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UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS
LIBRARY
S
73
no. 51-50
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MTmo IN U.«^
LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF
MASSACHUSETTS
HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION
-OF THE
MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.
BULLETIN NO. 51. 6
I, ANALYSES OF MANURIAL SUBSTANCES SENT ON FOR EXAMINATION.
II. ANALYSES OF LICENSED FERTILIZERS COLLECTED BY THE AGENT OF THE
STATION DURING 1897.
FrE^:Bi^xj^^i^iir, isos.
The Bulletins of this Station loill he sent free to all newspapers in
the State and to such individuals interested in farming a,s may request
the same.
AMHERST, MASS. :
PRESS OF CARPENTER & MOREHOUSE,
1898.
HATCH EXPERIMENT STATXOBT
OF THE
Massachusetts Agrictilttiral College,
AMHERST, MASS.
By act of the General Court, the Hatch Experiment Station and
the State Experiment Station have been consolidated under the name
of the Hatch Experiment Station of the INIassachusetts Agricultural
College. Several new divisions have been created and the scope of
others has been enlarged. To the horticultural, has been added the
duty of testing varieties of vegetables and seeds. The chemical has
been divided, and a new division, " Foods and Feeding," has been
established. The botanical, including plant physiology and disease,
has been restored after temporary suspension.
The officers are : —
Henry H. Goodell, LL. D., Director.
William P. Brooks, B. Sc. Ph.D., AgricAiUurist.
George E. Stone, Ph. D., Botanist.
Charles A. Goessmann, Ph. D., LL. D., Chemist (Fertilizers).
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph. D., Chemist (Foods and Feedlug) .
Charles H. Fernald, Ph. D., Entomologist.
Samuel T. Maynard, B. Sc, Horticulturist.
J. E. Ostrander, C. E., Meteorologist.
Henry M. Thomson, B. Sc, Assistant Agriculturist.
Ralph E. Smith, B. Sc, ' Assistant Botanist.
Henri D. Haskins, B. Sc, Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Charles I. Goessmann, B. Sc, Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
George D. Leavens, B. Sc, Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Edward B. Holland, B. Sc, ^ssY C/iemis<(Foods and Feeding).
Fred W. Mossman, B. Sc, . Ass'f C/«em/s<(Foods and Feeding).
Benjamin K. Jones, B. Sc, Assistant in Foods and Feeding .
Robert A. Cooley, B. Sc, Assistant Entomologist.
G. A. Drew, B. Sc, Assistant Horticulturist.
H. D. Hemenway, B. Sc, Assistant Horticulturist.
H. H. Roper, B. Sc, Assistant in Foods and Feeding.
A. C. MoNAHAN, Observer.
The co-operation and assistance of farmers, fruit-growers, horti-
culturists, and all interested, directly or indirectly, in agriculture,
are earnestly requested. Communications may be addressed to the
Hatch Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass.
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY.
C. A. GOESSMANN.
I.
ANALYSES OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS AND MANU-
RIAL SUBSTANCES SENT ON FOR P:NAMINATI0N.
fer
Cent.
I.
II.
III.
ir.
20.97
12.97
1.65
27.12
3.92
4.62
3.48
3.08
1-28
2.05
2.24
1.66
32.21
33.65
33.65
32.54
13.20
11.97
20.82
5.44
459—462. WOOD ASHES.
I. Received from Suudeilaud, Mass.
II. Received from Fitcliburg, Mass.
III. Received from Nortli Danvers, Mass.
IV. Received from Sunderland, Mass.
Moisture at lOO'^ C,
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoric acid,
Calcium oxide,
Insoluble matter,
463-466.
I. Received from Sunderland, Mass.
II. Received from Sunderland, Mass.
III. Received from Carlisle, Mass.
IV. Received from Bemis, Mass.
I'er Cent.
I.
Moisture at 100" C,
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoric acid.
Calcium oxide.
Insoluble matter,
467-470.
I. Received from North Amherst, Mass.
II. Received from Boston, Mass.
III. Received from Sunderland, Mass.
IV. Received from South Amherst, Mass.
Pe»' Cent
I.
Moisture at lOO'* C,
Potassium oxide.
Phosphoric acid.
Calcium oxide.
Insoluble matter,
I.
II.
III.
ir.
8.42
6.65
18.40
1.70
5.37
5.63
2.98
7.69
1.02
1.15
1.66
2.81
42.84
44.73
30.89
37.81
5.31
5.58
13.54
11.38
I.
II.
III.
IV.
13.87
21.53
25.25
24.62
3.87
4.11
4.15
4.02
1.79
1.41
1.28
0 83
30.27
29.21
35.22
33.62
17.20
8.66
4.17
10.81
Per Cent.
/.
II.
III.
ir.
V.
2.82
5.97
6.07
4.05
15.27
4.54
7.60
7.19
7.47
7.47
1.34
1.47
1.60
1.66
1.66
40.32
35.83
13.75
30.48
32.54
12.26
14.70
8.56
9.86
9.03
471 -475.
I. Received from South Poland, Maine.
II. Received from Concord, Mass.
III. Received from Concord, Mass.
IV. Received from Lexington, Mass.
V. Received from Lexington, Mass.
Moisture at 100^ C,
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoric acid.
Calcium oxide,
Insoluble matter,
476. MIXED ASHKS.
Received from North Brookfield, Mass.
(coal, wood, and leather.)
Per Cent.
Moisture at lOO'^ C, 5.77
Potassium oxide, 1.04
Phosphoric acid, 0.58
Nitrogen, 0.53
Calcium oxide, 4.90
Insoluble matter, 67.84
466- 478. GROUND TOBACCO STEMS.
I. and II. Received from Boston, Mass.
Per Cent.
I. II.
Moisture at 100^ C, 10.87 12.35
Ash, 20.20 *
Nitrogen, 0.99 1.13
Potassium oxide, 4.85 5.19
Phosphoric acid, 0.51 0.56
479_4S0. COTTON SEED MEAL.
I. Received from Sunderland, Mass.
II. Received from Montague, INIass.
Per Cent.
I. II.
Moisture at 100° C, 10.83 7.72
Nitrogen, 3.24 6.48
Potassium oxide, 1.58 *
Phosphoric acid, 2.23
«
♦Not determined.
481—482. GROUND FISH AND WHALE BONE SCRAPINGS.
I. Ground fish received from North Hatfield, Mass.
II. Wiiale-bone scrapings received from New Bedford, Mass.
Per Cent.
I.
INIoistiire at 100° C,
Nitrogen,
Total Phosphoric acid,
Reverted Phosphoric acid,
Insoluble Phosphoric acid.
I.
II.
7.32
6.9
7.98
13.01
13.82
0.26
7.74
*
6.08
*
483-487.
I. II. III.
IV.
V.
Moisture at 100^ C,
Ash,
Nitrogen,
Phosphoric acid,
Calcium oxide,
MUCK.
Received from Boston, Mass.
Received from Tewksbury, Mass.
Received from East Weymouth, Mass.
/.
11.67
47.60
1.19
Trace
Trace
Per Cent.
II.
5.8
77.40
0.37
Trace
Trace
III.
2.67
83.93
0.48
Trace
Trace
ir.
50.25
4.48
1.10
Trace
Trace
r.
12.75
69.52
1.57
Trace
Trace
488-490.
I.
II.
III.
COiMPLETE FERTILIZERS.
Received from Newbury, Mass.
Received from Sunderland, Mass.
Received from Sunderland, Mass.
Per Cent
I.
Moisture at 100=* C, 11.50
Nitrogen, 3.23
Total (jhosphoric acid, 9.54
Soluble phosphoric acid, 4.76
Reverted phosphoric acid, 2.22
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 2.56
Potassium oxide, 7.92
491—494. BARNYARD MANURES.
I. II. III. IV. Received from Amherst, Mass
Per Cent.
I.
Moisture at 100° C, 80.45
Nitrogen, 0.28
Phosphoric acid, 0.17
Potassium oxide, 0.46
II.
III,
14.18
13.98
3.17
1.58
10.03
9.21
4.09
2.88
3.79
4.29
2.15
1.41
5.85
3.98
II.
III.
ir.
77.45
62.85
70.43
0.57
0.53
0.44
0.34
0.31
0.33
0.79
0.85
0.82
♦Not determined.
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12
TRADE VALUP:S
OF FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS IN RAW MATERIALS
AND CHEMICALS.
1897.
Cents per pounds.
Nitrogen in ammonia salts, 13.5
" nitrates, 14.
Organic nitrogen in dry and fine ground fish, meat, blood,
and in high-grade mixed fertilizers, 14.
" " " cotton-seed meal, linseed meal and in
castor pomace, 12.
" " " fine ground bone and tankage, 13.5
" " " medium ground bone and tankage, 11.
" " " coarse bone and tankage, 8.
Phosphoric acid soluble in water, 5.5
" " soluble in ammonium citrate, 5.
