiy soluble m tihtr, and doet 
not crystallize *• 

J. VoratM^ <IOwcl3l€, hm gmm tbHanring as m 
iwpwii il [iinwM t B^tAmS InlogrMiwui of yriiow 
^ §imA qmitv, redhead to aame powder. Hieie are iofased 
m water adduiated villi aliout one Uaadmllli erf ila wght of 
■nriatic acU. Aftirmaemtiaf 84 hours, heesrpre^srs strongly, 
aad treats the matter with new acidulated water till the bark 
gives out no more bitterness. He then filters, and treats the 
united infusions with an excess of pure magnesia. This miic- 
ture is boiled an instant, and then allowed to cool. 1 he le- 
niainder of the process is exactly conformable to that already 
kuown. 1 hua we filter, wash the uiagne&iau precipitate witli 
cold water, dry it, and treat it with afc(du4. We oUua the 
4guaim hf dittilliaf off the lirel portHMM of tha tloohol, aad 
amotatiag natal a Taiy low tenpefataia. 

Af tiua process, aMca aiiaple than that formniiy pil>li8hed» 
since we avoid the prepaiatioa of the alcoholic extUM^ ha bat 
obtained from 6 kilogrammes of bark about 70 grammes of 
quinine, instead of 45 or 50, which was all he could obtain by 
the former process. This arises, he believes, from the muriatic 
acid dissolving more easily all the quinine, when this is not eof 
v<doped by the fat or resinous matter of the alcoholic extract 

But the most ecouoinicai and productive process is that of M. 
Ueuiy, filsX* A kilogramme of yellow bark, (ciochoua cordi- 
Iblia) redaaadaatQ a antlgf fiaa powder, was aeltd oa taaoawMi 
hmi, by a daia ariptoia aaid» coawsting of 50 or 60 yaaiMga 
dilnlad with 8 kihuwawaaa af water ISor eaahttma. Thaiilteied 
4aaaeliaaa iNia vary hkter, and had a leddish colour, whkh 
aaHNMd aa oaolpg a yellowiili tint To discolour (blanch) 
these liquors, and saturate the acid« he employed pidverized 
quick-lime instead of the more expensive magnesia. The liquors, 
entirely deprived of colour, were passed through a cloth, and 
the precipitate which formed, was washed with a small quantity 
of water, to separate the excess of lime. The deposit (on the 
cloth,) well drained and almost completely deprived of moisture 
Ant twidve hours, after having been put three successive times to 
digest ia akttU af 36^ (0^37), fanMhed by dnlilliag off Ite 
aMMlk ttqaidt aliaavafiecid aatter^baofi^ 
iaf. It was acted on widi water shacpeaedwilbialplnBicaeidy 
aad tkaiafe^tand Ijywg afadad aaarly 38 gi la— ni af white 

t Ibid. xvU. P. 439. 
t «ff«ni. 49 Pkarm* Jolj IBSl. p. M. 



^ J ^ . , y GoOg 



9 



Progress <^ Foreign Science, 327 

silky crystals, mKkdf ioiaMft m ileoM, MMilf fcnhlilu m 
cold mtar, but mm im fattUBg^viter* ptitieiikdy if tfakvM' 

slightly acidulated. They w'st of pm lalfilHila ol c|Mhiib ' 
MMin. PelMer and Cnmioiiy while thcj epfwore of the abotw 

process, consider the product as overrated, probably from M« 
Henry not having sufficiently dried the sulphate obtained. The 
pure sulphate of cinchoniiia oucjht to be brilliant, crystallized in 
paralklipeds, very hard, and of a glassy white ; the sulphate of 
quiuina is on the contrary of a dull white, silky and flexible; 
both should be soluble in alcohol and should burn without leav- 
ing any residuum'^. 

In fbe Jwfml de Pharmacie for last September, M. Baup, of 
Vevaij deacribei the cijstaUised solphale and supersulphate id 
quinina, as consisting^ the fint 

Quuuna^ • « 1 atom 45 
Sniphnrie aeid • I 5 

Water . 4 -* 4.5 



64^ 

The supersulphate consists of — 

Quinina . . 1 atom 45 

Acid , , .2 — 10 

Water . . 10 — 18 

5i 

The eryitallhie fetm ef cindionina it a ibpnlioidal pnMSyef 
108^ and 72°, terraktated by a beveimnt 
lUI. Pinel, Thenard, and Hall^ kk a TCMit leeendj made 

to the Academy of Sciences, on a MeMir ot M. Choulant, en- 
titled, " Observations on the employment of the Sulphates of 
Quinina and Cinchonia in Intermittent Fevers,'* give the fol- 
lowing conclusions : The number of cases reported by M. 
Choulant is 14: in 10 of them the cessation of the fever was- 
due to the sulphate of qninina, which occurred immediately 
after either the fir&t or the second dose ; and, in the latter 
case, the paroxysm that HoUoved the first was eonsideral^y 
milte; the effiBotnal dosee Taxied from 6 to 12 graiae. Tlie 
reporters also itale^ that M. IHnilile haa administered the soK 
pnate of quinina in tertian and qaartaii agves, with im mediate 
and complete success, and aloMMt always after the first doiea* 
The small bulk of the medicine renders its administration easy 
in many cases in which the bark in substance would be inad- 
missible. The red or yellow back seems to yieki the most 
febrifuge quinina. 

VI. Analysis aud AppAUATU8.-->In the laat Number of 

« Jmmde^mrm. July, 1821. p. 305. 



32d 



our Journal, p. 1G9, we have described M. Berthier's mode of 
analyzing minerals which contain alcaline matter. The follow- 
ing Table oi resuiu seemt importaot: 



1 




PgtrodiCTi 










Silica . . . 


0.6420 


0.7520 


0.7000 


0.6550 


0.6100 


0.6440 


AlmnBUt 




0.1500 


0.1600 




0.19t0 


0.156 4 






PMnk . . • 




0.0040 


0.0050 


0.0010 


0.1150 


0.0540 


lima • • . 


tnee 


OOlfO 


0.0050 


o.ooto 


... 


0.0190 


Magnesia . . 


• • • 


DM40 






0.0160 


0.0120 


Oxide of iroo • 


• • • 


• . ■ 


0.0050 


0.0500 


'0.0420 


0.0430 


Water . . . 


• • • 


|0.0150 


0.0300 


... 


0.0200 


0 0710 








10.98 50 


0.99SO 


;0.9950 


0.9924 



The domites from Puy de Dome» and the ▼itreous la?a« hare 
been called feld-spar lavas. 



1. Analysis of the crystallized Calamine of Limbourgh (Elec- 
tric oxide of Zinc, Haiiy,) by Professor Berzelius. (From 
Schweigger*8 Journal for last December.) 

Mr. Smithson Orst distinguished sefml wieties of cala- 
nune which have since fonneda single spades. That now^der 
consideration was by him found to consist of» silica^ 25; oade 
of zinc, 68.3 ; and water, 4.2=97.5. 

The silica and oside are in the equivalent proportions, but 
the water is in this respect anomalous. With a view of settling 
this point, M. Borzelius undertook a careful analysis of the 
minerals. On redissolving in ammonia, the precipitate by 
subcarbonate of soda, from the sulphuric acid solution, he se- 
parated completely the oxide of zinc from the lead, and found 
of the latter 0.003 parts. The following is bis result : 

• 

Saica • . • . 24.9 1 ( 26.23 
Oxide of zmc . . 06.84 >or< 66.37 
Water .... 7.46 J [ 7.40 
Carbonic acid . • 0.45 100.00 
Oxide of lead . . 0.28 

99.93 

Representing this compound by the formula 2 zn.S + aq., and 
subtracting the carbonate of zinc. 

2. Anafysis of an anemcal mftiUBt^cm Zmmoald, by Dr. da 
Menll; specific gravity, 6.064; constitaents, iron 42.44, arse- 
nic 92.12, sulphvr 2.4. 



329 



'3. A variety of malacolite from Norway (8ahUte,)sp. gr. 
3.1, analyz< (i by Count Trolle, gave silica 57.4, lime 23.1, 
liiagncsiii 16.74, loss 2.7(>, in 100 parts. He considers it as 
represented by the formula C S '+ M S* ; thaX U« abi-sUicale 
otlinid Miociftted with a bi-ulicale of magneiia. 

4* Jnafym of $me nar^tem wmmaii, bf C« d*01iuoiiy 
Swedish ambassador at the HagM. They wm mdartakan at 
tha iBvitation of BerzelioSt and verified by him. 

Garnet ofBroddbo^ sp. g^. 4.25. It fuses into a black glo- 
bule before the blow-pipe. It consists of silica 39, aliiraina 
14.3, protoxide of iron 15.44, protoxide of iiiarigaDese 27.9, 
tungstate ot zmc 0.5, silicate of zinc 0.5, loss 2.36 in 100. He 
represents its atomic constitution, on Berzelius's plan, by 
F S ^ +2 Mg S +2 A S. ; that is, 1 atom uf bi-silicate of iron, 
•f 9 atovB silicate of manganese* +2 atoma itliaite of al«* 
mina. 

MahcoUie of BjommyrmMkn, sp. gr. 3.331 • It qooiiata of 
silica 57.28, lime 24.88, magneMa 9.12, piotOKtde of iron 6.04, 
lurotozide of manganfaft 0.72, loia 1.96 ; or, M S *+% G S^, 

fiewing the iron and manganese as accidental associates. 

A new mineral from Parprn';, called Chovdrodite (granqlar,) 
colour wine-yellow, occurs in grams about the size of a pin- 
head, fracture small conchoidal, lustre between waxy and vitre- 
ous, scratches glass, sp. ^r. 3.1B. Dissolves in neither nitric 
nor muriatic acid ;,infasibTe before the blow-pipe, but becomes 
darker coloured; with soda it fiiaaa tato a bright giaan slsu^. 

borax it leadUy laaltiy witli intwnemnoe, into a brt|^ 
.greenish-yellow glass. Its constituents are, silica 38.0» mag* 
netia 54, oxide of iron 5.1, alumina 1.6, potash 0.86, manga* 
nese a trace, loss 0.54. Viewing the iron and the latter ar- 
ticles as unesiential, M. d'Ohsson thinks its constitution may 
be represented by the simple formula M S, a silicate of magne- 
sia. It occurs near Pargas, in Finland, interspersed in gra- 
nular limestone. — Schweigger's Journal, Dec. 1820. 

Exammaiion of a meteoric stone which fell in Courland, in 
tiia circle of DUnabergy on the 12th July, 1820, by Theodore 
Von Grotthua. Between five and six o'clock in Ihe eranuig, a 
baU apparently as large as the fall moon, wae eaen moving slowly 
from south to north. It seemed to burn with a feddiefa flame, 
which also followed it, like the train of a comet, leaving in the 
distance spiral clouds, which moved very slowly, and then melted 
in air. After this meteor had described in the heavens an arch 
of nearly 100°, it bocamr extinguished. In less than a minute 
afterwards there resounded from the region where the fire-ball 
had vanished, a noise resembling, first, three rapid discbarges 
of great ^uns ; then a fire of musketry ; and . nnally, a con- 
tinuous roiling like thnnder peals. At the same, time, a stena 
M from the air, 3| German miles iirom the eoantry pahioe of 

Vol. XII. Z 



330 Fregnu of F%H'eigu tScietice. 

liixna, about ftftv paces from two husbciudiiicu, u ho were work- 
ing in the field, and vv hi. were greatly astonished. About four 
wersts distant, in the presence of six laba»iW«wllOirei» mowing 
hay on the banks of tlie Kohiptchea kke, there M at the swm 
limft» with a frightlU UatiDC toimd, a larfe body into the water 
tlartiiiH^ ill spray icveral nthonMi imo the air. Also at a third 
flaoa, thraawerttsin the opposite direction, there was obsenrrd 
to fall frooft the air into the river Dubna, something which ren- 
dered Ha waters muddy for nearly an hour. The stonp which 
fell in presence of tlir- two hushrindmen, penetr^it/d a foot and a 
half into a dense, dry, clayey loiim. It wns so hot that the iriin 
when they tried to touch it, after recovtiiiig Iroiu their surpiise, 
burned their hands. There was also a smell of gunpowder dif- 
fu^d round it. Its shape, when entire, resembled a rounded 
anvil, of which the narrow end was undemoat It weighed 
ahogaidier about Ibrty poanda. Ita ertemal characters are de> 
aBfibcd by M « GfoCtfaaa» and leauihk those of other meteoric 
iloiiea. Its ctmpositiOBy aecording to his elaborate analysis, is 
as foOows : Iron 26, nickel 2, sulphur 3.6, (which bodies he re- 
gards as forming 31.5 of a sulphuret of iron and nickel), silica 
33.2, protoxide of iron 2'2, magnesia 10.8, alumina 1.3. me- 
tallic clii omiuin 6.7, lime 0.5, man<;anese a trace. His mode of 
analysis is somewhat peculiar, and we shall perhaps advert to 
it in onrnext Nimiber. He thinks the proportions of chromiura 
and manganese are very difficult to determine, when pre- 
sent in small quaatitj^, wuess we remve the greater i)arl of the 
irai by mnnatie acid, before ftising the powder with caastie 
potash. In this way also the mass yields more readily to the* 
aloali. He believes the chromium to have existed in this me- 
teorolite in the metallic state, because had it been oxidaed, h 
would have dissolved in the mririatic acid. 

The following mode of ariLiK zin^c copprr pvi iic s by Professor 
Dobereiner seems ingenious. He i raiismits over it a stream of 
chloiiae, dnofl by passing previously over mnriate of lime. The 
pyrites is entirely decomposed, and chlorides of sulphur, iron, 
and copper result. On heating this mixture with a spirit lanip, 
lha HM cMaride distils over wo a separtte Tessel, the seoond 
MMhMS in bfilllaiit flakes into the upper part of tiie retort, or 
Matrass, aad the enpreoos proto^loride remaiDS at die bottom 
m tfM form ef a ciDnamon-brown semi-fused mass*. There is 
much resemblance between this method and Berzelius*s for ana- 
lyzing the ores of nickel, of which an account will be given In 
our ne^t Number. Wi were surprised however to perceive M. 
Dobereiner describing, as a new contrivance of his own, the 
pneumato-mcrcurial apparatus, so iung ago inveuted by Mr. 
Pepys ; widi which he and Mr. Allen performed their celebrated 
ewpetimoMli on carbonic acid and respiration. 

M t N t wMit kt JFfWfict.«*On the 15th of June last, about three 

• GUbert's Annaien for mi. Part 4. 



331 



o'clock P.M., while the sky was serene, a very considerable 
globe of fire was seen in the air, which st cmed to descend 
rapidly in a straight line. Inimcdiat* ly tiit;ieaiter a IoikI rattling^ 
noise and a detonation were hearii, mid a stone wcii^hing 92 
kiiograiiiiies (203 Ubt* f^poird.) fell in tlie Commime of lurenas, 
dtpvtiiie&t Hi AfdMe. Aeomdbg to Ihe report of a vfllager 
its appeMsce wis tumouiioed fay two strong ezplotloM, two 
diteharg«g of ft cumon, and followed by a rnmblme noise, which 
spread consternation among the inhabitants. iCe stone hid 
sunk 18 drrimctres into the ground, that is, nearly 6 feet. It 
is also said, that some smaller stones fell on the occasion. Tlie 
fragment of the great one, which was sent to the Academy of 
Sciences^ has ^e usual external characters of meteorolites. 

II. Applications of CHEMiSTaY.«»Under quinina we have 
already pointed o«t the medical am^licatiomi of this tatistattoe. 
II* dezollas in a memoir, of wliidi inere is a cofHons abstract in 
the /Mrweltif PAaarmtfOf fbr Beptember, sliews, tiiat all tlm 
antimonial preparations used in medicine, except carefully crys- 
tallized tartar emetic, contain more or less arsenic, which origi- 
nally combined with the antimony in the ore, continues perti* 
nacioMsly associated with it through all its modiiications. He 
also proves in the same paper, that a very powerful pyrophorus 
is obtained, by treating tartar emetic in the same way as the 
mixture of alum and flour is treated for making the pyrophorua 
of Homberg. The ontons details oa diis so^ect are reserved 
te ontr next Journal* 

Of the severity of tlie Fteeh foScB PkmrmtM^oh^ wn 
ma y judges when M. L — , a respectable apothecary of Verdun 
has been recently fined 3,000 francs, for selHng snlpboric acid 
to a woman, who poisoned herself with it. 

The experiments of M. Magendie having shewn that the salt, 
extracted long ago from opium by Derosnes, and wliich is im- 
pru[)erly called narcotine, produces a stupor diiieimg from real 
sleep, and acts on do^s as a poison in small doses, M. Robi- 
qnet eonceiTcd that ne mieht tender opium a more soothing 
mfldi^e by depriving it of this Irritating and pemleious prid4 
^pld« Accordingly M. Robiquet has prepated an extract of 
opitutt on good cnemical prlnciplas^ which has produced happy 
eitf^cttf. He macerates the opium, cut into small pieces, in water, 
as if to obtain the aqueous extract ; hi fdters and evaporates to 
the con^'istrncc of a thick syrup, and treats this extract with ether, 
agitating vriy frequently in a convenient vessel. He decants 
the ethereous liuctuie. 1 his, when once separated, is submitted 
to distillation to recover the ether. He repeats the operation as 
long as he obtains crystals of narcoiiniB* when the ether has no 
longer any action on the extract, he etaoorates the solntion, and 
the opium is prepared. As the same etner may be employed to 



Pr^m of FureigH Seinm. 



prepttM 1^ B«« «xliiei«f cmiuro, the opcmtoiit by uammmm 
costly M would «l fiiit sigbl appear. 

Dif»M0, " Simple and easy method of clearing from their 
tawny pigmeiity ayeiug infusions made with Braail woods of in? 

Uriar qi^ditj, luid of substituting them with success, for 
true Fernambuco, hy Dr. Dingier, manufacturing chemist at 
Ati!isliourg." 'i he watery iufu&ious of these poorer dve woods 
are to be evaporated, til! from 4 kilogrammes of wood iliere 
remain only 12 f>r 15 of liquid. When this liquid is cooled, we 
must pour into it, utter 12 or 18 hours, 2 kilograuuues of 
skimmed milk. After stirring this mixture well- we boil it for 
a few minates, thea pass it through a piece of tludt flamwL 
The tawnv colour will be thea sees to attach itself to the ca s eo as 
part of toe milk, which spontaneously precipitates from this 
decoction^ without occasioning the least loss in the quantity of 
red colour. The remaining red is of a pure tint. Perhaps this 
process might be useful with madders, which consist of the 
same two colours. Two kilogrammes of milk are su&cient for 
6 or 8 kilogrammes of young woods *. 

Paste for dressing Wchs, — It is well known that weavers are 
cddiged to work in damp shops, to prevent the dressing of tlie 
web fiKHn drying and h«raeniltt« M. Boboe has load lately a 
Memoir before the Academy of Sciences of Rouen, oit die sub- 
ject of foMes, in which he shews that a very minnte ad- 
dition oif muriate of Ume to them, renders them so retentive Oi^ 
absorbent of moistare» that weba dressed with such partes, 
may be wove in the upper and drier chambers of a house, as 
well as in the lower and ill-aired with the usual dressing. The 
plan is mKlijiibtedly judicious. Muriate ot lime may be had at 
a very tiitiiug expense from those apothecaries who prepare 
water of ammonia. The waste whitening steep of the bieaclxer 
is merely a solution of muriate of lime. 

J|Nii3iii^arf •--•Prolessor Glamri, of Floiaiioe^ has lately pub^ 
lished an Essay on Manures,' and their most useful mode of 
employment in Agriculture. To the English farmer, acquainted 
with the agricultural practice of Mr. Coke, and the Treatise of 
Sir H. Davy, the above work offers little novelty; but its pre- 
cepts must be very useful in Italy ; and, indeed, his experi- 
nients seem so judicious, as to deserve a brief notice in this 
place. ** I shall demonstrate," says he, *' botli liy reasoning 
aud facts, that the previous fermentation of manures is not well 
fitted to make their substances enter into plants during vege-> 
tatiou, if that fermentation takes pkce at a distance from uie 
soil which the manurea are meant to fertiliae; but that, on the 
contrary, the l^>plicatioa of manures in thmr entire chemical 
atata is adyantiigeous, espeoUUy if they have been sak^ected 

* Journal Po^iechni^ue iTJu^ilnmrg, 



Progress of BfN^gm Sfimce* 



to ■whwiflri dmsitPi («mIi m dwyp hg of iM wtnm^ 4ce«) 

To roy ^eat surprise, experiment! bm PC n t in ced ne €C Ivo 

things ; fiift, that the loss of iisefid Stiller suffered during Ter- 
jDentation is much ^eater tium [ could have conceived; and, 
secuiidiy, that if the solubility of the residuum be ever so httle 
increased, tiie quality of that residuum is still more deterio- 
rated." He placed in a copper pot a mass of horse-dun^, 
weighing 40|^ libs, (of 12 ounces each], which, he surrounded 
-with come doth, and a large body of tlraw, to MfMn It liNMi 
tbeactioii of inr aod ligbt; add it was placed in adaaaaiHl to- 
'jnarod ntaatioii, eireamstaiicet all aniavtmiabia to hnom* 
iBtm. It mmted then of 



At the end of two months it had lost 9^ pounds of its 
weight Its proponkmal coiii{K>titioii waa now, water d8, 
^biea 16, atteiraated Ofgaaic matter 11, lolabla matter 4. At 

the end of anoliher month it had lost 3 poimde more. fha» 
time after this, at Ae begpiming of July, ne opened the pot, to 
give the manure free access to the air, and on the 18th of that 
month, being 4 from the commencement, its weight had di- 
minished to 22 libs. 3 ounces. Tlie proportion of its consti- 
tuents, was, however, much the same. Thus, though placed in 
circumstances the most favourable to its preservation, it had 
lost in four months more than one half of its substance. 
•He fonnd tlmt tiie richer aa^nalfjied matter wae ^t soonest 
dtaaipated. Tlnw the manufes lose their aaota, an elemeot ea» 
•ential to Ihe growth of wheat, as it ftnms a eonstitiieiit of its 
gluten, wl&oat which panary fermentatioo does not take piooe^ 
M. de Sattssure's experiments prove that these grains do not 
derive their azote from the atmosphere. His experiments on 
the dung of fowls, cows, Si-c. offer similar rcstilts. The de- 
composition of cow dimt? was found to be much slow* r than 
that of horses. He was surprised to find its decomposition 
accelerated by being mixed with straw. But the freer access of 
air in this case will account for the difference. In great dung 
ldil8, the antborsays, that deeonq^ition soes on more rabidly, 
and is more wastml; The attenimtlon of iIm fibroas portion is 
ttms very dearly bought. 

Anodier result of the autlu}r*s experiments which we think 
interesting is, that fresh vegetable matter, such as chopped 
straw, decomposes more rapidly into soluble manure, when 
suxed wiUi soil in which plants ace growing* than wUen IqSl in 



Water 

•Fibrous matter . ^ . . « < 
Attenuated stercoraceous matter 
Soluble parts 



70.37 
15.17 
ll.lSt 
2.34 



100.00 



334 



Progress o/ Foreign Scietice, 



soii ill which no vegetation it ^ing <mi It fliio diti^pears 
sooner, being disiohed by tbs iinng pow«n of tb» vtgeMilM, 
Md oirmd nto tieir etiesUUioii. 
We «m not a litlle amated vith the contraat ia §mm and 

science, batuwA tlie woik of the Italian Professor, and an QS» 
ficial Report, signed by Count Dubois, Yvart, and Heriiaurt 

de Thury, Members of the Commission of Manures of Paris, 
made to the Royal and Central Society of Agriculture, on a 
Tjcw Mantire proposed under the name of the Alkalino-Vege- 
taiile Potulrcftcs. These gallant erentlemen ext(jl one of their 
countrywomen, Madame Vibert Duhout, patentee of the Poih- 
drettes, for her discovery and indefatigable practice of the fol* 
lowing operatunw After aUowing llie oontistent ordm to 
subtide, the draws off liho urinoui liquid into si boiiiiy and 
leaves it in repose for fifteen or twenty days, to allow time for 
the alkaline and saline elaborations to be naturally formed. 
She then slakes or difiiises quicklime in the urines, in the pro- 
portion of a fifth part of the whole. At this moment the lady 
feels herself exposed to an infectimin and insupportable odour, 
from the escape of various gases. At the end of ei^rht days 
the slaked hme forms a fair or yellowish paste, sok and soapy 
to the touch, wluch diftuses the odour of violets. This paste 
is removed, spread on a spacious and welUaired area, covered 
with n thrice its thickQeM of the eonmitettt oidiire> which 
had been meanwhile dried end druned in the upper hoiini. 
On theee two primary beds o^m are ftmned m nftemale 
cession, taking em to leare from tpoce to npace layers of the 
tiiick matter in mutual conteet, in older to moilitate their fer- 
mentation. In a shorter or longer time, according to the state 
of the weather, there arises in the mass a fermentation, more 
or less active, which rises, become =? puffy, and speedily con- 
founds the different strata of the alternate matters. When the 
fermentation has ceased the ^eat masses must be cut down, 
intimatelv mixed together, piled up anew, and left to become 
ttoroughlv dry. Fmallj, at the end of a certain time, a mU- 
tne abMMtttely inodorxme ie ofatnnied^ whidi ti to be redneei 
mto powder, by the ordinarj prooewiei^ and which foemi <he 
aew patent F wMH of MaOawm Vibert Dubout" We shall 
not stop to enumerate the marveUoos virtue asenbed to this 
spoiled manure, by the learned commissioi^rs. That a lady 
should contrive, execute, and describe so abominable a process, 
is to us in Eng-land not a little surprising ; but that an opera- 
tion so unscientilic, dtstructive, and absurd, should be re- 
cently held forth to admiration, in the Annates de V Agriculture 
Franfoisey is curious in the extreme, and must give the world an 
Odd opinion of French husbandry. 

UI. PnTsict. In our next Number we ihali eadewiwr to 



PfvgMf of i^Wc^ Samm. 336 



present readers with a view of the discussions on Lighti 
whirh now occupy so keenly the att6llUoa o£ MOiift Willing 
nicnihers of th^ Academy of Scit nc t s. 

Maynvlisin. Coulomb determined the law of magnetic at- 
tractions to be inversely as the square of the distance, by 
making a magnetic needle vibrate, at diii'crcnt dii>tance6 from 
tbe nagnetic pole of a bar, and comitlng at each ttatiottv 
the nmiiber of vtbratioiis. Profeiior Hantteen of Chiitdena^ 
has lately applied Che same method, to diacom if the abeolata 
magnetio force of the earth be an uniform or variable qoatttitj^ 
for any particular place on its surface. He tutpends a mag- 
netized cylindric rod, 2 inches and ^ lonpr, and of an 
inch diameter, by a single thread of a silk cocoon, de- 
pending- from tlie top of a brass tube, tixcd in the centre 
oi the lid of a brass box. On either side of this vertical 
tube, the lid ui" ilic box is formed of glass, to permit the gra- 
duated arcs at the bottom to be seen. This mode of suspension 
has akOt we obeerre, been adopted by M. Arago, for his 
delicate needle moaoted on the Royal Obsenrat«^ of Paris % 
andf it Is considered by hira as infinitely superior to the 
suspension on a point, whose form is liable continually to 
change by the cifect of friction. Professor Hansteen sets his 
needle in movement by presenting to one of its pn!cs a piece of 
iron, Viliich is immediarnly withdrawn. He then counts, by a 
chrononiuLer, the peiiod of every ten vibratious up to 3d0 ; aod he 
compares each equal portion oi the whole to find the mean 
period. Thus he takes the difference between the end of the 
first, Mid the end of tha 300th; the end of the second, and 
tfiat of the 310th; and so on» till that of the eOtb and the ' 
360th. md not die resistansa of the air gradually diminish 
the aie of the TibralkM (till Invards the cloa»» H becomes onlf 
tMPO deg i ee e ), the above measures would ha eipial; but in 
consequence of this resistance, the last measure of the time is 
found to be about <if a second less than the first. Ihe 
longest period of 3U0 oscillations observed by M. Hansteen 
was 813.6"; this time he coiisiders as correspdndint;- to las 
minimum or zero of magnetic force. In fact, tiiib observation 
was made during an aurora borealis* But the force of the 
magnetic power is invanely propottiaBal to the squaias of the 
tisMof simihir vibfatioos^^rthesaaiami^nsticBera and, if 
* T T be in two esperiraentSy the observed tiaMs of eqnal vibra* 
tions of the saSM needle, and if I T denote the corresponding 
fioroesofthemi^inelicpoapsr; then 1:1': : T ^ T«; and thus 

1:1 : : 813.6"; T'rheaoa 
iaOusoase 1 ass ^ 813.6 y 

FhMu numerous observations of the above kiad, which the 

« In a letter to Mr. Rumker lately of Hamburg, of whkh sa slwtnci 
m^rnm \tf fteiaiyr ftibirt, m hii A— lOt for tost Ju^y> 



336 Frogress of Foreign ^ctence. 



profeMor made during the course of the year, he IMS flil c t h il e d 
IIm mMA monthl J mttm&Hj of die angnetie ibm. Tbe ibi- 
Wiriig it a ti4)le of the moll* : 









1 

Oiiirfitfii 






8 If 


1 01931 


1.01095 




1.00717 


1.60582 


10 


.01902 


01010 


104 


.00625 


.00548 


121 


.01915 


r 01023 


4 A 


.00879 


.00849 




1 01136 


7 


.00966 


.00844 


V 




01147 




1 00903 


1 00740 




0<01929 


r 01163 
|. 01142 




1.00818 

Aft WW A 


1.00713 




A A 1 "710 


Al AftQ 








Mean 


0.01912 


1.01081 






• 


ObMrvatian. 




9«ir 








8 M. 


1.00407 


1.00277 


1.03309 


1.00560 


1.00886 




397 


235 


335 


508 


800 


4A. 


647 


461 


643 


708 


909 


7 


700 


500 


570 


711 


953 




1.00665 


1.00548 


1.00555 


1.00715 


1.00953 




1.00563 


1.00404 


1.00468 


1.00640 


1.00900 



From these observations it follows; tol, ihftt these is a daily 
Tarialion in the strength of the magnetic power; the mimnrnm 
occurring between 10 to 11 A M, the moxiwttm between 4 and 
5 P.M. Second, that the nuii,aietic power is subject also to a 
yearly variation in its magnitude, as appears from ilie mean of 
each month ; its amount is mdmiestly greater in winter, while 
the sun is in perigee, than in the opposite season in December 
and June tfa» greamt mondily wieilioiui also take place ; 
and the MUMaai miatioiii occar in the two moollis of spring 
and aatanuiy whan the sun it at hia mean dlrtanca horn the 
aardi. The greatest daily Tanadon of the magnetic power is in 
anmmer; the least in winter. Tbe maiimnin diffemiGe of the 
annual variation is 0.0359. 

If we denote by F tbe total magnetic power, by H that 
portion of tliis power wliit h acts on a horizontal needle, and by 
n the magnetic inclination, then H = F+* cos. n. Hence H 
may be variable, when the whole magnetic force F is coiistant, 
provided the magnetic inclination be variable. But M. Hansteen 
nuLgines, from researdieB which he made in 1820* with a dip- 
ping needle by BoUood, that he forund die inclination to be in 
samiiMr about 15' greater than in winter; and firom 4' to 5^ greater 
in the forenoon £an id the afternoon; whicJi would accord 
wi^ the ioiegoing obaerratioos 

* Ou this subject M. Arago judiciously observes, that from Mr. Gilpia's 
olMonratioiM, wM« aocofaagr is MkaowledgBd bv philMphers, wtm 
•fPMit to be M «ppf«oiaU« dlunua variation in ^ 



Progress of Foreign iS'ci&tce. 



337 



During an aurora borealis, he made a series of observations 
Ibom noonto Dooa witlMMtt iiiteniiiMioii» wMoli eridendy tbemd 
that this meteor displays an enfeebliDg operation on the magnet; 
pioviiig in this ra^ect, the oouneiioo between electricity and 
magnetism \ From analogous researches he has been led to 
infer, that the magnetic intensity is always impaired when the 
moon passes through the equator. 

Dnring- a residence of a few days last year in Copenhagen, 
M. Hansteen lodged in the round tower, which serves as an 
observatory. As he was repeatiner here the abovt-tici>cnl»t;d 
observations on the vibralions of lus liorizontal needle, he found, 
to his great astonishment, that for 300 vibrations not less than 
936^57" -were leqotied: and in a gardso eontis^ons to tile 
tower^ only -779*' for the » same nnmber of oscilHittons. This 
tower is 126 feet high, with very thick walls, and has, Iniilt inils 
centre or axis, a hollow cylinder, round which the stair winds 
In 7 convolations. After he had made several observations 
below, which shewed that the mean period of 360 vibrations 
was 787", he returned to the tower, and found the following 
duration of 300 oscillations ; first, aiolt on the tOWer ; then, at 
regular stages of descent to the bottom : 

Top. 1st platform 3. 4^. 6^ bottom 
842^7 836.67 837.3 834.43 804.07 813.0 

Not * little astonished at these lesvlti, he continued his ob- 
serfathms, and deduced at last the general result, that at the 

under end of every perpendicular body the magnetic needle 
oscillates quicker when it is placed northward of the. body, or 
when it presents its south pole to it; but that it oscillates more 
slowly when placed southward of the body, so as to present its 
north ]K)ic tu it. And uiversely, it was found, that, at the upper 
eAtieuuty of the vertical body, the needle vibrated always slower 
on the noarth side, and qcrieker on the soath side. - He 
(henoe condvdes, that every pcrpendicvlarol)}eet»of whalsoefer 
matter composed, possesses at its upper ^id a magnetic soaUi 
pc^, and at its nnder end a maenetie north pole. This r^nit 
18 of such importance, that we hope some of oar philosophers 
and astronomical observers, accustomed to minute precision of 
research, will veni'y these experiments of the learned Dane, 

From a comparison of Col. Beaufoy's observations on the niai*'- 
netic declination needle, M.Aragohas shewn, that,smce the month 
of April, 1819, the direction of the movements of the needle 

variations are uutavourabie to such an aimual cbaof^e as the Norwegian 
ftofbttor indlaitis. 

* Baron Humboldt made a similar remark MOW years a^o at Berlin ; 
but uuless the observatioos of the horizontal needle be combined witli 
sixuultaueous <>bi>ervatious uf the dippiii^-acedle, the variatiou of iuteusity 
cavnot be held ta he deawMMMedl* 



388 ff^Hu ^ Rreign Sskme. 



km btooM Mtfogndei litt mtum nnvml amount of which m 
s ~r 67\ The total ratioccssion between 1818 and ISdO, b$ 
a ccHnpariaOQ of tha wmrmog obaarvationat ia 3' 22 ' 

noon 4' 2Si' 

evening..,. 4' 0* 

The Board of Longitude of Paris has estabiislicd lately, at 
the Observatory, a niag^nctic needle, exchisively conscridted 
to indicate the diurnal variations of declinations. Souic de- 
rangeineut, iiom an uukuovvu cause, having happened to it in 
1819, it waa re^moantcd last February, since imiob tune iU 
auuch has basn miliar. Tbe abienrationa mada with Uin^cate 
aliaadjr a latraggrade amanaot of the needle tovaids the east. 
The mean declination of the month of Februafy^ 1821, is smaller 
hy 2' 15" than that of tbi month of Fabcaaiy, I9^^mu4$ 
&Um. et de Phys. xv'u p. 54. 

We reserve several electro-magnetic notices for next qnartcr. 
—We intended to bave criven M. Moll's account of Cuiouel 
Off'erhaus'ji apjjaratus, [)iit)lished in the Journal de Physifjue for 
Ajinl last, in the foiui ul a letter to the editor; but, as we hud 
lluii the &«une leitei ii> le-^printed, with the date of June 22d, 
la the JBcBm, PkiL Journal of October last^ we are saved the 
tfaable of tiatiseriplHiii. 

IV. Underlie science of Mechanics, the most pronuaesa 
paiperia lhatof M* F. S. Girard, on the aaiiDini discharge of 
atmospherical air and carburetted hydrogen gas, through 
conductiag pipea* We have no looan lor an aaalyais of it at 
present* 

V. Natukal History.— Baron Humboldt, in a memoir read 
to the Institute 19th February last, 1821, eiiiititd, New Ob- 
■amliOBa on the Laws whii^ we observe in the Diatr ibati ca ti 
Vegetahla Forms,'' states, that we abeady know nearly 56,000 
sfiaoica ai cryptogamena and phanerogaaseiw fpfaaH, 44^000 
UMaats, 2^ fishes, 700 leptiles, 4^000 birds, and 500 spedas 
of mammiferse. In Europe alone, aoeording to the reseaichea 
of M. Humboldt and M. Valesiciennes, there exist nwly 80 
mammifertp, 400 birds, and 30 reptiles. There are, of conse- 
quence, under this temperate boreal zone, 5 times as many 
species of birds as of mammifer-ct ; as, in like manner, there are 
m Europe 6 times as many composila^i as amentaceous and co- 
niferous plants ; 5 times as many leguminous as there are of 
orchideous and euphorbiaceous. The fine collections recently 
bionght home from the Cape of Good Hope by M. Delaknde 
pFore, (if we oompaia them with the works of M. If. Temmiak 
and LofaiUant,) tliat in that part of the tempemte aaaansl lone, 
the mammiferae are also to the birds in toe proportion of 1 
to 4.3. Such an accordance between two opposite zonea is 



very striking. The birds, and especially the reptiles, increaie 
much more towards the equatorial zone than tho inammiferBe. 
Accoidiiig to the discoveries of M. Cuvier on iossil bones, we 
iiu^hL believe, that these proportions have not been the same at 
all times ; and that there have disappeared, in the ancient cs^ 
tastfophct of om plftMt, many mom omnifim than bitda* 
We cm €oaoem how, qd a n^fta spaea al trntorf^ the indifi- 
daals belonging to diffmat tribes of planta aad animala muw ba 
numericalijf limited; bow^ after an obatinate struggle and foDg 
oscillations, a stale of equilibriam comes to be established, re- 
sulting from the necessities of nourishment and the habits of 
Jifc : but the cauiscs whirli have limited the forms are hid under 
an impenetrable ved, which withdraws tVom our view whatever 
relates to the origin of things, or to the tirst deveiopement of 
organic life. 

On the preponderance of certain finiliaa of plaots dop iMd i 
Ibacbaiaeter af tba landacape; tha atpsMSt of a miliiif or Ma* 
jaatie natnia. Tha abaadaaaa of gtaniiaaw wbkh im vaat 
aafaaaabiy that of paliaa aad con&nty Iwfa bad a p ow ai ft J 

Snflueim OB ti» ioaiai oonditon of nations, on th^ manners, 

and the more or less rapid developement of the iiseful arts. 
Sometimes a single species of plants, especially among: those 
styled, by M. Humboldt, social, covers a vast extent of country, 
Such are, in the norih, the heaths, and tore&ts of pines; m 
equinoctial America, the union of cacius, croton, bambuba, and 
brathys of the same species.— se^el of tkk wiU be jfimn la 
mtr nexi 19vmimr, 

Geology. — ^h. Fox liaving; communicated to the editors of 
the Annales dc Chimie et de Physique, in a manuscript letter, 
new determinations on the temperature of the earth at vaiiuus 
depths, these gentlemen have published them, along with an 
extract made by M. Fourier, from his profound geouietrical ler 
fearc^es on boat. 

The observatioiis were made in ten diflEerent minea; 
Dolcoath, United Mines, Treskerby, Wbaalsquire, TiDg-Tail|^ 
Wheal-Gorland, and Wbeal-n imsel (copi>er-mines) ; Cbasa* 
Water (mine of tin and copper); Wheal-Unity (in the tin part 
of the mine), and Wheal- v or (tin-mine). The following is a 
list of tlie temperatures observed. The numbers inscribed on 
the table are the means of particular results obtained toi eiicb 
depth m the tm mines abore-nftmed. 

Atthedflpflhof 10 fathom8w.«T^wp. 50.18^ P.— 10.1 G. 