" " in fine bone and tankage, 5.
" " in medium bone and tankage, 4.
" " in coarse bone and tankage, 2.5
" " in fine ground fish, cotton-seed meal, linseed
meal, castor-pomace and wood ashes, 5.
" " insoluble (in am. cit.) in mixed fertilizers, 2.
Potash as Sulphate, free from Chlorides, 5.
" " Muriate, 4.5
The market value of low priced materials used for manurial pur-
poses, as salt, wood ashes, various kinds of lime, barnyard manure,
factory refuse and waste materials of different description, quite
frequently does not stand in a close relation to the current market
value of the amount of essential articles of plant food they contain.
Their cost varies in different localities. Local facilities for cheap
transportation and more or less advantageous mechanical conditions
for a speedy action, exert as a rule, a decided influence on their sell
ing price.
The market value of fertilizing ingredients like other merchandise
is liable to changes during the season. The above stated values
are based on the condition of the fertilizer market in centers of dis-
tribution in New England, during the six months preceding March
1897.
HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION
'OF THB-
MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.
BULLETIN NO. 52.
Variety Tests of Fruits. Spraying Calendar.
JVIi^K^OH, ISOS.
The Bulletins of this Station tvill be sent free to all newspapers in
the State and to such individuals interested in farming as may request
the same.
AMHERST, MASS. :
PRESS OF CARPENTER & MOREHOUSE,
1898.
HATCH EXFZSRIMZiNT STATION
OF THE
Massachusetts Agricultural College,
AMHERST, MASS.
By act of the General Court, the Hatch Experiment Station and
the State Experiment Station have been consolidated under the name
of the Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College. Several new divisions have been created and the scope of
others has been enlarged. To the horticultural, has been added the
duty of testing varieties of vegetables and seeds. The chemical has
been divided, and a new division, " Foods and F'eeding," has been
established. The botanical, including plant physiology and disease,
has been restored after temporary suspension.
The officers are : —
Henry H. Goodell, LL. D., Director.
William F. Bkooks, Ph. D., Agriculhirist .
George E. Stone, Ph. D., Botanist.
Charles A. Goessmann, Pii. D., LL. I)., Chemist (Fertilizers).
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph. D., Chemist (Foods and Feeding).
Charles H. Fernald, Ph. D., Entomologist.
Samuel T. Maynard, B. Sc, Horticulturist.
J. E. OSTRANDER, C. E., Meteorologist.
Henry M. Thomson, B. Sc, Assistant Agriculturist.
Ralph E. Smith, B. Sc, Assistant Botanist.
Henri D. Haskins, B. Sc, Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Charles I. Goessmann, B. Sc, Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
George D. Leavens, B. Sc, Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Edward B. Holland, B. Sc, ^ss'i C7ie?)i/s^(Foods and Feeding).
Fred W. MossMAN, B. Sc, ^ssY C7ie?>u"s<(Foods and Feeding).
Benjamin K. Jones, B. Sc, Assistant i7i Foods and Feeding.
Robert A. Cooley, B. Sc, Assistant Entomologist.
G. A. Drew, B. Sc, Assistant Horticulturist.
H. D. Hemenway, B. Sc, Assistant Horticulturist.
H. H. Roper, B. Sc, Assistant in Foods and Feeding.
A. C. MoNAHAN, Observer.
The co-operation and assistance of farmers, fruit-growers, horti-
culturists, and all interested, directly or indirectly, in agriculture,
are earnestly requested. Communications may be addressed to the
Hatch Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass.
Summary of the Work
OF THE
Horticultural Division for 1897.
S. T. MATNARD.
VARIETY TESTS OF FRUITS.
In former bulletins we have given full reports of all the varieties
of fruits tested in a tabulated form, but as most of these proved of
little value, although offered by nurserymen and others as possessing
decided merit, we therefore for this season at least report only upon
those that have been found to possess very superior qualities.
Apples.
Number of Varieties in Orchards 194, Distance of Planting 30x30 ft.
The apple crop in college and station orchards during the past
season was fairly abundant, but in quality rather below the average
except with a few varieties.
Records were made of each variety during the growing season and,
when in the best condition for marketing, specimens were gathered
and placed in the cold storage to determine their keeping qualities.
The following varieties grown in 1896 were in good condition July
1, 1897 : Ben Davis, Delaware Winter or Lawver, OrdBeni, Willow-
twig, Whinnerys Late, Langford and Walbridge. In good condition
at the present date, Feb. 10, 1898, Ben Davis, Delaware Winter and
Walbridge.
Results of Siwaying. All the trees except a few checks, were
sprayed to prevent the ravages of insect and fungous pests which
the past season were rather more abundant than usual. The trees
sprayed were much less injured by insects and apple scab, and the
fruit was fairer and freer from worms than upon those not sprayed.
The Bordeaux mixture combined with Paris green was principally
used, but trials were made with laurel green and arsenate of lead.
The laurel green did not give satisfactory results, but arsenate of
lead was effective in destroying insects, and no injury to the foliage
resulted. The cost of the latter was however considerably greater
than Paris green.
Fertilizers. The following formula was used on each tree, well
spread under the branches.
Large trees — Sulfate potash 5 lbs. Small trees — 2 lbs.
" " Nitrate of soda 2 lbs. " " 1 lb.
" " Acid phosfate 3 lbs. " " 2 lbs.
In applying fertilizers to fruit trees and plots the quantit}- of the
three fertilizing elements, i. e., nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash,
used varied according to the soil, season or condition of
growth the previous season. When no fruit was produced and the
growth of tree or plant has been large, less fertilizer is applied than
when the crop has been large and the growth rather small. If the
soil is naturally poor more fertilizer is needed than if it is naturally
fertile.
Pears.
Number of Varieties 32^ Distance Planted 20x20 ft.
The pear crop was very small owing to the fact that most of the
trees were young ; most of the varieties were of the newer introduc-
tions ; only a few of the standard sorts having been grown for
comparison. Many of the young trees were seriously injured by
aphides and the i)ear " blister mite," a remedy for which is found in
kerosene emulsion.
Plums.
Number of Varieties 94, Distance Planted 15x15 ft.
No fruit on the grounds was so abundant and fine as the plum
crop. Of the 50 varieties that fruited 10 were of the Japanese
varieties.
The fruit on all of the trees was thinned, resulting in larger size,
and most of the varieties ripened, though some of the fruit rotted
badly. Of the varieties most affected by the "brown rot "or
monilia were the Lombard, Ponds' Seedling, Yellow Egg, Imperial
Gage, Washington, McLaughlin and Spaulding. The fruit on those
trees most closely planted or growing in sheltered, rather moist situ-
ations was most injured by the rot ; that on trees growing the most
rapidly rotted more than that grown on trees of only a moderate
growth.
Black-Kriot. One of the results of the use of fungicides on the
plum trees in the station orchard has been that scarcely a specimen
of the black knot can be found on any of the trees, though no knots
have been removed for about a year. For treatment of the plum,
see Spraying Bulletin.
Summer vs. Winter Pruning.
To determine whether heading in plum trees while dormant or in
the early stages of summer growth would give the best results 10
trees, two each of five kinds were selected. The first tree of each
variety was severely headed on ]\Iarch .'^0 and the second May 22,
with tfee following results :
The wmter pruned trees made a vigorous growth of a few shoots.
" summer " " " fair " " many "
" iciyiter " " developed a fair quantity of fruit buds.
" summer " " " large " '' "
The following new varieties have given the best results.
DOMESTIOA.
Thomas (Peach?) ripened July 31, large yellow, shaded with red,
freestone, fair quality.
Czar, ripened, July 31, large puri)le, fine quality.
Lincoln, " Aug. 5, medium to large, purple, good quality.
German Prune," Aug. 29, " " " freestone " "
Kingston, " Sept. 1.5, large rather acid, late.
JAPANESE.
Red June, ri[)ened, July 26, medium to large, fair quality.
Abundance, " July 30, large, good quality.
Georgeson, " July 30, medium to large, fair quality.
Burbank, '' Aug. 14, large, firm, fair quality.
Chebot, " Sept. 1, medium to large, good quality.
Satsuma, " Sept. 10, large, valuable for canning.
The Abundance ripened fruit prematurely on some of its branches.
The Georgeson and Chebot were severely injured by the shot-hole
fungus. Fertilizers used on the plum trees were :
2 to 3 lbs. sulfate of potash, ^ . ,. ^ . ■, .
, , ^ ,, -^4- e ^ f According to size and vigor
1 to 2 lbs. nitrate of soda, Y f ^ .
2 to 4 lbs. acid phosfate. )
Cherries.
Varieties So, Distance Planted, 20x20 ft.
The crop of cherries was not as large the past season as usual and
was of rather poor quality. No means has yet been found to wholly
prevent the work of the plum curculio that causes the wormy fruit,
and the brown fruit rot that so often attacks the blossoms and fruit.