20 to 30 60.98 16.1 

30 to 40 59.54 15.3 

50 to 60 62.06 16.7 

60 to 70 t)a.86 17.7 

70 to 80 65.84 18.8 







F.— 20.2 C. 




69.80 


21.0 


100 to 110 


68.54 


20.3 




. . . 6t^.98 


21.1 


















sad 






24.4 






25.8 






27.8 



In a sfrGUt number of cases, the theimoinrter was suuk in the 
rock to tlu dtiptb of 6 or b inches ; someliUies the temperature 
oi the air or water was laerely taken ; generally both methods 
afibrded results slightly differing from each other. The iSbtx* 
MMl«r» ptanftd m the nwHllir rrnrn^ xmmiH indicated a 
tafiwatnieof 1^ to %JB^ eealigradet (1^^ to dO F.)liigher tham 
tWi oblMMd «ken the thafmometer was plunged into the bote 
of * mk, and particularly in granite. fmns of tin are com- 
■KNily a Uttle colder than the veins of copper. In the bottom of 
the mine of Dolcoath, at 240 fathoms of depth, there issues 
from the vein a very abundant jet of water, whose constant tt in- 
perature is 27.8° C. (82.04° F.) What more evident proof ran 
be given, says Mr. Fox, of the great heat of the inlc lior strata 
©f the globe ? Tiie draiomg-pumps ut the United Mines were 
not loo^ ago totally deranged by an accident; two galleries, 
omatCoo, aodtlieotiierallOaaithoaiisindepth, wen fond 
ofonftnally filled with water. Thk itate of thinn lasted two 
entire days. As soon ai the water was 'pumped out, and he- 
fore the workmen descended to resume their laboars, Mr. Fox 
ascertained the temperature of the two ^dleries ; that of the 
first was 31.1° C. (87.98° F.) The thermometer in the second, 
at a depth of 190 fathoms, continued stationary at 30.8° C. 
(87.44° F.) It ouo:ht to be remarked that, in order to avoid all 
error in the obse rvation of these temperatures, the tbcimometer 
had its bulb plunged several inches under the floor of the gal- 
loriea* Mr. Fox analyzed the waters of Dolcoath^ and those 
of tha UmtedB(H»e$f whose tempeiatnrea lo faidi, and he 
fonnd m the first only a small quantity of muriate m lime, and 
in the others a proportion equally small of llie sulphates of iron 
and of time. Mr* Fox adds, that new experiments made in 
coal-mines confinn perfectly tfie results obtained in the gatte* 
ries of the mines of copper and tin. Thns in a ix^Uiery, 

At 10 latkoms depth, the temperature was 50° F. 10° C. 
36 . . • 57.92 — 14.4 — 

90 ... 62.06 — 16.7 ^ 



341 



Of M. Fourier^s speculations on the above mri^yni £KStt» 
shall give some account in the next Number. 

The following extract from a letter of Count Mercate, de- 
scribing the earthquake in the Isle of Zaote, 29 Dec. 1820, may 
perhaps be found interesting among^ geological phenomena: 

Towards midnieht/* says he, I heard a AoUow and i0ter« 
nipted noise, which appeared to issue from the bosom of the 
^th. This noise resembled the sound of a drum, beat from, 
time to time in a subtenaneons vault* It was heard by the 
greater number of persons who were awake at the timo. We 
passed the nii^ht in a state of horror, and at ten minutes before 
tour o'clock lu the morning a sudden blast of wind, of an extra- 
ordinary violence, made us imacrine the end of the world had 
arrived. This wind instantly subsided into a dead calm. Pic- 
sasiug the impending misiortune, I experienced an inward 
indescribable horror. In this melancholy mood I had thrown 
myself into bed> when 1 £alt struck all at once by a horrible 
subterranean bellowing^ announcing the commotion of the earth, 
which immediately ensued* I inst uitly rose up, but thaTio* 
lence of the shocks made me fall back on the bed. Tlies^ 
concussions were threefold ; the first, of great violence, was 
vertical ; the second produced an undulatory movement ; and 
tlu iliird, which was the most powerful, gave a rotatory motion. 
The most solidly-built houses could not resist the violence of 
these earthquakes. Eighty were entirely overturned, nearly 
eight hundred were horribly shattered, and the others so da- 
maged as to be uninhabitable without being repaired. A con* 
fused and sudden noise of shouts and crying announced the 
universal alarm of the population, who thought their last hour 
was come. But in the midst of so many disasters, it is re* 
markablc that only four persons were killed, and a few others 
wounded by the ruins.'* He speaks in very warm terms of the 
liberal charity of Lord Strangford, ambassador to the Porte, 
who was then in the harbour, as weU as of the Lord High Com- 
missioner, Sir P. Ross. 

Three or four minutes before the first shock there was seen, 
at the distance of two lea^pies from the promontory of Qeraca, 
to the south-east <^ the island, n fiery meteor, almost swim^ 
ming oil the sea, which remained lighted for five or six mi- 
nutes. The following day there was a meteor, which blazed 
forth at four o'clock in the evening, and describing in the air a 
vast parabola from east to west, fell into the sea. 

Meteorology. See Meteorolites, under Analysis. — M. 
Vogel of Munich, while spending some days on the banks of 
the Baltic, was told that different invalids, labouring under 
asthmas, &e., found lihemselves much better on sea than on 
shore. He then examined the air in different situations, and 
found that the sea air a league from shore, when admitted into 



342 Progress of Foreign Science. 

an exhausted globe containing barytes water, did not trouble it, 
whereas the air, admitted into a similar globe on the shore, 
predveed immediate toifoidity. NItmte or siiv^r in loialkii^ 
exposed t6 sea air, had some ddofide Ibrmed in it Hence he 
innsrt Aat dm atmosphere of the Baltic, taken at a league hook 
the ihore, contains less carbonic acid dmn the ordinary atmo- 
sphere, and that it is probable the quantity of carbonic add di- 
minishes as we recede from the land. 2d,Tliat the atmosphcto 
of the Baltic contains moriates in greater or less quantity 

VI. Economics. — In pulliag down lately the restry wall of 
a chapel, near the Lago Maggiore, which had been built more 
than 300 vears ago, as appears by good do cum e n t a , there waft 
^■coferaoi imbedded in the mortar of die wall« three eggt^ 
whidi were ft>nnd to be fresh* M. Cadet* one of the editors of 
dm Jinirnal de Pharmacies after relating this fact, states that 
naturalists bring from America and India birds'-eggs, covered 
with a film of wax, which, after removing the wax with alcohol, 
mny be hatched. He then talks of a man who sold eggs at the 
public market in Paris, which had been preserved upwards of a 
year in a peculiar composition. A slir;ht hwer of carbonate of 
lime observed on these eggs induced M. Cadet to suspect that 
lime-water was the preservative composition. He afterwards 
made exfieriments on this point, mider direction of the Ooondl 
of Sahibrity ofPkris, and succeeded in keepmg eggs perfectly 
sound dnriog nine months^ and ten days, the period of the ex- 
periments. We believe this means of preserving eggs has been 
long known to housekeepers in this coonUy, but it is less 
practised than it deserves to be. If every farmer would cause 
the eggs of bis poriltry to be pnt into a cask of lime-wafer the 
moment they were laid, the mhabitants of London might enjoy 
better breakfasts than they do at present. 

Uninjiammable Clotlies. — M. Gay-Lussac announced in the 
sitting of the Academy of Sciences, 6th Nov. 1820, that linen 
dipped in a solution of phosphate of <^*^yn^k became incom^ 
bnstible. MM« Merat-Gnillot, Ihdier and son, apothecaries at 
Aaxettes, have since shewn that the acidulous phosphate of 
lime possesses the same property. In fact, mien, muslin, 
wood, paper, straw, impregnated with a solution of this salt at 
30° or 35° of ronrr ntration (1.26 to 1.30), and dried, became 
absolutely uninflammable, and consequently until to communi- 
cate fire. They carbonize, or char, when they are exposed to 
a very intense flame, but the carbonization does not extend be- 
yond the focus of heat in whicli they are plunged. 

« Jimnu dr Fhorm. Oct, 1821^ p. 461. 



. J . 1 y Google 



343 



Ajit. XIV. ANALYSIS OF SCUBNTIFIO BOOKB. 

i. Fumifugium; or, the Inconvememe qfthe Aer amd Smoctkt 
Londtm dissipated. Together with some Retmedies, humbly 
proposed, by John Evelyn, Esq., to his sacred Mqjettk^amd 
to the Parliament now asaen^led. London, 1661. 

As we are not restricted to tlie notice of modern scientific 
books, we iiave selected the above scarce tract for the purpose of 
comparing the grievances occasioned by the smuake oi London 
160 years ago, when the metropoUt was not one-tixth its pre- 
sent extent, with those which are now matter of complaint ; and 
of inquiring how for the evil was then, and is now^ susceptible of 
diminution, or removal. 

It is curious enough tliat ^Ir. Evelyn*8 attention was called to 
the subject before us by " a presumptnoiis smoke issuing from 
one or two tunnels neer Noi lliumberiand-bmisp, and not far 
from Scotland-yard," the very soat, if we are not misinformed, 
of the plots of our modern fumifugists ; he therefore prepared 
the ' ' short discourse" before us, for the reformation of this 
nuisance, and in the hope of rendering London one of the 
sweetest and most delicious habitations in the worlds and tibis 
with little or no expense;" being amazed, he says, ^diat where 
there is so great an affluence of all things which maj render the 
peopleof this vast city the most happy upon earth, the sordid 
and accursed avarice of some fow particular persons should 
be suffered to prejudice tlie health and felicity of so many." 

It is also not a little remarkable, that akhough Mr. Evelyn's 
Fumifugium was written before the great fire of London, many 
of the evils and nuisances, to which lie adverts, are still extant, 
and in full force : a few of them, though perhaps not the most 
pressing, either have been remedied, or are likely to be amended. 
This elorlous and ancient city still wraps her stately head in 
clowoui of sm(Mike and sulphur, full of stink and darknessef^'most 
of our streets are still " narrow and incommodions in the very 
centre, and busiest places of intercourse," and we still have to 
deplore the "frequent wharfcs and magazines of wood, coal, 
boards, and other coarse materials, most of thorn impluyiog the 
places of the noblest aspect for the situation of palaces towards 
the p^oodly river at the same time we need now no longer com- 
plain, " of our streets being composed of a congestion of ims- 
shapen and extravagant houses ; of the iU and uneasy focm of 
the paving under foot,** nor of ^ the troublesome and malicious 
disposure of the sf>outs and gutters overhead*** 

After adverting in the first part of this essay to the transcend- 
ent situation of I/>ndon, "built upon a sweet and most agreabte 
eminency of ground at the north side of a goodly and w^l-con- 



344 



tlitioned river, toward> which it hath an aspect by a gentle and 
easie declivity;" to the advaiiLage ui the gravelly soil, and to 
the pleiitiful and rich supply of water, every where good and 
abundaiity our antlior mooeedt to point ont flie ori^ and eflecto 
of diat heniah anddiemall cloud of tea coale» which it not 
only perpetnaHy irommeiit over her head fcondkur in ienebrU 
altum caHgine Cishanji bat so universally mixed with the 
otherwise wholesome and excellent air, that her inhabitants 
breathe nothing but an impure and thick mist, accompanied 
with a fuliginous and filthy vopour, which renders them ob- 
noxious to a thousand inconveniences, cornipiin<r their lungs, 
and disordering the entire habit of their bofli.-.," This is a 
strong but not exaggeraied picture of the state of this monstrous 
grievance in the year 1661 ; and, when we reOecft upon the 
mdaal mcrease of the evil np to the present j^iod, we cannot 
bat hail ^e recent enactments of the legislature directed 
towards the consamptioD of smoke, wishing that the subject 
may receive that senous attention which it so urgently requires. 
We regret, however, that experience justifies a doubt as to the 
efficacy of mere parliamentary interference in a matter of this 
kind ; whilst noveUy recommends it, and the reports of Com- 
mittees serve as a vehicle for the pid^lication of individual 
schemes, all oroes on with eagerness and ^ik rgy ; but as soon as 
pai liaiiicuL 14. prorogued, and tlie smoke-buiaers out of town, we 
relapse into our pristine fuUginosity, and the pretty-behaved 
chimneys upon the riyer-sidet which awhile seemed to have for* 
gotten tfieir office, again evolve their wonted columns of sable 
smoke, ** belching it forth,** as Evelyn says, from theit sooty 
jaws, said making the city of London more like the suburbs of 
hell, than an assembly of rational creatures : so that the tra- 
veller, at many miles' distance, sooner smells than sees the place 
to which he repairs.** We mig-ht quote, as a parallel instance, 
the Bill for the removal of nuisances from the streets, which for 
a time was sufficiently effective, and contributed greatly to the 
comfort of the metropolitan pedestrian; lately, however, the 
beggars have resumed their ancient stations, the pavement is as 
heretofore decorated with the praises of our radical patriots^ 
written, as they should be, all opside down barrow-womea 
Tociferate the contents of Aeir moveable magaaoea in the most 
audacious defiance of Street-keepers, conscames, and acts of par- 
liamcnt ; hackney-coachmen quit their boxes, and carmen mount 
their drays with unreserved impunity ; theWhite Horse cellar con- 
tinues, as heretofore, the- ( ternal and undisturbed resort of stnge- 
coachmen, jews, and pickpockets; Carlile's shop remains open 
for the edificalioa and instruction of the young of both sexes; 
Stalls and other peccant excrescencies are again shooting up at 
•tojct comers; and, in short, every thing shews, that unless the 
oraets of the legislature are enforced by a respectable and wdl- 



1 

«iiiocled police, not active by fits ami staiis, l)ut permanent 
and reg-ular in its operations, all pai lianit nuiry uUf lierence in 
these matters is utterly ineffectual, and cvtu aiiiichicvuii^, when- 
ever laws are infringed with impunity. . . , , 

It appears, to retohi to our subject, that- in Mr. Evelyn's 
tiale^ .brewers, dTers, UBie4niniers, anid salt and soap-botiersy 
ivM tbe principal nuisances ; and sia^ie then, says the editor of 
|b» new edition of the Funi^^^wmt pnblish^ in 1772, '*«e 
have a great increase, of glass-houses, founderies, and su^ar- 
bakers, to add to the black cataloi::ne, at the head of which 
must be placed the firo-engines of the water-works nt T.ondon- 
brid^e and York-buddings, which leave the asLuniaiicd spec- 
tator at a lo s to determine whether they do not tend to poison 
and destroy more of the ialiabiianu* by their smoke and stench, 
than the^ supply with water.*' To this sooty list, what astonisit- 
ing additieits bf^ve bean mode mfhin the last thirty ^ears, in 
and aboBt .London<^bow many new water compames, and 
#moke-prpd«ein( mannfactories have been added to the oata* 
logoe. A nowapaper cannot now be printed, nor a pound of 
meat minced for sausages, without a steam-engine : to the same 
smoky servant the dru<r2:ist reports to grind his rlni!)aib, and 
gift magnesia; and lipon all possible occasions the service of 
the other eieiiients is superseded by that of fire. The natural 
consequence is, that the smoke of London^ always grievous, is 
now scarcely tolerable : to select a few of Mr. Evelyn's miseries, 
** U obsooies oor ohurcbw, makes oar palace^ look old^ foul^ 
onr oiothes, and oorrapts the waters, so that even tbe' rain and 
dow are contaminated, it is this wliich scatters and strews 
about those black and smutty atoms upon all things where it 
comes, insinuating itself into our most secret cabinots and precious 
repositories ; yea, thoug-h a chamber be never so closely locked 
up, men find, at their rtturn, all things that are in it covered 
with a black soot^ and all the t urniture as full of it as if it were 
in the house of some miller, or a baker's shop, where the flour 
gets into their cupboards and box^s, though never sp close and 
accurately shut^" Finally, it is tliis wluon dtwes and spreads 
a yeltowoesBe upon oiir choicest pictures a^d hangings ; wbidi 
does aoiscliiaf at boatte, is avemut to fowl, and kills our bees 
and flowers abroad, suiering nothing, in ^ gardens to bud, 
display themsel?asf ot ripen.*' ^ot therefore to be forgotten/' 
continues our author, i^ter some further grumblings, is that 
•which was by many observed ; that in the year 1644, when New- 
castle wan besieged and blocked up in our late wars, so a'^ 
through the great dearth and scarcity of coals these fumous works 
were either left off or diminished, aivers gardens aud orchards, 
pliinled even in the very heart of London (as, in particular, my 
Lord Marquis of Hertford's, in tbe Strand; my Lord Bridge- 
W^tet% an^ some others about Baibican)^ were observed 
iroL.XiL 2 A 



346 Amfysu SuetUifk Book** 



bearp snch pleiuiful and irifinit'_ ririantities of fraiUjES iheT never 
produreci the hke either br-forc or sinO'. to their great astonish- 
ment; but il was, by the owners, rightly imputed to the penury 
of coalety and the little smoke which they took notice to infest 
thimtbalwuNB.'* 

It HQ Jo be l» DO purpofe fptfwr t» t wifi any o« Midbor 
ft iwigii thk nigioB of pracAiail grievanets } ip« iinll, therefore, 
pass on to that part of the tmt relating more especially to the 
tnfluenee of London smoke upon the health of its inhabitants. 
It has sometimes been ar^uea that the fulig^ir.oii'^ ntmosphere ol 
London ii rather salutary than otherwise, and th it. at ail events, 
it tends to counteract contagion, and disinfect the f^ir; it has 
also been contended, that the mortahty ol its inhabitantb has 
not sustamed an increaa»e proponiunate to their augmented num* 
bers. We believe it must be admitted, that the town has not 
beoMe leM iMtlthy widife IM fifty yem, tat ipe#D«bt 
wi^dM^F if 14 more ao^ ipfaidif conaidariiiff tiie cuoubobs rapipKee 
«f viler iiUcil Inundate eferydntriel, mt widening of leteMil 
streets , the remond of maay of tfuMe Mil of ffith and poverty 
which disgraced some of the more prominent parts of London, 
and, above all, the general amelioration of the sewers and draini* 
age, orifrlu indisputably to have been the case. Tliere arc so 
many contin^ tnt circumstances that interfere with our estimate 
of the mortality of the inhabitants of large cities, that it is very 
difficult to form a just conclosron as to the effects of individual 
causes; yet, viewing, the subject in this light, we cannot, 
h&m&nBt wfflfnKy eoetibe nny eeiioei mfaokkl 1o the mm 
imeke ; let tif, m inslaaee, look at tbe mortftlHy 0^ 
eqiielt, or em exceeds, that of London, yet its kihnhitiaitB eit- 
joy a most sweet end dcMitftd air; die alqr ig dctt and saene t 
the foggy obfuscations and jaun<lleedoeBi|poirtaofsootiBd mponr 
"which adumbrate London are there nnknown, and our vision ex- 
tends nearly at all times and seasons from one end of that splen- 
did metropolisto the other; whereas here weconsider itwondrous 
clear when we can discern the Monument from Blackfriars- 
bridge, or see St. Paul's Cross from the bottom of Ludg^ate-hill. 
If indeed we adopt the maxim, non est vivtre^ sed vaiere^ vita, 
we wwttiiea eoooede all to the lihabitaati ef Paris; f6r win) 
liei not ftit the vivify hifleenee of llieir nndiafnitied end 
transnarent atmosphere, in which every object bee a sberp end 
eleiiuy outline, and figured to himself the magnificence or Lon* 
don, were it blessed wiib aoch e i^nwte. To the ckenmstance 
of breathing an air thus pure and oncontaminated, some of the 
peculiarities of the English at Paris may possibly be referred ; 
and the cekbritv of the French cuisine among our countrymen 
is not perhaps altogether independent of such a cause. " i re- 
port myself to all those, " says Evelyn, " who have been com- 
feUed to breathe the air of other coiuitiies fur some yearsi if 



tkmifagmmi if Jofei Mmtju^ 1061. 3i7 

they d^aotaow perceift mmmlhtL alberation ia their oppeHte 
moA tkuamtme of their spirits, especially such as ha^e lived 

in France and the city of Paris/* But Evelyn atlributet 
more to llic smoke than can well be substantiated, and conse- 
qti( iitly often ascribes effects to its absence, which are referable 
to other causes. " Although/' says lie, ** London is tolerably 
free from the plague, it is never cleaj: of smoke, wbicli is a 
plague so many other ways, and indeed intolerable, because it 
Uiii ntit It AM lmt«|i«rays, sine* flill to Itagi^ it weft i wwtf 
tiMB dsKlik ifri€ For » mvBy under ht«ff, mtidk oeughing 9mA 
a— ifliiiig to fas lieard as in At London dnrdiflt and mwmMim 
oi pe'tfilt, wImpb btrkbg and spitting is iaoHttiiii tad wamt 
importunate. Wlitft thflU I say ? kmc komutfm ptctdbiiytg 
btes.** He then goes on to inform us, that the cause of these 
effects is the inhalation of this infernni vapoiir," which irri- 
tates the windpipe, together with those multitorra and curious 
Miijscles, the immediate and proper instruments of the TCMOe, 
which becouuug rough and dry, can neither be contraciled nor 
dilated for its due modulatioa, so as by some of my friends stu- 
diooa ia monc. It biMi toen iMitltnilyr otatfvtd thtt^ ootiiag 
oat ol Ills toBBtryoMD |Mta% tfccnrlott datt iriitlt atttt it 
Hie compasa of tlsnr fpknif ulndk mgf ttw agmn Mmnm t t 
till their retretl.** 

■ If ^erefore we consider all these evils, and ^* what a fttligioout 
crust is yearly contracted and adheres to the sides of our ordi- 
nar\' chimnies, and then imti[:;ine if there were a canopy over 
London what a mass of soot, wo a Id stick to it whicli now comes 
down into the streets, houses, aiid waters, aiid is taken into our 
bodies/' il is certamly somewhat surprising that the means of 
prevention haye not been more ttUtnttfclv titdied ; what these 
tre, »nd to i^htt tatant tite propottit ferlit ttiiipimitu of wtofct 
And of the wkntWMMBtt dependiiit npcm k, hei^ or 
itt'llfcely! to be ctnitd, w nty bow proceed to examine. 
- Mr. Bftlyn's plin» ^ioh oBot aiight have beeainiiblc, is at 
pitient o«t oi the question. It consisted in the removal of all 
nuisance-involving trades from London '* five or six miles down 
the river Thames, or at the least so far as to stand be hind that 
proniuiitory, jutting out and securing Greenwich iVom tlie pesti- 
lent air of Plumstcad Marshes," This is ail he has to ofier ; 
he then proposes gardens and plantations in a^d about the me*> 
tropolis, and enumerates a vanety ol' liiiigiiiit plttti- saitedr 
oor dltBitu; tad oalcnkted to tnietoBr tmi iaytew' the ^> ft 
tppoBMi facMbkAat' l^liBM'titet ittdiL Jtttti't ptdriftfi 
plnited'iB€0Mt((ttBCO of Ats suggestieti.' 
' Among ot B ti p glttt metfopc^ittB soit&tiees notte^d by> Mr; 
Svelyn l&jr© are two, which to the disgrace of the present age and 
in spite; of our boasted amelioration and refinement, stUl exist in 
ftill iMOtt Btanly^ baryiag-g^ounda and ohomet-hous^s abound 

2 A2 



348 



Amijf$isof iickeuiijw Books. 



and under churches, nud the " horrid gtinks" of onr markets; 
the former, as our author justly obberveb, liidependent of the 
disgusting spectacle ot skulls aod skeletcntf wnicii Diey coo* 
mmOj eriubit to the passengei^t notice, mmttend loooataini-. 
note ike air ; and not the air only, b«t tiie water alM^ lor ttMra* 
if a atrange custom of tacking a pampto oar chiiiek*7afdindla^ 
tbe 'weUol which is generally surmounted by heapa of corpses 
m various states of putrefaction and decay, piled up and kept 
together by a kind of tcrrarp-wall, wl>ich the enormous accumu- 
lation of human remains renders a necessary appendage to most 
of these teeming receptacles of mortality. In respect to ouf 
markets, Evelyn's compldiiits also hold good ; the filth of our 
slaughter-houses and the abominations of Covent-garden, our 
marchi aux fleur&t are lamiliar to everv one; but these m 
mltefa not now iauiiediately before ae, bmraver J a atw iag eC 
lliat aid which the leaonrces of adeaee haft akewben Mt 
tbcB } ilie cemeteries aad markets of Paiis nBogat muBtkStf ba 
raaoited to as- eantaimiig the e&ameafts of adnirabn arrange 
moitt. 

There is another growing nuisance, to which the following pas- 
sage from the Fum^ugium is not inappropriately applicable : 
we mean the gas-works^ which have already destroyed the smelts 
and flounders in the immediate viciuity of London, while the 
Brentford establishment threatens a similar aniuiulaUoa of the 
finny tribes of Isleworth and Eiclimond, and even promises to 
biteilbie widi llie bonell angler's sport as high up the riTer as 
UsBi and Tvidkeahaai : Hf* says Evelyn, ^ we may not h<^ 
te so absolute a eote el all that is o£iaaire» at least let muh 
whose works are on the margent of the Thames, and which ace^ 
indeed, the most intolerable, be banished further off, and not 
once dare to approach that silver channel, which (j^iides by bflf 
Steteiy palaces, and irrigates her welcome banks." 

But it is now time to acquaint our readers with the recent 
plans and proposals for the destruction of smoke, premising, 
howev^, that there is nothing new in them, for they have been 
canvaraed and considered with variouar ability and success, by 
almoafcall our tet^rale engiaeera, at the head of wliom we place 
tlie lata oefalNrated Mr. Watt, who long ago tamed liis nind to tUs 
aabfecty aod ift oar oiMoioii, achieved mack thai has emaaoiii^ 
bean fpmt to bis contemporaiiss aad.sHcoessofa; ]iideed,.m 
great eagjiaaa at the Soho namifiKitory, bare all along been 
worked without sraokc, and we are a little surprised that m the 
Report, now lying- before us, from the committee appointed by 
the House of Commons, *' To inquire how far it may be practica- 
ble to compel persons using stc im-engines andfumf^ces in their 
diilerent works^ to erect tliem in a manner less Y>iejudicial to 
nahlic health and publtc comfort," and upon which report the 
bill of laataasiiaa was jfi w i ad e dt Aat no ootiee is taken <^ JAu 



WaU*ft.»igge«tipiit ..aii4 laqnirlet* To MtaUish hk nriority «r 
ipventioo, jhaH ^uote a few lines from the speciocatioii pf 
1(18 patent as priiited m the Hepertory of Arts for IT 96*. ^* Mj 
i^wij improved methods of constructing furnaces or fire places^ 
consist in craning the smoke or flame of fiesb liiei in its way to 
the flues or chimneys, to pass, together with a current of fresh ait 
through, over, or among fuel which has already ceased to smoki, 
or which is converted into coke, charcoal, or cinders, and which 
is intensely hot ; by which means the smoke and grosser parts of 
the flame by coming into close contact with, or by being brought 
near unto the said iDtensely hot fuel, and by being mixed with 
ike ciurrmt (^freth 9t vitiSmM otTy are consumed, or eooTerled 
ioto lmty ijr iptp pure flame, free from smoke.*' Mr.Watl*s 
Spedficstion thep goes on to describe the construction of the 
fire-pl^e fpd flues, and continues thus : My said iuTention 
(Consists only in the method of consuming the smoke and in- 
creasing the heat, by causing the smoke and flame of the fresh 
fuel to pass through very hot funnels, or pipes, or among, 
through, or near fuel which is intensely hot, and which has 
ceased to smoke, and by nUxing it withjresh air, when in these 
circumstances." ' . 

We dp not, however, mean to claim for Mr. Watt the original 
id^ of Imniing smoke, by causing it to pass through hot fuel, 
pqt merely to shew his merit in applying a smoke-consuming 
apparatus to furnaces of engines, ana Other fire-places producing 
laige quantities of black and inconvenient vapours. Franklin, 
ns our readers probably know, was a great cliimney-doctor, and 
suggested a similar means of getting rid of smoke in 1785t. 
But, long before Franklin, namely, in 1682, Mr. Justcll read to 
the Royal Society, " An account of an engine that consumes 
smoke, shewn lately at St, Qermains* fair in ParisJ." This 

engine," as it i^ here called* was merely a chaffing-dish with 
a descepding flue, so tj^at the fum^s &ud smoke of substanc^ 
burned upon it passed downwards through the ignited fuel and 
«were in that way destroyed. In 1723, too, a Dr. Xeutmann of 
Wirtemburgh, described in bis Vn^ctvms FamvianSf^ " a stove 
which draws downwards." We thrown out tliese notices merely 
to shew the little originality of the contrivances of the Marquis 
de Chabannes, and others who hav^ ^VA^,. 
. downward draught of air. 

In the Parliamentary Report above alluded to, there are two 
inventions for the destruction of smoke, which appear principally 
* to have occupied the attention of the committee, and ^hicb.alao 
profess to accomplish tha( dei^irable object wi.th a very consi- 
4erable saving or fuel. 

Mr. Brunton is the patentee of one of these inventions ; he 

* Vol. IV. p. 9%*>. t Memoirs of the Life and ffrWrngt ^ BmjauU 
Fr«iUi% v«iL vi. p. 4att. % PfM^Tmrn. 



a50 



applies to the engine-boiler a newly-constructed fire-place, con- 
taining a circular grate, which is made slowly to revolye upon 
Its axis ; the fife upcm tfaie grate Is M in front \y a kna <kr 
hopper, eoiitiimallj delhrerioff tmafl coal, nUdi, Rom the ro- 
tavy modoii of the grate ftielf» becomes eqindly spread npon 
He surface, so as to maintain a thin fire and a snarp draugnt; 
Ihe coal is thus^rapidly and perlectly decomposed and Vorned, 
Ae smoke at first produced having to pass across the grate and 
over the red-hot and already coaked fuel. The great advantages 
of this plan consist in the uniformity of heat, and its propor- 
tionate production to the work which the engine has to perform, 
or to the quantity of steam consumed ; the fire-bricks are not 
injured ; the clinkers or scoriae are produced in thin layers; and 
lSb» bars are so lilAe heated, that wlule three bushels of coal 
perlfbvr are oonsnnnngy the;^ are addom hot endng^ to singe 
paper ; tiie b<»leni are less fagored Iban by a common fire ; and 
there is a con^erable saving in the consanmtioD of fuel. The 
disadvanti^ges of Mr, Bmnton's plan are, Uie e^qpense of tl^e 
apparatus ; the reoulsite alteration of the boiler, or rather the 
addition of a supplementary boiler ; the necessity of a moving 
power to effect the rotation of the grate; and the labour of 
creaking the coals into small pieces before they are put into the 
hopper. Upon the last point Mr. Brunton, when questioned 
by the Committee, replies as follows: " No coals should be put 
on a steam-engine fire until they are small enough to pass a 
teee-inch me&; therefinre, ^ necessity of breaking the coal 
to that size Is adfuitageoas ; bait we liave lately burned a spe- 
cies of small coal in our own furnace, and also in die town of 
Birmingham, which has till now been regarded as perfectly 
useless, and as such there are thousands of tons encumbering 
the ground in the Staffordshire collieries, incapable of being 
used with effect in any other furnace, and we have produced 
with this hitherto supposed rubbish, 70 per cent, of the effect of 
saleable coal 

l^ow far Mr. Brunton's invention hears upon the main point 
in<juiry, namely, the consumption of smoke, will appear 
from i^e foljblting (sildence: Mr. James Bcott SmiUi, clt the 
^"Wl^liB^ajpel Distillery, says, We can consume Ae smoke to 
a very great extent, and although it is not cbmplet^ly invisible, 
yet it is never offensive ; we neyer have any of those dark 
volumes of smoke which are the caUSe of so much eom|^ahit/' 
Mr. Brancker, of Liverpool (a sugar-refiner), also gives evi- 
dence as to the great diminution of smoke effected by Mr. 
Brunton's " fire-regulator ;" and both these gentlemen speak 
in ternas the most unequivocal, respecting the saving of fuel. 



amountiiiir, according to their joint evidence, to from 30 to 38 
per cent. Upon this subject, however, wu g really apprehend 
that such evidence is open to unavoidable fallacy. When any 
thing new is going on m a nianufactorv, the heads of the con- 
cern are geueraliy themselves on the alert, and more than ordi« 
nary care and atteittion ai« beftPMd upon ^il iti dfttails ; we 
aie pretty wall coii?iiioed> and it it indeed obTiout* iliat in «tj 
Ipreat fiatabliibmenl a momtroos saving of all malmlty but of 
«Da]9 nmoipeeially, would be effected by the peraeoud super* 
Intendence of the maelery and of ectentafio j^eons well versed 
in the minutice of the concern ; yet we are willing to allow, that 
one great merit of Mr. Brunton's contrivance consists in it$ 
being almost independent of the stokers and labourers ; there is 
none of that eternal pitching of coals into the furnace which 
^oes on wiili such lavish waste in all ordinary engine fires; 
*' the grand piinciple in this machine," says Mr. Smith, ** is, 
Aat .it makes all stokers alike |;ood. and they always use the 
nana quantitgr of OMBda when douig vie same work.'^ Hils ie^ 
Ittdeedi a great point dinned. We think it but justice to Mir. 
Bruntea.to addp that p4T*^ information derived from yanouii 
quartos, confirms* to a considerable extent* llie axtracts we 
have made from the Minutes of Evidence ; we 9xe inclined tp 
consider the saving of fuel quite as important as the consump- 
tion of smoke, and in that respect his pretensions seem indispu- 
table ; there is also much original ingenuity iu his contrivance; 
indeed, we are not awaie that a lulaloiy grate was ever before 
either devised or constructed* 

Another very aieetualt and in aome respects, prefecabb 
jpelbod of cooauaring emoluw ^« invention of Meaini, Parkea, 
of Warwick. Tbaee gendemen, who are the proprietors of an 
jSateosive worsted manufactoryi w^e greatly annoyed by the 
Amoka of their engine*boilers, especially in their bleaching and 
drying ground; they have now so far effected its consumption 
that, ibr about twelve hours of the day, the smoke is nearly 
invisible, and there is no soot; moreover, these desirable objects 
are accompanied, they say, by a conaiderable saving in the 
article of coals. 

In the plan adopted by HesBts* Parkes the boilers remain 
Ml tUUu quo ; the nre-place Is somewhat altered in shape 
dimensions, but the principal agent, as far as regards the de- 
atmetion of the smoke, is a current of air which is admitted just 
beyond the end of the fire-place, by means of an aperture which 
may be increased or closed at pleasure, and which they call a^ 
air-vntve. A small fire is first made to burn hrig-htly at the 
back of the grate ; coals are then filled in towards the front, 
in whith direction the fire gradually spreads ; their smoke ne- 
cessarily passes over the clear fire, where it becomes suffici- 
ei^tly heated to coa^Utute ilamei a^s soon as it meets with the 



Q&2 Analifsii of ScieBt^c Books* 



«BfffMrt«f ftir €aiiiiiig«C ttevilvc; aada «lrikfaig-«ffpefiiiiMI 
^ih iSbU appar^tip eOBtisti hi alternttiely tbttltiMifattd opening 
tlM wk^HkWf wUeb it accompanied by the altonmil* appiaf^ 
wice aiNl 4ifltmtraaee ef the sM^ke. 

' Eiren from dbit brief and incoiinplete view oC Mettrs. Parkes's 

contrivance, it is obviotisly preferable, in some respects, to that 
of Mr. Brunton : it is much less complex and expensive, aad, 
^hen properly t^nd assiduously attended to, it effects a more 
complete destruction of smoke; but, on the other hand, its suc- 
cess is iijfijiitely more dependant upon the persons who manage 
the fire, and whose dispositions are generally a mixture of 
i gna rawi e md pr^ndict^ dtriy temptred witk tke wwntli of tlie 
wnman over whieb they prettde i we aJeo 4oiiiii whether the 
-eeoM un equ iv ocai teetiinepy eaa he adduced m reepeei to the 
mmfs of fuel, fot thit again U more in the etoker's power. Ib 
point of originality, too, Mr. Parkee must imdoubtedly yield 
the palm to Mr. Brunton ; he is anticipated in every part of his 
invention by the words of Mr. Watt's patent; and we rathrr think 
that Mr. Greg^son,oi whose method ot constmcting' chimneys 
fin account will be found in a former Number of this Joiirna)*, 
has also touched upon some of the most iniporlaiit parts bis 
contrivance. We, however, by no means state this opinion 
'irith a view to detract fVom Mr. Parkes's merit ; on the coa^ 
trarj, If he'hae attained that ia whioh Mr. Watt ftuM, the 
wearer hhr ineant approeeh to thota «aMlliB|ly employed by 
his emlaent predecessor, the more tttbtiinfial ia'uie eerrice which 
ha has rendered the public* and the more praiseworthy tke 
perseverance by which he has accomplished his object. We 
believe that Mr. Wntt never affected to combine diminution in 
the consumption ot" fuel with the destrnction of smoke, nnd 
that, on ilie contrary, with additional expense and trouble, 
there were more coals burned; at least this is the only cause to 
iivhich we can refer the non-consumption of suiuke, and the nori- 
appHeattOB of hie pateut, in the greater number, if not in all, 
the ierge engfaiee oiP hie erectioa which we have had eocaMen la 
visit' • * ' ' ■ . 

One subject seems to t<8 to have been overlooked by the Dia" 
|ority of smoke-reformers, namely, the construction, aad more 
especially the height, of the furnace chimneys. * By con'veying 
black smoke, and other pernicious fumes into a capacious and 
very lofty chimney, much of the noxious matters that otherv/ise 
escape into the atmosphere are decomposed and precipitated, or 
condensed within ; we were much struck i^ome years ago with 
the effect of a long flue and lofty cliiiuney attached to the 
BteaiD-engine of the Bartford Powder-mills ; scarcely any sMke 
issued from i to funnel, the fuliginoas particsies being almo«( 

« Votiii. p. a4f, 



lauujuf^iumi bif Juliu £vel>n> 166 U 353 



entirely deposited ia the chambers of the fiue. The chimnev^ of 
Um Grand Juoction engine at Padding ton, and of the West Mid- 
viescx w aceT' wotkb at fi atucnei suit ui » vr inore imncnmw 
stances ; when theie madiiDet aie at worie, the fcrner prodneet 
IMe smoke ; the Ittter inundates the neighbourtng gtrtoi 
with perpetual showers of the solid soot, and ig the greatest 
of all conceivable nuisances ; yet the onl^^ differmice is in the 
height of the two chimneys, the boilers being in all respects set 
and constructed alike. Besides, if a high chimney docs void 
smoke, it is generally wafted away and disstpated| except undw 
particular circumstances of wind and weather. 

As to the requisite height of a chimney for the diminution of 
puisance from smoke, we are not prepared to give an opiiuon \ 
it win depend wj miieh m the enmnoMteBeee of tiM cms 
fccm \eO to SOD £Mt wwMf we promuM, m mwl hiirt— cee, 
ptove eflhfltnel} the eipeme of sQeh a ttraecm esay ceiteinl^ 
.be urged against the proposal, but we are to reooUeei thil Otte 
shaft might reoeifo all the tributary fumes of many flues, and 
that a great saving would be effected in reducing- the number 
of chimneys of medium height. The intolerable nuisance of 
brewers' chimneys, to whose coppers we fear neither Parkes's 
nor BruTiton's itiveutions are applicable, would in this way 
greatly diuiinisVied, if not altogether remedied. 
' Among other probable causes of the dhninutlon of smoke, 
'we look to the tnploymeot of eteem ee a iidiititete for ires ; 
in ^Vhltbveed'shfewery high pressure stecinh Ifaiii tbij ex- 
tensively employed, and, altnoagh they ttMike qvHe smoke 
^nough, it certainly has lately sustained a Tery perceptibly 
^imiAutSon. 

' Lastly, we come to the mo?t absurd portion of the specula* 
tions of theoretical stnoke-htimers, namely, the improvement of 
the atmosphere of the metropolis. Though some are sceptical 
upon the subject, we will admit lliat, if no smoke were made 
in London for a twelvemonth, or ii wood-iuel were substituted 
for coals, ther^ might be some amelioration of the atmosphere, 
although oar locality and climate alwa^ render It tprbid 9nd 
mUty, mde|>cn4?nt of adventhions effima ; ft if , however, Ibllj 
to ascribe any sensible ixiihience upon the great mass of Lotw 
don smoke to some fbw steam-engine chimneys, while every 
house is busy in the work of contamination, and every street 
yielding a proportion of filth far exceeding that of any single 
furnace, though less observed, because administered by sepa- 
rate vents, and in divided doses 

When the huilders of ordinary houses shall find it WOrth 
%hile lu turn their attention to the consumption of smoke, and 
|o display a little more common aeote* as well as sciepce, in 
ihe mode of warming and ventilating onr dwellings ; when 
<kichttects^ instead of confining their studies to the di inensions 



•hall CO] 

tp oooiidt and mt the chemist and the natmcal pliiloMphor» 
Aod tolMOfiM aajiawttri with the doctiiaet jof iieat and of 
ptnmatirn, then* and not till then, may we expect a dimimi- 
lion of the evils which form the subject of this article of our 
Journal; and although we are not sang;uiue enough to antici- 
pate tlie re-appearance of orchards in the Strand, or vineyards 
ia Barbican, we should then be justified in loukiog; for a deo^ree 
of relief from those nuii^ancejs dud evils which &iuukc lulhcts 
^ipon the inhabitants of Loodoo. C. 



ii. On& Thousand Experiments lu Chemktr^f with iUustraiioHS of 
Matwral Phenomena, and pmcML O l wm'm^w ttm lAo Mmm 

mravinffB mt. Wmd and Copper. By CoLiir Mackenzie. 
London, pnoted for 8ir Riehsid Piuilipt * Mee 
!llt.ln boards. 

WmsN weconaider the inani&ldB&din&nrdkmadtMtgfts which 
dmifttr J o^aelt on nalund pvoductip conr«rt»g the dnll and 
brittia afeOMi Into a farillittit w ^lH l ;, to wIumm fin j /^f t^pi* tamper 
the forests yield, and efitA lodbi |flYe way ; turning Uie bland 
indwuMd»ie sulphur into a corroaif e acid, which extkiguishes 
flame ; extracting from calcined animal bones a substance that 
takes fire with the heat of the hand, and burns with exceeding 
splendour; ehtninating from the ashes of a wood-fire metallic glo- 
bules, which kindle and consume by the contact of ice ; or erolv- 
ing from culinary salt, an aerial element, in which refractor^' 
metals bum, even witiioul the aid of heat; we can readily imar 
gine that, in rude and remote times^ the metallurgist Vulcan 
Pijigjilba «oishi|^ped «• a deiBi*!^ ; that, in a move advanced 
state of chrilisattony but aimd Uteraiy and scientific darkness, 
the chemical adept nuj^t be thought the dect of heaven, as 
in Egypt ; or the copartner of Satan, as in Gothic Europe ; 
and finally, that in the present period of philosophical light, the 
genuine chemist should rank h!G:h in society. The wonder? and 
uses, rewards and honours, which flow from chemistry, have, 
however, tins unpleasant etiect; they tein}»t multitudes of un- 
hallowed and uihnitiated pretenders to rush luto the sanctuary 
of science ; and, though they are usually soon aud unceremo- 
niously expelled, yet they contrive to persuade the ignorant 
frfffanCf that they possess in tbur own right nighty secrets, 
which they have in tact stolen from the very altar of Hennes. ^ 

As the English are allowed to surpass all other nations in 
their funds of cash ai^ credulity, and as the chemical wants 
aud wishes of tbeir manufactureif arejwroerons and important 



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itlmB httppenod iksA dMiaical emptrieitm has of ials b«gtm t# 

rival the illustrious career of BroHum, Solomon, and Eady. 
One-haU, at least, of our chemical factories are committed to 
thehaiid^ of qwack-chemists, who, by otiers of unlimited pro- 
fits, dazzle the dark minds of their moneyed proprietors, and 
supplant men of sound views and principles, who disdain such 
bi^ mfilhods of delttsioii. What an instmctive book might be 

ifiwmdlhghtcompaiaiMfiiiiiw^giMit |ai<ti<li>,^yo> 
hciiiica, wgMflwMM » mtno^ abm^ and Mii 

works, &c. 

WeMim iMiiiyii varranted* firon «iitKtBMve range of 

obser\'ation, in asserting, that a sum of money which woold 
make some figure amid the interest of our national debt, is an- 
nually wasted by these crafty and improvident projectors who 
infest the chemical arts of this country. It has been too much 
■tlie iasluoa of late to speak contemptuoualy of the arts and 
inanitfactufes of Fia&ce ; but if our iogemous and active neigh- 

petttioKWMld tocmkm tlie BalbhMml^^ 

e( mAwttld oMpditeto have recourse, more ircftitaiif 

than at present, to the lestont ol real science. We b«|^l«mtO 
lK>ld ottt the following &ct8, as a slight ^i^k on tl^e atMV 

prejudices, which at once degrade and impoverish their pos- 
sessors, by fosterinp; notions of superiority on points where they 
are grossly defective. We also trust that this small expose may 
induce our operative and consulting chemists to study with a 
little more industry the scientihc principles of their art. 
To the manufacturer of su^^ifaMM Mid ikm iHnoJaaak priee of 

SuklMir'i%pertiMi«*.*».r..*«.i£ 7 7 0 £ 11 4 0 
Niti» %7 0 0 76 0 0 

4ittd ibft wiioleitle pficd^TMlphtfrieiiQid In MdoD is W. Ot.M 
-and in Paffl8***.lSf.Qi.M 

If ve estimate^ for the fonnatioQ of that acid, 1 part of nitre 
to 9 of sulphur, ^ough we know some French manu^turers 
employ only 1 to 10, we have the following proportions : 

9x1 7 7ss£66 3$. 9x£ll 4n£lO01(St. 

IX 27 Oos 27 0 IX 76 0c8 76 a 



£93 3 |C«»ofW f w ofynriato in <Mh| £|76 16 

Ito m scotim tttfte ptoitnt pHces, ih» maimlsai FiraM 
eost about double winit m&f oost in England i Moed ftilly so, 

if we consider the supeiior quality of our nitre compared wiUi 
"that employed in France ; yet the product resulting from these 

niaterials is sold 25 per cent, cheaper in France than in Knnr_ 
land. Now, put our sulphuric manufacturers in the same 



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predteMit «r itii flm IMKllMiSi 8ujp{Mi«AM4Db«f Mr 
Mimli a»ditff» Mlto Mil pumn i m ehMa>» hmm 

The truth is, that the princ'iplcs of the formation of oil of 
vitriol depend on the solution of a chemical problem ol* lour 
cutidilions, or Avliere fotir conrticting affinities are concerned, 
viz,f those between sulphuious acid, nitrous gas, oxygen, aod 
water. Now these affinities are moditied in a very essential 
manner by the quantity of nitrogen present in the mixture, and 
the degree oCititftmp^wtm* Tto, a pi«tl— m\M mqwiin » 
very ckMrchflmtal litidl»rtg«bilt»» gmtally ldfct»»v«y 
niM mgmttvm Imdt ot mtrailMl to a speculative imfiilBiv 
who konwo mMo^ of choBMtty bnl m. mm twAninwl hmm; 
nmetmucfBrnm is» that a gvMt poiti of Motwiiii of 
raanufacture are sent off by such Tnnnnrjrrs into the air, in 
the form of sulphurous acid and nitrous gas, to the great an- 
noyance of the neighbouring anio^AU and vagetabk^i, and the 
ruin, too often, of the proprietor. •* Drink deep, or taste 
not,'' is an ada^ e much more applicable ta the Hennetici than 
the Pierittn spring. . " « 

Hio wori^ tko tttlo of uliii^is prefixed to 4bk«rtiole, aod 
•of vfaWb tbo pmnl hto iMgfNlid tiMMo pwiiwfy tf iw i i u tg, 
it adnimblt adopted to llw «MMitt«fM 
'MiOtl dabblers. It will ftinusb them, at no OBpittdilBPO if 'fan 
telieot, eitbar in its author or themselves, with tigtgadyfnolii 
of juggling the public. Contemplated simply as a literary 
object, it is perhaps the strangest farrago which ever issued 
from our press. There is no method in its madness." It is 
calculated to give the same idea of chemistry as we should 
have oi Homer or Milton, ii" the whole of the hnes of their di- 
vine poems were transpobed and printed al random. Indeed, 
inch diflocatiofui m these thomand experiment exhibit, apr 
pewr even groator than hiuord conid kwre ptodaotd* Cbnei 
would now ajid then havo toNod togsolbor Itvo sinilarfiiKjaBl^ 
as in a thousand laislei of Ao 4loo*faox t«vo tinular tbnm 
might appear in succession. 

The elaborate confusion of its parts flrigkt be accounted fmft 
on the hypothesis that the whole affair is a sort of literary lar- 
ceny ; in which case it would become necessary to disfigure 
and derange the stolen articles, to prevent their bcinp: recog- 
nised by their respective owners. This would attbrd the 
simplest solution of the Chemical Millenary.' 

It should bava been named, however, after a far more edii» 
lying and iaitnictim compUatioii fvoni Arabia, the Aammd md 
oaeexperimeDtif for wc coooeive the ezportment of sach a book 
a^ tba Bfitinh public much more sorpmnig than any. «te* 
mtcal wonder which its pages display* 



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There is a quarto plate fronting the titlc-pag€i, which appears 
to us the best representation of Pandemonium yet contrived. 
It leaves Fuseli's genius far behind. This picture professes to 
exhibit the drawing the retorts at the great gas-light esta- 
blishment, Brick-lane," but of their construction and arrange- 
ment it communicates no definite idea. We see only a parcel 
of •riwi »»d figures, '*iMiPBhtrt iitlillite»" plunging huge pitch- 

Mmmio tha §uamf maA%mmt&^ vhck poUUhi, JmBg* 
iag afmaTCBUy §nm »gMI mi pip«« «rilfa tba vmkmi peepiny 
throttgk ft gniM wiadow, theddiiig ditaKiftw twilight oa the 
ialmal tcene. The publishers* howefer^ are well aware that • 
darning frontispiece often helps off a very indifferent book. 

The author, if this monstrous production can be traced to 
any individual parent, not only disclaims all pretensions to 
methodical arrangement, but speaks with sovereign contempt 
of all system. ^' Regarding the order of the work, he would 
aayytbatt^notwithstaoding the elaborate researches and ingenious 

y . rfcawinal aaiBaet^ lliaraiieTery few ph oa o mm f petfec tly 
4(welopsd «a to admit of a systf ilie awMifsiBMtt 9$- Ibe 
prinrijjiiit<iniiiirnJ imm them; consequentty, mf ttiiMyt ti 

loming a system, where the foundation and otheir parts of the 
SupersCructure are incomplete, would prove abortive. It is for 
this reason that attempts to systematize chemiatiy have in every 
instance been productive of failure*.*' 

We congratulate Mr. Colin Mackenzie on his perfect eman- 
cipation from the trammels of 4>rder, and we trust that the fate 
Vii hW: disorderly experiaeati iritt is firinpe prefect rajv han<lf 

omoiblesy ana ehloiiae.. Bvt fab m^imtf i» te.«M|toiie«e m 
\m iwrtin a> The mAm^ 1 the eeuBwetiaii, peimifid 

liMtAHpiclaidhareoee to the aooounts and opiiieae even oftkt 
.mo9t approved chemical wn^« would be far from satisfactory 
to HIMSELF ; and would, in many cases, prove delusive to his 
readers. He likewise foresaw that, although a general reader 
might, without further inquiry, acknowledge, or allow as true, 
every process and fact comprehended in the following multitudi- 
nous assemblage ; some who should honour his labours by a 
pesuyail nig^ hi Mm fartidious ; and, by calling in qnesoon 

sight he apt to fiast ee i i le i M of condemaatioa upoa the whole* 
These considerations, coijouMd with mt ardent desire, whieh.he 
himself had, of becoming praolicall^ HOf muitod «qth umimk 

of the chemical arts, induced him, on many occasions, to seeh 
fix information at its ultimately genuine source, viar., the work- 
•hep^^ the artisan t." To make this delusive prefeseioiir stiU 

f 



3H Afmltfm of^ Saeitiific Books, 

more catcbiog^ the foUowiitg motto is contrived for the tille* 
page: •* Oiv» mm the fecto," taM Wf LovA jQdge, tlly oio- 

ih» teiAi, and twi got n Ki lo thii 

'VfW dhiall MP iltoir, by a §tm fwAations takc»ift baoard, Imw 
Mttto coBim i l— is the LvH mt ty of ikit facts to his assii»» 

ance, aod how complietely at variance ^upe hds details and those 
of practical chemistry, as they nrc to he fonnd in the workshop 
of the iiitellityent arttstin. The volinnc contcuns 528 pat^fis, 
distributed into 20 chapters, and ornamented with 20 plates. 
The fullowing is the order of his chapters : Ist, Metallic alloy?;, 
under which we meet with the sulpliuretti of iron and uiokel, 
and the pho^harets of nickel wai eopper. 34, Art of coat* 
kig 4|c*> uMl aMltli^ 3d, Sepaivte <»# ttitals, 

4tOf froMi llbiip wmliiaMiMM* SnpaMkni 'ipf lMidRw--by 
heat, under which we have ebullition, suDlimatioii) fatkmn ""^ 
iM^» blow-pipe of Dr. Clarke and Mr. Hare, spreed omr 
ten pages. 5lAi, Chemical affinity, of which the first expert* 
rhent is, ** Non-affinity of steel for water the secona is, 
'* solution unattended by change of bulk of this we shall 
talk anon. 6tb, Elective athnity. 7th, Compound, or double, 
affinity. 8th» Experiments on crystallization. 9th, Experi- 
ments on the discovery of certain substances in combination 
with others, by means tests. 10th, Preparation of g^ases. 
llth, fiipeiiMDti on reipirallittb Itfii, Exp w ia niy O'feeMK 
Mitlaii. IM; PrepanMlMi mk M^nMriiaiMilIti^ wmi ^tefear 
m$mg tompounds. l4Hlh, Of tlie u i'g fci l i e u ttrf fAMi^^ioii 
heat. Idth, Experiments on the motion of calorie^ IunI on 
the capacities of bodies for heat. 16tb, PhoephmrMeiivce of 
minerpsi and animal siibstances. 17th, Specific gravity. 18th. 
Colouring and Bleaching. 19th, Fermentation and Distillation, 
ISOthy Frtiefvatim against animal and ^«getable putrelM* 
tion. 

Hie preceding list of the titles of his chapters \?ill shew 
every person of the least discrimination into wiiat confusion he 
1n» phmged thd^ delilll of U« ivwli. Bat lest we be deemed' 
of Ifie MMftberof *«lhslMKMn'' penoiM»lei wMw M'lMrarflkr 
• idi irdeni toire of b<tomki| praclieoKjr; (MqiMmM ^ASt 
Ihe arts*^ ha» «wnM him ; and WMtt kind of instmetieiilie htm 
acqaired in his pretended visits to in f^ ««m y« igettxAfHf 
source, the workshop of the artisan." 

At £:jcp. 22, under aUmj of gold and plaiinwnf we find the 
following statement, entitled, "Observations." " ft is a cu- 
rious circumstance, that the alloy of gold and platinum is so- 
luble in nitric acid, which does not act on either of the metals 
in a separate state." There is only one thin^g which lessens a 
little tile evrkwilhr of tbe eiicmnstance, its bein^ untrut, 

44. To make MSl-fM. 9lit fQ|i«rt8 of pure Im 



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Om 311(1— lirf MaejMf immi^ 9fe. UB 



m mmUfrnm iafci a crucible, wilk^ipiili^piirderedchaUi, 
and 6 |Mrli of powdered He«tiaa crucible-ware* Dispote 

Mrhole so that after fusion the iron BWy be completely covered, 
to prevent the least contact with the air ; now ^ixe the crucible 
a gradual heat, and then expose it to a white heat. Generally 
an hour will be sufficient to convert two pounds ol iiou iata 
exceedingly hard steel, capable of being forged ; an advantage 
act possessed by steel in the usual manner. Obstrouiion§t'>^ 
Jim the iMil » taMd iato •caibittet, by eraMMUlM. «i|b 




Hm OBboft el the ehelk aad enoiUe mnkr." Me ie 
iMeerticle. We •hQnlcLlihet»be«Dld ivlMtBegUsb 

mmaiuucated this process, or et what 
made. It is Ciouet's old sdbci&e» whieh. m 
quainted with steel would practise. 

" }^Tp. 1 J 4. To obtain pure platinum.^* Here we have nothing 
but liidolti's preposterous processy which we traet no astieui' 
iu tiiis country has ever practised. 

** JEip. 120. To prepare pure alufmne. To a solution ot" 
sulphate of alnmine (alun>) in water, add a solution o£ pare 
M^»k^ lip & while precipiMifiiUe dews. Bmrnlkmrn^ 
pheric eeid oombmee wm we pede^ letprie^ the alnvmiMb 
jDvy tepfedpitefeeqaidily^efld pmeervc it in a phU.f - U^m, 
eepare soda ts an excellent soUent of aleaitte^ the earth mm» 
not be precipitated " free" in this way. Ammonia is the pro- 
per precipitant, and the precipitate may be dried as slowly aa 
we please, after it has been thorougldy v. aahed. Our author 
has here contrived, in the fewest possible lines, to diapli^ the 
gpreatest possible ignorani^e of practical chemistry. 

Exp, 171. S^^tUixm noi aiteuded with change afbtdk, ii^ 
tlM cfaemieel MiMMlioa ef Mii wilk eoUd>»tdw i i j 
geeeehi ne mom^man Um» the iolf«Ml iki pmioiie to ten* 
ftiMenee. 'FiteaBM eeget, iMiele of leJetiwai— neidt,) or 
any other salt! into an ounce el WMler, until 00 ai oe i Witt Im 
dbsoived. llie iohition wiU measure just an oiince, ai 
water did before the addition of the salt ; but althoug-h there^ 
is no increase of bulk, there is a considerable increase of den-' 
sity andr specific gravity." One hardly knows how to treat snch 
efirontery of falsehood, for every assertion here is contrary ta 
the best established facts, and the plainest expenuieats. Water 
saturated with commoa seit has a tpedfie ^vity of K1962y 
eed eoatiuBie per ctnt* el Mlt, Vm 7Mfittt.elwwnv 
m^umMtkflihm^ti iftlt» lAeee e^eeUb naAifimMy 
ifOoM, if Itaeweet vo meMae ee the balk of tke eoivent^ 
ecqelre asp c cific gravity of 1 .349* But ihe r e al increase of Wli 
on these 74.5 parts of the solvent is to 83^6 exaetly. Were 
there not a condensation attendin^^ this exertion of chemicaf 
affinity, the bulk of the solution would be 87.212. Or, in 
voeadjiattaKn, peitnl^y Mk or.weighi jii watesy 4n«4^ 



a60 



10 by weigUt of »alt, aad tlieA<^iitioii occupies the bulk of 33 J 

^*£xp, lai. mMm ^hdift m mil im$trcepted bif vm* 
iiwMCyrf fimwrg. Put into A Flomoa AMk «0«i6Mwd«n4^ 

carbonate of liiae ((^Ib>> pour over it sonja Aliitod mU 
ufMiMmiii^ or nilrie acid; iaanifidiate effervescence viJI 
tbe eooaequeiice. Now stop the month of the flask with a 
cork ; the effervescence will instunUy stop, iijiod the same prin^ 
ciple that f?uids refuse to boil when the superincumbent pres- 
sure is, to a certain extent, greater ihun usual. If the coik be 
withdrawn, the effervescence will be resumed.- Observations. — 
The agitated motioa of bodies undergoing solution does not 
dMhg xwutk, •baBitiQp; forla bodicaiei tb> ftiidi viyorize; aad 
friiMiiys fMTM w u e w med the MewMion <f ypnat w§m Mfy* 
Mt Wv»g<«flMwir niaehaaletl faree to overcoM tbe iwiror 
of tbe body vUdi presses upoa it^" We shudder «t .fMMli»f 
tbii VBfUBmmXf as the Florence flask vili cartainly burst, to tfa*, 
imminent hazard of the operator's eyes. Indeed, the adviser 
of such a project should be made liable at law for the damages. 
It reminds us of the school-boy's itt nipt to f vitngtiifih a €raiit<wr 
by putting it into his breeches pocket. 

** Exp, 183. SoLuiion of tin in mirous acid. Pour half aii 
ounce of nitrous acid, over half an ounce of granulated tin 
(P«lm 8lft&Bi) tm ft tnnUac : Tttrj Uttb actiOB will talM place^ 
— «M[ to the ittihiM^ of bodi wihitMiwtt to preset to mth oHiar 
ft MfiMMit MHboe. B«l if wotaoft of water be added* a very 
viokftt aommotion will ensue^ during wbiih Ibft tin» m fta oztd^ad 
■tftit, and of a yellow colour, will be leeii to rm itp ftnd dom 
from the bottom to the surface, whilst a great quantity of nitrous 
^as is diseng aged. This solution is the nitrite of tin." *' Ob- 
servatkm. The above solutions of tin, as will be seen bereafler^. 
are much used by dyers." The dyer is to be pitied, who would 
try to make a solution of tin, in this way. In fact, the action 
above described ruins the process, and converts the tin into an 
ktilftble peroxide^ uiaieii tft tllft ftftiaftB. tet diii U not aUi 
••■■MB aitHM ftoid iftfiikUy ft«ta with gMt wImoc Hpoft 
powdered tin^ and a tyio mighl •eri^ittilj uyvn bimrif bj^ 
MIftWBf Mr* Mackenzie's recipe. 

Under E^Bp. 412^ we find en •neoeatiilia oik the virtues cl 
•* Strathpeffer water, a very productive well, in Ross-shire,- 
Scotland the district of tho Clan Mackenzie. This internal 
evidence has (Murtly satisfied us of the identity of tlte aiithoc 
whose name is on the Utie-page ; we onee thought u merely 
a nmn de guerre. 

At Exp, 469, p. 251« we hud the following sapient remarks 
^ It ii fteceeieiy to be observed here, that chlorine, and ell otbec 
9Mee nftdi^ ebeorbehle by weter, ibovld be received over 
•mpvy* mfttmgli mede te the purpoee ef conieiMftg fiNMft 




a dozen to twon f y ] inn nds So practical a chemist as Mr. Colin 
Miirkenzie ougliL to know that mercury is the very subsv-nice 
employed to absorb chlorine iii aaalyUccil lesearches oii luixcd 
gMW ; and that no ftractical c hmiki of commoii sense, ever 

" Sxp, 47\. IMm vmfmtr. Put « bbiaU qiMMtity oliodiM 
into a retort, and iMld H over a lamp ) whea hMfted oownAmK 
bly (abooi 300^ • very beautiful T«p<mr, or gis, will come over, 
which may be veceived in jars on the pnenmatid ^^f/ over 

wnter." Quere ; is Mr. Mackenzie's water also boated to 300°; 
did he ever see, or hear, of iodine as a beaotifui gas staodiag 
oyer water in the pneumatic trough? 

** Combiisiiuu is the decomposition of a liotly at an elevated 
temperaUue, wiUi the evolution oi light aiid heat. Some etip- 
pote combustioD to be the eSkol ci a wtan denee of motion 
flflbepaitidM of eonbnttible bodies; aadlhatitmoionii«ly 
m tnmspamcy^, or Inmmotkjt of dioBO particles wfaoB liny an 
Hirown to certain dittanew-fmli conadmUe votoeicf*,** 'Om 
0«B hardly afford to waito ctitlciim on such pompons nonsanfo* 
Combustion is known to be most rivid, when simple bodies are 
engai^ed ; and when there is no decomposition, but the roTCMO^ 
as with phosphorus and oxygfen, sulpluir and copper, 

" Exp* 529. CombiiStibUity of kydrozincic pas" This fine 
name melrely signifies hydrogen procured by actmg on zincj as 
usual, with a dilate acid. 

Mep, Tm Utn» bHUkmii^ M oxygen Heart ootfe 
gMMMilolad iit ootasidonibiy, in a platimiM spoon, attd itt tUs 
flittte immeme it in oiygoii gas ; a very beautiful combustkHii 
•ttoodod by a brilliant white li^ht will instaotiy ttke^plsMf 
wiieii oxide of tin will be formed." The possessor of such a 
spoon had better not try this trick, for if the tin burns, which 
we have some doubts about, the spoon v onld melt, tkus adding 
to the itistructiveness of our author's experiment. 

" Exp. 571. A lighted taper burns with much energy in 
chlorine gas." It «o happens that it is presently extinguished. 

Exp, 572. Combustion of charcoal powder in chlorine* Pour 
MMiie^ dttkioo«l, ii4wly made and finely pondmd) imoa jar^ 
contaiomf ohlorine gas; a veiy boaaliftil oombostioul viU'tiko 
place, disfJayiiig a stroam of me.*' Not trao. 

•* Exp. 719. Latent heat ii necessary to preserte bodies in 
the solid, liquid, and gaseous states/ Dr. Black imagined that 
bodies would keep very well in the solid state, without the help 
of latent bsat. Mr. Mackenzie has discovered that they will 

»Dt. 

" When bodies are mixed or combined, and iiie density or 
bulk becomes less than that of the fluids before mixture, heat 

Vol. XIL 2B 



Amfym uj Books, 



will be evolved*** This absurd enunciation is for some unknown 
reason, piinted in italics. He evidently does not know, that 
when the density of a body is increased by any means, its bulk 
becomes less, SM vke itenif 

Tlie diapter on spectfie gmily, if ttdM Mtwilli com b w^ 
ttihce and iH -ma nged details on the tit of iwiaHMiig, dhriog 
Mb, VMther-glasses, balloons, and nir-pumps. 

Chapter 18, entitled Colouring tmd BjeeKlungf*' ooflflams an 
unmerciful and unacknowledged plas^iarism from a theoretical 
article on Dyeing, in the first supplement to the .Bicyc fsp i rfwi 
]$ritan7dca. It can be of no serv!( r lo the artisan. 

** Exp. 8f)7. Blpnvhinfj Inj means of the Oxymnriaiic ^dS,** 
Towards llie end ot ihis article we have the following precioui* 
recipes. 1 he proportions observed when cotton is to be 
bleached, are nianganeie 90 parts, commoii taH §0» i ripliMk 
iMcid 60^ water IW. For liaen cloth Hie ^inop o fti eM an aa 
Iblloar : maBg an aae 00 parti, tali 60, Milp%iifio aoidM^ iratat 
80.** We should be gM to know why 30 patti of manganaaa 
nm »Bfficient for 80 of ooaunon salt in the first oaso, and 60 art 
required for 60 in the second. Nothing can place in a clearer 
light than these recipes, the irrational and danc:eroiis empiricism 
of his pretended prescriptions for maiiufat tint rs. Again, ''Kip, 
870. To bleach by means of the sulpliuK t of lime." This old 
project of Mr. Hig'8:in8, was very untbi tunaU'. If Mr. Mac- 
kenzie Will take the trouble of inquiring oi any intelligent Irish 
linen bleaichar, (and thora ai« many who understand cheoMStry 
MbHeW betlerihan he doei,) he will Mtet the loMi Inda 
l aoarrcd aoch a shock by the employment of salphuret of laae, 
laMead of barilia* at it did not recover in lapolation for sevend 
years. An immense deal of dodi was ratiiad by this notable 
recipe. Mr. Mackenzie*s directions to bleadiers remind as of 
thosf of an eminent ap^riculturist, (not less profoundly versed 
in pracfjcal chemiatry ), to farmers, who having heard of a plan 
for preventing the ravages of the fly in turnips, part of which 
consisted in steeping the seeds in a solution of chlorine : and 
having, moreover, heard that chlorine was produced by a mix- 
tare of oil of vitriol, salt, and manganese, committed the 
tMtneg chaa ia Bi aim of diieeiiag the seeds to ha at a ep e dl » 
this mixtare; a perfhct enre, no do«bt» ior the iy» or any c^ber 
evil to which the crop might have been liable. 

**.Etp.997. Cop€d FiimtsA. Reduce topowderanounoeofpw 
carbonate of potash, and then lay it before the fire till it becomes 
hot and dry. In this state put it into a pint of alcohol, or oil of 
turpentine. All the watery particles contained in the oil, or 
Spirits, Will be absorbed by the alt ali ; and the alcohol, or turpen- 
tine, will thus become pure, or highly rectitied. This process is 



• Page 34a. 



oftUed alcaUzing these solvents. Now put ilie tttrpentine, or 
mgmtA^ into a vesiel with two ounces of clean dry copal, finely 
po«Dd«d nd fifUd ; plac« tiiOf«tMlUiii«iia«itor; thieonpal 
will foon be ditsdlved.'' Obiemliou.^ If dit tpnito^r tw^ 

peotine be alcalized when the cop«l it diiMlviiigv ^ little spirit 
of wine sboald be added ; and if the spirits of warn be alcalized 
when the copal is dissolving, a little spirits of turpentine shovld 

be added ; the sediment of the varnish will dry on the silk in a 
few hours; the thicker the varnish, the sooner it dries." On this 
occasion, as with most other of his pracf Jcal recipes^ Mr. Mac- 
kenzie has been humbugged by the workmen to whom he has 
addressed himself. The above process is good tor iiotiiing^. An 
ounce of dry carbonate of potash will not dephlezmate a pint of 
liie dkohol of the ibops, and the copel tniteaa of being eoon 
d ino l fed might imaia there till dooae dey«. 

We pierame, we hare now ■ttiefied every reader of ordinary 
iateilifence, that this costljf octavo is lo devoid of scientific 
views, end so replete with practical errors, as to render ili p»* 
rusal useless to the student, illusory to the political economist, 
and deceitful to the artisan. Here and there, we meet with ex- 
tracts from respectable authorg, inserted often without acknow- 
ledgment, and always wiliiout direct reference to the source 
whence they are immediately derived. But, in general, the book 
is a cento oi obsolete and exploded operations. We close these 
■wnnriri, flowing solely and sincerely ifooi a wish to protect our 
ooiailryaien fron deoeptioB end kes^with the loUowing teet t moe^ 
very slightly altered from the a«Uhor^e note to page 274. It ie 
hoped Uiat none of the experimeats will be repeated through 
wantonness." In this case, we are sure they will not be tried at 
all ; for neither profit nor instruction can result firon their isp^ 
titioBf as described by Mr. Ck»lin Mackenzie. 



iii. FhiioiophicaL Trayimrtions of the Royal Sode^t ^ London^ 
for tiie year imU Part I L 

Iw seMalaiP onr noQeantof the I%iiot»Mcml TVoneaelMu te 
Ihe year li2lf we shall lay beiore onr rendsn » brirf e hst w e t 

of the principal fadto Contained in the several papers published 
l^the R(^I SoGietyyOxaauinngthaiaintheoiOBrbii^ 

« 

1* An aecmmtof Experiments to determine the acceleration of the 
Pendulum in different Latitudes. By Captain Edward Sft- 
bine, of the Royal Regiment of Artillery , F.E.S. & F.L.S. 

To the merit of Captain Sabine» as an accnrate and acute 
.ohsMver. we have more than once had occanoa to ndvert; he 

2 B 2 



is an exemplary instance of a military officer devoting his time 
and talents to the abstrnrt pursuits of srirnoe, nnA voluntarily 
Rubmittino: to severe dopiivations and peisoual danger, in the 
disinterested promotiun ol natural knowled«£('. We more par- 
ticularly admire his vaiious observations and inquiries nmde 
during the expeditions to the Arctic regions (under Captain 
Ross in 1818, and especially under CafMain Parry in 18t9 «aclr 
1890)^ fcr tlie ikfll iad pmefmaM wliidi tbey display n* 
OTercotniiig the mitowaid difficulties and ndbmeen olwtadai, 
arising out of iitiiatkm and climate. 

The clocks and penduluns^ used bj Captain Sabine in the 
ffBscarches described in this paper, bekm^ to the Royal Society, 
and were prepared by their direction, under the superintendence 
of Captain Kater, whose description of them is quoted by the 
author at the commencement of his communication. 1 he ex- 
periments were made during two voyages of discovery in st arch 
ot a North-west passage, the first in 1818, and ilie second i a 
1819 and 1820 ; and Captain Sabine details in succession the 
p wc e ad iags at fmek stataon wbeia aa opportunity was af briM 
of laodine and setting up tiie dodts, ana cotuiadss \n raeapi- 
talatisj^ ue number of vibrations made by each penaiihim in 
the difiereat latitudes in which it was tried, and by stating die 
deductions regarding the figm of the earthy whidi fellofr ireni 
the accelerations thus determined. 

In the first voyage, the number of vibrations was ascertained 
at two stations only, namely, at GarcUe-liotisc, on the island of 
Brassa, and on Waygat or Hare Isl md, on the west coast of 
Greenland, the latitude of the first bcin^ (SO 09' 42" y., and 
that of the second 70° 26' 17" n. The nuruber of vibrations in 
anMaasolar day at London being 86497.4, at Brassa they 
were 80590.507, and at Hare Island 865681.6886, giving an 
accderatton of 33.107 vibrations between London aiul Brassa, 
and of 32.1316 between Brassa and Hainialandt or 65.2386 
between London and Hate Island. 

Captnin Sabine then proceeds to detail the preliminary expe* 
riniGiit s relating to the pendulums, and the results of his various 
observations, made durmg the second more auspicious voyac^e 
imder Captain Parry, from which it appears that at Melville 
Island, in the Polar Sea, in lat. 74° 47' 12/'4 n., the mean 
diurnal acceleration amounted to 74.734 vihrutions. Of the 
pfoeeedings at this station he gives a circumstantial account, 
vUdi we fton lay belbfe our r^ers the following intamting 

As soon as the harbour wa<; fletermined in which it w a<^ purposed to secure 
the ships for the winter, ami wtukt a canal was cutting to admit them 
.thnmgh the ice by which it was alrtady occupied, its sbores wereeBtdnUy 
examiner!, with a vic\v to select a suitaole spot for an observatory* 

The land was fouud of Uttk elevtitioB» Mid seneratty levelt except wiwfe 



intenected by ravines, hemg the ctfnrses in which the winter's fall of souw 
draiMd on dMolutiou to the sea* The soil, which appeared by the bauki 
<if thete chantielf to be laaiiy ISmI in dcoth, oontisted of eand intermised 
with sni^Il atones, being the debric af the sandstone rock of which tha 
island is composed ; it was at this time consolidated by the frost, and wan 
harder than the original rock, but much the greater part bore evideutniarks 
of baiof ewaapy at times ; and even the move deTated tpota aKwdad Utda 
prospect of a solid foundation for the clock-stan(!<? on the return of summer. 

However, as no preferable situation conld be found within such distance 
bom the ships, as it woold have been convenicDt, or indeed prudent, to 
venture, one of these was fixed on ; and it was hoped that bf sfatkiug tha 
leg« of the stands a few inches into the frozen soil, and by commencing the 
experiments as cariv iu the ensuing year as the season should admit, they 
mght be caanpleted before the graMd ahoiild baaflMlad hy a tiMnr. 

It was desirable tliereforc to be thoroughly prepared l)eforc the severity 
of the winter should setm ; accordingly wheu the ships had beeu secured, 
and a party of men could be spared for the occasion, an observatory houite 
was commenced. The house was built of the Store plank and boardi 
carried by the ships, care beini^ taken to cut or injure them as little ai 
possible: the walls were weather- boarded, lined, and filled iu between with 
■MM ; thereof was proCaeted by a tarpaidfai covering : it was divided iuta 
two rooms, whereof the inner, being designed for ine reception of tha 
docks, was warmed by pipes proceeding from a stove placed iu the outer 
Wona ; the floors w ere boairded, and the walls furnished on the inside wiili 
Roaaia matting. Tije baasa was llnishad and ilia docks moved into it 
before the end of October, 

If any hope had been entertained of being able to do more during the 
winter tbatt mtrdy to prepare for the renm of now f a ia m a b ia wiat hs i, 
it was ended by the severity of cold, far exceeding expectation, with which 
November set iu. From this date until the close of March, the highest 
degree registered by a thermometer, suspended in the air, was + G° Fahrcu« 
hmtf and hi no one of these five mokths did the mean temperatosa risa 
above —18°; under such circumstances, an attempt to raise the tempera- 
ture of the house, sufficiently to carry ou the experimeotSf and to keep it 
ap during their oourse, with the reqnisile steadioess aaki unifiMinity, must 
have altogether failed. It may i;ot be amiss to remark, that notwitbstand- 
in«^ the house was as eflfectual for the purpose as the utmost lil)erality in tlie 
supply of materialsi with no labour spared in their application, could pro- 
duce, a verjr little wind with so low a temparatnia abstracted the heat wiik 
such rapidity, that the influence of the store was scarcely felt beyond its 
immediate vicinity ; and a thermometer placed in those parts of the inner 
mom where the cMu wotdd httva stood, could not lia kept slbawMO^ 
with such Are in the stove as it wcidd have been prodMt to maintain. 

The clocks were therefore suffered to remain unpacked during the winter 
in the inner room, whilst the outer served a variety of useful purposes, 
which could not have been couTenientiy eflbcted on board ship. 

On the 24th of February, the matting with which the walls of the outer 
i>oom were covered accidentals caii^t fire, and notwithstamk^f the 9Q» 
deavours of the persons w1m> were present, the fire was oommanloated 
rapidly to the roof ; it was at length fortunately extinguished by dieeier- 
tions of the officers and men from the ships, before the clocks or any part 
a( their apparatus had received injury i the packing chest alone of one 
was sUghtiy saoreked: tka only peiaonal s ufti s r o« tha aeeasiaa was an 
artilleryman, wbo bad accompanied me on the voyage, and who. in his 
anxiety to place the instruments out of danger, exposal his hands iucauti* 
ously, and was in conseoueaaa so saverdy nost-bitteo, as to render neoe»> 
sary the amputatkm of uraa fingers of the left kaad, and two of tiie ri|^ 

The house was sjyeedily repaired, the outer room being- reduced in size 
to a porch sufficient to contain the stove ; and the. ioucr room, which luid 
spftrody bceif toQckad by llie fire, vewdniti^ as before 



Mft Anafym of Smntyic Boohs. 



Tow««h tiw na'tf Ayrii ^ taafcfcj Ipft t i ai tefciip tfci flw.rM« — 

Hfew degrees abbre sero for ?ome hours of the day. The clocks were now 
iinjmcketl and set up : the flooring being removed, the legs of the «!tands 
were placed on slippers sunk some Inches iuiu theiroseniprouQdiu gruuves 
ivhidi wcpe dcesTated hy omw bars. 

It may be worthy of remark, that when tVie boxes corjtaining the ther- 
mometers which accompany the clocks were opened, the mercury was ob- 
senred to be retifed into th* Mbs and freesliig, oMiough tiw tawpcratnre 
of the air had not bMSa M> low aa iIm frozen poiot of roercary for aercral 
wfH>k> The thermometer boxes were enclojed each with the pendulnm to 
to which It belonged, in a stout case ot oak ^ and these again were oontamed 
to diaaH fcrtihi^ eacli ooo eloek wHIi its a p pa w lM i towp l rt a* The Ums 
mometers had been thoroughly coctli *! in their cases h\ the !on[^ coutitMicd 
severity of the winter } but the warmth had not yet made its way through 
such a multiplicity of enclosum. It may he also mentioned, in proof of 
the slowness with which M«h ft bmsI of solid brass m cwMtttiitad the boh* 
of the penr^Tjlums conforms to the temperature of the snrroundrng atmo- 
sphere, compared with the mercury in the thermometer tabes, that several 
fcovfo ud oMpaod, altar Hm peadoloiM ivora takea oat of iSbtkt com*,' 
(when it is presumed they also may have been at —40°) before they ceased 
to cause a deposit of moisture from the air of the room, which na§ al>out 
the same uumber of degrees above zero : the mercury m the thermometers, 
OB the other h«i4» mk up tiu tcmperatauw of ttM» roooi within iMdf an 
hotir after their exposure. 'I ht- cl u ks were put in motion on the 30th of 
April* and the account taken up ou the 4th of May, the room having been 
hept at about the tenpcntiiro of 1 45^ for the preceding ttnce doyt sbmI 
pigfati* 

It was not, iiowever, till the third week in May that the weiH 
tber became warm euough to commence the obsLTvations, for 
dnang the first fbrtiiigbt fttro^^ westerly viuds prevailed, an4 
Ih* obteifaiMy WM ooBinimU^bmd in 
Ibe only aeoesi to it wm by digging down to the window of 
tbe room containing the clocks, aad its mean temperature niras 
only 6°, instead of the desirable one of 45^, at which the espe* 
rtmcnts in London had been conducted. During the second 
fortnight the mean temperature was 25°; but various difficulties 
occLu red, and at the end of tlie month the thaw prevnilcd to such 
an extent as to oblige the abandonment of we hou^« heibre 
any satisfactory results had been obtained. 