The use of Paris green combined with the Bordeaux mixture in
almost every case caused more or less burning of the foliage.
The black cherry aphides or plant lice came on in such numbers
early in the summer as to do considerable damage. We were unable
to see very decided improvement in any new variety fruited over
the old standard sorts, the most satistactory of which are E. Rich-
mond, Montmorency, Royal Duke, Black Tartarian, Napoleon, Gov-
ernor Wood, Smidt and Windsor.
The fertilizers used, '2 lbs. sulfate of potash, 1 lb. nitrate soda,
2 lbs. acid phosfate. per tree.
The growth notwithstanding the abundance of insects and fungous
pests has been good and an unusually large number of fruit buds
have been formed for next season's fruiting.
The Grape.
Varieties 200, Distance Planted, College Vineyard, 6x8 ft., Station
Vineyard, SxlO ft.
The experiments with this fruit have been conducted in the college
vineyard planted in 1868 and 1809 and in the station vineyard, where
the vines are from 1 to 10 years old and, where each year the decidedly
promising new varieties, offered in the market are planted. The
former consists principally of the Concord variety with a few vines
each of some of the leading commercial kinds.
The crop in the station vineyard was more uneven than for many
years, largely due to the continued wet weather in July. Some
varieties proved entire failures while others were especially fine.
The crop in the college vineyard was exceptionally fine in quality
but not quite as large as in 1896. The fruit sold readily in the
local market for five cents per pound.
Resxdts of Spraying. The college vineyard, except check rows,
and one vine of the two of each variety planted for experi-
ment in the station vineyard were sprayed according to the cal-
endar fof 1897 with decidedly favorable results, but not with the
benefit of previous years.
Methoclof Training. The vines in both vineyards are trained accord-
ing to the one arm renewal system Fig. 1, which proves very satisfac-
tory, requiring much less labor and skill to produce superior fruit than
any other. Thinning the fruit is practiced, all small bunches being
removed as soon as well set, leaving only a limited number of large
bunches on each vine.
The varieties that we would recommend for general planting for
market and home use are Green Mountain, Herbert (Rogers No. 44)
Worden, Moore's Early, Concord, Delaware, and Brighton if planted
near other varieties that produce an abundance of pollen.
CcunpheU's Early. This new variety, introduced with so much praise
is growing in the vineyards and shows a vigorous habit and firm healthy
foliage. From samples of the fruit sent us for testing and from the
many reports of disinterested parties we are led to think if it develops
no weakness, that it will be one of the best grapes ever introduced
for home use or market in New England. It should be closely
watched by all grape growers in Massachusetts for we are in need of
an earlier grape than the Concord or Worden and one of much better
quality than Moore's Early to make grape growing a success.
Fertilizers Used. On college vineyard, 200 pounds sulfate of
potash, 100 pounds nitrate of soda, 150 pounds acid phosfate, per
acre. On station vineyard, H tons Canada ashes per acre.
Currants.
Number of Varieties 25.
The currant crop has been one of considerable profit above the
cost of cultivation, although the proceeds from it are not large.
The area planted covers about three-fourths of an acre. They are
8
grown among quince bushes that are planted 10x12 feet, with the
currants 5x6 feet between the rows.
In addition to the three standard sorts, the Cherry, Fays Prolific and
Versailles that are commonly grown, may be mentioned the Red Cross,
President Wilder, Pomona and AVhile Imperial, all of which are of
good size and apparently productive. The fruit of the Wilder and
Pomona perhaps being larger than the Red Cross, and the Pomona
better in quality than either.
The best currant in quality without doubt is the White Imperial,
being less acid and possessing a peculiar spicy, aromatic flavor.
The Currant Leaf Blight appeared in many locations and did great
damage where the plants were not well sprayed, the leaves nearly all
falling off before the fruit was ripe. This disease can be prevented by
spra3nug with the Bordeaux mixture, just before the blossoms open,
and again as soon as the fruit has been gathered.
Currant Worms. The common currant worm was destroyed by
hellebore and insect powder (Pyrethrum) at the rale of one-half
pound to 50 gallons or one tablespoonful to a common pailful of
water, or by using these insecticides with the common bellows or
Paris green gun when the foliage was wet. Fertilizers used for both
currants and quinces, 200 pounds sulfate of potash, 100 pounds
nitrate of soda, 300 pounds acid phosfate.
Gooseberries.
Number oj Varieties 23, lolanted among trees at varying distances.
This crop was not as abundant or satisfactory as usual on account
of the extremely wet weather during July, and mildew appeared on
many varieties. Among those that show the most merit are Chau-
tauqua, Columbus, Triumph, Downing, Pale Red and Lancashire
Ladd. The Industry while one of the best in quality and of the
largest size has been very weak in growth.
Blackberries.
Number of Varieties^ 2S, Distarice Planted 5x7 ft.
The conditions of the past season were in many particulars favor-
able for a large crop and that from the station plots was much above
the average.
The older varieties retain about their former standing as to size,
9
productiveness, quality and hardiness. The Snyder and Taylors
being the most certain of producing paying crops.
The Eldorado made a fine showing of fruit that was of good size
and quality. The plants so far have proved very hardy vigorous and
productive and unless some weakness is developed it will be safe and
profitable to plant it.
The Rathhun fruited for the first time the past season and while it
shows decided merits, must be grown one or two seasons more
before its real value can be determined.
Ohmer. Only a few plants of this variety fruited, but the yield
was remarkable, the size large and quality about the average.
Erie. This variety, until the present season has badly winter
killed and produced little or no fruit. This year's fruit was of large
size, and good quality. The following table shows the comparative
record of six varieties :
bb
a
•rH
s
o
bX)
"a
bi)
a
.i-f
o
a
.■;;;
IQ
^
u
a_,
=M
' >i
O
o
o
o
be
3
6
^
0
a
>
o-
CO
^Si^
r^
Erie
June 5
July 16
8
8.5
1.
18
34 qts.
Ohmer
" 7
- 20
8.5
8
V. 1.
13^
70t "
Minnewaski
" 2
" 18
9
8.5
m.
12
33 "
Eldorado*
May 30
" 18
9
9
1.
5
21^ "
Snyder
" 28
" 17
8
8
m. 1.
0
45 "
Stone's Hardy
June 5
" 16
8.5
8.5
in.
15
32 "
*Rather young plants.
ExpUination of tables. — Vigor and quality are based on a scale of 1 as tlie lowest
grade, 10 tlie highest. Winter killing, on the scale of 100, 0 indicating perfect har-
diness. Sizes, ni. medium, 1. large, v. 1. very large, m. 1. medium large.
The Orange Rust. In addition to the application of fungicides
according to the calendar for 1897, all rusted canes were cut out as
soon as they appeared, with the result that little or no injury was
done by this disease.
Fertilizers used were as follows, 150 pounds nitrate of soda, loO
pounds acid phosfates, 150 pounds sulfate of potash per acre.
10
Red Raspberries.
Number of Varieties 25, Distance Planted bx7 ft.
The red raspberry plants came through the winter of 1896 — 97
with little injury and the crop was unusually good. The heavy and
continued rains during harvesting made it very difficult to secure the
crop in a good condition for market. Of the old varieties the Cuth-
bert may still be considered the most valuable though the canes are
tender and must be covered during the winter to ensure a full crop
every year.
The two varieties of more recent introduction giving the
greatest promise, are the King, an early variety, reported in former
bulletins as Thompson's Pride, and the Loudon, ripening with the
Cuthbert. Thus far they have proved hardy, vigorous, productive
and of good quality.
The Miller or JMiller's Early has done fairly well but has fruited
only two seasons, so that further trial is needed to determine its
value. It is I'eported in many sections of the country as valuable
while in others as of no more value than the Hansel and Thompson's
Early Prolific.
The following table shows the standing of the above four varieties :
W)
sb
U)
m
S
G
•rH
^
o
IS
T^
o
n
M
s
^
u
u
**-t
«w
>>
0
0)
o
ateo
a
2
a)
c
S
Q
0
>
10
8
m
1.
20
?
b
Cuthbert
June 5
July 5
37.3 qts.
m.f.
Kins
May 30
June 29
9
9
ra.l.
20
26.3 "
f.
Loudon
May 5
July 10
10
9.5
1.
5
S7h "
f.
Miller's Early*
May 5
June 25
8.5
9
m.l.
10
14.8* "
m.f.
*Young plants.
Explanation of table.— Vigor and quality are expressed on a scale of 1 to 10, 10
indicating the highest grade. Size and winter killing by same terms as in former
tables. Firmness, f. firm, m. f. medium firm.
The different varieties received the same treatment as to fertilizers
and spraying for fungous diseases as the blackberries previously
reported. The part of the plantation sprayed, showing much less
leaf blight and anthracnose than that not sprayed.
11
Blackcap Raspberries.
Number of Varieties 26, Distance Planted 5x7 ft.