Towards the middle of June, therefore, the clocks were set 
up in a tent) which could be occasionally heated by a stove^ 
and an aocount of their going is given (ram the 30tb of June 
tote \4Ak ^ Jnlj^ when it was conceifod that a auflSclsBt 
wnniber of results had been obtained. 

From the obsertations, fully detailed in this paper, respecting 
the length of the seconds* pendulum at the several places (tf 
observations, it appear? that its length at London being, as 
ascertained by Captain Kaier, =39.13929 inches, at Brassa it 
is 39.16929 inches, at Hare Ulmi 3949^4 iacheft, and at Mel^ 
ville Island 39.207 inches. 

Captain Sabine concludes this important commimication 
ivith tne following table, shewing the diminution of gravity from, 
the iMle to the eqiiator, and fhe resulting ellipticity of <he' 



eaith, deduced Irom the preceding obscrvaLiuai by Ctiptaiii 
Kater's luethod, de&ciibed in the F/ulasophictd Transactwns for 
1819. 





DinwaiiiMi of 




LoadMi and Bcawa .... 


.0066066 


t 


Loudoa and Umg l&laud , 


.0066082 


1 


BraiM and Haro Ishmd . • 


.0055139 


i 


Londoa and MelTilie Islaad 


.0055^^8 


1 

3»M» 



% Bnm O hmr v aikm mud ^^jfBHm tm it cm tkt Papyri, found in 
As Ruins ^ Bvoikemmu Mr Hivphfy Davy, Bart. 

In tills paper Sir Humphry Davy gives an account of his first 
expeixmeuts upou iragmeots of papyri, which induced him to 
liope that dmustry migbt afford assistance towards unrolling 
iba MSS* He then deacribea thoae in tha M«ae«m at Naples, 
and the promaea cairiad on thaie» and oonelndaa wAk aome 
general observations on the manoscripta of tiba ancianli. The 
ftUowin^ iaabrief oatiine of the mtaraating contenta itf tbis 
communication : 

The papyri in question appear to consist of leaves reduced 
to the state of cinder, cemented by a matter soluble in certam 
liquids, and es[)ecially in muriatic and nitric ether; now, as 
chlorine, while it has a strong attraction for liydiogen, exerts 
no action upon carbonaceous substances, and as charcoal forms 
the basis of ancient writhtg^ink, it ooeomd to Sir Hnm^y 
thai that gaa might be ntdTully applied to destroy the adfae* 
atrenaaa of the layara ; ha tharefoxe triad it and aome other 
ageate, poaaaaaad of aaalegena pwipegtiaa»>ndhia atlampai no— 
to a certain extent sneeeMniL 

The state of the Neapolitan specimens, and the g;encrr\l exist- 
ence in them of undecom posed vegetable matter, sugg-est some 
curious remarks respecting the origin of the changes which they 
have Buficrcd, and which have connnonly been referred to the ac- 
tion of tire; the part of Herculaueum, however, in which they were 
found was not inundated by lava, but covered by sand and ashes,^ 
caimtnted tofcthar \n the opavation.of vater ; and again, thai 
£re it not neeeaaary n>r the carboniiatioa displayed by the buik 
nuaeriptSv ia inferred from the atate of the wood in de bousea 
U Pompeii, which ia alwiya ^verte4 into dmnoal, thon^ 



568 



covered by a shower of ashes, which muit iMVe* teta Qoki« m 
they fell «t ft distance ofMveft «t eight Bii[«iftwtl»ml8f of 
Vewviiuk Among the NcspolitaB maascriptt thm we mm 
covered with a glossy substance lesenibling varnish, arising, 
Sir Humphry suggests, from the decompositioii of the skin vsed 
to infold them, and now converted into a brilliant animal 
charcoal, leaving phc^phate of lime wben bnmecl, but produc- 
hBg at the same time no inconsiderable quantity of lumrionia. 

One method only Im^t been adopted for unroIlinL; ilu s ■ fragile 
coiis of carbonized papyrus ; it consists in applyuig ibio animal 
membrane (gold-beaters' skin), by a solution of glue to the back 
of tlie manuscript, and carefully elevating the layers by a silk 
thieadtvhen the glue is dry* Alcohol ud ether wore fbend 
iiaeial auxiliaries in tbie operation, and great advantage was aba 
derived from throwing warm air upon Uie surface of the leaves, 
witli precautions which are pointed out in the paper before us. 
The different MSS., however, required very diffiwBOt treatment. 

During the two months that Sir H. Davy was employed m 
these experimnnts at Naples, he succeeded, with the assistance 
of the persons attached to the Museum, in partially unrolling 
twenty-three MSS., from which fragments of writing \vere 
obtained, and in examining about 120 others which gave no 
hopes of success : 

Aad I should f^dfy have gone on wMI ondertaklng, from the mere 

Erospect of a possibility of di«coveriii|; some better results, had oot the 
. itiour, in itself difficult axui implMBMint. been made more so, by the con- 
duct of 'liie persons mt the bead of this dqmitiDeiit In the MmMun. At 
first every disposition was shewn to promote niv researches ; fm- tlio papyri 
rt;mainiuir nurolled were considered by them as incapable of atibrdnig^ any 
thiu^ legible by the fonner methods, or, tu use their own word^ dii^ernti ; 
and the eflloM^ and u^e of the new processes were fully allowed by the 
Svole:atori or nnrollcr? of the Tluseum : and I was for some time permitted 
to choose and operate upon the specimens at my own pleasure. When, 
Imwcvw^ tiMRsvenndPmmBiJisLBY, whie sol far ths p wrotisB «€ 
ancient literature brought him to Naples for the purpose of assisting- ia 
tJie undertaking, began to examine tlie fragments unrolled, a jealoimy, with 
regard to bis assistance) was immediately manifested ^ and obstacles, w hicb 
tke kted i m wf ewMce of Sir WitxuM ATovtrr was wet ahnqps capable of 
removing', were soon opposed to the progress of onr inquiries ; and those 
obstacle* were so multiplied, and made so vexatious towards the end of 
f^ebfuaiyitbat wa coacaved it woald be both a waste of the public money, 
and aeaSipiOBilse «f our own cbaracteiSy to proceed. 

In respect to tlu^ date of these MSS., Sir Humphry remarks 
that, from the mixture of Greek and Roniaa eharacters, it is 
probable some of them were very ancient when buried. The 
ink with which they were written was a mixture of charcoal and 
glue, and from tlie omifsion of anv mention by Plmy of an ink* 
€f ^Is and iroDy it is not probaue that it waa iiaad up to hia 
period, but that parchineiit and our present writing ink were 
adopted together, '< for « mlatttre of chmoal and aoMitioa of 



glue can scarcely be made to adhere to the skin; whereas, th# 
free acid of the chemical mk partly dissolves the gelatine of tile 
MSS., and \ he whole substance adlierLS ns a mordant." 

The earliest parchment manuscripts are probably the Codices 
Rescripti, discovered in the libraries of Milan and of Rome ; 
in these, time has destroyed the vegetable matter oi the mk, 
but solution of ^Is revives its blackness. 

ft 

t Iwve tried •emal mliftaiiect for Rstoriii||^ valour to tlie letten In an* 

cicnt MSS. The triple prussiutc of potash, imd in the mauner recom- 
meDdcd by the late Sir Chablf.s Blagden, with the altonjntio!i frf arid, I 
have fouud successful , but by luakiug a weak solution ui ii wuU a »iuali 
quantity of muriatic acid, and by applying them to the letters in their State 
•r nistiBie fiitfa acamel^ bair pciicil» the malu M still better* 

After all, wc have probably sustained no great lost io the 

destruction of the ITerculanonn manuscripts; no frag-ments of 
Greek, and very few of Latin, poetry have been found in the 
whole collection, and tlie sentences which have been made out 
shew that the works are of the same kind as those before ex- 
amined, and belong to tlie schools ui the Grueik. Epicurean phi- 
losophers and sophists. 

3. Ohiervaiiom mi NapMaUne^ a jsmKor in&tfaiiM rmM(mg 

a coTuante Essential OU^ wkiA is aj^parentfy ftroduced during 
the decomposition of coal-tar, hy exposure to a red hwt* ' By 
J. Kidd, ilLJ},,Pn^et$orqf Chemistry f Oxford, 

This is tbe r&j singular substance of which an account bdfl 

already been given in this Journal (Vol. VIII. p. 287), but upon 
"which no distinctive name had then been bestowed ; the most 
important deficiency in its clit niical history is untortunately not 
supplied by Dr. Kidd. ** With respect to the elementary con- 
stitution of this substance, ' he ad^a, I am not enabled to give 
any satisfactory mformatiou." 

4. On the Aberrations of Compound Lenses and Ohfeot Olautt^ 

By J. F. W. Uerschel, Esq. F.R.S., Ssc 

In Haft ^bocata and traly important paper Mr. Herschel 
pments, under a genaral and uniform analysis, the whole 
theory of the aberrations of spherical surfaces, and furnishes 
practical results of easy computation to the artist, disentangled 
from all al';!;ebra!cal complexity, and applicable, by iuterpola" 
tioiis oi the simplest possible kind, to all the ordinary varieties 
gi liie muteuaU va whicli Uo hat* to work. 



570. Amnfym of Siimiifit BMbb 



i» AmAmmmt of the Skele^m^tke Dttgong, two Homed Rkim 
momratt md Tapir ofSkmmira, sent to England by Sir Thomm. 

Stamford Raffl^Ckmnmff Bttmoim. B^^JL ikm» 

This memoir ig illattrated by five plates, from drawings by 
Mr. Clit't, without refereoce to which the details would scarcely 
be intelligible to the m^ority of our readers. Sir Everard 
ntaTe«logiiMllMex«rtii»toffo .TlK^^ in pioiM^. 

mm urn pvmritt nf Mtvil Utlwy ««& oonpmlivv Mtomy ; 
to lus aetiYe InCarftfaiee we are inddlitedi for the accoiiitol tmrt 
WJ ibgular animal, the Dugoiig» |^«Uished in the pieoeding! 
vdne of the Philowjphiccd TransacUom\ it is the only one yet 
known that grazes at the bottom of the sea without legs ; be- 
ing- of the fig^urc and form of a whale, the position and structure 
of its mouth L iiables it to browse upon the fuci and submarine 
algae like a cow iu a meadovv, and the whole structure of the 
masticating and digestive organs shews it to be truly herbivo- 
rous. It never visits land, or fresh water, but lives in shallow 
mletSy where lihe water ie two or three fiitboms deep* Their 
vsiial leiifl;th it eigbt or ntne feet. But a carious end, to some; 
perheps the most interestuig part of the history of this enimsl 
IS, that the flesh resemUes youn^ b( ef, being very delicate and 
juicy; so that, as Sir Stamford, m the description of its dissec- 
tion, remarks, it afforded no less interest under the knife, 
thfn sBtiftfttftion ou the table.*' 



6« On diit Meem- Density of the Earth* By Dr. Chacles 

Utttton» F.K.S. 

We can never feel satisfied that it is fair to infer the density 
of the globe from that of any protuberance upon its surface, 
•ad ftfe, therefore, not iadined to acq|iiiesce in the importance 
of Dr. Meskelyn^s reseirches, who amiad at asoerteining the 
mean density of the whole ** terraqueous glohe of our planet,** 
by measuring the dimensioDS of an insignificant mountain in 
Scotland, and comparing its attraetioii on a plonunet, with that 
of the whole earth on Sie same. Mr. Cavendish sought the 
sohition of this problem by another method, consisting in as- 
certaining the attraction on small pendulous balls, of two 
niches diameter, by lar2:er ones of ten inches diameter, as 
compared with the attraction of the earth on the same. 1 
respective merits of these two experiments admit of considerable 
discussion, and upon these it is not our intention to enter; the 
learned author of the paper beftnre us is in lh?onr of the fsr* 
mer, and he horn an active share in tibe investigations con- 
iMcted with its betook aUthe meaeawMiits ufin wtodi the . 



m 



calculations respecting^ the magnitude of tha mottntaia wwa 

founded, and, in short, performed all those computtitioTis re- 
corded in the Philosophical Tra7isac(wns for 1778, and which 
employed his daily labours durjog the greater partof two years. 
Under these circumstances he justly complains that his name 
has heeii withheld, with regard to the exeat share he took in 
those inquiries, and that assertions have been aiuibuted to him 
whidi m not jnttified by any thing he has written. From a 
leview of the inyestigations, heUirakeit Ughly probable that 
die mean density of the earth is five times that of water, b«t 
not higher; Mr* CaTemUflh has assumed the mean density 
as 5.48, a result, upon tfie acearacy of which Dr. Uiitton has 
thrown much doubt. We do not think that the computations 
founded upon the mountain experiment, derive that verifica- 
tion from Mr. Playfair's Lithological Survey which Dr. Hutton 
is inclined to insist upon, and we wish that he had deduced the 
number 6. ironi more satisfactory data. When our author's 
computation of the earth's deusity was hrst made, the real 
density of the bill waa unknown, " it was only known that It 
eonabrted chiefly of Tery hard and deme twki^ nracb heatvier 
tei 00— Ottiteney which la allowed fobea^'tiaee the diarily^ 
of water. 

I then, by way of example m applying the density, muUiplied | by % 
which produced | or 44 for the density ot the euth, <m tiie smallest as- 
auiuption ; till such time as we should come to know more nearly wbat the 
real density of thu«!e rocks is : and therefore I must feel reason to com- 
y that this number ^4^) has oiieu been stated, rather unfairiyj as my 
cluidiisitm for the earth's mean density ; instead of hfast^ ^7 tiM 
yen' lowest limit that might be used, till we could better learn snmcthing 
on that point with more certainty. But a lithological survey of the muuur 
tain being afterwards accurately made^ at my earnest request, by that ex- 
cellent philosopher and geologist, Mr. Playpair, the result of which woa 
published in the Philosophical Tramaciwns for the year IHll ; I then ap- 
plied his mean statement of the rocks to my own calculations, which gave 
aie the munber 5 for the dentily of Iba mtb| as IpuUiibcd ia the four- 
teenth volume of my edition ef PMUmfkimU V^mmeiimtf and in the 
atsoad v<iiume of mj Trmtitt 

Tn concluding his paper, Dr. Hutton suggests that one of t he 
pyramids in Eg^pt rai8:ht profitably be employed instead of 
a mouiitaju for this expeniiieut; such a body, he bays, olkift 
several advantages; its mass is sufficiently large, standing 
i^n a base of about the soe of the whole apace of LbcoliiV 
inn Fields^ and of a height alnoHteUe of that of St PaiA. 
(BUeeplo. 

Then the station for the plummet, orceaitb sector, could be taken much 
nearer the centre of the mas&ythauon ampuntaju,which would give a larger 
qnaBlHy of deviatioii of ike plummet \ then the rcg;ular figure and the 
Known composition of the mass would yield great facilities in the oalcula- 
tioB of itsattnctioii^ laiUjr» the deviatioii of the phunmet might be oh- 




1 



372 




tervcd on all thft Ibttr lite, ft w i * «mIi a v^t^ take place, it ^11 bt 
best to tak« tha ttatioBlM about one fourth of iu altitude above the base, 

that being the place when* the deviation of the plummet would be the 
greate&t. Finally so favourable for such au expcrinieut do those circnmo 
ttaaees appear, and m wmsdtm aiv my wishes Ibr its eompletion and anccawi 
list, were it not for my ^reat age aud little health, i IhoilU b» gtai t» 
nake «Mie ia mm^ party to uadertaLe such au exp^ditioiu 



7. On the Separaikm qf Irmfiwn MeiaU, By J. F. W. 

Herscbel, Esq. 

The fallowiog ia Mr. Herachel** mode of proceeding: 

The solution containing iron is to be brought to the roaxlnram of oxU 
datiou, which cau be communicated to it by boiling with nitric acid. It 
is then to be j'l'^t iientralizod xrhile in a state of fhnllifion, by rarboDate of 
ammonia. Tbe whole of the iron to the last atom in precipitated, and the 
^•bole of the vlhar vMlals present (wbfeh 1 rappow to be nMBganeii^ 
ceriam, nickel, and cobalt), remains in solution. 

Tlic precautions necessnry to ensure soiree*?? in thi<; process are few and 
sinijde. In the first place, the solution must cuutaiu no oxide of manganese 
or oeriooi above the first degree of oxidation* otherwiM it will be 8ep»* 
rated with tbe iron. It is scarcely probable in orrlinrin- crimes that any 
such should be present, the protoxides only of these uetels lonning salts 
of any stabdity ; but should they be suspected^ a short ebullition with a 
little sugar will reduce them to tlie minimum. If oitrk; acid be now added, 
t!ir iron alone is per-oxidized, the other oxides remaining at themiuim^im. 
Moreover, in perlormii^ the precipitation the metalUc solution should not 
be ton ctmcentrated, audmait be agitated tlie wbole time, especially towards 
the end ol^e praeess ; aud when the acid re-action is so far diminished 
that log'-w(»(j(! p«por is but feebly affected by it, the nlcalhie s^>lution must 
Ite added cautiously, in small quantities at a time, aud iu a diluted state. 
Iftoo nracb alcaR be added, a drop or two of any acid will set all r%fat 
again ; but it shouKl be well observed, as upon this the whole rigour of the 
process depends, liiat no inconvenience can arise from sbcbtly stirpassin;:^ 
tbe point of precise neutralization, as the newly precipitated carbonates of 
ihe above enumerated wmtttit mn readily soluble, ie««»rfate«9r<enl, letihr 
tdutions in which thfy orr ffrrrnvd (fhnngh perfectly neutral). In the casei 
of cobalt and cerium, this re-dissolutiou of the recent precipitate formed by 
caibonate of ammonia is reiy considerable, and a solution of either of 
these oMlalS) tes iasi^vgnatcd witfi the metallic eatboiiate, b ecots a test 
of the presence of peroxide of iron, of a delicacy enrpassins: mo??t of t?ie 



dosrn by tfieni from a boOiw solution, provided no mMked excess of add 

be present. To be certain however that we have not gone too far, it is 
advisable, after separating tbe fcrru<>:inoHs precipitate, to test the clear 
liquid, wl^e hot, with a drop oi liie aicaiiue carbuuaie^ Jf tbe cloud which 
tins psodaces be deariy re*dissolved on agitation, we may he sore thatoaly 
iron has been separated. If otherwise, a little acid must be added, the 
liquor poured again througb the filter^ so as to wash tbe precipitate^ and 
the neutralisation performed anew. 

Such of our chemical rcf^rlers as may be concerned in the 
analysis of ferruginous compounds, will find some remarks 
on tbe subject in tbe obsecvatious which follow the above 
extract. 




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FkUo&opiikai Tramajcliam^ 



• - , 

9, On tJie Re'establishment of a Canal, in the place ofap&rtunk 
of the Ureikra^ which had been d^rtro^etL By Httury Earle,' 
£iq. iSb^eon to ike FomSing^ See, 

The details of this paper are too purely surgical to admit of 
being quoted at length m this Jonma!, at the same time they 
lead to the deaumBtradoA of a curioaa and important physiolo* 
steal ihcty and upon that ground Iha commnnieatiBn has pro*- 
baUy been admitted into the PhUoMpkioal Troma eH on t m 

9* ChkutaiUnu qficme iiihervaiiims of Me SoUar J geiy ei of iHa 
7eft September f 1 820. By Mr. Chaiks Ramker. 

The detaila of thU paper scarcely admit of aiiuridg^mfiat* 

10. An Account of the lienieasuremcyit of the Cube Cylinder and 
Sphere used bij the late Sir George Slntchhurgk EveUfn, in 
his Inquiries respecting a Standard of Weights and MeaSMres* 
By Captain Henry Kater, F.R.S. 

8irG. S. Evelyn's experiments, adverted to in the title of thi» 
paper, are detailed in the PhiL Trans, of 1798, and though ha 
bestowed the greatest attention on those parts of the inquiry re- 
latino; to the weiqht of the solids, their mea^vrement was not 
so accurately pertormed ; Captain Kater therefore was anxious 
to re-invi stigate tlie latter subject, yjrevious to the ^uai repof t 
of the ( I Jinrnissioners of Weights and Measures. 

In tills paper, Captain Kater describes the state of the 
apf>aratus, aim the means which he adopted in efiectin^ 
their measurement* The mean result of the measnrement <2 
three sides of the cube gives for its contents 134.1969 indies. 

The length of the cyUnder, deduced fvm three means, if 
5.9960 inches. 

In the original measurement of the sphere, a brasa squava 

was employed, the side of which was a little larger than the 
diameter. The sphere being properly placed and supported 
within the square, a micrometer screw, wliich passed through 
one of the sides of tiie square, was biouglit la contact with the 
diameter of the sphere, and the reading of the micrometer head 
noted; the sphere being then removed, a brass luler, of known 
length, wai» put uito its place, and the micrometer screw being 
brought in contact with the end of the ruler, tiie difimnoa Uh 
tween its leneth and the diameter of the sphere was obtauedy 
from which £e latter waa detenained. 

Captaitt Kater details at lengdi the repetition of Sir George^a 
measurements, whence it appears that the excess of the diame- 
ter of the sphere above the length of the ruler gives 0.0012281 
inches; The anthor then|«oceeded feomeasuiethabiassniler^ 



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S74 Atmi^m of S c ia U^ Beok^ 



the Jcnfrth of which was found =6.0063609 inches, and the 
diameter of the sphere thence deduced , gave 113.5264 incbei 
for its solid contents. 

Captain Kater concludes this paper with a tabic, shewing the 
dau mrnished bv Sir 0. 8w JMjb'b eatpcwiaate, ind hm own 
MMWtMirti* OM frtnob il appiut mat diie ircj(§^ 

Mr Cteotft^ ■tirfnf4, v Mt,7ft2 gniw of dMpM^MiiMi- 

1 1> meoitmt ^ O^mmfJ&om mtuk wiik ike JBigk»-/het Astrono- 
mieal Circle^ at ihe Obtervatory of Trinity^ College j Dub&Mf 
since the bttg imun g <^ the year 18 18, /or investigating the effects 
^the PardUeat and AherraHon <m the places of certain Fixed 
Stars; also the comparison of these unth former observations 
for determininq the effrrt^ of Lunoff Nutation^ By Uie ROF. 

The observations, of which au account is given iix this com- 
municatioD, wete instituted with a view to discover the toarce of 
die d ifleren ce i that bara eiiited between the obe ct v a tioaB 
nade at Gfeenwidi and thoae at I>ablm» felatm to parallaac. 
After a perspicuime and detailed ttatenent of the niediod of 
condocting his observations, Dr. Brinkley avows his inability 
to rectify the discordancies, observing^ at the tame time, that» 
aa the whole extent o( the difieNnoe in question is but one 
second, it may by some be considered as showin* the great 
precision of modern observations. Yet, independent of the 
interest of the qiipstion of parallax, it is important that the 
on^ of the ditierence, small as it is, should be ascertained. 

12, On the Effects produced on the Rates of Chronometers bij the 
Proximity of Masses of Iron, By Pet£B Ba&low, £sq.^ qf 
the Royal Military Academy. 

In a pa|>er printed in PMhsopkical Transactions for 
Mr. George Fisher, who accompanied Captain Buchan a» the 
Arctic regions in 1818, has shewn that the rates of chronome^ 
ters (litTcr on board and on shore, gainincr in the former, and 
losin-T; in tiu latter sitnation ; this he attributed to the mag-ne- 
tic influence of tlie ship's iron on the bRlance, and instituted va- 
rious experiments, which with their results are detailed in his 
communication, to shew that the magnetic influence has a ten- 
dency to accelerate the motion of the time-keepers by its ia>> 
flnaaoe oa the ateel part ^ their balances. Mr. Bartow^ In- 
i|airie* ooolniwd itt the paper bilbfo na haw lod Ira 
conchieifliMs hafbmid, aa might ba eapeetad^ that fkmymsasmlBS 
^ naeeaa of iroa iaflaencaa the raftia of clma»mtarf,«lMt ao 



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m 



te from a<%di^ating them, 6re out of tlx upon which he exp^ 

rimented were actually retarded, and the acceleration of the sixth 
was dmihtfiil : he shews tliat much depends upon the positix>n of 
the balance in reg-ard to the iron. Ail these experiments prove 
that chionoiiieters should be as carefully stcluded ironi the 
action oi any partial mass of iron, as the compaiii itself ; and 
Mr. Barlow suggests, that as much of the iron of a ship is 
bidden, the best way of asceitaioing a proper place for a chro* 
iMMMrtir will be to eat dom aconqMi in Him MtaatiM designed 

different tacks, and if iSn^Sisagreeinait b^twotm dw two bt 
CQBiidMftblAa ^ mImsI sBDtliMr Aitaaiuii. 

13. On the PeculiearUm tkmt distinguish the Manatee (rf tim 
West Indies^ from the Dugong of the JEast»Jndim^ Si9M, 
Sir EvERARD HoMSy BsaL, V. P. K. S. 

This is a short comparative description of the anatomy of 

these animals, illustrated by four plates from the accurate pen- 
cil of Mr. Clift. The first of these shews the external form of 
the Manatee, which has a broader tail and greater lateral ex- 
tension of the ribs than the dugoug ; its habits of life place it 
between that animal and the hippopotamus ; it has no tusks, 
and feeds upon plants growing at the mouths of large rivers. 
The second plate is a general view of the skeleton ; the thirds 
a repfemtstion of the stomach ; and the fonidi exhibits the 
pecafiarities of iCt csecam. 

14« On a new Ommound of Chlofine and Carbon. By RxcHAfto 
PbillipSi F. K. S. ^c, and M* Faradat, Chemical 
Astatant in the Royal Institution, 

This compound was accidentally found by M. Julien, a nitric 
acid manulaotQfer of Abo, in FInkuidt amenget llie productB of 
Ilia praeoiaee. It ia a aoft white taiteleaa eoUd ; iaaolnble m 
water; volatile and iaflammable; Inaatabte in acids and aMia; 
and i^ftM raited in vapour over hot mevonry, and detonated wHk 
awoaaa of oKygatt) ohioiida oC maronrj and cnbomo aeid an 
lie rc a nltB * 

The analytical details of this paper prove the subsrnnce dc- 
•cribed to consist of one portion of chlorine = 33.5 and two of 
carbon — 11.4, so that it is intermediate between the proto* 
chloride and perchloride of carbon, previously described by 
Mr. Faraday. All endeavours to form this chloride, or to con- 
vert it into the other chlorides, have proved iuefiectual; yet the 
smallness of Uie quantitj of tlda compound in poeaeaaion of the 
antimra, piemted their poraning thia investigation to the ex- 
tent they eould bare deaind. 



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$2% Amljfm >Qf ^ciuUiJif Books, 

15. Oil the Nerves giving' a)i 'Jccoimt*^of sofiip'jSfj^piffr^^ 
their Structure ^af^J^mctionSy which lead to a «ei9f4c?jpff«^' 
mvd qf the System. .iy CuA^l^s ,]^^ , 

•if lie^d#B mr^MM'pT^dkA mms commhi^^^ 
fkfk hB tlftiAMT W be dorMi, ^t'U^ihi^&ittfiAr ttddition is un- 
<riiil W H yir>adc? tlKiiktiuib^ll^erafiatbmy; and a pat t of the 

•yttem hitherto very imperfectly understood nsflumes a charac-" 
ter of simplicity and order in contrast not only with the doc- 
trines which have been taught in our schools, bat also wi^ the' 
opinions of the most celebrated foreign anatomists. ' 

When we speak thus hesitatingly, we allude to the prefetory 
part of the paper ; with regard to the facts and observations in 
A« body of it, thM aui .le but etie <fpfti9oii-«->th^ org dtiite 
«Hrt» tit, oUt letnl l» tlii^- ImMledge of ph^flteik' tetMtf- 

die /Me^f the hd^t^ toiKtide thM'rm4»>t#l^#p^ii^9 ; ^"ork 
for the supply of commoti sensibility tin5d thfe^'^wer' of Id^cU 
liiotton, to be found m all animals which Ha^'^tie^J eVeti 
in those very low in the scale of ejcistence— while th^'i[^re- 
sence of the other system depends on the complication of 
the structure of the animal, being complex in proportion to ' 
the number of the organs of the animal economy, and to the • 
variety of functions which those oriz:aiis perform. When an 
animal has no heart or coDceiitrate organ of respiration, there wUl * 

beiilftit of fll(yie*tiirlefl^Aiiiiidl, whieh'tm t}i6)^ig^«^dldi8e^j^i««1iid'< 
nittch tttW teMfe y t (Ptftfc fit»lfe iygtem ? but-^1iMi)di«le^rg&ii«re 

of th6 su^YaM^ ^ oi^^ns are flw or ^pxif. ' 9or 101; 
iHhiialB that haveti AMrf, hirigsy and'fAMiadA,' liavomti^Ne ap- 
propriated to titeaef organs, but this nerve Will be found simple 

or otherwise, according to the functions perfcwnied by the viscera. ^ 
If an animal merely breathes, the nerve will be simple in its 
distribution and in its connexions ; but if the office of the lungs ^ 
be multiplied, if they be employed in producing tiie natural 
cries of animals, or combine with the organs of the voice so as 
to produce articulate language, or with the organs of the kutf^t 
80 as to eipTOM emotioiM, Sieu the simple resinrctory nenre 
viQ becxmie complio«tedy ibniiitig an intricate tysten or nenr^ 
Ibr lliecoittbintttion of many xmote parts in the acts of brekth^ ' 
ing, coughing, tneean^, hieconghing, vomiting, ^e, ' ' 

This vieWy owing to its simplicity, is seducing enough, but its 
trttth mast be pat to tlietcst The author brings the quOStion 



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377 



Yery diBtinetlj before m» hk mf kming A»fWnHlefffft flMUtfOM 

performed in the face. 

In the head and face of mailt aod of the higher classes of 
brntes, there are two distinct sets of nerves which pass to the 
same parts. Anatomists have hitherto supposed that tiiis two^ 
fold provision was fur mcieasiug tlie nervous power, and ior 
teetring ht iaflatoee by minierotts comnwuueatioiis in partt 
UMbtomeadmHU Bat Mt , BtU, m 0| yc ril Sp>, jhf it w» 
laiQir» to all aiwtMtiliiBd physiologitia wk> iMiM ttwcadi^ 
liiin» has proved Unm two^Aaswa of umm to ««to!ily dif* 
fmat in fiuwtiaiMk 

fiy catting across one of them he deprived the ttmdm of IIm 
face, and particularly of the nostril, of all power of motion in 
consent with the act of respiration: but this wrs not the only 
eti'ect produced, for at the same time all that animal activity in 
tlie features which indicates passion, was destroyed. But it is 
very remaricable, that whilst those particuim fiuictioas of the 
muscles of the face w ere suppressed by cutting one set of nerves, 
the muscles still retained their full power when employed in 
otber fttnctioos, as^ for ^acaniple, in the ad of eatiiig« The aoxt 
tei of ezperimento U equally enriou. Upon oottlo* aofooi tlio 
otber class of nerves, waving that which controls tTie action of 
tespiiatioii entire, the teosimlitf of the skin and the action of 
the muscles in mastication were destroyed, whilst all tboM 
^ operations which we might suppose are the most delicate, as 
belonging to tbe act of breatbug and expressio n^ oonUiitted 
iinimpaired. 

We need scarcely add that these experiments were made upon 
brutes, but nnmerous examples of iojury or disease of the 
nerves of the human face prove, that the same distiuctiou ur 
classification of functions exists in tbe boHMWi countenance. 

We look forward with mch latoieit to the pRnuMd paper 
ovifaoNorvoaoftiM Iteek ad Thioat ■ and »hali thea ende»> 
irottr to kf beim o«r readers sore detailed iii w o im ii MH m 
the new views which Mr. BelPs investigatioM suggeat to Iho 
physiologist, and o» tboir probable importance m the. praelka 
of phyiio aad eoifirjr. 

Kvi. Farther Researchei &n lAe Magitetic Phenomena produced 
by Electricity^ with $ome new Experiments on the Propertisi 
of" electrified Bodiet in their Relations to condnctivg PmMr 
amd Ikm^erwttmt* By^H. Daty» B^rt., P. K. S. 

• * 

This 19, in .our of^on, by ftr the most important additioo to 
ihe dtsooverjes in' electro>magnetism whieb baa been made 
ainee ^e announcement of galvo-magnedsm hf Oersted ; it te 
« clear and perapicQOus, though brief narration, of several im- 
portant res^arcbett of idbtch we need not say more than that 

Vol. XIL 2 C 



Digitized by Googlc 



378 



Anai^i$ oj'^ctmt^ Books. 



they are worthy of the President of the Royal Society. Of these 
inquiries the following is a condensed abstract. 

1. Magnetic phenomeDa are the same^ whrtkci electrieitj is 
•Man in qaanti^ aod passing through good c— dunai nf ma- 
iMarable BMgaitadas orwMtiier tkaoQadMlina»aeumi^ 
'ftct aa oaiy to oany a aiaall quaatky of ekotricity; ar bodi 
oaees the mignatiim exhibited is extMMljrMble. 

2. Imperfect condwsting fluids do nal give polarity to itael 
"when electricity is passed through tham ; bnteiactfkaty ptaacd 
^M>ugh air pioaiicaa thiaefiect* 

AHMOttkig on tlus pheuomenoQ, and on the extreme mobility of the 
particles of air, I concluded, as Af. Araco had likewise done from other 
considerations, that the voltaic current in air would be affected by the 
magnet. I faU^ in my tirst trial, which I have referred tP in a note to my 
former paper, and in other tiialswidtiince by wing too weak a magacC; 
but I have lately had complete success : and the exprnmest exhibits a very 
striking phcnomcauu. 

3. Metals are well known to be capable of transmitting large 
quantities of electricity; and one obvious limit to this quantity is 
their fusion by the intensity of the heat thus excited, which inten- 
sity is, of course, in part dependant upon the medium which 
surrounds them ; thus, a platinum wire becomes much less 
heated by the traoBiiusBioa of a certain quantity of electrieitj 
;prhei^ suspended in air* than vhen.in the exhausted receiver of 
an air-pump. Eeosoning on tips fact» it occurred to 'Sir 
Humphry,' 

Unit by placing wires in a medium much denser tfian idr, tndi as ether, 

alcohol, oils, or water, I might enable them to transmit a much hig'her 
charge of electricity than they could convey without being destroyed in 
air } and thus not only gain some new results as to the magm^c states of 
iMh frtrM, but likavae, perhaps, detennine the actuaJ limits to th^ p ei mi 
of different bodies to conduct electricity, and the relations of these powers. 

A wire of platinum of jlu, of three inches in lengUu was fused in air, by 
being made to transmit the ideetrfeitf of ttro batteries of ten rine platM 
of four inches -«ilh AnMe copper, strongty chained : a similar wire was 
placed in sulphuric ether, and the charge transmitted through it. It became 
surroqnrled by globules of gas j but no other change took place \ and in 
this iitna)U<HS it bore tlie <fi8charge firom twelve batteries ef tbe same klnily 
exhibiting the same phenomena. When only about an inch of it was 
heated by this high power in ether, it made the ether boil, and became 
white hot under tiie g;lubulei> of vapour, and then rapidly decomposed the 
ether, but it did not fuse. When oil or water was substitated Ipr tbe ether, 
the length of the wire remaining the same, it wai pBTl^al^ O0fetad ViA 
small globtdes of gas, but did not become red hot. 

To ascertain whether short lengths of fine wire, prevented 
from fusion by immersion in a cooling mediiim, transmitted the 
whole electricity of large batteries, a second independent cir- 
cuit was so made from the ends of the battery by silver wires in 
water, that the decomposition of the water indicated the resi- 
duary electricity. It was thus found that au inch in length of 
pla^^am wire of one 220th of ai^ mck 'djiaiiieter, kept cool by 
water» left a greht residual charge of eledtrkity in a oomBiaa^ 



Digitized by Google 



379 



♦ion of twelve l>atterie6 similar to those above mentioned; 
•everal trials shewed that it barely discharged six batteries, 

4. Havinix therpforp fleteriained that there is a limit in iho 
quriiifity of electricity which wires ru e capalilc r>f transmitting, 
It l)ec;uiie easy to institute exp* niiients on tlie different conduct- 
ing powers of different metaliic substances, and on the relation 
of this power to the temperature, mass, surface, or length of 
thft oo n i ttot kg body, and to tke oonditiona of electro-magnetic 
Mioii. 

Tlie leading wnh of Aeee reeeudiee wae, Chat the eon* 
diteHtig pmm ^mttulUt ^ddlfei tfoHmi teiM the tmpertaure^ and 
was IpawTf til some inwftae ratio as the temperature wu h^her,'* 
Thnea wire of platinum of one 220th of an inch diameter, and 
three inches long, discharged the electricity of two batteries 
when kept cool by oil ; but when in air it barelv di«;char^ed one 
battery; and some apparently paradoxical results depend upon 
this circumstance. Thus, let a fine wire of platinum be heated 
red hot in the galvanic circuit; then ai ply a spirit lamp to any 
part of it, so as to heat that part to whiteness; the consequence 
IS, that the rest of the wire ceases to remain red hot, in conse- 
qoance of Iho bad eondacting power of the white hot portion : 
again, for the con¥«ne Wnatiwiloni apply a piece of ice to a 
part of tiia wire, and the nmaiader, pfCTloaely' only led hot, 
will now heoone heated to intense whitenees, in consequence of 
the iiuprovement in e on doet in g power occasioned in the oool 
part, enahttag- a larger qnaAtily of ekctrtcity to traveree the 
wire. 

Another important fact developed in these researches relates 
to the [;rcat ditiereiicf^ in the conducting: power of different me- 
tals : m experiments with 6 inches ot wire of -r^^; inch diameter, 
silver discharged the electricity of 65 pairs of |)]iUcs ; copper 
and lead that of 56 ; tin of 12 ; platinum of 1 1 ; aud uon of 9; 
all the wires being kept cool b^ immersion in water. These 
facte lead ifi olfaefa conneetad with the Magnetie enargieaof the 
dWfewii t wifee which are not a little cnrioae* If wires of the 
different metals he placed enccessively in the yoltaic circuit 
the best conductors become most powerfully magnetic ; that is, 
they take np the largest qnantii^ of iron fiimgs ; so that in this 
way a silver wire becomes an infinitely more powerful magnet 
than one of iron. In a powerful voltaic circuit, (the wires not 
being" capable of carrying off the whole of its electricity) two 
inclaes of silver wirn of l-30ih inch diameter took up 32 grains 
of iron filings ; a similar wire of copper only attracted 24 grains; 
of platinum 11 ; and of iron unly 8^, 

There are various other important topics treated of in this 
paper; more especially the prodaction <n heat in wUms media 
by tlra transmission of electnd^. That different wires become 
▼ery dHBTerently heated when placed in the voltaic circuit was 

2C2 



Digitized by Google 



900 JMkfm^ SdfMi^ 

previously demonstrated by Mr. Children in the magnificentseriei 
of experiments which he instituted at Tunbridge with batteries 
of large pUies, and of which an account is given in tlie Philoso- 
phical Tran»actiani for the jears 1809 and 1816*9 tuad be in- 
geniously idbmi Ibis fiibtiniof hMt to Ike fwiilile ntitt- 
oppoied lo thopuMi^ie of deotritfi^ MMdidK Ike eloti^ 
tMMi of bempeittm to bo tofonely proportioooti to&oooodoct- 
mf power. " The greatest heat» howeTer,** soys Sir H* Do^jt 
^ m ppo A wo d bi atr, where there is reason to suppose the leeot 
lOlbtancfi^ ooi iO tfMl powence of beet tebders bodies wane 
conductors, another view may be taken; namely, that the ex- 
citation of heat occasions the inipeifection of the conducting 
power. But till the causes of heat and oficlectricity are known, 
and of that peculiar constitution of matter which excites the 
one, and transmits or propagates the Other, oar reaiotimg on 
this subject must be inconclusive." 

This IS the concluding paper of the Philosovlucal Transac- 
Urnii §K tho ftm 1981. The hMf altetch of its cooteols ui 
tfuandioooYpnoidbig.Noate tHU wmi$U imt feidenMo 
o jyr eci ot e the nofeltv and impqvtaAoooC 4be paprnffiiiod m 
tms Tolume ; and will serve, we hope, as an iiideJt oC |e(B|PM^ 
to its valeablo ood wltifarious information. ' ' 

In Uklng our kaje of this poWftcation we lete tho opp6rta- 
nity which it su^g^ests of congratulating the ontmbeTS of the 
Royal Society upon the dignified independence and exalted sta- 
tion to which that learned body has attained, and which it pro- 
mises to preserve with untaoushed and OYea increasing gfioiin 
dour. 

The facility with which u ivportaot discoverjr maj escape the most 
^SilsBt obterven is brought to omnosBM|ia»lif the jpHi^plM fltamfli 
that were made during: these experiments to mflnence the magnetic needkl^ 
tberoltaic pile : they failed, because the separate poles only were presented 
Ss H $ bad the needle been at hand when the bar of platinum of inches 
Iragtb, and ^ l a A ihMiili W, mi igeltfll'br tthrpsfl*^ apparatus, the 
whole of the phenomena might have been devilMim OoA mmr ' 
stances moat fiivoiuable to their iovestigalion. 



!• . Ml' 



Digitized by GoogU 



^61 



Abt. XV. ASTRONOMICAL AND NAUTIGAI. COL* 

■ 

i. Report on the present State of Ramsdcn's Dividing Engine, 
By Dr, W. H. Wollaston, PtiJbkskgd bf P^rmimon o/ the 

SiifCE the Diridwg Eogine bdos^ag to Uie Bond «f Longi- 
tad« »|ipetf«d to Cuptein Kator and myself, thm 

tion of the divisions made by it, to be more defective than any 
other engine examined by the same means, we thought it de- 
«in|bld that tbk ai^^uit should faa uted a aaecMid time, irith all 
^iaible^aiii^ to i«^i%ide ^ double cirde constructed for tlia 

purpose of ttii«iSiqui'ry/ 

Mf* Gary readily tmiiertook to repeat Uie qperatioii, wi^ 

In the measurement of this second set of divisions, which 1 
coinoieoced shortly afterwards, I discovered that the divisioaa 
upon the outer circle, though made ai the same tiaie with thoM 

wm not cdntMkfiit with them, as had beto presnmad to ha lh» 

case in our former examination ; and that it consoqucntly became 
necessary to alter the mode of futimination, which had beea^ 
iwi ao ed umkr that presamption* . 

It is in fact the inner circle alone that really needs to V;e 
measured. For, since the motion of the cutting-point in marking 
the divisions is from the centre outwards, the inner circle most 
be regarded as a more correct copy of theengiae than tfaeoutor, 
of which the divisions are liable to be misplaced by any irregi^ 
I;irity, given to the motion of the cutter, in its passage over the 
line of contact between the inner and outer circle. In any 
examination by aliquot parts, (as by 6ths,) when any one arc on 
the outer circle has been compared with each arc of the inner 
in succession, and the difierences measared, the sum of these 



Digitized by 



382 AMtrottomicai mul Nautical CoUectiom^ 



dilfimnoet difided by their rnunber tbowt the error of the 
outer arc to compared, and thence the value of each umer aiCy 

to which it has been compared, it afloertained. 

In this method the mimber of measaiea, really iieeeisary to be 
taken» » the same as before^ bat Ihej occasion considerably 
more trouble than so many taken in one position of the instru- 
ment, from the necessity of placing the circles at anew point of 
coincidence previously to each measurement. 

In my examination, however, I did not limit myself to die mere 

colli]) !! i>oii of a single arc, but in each position I measured the 
errors of each ahquot part, so that, in fact, the number of mea- 
sures actually taken, in an examination by 5ths, 6ths, SihB, and 
9ths» was 5* + 6* + 8^ + 9*, the mean of which ensures greater 
accuracy in the results. The total amount of the errors on 22 

points, obtained by this estimate of the divisions of tlii:^ circle,' 
after correction for common and central error, was found to be 
78 seconds, or about d| seconds, on an average, for each 
division. 

By subsequent examination of another set of points, begin- 
ning from 12° (instead of 0) in the same manner, I found a total 
of errors 95", or 4^ on an average ; so that the mean of both exa- 
nunatma. shirwi 4k eiigiaa to be liable to an error of abont 
Jkuf 99tnA on ewdi division* 

In consequence of the discovery of a difierence between the 
inner and onter circles, it became necessary to re-eiamine the 
dfde divided by Allan, but the measurements that I have taken 
do not invalidate our former result as to the comparative merit 
of his mode of constructing his dividing engine. The total 
amount of errors, in a set of 22 points, did not eiceed 42^ 
making the average enror of his engine less than two uconif* 

The greatest error discovered on Allan's circle was 6| seconds, 
while the greatest by Ramsden's engine is as much as IT'. 



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add 




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On Ramsden's Dividing Engine. 



387 



Eemiis qf the Measures 0/ Gary's second and best JJimsion 

• 

Ramtden's Engine, 



by 





IKH BR iSiaOhE. 








Error 






(5) 


(6) 


(8) 


(9) 


■ • * 


Com 
by coi 
Error 




0 












— 4,7 


+ 


0.3 


4- 0.5 


40 








3*6 


+ 3.6 


1 1 

— 1.1 


1 


0 0 


+ 1.1 


45 


• 






« 


+ 2.2 


— 2.0 


■ 

+ 


1 K. 


- LO 


60 










+ 2.4 


0 0 
— 1.6 




A 

V 


- 2.3 


73 










+ 5.4 


+ U.7 




1 0 


-i 0.6 


80 








7.5 


+ 7.5 






0 1 


+ 0.7 


90 


* 




10.4 




+ 10.4 


+ 5.7 




0.0 


+ 2.7 


120 




in ft 




9.6 


+ 9.9 






ti. Q 


0 


135 






11.3 




4-11.8 






tL 'J 
0.7 


+ 0.9 


144 










+ 7.8 






K 0 


- 2.8 


160 








5.7 


U 5.7 


■ t A 

+ i.U 






- 4.9 


180 






7 1 




+ 6.6 


+ 1.9 




5.2 


- 3.3 


900 








8.1 


+ 8.1 


+ 3.4 


— 


3.8 


- 0.4 


216 


8.0 






> 


U 8.0 


+ 3i3 






4- 0.9 


22d 










U 3.9 


- 0.8 




1.5 


- 2.3 


340 




1^ 




i.4 


+ 1*6 


- 3a 




0 


- 3.1 


270 






3.3 


■ 1 


+ 3.3 


- 1.4 


+ 


3.0 


+ 1.6 


280 






4.9 


+ 4.9 


+ 0.2 


+ 


3.8 


4- 4 0 


288 


2.6 








+ 2.5 


- 2.2 


+ 


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4- 2.Sf 


300 




0.7 






4- 0.7 


- 4.0 




5.2 


4- 1.2 


31d 






-L4 




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— €ii 


+ 


5.7 


- 0.4 


320 








—1.4 


— 1.4 


- 6;1 


+ 


5.9 


~ 0.2 


360 


* 








1 108.5 


68.2 






36.2 

1 •■ 1/ , 



«78* . 



Avconigft 3^ Becondf « 



Digitized by Google 



Results qftks Meusur€S of Allan's C^de, February ^ 1821. 

















III 








(6). 


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ill 


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♦ 






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45 


+ 1.5 


+2.1 




40 






« « 


— 3.9 


— 3.9 


-3.3 


85 


+ 2.0 


-1.3 




43 






— 3»2 




-3.2 


—2.6 


90 


+ 2.0 


— .6 




60 




—2.9 






-2.9 


-2,3 


75 


+ 1.9 


- .4 




72 










1-3.2 


-2.6 


63 


+ 1.6 


— i.O 




80 










K2.1 


-14 


55 


+ 1<5 


0 




90 






— 1.2 




-1.2 


-0.6 


45 


+ 1.4 


+ .8 








1 £ 




— I.S 


—1.7 


— 1.1 


15 


+ .5 


— 0.6 




195 


r 


• ■ 


— 1;5 




— 1.5 


-0.9 


0 


0 


— .9 




144 


4-0 1 








+ 0.1 


+ 0 7 


9 


- .3 


+ .4 




160 






■ 


1 ni 

—1.0 


— 1.6 


-1.0 


25 


- .8 


— 1.8 




180 






— 0.6 




-0.6 


0 


45 


-1.5 


— 1.5 




200 








— LI 


+ 1.1 


•HIJ?^ 


65 




-t*1.8 


.1 




ai6 


-1-1 7 








+ii7 


+2.8 


81 ' 


-1.9 


+ .4 




225 






+ 1.0 




+ 1.0 


+ 1.6 


90 


-2.0 


— .4 




240 




0 




-0.1 


-0.1 


+ .5 


75 


-1.9 


-1.4 




270 






+0.9 




+ 0.9 


+ 1.5 


45 


-1.5 


0 




280 




1 




+ 1.6 


+ 1.6 


+2.2 


35 


-1.1 


+ 1.1 




288 


•f3.4 








+3*4 


+44) 


27 


- .9 


+3.1 




300 




+ 0.3 






+0.3 


+ .9 


16 


- .5 


+ .4 




315 






-0.9 




-0.9 


- .3 


0 


> 0 


- .3 




320 








-1.2 


-1.2 


— .6 


5 


+ -a 

r 


- .4 










. 1 




34.2 








19. 


s=40" 


Qroatefj(.6( ieooodt : ami^ Ifitt di4ilr2 «^ 

■ • 



Digitized by Google 



1 



ii« Air. ivuRv's Method of computing the Latitude from two 
AitUudei and (Ju Turn nUememingm^ 

Ifr* ItobT) allitf cwidi^ ^Tnnhatim of tiie wtanon apptou* 

ligations that have been proposed for the solution of tlie problein 
of two altitudes^ is deposed to tbink them seldom so eligible as 
the direct eonffatM$k»f which he has somewhal abridged bf a 
methodthat my bethuaeowBciited. (FUL If^. p. 84.) 

ilfr. Ivory's Mule, 
Putting k the greater altitude. 
ft^'iheleMef^ 
Btfae i^han deelittftfloiiy 

t the half time elapsed, reduced to angular space, 
( 6 the half base ol theUuiigle APB, 
jMhAferpcndioolar, 

y the peipeadicalar ZD lOUiig ftm'te Mhb M 
the portion of p between y and A 6, ) 

X the latitude, ' 
' s the horary angle of the middiie time^ ^ 
. A as |^(Bin A — sin A') 



d« Sin y * —f^ , : \ 

4. Cos a; =; 



eea cos ^ 

♦ 6. SinX s: cos y cm (pf x) 

«M A 

« 

Correction for the change of declination, 
d the declination at B the greater aiiiuidey 

9, ^ (A^^) !i2jL wm bMhe'iM hiinidt^ * 

•IQ I 

^ (jP — c( ] COS » ^^!!^ the oorwcted horaiy a»8le.c - . 

sm t 



Digitized by Google 



m 



AUronomical and Nautical Collections, 



4 = 42^ 14' 9", A' == 16° 5' 47" 
1 = 1^30' 



Sin A 

A 

B 

L. cos D 
sin t 



0721S4 (I) 



474711 



9.995455 (3) 
9.682840 (4) 



COB y 



9.0G6386 (6) 

0.033014 



9.931095(11) 



L. cm y 

CM CP — *) 



9.9S109.'> 
9iM6fl» (U) 



A.C. 



0.102519 
A , 9.976132(12) 

€os««>ftr>3'I" 0.778W1 (It) 
|I««X>bSB Oil 



CoEftBCTIOir* 



L. tia y Mm 
MM.X A. C. #.1811 



S.97S 



sin « 9.899'i 
sint A.C. 9.4172 



186.57 s= 2* 
48 53 5 



OJlOf 4f M IS 

Exceeding the truih by 18 ' only. 



* » • 

iii. Apologpjhr the PotrscmiPT on Rbpractiov, im,aiuwer H 

Mr. Ivory's Remarks. 

A BMrthflinitittmi of Mr« Irory^ acl|iiawl«dged celebrity and 
tnuuoendent attunmentt might n^taniUy be expected, like tbe 
MidM-'cf eatiquity, «o eenvert w^rtimr be toiichet folo gold: 



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but if he should cmpiojf ^tf. nlchiwi|p»l ]^mk ji^ qwwmirtii^ lhi 
gold of into briM, jfc woild not t«i nurpfkjsc jif il fboiUd 
•gMii be f«9onM» «l jt of old of tlie mm Midas, ihat 

** Auriculas ashn Mida r^x habet and that the puui&ii^ijt 
should be remembered even longer than the alchemy. 

Supposing for a rnoov^ UmI Mr. Ivory is liyliitiii 0(m4maam§ 
mnm wtiick Imui bMS wj^kjid fat tU conynUtum of 
fttdioii* «Bd •iqpposing th«t bit obMnrationt oa tho Mnet do 
not bear at all upon the table of refraciions published in the 
Nautical Aimanac tor 1822 ; it is still scarcely credible thfttjan^- 
mathematician, besides Mr» l?0iy« vitt boMidy w^oyi^ to aamt 
4ial '<j]io fftramU Mtbo ttUe iBuit Mb Jb^fOOqiidarMl «i 
mtHrehf empirimh'* PMt Mag, Sept. p. 167. 

Can it possibly be believed that the most skiilul empiric, even 
vitb tlie advaoiage of aU the i^fiiied methods ^f mpiricism t^iat. 
were cultiYated by Lagrange, could ever bave ded.Wfted^ iroi^ % 
table of refractions only, a fornrala so complicated at tbie ; 

The values of B and C only are determined empirically ; but waa 
Baler's theory of tbe moon entnrely empirical^ because tome of 
tbe coeffidentt were determined from observation only ? 
Again, tbe only improvement, wbicb tbe author of tbe teble 

r 

considers as of practical importance, is the introduction of an 
accurate and convenient mode of correcting for the heights of 
the barometer and tbennometer. Will Mr. Ivory call tbia np- 
proximata correction m any decree empnicalt He may assert 
that this computation is independent of the former ; but Win, at 
least, an essential part of the table : a table on which even 
Mr. ivory has condescended to bestow the conditional commen- 
dation, that ^' if it has a real and solid foundation^ it mu^t.be 
allowed that no greater or more honourable testimony can be 
given in favour of — the French Astronomers !" 

The French Astronomers really btaud so little in need o\ this 
honourable testimony, that they will probably forgive the author 
of the table if he persists in withholding it; and its claim to the 
confidence of tibe public may teftly be alkmedtoreit apon the 



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ackupwUdged ftufiiaeocy oC the freiidi table, with which it 
igiiii, lUI wdiiMfy MM» aad apon Hi eoinekUnm with 
■MneriMolittmnioiitoflfr. Pimd ia low ftMtodif, MfNll 

as with Bradley's empirical eometion for laii^MsnUure near the 

horizon. 

Nor would it be necessary to inquire whether or no the verlea 
ii etpable of «Bployed .with oonraieiiea Ibr n atmo* 
i|iliei« efiniibrw tB»pefatm»iii<^^ 

into a pit" that an unjust judge has been metamorphosed. But 
tiie thing is realiy so easy, in comparison with other modes of 
inaq>ii>ation» that it is not fair to tiie question to omit a tether 
mHm^XdktSkoa ^Ikemt/lM, ptopoatd, with the wtirttHpa of 
Ae tsbdiviitoii of dMi openrtioii iato two parts, wlneh km btett 
alrccidy suggested : and the whole may be resumed with little 
difficulty, from the first ekments of the pcoUen. We sjiaU 

Sf the distance from the centre, 

y, the superiiicunibeut weight, 

2f the density here represented by y> 

y 

u, the perpendicular to the direction, 
« £= ti'', the initial value of «, 

1 + jiz I +ffy '^^^ 
dii ss — psdy 

dr 

dtt ^ ^ 

a? 

d« _ die V 

dr mpsydr Tnpsy 



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dr vdr vdr m;,^^ 

^ ddt; dt> _ 2vdy ' ^ 

, dr». ' M>A»*y^* .^mp^sy, M^i«iy» ' 

d =^ "P"-^^ _^ gttd y ^ 4t;dt; - _ 6w^y 



dr* m^p'^s^y^ mp^s^y^ m*p*&^y^ n^H^y^ 



»np*s*y* m'p^i^y^ mp^s^y^ ' m|y*#*y* 
y mp^s^y* 

^ = - & + ) . (_!_ - ^ 

dr \ mps ps / \m?p^5^* mp^s^jf ^ J 

We shall find no difficulty in snbstitiitiog for the ooeflicieRts 

of these formulas the numerical values employed by Laplace, and 

qaotedby Mr. lyory, that ispss .000293876 and 1 ==.00125254 ; 

Ms 

whence 1 ss 3403, JL 4.2624, JL s= 

14505, JL s 61826, -1- =: 49360 700, and JL ' = 

210 395 000, , 

* 1 . . dv r* , d*w r» ' ; ■ * • 

•ftefonnnlap* = 5: • T + dJ^ • O + 

will then become 

Vol. XII. 2D 



• « • 



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394 AUrmmmkai and NmUkal CoUicHom. 



.00089388 A y 8B « I + (2.1319 ^.50-^+ 9417.6 v !l 

+ (2576 — 606 + 4 113 400 ) ^ 

+(12 273 040 - 2 468 000 / + 10 670 000 v*) v ^ 

+ ( [2 045 500 - 41 1 333 «• + 5 260 000 «•] . (4.2624 — ^) 
+ (8189 000- 1934 000 Jt.f 70139001^ 3403t^)!:! 
+ . . . 

In Older to con^te the borizontal refraction to two porttone 
fiom this fiNrnnilty tupposiiif itt magnitude to be about .01, we 
nay begin by taking half of tbif quantity, and make r ss .005, 

and f* = .000025, 5 being = 1 , and r = 0 ; we shalJ tlien have 
pAy^ ,00004578 + .000001231 + .000000082 + . . . 

Now an Important question is here to be c<ni8ideied ; whether 
we ava to content ourselfea with simply adding together diese 
terms as eonsthnthng the whole series, or whether it is justifiable 
to assume something more from ;ui:ilo^y, or from probabihty, 
upon general principles^ excluding all arbitrary conjectures 
depending ott private reatens or imaginatkiDt. 

If we admit Ae propriefrf of interpolating a table by the me- 
thod of differences, which has seldom been called in question, it 
can hardly be denied that, with proper caution, the method of 

diflhwmMW may vej^ saiely be applied to the continuation of a 
conTOfging series. Supposing the progression to be veiy nearly 
geometrical, it cannot be questioned that there is a probability, 

approaching practically to a ceitainty, that we shall be much 
more correct if we suppose it to continue strictly as a geome- 
trical progression^ than if we break it off abruptly: and when the 
difierence from a geometrical progression is move coneidenlile* 
it seems at first sight natural to take the ratios or logarithms of * 
the quotients, and to continue them by means of the difterenccs. 
But where, as in the present instance, there are only three terms 
oomptttedy and we hare only one diiRerence of these logarithms^ 
die continual employment of this difierenoe nliist Uf e^nmeoue, 
becansfrlt will ahrays ultimately lead us to a diverging series, 
affording the succeeding terms too large in proportion to tlie 



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f recadiag. If, howerer* we compuie oae term only by this 
•ppfoximaiioii, and wppoee the itmainder €l tbe teriei to be- 
miief«OflHlrieftl,ther»«illbeacoropenMlm ofemiSy wiiidi 

for ordinary purposes, will be amply sufficient, and wMch may 
often save us great labour in tbe computation of new terms. 

Titiifl we bare 1^ s and ss 15; and 37.2 : 15 

1331 82 

:: 15 : 6, 10 tbat we maj safely aarame 6 as tiie qnoliaiit of a 
geometrical pfogreisioii nearly eqairalent to the proposed series, 

its sam being equal to &e last ftren term dirided by 6 — 1, or* 
here to .000000016, making the wliule .00004711, which must 
undeniably be true to tbe last place, as far as the convergency 
of tbe series is concerned. From this value of ji A y we have 
Ays .16031, y s .83969, Uy s - .174842, and «fir 1 

- ^ = 1 + .174842 X .00125254 :=: L0002190 ; but since 
m 

u:=l— Am=1 —pA i/f .99995289, we have, for the new 
yalne of s, !f s= .9997339, and v s .02307 ; and proceeding 

with these values to compute p A y, on the su|)position a r =z 
.005, we have tbe series .00011535 4. .00004079 + .00000697 
+ .00000260 + .00000071 + .00000028 + [.00000040] 

= .00016710, instead of .00029388- .00004711 = .00024677, 
consequently .00^ is much too little, and we must multiply tbe 

terms by the powers .of or'.^^^ sad Ihe sums -wlll.lieeome 

.005 .005 

.0001(188 and .0002802 respee4vely» giviiqp by intertnlatitti 
.006456 for r ; but it will be necessary to repeat the ^psratwn 
with rs5.0065, which gives ns .0002453, and reqaires the ftirCher 

correction of .000025 only, making the whole refiacliou .Oi 1526 
or 39' 37 ', which, can scarcely d^er above a second or two from 
the truth, the terms actually computed showing that it mu$t be 
to than t^Vt and the remainder being capable of a very suf* 
ficient esdmaticm. La{dace*8 result is 39' 54^,6 ; so that there 
must probably be some nu nu i leal error in one of the coin put a- 
iions; at any rate the difference does notarise from the want of 
convergence of the series. 
It may therefore be left with confidence to the decision of 

2D2 



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396 A$tromnmai and Nautical CoikUmu, 

every impartial mathematician, to an Olbers, a Bessel, or, a 
Briakley, whether or no the coovergence of the series is not 
soffieieiiliy e«emplified> to ptove its utility for any compotatians 
of diit kuid that nay be requtied. And mn if fosr tabdiyi- 

sions had been employed, or twice four, instead of two, the 
labour of conipulaUoa would .still have been trifling, in compa- 
rison with the complicated expedients that are required in other 
metliocU. 

IT. TkM Vmriatim of tht Tsiueratu&s of ike Atmo^here 
daAieed from the maim RsFiiACTioir. 

The best proof that the formula, published in the Nautical 
AUnaBftc* is Bot desenrmg of the reproach of Mng merely em^ 
pifkal, win be found in the ^M^ility that it tffordf of deducingp 
the actual density of the air, at a given height, from the table of 

astronomical refractions. For, by comparing the original series 

with the expression in the Nautical Almanac, p = v I + (2.47 

+ ^ v') ^ + 3600 t) ll + . . we obtain ^ = 2.97, 
r s*' 2 mp 

^ + = 36001^ ss 2484 , rs 1.2855,and 

o mp 0 mp mp 8 

C as 587.6 Z, ; and from these Talues we may immediately de- 



duce the diminution of the temperuiufe in aaoending^, and the 
rate at which that diminution varies at dtfierent heights, without 

any hypothesis whatever respecting the constitution of the 
atmosphere. 

The number of feet, in which the temperature is depressed a 

degree of Fahrenheit, being called/, we have — for the va- 

494/ 

liutiatt of density in afoot dependent on this cause; but the 

yariation of the pressure y for a foot is A v s= ^ 

' 20 900 000 

= 27S0O* temperature were uniform, would be the 



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cf ike Tmperotmt. 907 

vtlae of Az,'llie loeraoMBt of tiM dmity, wUeh boetMliy oul j 

1 1 . Az 1 , 27300 27300 

; hence — — = — = - = I ^ 



27300 49V' Ay dy f 4^^* ^^4/ 

= 1 - ^, 494/S5 27300: ( I -|^) » « (^) 

^ = 248, at the surface of tlie e4irth ; and tinee 

r = ^and 4^ = ^ we have If = Z£JlX= -5a7.6ii; 
dr dr pt dz v 

whence, if \vc neglect the higher fluxions of f, we have for the point 
at which the density is reduced to one half, putting Az r= — ^, 
A ( =: 268.8 p as .0759 ; and (becomes 1.3614, giving/::: 206 
feet» for the elevation corresponding to a variation of tempera- 
ture of 1^ at the supposed altitude^ which would probably be 
three or four miles above the surface. But, in oidv: to coiu- 
pute the height from the density, or from the pressure, with, 
greater convenience, it will be easiest to make the fluxion of y 
constant, so that we may obtain a formula for the heigbt as 
depending upon the indication of the barometer. Tbm, linca 

d*« - '1^, ^ = - -L. d ^ = ii = md 

mz mz mz * mz^^ 

l!f = -L_,whenced^ = - 2z(dz-^z^di ^ 
dy« mz«f dy2 mz*(^ 

_ g:av + :.^r and ^ = IlJ ^ -X - 
m*(* ' dy« mp m(* S^r ^ 

J^.JL, t - JL: consequently A« ss ^ + + 

(JP—l . (* - JlS\ Ay», jr = 1 being the radiua of the 

V 3f» (•/ 

^- Ax Ay, Ay' Ay^ 

earth ; or.m feet, — s ^ — - + — — — — ^ — , 

• • 20 900 000 766 1970 40371 ' 

and Aar = —27300 Ay + 10608 Ay» - 618 Ay'; or, if D 
be the descent of the barometer divided by the greater height, 
H = 27300 i> + 10608 i>* + 618 i)^, since Ay is negative, 
and its squaie positive. T^ing, for example, D =: ^, we have 
H ez 13650 + 3652 + 65 ss 16367 feet, or 3.1 miles, which 
appears to be not far from the troth : at Quito the barometer 
stands at 21.37, winch gives a height of 8740 feel, instead of 



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39B Juirmmuealmid VmOktA CMeUkm, 



9397 ; or if m fliignMBt Ike S740 b prapMlcMi of llMi c9»» 
pmion of air from 50° to 80^, it wiO become 9S64 ; hut it it 

well known that in computations of this kind it is necessary to 
iatroduce a variety of subsidiary corrections. The principal of 
theie» bowever, is the redoctioii of the height of the barometer 
fit temperaloffe, and when this is applied, the reBolt of the for- 
mula thus employed appears to be extremely accurate. Taking, 
for example, General Roy's observations on Moel Eilio, at the 
height of 2371 feet: the temperature, below, 68°, the corrected 
heighto of the barometer 29.918 and 27.468» we haveD s.082» 
and H ts 2306, to which adding or 84, for the excess of 
the lower barometer above 50°, v/e have 2390, while Gciicial 
Roy's computations make the height 2393. In one of Mr. 
Greatorex's examples, the error of this method is 6 yards, while 
that of Dr. Maskelyne's is 12. 

It may not be improper to observe that the correction of the 
refraction for tempeiature, as applied in the Nautical Almanac, 
may possibly be found to agree better with the mean tempera^ 
tnrei of dilferent cHmates than with the occasional yariatiotii at 
the same place, which may often be less regular in their causes 
and extent : and there is reason to think that, in some of these 
cases, the correction of for each degree of Fahrenheit, as 
employed by Bradley, is sufficient in the immediate neighboor* 
hood of the horizon. Mr. Groombridge's observations, as pah* 
lishedin the Cannamanee des Tern for 1821, require the stan* 
dard tempc rature of the table to be supposed 50**, when com- 
pared with the exterior thermometer, and not 48% as the 
Greenwich observations seem to indicate. Bat it is at present 
hnpossible to expect any thing like perfect accuracy in a deter- 
mination so liable to uncertainties of various kinds. 

T. AecotaU of seme OpHeai InmmHmu ef Professor Amct. 

From the Memoirs qf ilie Italics SQciet2^, \ oL XIX. 

L The first, in importance, of Mr. AmicPs papers is an \se^ 
count of an iconantidiptic telescope. Jeanratfs Invention of a 

telescope that should exhibit at once two images, one erect, the 
other inverted, coinciding in the axis only, was improved by 



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Optieml JfwoUiiMttf kjf Prof* AmkL 389 



K ratMnite i tt and Enter: biU it «M d«moiiitK»led I9 Bofeovich 
that ** wol iftopmifMiptic leleicwyi with tliree >chrointtic object 
glasses prodncet a nmeh lets effect than a commrni tdefcope of 

half the length," so that the advantapre ^ined by the double 
velocity^ vitU whicli the two images approach each other, is no- 
tfaiag^ mora than nigiii be obtained from a coaiiium tdleacopa 
wkh twice or more ^an twice the magnifying power* asitmight 
easUy be made. He alto showed that the telescope mott fsil in 
its |iroposcd object of superseding the neces£>ity of micioaicter 
wiresy ioj^ that the ima^^es could never be made to meet in the 
axia without having the aiiiitance of a wire U> guide the direct 
tion of their moticMu 

Mr. Amid observea that the optical difficulty might be 
avoided, by employing a reflecting instead of a n fi acting tele- 
scope, and by combining the constructions of Gregory and Cas- 
aegrain in the tame instrument; but that the weight of such a 
telescope would render it inconvenient for astroi^omical obser- 
▼attons. StiU, however, the wires would be required, and the 
advantage of viewing^ very faint stars, without the danger of ex- 
tinguishing their light by the illumination^ would be lost. He 
therefore propoeet to obtain a double image by reflecting half 
the rays, so that it may be formed in a simply inverted and 
wholly reversed position ; and that if the plane of reflection be 
situated, for example, in that of the meridian, the images of all 
the stars in the field would meet each other at tlie true moment 
of their transit, while, in the construction of Jeaurat, none of 
them could coincide unlesa they were precisely n the axis of 
the tube. For this purpose he places, ** in the focus of the eye- 
piece next to the object glass, a small rectangular isosceles 
prism of glass, the plane opposite to the right angle passing 
through the axis of the telescope, and its edges being perpendi- 
cular to it^eo as to intercept half ol the pencilf of raya belonging 
to each point of tlie object, and to form with them a reflected 
image *' dependmg on the internal reflection of the base of the 
pctam. The instrument in this £c»rm appears to be pecuUarly 
adapted to the observation of tranaits, though it may possib^ 
require some modification both in the an|^e of the prism, and in 
its place with regard to the iucus of the ^l^scope. 



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4kh> AUrmmkml attd. NmUkai Coikaiom. 

2. The second memoir appears to exhibit a Im fbrtaatte 8l- 
tempt to obtain dotiI^ wtthoat esMolial improvement It fo- 
litos to ^< the canttntcticm of m aduomatie tciescope witbfmt 
l€D9et, and widi a tingle refractire medtmn.'* " It has hitherto 
bfeen believed/' gays the author, by natural pbilosophers, that 
the disperi ion colours is constant for the same refracttng me* 
dium, or tbat a given refraction, produced by the same eab- 
•taneey it acoompanied b j a given diipanioiL Bet I have 
foimd'that the diepenioa prodneed by more than one refracuun 
is not by any means constant, but varies according to the va- 
rious inclinations ot tiie incident ray." He finds, however, t hf it 
this property is really dedacible ftom the eonelant prepordon of 
the stnee, and observes in conclusion, that ^ although the theory 
of colours has been enltivated by so many distinguished mathe- 
maticians and opticians, from the days of Newton to the present 
time, the property here described not only remained unknown, 
but the thing was judged impossible, until I discovered ito prao- 
ticabiiity by means of some experiments which I was making^ 
with another view. We may therefore consider this circum- 
stance a.x a striking proof, among many others, that in the pro- 
secution of physical science, experiment is very often, and per- 
haps most commonly, more successful than theory, witn regard 
to the development of all the circumstances that accompany a 
given phenomenon.'^ 

Now it is well known, that Euler was aware of the di&rence 
of dispersion that might be obtained in this manner from the 
same refiractive subsuace, and the author hhnself quotes the 
work of our countryman, Dr. Brewster, who has entered very 
fhlly into the investigation of the subject. " The ceJebrated Dr. 
Brewster, " he says, in his excellent Treatise on New Instni* 
ments, informs us, page 400, that he has made several attempts 
to exclude colours by means of on object glass composed of two 
lenses of ISm same substance; but his^ experiments were not 
crowned wiA the desired success." 

Mr. Amici, however, appears to have been considerably more 
successful in a practical pomt of view. Re infbrms us that 
^ ever since the year 1815, he has made telescopes of prisms of 
larger and smaUcr angles, which have fully answered his ex- 



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optical Inventiom, hy Prof. Amict. 401 

pectatioiis. Oneoftbeniy letsthaii tn inch in length, and bilf 

an inch in breadlh, coiii|)osed of little prisms of French glass, 
with aogles of 45*^, atiords io umdi distinctness and precision 
in the ontlinet of the iauiget that it exoeeda in ita effieet the 
meat perfect adbromatic opera glanca.*' 

The construction of this extraordinary machine he has not 
more particularly described : he has, however, expiaaitd the 
general principle upon which it depends, and although it may 
be apprehended' that it can neyer be applied to inatnunenta tH 
material importance, it raaliy appcara to have atfbfded him an 

elegant, little pla^' thing. 

Supposing, that through a prism, having its axis in a yerti- 
cal direction^ we look at a small square object, haring one of 
ita Mea also vertical, it ia obvioiia, diat if we turn tiie edge of 
the prism so as to incline it towards the ol:jeet, the image will 
become an oblong rectangle, iustciul of a square. If we liieu 
take a second prism of the same substance, and place it behind 
the former, with its aids horizontal, and turn it until it produces 
an equal deviation, the image will^ manifestly be prolonged in a 
Tortieal direction, and will agam become a square, magnified, 
but still coloured. Now, since a coloui ed spectrum of a e:iven 
extent may be produced m two diiierent ways, that is, either by 
taming ronnd ita axis a pfism widi a small angle, in oider to 
increase its reftactive effect, or by making a prism of the same 
substance with a larger angle, it will be easy, without recurring 
to the first method, which would produce a distortion of the 
image, to determine the angle to be given to a third prism, in 
order that its least refraction may produce a spectrum of equal 
extent to that which is formed by the two combined prisms. If 
then we place this third prism behind the two former, in such a 
niaimer that its refraction may be in the direction of the diago- 
nal of the square, it will correct the dispersion of the colours, 
without distorting the object* which will of coarse stili remain 
magnified ;' so that the system of these three prisms alone will 
constitute an achromatic telescope consisting of a single refrac- 
tive substance only." 

GetaecTioN of Art. v. No. VI. P. 376, Lane 8 from the bottom, /or ** and 
conseqnently to the ma^netio Axisof the asrtii," m»A aad ooeseqiieiitly to 

that ol fhe dipping-needle." 



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m 



Aet. XV. MUceiiaiicous liUeliigcme, 
1. Mechanical Science. 
^ Mechanics, the Arts, &c. 

1. Letter from Menn. PttrkinMn tnd Fkfodthtnif to EdUor 
qfAe QaearMfy J&ttmai qf8ckn«>$ mid ike ArUj, rebOmg to tiU 
Ckrw mmei e ri tmp k f e d mtkibOa Are tk e itp e d Hmm , 

We t:\ke the liberty to address ourselves tu you in the hope 
that QUI communication will be considered to fall within the 
plan of your Journal, which expietslj conceras itielf in the 
teteMli of edmoend of the arts. 

Wo are tho makon of tho ehKNMmMiani ivliidi havo laoaivod 
ao faYouraUo a report in the Official Account of the late Arctic 
Expedition ; confident of our workmanihip, we ▼eotnred them 
on 80 sevvre a trial at our own expeoBc. for the purpose of ad* 
▼ancing our reputation ; it will appear but reasonable, therefore, 
that we should be solicitous to possess that which we have been 
at much paios to obtaioi and on which the prosperity of our 
business depends. 

Soon after the return of the Experiition, it came to our know- 
ledo:e that a report was in circulatioii, and had even obtained 
t redit with gentlemen distinguished in science, that we were the 
sellers only and not the makers of the chronometers which had 
home our BAtae, and that Mr. Molyneux, previously known as 
a wocknan employed in making chronoiMteTa, was the real 
maker; we lost no time in obtaining and making public 
Mr.Molyneux^s statement that he had never even seen the chio- 
Bometers in question, and at the same time we asserted <m 
own fight to be considered the makers. 

We hoped that we had thus terminated all doubts especially 
as there has been no other claimant than ourselves ; it was there- 
fore with equal surprise and concern that wp read a note in the 
review of Captain Parry's Voyctge in the 49th Number of the 
Quarterly Review, expressing an opuuon that ntitlicr Mr.Moly- 
neux nor ourselves, but some third person, (whom liowever the 
reviewer neither names nor specifies), was the real maker of the 
chronometers, the merits of mMk he was pleased to notice. 

WemiglitEeaaonably have cemp|ained thai aaopimon^ afet* 
ing so materially onr reputation and trade* sbonld have betti 
aSsitted in so respectable a work without at least more consi- 
delation and inquiry than had obviously been bestowed ; we 
however overlooked this, and took the more moderate course of 
ap peal i ng to dm right feeling and joitiea of the £dttor himself 



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403 



IB a loMtr ulnoh we hwn iiibjotiicdy feqattting only tbat 
might be p e rwi mA to prove eHher to himself^ or to the writer 
of the ttote, tlietthe opinioQ eippened is it wee wholly enroM. 

ous. 

Wf» h^vo experienced the additional mortification of finding 
our appeal entirely disrepranled ; our letter, which we trust was 

ill all respects proper and rc.spectfnl,has not received the common 
courtesy of a reply, and a subsequent Number of llie QaarteHy 
Review has appeared without notice or acknowiedgment oif 
error. 

Our motiTe, in desiring the publication of our letter, is to re- 
uKMre the doobti which the Quarterly lUmm het excited to oar 
pfejedice« end to shew tiitt oer Bot htvfaig done so loiv^ sioec^ 
Ims been solehr ooeesioned by oar reesoneble trmat in the reedi* 
ness of the Editor himself to assist, when it ihoilkl be ihewm 
him that he had incoDtideraiBly given currency to an lynwBjt 
injurious to a tradeeman't repotalien, end allegelher witimt 
foundation. 

We remain, Sir, rr spectfully, 

Your most obedient humble «?prvRnts, 

Parkinson ani> F&omhaii. 

Change AUey, 26th Oct., 1821. 

* (copy.) 
To the EuTon o£ the Quarterly Remew* 

Cbuge AUey, July IB<2\ . 

We beg leave to address you in consequence of the following 
Note in page 205 of the last Number of the Qtiartetfy RevievK 
** There is a dispute as to tlie real mfiker of these valuable 
chronometers. Mr. Molynenx, who has been long distinguished 
for the excellence of his uorkmanship, having set up a claim 
which is denied by Parkinson and Frodsham. As far as we are 
able to judj^e from their contradictory statements, we should say 
the real operator was neither of them but some third person." 

The chronometers in question, Nos. 228, 253, 254, and 259, 
of our x^ame, were tent by onrsehee at onr own risk and haaefd 
on Hie Northern EneMon; our olaect waa to maniiMt their 
goodness by a pnblie trial under swA eatreoM c iaenm ste noei ; 
' we were personally nnknown to the sentleaMn hi whose hands 
we placed them, but, as selected by the government on such all 
occasion, we did not doubt their eare and disposition to do jus- 
tice to our chronometers : the report which has been published 
of their goin^ during the voyage has, ia every zespeQt, liiUy 
equalled our expectations. 

We have stated thus much to you, in the hope that we may 
mterest you to inquire into the justice of a note wluch lias gone 



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f()i t]\ to the proiudice of our reputation and business, through 
the widely-extended circulation of the Quarterly Revieiv ; we 
have enclosed you tlie papers ou which the author of. the note 
states that his opioioQ has been formed, that the real operator 
mtt neither Mr. Motyneitx nor oareehes, but aome diifd perton. 
Mr. Molyiieax't aoknowledment thai he never aaw the chro- 
nometers, it decisive as to faia oonoera in them. If we knew 
what third person can have been supposed the maker, we would 
meet the seppoeitioii by obtasmng a denial from the individual 
himself. 