This crop was the largest for many years. Most of the varieties
came through the winter uninjured, and the early summer was favor-
able to a perfect growth. As with the red raspberry however con-
siderable fruit was destroyed by the heavy rains. The varieties
ripened their fruit this season more nearly at the same time than usual.
The following table sliows the standing of a few of the best
varieties :
a
bb
c
bi)
o
ID
OD
o
p.
M
:;3
^
^
.3
(M
^-*
>t
s
lO
<u
o
o
■J,
fl
^
a
«
<p
o
fi
^
e«
_bO
s
^
N
■u
Q
fl
7
8.5
•*.
02
f"
fc<
Cromwell
June 5
June 28
2
m.
33.9 qts.
f.
Bracken's Seeclliii2;
" 3
July 4
8.5
8
5
1.
29.7 "
f.
Eureka
May 28
• " 6
8.5
9
10
m.
48.8 "
f-
Hilboni
Jnne 5
" 4
9.5
9.5
8
1.
31.7 "
f.
Kansas
" 1
" 2
9.5
7.5
15
m.l.
35
f.
Lovett
May 28
" 4
8
9
0
m.
39^ "
f.
Older
" 28
" 4
8.5
8
5
1.
45
f.
Souhegau
" 31
June 27
9
8.5
10
m.
20.7 "
f.
Shaffer Seedling Raspberries.
A collection of some 350 varieties of seedlings of the above
purple cap or hybrid variety have fruited the past season with most
interesting results. The seed was selected from the finest berries
from a row of this purple cap or hybrid variety which stood between
a field of Marlboro's on the one side and Thompson's Prolific on the
other. More than half of the seedlings are of the red raspberry
type (Rubus strigosus) the majority of the fruits however being
purple in color like the parent or like that of the old variety Phila-
delphia and nearly all were of good size and quality.
Many of the plants produced large, well formed berries of a bright
scarlet color and of the best quality. Some show great promise.
Among these seedlings were found almost every style of develop-
ment between the nearly typical form of the Blackcap (Rubus
occidantilis) and that of the wild red raspberry (R. strigosus) and
also a few albino or white or yellow forms of both species.
12
Another lot of seecUings of about the same number, from the same
source will fruit the coming season for the Qrst time.
New Species of the Genus Rubus.
The Logan berry, Salmon herry. Musk berry, Stratoberry-raspberry,
Golden Mayberry, etc., have not been tested long enough to prove if
they have any value in New England.
Of these, the Logan berry seems to possess the greatest merit,
but as yet its habits of growth and the special treatment that will
give the best results have not been determined. It is not. generally
hardy, requiring covering with soil or mulch during the winter and
probably will give the best results when treated like the dewberry.
The Strawberry-raspberr}', an herbaceous perennial, the tops of
which die down every winter and reproduce numerous shoots in the
spring, has fruited abundantly in some places, but the quality is
poor. The fruit is large and showy and something valuable may be
hoped from seedlings of this species or from hybrids with it and
some of our hardy species of Rubus, now in cultivation. A covering
of coarse straw, or manure about this and the Logan berry will be
undoubtedly best for winter protection.
.Strawberry.
Ntimber of Varieties 200, Distance Planted 3x2 ft.
The new varieties of strawberries on the station grounds are
grown in plots, 25 plants of each kind being planted in each plot or
row. They were planted in April and one-half of each row allowed
to produce only two runners, thus :
oooooooooo
*********
While the other half made live runners each thus
0*0*0*0*0*0*0*0*0*0*0*0
***********************
* New plants, o Old plants.
Enough of the runners that were to be removed of each kind were
allowed to become nearly rooted before taking them off to supply
stock plants for future trials. These plants were heeled in closely in
well prepared beds, and if the weather was dry, well shaded for a
13
few days until well rooted. If runners are thrown into a pail
of water as they are taken off they are more certain to grow than if
kept in a basket until they can be set out in the bed.
Varieties showing decided merit in the plots are then planted in
the field and are grown in both the close and the open matted row.
In the former the plants are allowed to produce all the runners they
will until August or September when they are thinned out to from
three to five inches apart, while in the latter the plants are located as
they grow at a distance of from four to six inches apart and all
other runners are removed as soon as the rows are full.
The runners of desirable varieties are removed from beds grown
under either system and are heeled in and rooted for the next season's
planting or for sale and we consider them much more valuable than
plants that have not been transplanted. This practice is a great
advantage, for the field crop is very much improved by the removal of
the surplus runners and if the plants are not needed for setting in
the spring they will produce a larger crop of fruit that will more
than pay the cost of transplanting and winter's care. In case they
are to be fruited it would be best to set them in rows or beds not
over three feet wide with paths of about two feet wide between
them.
Fertilizers used. The plots were fertilized, first by deeph' plough-
ing under about eight cords of stable manure to the acre and then
thoroughly fitted, using 200 pounds sulfate of potash, 200 pounds
acid phosfate and 150 pounds nitrate of soda per acre. The
strawberry field was fertilized with about five cords of stable manure
deeply ploughed under, then dressed with two tons of Canada ashes
and 100 pounds nitrate of soda, 165 pounds sulfate of potash and
165 pounds acid phosfate, per acre. Tlie following table gives the
behavior of the ten varieties that show the best results :
14
71 S
bfi
m
u
t- a
S
e
p,
C 3
.1-1
<u
Variety.
CO
St.
0
be
9
bo
o
1
.11
6
23
o
p
5
10
6
a
S
S
"3
o
n
in
s
g
£1
P
•J5 <U
Clyde
1.
r.c.
l.sc.
f.
8.5
8,441
Brandywine*
St.
8.5
1
12
27
8.5
1.
r.c.
sc.
f.
9.5
4,513
Bovnton
P-
8
6
13
30
9.5
m.
c.
sc.
s.
7.5
5.201*
Howard's No. 14
P-
y.5
6
8
19
9
1.
c.
sc.
m.
9
5,043
Haveiiand
P-
8.5
1
7
19
9
m.
c.
l.sc.
m.
7.5
4,486
Aroma
St.
8.5
7
12
25
8
m.
irreg.
sc.
m.
8.5
4,336
Bisel
P-
9
15
12
22
8
m.
c.
d.sc.
m.
7.5
4,200
Howard's No. 36
P-
8.5
4
6
19
8
m.l.
I.e.
l.sc.
m.
8
4,133
Greenville
P-
8
7
14
23
8
1.
c.
sc.
s.
8.5
3,835
Glen Mary
St.
8.5
13
14
25
8
v.l.
irreg.
d.sc.
f.
8.5
3,765
Parker Earle*
St.
9
10
13
28
9
1. .
c.
l.sc.
f.
9
6,525*
*rn field.
Explanation of table.— St. indicates staminate. P. indicates pistillate. Vigor,
production and quality are indicated by 10 as perfect and 1 as worthless. Size and
firmness same as red raspberry. Form, r. round, c. conical, irreg. irregular. Color,
1. light, sc. scarlet, d. dark.
The Brandywine, Howard's No. 41 and Parker P^arle did not show
the yield in the plots that they did in the field. The Bubach did not
keep up to its former yield and the Marshall while producing large
and very fine berries did not yield more than one-half the quantity of
any of the variety reported in the above table.
The Bismarck resembles the Bubach ingrowth of plant, with berries
of a large size, of lighter color, better form and quality. A very
promising variety but will require another season's trial to determine
its value for general planting. The Sample and a large number of
highly praised varieties were planted last spring, but as only the
growth of the plants can be reported they are not mentioned.
Something over 500 varieties of seedling strawberries are being
tested many of which show decided merit. None of these will be
propagated for distribution unless they show very decidedly qualities
superior to those varieties already introduced.
Spraying lor me Destruction of Itisecls arm Fungous Growtlis.
The results of spraying duriug tlie past season to protect crops
from insects and fungous pests, again show the great benefits derived
from this work.
All of the fruit and vegetable crops grown on the college grounds
generally injured by the above pests, were treated according to the
spraj'ing calendar of 1(S97 and in most cases with marked beneficial
results.
PUMPS AND NOZZLES.
There has been considerable improvement made in the pumps and
nozzles put upon the market in the past year, and many new pumps
have been offered. Whatever the kind of pump purchased it is
important that it be used carefully, that the spraying material, if
containing coarse particles, be carefully strained before use, that all
parts be kept well oiled and after using that the pump be cleaned by
pumping sufficient clear water through it to clear it of corroding
materials.
Good judgment and considerable mechanical skill must be exercised
to get the best results with any complicated machine, and only those
persons possessing these qualifications should be allowed to use the
pumps.
INSECTICIDES.
While there are many new insecticides offered, there is so little
exact knowledge of their effect upon farm and garden crops that
until further ti'ial is made we can only recommend for general use
Paris green and hellebore for chewing insects and kerosene emulsion
for sucking insects, with pyretlirum or insect powder in a very few
cases.