Wc arc ready, Sir, to g^ive you, or the author of the note, any 
reasonable proof that may be required, that (with the exception 
of the spring's of Nos. 253 and 254, which were obtained 1: om 
Mr. Hopkins, whose distinct branch of the trade it is to supply 
sprinjjs to chronometer makers, and for which springs he received 
21. 10s. each), the iuui cljfunumeiers were our own w orkmanship, 
made in our own house, under onr own direction, by worionen 
whom we have instmcted, and that they were all finally adjusted 
and corrected by ourselves. We have lahonred nnoeasingly 
since our entrance into life to become good artists, and to ap" 
prove ourselves snc^ to the public. The adventure of obr pro- 
perty in the late voyage is a proof of oar confidence in the eZ'* 
cellencc of our chronometers, and of our anxiety to establish our 
reputation. Wp cannot, therefore, but feel deeply when we see 
the credit which wc have laboured to deserve, ascribed to some 
unknown person ; and when we hnd the encouragement to our 
business, which we were receiving from the public, withheld in 
consequence of the p; uiulgation of an opinion which has cer- 
tamly no foundation in idcl. 

We hope that you will not refuse to satisfy yourself of the 
troth of this statement 

We are» Sir, 
Your obedient servants, 

Parkixsov avd Faodsham. 

2. Steam Engines of England. — M. Dupin, whilst speaking of 
the immense mechanical force set in action by the steam engines 
of England, gives the following- illustration of its cimount. The 
great pyramid of Egypt required for its erection the labour of 
above 100,000 men for twenty years: but if it were required 
again Lo raise the stones from tne quarries and place them at 
their present height, the action of the steam engines of England 
whidi are managed at most by 36,000 men, would be sufficient 
to produce the effisct in eighteen hours. And M. Dupin says, 
that if it were required to know how long a time they would 
take to cut the stones and move thtoi from the quarries to the 
pyramid, a very few days would be found sufficient. 

The caleuiatioQ of M. Dupin is as follows : the volume of iiut 



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great pyramid ia 4,000,000 cubic metrei, its weight is about 

10,400,000 tons, or 10,400,000,000 kilogrammes. The centm 
of grnvity of the pyramid is elevated 49 metres from the base 
and taking II metres as the moan depth of tlie quarries, the 
total height of elevation is Cij metres, which multiplied by 
10,400,000 tons gives 624,000,000 tons raised 1 me ire. Then 
the total of the steam engines in England represents a power of 
320,000 horses. These engines, moved lor 24 hours, would raise 
862,800,000 tons 1 metre high, and consequently 647,100,000 
tons in 18 hours, which surpasses the fwodaoe of labour speut 
iu raising the materials of the great pyramid. 

3. Pnzs Qiicr^i^.— When thenomle of a blowing machtaa 
is placed at a certain distance from that of the tuj^re, a 
stronger current of air is obtained than when !>of fi are placed 
together, as is frequently done. This effect is produced by 
various causes dppcivl int on the elastic nature ot die fluid in 
-motion, and of lIil surrounding ati;iijs|n,ere. The Society of 
Sciences and Arts at Metz have founded the following prize 
question on this experiment: What are the changes neces- 
sary to be made in the tuyere of blowing machines* to intro- 
ducoy in the most adrantageous mmmer, the good ^bctindi- 
cated above, or any other impro?ement for the rapid transmission 
of air to greater or smaller distances." The prise is 300 francs, 
and is to be adjudged in April, 1822. 

4. Prize Question. — The Royal Acad»emy of Sciences of 
Toulouse has proposed as the subject of prize essays, " A 
physico-mathematu:a! theory of dra^viiiL^ and forcing-pumps, 
stating the ratio betwoLn tlu moving power and the quantity of 
water elevated ; attention being given to all the obstacles 
winch the force has to overcome." Anions: these obstacles arc 
enumerated, the weight and inertia of the column of water, its 
friction against the tubes, its contraction at the apertures of the 
TuWes, the weight and friction of the pistons, the .weigfat of 
the yaWeSy the inequality between the upper and lover surihce 
at the moment the pressure opens them, &c/* The papieitare 
to be written in French or Latin, and sent in before May, 1823* 
The prize is a gold medal of 500 francs ? alue. 

5. Lithography. — An experiment has latelv been made to 
take off impressions from plants by lithographic printing. A 
specimen of Sibthorpia Eiiropaa, which was gathered several 
years ago in Cornwall, w is covered with lithographic ink and 
impressed on a stone, h orn which stone several impressions were 
afterwards taken. The experiment was not so successful as 
was wished, but still promised to be beneficial in leading to 
the means of multiplying copies of the impressions of plants. 



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40(i 



MisceUaaeouM InUlUgence, 



BiudimoraaeeiiitttetmBoiMffMpeoll^tim diRMMif cn be 
•oqMOlBa to be^^Mtf. JkTa^., Sept., 1ia5. 

€L J^mmmikn ^ MUk, — ^The following s^ihod ss weoom^ 
mended for the presenratkw of milk, either at sea or in wim 
utimt^ Promb pint or quart bottles, which must be per- 
fectly clean, sweet, and dry ; draw the milk from the cow into 
the bottles, and as liicy are filled, immediately cork them well 
up, and fasten the corks with packthread or wire. Then 
spread a little straw on ihc botioni oi a boiler, on which place 
the bottles, \viili .straw between them, until the boiler contains 
a sutiiciunt quantity. Fill it up with cold water ; heat the 
water, and as soon as it begins to boil, draw the fire, and let 
IIm wMe coal gradually. Whm ooldy take out iSbe 
teHlMy ttod jpaflk iktm whli iMw or tawHlmit in htmpm, 
ind tUm then in liie coolest part of tbe ahip, or in a cool 
|iaioe. Some years since, there was a SwedHah or Banish 
iriiiaiat Liverpooly havii^ milk on board preserved in this 
manner ; it had been carried twice to tha Weit ladies and 
back to Denmark, and had been above eighteen months in 
the bottles: nevertheless, it was as sweet as mhsA first miUsfid 
from the cow^^New Momthi^ Mag»f 3X6. 

7. Preservation of Cmiliftomers. — ^These vegetables have 
been liie&erved two oi three months by diegin^ a tieucli uutlter 
a wall, eighteen inches wide and deep, laying in the cauU- 
flowava with the tftams inclined npimi4a» and covering Ihe 
whole in with earth, heaping up tha anrtea in an ■!M*^¥itw* form, 

8. Use of Larch Bark in Tanning, — Mr. £. Smith, iioni 

repeated trials made by himself and friends, strongly recom- 
mends the use of larch bark in tanning;, not only for light calf, 
deer, or sheep's skins, but for stout hides ; and states, that sole- 
leather taiined with it, and worn against other leatViei tanned 
With vallonia, resisted the wear better, and did not mibibe so 
much water. He then asks wliether there is any further occa- 
8U>n £6r the imporlaiiuu of Dutch or German bark. 

9« itocil.*— The dangerous ledge of Atkin's Rock 
haa been marked and obseired very accurately by Captain 
Cork, of the Bamet, from Demerara to Liverpool. Its pOMlion 
has not been determined exactly, but the Captain annoanees 
its situation to be preoiaelj 50° 5' ktitude, and \^ waat loogi- 
tndeiiDain UceenwjMsh. 

10. Preservation of Fresco Painting. — A new proct ss for 
removing frescoes from one wall to another without in- 



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juiy tD ihe painting, has been derised hw Sinior fltflfilM 
Bareza, of Milan. The picture is covered wiui a prepared 

canvass to which it adheres, and is thus detached from tbe 
wall. The canvass is aftcnvards tipplied to Lmother wall, to 
which the painting again atiaclies itseli' without tlse least trait 
being destroyed. The praciicability ot tins lu! ihod has been 
successfully proved, and the inventor is now employed in trans- 
ferring a large fresco from the church Delia Pace, at Rome. 
Great expectations are t^ntertained that he will be able thus to 
rescue llrom destructioii the celebrated Ceiia of Leonardo da 
Viad^^Magaxme of Fine Arts, 474* * 

11. Green Paint. — Gas tar, mixed with yellow ochre, makes 
an r x( ( Uent green paint, very ueei'ul tor preserving coarse wood 
work or other articles. 

II. Chemical Science, 

1. Curious effect of Sea Water upon Cast Iron. — In a recent 
▼lilt to Plymouth, Mr. Hatchett obtained from Mr. Wlndbev, a 
porlion of a cast-iron gun, which had 1od|^ been imiiiersed ia 
aea water : it was incmsted to the depth of an iach wiAi a 
Bobstance having all the exterior characters of impnre pkmi" 
bago ; easily sectile, ^<^*y to the touchy and leamg a Made 
streak upon paper, 'fiiis substance, digested in water, alfordod 
a small quantity of muriate of iron, but was not otherwise 
affected. Din^psted in muriatic acid, a considerable portion 
was dissolved without any effervescence ; and the solution had 
the properties of pure muriate of iron, witli a trace of manga- 
nese. The insQluble portion, when collected upon a filter, 
washed, and dried, was a shinino: black jiowder, very soft and 
unctuous to the touch, and apparently pure plumbago. At 
Dr. Wollaston s suggestion, 1 examined it for manganese: 'I 
deflagrated a portbn of it with chlorate of .potassa, dissolTed 
the residue in muriatic acid, and threw down oxide of iron by 
pure ammonia; the neutral sdntion was filtered, and evapo* 
rated tp dryness; the dry salt was entirely dissipated bjf heat, 
and gave no trace of manganese. Hie relative proportions of 
the component parts of this substance were, 

Oiide of iron • - 81 
Plwabago - - - 16 

97 

Anchors, and other articles of vnrought iron, when similarly 
exposed are only superficially oxidized, and exhibit no other 
peculiar appearance. There can, therefore, be Httie doubt that 

U|u>t the *< L«tt Supper" of L. da Vinci alraadj dMtvayttd ? fin. 



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406 Muedbmoup Ifkiiiteaiee. 



rtbft rapid d«c«y and ehtiigt of cast iron is ptrtly to be attri*- 

buttd to « galvftnic action, the plambagilnoirt' crust m ^ontBfit 
the cast metal producing an eketro-tnotive eombination, aided 
by and promoting the dccomposttion of the sea water, and of 
its saline contents. Consiflprino; the resomhlance of this crust 
to that described by Mr Dunicll, as prod\icc 1 hv the action of 
acids upon cast iron, (see V ol. IL« p. 283, ot tins Journal)," I ex- 
pected to detect a portion of Mlica in it, but was disappointed. 

m 

. 9. SoUm^ of Magnesia, and iU Q»rbM^ in Water. ^Bt. 
Fyfb liaa lately axpenmanted oa the aolatioii d aagnasia and 
ifei oaibonflle in waftmr ; and sot My Unda tiiat these sabatances 
am soluble, bat aleo llMt, as wttb UaMvtbay aleuofe aoHitle 
m cold than in hot water. The magaeii» was prepared by^pie- 
cipitation, washing, and ignition ; water was then digested cm it, 
and afterwards the magnesia, dissolved in the water, separated 
by carbonate of ammonifi and phosphate of soda. Tn this 
way it was ascertained, that 1 pnrt of magnesia required 
5142 parts of water, at a temperature of 60°, to dissolve it; 
and at a temperature of 212°, 36000 parts of water. The effect 
of temperature is so great in altering the solubility of mas^- 
nciiia in water, that if a cold saturated solution be heated in a 
narroiMiaekad matrass, it becomes UxAsA rising to 212°. ' 

On tapaaling the experiments with oaffaoaate of magneftia, it 
was ibond that 1 pait leqitiied M9d parts <rf water, atthe teo- 
perataie of 60^« for its solution, and 9900 parts, at the boiling 

3, On the Solution of Carbonate of Lime, by Mr. Dalton. — Mr. 
Dalton, in a paper containing remarks on the nnnlvsis of spring 
and mineral waters, has stated some interesting circuni^tances 
respecting the alkaiuie |)ro[irrties of solution of carlKnnite of 
lime. It is stated, " that ail spring- water containing" caibonatc 
or super-carbonate of lime, is essealiully limy or alkaline, by 
the colour tests. And this alkalinity is not destroyed till Mtte 
more powerfiil add, such as the svlphutic or muriatie, is added, 
safficisnt to satarate the whcAe of the lime. Indeed, diese aekls 
may be considered as sufficient for tests of the quantity of Ikoe 
* in snefa waters ; and nothing more is required than to mark the 
quantity of acid necessary to neutralise the lime. It does not 
signify whether the water is boiled or unboiled, nor whether it 
contams sulphate of lime along with the carbonate; it is still 
limy in proportion to the quantity of carbonate of lime it con- 
tains. Asrreeabiy to this idea, too, I find that the metallic 
oxides, as iliose of iron or copper, are thrown down by coramou 
spring water, just the same as by free lime. Notwithstanding, 
this carbonate of lime, in solution m water, contains twice the 
acid that chalk or limestone does. I fully expected the super«* 



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OmiW Scimee. 



49 



carbons^ of liM* im Mlitte to be acid i but it it tliODgly 

alkaline, and MCtaeely any quantity of carbonic acid watecpat 
to it,, will overcome this alkalinity. Pure cofbooio oetd wattt 
is, however, acid to the tests. I could not be convinced of tho 
remarkable fact stated in this parao^raph, till I actually formed 
super-carbonate of lime, by STiper-saLurating lime water ia tho 
usual way, till the liquid from beinn; milky became clear. It 
Mill continued limy, and was even doahtfully so wlit;ii two or 
three Limes the quantity of acid was added. It should saem^ 
then, to be as imposaible to obtain a neuU'al carbonate of lime, 
oi U it 10 dbtok a omtml cthooiio of minonia, in tfat ottiio 
hcti alliidMdl0tlM wotd-wrtteoL*" Mwmh$ &ftha Mmkkmltr 

• 

4. On Sulphureout. Mimral Wattrtf and the Niirtgm cm* 

famed in ^Am.—>Tbe existence of nitrogen in miuerul waters has 
frequently been ascertained, find if? qtiantity stated : hut. no very 
precise ideas have hitherto been published, on the cause of its 
existence iii the waters, and the attempt of M. Anf?lada is, per- 
haps, the fu st made to shew its source, and tbr situations in 
which it may be expected. Having observed from the expe- 
rience of others and himself that mtrogen occurred in waiberft 
fOOteMMing ndiphvxiitt^ fag^drogen^ ho« voo ndnd'tut wmsak 
J i ft w il iir h wm mi ooa»tortiiy preMolm wmh wioett,- md toA- 
'tog teft to bo iho. caso, . WBoood ond eapttisMtvd upon iu 
pBOdofilm* In many sulphofoiio'tpnnga, the sources of iiiMck 
were iosBf mnxnA ot, il. was tma^ olMomd, that nitrogen 
either rose from the sides of the sprmg, or coold be obtained 
witliout difficulty from the water; l3ut in others, which were 
con&ned by pipes or conduits, it was necessary to open up the 
works, and i^et to the source. In all cases, however, sulpburous 
waters were found to contain nitrogen ; and it was remarked, 
that though the water contained abundance of sulphuretted 
hydrogen, the gas contained none. . * ' ' » • 

'Mi. Angiada expected by; hoot to obtain sslphuretted kvdio* 
l^ood oilMiio 90>A 9W -^■■nl iol|ibaioo«o woterj bol Ir m 
fiOioolOtiood oaf Aingp^oscept pure pitvogM pai Oatded by 
this result, he concluded that, inroll 1km solpbofOONiowmters that 
hod thus yielded him nitrogen, that gMeomofhwi the air whidi 
the waters hod taken up io their subterraneous course, and from 
which the oxygen had been separated by the sulphur, &c. In 
order, as it were, to prove this opinion, a portion of a sul- 
phureous writer w^ns treated with acetate of lead, to separate all 
the sulphuretted hydrogen from it, and then boiled : it gave 
out more gas than before, and the gas was a mixture of oxygeu 
and hydrop:en. 

• The air thus furnished to waters, is given to them, M. Anglada 
Vol. XII. 2 E 



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4}B Mi$aUmuim kiitiiOigence, 

iMwIii. in the bowels of llie linf ttmoli af •ir^'iittcli 

we know little or nothing:. 

In consequence of this action of the air on waters of this 
kind, it happens sometimes that a water decidedly sulphureous 
nt its sou n o, reases to be so at a little distance t roni it ; de- 
pendent on the blrength of the water, and the means it has of 
giettingair. In those cases, the previous sulphureous state of^tlie 
vater may be deduced from the disengagement of j^ure nitrogen, 
m nontAining very littfe CRygen, and fmi oortaiii ghMry appeuw 
jMtii vUch m fiwliihitirt by tlMte walff b. f 

M. Anglada iko MUiaritty tlntt in nuj wbIm coBdODlng 
Ciifacnlc acid, abundance of nUrafSA n.mnd» and. kt tnf^ 
feitt, tbnt fK/Mkf the air may act in them on some cafw 
bonaceous nuttten, giving rise to carbonic acid and uitro* 
gen at the same time. It is also remarked in the conclusions 
attached to this paper, and which being; given above, need not 
be repeated, that the chanp^e takes place at all temperatures, and 
that if nitrogen is uut found in every sTilphurous water, it is in 
nil those containing a hydro-sulphuretted alkali.-^^ftR. <ie 
Lhim., vol. xviii. p. 1 13. 

jmt 1810, idiilBt eiamining a ipeeiineRiof grapfatta im^tSAx* 
ony, Mr. J« F/John discovered nidcel in il,and aUterwards aacer- 

tained the presence of cobalt in a mass of iron, siodlaf -to that of 
Pallas, bat found in an M coUeetion. These circumstances M 
him to consider that the opinion generally entertained of some 
characters of meteoric iron, or mcteorolites, were incorrect. It 
has been n<!suiiu d that any stones or pieces of iron, supposed to 
be meteoric, and containing nickei, to the exclusion of all other 
metals, were certainly of the orie:in supj osed. The uncertainty 
jof this test, and tlie reuicmbrance that M. Laugier had disco- 
Wed eh r om i um in jw>me aerolites, and also that the occurrence 
of this metal had been propcwedasla test of the meteoric origin of 
alonei , indnoad Bl* John again to aaalyae poittont of the 
ki^ masses oi iitm conndeied as. meteoric, aiid alto poftims 
•r mm taken by the magnet from meleofolitet. ^ The Mowing 
axe the laeulto of these analyses : 

iFn^tFOu. ^?oSlS?" IroB of HumboldU : 

Iron . 90 . 87.5 , 91.5 

Nickel . 7.5 . 8.75 . 6^ 

Cobalt^ . 2.5 . 1.85 . 2 

Chromium * tracej , . , , trace* 

.. V' Manganese o W . 0 

. • . . 1,00 100 100 ' 



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Tbe mass of Aix-la-Cbap6lle cotitains koe, a little 
traces of charcoal and of cob«it» and fMrbaps of sulphur. The 
mass taken from beneath the pavement in 1762 is evidently the 
produce of art. Polyxenn, or thp. black "grains found in a par- 
ticular sort of pliiiina, are simply metallic iron, without any 
iniAture of other metals. The iron from Portugm se America^ 
coiiposed of crystalline grains, and which is very rare, con- 
tains a little copper aod cobalt, and perhaps a trace oi chromi- 
um and manganese. This latter iron was obtained from M. Kru- 
MiiBteniy and M. Jolin foand a timiiar kind in the miaeralogioal 
ooUtctm of Zorioby wbidit aooording to the table, bad faaea 
brought by M. PstanoD fton Kamltcbatka. 

, Hario^ palveriand Bome netaoric stones, and obtained the iron • 
from them hf meant of a magnet, M. John analyied it for tba 
purpose of comparing it with the analyses aliaadj mentioQaii* 
Tliefesnlts wm m§ follows : 

*- • 

■ Iron from the A^rvUlc ofl'Algle. OfSlenne. . 5 
of C baton nay. 

Iron . 92.72 . 92.72 . 92.72 

Nickel . 6,5 • 5.5 * 5.1 
Sulphur . * T * 

Cobalt . (^.78 1 Quantities too small to be weighed. 

Chrome . trace J ' ' ' 

• The condusioDs drawn from these experiments are, 1 . That the 
iron of meteoric stones and of the large ductile masses mentioned, 
contain the same substances ; namely, iron, nickel, cobaltj 
chrome, and perhaps also manganese, as in that from EIlboL;en. 
2d. Iron of meteoric stones contains less nickel than the large 
masses of soft iron. 3. Iron of meteoric stones evidently con- 
tains sulphur, but probably not in combination with the whole of 
it, but forlntag magnetic pyrites disssntoatfed through it. .The 
kucge masset foand jn tba eaKCk omtain. no sttlphiir,-^4M. di 
Wm. xviii. p. I9a . 

6. Tests for Ar8eme*'^I>v. Portar, of the University of Sooth . 
Caci^lina, in olmrfing on Uie t^Sts for the detection of arsenic, 
r«narks, that an appearanooj similar to Scheele's green, is pro- 
duced by carbonate of potash, added to a solution of copper 
containing coliee, but without arsenic, more striking than if a 
weak solution of arsenic be used. He also states that, in the- 
production of Scheele's p:reen by arsenic, sulphate of COPpor^ 
^nid carbonate of potash, chr ornate of potash might be suiiilti- 
tuted fur the arsenic ; and that the precipt^te produced ooal^ 
not boidistin^ished by the eye fs<m 8m«te's green. Also that 
Mr. Ifam*fi talt of tba nitia4e«l silver (a» modified in its «p* - 
pli«atio« by Dr. if$ro«tf) wjtikcbromate of potash, a yel- 
low 9rmpi«s4i*.irbicli« w\m plaos<laida by^ side with chm pro- 



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Ui$eMtm6u$ jbuMgime 



4«oidby arsenic, could not be diMtognuiied by coloar or ap- 
pearanoe fnm it— SilUman'a /ouf. iiii,p. 3B6n 

7. On the delection of Arsenic in Ores of Antimony. — The fol- 
lowing is the process of M. Serulas, by which he detects arse- 
nic in antimony. The antimony, or its oxide, is mixed with 
eream of tartar, and heated ia a close crucible : in this way aa 
alloy of the anUmony with potasHimii ia fanned. Hm alloy is 
llm plu»d aad«r • Ml-ftaas filM with vater, aad a faur^ 
qmoitity of hydrdgm ia ioon Ubengbad. Thk, . whAi banwd m 
a uamw glass jar, dqposite a bcown ^ sidea, if die 
aotimony contaiiui arwuief but no peUiclaia pndaoed if arsenio 
be Mt preaant. Very eiudl ^aaotitiaa My bs deteelad in 
ibiavsy. 

■ 

8. Berzehus on ihc Oxide of Plaihmm and Gold. — After re- 
marking ou the numbers given for the oxides of pl iUnum by 
Mr. Cooper and Dr. Thomson, M. Berzeliiis piocccds to de- 
scribe the process he now adopLs Lo obtuia tliesie numbers accu- 
rately. The muriate of platioi^ and pptassa being a neutral 
aoBipoiuMl, a portion of it was wall waabad .aafi dried ; it 
frwi tbML aabydignip. aad by heat gave off dilortBa, withoat 
any trace of water % ao that it nuiy be Q«n6liide4;to he a dpubla 
duoride of platinum and potassium. y,2M\ grains were slowly 
b ei to d in a eutrent of dry hydrogen as long asMAmtle^iicid was 
fbrmed. It lost .65 of a grain in weight, and the residne Washed 
left .896 of phktinaa widisielfed* It waa tbewftift eonlpMe#«r 

Chlonna .650 
PkthMt «898 
Cailoiidaofpotaaaa « *703 

tin the tables of M. Benefiw ^ nambers are such that, if 
Aakvlated, it will b^lomid tbait tba ptatisam oontabia twice w 
macb chloriiie in the above compound as ibe potaeei < KiL An 
atom of muriate of potassa is 1 865.1 3^ and 2 atoms of mu- 
riate of platina are 4201.^ so that the compound 4t0ttl woald 
#e^^ 6066.19. This would give ill 2.251 grains of the svb^ 
stance .657 chlorine, .898 platina, aad J0O6 muriate nf potaOflii, 
which is nearly accordant with the experiment above. 

The same results were obtained with the muriate of soda and 
platinum. This salt contains 1 atom of muriate of S0cUy2 atCHDS 
muriate of platinum, and 12 atoms of water. 

M. BerzeliuB still retains his opinion of the number for gold, 
or the weight of its atom (24SG.) He adds an experiment in 
which be reduced it by phosphorous, but says it ia not so pre- 
ebe ft* llie leduetieitli^'fliercury, consequently it ad^lb nothing 
in proof of coi te ctnesa of the-nmnbers giveih IL Pettatey 
it will tra xenentberedy grrea Ibe noaiber ofgold m 3993.« 



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. M. Bm^^ ii$i9fihea vtfo >iMniates of goUU Tim tiver* 
miiriftte crystaOiMs readily in smfill peedlfla^ of a pale-ydHoIr 

colour ; it IB kM soluble in water than the neatral muriate, and 

its solution is of a goId-yeUow oolpur. The neutral mutiatej* 
obtained by exposing tlie super-muriate to alow heat,* itjfm^ 
first muriatic acid, and then a mixture of it with chlorine, so 
that it begins to decompose even before all the free acid is 
driven off. To obtain it perfectly neutral, it must he prepared 
by adding hot water to tlje proto-muriate of ^old, whicli is tlien 
pduci^d to gold and the neutral muriate. Its solution is of an 
intaMe ruby colour ; it ^i^Ids a reddish-brown saline mwi 
wbich liquifief in the air. The addition : Of ^liif i^tk^a^ 
changes the cotour to yellow^ and per-mnriate crystallif^ it 
the tolntiottis coacenteatod.-^. dtChem.twm. p. 146. 

9. On rendering Tissues iuconibustihlc. — M. Gay-Lussac men- 
tions, as the result of his experiments on the best means of 
rendering cloth incombustible, that solutions of muriate, sul- 
phate, phosphate, ahd borate^ amoioniay wHh borax, and some 
mixtares of these salts, were fomid the most elfectaal ; in fact, 
•ccording to fals theory on die sriject, tiMise sabstances wlMi 
at the temperature of burning best shielded the fibre from the 
air, and supplied most incombustible gas or Taponr to the 
flame, proved to be most efficacious. 

{' 10, Heat w,wiujGed jby Chhr im4 A lftOPg the obvious quali- 
lict of chletme, Dr. ISMUmeik mmnkm the haat k woitsft.^ 
tbt b«ad whsft pfauged into it. The eihci is equal to « tm^ 
peratnre of 90^ or. 100^. 

11. Explosion of Chlorine and Hydrogeru — Dr. Silliman cau- 
tions chemists against making mixtures of chlorine and hydro- 
gen in large cjuantities without due precaution. He relates 
some instances iu which two or three quarts of the gase^ had 
bjsen mixed} wheie the explosions produced on' estposure 't^ 
sunlight were instantaneous and very powerful, and one also in 
jvhich the .explosion took pla^ by exposure, of the gases to a 
diffuse paid dipfi Ught. 

'12. Oxalic Acid. — M. Berzelius decomposed the oxalic acid 
by tirst forming an oxalate of lime of determinate compositionf, 
as to the water it contained, and then digested it with mu- 
rMi tyf gold. 'The eoM*iras reduced, and csailMiirie ecM 
fonned^.4 grains of 'oz&te, oontamiDg 3,it5 «f die anfaydrons 
bomponnd, reduced didSQ grains of .metalKc gold, from whidi 
die compoiltioti oftnaliemad is ded^Beed as 2 atoms of earbon 
and tiiree atoms of oxygen, no hydrogen being present llus 
result was confirmed by the action of the qUadroxalate of po- 
(assa on solution of gold; 2 gndns of it precipitate 2.05 ol the 
metal. - . • 



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414 



Misceliaueous hUtiiigenct 



13. Alum in decomynsrd Mica Slmte^Amon^ the sources of 
alum there is one which we have never seen mcniioned by any 
author, h is from the decomposition (not of clay-slate, bat) of 
Hiica-slate. We have been frequently preS(Mile4 wftb speciiMW 
of alum found in decqnposed wksk riat«s» n firom Ibe tomt 
of PratlMi» Wttteilninr, and Hustingtoii itt Coniieeliettt, and 
indeed we 1i«fe aeeo bat few instancei of Anerictt elumd^ 
fiftd from any other toarce. Il is» at we are infomad^ so 
dbmdmt in iome places, that the people nee it in dyeing without 
imanrng to any other supply. We are not aware that this 
source of alum has been obaenred in other cottiitrie8«^ili»«nai» 
Jmrnid, iii., p. 240. 

14. Amtf ita/i Ihjdrauhc J/itne. — ^The foliowine: ip analysis 
made of an excellent hydraui»c lime used m the constructioa 
of tlie great canal in the state of New York : 

Carbonic acid . . 35.05 

Lime .... 25. 

Silex . . . . 15.0 J 

Alumioft • . 16.06 

Water . » « . 5.03 
OsidaofifOn • • 3.02 

98.2 

It will not slake, but is pulverized, and tbeti mized widi 
kalf ill ^aancity (probabftj balk) of aand. 

S IL ELXcrmxciTT, MAOirETi8ic» 

1. ^ecti of Lightning. — A house at Geneva, wfaldi had platea 
ef limied iron diepoeed In Tsrioiit ways abovt l!ie roof and 
other parte, wat almdt by lightning on the 3d of Jalj. The 
figfatning produced nurloaa effects here and them, bat anong 
"diem none wae more remarkable thaa that piodaeed on 
one of the plates of tin that had been placed on the roof 
against the chimney. This plate is pierced with two circular 
holes, about an inch in diameter enrh, and four inches apart. 
Each hole is strongly buncd, but the remarkable circumstance 
is, that the burs of the two holes are in opposite directions, 
which, according to M. Pictet, eithci indicates that the electric 
fluid bus passed through the plate forming- one hole, has moved 
five inches along it, and then gone through a^aiu; or that 
diere were two cnrrente of fluid which moved eimnltaneoiiily 
in oppoiite directions, at five inches distnnce ftom each other. 

2. Produeikm 4if MagneHtm.'—yi. Poenita of Dresden baa 
lately experimented on the prodoction of magnetism by ban- 
mering, {nctxaa, &c,i and has come to the condunon^* per* 



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. 'Chemical Kxcwme, 416 

Iiap5 before drawn, that it is not produced in the iron, but 
giycn to it by the ext,€iuiaji masnetifim of the earth ; all tliat tlie 
9U)tiOD given to the iroi'Jii.Uie vaxtoiu Medumical processes 
ped, does, it to render it more tum^tible of reottfing mapnet* 
]flif^^. One of bU modeft of eiving this sdlo^od -to. dM:partielee,' 
19 to fix oae Mid Qf.a,rod ofim or steel ileadiW, plaeisg the 
fo4 lAjsnypoiUiom required, as either perpendicular or parallel 
^tbedip, &C» aad then to make it vibrate by drawing tht 
freeeud from the axis of the rod, and suddenly letting it loQSO* 
Uin fit ^BLVouiable position* the iron soon acquires magnetisou 

3. Effect of Iron on the rate of Chronometers*'^MY. Barlow, 
of Woolwich, has lately made experimrnts on the effect of 
iron, free from any permanent magnetism, in aherin<^ the rates 
of chronometers placed in its vicinity. Mr. Fisher had remarked 
the difference of rate occurring in his chronometer when on 
board and on shore, though the vessel was frozen in, and there- 
fore could produce no variation by its motion.. He therefore 
attributed it to the magnetic action of the iroa in the vessel, a 
'Cflmehisien ^aihasbeen conftrmed by Mr, Barlow*s experiments. 

In these experiments, 'varioos chronometers were placed in 
different positions near amass of unraagnetic iron, and an alte- 
ntionin the rates of them observed. This alteration varied with 
fhehr respective' situations to the iron, but was always uniform 
in the same position. The eflfects amounted sometimes to 5 per 
day, and were at last traced to magnetism in the baifUice.ai^ 
spring of the chronometer. 

* The plan suggested by Mr. Barlow, of estimating the effects 
of a ship's metal on the compass needle, namely, by placing a 
plate of iron in such a position, aad'so near U> the needle, as to 
he equal in effect to Uie test of. die metal m the Mp,- is well 
lcSown» Mid thB'retpni of hit lAftjestj^s idiip Leven, from* a 
vome of sixteen moiiths; efibrds firoQl^ by tfie experimentli 
lihat£av^ been made on boerd, of its value. The same plan b 
liow proposed by him lbs asoertainin^ the ship-rates of chrono* 
meters before they go on board, by simply taking their rates on 
a certain sitaation^ and at a proper distance^ from soch a plate 
^ixoor 

" "4. ElectrO'Mocf7ietic Rotation. — An ingenious little instrument 
lias been invented by M. Ampere, in illustration of the rotatory 
itiotion of the wire round the pole of a magnet. Its advantage 
consists in comprising the voltaic combination used in itself, 
Suppose a cylinder of copper, about two inches in diameter and 
the same in height, and within it a smaller cylinder i^ut ha)f 
In hieh in diameter ; these are fastened together by a bottotn, 
having; a hole in its centre the siae of the smaller cylind^,. so 



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MiscelLMeitus.lttUUigeiice. 

|b%|, jllie ,t.«to.cyUiukrft fgriHy as. it were, a ckMhit'cett Iok acid : 
%iii9oe<Qf JMbI Ii tetaMd ftov «i#'*loiMil% IMrn-^ bridgpc* 
imM lh# I0p «r ahi MMlliir<eytind»^ «id^« UMWidito «f 
itlPW^filM «fiiiriw».ftupportin^ tof « mill wiHl imi 
«|Mrtiinifff Mraun^ A Mrt 4rybttder of sin* k Ibeii |iioc—ii< 
qf a 6i»e ,(hat ml permit it to go freely into the copper cell 
MiV^^^cribed : % wii^ kubttfoini'like tk« Utter U inserted 
(q), is soldered to it at opposite sides, and in the bend of this 
ivire a metallic point is lixed, whicli, when placed in the little 
cup of mercury before described, suspends the zinc cylinder freely 
in the copper cell; then weak acid being put into the cell, the zinc 
and copper form a voltaic combination, and the two sides of 
the [i wire are both in the same state, so that the pole of a small 
liU^;iiet placed in ih% cylinder, that is left opeA in the axis of 
thft apparaiiu* makes the wire, and the mnft cylinder wtth il, 
90volTe. If the apparatae he 9 erl4> >iobMJii>iliiwnfr» it m 
•tated that there ii a tendency to roCalkm by ib^wfitiam of lhtt 
Wneitmi angaeiisai alonei* 

^j,5. Note on New Electro- M ay iieticcd Motiom^.lt^M^. Faraday, 
—At page 9G ot" this volume, I mentioned the expectalipii I 
entertained of making a wire through which a current of voltaic 
electricity was passing, obey the magnetic poles of the earth in 
way it does the poles of u bar magnet. In the latter case it 
t^s, in the (orjfn^r I expected it would vary in weight; but 
attem|ptsj(^|h(^ .mp.de, tO |>r9ve the existence of this actipn« 
led. Since then I have been more successful, and the obij^t 
of the. present note is far to complete that pap^r, ^^.tp fMnr 
J^iWNt n^Wnefj tJ^e.D^^^e. (m^ of tlm fflMMHulidrlbftilac 
restrial TTgwiTyi fiMMiffi jii iittrfiifl jywl whattth^ dBinu nmdiiiid 

. - .ij il¥ bil?i«^ I. 

Considermg the magnetic pole as a mere centra of action, the 
existence and position of which may be deternuQted ,by welL- 
known means, it was shewn by many experiments, in the 
paper, page 74, that the electro -magnetic wire would rotate 
round the pole, without any reference to the position of the 
disjoining it with the opposite pole in the same bar ; for some- 
t^^s the axis was horizontal, at oUier times vertical, whilst the 
f^jt^On continued the same. It was ^Iso shewn that the wire, 
when influenced bj the pole, mo?^,rlater^lly, its pwllji ^ 

planes perpendicular pe«(^;40.:tb» fMi 
itself. Hence the wire, when strait and cpi^yS^ld.^iQnAfKliQt 
ilJbove, described a cone in its revolutioB, but,vh^ bent into a 
crank, it described a cylinder ; . and the effect tiffka^evideDtly in 
all cases for each point of the wine to describe a circle round 
the pole, in a plane perpendicular to the current of electri- 
city through the wire. In dispensing with the magnet, used 

^P.^AY.^.^^P^otii^a^^ aud.operabtig.wil^ ttk9.tejcrefttsi4 




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« 



|Mt, 4t'M«tei«3r, by aepi%it)^ the iMhotllMi giiMF 
•kovc, to deduce hilbfelMinH libe directiod the motions iirould 
itotably take : for, assaming that the dtppitiginfeedlb, if it 
mm ndt point to the pole of the earth, points at least in thtf 

direction in which that pole is active, it is evident that a' 
straight electro-magnetic wire, affected by the terrestrial as 
by an artificial pole, would move late rally at right angles to 
the needle ; that is to say, it would endeavour to describe a 
cylinder round the pole, the radi\is of which may be represented 
fcy^e lineof the needle proloii^ed to the pole itself. Ait thiwr 
oylindta, or tbsles, wnM«b« oT %mmemmvkp»Jllbitto, it W« 
mMm tint «iihf "« rmf u fti gi i portfai «r- teiimWlNr 
iNPOQght ^vlMi«liM KMdi &I expemiMBtrsttlV Kow^ver, tlNit 
iMMPliMi ^nfM beinfflcient to maicfttBtWr«KiflC6ii06, inasnradl 
m tiMiDOtions taldo^ place in the p«tt tnM* 4MMtnidl&bf 
mmt be xjf- tb« MM kaidy-ttid m Hm Mtoe dire^ODt M ill 
•ifery other part'. 

Reasoning thus, I presumed that an electro-mag^netlc wire 
should move laterally, or in a line perpendicular to the current 
of electricity passing through it, in a plane perpendicular to the 
dipping-needle ; and the dip being here 72® 30', that })lane 
fN>Ukl form an angle with the horizuu of 17® 3o', measured 
1l^ t nagrietife>lft(}ridift>i. Thfti^li^liDt so ikr removed from the 
» ( »tofl ia!i>ttri»f ^iiinfctt f MStoldlM^ get ttotHMW'M 
Wlib^)^ mimiM^Wfm^'K^ :-^A p^e^ ^ 

SSfper ^irtf j> iMtil^Jtid of an in li thick, and fourteen inched 
llMI||l'%lld Ml^iiW' at each extremity bent at right an^8, Hi''4i4l 
WMle 'dbtWCtiWir and the ends amal^Tffated ; the wire waij''ttj|| 
Mftpeifded hbrisSOntally, by a lon^,^ silk thread, from the (^eil!ng^. 
A basin of clean pure mercury was placed under each extremity 
ol'tht' \' ire, and raised till the ends just dipped into the metal. 
Tlie mercury in both basins was covered by a stratum of diluted 
pure nitric acid, which dissolving any film, allowed free motion. 
Then connecting the mercury in one basin with one pole of 
Httre's' Caloriitkiior, the tetrtoent mentioned page 74, the 
irtbntatf ttte oUier pold Wsk MteetilBd ^MAt th^ Mheir bssiii^' thd 
MMpcuded irtito tnored HfteiMHr mtoss the Ifasins till*H tcniciiQA 
fMlb *fidets tMi'1W0Alffai||^ Unit ooiiiifexI6iD[,*HHe' wii#^ iMUlued yot 
fflttt position ; on restormg it, the motion was again prbduc^Q.' 
Oh changing the position t)f tlie wire, the elftct'lw p^ace ; 
md the direction of the motion was always the sam^ relative to 
Ihe wire. Or rather to the current passing through it, being at 
right angles to it. Thus when the wire was E and W, the E end 
to the zinc, the W end to the copper plate, the motion was 
towards the north; when the connexions were reversed, the 
motion was tow&rds the south. When the wire hung N and S, 
the N end to the zinc plate, the S end to the copper plate, the 
nwllon was towards the W ; when the comtaAm wwre retersed. 



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tovvauls ilie E; and Uie inieixa^Ui^te.pos^iiWtiki^ ti^tf W 
ui iiitcnvu diate directions. 

The tendency, ilieK of tiie wire to revolve in a circle 
louod tlie pole of the eaiLli, is eviti«iul, and the direcuuii ot the 
rooticm is |Mreci&ely the same aa that pouit«4 <wt i» the foime£ 
experupeott. XIm azpeiineBl ako poinU onk ib« power wbkh 
qmmm Anfere'i ciuv« to tmefMp aad .tha vfj.tB wfaieh Umt 

Ewttt Ml «wiad* Tka w«U-kooini mmrmeni^ mada Iqi 
, Ampere, proves,! that a wire riag, maoa to conduct a cur* 

poves into k east and west of the aiagnotic-f&eridian ; iC 

on an E and W horizontal axis, it moves into a plane perpendi- 
cular to the dipping-needle. Now if the curve be considered 
as a polygon of an in&dite number of sides, and each of these 
sides be compared in succession to the straight wire just de- 
scribed, it will be seen that the ni<jtions given to lUeui i^y tlie 
terrestrial pole, or poles, are sueh as would necessarily bring 
the poiyeon they form iuto a plane perpendicular to the (i^p- 
pinc-neeola » .so that the tiavawing of the ring xaajr bo ladaoa^ 
to &a ittiipla rotation of the w'm round a pow*^ It M.tme tha. 
wlkole SMMmotifm of the earth is coooerned in pco^bimit thi^ 
tfiactt and jM>t merely diat portMO which I hat^ fot^ tb# 
pamentj nay ot ad to respect the north.. |^ of the.ifiarth 
ita Goitre of action ; but the efQsot is the same, and produced 
in the same manner ; and the introduction of the influence of the 
southern hemisphere, only renders the result aj[ial9gous to the 
experiment at page 82, where two poles arc concerned, instoaiL 
gf that at page 77, See, where one \)o\t^ only is active. 

Besides the uln ve proof of roumou round the terrestrial 
pole, I have made an experiment still more striking. As in 
uiA axpaiment of rotation round the pole of a m^^nett the.pola 
is perpcundicnlar to but a small pprtiOB of the wirey and mom 
or Icsa obUqoa to the rest* I cooaidarod it probable, ihaft 
a wir«y ?ery delicately hung, and comiaGtad, mifht be> mado 
to rotate round th(» dip of the needle by the eailih's mag-» 
Miasm alone; the upper part being nestrainad to a point m 
the Hne of the dip, the lower being made to move in a ckda 
surrounding it. This result was obtnined in the following man* 
ner : a piece of copper-wire, about 0.018 of an inch in diamoter, 
and Six inches lung, was well amalgamated all over, and hung by 
a loop to anoihtr piece of the same wire, as described at page 
285, so as to allow very free motion, and its lower end wjin 
thrust through a small piece of cork, to make it buoyant on 
mercury; the upper piece was connected with a thick wire, 
that went away to one pole of the voltak apparatus ; a glass 
haabp ten »Mmes in diamatcry was filled with pare dear mar- 
eury, and a little dilate acid pot on iti sur&ce as before ; the 
^lick wire mu, then hung ovaf |ba oanMe of tjb* glaaa haai% 



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ChmMSamei. 



4«pr660ed so low thatthe thiUMiedbfowlr* kftviog its l oiwc a i 
nesting on theawrftoa of the laercury, made an angle of sd»0ttt40^ 

with ttie horizon. Immediately th« circuit through die memry 
was completed, this wire bpo;an to move and rotate, and continued 
to describe a cone whilst the connexion^ were preserved, "which, 
thoMn^h its axis was perpendicular, evidently, Irom iVie varvintj 
rapidity of its motion, regarded a line parallel to the dipping 
needle as thai in which the power acted that formed it. The di- 
rection of the motion was, as expected, the same as that given 
\fy ^ pole of ft iMi|^ pQiBtintf td the south. II the centi« 
horn which the wiie hxatg was deleted mtil ibe iiioliilelk» ef 
the wife wts eq«al to &at of the dip^ no motkm took phno 
when the wire was pmUel to tlie dip; if thewire waenoieo 
mtich inclined as the dip, the rootioa in one put of the cifcleca* 
pable of being described by the lower etid was reversed ; reenHi 
that necessarily follow from the relation of the dip end the VNHP^ 
ing wire, and which may easily be extended. 

I have described the effects above as produced by the 
poi th pole of ihe earth, assuming; that pole as a centre of ac- 
tion, acting in a line represented by tUe dip of the needle. This 
has been done that the phenomena might more readily be com- 
piured with thoee produced by the pole of a magnet. M. Blot 
fum shown hf ealcvktion tlMt the magnetic poles of Ike eartik 
may be oooMdered as two points in ^e nesnetie aids rery near 
to each ether in the centre of the globe. M. Ampere has in Im 
tiieoiy advanced the opinieii tba€ the magnetism of the eailk 
ie-OMiSed by electric currents moving round ite axis parallel to 
the equator. Of the consonance existing among the calcula- 
tion, the theory and the facts, some idea may perhaps be gftined 
from wiiat was said, pag;e 86, on the rotation of a pole 
through and round a wire ring. The different sides of the plane 
which pass through the ring, there described, and which may 
represent the equator in M. Ampere's theory, accord perfectly 
with the hemispheres of the globe ; and the relative position of 
tlie flupposod points of aUMotieii aoHl vepdeioB* eoineide widi 
those aasigned by If . Biot for tbe polee of Ike earth itaeH 
Whatever^ fae^wever^ may be the state and arrangement of te^ 
reetrial maenetisaft^ the experiments I hafO doKribed bear bm 
out, I think, in pneiuming, that in every part of the terres- 
trial globe an electro-magnetic wire, if left to the free action of 
terrestrial magnetism, will move in a plane (for so the small 
part we can experiment on may be considered), perpendicular 
to the dip of the needle, and in a direction perpendicular to 
the current of electricity passing through it. 

Reverting now to the expectation I entertained of altering the 
apparent weight of a wire, it was founded on the idea that the 
.wire, moving .towards the .north round die pole» must riee, and 
Jnoving^ towma tbe ao^lb ' innit de«m4 > hi M maak •!» a plao#. 



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pnmdicttlar to the dipping needle, ascends and descends in 
Oiese directions. In order to ascertain the existence of this- 
effect, I bent a wire twice at ricrht angles, as in the lirst expe- 
riment described in this note, and fastened on to each extremity 
a short piece of thin copper wire amalcramated, and made the 
connexion into the basins of mercury by these thin wires. The 
wire was then suspended, not as before, from the ceUing, but 
from a small and delicate lever, wftiieb wwld iadioBte aaj ip^ 
pmafc alteiiffai in lh% weight of tiw wine } thm tomamAam 
tim ^hen iMde wHh tlM Tolim iwMr^^ 
loind that the wine eeemad to beoeiae lip;hter im botk direc* 
tions, though not so much when its motion was towards tho 
OOuUi 81 towaide the north. Om farther trial it was found to 
•oeend bn the contacts being made, whatever its position to the 
maj^etic meridiaD, and I soon ascertained that it did not de* 
pend on theeartVs magnetism, nor on any local magnetic ac- 
tion of the conductors, or surrounding bodies, on the wire. 
' After some examination I discovered the cause of tliis un- 
expected phenomenon. An amalgamated piece of the thiu 
copper-wire was dipped into clean mercury^ having a stratum 
of water of dilute odd orer it; this, however, was not neoes- 
Mvythiit it presorved tho normy doui ond tfio viro oooL ■!« 
due •'poiidoii die cohoiife attstclioii of tbo msmny s»lseA% 
little elevation of the metal lonid' tbo w&o of a oortHa ttlagni« 
tude, whidi teodtd to depress tho wire by odding to its weighti 
Wheat the meicorjr end the wiio'wefe ooonected with the.poWe 
of lhe Toltaic apparatus, this elevatioii 'visibly diminished in 
magnitude by an apparent alteration in the cohesive attraction 
of tue mercury, and a part of the force which before tended to 
depress the wire was thus removed. This alteration took place 
equally, whatever the direction in which the current was passing 
through the wire and the mercury, and the effect ceased tlie 
moment the connexions were broken. 

TlMBtliiB oamie which made the wire ascend in the Ibraier 
ctw wae evidext, end bv imoiiing it, it wio eotylo ooiiitniet 
on oppantos in whsch the aiceOt shodid be very copiidefohki 
A piece of ooppOr bell-wice, about two inches loBg,hai poKioof 
of the amalgamated fine 'copper^whce soldered on to its endi^ 
and those bent downwards till parallel to each other, l^rs 
was then hung by a silk thread from tho knTBTf and the fine 
wire ends dipped into two cups of clean mercury. When the 
communications were completed from the voltaic instrument 
through these two cups, the wires would rise nearly an inch out 
of the mercury, and descend again on breaking the communi* 
tioD. 

Thus it appears that, when a fine amalgamated copper-wire 
*lpe iotO VMffCury, and a etmrent of voltaic electricity passes 
through liMcoiMMtioD, a pecvUar efleet is produced at this 



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' Chemical Science, 421 

pkuM nkiia llie liM 'first touches the mercury^ equivalent to 
m tfubntkm of ^^^kiol^ft littrtblMl^'bf ^ tt^curr* The 
wHfeet rapidly dinytfa^bir itifeMdiii^lHi ihifjMlllllfiSt^, and 
20 pair og plaiah 6^^»tf ^ jHisCi^^ ftW^MLgfty i5d' fljrtff 
iiichea aqaaie, w«iiid 1161 1^ with th^JftjiPinM'! on the 
(eontrary, two large prates are sufficient. Dr. ltare*s ca!^ 
niotor was the instrument used, and the charge was so w^aK 
that it would barely warm two inches of any sized wire. 
Whether the effect is an actual diminution of the attraction of 
the particles of the mercury, or depends on some otlier cause, 
remains as yet to be determined. But in any case its influence 
is so powerful, that it must always be estimated in experiments 
made to determine the force and direction of an electro-magnetic 
wire, acted on by a magnetic pole, if the direction is otherwise 
dum horizonti^ fM^fmfm'iXi^^ed in the way descrjbe4 
ift fhfe Boftt. ThW, M^m'ia&mi^^ for iiistance, where 
fbe appaient alteration of wiei|ht in an electro-magnetic wire 
mij oa expected to be greatest, the diminution of weigjbt ia 
its attempt to ascend Sirbm^ %e increased by this efiect, aS^'tte 
apparently inct-easetf 'gftlj>Hl^j''produced by its attempt to ^ 
acend would be diminished, or perhaps entirely counteracted. ^ 
I have received an account by letter from Paris, of an ingeni- 
ous apparatus (see page 415,) contrived by M. Ampere, to il- 
lustrate the rotatory motions described in my former paper. 
M. Ampere states that, if made of sufficient size, it will rotate 
by the magnetic action of the earUi, and it is evident that that 
maiM fha caaeliii lifitndes at ac^ ffitlitiee&om the equator, 
iftlie rotatory; wirea.iaiiM^;^^^ by wHidIi tH^ ring ofataj:|i 
Imapeiidedy are In ^(ucK a position as to form an ahgle wiui 
^rtical One. larger tlito Umi ibr^ by the dir^ok of the 

Itlatpba remarked, that the motions mentioned in this 
note were produced by a single pair of plates, and therefore, 
as well as those described in the paper, page 74, arc the re- 
verse of what would be produced by two or more pair of plates. 
It should be remembered also, that the north pole of the earth 
is opposite in its powers to what I have called the north ftoles 
of needles or magnets, and similar to their south poles. '"^^^'^ 

I may be allowed, in conclusion, to express a hope that the 
hiw I haverentarea to ipotnonnce, respecting the directions of 
tile rotatory motions t^an ek^ctro-magnetic wire, influ^uced by 
teireatiial magnetism, wll! be put' to the test in different lat^- 
titdea ; or, what ia nearly the same thii^, that the law laid 
dOwnbjM. Ampere, as regelating the position taken by his 
carve, namely, that it moves into a plane perpendicular to 
dipping-needle, will be experimentally ascertaliifd ihx lUlkiift 
having the opportunity. * ' 7^ ^^mmm 



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III. Natubal Histobt; ' 

§ I. MlN£RAXX>OT, MBTfOftOIMTy Ae. 

1, Oxalate of Iron found as a Mineral. —This curious sub- 
•tance was found by M. Breithaupt, in friable lignite, and at 
first supposed to be tisen resin, or mellate of iron ; but M. M. 
de Rivero, on analyzing it, found it to be a compound of oxalic 
acid and protoxide of iron. It was found in small flat crys- 
talline pieces of ii yellow colour, and similar in appearance to 
the protoxalate of tlie laboratory. It waa scratched by tba 
nail. Its specific gravity was 1 .3; and vheo rubbed, it became 
negatbelT deetricaL All iu properties appreed witb tbose of 
oaSbile 01 iron, and it was distinffiiished from melbrte of iron, 
ia file drctimstance that when decomposed byammonia* the 
amnopuacal solution did not precipitate alum, an effect which' 
does take place with the mellate. When decomposed by am- 
monia, protoxide of iron and oxalate of ammonia were ob- 
tained, and the elements appeared to be combined in the P^o*. 
portion of 53.86 protoxide of iron ' 

46.14 oxalic acid. * * 

The name proposed for this mineral is Humboldtine. — Ann, 
ie Chim,, xviii., p. 207. ] 

% Naiwe Copper of Lake Sbfpmor.«^iniman*8 Journal 
Sdence, Vol. 111., contains an account by Mr. Schookaralt, of 
^ native ct^vper mines on the southern snore of Lake Superior.' 
Hie ftrst iqi^pearanoes of the copper are found on the head of 
the portage across Keweena-point, 270 miles beyond the Sonit 
de St. Mara, and continues from thence to the river Ontonagon.' 
The copper is metallic, and occurs in the pebbles disseminated' 
in particles from the size of a grain of sand to lumps of two 
pounds in weight. A strip of alluvial sand extends from the 
lake up the river two or three leagues, to which succeed high 
broken hills of a sterile aspect, among which are the copper 
mines, at a distance of 32 miles from the lake. One ?er^ large 
mass of native copper reposes on the west bank of the river, at 
the foot of a bank of alluvion, lying amidst blocks of granite/ 
hornblende, and other bodies peculiar to the sofl of that place» 
Tbe copper is pnre and malleable, very bright, and lies in con- 
nection with serpentine rock, the face of which it nearly over- 
lays, and is also disseminated through the substance of the 
stone. The rock is of an irregular form, about 3ft. Sin. long, 
and 3ft. 4in. wide ; it may contain altogether about 1 1 cubical 
feet. The weight of metallic copper in the rock is estimated at 
22001b., but the quantity has evidently been much diminished 
since its Hist discovery. • * 



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Mr. Schoolcraft adds, that the serpentine rock is not in situ, 
nor is it so found in any part of the region he visited. He 
thinks that the source of this copper, and that found in the 
region of the Ontonagon, is the Porcupine Mountains. These 
are situated 30 miles westward of the river, and are supposed 
to be the seat of extinguished volcanoes, that have thrown 
forth, these masses of native copper. This opinion is supported 
bj the- fact of ^e monntaint tMmg compoaed (at ftir m it 
ODtenred) of granite, probably tttodated with other primary 
Tockt, and nmon| them terpentine; that 'the red tandtcone* 
sock at their bate it highly inclined towards the moontaint, to 
at to be almost vertical, being apparently thrown up by the 
gnranite ; and alto by the height ( 1800 feet above the lake) of 
the peaks, their conical and ragged fonnty and other appear- 
ances of volcanic mountains. 

Mr. Schoolcraft then states the occurrence of native copper 
in islands on the other lakes and localities, but forming part of 
the same region. He concludes by stating it as his opinion, 
that though the alluvial soil along the banks of the Ontonagon 
up to its scitirce, and in the contiguous region, contains very 
'fireqnent, and tome ttoft extraordniary imbedded maatetTor 
copper, yet there it no body of it tufficiently eztenaiv^ to 
become tiie object of* mining operations; but he thinks, that % 
mineralogical survey of the rock formation skirting the Ontono-> 
gon, would lead to the discovery of very valuable mines of the 
sulphtiret and carbonate of copper, the working of which 
would be rendered still more advantageous by the occasional 
occurrence of masses of native copper. — American Jot/wnal, • 
iu,201. 

3. Moid Brasier, — There is a mountain called Mont Brasier, 
situated between Senes and Lar6gne, in the Alps, which hat 
been reported from time to time to emit noises and flame, ^ Tliis 
report has been veriiled by M. I>ubois*Aym£, whd, when in the 
neighbourhood in 1818, examined the mountain, collected evi- 
dence of the flames having been seen, and himself heard (U to- 
nation in the mountain. On examining the mountain, he found 
that in the strata of limestone that formed its sides were beds 
of pyritons chalk, marly schists, radiated suljihuret of iron, bitu- 
minous substances, &c., and he concludes that the flames and 
noises are produced by the accidental firing of hydrogen libe- 
rated by the action of water on these sulistances. It is to 
be remarked that the detonations are most frequent when the 
wind is in one direction,an effect probably due to the ihbltttre 
that then takes place of air wifli the hydrogen within, the cre« 
vices of the mountain.— ilnn. de C%tm., xviii., p. 15B. 



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4M , MiMMmmotti i^Ugence. 

Scipioue MazeRa s Account of ike Rise of MonU Ntiovo^ tu 

the Year la38. 

[To Um ^VfO%vi^ QjtuaUrti/ Jmvntatf S^tm9^'\ 

0BA» %tM^ wtgoA jm. m •eoomt of Ihe Monte Nvovo^ 
Wtticl a i froBn %. Dtiiniptiom of tlie BnnioMi of Haplet, by 
BcipioM MtselU, iMiilad than b tbsyear 1594, fifty-six year* 
nfitr the fociMUkm of tbi BMKintam : as the Lodn description is 
«|iiOted fivm an earlier woric^ it is oot improtn^le that the 
author may have been a contemporary, if not wm ejre-wiOieM of 
iha rwafkallAt orent he comraemorates. 

Beiie?e me very sincprely yourSt 

AsiLUUliST liAJEHDIE. 

^* Oppodte to the Moalo Barbaro is a mottotam aboat three 
nilcs in circumference, and nearly of the same height as tfa^ 
Mottle Barbaro : it extends on the tdiith tovtids the sea, on 
the north to the Luke Avernus, on the west nearly to the 
S^idatorio, and on thn cast joins the base of the Monte Barbaro : 
it is callrd bv the country-people Monte Nuovo, because it was 
formed in the space of a day and a night. In the year 153S, 
on the 29th of September, several earthquakes having been felt 
throughout the whole district of Puzzuolo on the preceding 
days, the earth opened near Tripergola with a terrible sound 
Che thnoder, so that it was expected that the «hok country 
woold h«v6 been destn^ed: w shy was thin smiic» ana 
from the aperture burst forth flames of fire, bearing with then 
daders and red hot stones, with dense smoke : these stones 
wsee canied up into the air with such force, that it was a 
wonderful and terrible, thing to cootemlatav jMUrwards the 
wind rose with great fury, and the cinders were dispersed on 
all sides, and driven even into Africa. So vast a quantity of 
stones and cinders were thrown round the chasui, as to form 
the mountain now cLilkd tlie Monte Nuovo. Inconsequence 
of this chasm, and the fonuation of the mountain, the castle of 
Tf ipergola, with a great part of the lakes Avernus and Lucrine, 
and all those antient and noble buildings which were on their 
banks, and most of the baths were overwhehned. The cele- 
brated philosopher Simoae Portio of Najp les wjcote a learned 
treatise on tfaa burning of Tripergola, and relative to our 
•ubjeet states as follows : Puteolorum regio. fwt bieniuo 
fere magnis terremotibus agitata, ut nulla ia ea superesset domu 
iate^^ ^usi j^iimam minabatur ruinam. At die vigessimo 
septimo et vigessimo octavo Septemb. anno 1698 perpetuis 
diebus, et noctibus terra est commota; mare passibus fere 
200 recessit quo loco Accolee ingentem piscium muititudinem 
ceepeiunt et aquae dulces erant. Die vero 29 magnus leiree 
tractas, qui inter radices moatis Gauri (quern Barbarum appel- 



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4m 



latit), et mare juxta Avenium jacet, ^ese crigere videbaliir, et 
inuntis siibito- nasqent^s « imitari figuiam. rEo ipso dio horai 
noctis 2 bic terra; cumuhis aperlQ veluii ore, magno cum fie* 
lAita mifot eTomnit igues, pumices, lapides, cinmfliiiie fodi turn 

optmiit».li«rb»s Qmp|iifOT#wi(l, ai|pn» fregejcet, pepdiPtmqive 
Tndeouam ai «#nftw mrnim l^)idem m-vcinsw wrterk, «ivef| 
el nopnuilM q«i^ruped«a iie«ftiaft..iiil«w»rtt» .gagi^ribwi.- 

Neapolem sese recipientibus, cinis prop^^ voragincus erat siccus, 
longti vero lutesus, et bumidus cecedit. Sed qimd oomem. 
superat admirationem, mons circum earn voraginem (nunc di- 
citur mons novus) cx pumicibus, et cinere plusquam 1000 pas- 
suuni altitudine una nocte conirestus aspicitur, in (juo multa in 
eraat spiramenta, e quibus nunc duo supersuut, alterum juxta 
Averaum, alteram in medio mentis Ayemi magna pars .op^fta 
<itHt9^* 4Miie» «U« «ql Mtetdt¥ eeMMa, quMMo tot eegrit 
wtimMm vfnmMmtf'iibMt M|^lt»je0cnt» dvrftt noe ieeendimr 
iM^l aihiHir^ieiR^tMtt'Al^Mitea^ 

5. Fall of an Aerolite 'tU Juvinas.^A large Aerolite 'fell Od' 
the l5tb June last at Jovinas, a village in the arrondissement of 
TArgenti^rc, department de rArd^che, respecting which some 
very accurate details have been preserved. It fell about four 
o'clock P.M., the sky being clear, and the sun shining bright; 
a coiUijnied rolUng noise was beard for above three minutes^ 
during which time four distinct detonations took place. The 
noise was heard at Tarascon, al*Ni«me8, «fill fartb«r off." • 
A ^bifliaal -flte nM^ eeen iii liie air ^ persons, at Niftla^* 
Sti "AiOnDey (a league to die of V'wm%% a&d A{^- 1tagae< 
Hurtiler olF| till agree •nreatiog it resembled a fire, burning li&e- 
■tor, and descending' slowly in the N.W-., and>liiohy oH dieaf^ 
pearing, left a train of smoke. At first strange reports were cir*- 
culoted about the fire and the notse, but atter eight m nine days, 
two countrymen of Jnvinas, a vilJafie 20,600 toises to the 
N.W. of Viviers, described, that whilst wOrkino: on the land 
they beard a dreadful noise, and . aw an enormous mass of 
fire foil about fifty steps ofi^ trorn them into the i^round ; teaimg 
lip the surface, aud making much smoke. Being fri^teaed 
they ran away, and at first durst not mention the camttialtiMe ; 
butafter a ^ime, other peraona beconiag acqminted wlA the tm^ 
aeaaeh «^ made a tbe ground ivhere iheAie deaeaiMM; aiid» 
ei tbe 4eiitli ef five feet a laffoe aioiae «aa diaeovmd, ifoigliiag 
21101b., or 91 kilogrammes. The countrymen, now relieved from 
their fright, thought from its weight that it contained gold, and 
could Jkot be^ dimaded finom breaking it up. Large portions 
of it were, however, preserved. Some of tlie fragments are 
with Dr. Embii of Aubenaa^ others with M. AU^, watch^naker 



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426 



of the same place, and some which had been seen by M. 
Fiaugergues, by whom the tuMX>aiit Is' dmm sfiv belonged t0 
Or« HMSiB. Tl» ilOMi appowed to h% conyoied of nw 
tiifatteaoM. The ooa ni lifgcit proportkiii is ^ey, aad 
MMd wtdi anil Uick-tluiiing grains. The surface is oomsnik 
hf % thin stratui* ceMibUng a bteek VmI polished glar% 
not wUike that of the pottwriai. It appears to be formed of 
black particle befeie spoken of, that have been fiised at the sur- 
face, and has been very fluid, for the smallest inequalities are 
cased by it withont being filled up. The stone is moderately 
hard, is scratched by steel instruments, does not Strike filS 
with steel, and is not acted on by nitric acid. 

M. Fiaugerp^iies a=rrees withthc^ theorists who would consider 
this stone as havin|^ formed a very small comet or planetary body 
which has been met m lih couiae by the eaith.^ — Journ, de Phvs. 

b ft tetlMrM0OiiiiC«r tUsMMile given by L. JuD« Fit- 
flWBfk is stated that anoHwr — te at i6 Urns ft kUogf iwwmi ki 
weighty was.fttftft d ft little distance off, and S S S 'St s l small cmm 

at Mayras, near to Juvinas. M. de Malbos, ^ho Kappened to 
be at Barias when the stone fell, was looking towards uie place 

where it first appeared at tbe time. He snw a globe of fire 
descend perpendicularly from the heavens. He sliewed it to his 
workmen, and counting his pulse estimated the time between 
its appearance and the explosion that followed, at five seconds. 
He observed also the obscure vapoury ti ace left by t!>e meteoro- 
lite in the air. It was not continued to the earth but ceased to 
bft emitted before the stone reached the ground, and remained 
sftfwor eig^itmianlss VBdiBsipated«-WMiri^ zciii>p.71. 

6. Emrthquakein^ GnmciMm.— Upmrds d oos Inndfsd 

softs cf the lands of Letterbrocken, part of ihspsoperty of the 
WoviMt of TmdVf College in Joyce C(Muity» ftiid eomMng of 
prime pasture and moiiiitaui» OB whidl a ftmnbsr of tensnCs vo* 

sided, commenced moving and carrying with it huge rocks, im- 
msDse masses of earth, the entire crop of wheat, oats, potatoes, 
&C., precipitated the whole into the sea and disappeared. 
Previous to its movement, a great noise was heard for some 
time, and the ground w as convulsed. It is supposed that the 
previous drought which had occurred, prepared the way for this 
nhonoinoiion. Two days after, a large tract of land thickly in- 
tnbitodt tko property of E. Martin, Esq. M. P.^ in tiio sano 
miijUbtmdmd, was irisited mih ftlike jilieBoMsiioa,lMit«mB of 
ft mo re destructive Bfttnre ; tin loss or Ao safieters not being 
•ortoed to tiisir famd and crops, bat their entire stook and pvo- 
psttf bsinif swallowed up by the earthquake. Hiese occur- 
rences are mentioned in the GejUt. Mag. for Nov«aiber»fitomtfae 
Tuam (tesMty md ihoir date giren as ten days pronoos* 



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427 



7. Earthquake at Celebes. — The Batavian Journals of April 
give aa account of an earthquake very destructive in its efiectft 
which took place on the 29th of December 1820, on the south 
Mtt U CildhM R M iwwiu 4ima^e, partieiilvly m 
l »i h i ho w b > whtm Mm m rat wmmd tioMi a prodigiofv 
height, md then agaoi villi giM rapidity, alteiiMleljf 
deluged and left the shores, destroying all the plantations ftmA 
Bontain to Boelekomba. Many hundred ptsoat lost their Urea. 
The forts of Boelaekonba and Bonlaiii much damaged. 

On the 4th of January this year, another sliodk of aa OHt^ 
^Mke ooeaind lA tiM MM aaighboui^^ 

8. Mud Volcanoes in Bogs. — A small tract of bo^, called 
Forest Bog-, about one mile and a half from Mount-meUick, 
situate about sixteen miles in a north-east direction from the 
Bog of Kilmaleady, has been stran^ly aeitated for some days* 
il> Ml* tipwards, rising to a Miindarable hdght^ the WKMm 

kamtft u i iifc u w ) MtiwveoplB <irttMBeigMio«lMdM 
dread of some ewiaslroplM occurring. Hie phoMiena reaMilila 
Hkme of the mud volcanoes of AMriM, tM m pffobabiy oca^ 
aianad by iBtanMl IbnMBttttiOB* 

9. Scottish PearL^A very fine pearl was found not long since 
in the river Tay, and is supposed to be one of the finest ever 
found in Scotland. It is hardly to be surpassed either for size 
or beauty by any oriental pearl. It is in the possession of Mr. 
C. Murray, Jeweller, in Perth. 

10. JUi JDair.--Mr. BuUoek hat nooaeded ia Miging 
■pfrianm of Uit RmDaerlo tfaia ooantry, aad hopea ara 
lartaiaedihat they'my kad to Ab eokniiation of our mountsfan- 
fpfiasts by this nninial While on a tour in Norway he pfo- 
cvad a herd of twenty, which were destroyed by eating a 
poisonous plant which grew on a small island on which they 
were kept. He then bought a second herd of twelve, and suc- 
ceeded in bringing them alive and well into the Thames. Here 
however, in consequence of the custom-house officer not feeling 
authorized to allow the deer to be landed, eight died on board 
the vessel before permission could be obtained from the autho- 
rities in London. The remnant saved consists of a male and 
Iranley a ftm (inioa dead), and a nale iphioh baa been est. 
Tlia .latter ia abost ten bMdi high md proportioaaUy stoat. 
Ibe otbm are abawft or two lowar. Their fax is rery thick and 
fine, and deBcately warm and soft. Their horns branch beaati- 
fially and are covca^ with a short fur. The antlers of the largest 
animal are three feet in lei^. Their hoofs are very broad and 
teibU Imroiiii thadififiMSy enabling then to daiabef up fwe- 

%¥2 



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Miscdlaticous LUelligtiuc, 



cipiced ami hftng ou rocks iiiacrtMibk to odiar Dikif 
mwytwift. Tbey Mtt raOMiled to bty m food» MdlilHi 
l^mody wlueh U adniHWtortd U» tfaam m % mwlkiw 

Wkk ikm deer Mr. Bullock hm biuviglit & native Laplaadbfy 
his wife and eluld. These beingpi wre ftbottl four liiet aigki iadM 
in iMighi ; the man being of th« common mmtt ^ woonn mtbv 

11. First appearance of the Boa Constrictor in the hland of St, 
Vmcejit. — A most sin2;ulur circumstance ot cnrred last week in 
the Charaib counL y, when s^me nrt:iot2S, who were wui king 
near Sandv L'.iv, discovered a.a miinnixi serpont, hitherto \vht)lly 
unkuovvii 111 uiiy ul these islands, and whicii was shot Uuough 
lUe head by oae of the party. It is supposed to be a species of 
Ami to coaoMMi on tlie oeigfabotni^g oontinoU, Init in what way 
it wnolMd dan thoiM of St. VinoenI ii.qnite aniwom. Iti 
Mian leogth was between fiMurtoen and Bmm fieat, tha etroam- 
toofia of the body between three and four fe«t. Whfsn toi 
seen it waa lying in a coil, but raieed itself on being r on aad^ — 
JSa^ Oaxeito mud Btihqma Mmtmr^ Aufaii 

1. Salivation and Ulceration of the Gums proehtced bif 
Hydrocyanic or Prussic ilct<i.-«-Dr. Macleod, in his experiehce 
with the prussic acid used as a medicine, has had occasion to 
notice three instances in which the administration of it pro- 
duced ulceration of the g:ums with salivation. In the first in- 
stance, tlie eflfect was slig:ht ; in the second, it erased with the 
discontinuance of the medicine, and returned vvlicn that was 
re-administered ; in the third, the ulceration was very severe, 
extenrive, and difficalt to heal, and the soreness of me month 
exoeedlngly distressing ; the medicine was discontinued, bat on 
being repeated aboat three months afterwards, the effects were 
reproduced. 

2. Preservative against Scarlet Fever, — It is announced in 
the Journal de Mrrfirina Pratique of Berlin, that the Bella- 
donna is a preservative against this fever. The fact was fir:>t 
discovered at Lcipsig, but it has lately been coubrmed by seve- 
ral experiments. 

3. Om ifrUaHim tf tks :^ffimal Nerves. — 

£To the EUitor of tlie Qmrta ljf Joumal qf Scienec,} 

Sill— -I take the liberty to submit to your notice a pathoVygH 
^ facu which has not, to the best of my kttOwledge'» beerif 
genend^ remarked^ and attcntkm to whkiiy «s to ns my tnnt 



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Experience goe§, ftmSmm mm dUMUrtiQn of ttMn,Mktlte 

mil wluch the hatliiii^ art has to contend. Moat — dinnl 
titioners who have attended to thft »Uaet of i^iail diMHtt» 
must have obterfe4 that its tyio^oms mqaesAy resemble t«- 

rioii<; and dissitntlar maladies, and that commonly the function 
of ov ery orjj'an is impaired whose nerves orig^inate near the seat 
of the disorder. ot^currence of piiin in distant parts for- 

cibly attracted my observation, and induced frrrjuent examiaa- 
tions of the spinal column ; and after sume years' attention, I 
consider myself enabled to state, that in a srreat number of 
diseases, morbid symptoms may be discovered about the origins 
of the nerves which proceed to tliejiffectQd parts, jor of those 
' spiml brandm ivlilch unite wilih tlieiii, and mt if tbe spine be 
6i9nuirin6D« BMnno of ImfNUB wiU iia«miily be Mt by 4m 
pnAieMt on tiie •p plioti eB of pmMra thomt or betwiiB ikmwo 
vertebm from which such Mrre* mamgSm if disease is cm- 
fined to one side of the hodyt 9i one arm or one leg;, this ten- 
derness will be felt on the samp, side of the spine nnh/ ; but if 
ceTttral parts, or both sides of ihv body, or both arms or lej^-g, 
arc discLiscd, ti ndernc^^s will be. felt on bo/h sideii of the spine. 
This symptom has iicen found to attend various other affections. 
This spinal affection may perhaps be considered as the co/we- 
quence of diseases, but of its existence at their commencement 
any pertoii Bity wtSaiif hiveelf ; endlbii mamwtance, com- 
bfaiea ifith enoeees wfaicl^ rbiie sttended Ihe enploymeit «r 
topioBl applications to th^ teDdsr perts about tbe veit s U wy 
appear to indieate that the cause may exist there. Prejadtoa 
sometimes operates against the idea of connexions so remote ; 
but in many instances patients are surprised at the discovery of 
tenderness in a part , of whose impUoatftoni ia daseaee tlMy had" 

not the least suspicion. 

Tlie opinion entertained by some of our Continental neitrh- 
bours, of the importance of tbe spinal brain in disease, is weli 
known. That many of our maladies are the sympathetic con- 
sequences of the operation a distant cause, and that diseases 
a p parently tlie< noat- dissimilar may have one oomnon origin, 
have been- die doetcbee of soeie of oar own moat Mniait 
paihologists ; and though the injaries inflicted on our frames 
by mecnaniesi and efamnioal agiendes nsualiy manifest their 
eifects at the part where the canse has acted, we may be too 
much disposea to generalise firom these premises, and to con- 
clude that the cause of pain, inflammation, and the otbrr phe- 
nomena of disease, also exist at the fart where the symptoms 
are perceived. The vrcords, however, of disease abound with 
cases, wliieb, combined with daily observation,^ and the dis- 
coveries of morbid anatomy, tend to shake our confidence in 
this very natural and general inferencc,.and to indicate that the 
cause can> and frequently does, exist very remotely from i$s. 



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430 



Miscdiamoiis IrUelligeHee 



(Aieziomena, aad Uiai vascular falneiB about tlie origios of 
ncryeg can produce the moit fmMMn sympliMPi m the parts 

mmmt lat mkf bmhutdmi-U tmlmA tlMAtb^y appeat.^ 
uililiwiali Ihat aU the dem^cC maAUimm^ 

Utiaii, torn Aft tUghteBt tiiigiiiig nA ildhiBglo th* 
failp Mgr^ ^pndaeBd bT one common cwM, dMliveM net- 
?||MIS mnctWHl, of HMNB tw VtnMtP mttom mn apftwi^ mtmr 

niliwiii aiii l—riyiifc 

iMH, Sir, 

YoiVBvety obedient servant, 
iio^mei^ttry, jDfc 1(^ * ' bxcHAAn F. ?XiAT&a. 

4. Medical Prize Queition. — The Academical Society of the 
Loiirer Loue faieui prqK>aed a pme» conaiating of a gold medal 
ymkm 90^ ftnc% fiarte iMit wmmtm-^ yft a tio aa respiting 
die^^eUov imp* it ia«af«iMd la tnM ibi dirigin^'to specify if^ 
a we s anA satne ; to describe the stirfto mf lie atmospbere 
Ipeal cireiiiirtftiBii where il pMrviaiey'-to «ati(^«t8 identi^^ 
otherwise with similar fevers m Eitcope, to di&Ungiiali 
whether it be complicated with any omer malady. There is 
also a second subject relating to the means for preventinij; its 
sprcadini^, the proper modes of quarantine, Sfc. The memoirs 
to be sent, post free, to the Secretary of the Society before the 
1st of May, 1822. Each to bear a motto with a repetition in a 
sealed paper, containing as usual, the authot's name, and adi 
dreat* 

4i. MaiicalPriMQmnlimi Ttm Royal Soeiel^Pf Mfldicm 
at ManitfUai hm pQ|niid «M ftHoving questions: 1/ To 
determine the structure and ItuMStiQio g£ tbft ^inal mamw;. 

S» To describe the nature, causes, lyrflfiflhMIt treatment 

of the diseases hy which the spinal marrow is affected. It is 
desired that cUnical observations and pathological anatomy 
should be made the principal objects of the raemokes. They 
may be written in Latin or French. The extent of tUXlfi al- 
lowed is till July^ 182:^, and the prize a gold medaL - 

t 

IV. G£JN£RAL LlTBBATUBB. 

1. Cabinet qf Ancient Glass. — A cabinet has been opened in 
Napldi in the Stndti Palace for the antique glasses found m 
^mpeii and HmolaiiMn. Tlie ooiteite mituna a great 
Variety of .forma and colotara, tod prof«i tfiat iSm aneiesli i*ada 
use of glass as Ike modenu do, berth in ^eoMatingp thilr 
nd m kstnimenU of ohemis^. 'Bkt' eabinet al«» «>ataiwi 
a numbtt of Ginentiy ma»for Hicf noal paiteBcloftMlin TWdicf 
lead* 



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431 



2; IMemfk^.^A work is now in wsm ^ ptMetOioa 
at Stutgard, eonsisting of Iithog«i|riii« Mfravings by Strisner, 

firom pictures of the early German masters, in the collecticNi ^ 

Sulpice, Boisser^e, and other amateurs. The whole when com- 
pleted will contain 144 subjects; these are published in quar- 
terly numbers in imperial folio, with descriptive, letter-press, 
written by Boisseree, The ability of the ennraver which has 
been displayed in another lithographic work, that of the Munich 
Gallery, warrants the expectation of such a series of plates as 
will enable those hitherto unacquainted with the peculiar 
merits of tbetetiy patuMft of tm sofaool,!^ t» appreciate 
tlioireiMlteaco. 

3. Public £dmemHon,^A plan has been lately suggestod, ond 
will be acted upon at EdinlniBBht for iMtmcting by loolures and 

demonstrations, the operative mechanics of that city, in the prin- 
ciples of those branches of science wiiich are useful in the various 
trades that are carried on there. Lectures oa practical me- 
chanics and practical chemistry will be delivered twice a-wetjk. 
during the winter. A library has been formed, and the insti- 
tution ia conducted by ft coMiaitteo of Hayrteen, having a derk 
•od lihrtunii. it h.wmck to be diriiad tfct tto pla« wHo 

dmn, where it is possiblo :: 'for efficMMM m pmats inteMsi has 
b^n fovid to 1m In improving the arts, yet there is no daiote 
that they«milid«i&Gewiditl^|m0vlBdfa«f lltopiiic^^ 
which they afe founded. 