KEROSENE EMULSION.
Formula. ^ lb. common bar soap,
2 gallons common kerosene.
Cut the soap into small pieces or shavings and dissolve in about
two gallons of hot water. "\A hile still hot, pour in the kerosene and
16
with the hnud pump or syringe, pump it back aud forth until a thick
cream-like substance is formed. In this conditon the kerosene is
divided into very minute globules and will be readil}^ diluted or sus-
pended in water.
Before using, add water enough to make
(A) 10 gallons of emulsion
(B) 20 " "
Formula A, to be used when the insects are in large numbers and
the foliage is known not to be easily injured by it.
Pyretlrum Poicder and Hellebore should be obtained in a perfectly
■fresh condition and be kept in glass stoppered jars.
FUNGICIDES.
BORDEAUX MIXTURE.
Formula. 4 lbs. Copper Sulfate, (Bhie Vitriol).
4 lbs. Caustic Lime (Unslaked Lime.)
Dissolve tlie copper in hot water. (If suspended in a basket or
sack in a tub of cold water it will however dissolve in from tw^o to
three hours.)
The lime is then slaked in another vessel adding water slowly that
it may be thoroughly slakerl. When both are cool, pour together,
straining the lime through a fine mesh sieve or burlap strainer, and
thoroughly mix. Before using, add water enough to make 50 gallons
of the mixture.
The active agent in this mixture is the copper, the lime being used
simply to hold it in place upon the foliage and branches of the plants
sprayed. Here it is given up gradually, destroying the spores of the
fungi as they are brought in contact with it t)y the surrounding
atmosphere.
Should the lime be air slaked at all more than four pounds maybe
needed as it will have lost much of its strength.
This fungicide is recommended as more satisfactory than any
other, from the fact that it adheres a long time to the branches, buds
and leaves and seldom causes any injury to the foliage.
It has been found more effectual if made up fresh for each appli-
cation. Two or three thorough applications give better results than
many light ones.
When both fungous growths and insects attack a crop, Paris green
17
should be applied with the Bordeaux, as in a combiued state both
are as efiective as if used singly, one-half of the labor is saved and
there is less danger from injury to the foliage by the Paris green than
if used alone.
DILUTE COPPER SULFATE SOLUTION.
After the fruit has nearly matured it is often disfigured by the
adhesion of the Bordeaux mixture, and in place of the Ammoniacal
carbonate of copper recommended in Bulletin No. 37, we would
advise the use of copper sulfate "2 oz. to 50 gallons of water. The
foliage of many plants will stand a much stronger solution, but this
is as concentrated as can be generally used.
SPRAYING CALENDAR.
PLANT.
APPLE
(Scab, cocUin moth, bud
moth. Tent caterpillar, can
leer worm, plum ciirciilio.J
BEAN
( Anthrac.nose.)
CABBAGE
( Worms.)
CHERRY*
{Rot, aphis, slur).
Knot.)
Black
CURRANT (
GOOSEBERRY i • ' '
( Worms. Leaf Blight.)
GRAPE
{Fungous diseases. 1
bug.)
NURSERY STOCK . .
{Fungous diseases.)
PEACH, NECTARINE
{Hot, mildew.)
PEAR
{Leaf blight, scab, psylla,
codlin'moth, blister mite.)
FIRST APPLICATION.
When buds are swelling,
Bordeaux.
When third leaf expands,
Bordeaux.
Insect powder.
As buds are breaking
Bordeaux; when aphis ap
pears, kerosene emulsion.
At first sign of worms,
hellebore.
In Spring when buds
swell, Bordeaux.
When first leaves appear,
Bordeaux.
As the buds swell, Bor-
deaux.
As buds are swelling,
Bordeaux.
PLUM* When buds are swelling
{Curculio. Black knot, Zcafi Bordeaux.
blight, brown rot.)
QUINCE
{Leaf and fruit spot.)
RASPBERRY,
BLACKBERRY,
DEWBERRY,
( Rust, anthracnose,
blight.)
STRAWBERRY. . . .
{Rust.)
leaf
TOMATO
{Rot, blight, flea beetle.)
POTATO
( Flea beetle, Colorado beetle,
blight and rot. )
When blossom buds ap-
pear, Bordeaux.
Before buds break, Bor-
deaux.
As soon as growth begins,
with Bordeaux.
Before appearance of
blight or rot, Bordeaux.
Spray with Paris green
and Bordeaux when \
grown.
SECOND APPLICATION.
If canker worms are
abundant just before blos-
soms open, Bordeaux and
Paris green.
10 days later, Bordeaux.
7-10 daj's later Insect
powder.
When fruit has set, Bor-
deaux. If slugs appear,
dust leaves with air slaked
lime or Hellebore.
10 days later, hellebore.
Bordeaux.
Just before flowers un-
fold, Bordeaux.
1014 daj'S, repeat first.
When fruit has set, Bor-
deaux.
Just before blossoms
open, Bordeaux. Kerosene
emulsion when leaves open
for psylla.
When blossoms have
fallen, Bordeaux and Paris
green. Begin to jar trees
for curculio.
When fruit has set, Bor-
deaux.
Bordeaux, just before the
blossoms open.
When first blossoms
open. Spray young planta-
tion, Bordeaux.
Repeat first if diseases
are notcheckcd. Fruitcan
be wiped if disfigured by
Bordeaux.
Repeat before insects
become numerous.
*Black knot on plums or cherries should be cut and burned as soon as discovered.
THIRD APPLICATION.
When blossoms have
fallen, Bordeaux and Paris
green.
U days later, Bordeaux.
7-10 days later, Insect
powder.
10-14 days if rot appears,
Bordeaux.
If worms persist, helle
bore.
When fruit has set, Bor
deaux.
10-14 days repeat first.
When fruit is one-half
grown, Bordeaux.
FOURTH APPLICATION.
S-1-2 days later, Bordeaux
and Paris green.
14 days later, Bordeaux
Repeat third in 10-14 days
if necessary.
10-14 days later, weak
solution of copper sul-
phate.
After fruit is gathered,
Bordeaux.
•2 to 4 weeks later, Bor
deaux.
10-14 daj's repeat first.
5-7 days later, weak solu
tion of copper sulphate.
FIFTH APPLICATION.
10-14 days later, Bor-
deaux.
Spraying after the pod is
one-lialf grown will injure
them for market.
S-12 days later, repeat
After blossoms have
fallen, Bordeaux and Paris third
green. Kerosene emulsion,!
if necessary.
1014 days later, Bor-| 10-20 days later, Bor
deaux. <leaux.
10-20 days later, Bor-
deaux.
(Orange or red rust is
treated best by destroying
the plant.)
10-20 days later, Bor-
deaux.
Spray after fruit is gath-
ered with Bordeaux.
2 to 4 weeks later, if any
disease appears, weak so-
lution of copper sulphate.
10-14 days, repeat first.
5-7 days later, repeat
fourth.
10-14 days later, Bor-
deaux.
10-20 days later, weak
solution of copper sul-
phate.
10-20 days later, Bor-
deaux.
Spray young plantation Repeat third if foliage
Bor d e au X . ru s ts .
Repeat first when neces-
sary.
Repeat for blight, rot
and insects as potatoes
approach maturity.
'■For aphides or plant lice use kerosene emulsion on all plants.
HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION
OF THE — —
MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.
BULLETIN NO. 53.
CONCENTRATED FEED STUFFS.
v^SiS^^^.:..
■ Jf>f<if/(tn£.Lp ^f"MO£.v
CHEMICAT. LABORATORY.
A.P*I^IIv, ISOS.
The Bulletins of this Station loill he sent free to all newspapers in
the State and to such individxials interested in farming as may request
the same.
AMHERST, MASS. :
PRESS OF CARPENTER & MOREHOUSE,
1898.
HATCH EXFZSRIIMIISNT STATION
OF THE
Massachusetts Agricultural College,
AMHERST, MASS.
By act of the General Court, the Hatch Experiment Station and
the State Expeiiment Station have been consolidated under the name
of the Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College. Several new divisions have been created and the scope of
others has been enlarged. To the horticultural, has been added the
duty of testing varieties of vegetables and seeds. The chemical has
been divided, and a new division, "Foods and Feeding," has been
established. The botanical, including plant physiology and disease,
has been restored after temporary suspension.
The officers are : —
Henry H. Goodell, LL. D., Director.
William P. Brooks, Ph. D., Agriculturist.
George E. Stone, Ph. D., Botanist.
Charles A. Goessmann, Ph. D., LL. D., Chemist (Fertilizers).
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph. D., Chemist (Foods and Feeding) .
Charles H. Fernald, Ph. D., Entomologist.
Samuel T. Maynard, B. Sc, Horticulturist.
J. E. OsTRANDER, C. E., Meteorologist.
Henry M. Thomson, B. Sc, Assistant Agriculturist.