4. Statistics of Spain . — The Spanish monarchy is composed 
of Spain and lier colonies. The kingdom of Spain contains 
10,372,000 inhabitants spread over a surface of 24,661 square 
leagues. The colonies on a surface of 669,094 s<|uare leagues 
reckon 17,700,000 inhabitants distributed wfoAowOl ' 

\ : • ' " ' inb*bitaat5. 

Nov Spain . . • . 118,477 7,550,000 

Guatimala .... 43,089 1,200,000 

Cuba and Florida . . 115,039 592,000 

PuertoRicn&St.Domuigo 2,805 493,000 

New Grenada . . . 80,433 1,600,000 

Caraccaa 64,561 900,000 

Peru 60,172 1,500,000 

Chili ...... 92,000 900,000- 

La Plata 144,956 1,100^ 

The Philippines . * . 13^ Ifli/^fiOO 

The Mariannes . . . I»425 80,000 

The revenues of Spain in 1817 amounted to 620,000,000 
reals, (about 6,000,000^.) 



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MmtHamm* JMUiUge»ce. 

fn the kinertloin of Denmark there vv( ie horn m 1820, 32,376 
children, anionic whom were 3,089 natural children. The numlier 
of deaths was 23.532. At Copenha^fcn the birlha were 2,225, 
iucluding 832 natural cbiidreoi tl^e deaths 1,162. 

5. Census in America, 



351,008 ^lfi4A «7»,«48 

NewYwk 566,050 939,040 1,379,989 

HhwSeney 211,149 245,562 277,575 

" " 602,363 810,091 1,016,844 



Delaware . 64,270 72,674 72,749 
MacTiand . 340,704 380,346 407,300 

0. Observatovjf at Aha in Finhrfd.—Ihe emperor Alexander 
has erecteil a Tnas;iiificeiit observatory at Abo, in Finland, the 
direction of which has been given to the celebrated astronomer 
Balbeck. 



f • Mnmdi Ar Daoomery in At JVbrUL-^liir^bbMw Loagl- 
tide Aflt, whim n tbe 50th of Geo. III. amoDded, it is assumed 
that no Mp Imls gone beyo&d 8P of N. 1st; and 1 1 3^ of W. longf. 
wUhiu the anstic cinla. The rewards prapoaed in it are, 

.£5,000 to any subject of Great Britain, who shall reach tile 
longitude of 130°, from Greenwich, within the arctic cirrle. 

£10,000, basidBS the aU>Te» ior the North- West passage into 
the Pacific. 

£1,000 lor reaching 83° of North latitude ; and a aimilar sum 
for 86 , 87°, and 89°, respectively. 

8« Gnhmm ^ jBsmanL^A ttdMorifiAion lias bofin 
laMd imo al Ganm, to be applied to tlie purpoae of repamof 
and warming the oODteDl on mt Qtaad St. Beroard. It ap peaw , 
that its inhabitants, who ana Imown Ofter the whole of Europe, as 
having saved many a wanderer from destruction, amidst the 
snows and precipices of their inclement mountain, snflTer severely 
in their health, from tlu damp and cold which prevail in their 
crazy mansion ; they have, therefore, the strong-est possible 
claims upon tlie charitable traveller ; and we trust that the 
British will not be backward in lending their aid towards the 
alleviation of tlieir suiferings. I'he Helvetic Society has con- 
tributed the sum of 600 francs towards effecting the abote 
objects. 

Subscriptions are feoeivM by Messis. DeeandoUe aad Tonet* 
tini, bankeiB, at Geneva. 



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Natural History. 

The Natnnil History of British Quaclriipeds, accompanied by 
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Tss Ifurs Arts. 

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Aa AeocNmt lilft Ncv Pmeii fai Mrtfog, in two parts. Part 

L Rmarks on its gewcal correspnadwce inth pecoUarities «f the 

Veoetian School. Part II. Suppkaaentary details explanatory of 
the process. With M iscellaoeovi Ohaervatkos oa the Arts of the 
^jLteeoth Ccntmy^ ftvow Stf. 

Mmium i b; AiTAvoiir, An Bmuonnr. 

A Fkadlcd Treatise on G«tta Sareoa. By Jobn SCevensoD, 
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A Practical Inquiry into the Nature and Treatment of Calculus, 
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Miscellaneous Works of the late Robert Wjliao, M.D., F.lUSu, 
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Adviea lo die Toong Mother in the Bfanagement of Ifeisdf and 
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Atohnaeiitof Factstendinglo estaMishan estiniateofthefnie 
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A Syatem of Pathological and Operative Surgery, founded on 
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The Parenl^s Medical and Suxgical Assistant, intended ibr the 
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A Traitise on Acupuncturatton, being a Description of a Sur- 
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Observations on those Diseases of Females which are attended 
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Encyclopaadifc Kriinifii ; or DictiMMtry of Arts, Scicnocty 
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Part III. 8f. 

Kalogynomia ; or the Laws of Femak ikauty. With plateft^ 
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« • 

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American Slave Trade. By Jesse Torrey, jiuu With plates. 
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An Apology for the Freedom of the Pfieta. By the Aev. Bo- 
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Aii Exposition of the Relations of the British Government with 
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Analysis of the Talents and Character of Napoleon Buona- 
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Essays on the present false and unjust Standard of Value, 
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Essays on the Formation and Publication of Opiniom; and on 
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Th« Rcttocation of Naliona] Ptaeperity shewn to be imme- 
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BRITISH. 

An Historical Guide to Ancient and Modern Dublin. By the 
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royal ISmo. lOt. 6d. 

New Picture of Dubh'n, forming a complete Guide in the Irisb 
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A Picturesque Tour through North Wales, describing its gene<« 
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drawings of Messn. Turners, R. A. 4to« $L $9* - 



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The History ami Aikiiquiucs of the Cathedral Cliurch ot Ox- 
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The History and Aiuujaitics of the Cathedral Churches of 
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The Eiizhth Number, which completes the Work, of Views of 
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The History of Christ's Hospital, from its earliest foundation 
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Sketehct of Upper Canada, Domestic, Local, and Character 
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■ Vim of the Coliseum, engraved by W. B. Cooke and J. C. 
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A Hialory of Madagascar; with an Appendix on tke present. 
State of Beugioii in that Islaiid* By S. Copland. 8vo. 

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Paletta, J. B. £xercitatioiiei Pathokfpce. 4(0. Mediol^ 

issa \i lOs, 

Caatiglioni, Conto Carlo Ottavb» Itoiela Cnficlw Ml* J. R. 
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6L l6f. M 



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INDEX 



Aberration of the stars, an easy method of computing, 151-154 

— of compound lenses and object-glasses, 
Abo, notice of the observatory at, 

Acceleration of the pendulum in different latitudes, notice of 

experiments for determining, 3(i3-3r>7 
Aerolite, fall of, at Juyinas, account of, 425-426 
Air rendered heavier by the separation of its lighter parts, 54- 

56 — thickened by fire, 61-64 — proof that it diminishes in 

weight, 294, 295 
Air-pump, successful application of, to the impregnating of 

substances with fluids, IM 
AUaris dividing-engine, specimens of examination of, 385, 3R6 

results of his measures, 388 
Alccdim minerals, analysis of, 169-171 
Alloys of steel, experiments on different, 3 1 6-3 1 8 
Alu?n found in decomposed mica-slate, 414 
Alum-slate of Freienwald, analysis of, 278-282 
Alum-stone of Tolfa, analysis of, 277, 27S 
America, census of, 432 

Amici (Prof.) account of some optical inventions by, 398-401 
Analyses (chemical) of ferro-arsenical sulphuret of copper, 30- 
32 — of an antimonial sulphuret of copper, 32-34--of a cu- 
preous sulphuret of lead and antimony, 34-36 — of the sul- 
phuret of copper and bismuth, 36-37— of the blue iron ore of 
Eckartsberg, 38 — of granular chromic iron ore, 39^ 40— of 
alcaline minerals, 169-171 — table of their results, 328 — of 
black and green tea, 201-206 — of cererit, or cerite, 262-264 
— of the oxide of cerium, 264 « 265 — of a compact ore of Ti- 
tanium from Arendal, 265, 266 — of the topaz, 266 — particu- 
larly that of Saxony, 266-268 — of zoisit from Carinthia, 268, 
269— of the foliated augite of Carinthia, 269, 270— of con- 
choidal apatite, 271, 272 — of the columnar brown spar of 
Mexico, 272-274— of dolomite, 274— of anhydrite, 275 — of 
bitter spar from the Tyrol, 276 — of the Green earth of Verona, 
276— of the alum-stone of Tolfa, 277 — and of JFreienwald, 
278-282 — of the crystallized calamine of Limbourg, 328 — of 
an arsenical pyrites, 328 — of the garnet of Broddbo, 329 — of 
malacolite, 329— of meteoric stones, 329-331 — of chondro- 
dite, 329 — of copper pyrites, 3M 
Anhydrite, analysis of, 275-276 



440 



INDEX. 



Animals, remarkable fact in breeding, 126, 121 

Antimony and lead, analysis of a cupreous sulpUuret of, M-^G 

— compounds of, 17U 172— on the detection of arsenic in 

the ores of, 412 
Apatite (conchoidal), analysis of, from Zillerlhahl, 271, 272 
Apograph, notice of, lfi9 

Arsenic, test for, 411 — on the detection of, in ores of antimony, 

Art, notice of remains of in a limestone formation, I£l 
Astronomical and Nautical Collections, 137-151 --381 -401 
Atkins's rock, position of, 406 

Atmosphere of the Baltic Sea, temperature of, 341, 342 — the 
-variation of the temperature of the atmosphere, deduced from 
the mean refraction, 396-398 

Augite (foliated) of Carinthia, analysis of, 269-271 

B 

Bacon*s (Lord) system of ciphers, remarks on, 24, 25 
Balance, observations on the construction of, 40, 41 
Balloons, coal-gas first applied to the inflation of, by Mr. Green, 
1 14 — account of his ascent from Portsea, 1 15 — observations 
and experiments made by him during his voyage, 116 — re- 
marks thereon, 1 17, IIB 
Baltic Sea, observations on atmosphere of, 341, 342 
Barlow (Peter, Esq.), on the effects produced on the rates of 

chronometers by the proximity of masses of iron, 374, 375 
Bartiel (M.), process by, for procuring pure platinum, palladium, 
rhodium, iridium, and osmium, from the ores of platinum, 
246-256 -remarks thereon, 25J3=2fi2 
Bell (Charles, Esq.), on a new arrangement of the nerves, 376, 
322 

Belladonna, a preservative against scarlet fevers, 
Bellevue (M. Fleuriaude), observations of, on raeteorolites, 132 
Bernard (convent of St.), notice of subscriptions, 4r^2 
Berthicr (M.), on the analysis of alkaline minerals, 169-171 — 
on the alloys of chromium, iron, and steel, 173, 174 — table 
of his results, 328 
Berzelius (Professor), on the compounds of molybdenum, chro- 
mium, tungsten, antimony, &c., 171, 172 — on oxide of chro- 
mium, 172, 178 — reluctantly acknowledges Sir Humphry 
Davy*s chloridic theory, 306, 307 — abstract of his paper on 
' several inorganic combinations, which serve as the base of 
calculations relative to the theory of chemical proportions, 
307-3 10-— remarks thereon, 321-323— analysis of the crystal- 
lized calamine of Limbour^, 328 — on the oxide of platinum 
and gold, 412 — decompositions of oxalic acid by, 413 
Bismuth and copper, chemical analysis of a sulphuret of, 36, 32 



44] 



Blair (William, Esq.); remarks on his sjrstem of secret writing 

by ciphers, S?r>-27 
BUachinc/' Powder, analysis of, US 

Boa' Constrictor y killed at the island of St. Vincent, notice of, 4^ 
Boussingault (M.), experiments of, on alloys of steel, 316»318 
BnUn, microscopical observations on, 128 
Brasier (Mont), notice of, 423 

Brazil Woods (inferior), process for improving the dye of, 332 
Brinkley (Rev. Professor), on an easy method of computing the 

aberration of the stars, 151-154 — notice of his observations 

for investigating the effects of the parallax and aberration of 

the places of certain fixed stars, 374 
Brown Spar of Mexico, analysis of, 272-274 
BrugnatelU (Dr.), account of a new salifiable base, 177, IIS 
Brunton (Mr.), notice of his contrivance for consuming smoke, 

350—118 advantages, 350^ 3^ 

Caloric, observations and experiments on, 31 1.314 

Carbon and Chlorine, on ivro new compounds of, 129, 130 — 

experiments on another new compound of, 37.^ 
Carbonate of Magnesia, solubility of, in water, 408— ort the 

solution of the carbonate of lime, ibid., 409 
Carfiwre^ of Nickel, how procured, 173 

Cary (Mr.), notice of his examination of Ramsden^s dividing 
engine, 381-384 — ^results of his measures, 382 

Cauliflowers, hirit for the preservatlori of, 406 

Celebes, notice of an earthquake on the coast of, 427 

Census of America, 432 

Cererit (cerite), analysis of, 262-264 

Cerium, properties of the oxide of, 264. 265 

Charcoal and hydrogen, on the ae'rifofm compounds of, 133, 134 

C%^wiica/ »Sbe7ice, miscellaneous intelligence in, 169-187, 407- 
422 — progress of on the contlhent, 306-342— remarks on 
chemical empirics, 354, 355 

rfeencvtx'i (Mr.) ciphers, for secret writing, remarks on, 22-24 

CAtWren. (J, G.) translation of Rey*s essays on tho calcination 
of metals, 54-64, 294-299 

Chimneys, importance of attending to the construction of, espe- 
cially for furnaces, 352-3.54 

Chlorine, on the use of, in hydrophobia, 190 — new compound 
of it and of carbon, 375 — ^heat produced by it, 413— explo- 
sion of, and of hydrogen, ibid* 

Chbndrodite, analysis of, 32Q 

Chromium J on the compounds of, 171. 172— oxide of, 172— 

alloys of^ with iron and steel, 173. 174 — on various com- 

pbunds of, 31 7,31 Q 
Cnronometers, effects of the proximity of masses of iron on 

the rates of, 374, 415 — on the chronometers used in the Arctic 

Expedition, 402-404 
Vol. XII. 2 G 



442 



INDEX. 



i^nchomne^ process for obtaining, 325 ' ' ; 

Ciphers, for secret writing, remarks on, 21 — on Mr. Chenevix's, 
22-24. 28— Lord Bacon's, 24^ 25— Mr. Blair's, 25-27— spe- 
cimens of some ciphers by the Rev. Edward Hiucks, 29 

Clock, the daily rate and error of, at one time of the day, being 
known, a table to find its corresponding error throughout the 
day, \&5Am 

Clock-dial of the Tron Church at Glasgow, account of the illa- 

mination of, by gas, 229-231 
Coal-yaSy successfully applied to the inflation of balloons, 

114, 115] 

Coindet (Dr. Z.), on the use of iodine in medicine, 187-189 — 

particularly in scrofula, 243-245 
Colchester, description of an ancient sphinx found at, XAl 
Combination (chemical), principles of, 3 Q6-311 
Combustibles y experiments on the mechanical action of, 31 L=313 
Combustion of ether, products of, 64-74 

Comets, on determining the equations of, 137-149 — correcUon 
of the elements of an orbit of, that has been determined, 
149-151 

Compass-needle y best kind of steel and form for, 1 32 

Copper, analysis of ferro-arsenical sulphuret of, from Freiberg, 
30-32 — of an aotimonial sulphuret of copper from Kapnik, 
32, 33, 34 — of a cupreous sulphuret of lead and antimony, 
from Clausthal in the Hartz, 34, 35^ 36— of the sulphuret of 
copper and bismuth, 36, 37— effects of copper on vegetation, 
178— of a copper pjnrites, 330 — account of the native 
copper mines on Lake Superior, 422 

Correspondence (secret), easy method of, 292, 293 ■ 

Cumaneana, notice of an earthquake at, 426 

Cunobelin, a British [monarch, remarks on some coins of, 6-8, 
12, 13 • 

Cyanogen, on the combination of oxides with, 175-177 

Dalton (Mr.) observations of on the solution of carbonate of 
lime, 408, 409 

Daniell (J. F. Esq.) inquiry (with experiments) into the nature of 
the products of the slow combustion of ether, 64-74 — meteo- 
rological observations by, for one year, 97-111— comparative 
remarks (with three tables) on the weather and seasons of the 
years 1819-20 and 1820-21, 1 U -114— illusuative remarks 
<m Mr. Green's aerial voyage, 1 l7.Hft 

Davy (Sir Humphry) observations of on the magnetic pheno- 
mena produced by electricity, 126 — his discourse on awarding 
Sir Godfrey Copley's prize medals, 300-304 — his chioridic 
theory reluctantly acknowledged by foreign chemists, 306- 
307 — notice of his observations and experiments on the papyri 



iNlifix. 443 

of Hercalaneum, 367-369 — and of his further reaearches on 
the magnetic phenomena prodnced by electricity, with some 
new experiments on the properties of electrified bodies in their 
relations to conducting power and temperature, 377.3ftO 

Davv (Dr. John) on the urinary organs and urine of two species 

' of rana, 130-131 

Density of the earth, remarks on the mean, 370-372 
X>ive (M.) notice of his formation of Prussian potash, 323 
Dividing Engine of Ramsden, report on the present state of, 
381-:iRS 

Dobereiner (Professor) analysis of copper pyrites by, 33Q 
Dollond (Mr. G.) account of a micrometer made of rock crystal, 
131-132 

Duhout (Madame), notice of the alcalino-vegetable poudrettes 
of, 3M 

Dugong, an herbivorous animal from Sumatra, notice of, 370 — 
peculiarities that distinguish it from the Manatee of the West 
Indies, 325 

Earth (Green) of Verona, analysis of, 276, 277 — temperature 
of the earth at various depths, 338, 339 — remarks on its 
mean density, 370-372 

Earthquake in the island of Zante, account of, 341 — in Cuma- 
neana, 426 — on the coast of the island of Celebes, 422 

Edinburgh, progress of public education at, 431 

JBggs, singular preservation of, 342 

Electricity ^Qii the magnetic phenomena produced by, 74,126,416 
— relation of a remarkable electrical phenomenon, 182, 183 — 
obsenrations on Voltaic electricity, 183, 184 — contact in vol- 
taic electricity, 186 — magnetism produced by electricity, 
185t 186 — ^notice of electro-magnetic instruments invented 
by M. de la Rive, 184, 185 — of a new electro-magnetic ap- 
paratus, constructed under Mr. Faraday's direction, for the 
exhibition of rotatory motion, 186, 187, 283-285— of Sir 
Humphry Davy's researches on the magnetic phenomena 
produced by electricity, and of his experiments on the proper- 
ties of electrified bodies in their relations to conducting 
power and temperature, 377-380 
Electro^magnetical motions, 74^ 186^ 415, 416 
Epilepsy, on the use of nitrate of silver in, 189, 19Q 
Equations of Comets, on the determination of, 137-14 9 
Ether, inquiries and experiments on the products of the slow 

combustion of, 64 
Evelyn (Sir G. S.) notice of the re-measurement of the cube, 
cylinder, and sphere used by, in his inquiries respecting a 
standard of weights and measures, 323 
Evelyn (John) analysis of the Fumifugium of, 342iM8 

2 G 2 



444 



Fa^icU Ncrve^f on the dift'erence of the functiona in certaio, 
illustrated by their anatomy in the inferior animals, and by 
a comparUoQ of their uses in man and brutes, 231-240i-' 
comparative anatomy of the fifth pair of facial nerves, 240-243 

Faraday (Mr.) experiments and observations on some new elec- 
tro-magiietical motions, and on the theory of magnetism, 74, 
96, 416, 421 — on two new compounds of chlorine and car- 
bon, and on a n^w compound of iodine, carbon, and hydros 
gen, 129. 130 — account of a new apparatus for the eithibition 
of rotatory magnetic motion, 186, 187. 283-28.5 

Fat bodies^ results uf the decomposition of by ignited oxide of 
copper, 323-324 

Firey by its heat, cap thicken homogeneous bodies, 56^ 57 — 
can thicken water, 58-60 — and air, 61-64 

Flaugergues, (M.) observations of on the hi&at of the aUD<9 
xays during tlie solar eclipse of September 7, 1820, 313. 314 

Fossil-bones discovered at Plymouth, 124, 125, 133 

France, economy of the chemists of, compared with that of 
th^ English chemists, 355, 3^ 

Fresco painting ^ a new process for the preservation of, 406, 

Am 

Garnetf analysis of, 329 
Gas-tary useful green paint made from, 407 
Oases from oil and coal, experiments on, 135» WG-r-succe^sful 
application of gas to the dlumination of th^ clock-dial of the 
. Tron Church at Glasgow, 229— 231 

Gozzen (Professor) abstract of his essay on manure9> 332, 334 

Genif ancient, representing CEdipus expounding the enigma of 
the Sphinx, 11, 12 

Giesse (M.) account of a supposed new metal from the xesi- 
dniun of sulphuric acid, 315, 31^ 

Glasgow, account of the mode of illnmioating the clock-diaj on 
the steeple of the Tion Church at, 229.231. 

Gol4, experiments on some combinations of, 318, 319 

Gm» (Mr.) ascent of in a balloon from Portsea, 115^— obser- 
vations and experiments made by him during his aecial 
voyage, 116— remarks thereon, 117. UB 

Grouvelk, (M.) on the combinations of oxides with chlorine, 
iodine, and cyanogen, 174-177 — on various compounds of 
qhrwium, 31^^:311 . 

Gums, salivation and ulceration of, produced |xy hydro^cyanic 

^ acid,42S . 

Hansleen, (Professor) experiments of, lor deterniining the law of 

magnetic attraction, 335-337 
Hastings^ (Dr. Charles) observations of, on the division of the 

eighth pair of nerves, 96 



INDBX. 



445 



Hay^ (E. W. A. Esq.) description cf an ancient monument 
found at Colchester, representing the Theban Sphinx, 1-17 

Heaty laws of the propagation of, 180 — observations ok the 
heat of the 8iin*s rays during the solar eclipse of September 
T, 1820, 313, aM 

Heipy, (Dr.) on the aeriform compounds of charcoal and hydro- 
gen, 134, 135— eiperiments on the gases obtained from oil 
ftnd coal, 125 

Herculaneum, notices of ®r Humpliry Davy's observations and 
experiments on the Papyri of, 3fi7-«369 

Herschel, (J. F. W. Esq.) Sir Godfrey Copley's gold medal 
awarded to, 300— Sir Humphry Davy's address to him on 
the occasion, 300-302— on tne aberration of compound lenses 
and object-glasses, 369— on the separation of iron from 
other metals, 372 

Hincks, (Rev. Edward) observations of on secret writing, 21 — 
remarks on Mr. Chenevix's cipher, 22-24, 28—^ Lord 
Bacon's, 24* 25— on Mr. Blair's, 25-27— specimens of 
' ciphers, 29 

Home, (Sir Everard) observations on the rete mucosum of the 
negro, as a defence against the solar rays, 125, 126— micro- 
scopical observations on the brain and nerves, S^c, 127-125) — 
notice of his account of the Dugong, Sfc. 370, and of the 
peculiarities that distinguish it from the Manatee of the 
West-lndies, 325 

Humboldt (Baron), observations of on the causes affecting the 
distribution of vegetable forms, 338, 339 

Mutton (Dr.), notice of his remarks on the mean density of the 
earth, 370-372 

Hydraulic Lime, analysis of, 414 

Hydrocyanic Acid, salivation and ulceration of the gums pro- 
duced by, 428 

Hydrogen and Carbon, on the aeriform compounds of, 133, IM 

—explosion of, and of chlorine, 413 
Hydrophobia, on the use of chlorine in, 190 

Insects (luminous), on the phosphorescence of, 181, 182 
Iodine J on the combinations of oxides with, 175, 176-— on the 

use of, in medicine, 187-189 
Iron ore, analysis of granular chromic, 39^ 40— of blue iron ore, 
38 — alloys of iron, chromium, and steel, 173t 174 — on the 
' separation of it, from other metals, 372— effects of the prox- 
imity of masses of on the rates of chronometers, 374— curious 
effect of sea water on cast-iron, 407 — effect of iron oa the 
rate of chronometers, 415 — oxalate of, found as.a mineral, 422 
Irritation of the spinal nerves, remarks on, 428-430 
Ivory (Mr.), account of his method of computing the latitude 
from two altitudes, and the time intervening, 389, 390 — apo- 



44& 



INDEX. 



logy for tlie postscript on refraction, in answer to his remark*, 
390-396 

Javal (M.), experiments of on some combinations of gold, 
318. 319 

Kater (Capt. Henry), observations of on the constniction of a 
balance, 40j 41 — on the comparison of various British stand- 
ards of linear measure, 130«-*oii the best kind of steel, and 
form for a compass needle, 132— notice respecting a volcanic 
appearance in the moon, 133 — and of his account of the r&- 
measurement of the cube cylinder and sphere, used by the 
late Sir George Shuckburgh Evelyn, in his inquiries concern- 
ing a standard of weights and measures, 393 

Klaproth (Martin Henry), contributions of towards the chemical 
knowledge of mineral substances, 29 — analysis of the ferro- 
arsenical sulphuret of copper, 29-31— *of an antimoniaJ sul- 
phuret of copper, 32-34— -of a cupreous sulphuret of lead 
and antimony, 34-36«— of the sulphuret of bismuth and cop- 
per, 364 37— of the blue iron ore of Eckartsberg, 38 — of 
granular chromic iron ore from Steirmark, 39« 40— of cererit, 
262-264— of the oxide of cerium, 264, 265— of a compact ore 
of titanium from Arendal, 265, 266— of the topaz, 266— par- 
ticularly the Saxon topaz, 266-268 — of zoisit, from Carinthia, 
268, 269 -of the foliated augite of Carinthia, 269^ 270— of 
coQcboidal apatite, from Zillerthahl, 271, 272 — of the cch 
lumnar brown-spar of Mexico, 272-274 — of dolomite, 274— 
of anhydrite, 275— of the green earth of Verona,^ 276— • 
of the alum stone of Tolfa, 277 — and of that of Freienwald, 
277-282 

■ » 

Larch-tree f use of in tanning, 406 

Latitude, method of computing, from two altitudes and the time 
intervening, 380, 390 

Leadf and antimony, analysis of a cupreous sulphuret of, 34- 
36 — its increase of weight, in calcination, accounted for, 295- 
297 — on the disappearance of the celestial heat in, 2Q7-29Q> 

Lightning, effects of, 414 

Literature, miscellaneous intelligence in, 193, 194,^430-432 
Lithography, application of to the taking of impressions from 

plants, 405 — progress of, at Munich, 45l 
London, evils resulting to the inhabitants of, from smoke, 343— 
state of them in the seventeenth century, 343, 344 — in the 
eighteenth century, 345 — and at the present time, 346 — 
remedy suggested for, 347 — account of various expedients 
for consuming smoke, 348-354 . 



447 



Mac Cttttoch TDj.) observations of on the varieties and fonuajr 
tion of pitcnstone, 41-50 — synopsis of its varieties, 51— 
simple pitchstone, 51 — porphyritic, 52 — concretionary-sphe- 
roidal pearlstone, 52^ 53 — amygdaloidal, 53 — on the defects 
of the existing charts of the Shetland isles, 206-229 

Mackenzie (Colin) review of One Thousand Chemical Expert- 
mentshy,'S54: — strictures on his want of order, 356-358— -$pe? 
clmens of his incorrectness, 358-363 

Madder^lake, notice of a newly invented one, L69 . . 

Magnesia and its carbonate, solubility of, in water, 407 

Magnetic Attrcu^tionSy experiments for determining the law of, 
335-338 

Magnetism, observations on some new electro-magnetical mo« 
tions, and on the theory of, 74-96 — magnetic phenomena 
produced by electricity, 126— magnetism produced by 
electricity, 185, 186 — ^production of magnetism, 414 — electro- 
magnetic rotation, 415 — note on some new electro-magnetical 
motions, 416-421. (See Electricity.) 

Maio (Signor) notice of ancient MSS. discovered by^ 193 

Malacolit€y analyses of, 329 

ManateCy how distinguished from the dugong, 375 

Manures f abstract oi a dissertation on, 332, 333 — ^notice cf the 
alkalino-vegetable poudrettcs of Madame Dubout, 334 

Mechanical Science, miscellaneous intelligence in, 168^ 169. 
402-407 

Medicine y on the use of iodine in, 187, 188— <of nitrate of 

silver, 189— of chlorine, 190 
Medico- Chirurgical Society, notice of the formation of, 194 
Meteoric Stones, analyses of, 329«331, 410, 411 
Meteor olites^ observations on, 1^2 

Meteorological Observations for one year, 97-111 — ^remarks 
(with tables) on the weather and seasons of the years 
. 1819-20 and 1820-21, 111-114 

Micrometer, made of rock crystal, account of, 131, 132 
Milk, hint for the preservation of, 406 

Mineral Substance, new, notice of, 191 — analysis of, see 
Analysis. 

Mineral Waters^ on the sulphureous nitrogen in, 409. 410 
Miscellaneous Intelligence in Science and the Arts, 168-194. 

402-432 

Molybdenumy on the compounds of, 171^ 172 
Monte Nuovoy account of the rise of in 1588, 424, 425 
Moon, notice of a volcanic appearance in, 133 
Morland (Mr. Samuel) the inventor of the steam-engine, 193. 
194 

Mud Volcanoes in bogs, notice of, 427 

Muriatic Acid^ on the constitution of at different densities, 
287=291 



INDEX. 



TTdples, notice of a cabinet of ancient glass at, 

Natural History, miscellaneous intelligence in, 187-193, 422- 

Ndvier (Ht.) experiments and observations on the mechanical 

action of combustibles, 311-313 
Negro, observations on the rete mucosum of, 125, 1^ 
NerveSt additional facts relating to the division of the eighth 
pair of, 1^ 20, 96 — microscopical observations on, 127-129 
—on the difference of the functions in certain nerves of the 
face, illustrated by their anatomy in the inferior animals, and 
by a comparison of their uses in man and brutes, 231-240 — 
comparative anatomy of the fifth pair of facial nerves, 240- 
243— new arrangement of the nervous system by Mr. Bell, 
376. 377 — on the irritation of the spinal nerves, 428-43Q 
Mckel, on the carburet of, 112 
Nitrate of silver, on the use of, in epilepsy, 1S3 
Nitrogen of sulphureous mineral waters, observations on, 409, 
4iQ 

North, i^w&rdB for discovery in, 422 

QSdipuSf expounding the enigma of the Sphinx^ description of an 
ancient gem, representing, l]^ 12 

Olhers Q)t. W.) essay on comets, translated, 137— on some 
equations of the first and second order, which have been pro- 
posed for determining the equations of comets, 137-149 — 
correction of the elements of an orbit which has been deter- 
mined, 149-151 

Opium, improved process for extracting the salt of, 3M 

Optical Inventions of Professor Amici, account of, 398-401 

Oxalate of iron, found as a mineral, 422 

Oxalic add^ decomposition of, 413 

Oxides, combinations of, with chlorine, iodine, and cyanogen, 
175-177— of platinum with gold, 42 

Paint (green), for coarse wood-work, 407 

Papyri' of Herculanemn, notice of, Sir Humphry Davy's ex- 
periments and observations on, 367-369 
^Par*tf5 (Messrs.) notice of the contrivance of, for consuming 
smol^e, 351 — remarks thereon, 352 

Parkinson and Frodsham, (Messrs.) observations of on the 
chronometers used on the Arctic expedition, 402-404 

Pearl, beautiful Scottish, notice of, 4^7 

Pendulum, account of Captain Sabine's experiments for deter- 
mining the acceleration of, in different latitudes, 363-367 

Philip (Dr. A. P. W.) additional facts by, relative to the divi- 
sion of the eighth pair of nerves, 17-20 

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, an 
analysis of, 125-136, 363-380 



INDEX. 



449 



'Phosphorescence of wounds, remarks on, ISO—and of luminous 

insects, 18L IB2 
Pictet (Professor) thoughts by, on voltaic electricity, 183, iS4 
Pitchstoney observations on the formation and varieties of, 4L»50 
— synopsis of its varieties, 51 — simple pitchstone, ibid. — por- 
phyritic, 52— concretionary spheroidal pearlstone, 52, 53 
— amygdalo'idal, containing imbedded nodules of another mi- 
neral, 53 

Plants^ observations on the distribution of, 338, 339 — impres- 
sions of taken by Lithography, 405 

Platinum, process for procuring pure platinum, palladium, rho- 
dium, iridium, and osmium, from the ores of, 246-25(3 — re- 
marks thereon, 256-262— on the oxide of, with gold, 412 

Police (Pharmaco-legale), severity of, 331 

Preservation of milk, directions for, 406 — of cauliflowers, 406 
— and of fresco-painting, ibid, 407 

Prize QuestionSy by the Society of Apothecaries at Paris, 179. 
180 — by the Academic Society of Nuntes, 190 — by the So- 
ciety of Sciences and Arts at Mentz, 405 — by the Royal Aca- 
demy of Sciences of Toulouse, 405 — by the Academical So- 
ciety of the Lower Loire, 430 — by the Royal Society of 
Medicine at Marseilles, 430 

Propagation of heat, laws of, ISO 

Prussic Acidy salivation and ulceration of the gums produced 
by, 42a 

Publications (New), select lists of, 195-433 

Quinine, process for obtaining, 325-327 — ^its use in intermit- 
tent fevers, 327 

Ramsd€n*s dividing engine, . report on the present state of, 381- 
388 

Ratia, on the urinary organs and urine of two species of, 
130. mi 

Rein'deer, successfully brought to England, 427 

Rete Mucosum of the Negro, observations on, 125, I2fi 

Rey^s Essays on the calcination of metals, &c., translated, 54-64, 

. 294-299 

Ridolfi (Marquess), notice of the improvement of Woulfe's ap- 
paratus, by, 179 

Rive (M. de la), notice of electro-magnetic instruments, in- 
vented by, 184, L85 

Royal Society of London, proceedings of, 119, 300-305-^plan 
for re-uniting under it the various existing scientific socie- 
ties of London, 122, 123 — analysis of the Transactions of the 
Royal Society, 125-136, 363-380— list of its council .^nd 

. officers, 304 

Vol. XIL 2H 



460 



Sabine, (Captain Edward) Sir Godfrey Copley's prize medal 
awarded to, 300— Sir Humphry Davy's aodress on the occa- 
tioB, 30*2-304 — account of his experiments for determining the 
acceleration of the pendulum in different latitudes, 363*367 

Salijiable base, account of a new one, 177, IIB 

SmU, on the contamination of, for manufactories, 169 

Scarlet Fever, preservative against, 428 

Scrofula, on the use of iodine in, 243-24.5 

Sea Watery curious effect of on cast iron, 407 

Secret ITnVin^r, remarks on, by means of ciphers 21-29 — easy 
and secure method of, 292, 293 

Setnentint, (II Cavalier) observations of, on the use of nitrate of 
silver in medicine, 189, 190 

ShaWy (John Esq.) observations of, on the difference of the 
functions in certain nerves of the face, illustrated by their 
anatomy in the inferior animals, and by a comparison of 
their uses in man and brutes, 231-240 — comparative anatomy 
of the fifth pair of nerves, 240-243 

Shetland (Isles), remarks on the chart of, 206-229 

Ship'^y account of a new adhesive lining for the sheatlung of, 

168, im 

Silver, on the use of nitrate of, in epilepsy, 1^9, 190 — experi- 
ments and observations on the atomic weight of, 286-288 

Skull of a deer, found in a tree, notice of, 123 

Smokcy pernicious effects of, to the inhabitants of London, m the 
seventeenth centinry, 343, 344 — in the eighteenth century, 
345 — and at the present time, 346 — remedy suggested for, 
347 — account of various expedients for consuming smoke, 
348.354 

Societies (Scientific) proceedings of. The Royal Society of 
London, 119 — 300-305 — remarks on the inconveniencies re- 
sulting from the division and subdivision of the scientific es- 
tablishments of London, 120-124 

South (James, Esq.) the clock's daily rate and error atdhe timepf 
the day being known, a table to find its corresponding raCe 
and efrror throughout the day, 1.55-166 

i^dm, rtatistics of, 43L ^ 

Spar (brown) of Mexico, analysis of, 272-274 — and of bitter 
spar, from the Tyrol, ilB. 

Sphinx, ancient, discovered at Colchester, 1— ^ts diMienlsTons, 2— 
reasons for thinking it to b6 o^ Roman wokmanship, ih 
Britain, 3-5 — description of a bronze sphinx, 5 — the Colches- 
ter sphinx not older thaii th!^ time of the (iri^t Cldu'dius, 6 — 
though the respect fbr Aie sphinx lina^ be trabed to the time of 
Augustus, 6-8 — this sphiiix probably placed in thie pro-naos, 
Or vestibule of the temple of Claudllid, 10 — instances, frbrti an- 
tiquity, of sphinxes represented as having comJ)leted the de- 
struction of their victims, 1 1-13 — probable circurhiStances that 



INDEX* 



451 



have preserved the Colchester sphinx, 14^ Id^rentark on the 

.. engravings of U, K5-17 . 1 ^ , 
^nnal np.rves, on the irritation of, 428-430 . ; tiJ^ ■ 

^tarst easy method of computing the aberration 'Of, 1 41 < 
Statimry Marble quarries, notice of uewly discovered, in Tus* 

cany, 103 ' . . :^ > . 

Steam-engines of England, power of, 404 *. . -.•*»• ' 
Steely alloys of, with chromium andiron, 173> 174 — experiments 

on various alloys ofy 31fi»318 
Succinic Acid, process for obtaining, 179 

StUphurets, analyses of ferro-arsenical sulphuret of copper, 
30*32 — of an antimonial sulphuret of copper, 32*34^ol*a4Mi- 
preous sulphuret of lead and antimony, 34-36— of the sul- 
phuret of bismuth and copper, 36^ 32 

Sulphuric Acid, account of a supposed new metal from the resi- 
duum of, 315, 316 — cause of its high price in England, con- 
trasted with that manufactured in France, 355, 3f>6 

Sun, observations on the beat produced by the rays of, during 
the solar eclipse of September 7^ 1820, 313^ 314 

Superior (Lake) account of the native copper mines of, 422, 423 

Tanning^ use of the larch tree in, 406 

Tea, black, analysis of, 201, 202 — and of green tea, 202— -re- 
marks thereon, 204, 205— table of soluble matter in, 206 
Temperature of the earth at various depths, 339. 340 . . . - 
Test, for arsenife', 411 

Time, table for reducing sidereal to mean, 162 
Tin, increased weight of, when calcined, accounted Cor, 295- 
222 

Tissues, how rendered incombustible, 413 , 
Titanium, analysis of a compact ore of,^ from Areudal, 265, 26(i 
Topaz of Saxony, analysis of, 266-268 
Tungsten, on some compounds of, 171, 112. 

Ure (Dr.) experiments and observations of, on the atomic 
weight of silver, and on the constitution of liquid muriatic 
acid at different densities, 286-291 

Vegetation, effects of copper on, 178 

Verona, analysis of the green earth of, 276, 277 

Volcanic appearances in the moon, notice of, 133 

Volcanoes of mud in bogs, probable origin of, 427 

Voltaic electricity, observations on, 183. 184 — contact in, Ifii,. 

Water, thickened by fire, 58-60 ' '* 

Watt (Mr.), contrivance of,' for consuming smoke, 349 
Weaving, improvement in the salubrity of, 332. 
Whidbeij (Joseph, esq.), account of fossil bones found at Ply- 
mouth, 124-13.'^ 



452 



INDEX. 



WoUaston (Rev. Mr.), table, shewing the acceleration of side- 
real oq mean and solar time, ]31 

WuUdston (Dr.), report on the present state of Ramsden's di- 
viding engine, 381-388 

Wood (Mr. William notice of the adhesive pelt, invented by, 
for.lining the sheathing of ships, 168, IfiS 

Woul/e's Apparatusy improvement of, 179 

WovndSf on the phosphorescence of, IMl 

Writing (Secret) by means of ciphers, remarks on, 21-29 — 
easy and secure method of, 292, 293 

Zante (island), account of an earthquake in, MI 
ZoisUy analysis of, from Cariuthia, 268, 2119 



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