Ralph E. Smith, B. Sc, Assistant Botanist.
Henri D. Haskins, B. Sc, Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Charles I. Goessmann, B. Sc, Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Edward B. Holland, B. Sc, J.ss'f C7iemis<(Foods and Feeding).
Fred W. Mobsman, B. Sc, ^ssY C/iemis«(Foods and Feeding).
Benjamin K. Jones, B. Sc, Assistant in Foods and Feeding.
Robert A. Cooley, B. Sc, Assistant Entomologist.
G. A. Drew, B. Sc, Assistant Horticulturist.
H. D. Hemenway, B. Sc, Assistant Horticulturist.
H. H. Roper, B. Sc, Assistant in Foods and Feeding.
A. C. Monahan, Observer.
The co-operation and assistance of farmers, fruit-growers, horti-
culturists, and all interested, directly or indirectly, in agriculture,
are earnestly requested. Communications may be addressed to the
Hatch Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass.
DIVISION OF FOODS AND FEEDING.
Joseph B. Lindsey.*
SUMMARY OF RESULTS.
I. This bulletin contains, in addition to a classification of feed
stuffs and a description of methods of preparation, the results of
the first official inspection.
II. There were found 4 different brands of gluten meal, 5 brands
of gluten feeds, 10 different makes of wheat bran, 19 distinct brands
of middlings, 22 different mixed feeds, besides a great variety of
other feed stuffs, many without manufacturer's name or brand. The
total number of analyses reported are 265.
III. The inspection shows the feed stuffs to be comparatively
free from serious adulteration. Some show rather wide variations
in com[)Osition, which it is hoped will be corrected in the future.
IV. Many new materials, by-products from various industries,
are constantly appearing, frequently without name, brand or guar-
anty. This leads to much confusion as to feeding and actual com-
mercial value on the part of the buyer. Materials of this character
ought not to be purchased without a guaranty of quality. Guar-
anteed articles ought always to be given the preference.
V. To get a clear idea of the evenness in composition of the
different feeds, the reader should carefully note the average comp-
osition and then the variations from this average.
VI. Particular attention is called to the comparative commercial
values of the different feed stuffs on page 23.
* Assisted by E. B. Holland, B. K. Jones and F. W. Mobsman.
CONCENTRATED FEED-STUFFS.
A. "What concentrated feeds are, and why used.
B. Classification.
C. Preparation.
D. Inspection law.
E. Results of inspection.
F. Comparative commercial values.
G. Mixtures of concentrated feeds for dairy cows.
A. The term "concentrated feed," taken in its broadest sense, is
meant to include the grains and other seeds of agricultural plants,
as well as their manifold by-products left behind in the process of
oil extraction and in the preparation of human foods.
All cattle feeds, either concentrated or coarse, are made up of six
groups of substances : Water, ash, cellulose or fiber, fat, protein
and non-nitrogenous extract matter.
Water. — The several grains and by-products contain when placed
upon the market from 8 to 15 per cent of water.
Crude Ash represents the mineral ingredients of the seed. It
will remain behind as ashes should the seed be burned. These ashes
consist of lime, potash, soda, magnesia, iron, phosphoric acid and
sulfuric acid.
Crude Cellulose or Fiber is the coarse or woody part of the plant.
It may be called the plant's framework. It is present as a rule only
to a limited extent in the grains and by-products.
Crude Fat includes not only the various fats and oils found in
different feed stufFs, but also waxes, resins and coloring matters. It
is sometimes termed ether-extract, because it represents that portion
of the plant soluble in ether. Fat found in grains and seeds is com-
paratively free from foreign substances (waxes, resins, etc.).
Crude Protein is the general name for all of the nitrogenous mat-
ters of the seed. It corresponds to the lean meat in the animal, and
may be termed "vegetable meat." It has the same elementary com-
position as animal flesh, and is considered the most valuable part of
concentrated feeds.
Non-nitrogenous Extract Matter consists of sugars, starch and
gums. The grains are very rich in starch and similar substances.
Carbohydrates. — The flber and extract matter have the same func-
tions in the process of nutrition, and collectively they are termed
carbohydrates.
Nutritive Ratio. — The numerical relation which the protein of a
feed bears to the carbohydrates (and fat reduced to carbohydrates)
is termed its nutritive ratio. Fat is multiplied by 2i to convert it
into carbohydrates. If a ton of feed should contain 96 pounds of
digestible protein, and 928 pounds of digestible carbohydrates, it
would have 9.4 times as much carbohydrates as protein or 1 : 9.4,
which is its nutritive ratio.
Digestibility. — Any feed-stuff is valuable as a source of nourish-
ment only so far as its various parts can be digested and assimilated.
That the concentrated feeds are much more digestible than the coarse
fodders may be shown from the following table : —
100 f OUNDS Timothy Hay i
100 Pounds Cottonseed
Contains
Meal Contains :
Compo-
Per Cent.
Pounds
Compo-
Per Cent.
Pounds
sition.
Digestible
Digestible
sition.
Digestible
Digestible
Water,
15.0
—
—
8.0
—
—
Crude ash,
4.3
—
—
6.9
—
—
Crude fiber,
28.4
58
16.47
6.8
32
2.2
Crude fat.
2.4
61
1.46
10.7
93
10.0
Crude protein,
6.3
48
3.02
41.6
88
36.6
Extract matter.
43.60
63
27.46
26.0
64
16.5
Total,
100.00
—
48.41
100.00
65.3
The timothy hay has only 48.4 pounds of digestible matter, while
the cotton-seed has 65.3 pounds.
Reasons for feeding concentrated feeds. Most of the home grown
coarse feeds are high in carbohydrates, low in protein, and compar-
atively indigestible. Nearly all of the concentrated feeds are very
digestible, and a large number are high in protein and low to medium
in carbohydrates. The concentrated feeds are fed with the home
grown coarse feeds therefore, first to increase the digestible matter y,
and second to increase the amount of protein in the daily ration.
B. CLASSIFICATION OF CONCENTRATED FEEDS.
The following classification is made on the basis of the amount
of protein contained in the several feed stuffs, those in Class I.
showing the largest amount, and those in class IV. the smallest
quantity.
Division I. Protein Feeds.
Division II.
Carbohydrate
or starchy feeds.
Class 1.
30 to 46'f: protein.
50 to eOf. *carbohyd's.
75 to 90fo digestible.
Cottonseed meal.
Linseed meals.
Chicago, Cream,
King and Ham-
mond gluten meals.
Class II.
20 to 30i« protein.
60 to 70f. *carbohyd';
SO to 85 digestible.
Buffalo, Golden,
Diamond, Daven-
port, Climax, Joli-
et, and Standard
gluten feeds made
from corn. Atlas
meal, dried brew-
ers' grain, and malt
sprouts.
Class III. Class IV.
14 to 2()';i protein. Is to 14'i protein.
70 to 75?; *carbohyd's. 75to S5^; *carbohyd's
60 to 7o''< digestible. 75 to 'MK digestible.
Wheat brans and
middlings, "mixed
feeds" and H. O.
dairy feed.
Wheat, barley,
rye, oats, corn,
cerealine, hominy,
and oat feeds,
corn and oat chop,
corn germ feed,
and chop feed.
♦Including fat reduced to carbohydrates.
C. PREPARATION OF CONCENTRATED FEEDS.
Class I.
COTTONSEED MEAL.
b
a
"^Figure I. a. Seed entirely free from fiber, (delinted) magnified three times, b.
Seed covered with cotton, (coma), c. Section of seed showing crumpled embyro,
( meat) filling the seed coats.
The seed of the cotton plant as it comes from the gin where the
cotton fiber has been removed, is still covered with a coat of white
down technically known as ''• lintei's." This being removed, the seed
itself appears as black in color, and irregular egg-shaped in form.
The thick, hard, black seed coat or hull, is filled with the coiled
embryo, (meat) which in turn contains a large numberof oil contain-
ing cells. Machines have been invented to remove the hull. The
meat is then cooked in large iron kettles, and while still hot is wrapped
in hair cloth, and subjected to a pressure of 3000 to 400U pounds per
square inch, to remove as much of the oil as possible. The pressed
cottonseed cake is cracked, ground, and results in the decorticated
bright yellow cottonseed meal of commerce. A ton of seed fur-
nishes about 800 poundsof meal. Sometimes a considerable amount
of hull is ground fine and mixed with the meal, producing a dark
colored article, having not much over one-half the feeding value of
the prime material.
LINSEED MEALS.
a
Figure II. Common flax (Linum usitatissinium). a. Seed luagnifled six times.
b. Longitudinal section, showing embrj'o embedded iu the endosperm.
The drawings for Figs. I. and II. from Hicks, in Year Book 1S9.5, Department of
Agriculture.
Linseed meal is the ground residue remaining from the flaxseed,
after the oil has been removed. The larger part of the flaxseed
used in this country is grown in North and .South Dakota and in
Minnesota. The seeds of the flax plant are flattened, elliptical oval,
pointed at the lower end, and of a brown color. They contain in
their natural state from 30 to 35 per cent of oil. Twenty to 28 per
cent of the oil of the seed is removed by warm pressure. This oil
is known as linseed oil, and after being refined is used in the prepa-
ration of paints, varnishes printer's ink, or in the manufacture of
8
soap. The pressed cake remaining is dried, cracked and ground, and
furnishes the old process linseed meal. A considerable portion of
the old process meal is sold by the National Linseed Oil Co.
The so-called " Flax Meal" is made by the Cleveland Linseed and
Oil Co. The oil is quite thoroughly extracted from the crushed
seeds by means of a solvent, and after the extraction, the meal is
treated with steam, which process tends to produce a coarse and
flaky product.
Linseed meals are generally known as oil meals. This is an incor-
rect name, the oil having been to a considerable extent removed.
Gluten Products.
The various products known as gluten meals, gluten feeds, germ
feed and the like, are the residues resulting from the manufacture of
starch and glucose (grape sugar) from maize or Indian corn.
The average of a large number of analyses of water-free Indian
corn shows it to have the following composition :
Crude ash, 1.7 per cent.
Crude fiber, 2.5 per cent.
Crude fat, 5.4 per cent.
Crude protein, 11.5 per cent.
Extract matter (chiefly starch), 78.9 per cent.
It is quite evident that the corn is made up chiefly of starchy
matters. The removal of the larger part of the starch naturally
increases the proportion of the other ingredients. The constituent
contained in the corn next in amount to starch is the protein, — a
general name for all albuminoids. In case of corn it is called
gluten, and after the removal of the starch, this being by far the
most prominent constituent remaining, the feeds have been termed
gluten feeds. Even in the best methods of manufacture, the starch
is not all removed, the residues being often made up of one-half of
starchy matter.
Parts of Indiayi Corn. — The accompanying enlarged cut* of a
corn or maize kernel will assist in locating the four distinct parts
which are of interest in this study.
*This cut was kindly loaned by Director E. B. Vooihees of the New Jersey
Station. The description of the same is taken from Bulletin 105 of the New Jerse/
Experiment Station.
a is the husk or skin cover-
ing the whole kernel ; it con-
sists of two distinct layers,
the outer and inner, which
when removed constitute the
bran and contain practically
all of the crude fiber of the
whole grain.
6 is a layer of gluten cells
which lie immediately under-
neath the husk ; it is, as a
rule, yellow in color and can-
not be readily separated from
the remainder of the kernel.
This part is richest of any in
gluten.
c is the germ, which is
readily distinguished by its
position and form ; it also
contains gluten, though it is
particularly rich in oil and mineral constituents.
The large portion (d) is composed chiefly of starch ; the dark
color indicates the flinty part in which the starch-holding cells are
most closely compacted.
How the parts are separated.* 'The corn is first soaked in quite
dilute, warm sulfurous acid water. It is then ground by being passed
with water through mills to carry off the substance in suspension.
Degerminating machinery removes the germs at this point. The
germs are dried and crushed through rolls, and the oil pressed out,
leaving the residue in cakes. It is largely exported as
Corn Germ Cake.
After degermination, the suspended mass is bolted through sieves,
separating the hull, bran and some light weight and broken germs from
the starch and gluten. The first materials (hull, bran, broken germs,
etc.) are pressed and dried and results in what is known as
Choj) Feed.
The starch and gluten are run into concentrating tanks, and then
•The following is a brief outline of the process from which all details have beea
omitted.
10
very slowly through long shallow troughs. The starch settles down
like wet lime in these troughs, while the hard flinty portion or gluten
floats off into receivers, is concentrated, and finally pressed in heavy
filter cloths, run through steam dryers, and ap|)ears as
Gluten Meal.
The gluten meal and chop feed mixed together, pressed and dried
constitutes
Gluten Feed.
Class II.
Gluten feeds. (See above.)
Atlas gluten meal so called, is very different from the ordinary
gluten pioducts. The germ is first removed from the Indian corn,
and the remainder of the corn kernels are mixed and ground together
with rye, barley, wheat, juniper, etc. This product is then heated
with a solution of malt, which converts a considerable portion of
the starch into sugar. Yeast is then added, the alcohol, etc., result-
ing distilled, and the refuse remaining in the still is pressed, dried,
and placed upon the market under the above name.
Dried Breicers' grain is the kilu dried residue from beer manufac-
ture. It consists of some of the starch, together with the hulls,
germ and gluten of the barley. A small portion of the gluten and
the larger part of the starch are removed from the barley by the
action of diastase and yeast.
3raU s2)routs. Malt used in* beer manufacture is prepared by
moistening barley and allowing it to sprout. The sprouting produces
a ferment called diastase, which changes starch into sugar. After
the formation of the diastase, which requires a certain number of
days, the barley is dried, and the sprouts removed by machinery
and sold for cattle feed. The barley is now termed malt.
Class III.
WHEAT FRODUCTS.
The wheat has the same general formation as the corn kernel.
The natural divisions of the feed resulting from grinding wheat are
bran, middlings and red dog flour.
Bran is the exterior covering and is first removed.
Middliiu/s are removed next after the bran.
11
Red dog is a very low grade flour, and represents the dividing
line between the feed and high grade flour.
Flour middlings is a mixture of middlings and red dog flour.
Mixed feed is generally a mixture of bran, middlings and red dog
flour.
H. 0. dairy feed consists of oat feed as a basis, mixed with feeds
high in protein, such as cottonseed and gluten meals.
Class IV.
Cerealine feed. This feed comprises the hull, and some of the
starch of the corn. It is the by-product resulting in the manufac-
ture of the breakfast preparation known as cerealine flakes. It is
very coarse. It possesses a feeding value but slightly inferior to
corn meal.
Hominy feed or chop. Hominy is the hard part of the corn kernel.
The separation of the hull, germ and some of the starch which con-
stitutes the feed, is said to be brought about solely by the aid of
machinery and steam.
Chop feed has been described under gluten products.
Oat feed., corn and oat chop., etc. Oat feed is the refuse from fac-
tories engaged in the preparation of oat meal and other cereals for
human consumption. It consists of poor oats, hulls, and some of
the bran and starch removed in the process of manufacture. It is
sometimes mixed with corn, as corn and oat chop.
D. LAW CONCERNING CONCENTRATED FEED STUFFS.
The following law was passed by the JNIassachusetts Legislature
at its session of 1897 :
[Chap. 117,]
an act relative to concentrated commercial feed stuffs.
Be it enacted., etc., asfolloivs:
Section 1. The director of the Hatch Experiment Station of the
Massachusetts Agricultural College is hereby authorized and directed,
in person or by deputy, to take samples not exceeding two pounds in
weight from any lot or package of concentrated commercial feed stuff,
used for feeding any kind of farm live stock, which may be in the
possession of any manufacturer, importer, agent or dealer, cause the
same to be analyzed for the amount of crude protein and crude fat
12
contained therein, as well as for other ingredients if thought advis-
able, and cause the results of the analyses to be published from time
to time in specially prepared bulletins, with such additional informa-
tion as circumstances advise : provided however, that in publishing
the results of the analyses the names of the jobbers or local dealers
selling the said feed stuffs shall not be used, but the commodity
analyzed shall be identified and described by the name of the manu-
facturer and the commercial name or designation by which it is
known in the trade.
Section 2. AVhenever requested said samples shall be taken in
the presence of the party or parties in interest or their representative
and shall in all cases be taken from a parcel or number of packages
which shall not be less than five per cent of the whole lot inspected,
shall be thoroughly mixed and then divided into two equal samples
and put in glass vessels and carefully sealed, and a label placed on
each vessel stating the name or brand of the feed stuff or material
sampled, the name of the manufacturer when possible, the name of
the party from whose stock the sample was taken, and the time and
place of taking ; said label shall be signed by the director, or his
deputy, and by the party or parties in interest or their representa-
tive, if present at the taking and sealing of the samples. One of
said duplicate samples shall be retained by the director and the other
by the party whose stock was sampled.
Section 3. This act shall take effect on the first day of July in
the year eighteen hundred and ninety-seven. \_Approved March 5,
1897.-]
E. RESULTS OF INSPECTION.
I. PROTEIN FEEDS.
American Cotton Oil Co.'s Cottonseed Meal.
Guaranty : Protcin 43 per cent. Fat 9 per cent.
Manufactured by : Collected at : Water. Protein. Fat.
American Cotton Oil Co., N. Y. Shelburne Falls,
" " " " <' Lawrence,
" " " •' " Northampton,
" " " " South Deerfleld,
Average, 5.39 43.67 12.96
4.84
43.93
14.23
5.14
41.76
13.03
5.92
45.21
12.19
5.66
43.73
12.37
13
Cotton Oil Co.'s Cottonseed Meal.
Guaranty: None.
Manufactured by:
CoUected at:
Water.
Protein.
Fat.
Cotton Oil Co. Memphis, Tenn
, Pittsfleld,
6.69
42.18
13.26
Without name or guaranty.
Unknown
Great Barrington,
6.14
46.16
9.98
Lee,
6.42
45.95
11.82
Shelburne Falls,
7.35
*29.24
6.64
Springfield,
6.11
45.30
14.06
Marlboro,
6.43
43.53
11.87
Southbridge,
7.26
47.28
9.81
Bridgewater,
7.01
45.92
9.60
Franklin,
4.21
42.98
**18.98
Ayer,
7.81
*21.97
6.47
Gardner,
6.44
41.96
12.67
Greenfield,
6.44
43.09
10.31
North Amherst,
5.79
44.79
12.29
"
6.19
46.43
11.86
it (t
6.31
45.96
11.02
(( ((
5.91
46.15
11.48
Holyoke,
3.61
43.29
**18.78
"
5.33
47.09
11.21
Westfleld,
6.11
46.18
11.01
Highest, . . .
•7.82
47.28
18.98
Lowest, . . .
•3.61
41.96
6.47
Average, . .
• 5.98
45.13
12.30
Particular attention is called to the fact that the American Cotton Oil
Co. place a guaranty upon their bags. A guaranteed article should
always be given the preference.
Cleveland Flax Meal.
Guaranty: 38 to 40 per Cent protein.
Cleveland Linseed and Oil Co. Greenfield,
Shelburne Falls,
Milford,
Attleboro,
Northampton,
Salem,
Orange,
Winchendon.
Average
8.24
39.21
3.43
8.08
40.04
2.14
7.84
42.15
2.92
8.75
38-44
2.89
9.14
40.11
2.92
7.39
39.62
2.50
8.90
40.45
1.94
9.01
39.55
2.57
8.42
39.95
2.66
*The meals marked * were stock carried over from last year. While fully one-
third of all samples received at this station during 1897 proved to be seriously
adulterated, thus far in 1898 not a single adulterated article has been discovered.
**Excess of oil.
14
Guaranty : None.
Old process Linseed Meals,
Manufactured by :
Collecteil at:
Water. Protein.
Fat.
Hamenstein & Co. Buffalo. Great Barrington, 7.80 36.67 8.92
National Linseed Oil Co.Buffalo. Hin.sclale, 8.35 37.45 6.45
Greenfleki, 8.26 37.99 7.3&
Sprin,i,^fiekl, 7.71 38.55 8.86
" " " " Soutlibriclge, 7.25 35.09 9.63
Ipswich, 7.89 38.88 6.72
Kellogg&Miller Amsterdam, N.Y.Shelbiirne Falls, 8.19 ;?5.27 i;.90
Average, 7,92 37,13 7,83
Attention is called to the fact that the Cleveland flux meal is sold
xinder a guaranty.
GLUTEN PRODUCTS.
The Glucose Sugar llefiniug Co. of Chicago, handles gluten meal,
gluten feed and chop feed. This concern controls the following
factories :
Factory.
Locality.
Brand of Feed.
Chicago Sugar Refining Co., Chicago, 111.
American Glucose Co.,
Rockforcl Sugar Refining Co.,
Davenport Syrup Refining Co.
Firmenish Manufacturing Co.,
Peoria, 111.
Rockford, 111.
Davenport, Iowa
Marslialltown,Iowa. Golden
" " Climax
" " Peerless
Chicago gluten meal.
" chop feed.
Buffalo gluten feed.
Diamond "
Davenport "
Marshalltown chop feed.
Chicago Gluten jNIeal.*
Guaranty: None.
Manufactured by :
Collected at: Water. Protein.
Fat.
Glucose Sugar Refining Co., Chicago.
North Adams,
9.30
33.39
1.36
"
8.60
35.73
4.37
Pittsfleld,
8.70
36.06
2.25
Springfield,
8.34
36.71
4.28
Holyoke,
9.04
34.14
1.30
Palmer.
8.58
35.61
1.99
Spencer,
9.33
37.66
1.79
*A recent letter from the Glucose Sug:ir Refining Co., contains the following:
"We are now printing upon all of our paokiiges in full face type tlie exact amount of
protein and fat contained in each of our feeds, as made by our different refineries.
The feeds your inspector met with in his tour, left here in October and early Novem-
ber before your law could be put into execution."
15
Manuftactured by :
Collected at :
Water. Protein.
Fat-
Uxbridge,
9.80
85.24
2.00
Hoklen,
11.47
35.10
2.24
Webster,
9.05
84 63
2.55
Worcester,
8.05
35.39
2.63
Ayer,
7.94
31.67
3.92
Fall Eiver,
9.22
36.45
1.73
Taunton,
9.08
35.32
3.04
Newburyport,
8.88
33.74
2.07
Orange,
8.60
36.28
7.63
Tetnpleton,
9.14
35.94
2.37
"
Fitchbnrg,
9.44
36.06
2.86
H
io-lificf _ _ _
.^7 RR
7.63
1.36
2.80
XjOWPSst ....
oil DD
■ ■V R7
A
vera"c, ....
8.47
01 lOl
35.28
Cream Gluten Meal.
Guaranty: Protein 37
.12 per cent. Fat 3.20 per cent.
Chas.Pope Glucose Co., Chicago
Pittsflelcl,
7.82
38.88
2.76
"
"
Holyoke,
7.14
31.00
3.27
"
"
Worcester,
7.72
31.61
4.36
"
"
Milford,
7.71
32.47
1.66
"
"
Upton,
8.17
33.44
1.75
"
"
Ayer,
9.01
35.56
2.25
"
"
Concord,
8.34
37.39
2.59
H
igliest, ....
38,88
. V nn
4.36
1.75
2.66
L
3\vest,
A
verage,. . . .
•7.99
•01 lUU
34.34
Kin
g Gluten Meal.
Guaranty : None.
National Starch Mf
g. Co.
Lee,
8.19
30.68
16.04
Hinsdale,
4.77
29.94
14.79
Shelburne Falls,
7.43
33.06
14.39
Northampton,
7.20
32.43
12,51
Westtield.
4.84
31.42
15.47
Holyoke,
4.47
31.10
15.41
Springfield,
(5.67
34.38
13.47
Worcester,
7.56
31.74
14.63
Southbridge,
6.63
37.06
15.40
Attleboro,
7.15
32.11
*2.65
Middleboro,
6.68
85.08
12.71
Orange,
7.80
33.68
12.86
Gardner,
6.14
34.56
16.71
H
Igliest, ....
•37.06
16.71
L(
Dwest, ....
•29.94
2.65
A
I'erage,
6.53
32.93
14.53
*Not included in average.
16
Hammond Gluten Meal.
Guaranty: None.
Manufactured by:
Collected at:
Water.
Protein,
Fat.
Stein Hirsh & Co., Chicago. Fitchburg,
Buffalo Gluten Feed.
Guaranty: None.
6.05
36.08
Climax Gluten Feed.
Guaranty: None.
Firmenisli Mfg. Co., Marshalltown, la. Worcester,
" " " " " Barre,
Average,
Diamond Gluten Feed.
Guaranty: None.
Rockford, 111. Sugar Refining Co., North Adams,
" Westfleld,
" Holyoke,
" Spencer,
" Springfield,
" Franklin,
" Lowell,
Average, .
4.54
^ric
an Glucose Co. ,Peoria,Ill., Shelburne Falls,
8.94
27.34
2.46
' '* " " " Chester,
8.50
28.01
2.34
• " " " " South Deerfield,
8.73
28.00
2.37
• " " " «' SouthFramingham,6.95
22.78*
2.84
' " " " " Walpole,
9.16
28.04
3.82
' •' " " " Haverhill,
8.92
28.54
2.80
" " Salem,
8.46
28.78
2.55
* " " " " Millington,
8.40
27.79
3.43
' " " " " Furnace,
8.43
29.50
2.44
• " " " " Westfield,
10.73
27.33
3.01
A.vGr8."c •...••.... •.•••••••••••
. R Q9
28.15
2.80
Iowa Golden Gluten Feed
0i9c
**
Guaranty : None.
nenish Mfg. Co., Ware,
8.53
27.88
8.04
Milford,
7.59
29.63
2.03
" " " Lexington,
5.89
29.57
3.22
" " " Lowell,
7.82
27.69
2.21
" " " Ipswich,
7.70
28.59
*14.51
" " " Hingham,
7.91
27.35
3.43
" " " Fitchburg,
7.50
25.87
2.23
Average,
• 7.57
28.08
3.53
7.99
28.79
4.38
6.05
21.14
4.32
7.02
22.47
4.35
6.58
21.05
2.45
6.18
22.00
2.30
8.06
21.74
3.33
8.39
20.33
3.04
8.53
22.76
*11.65
7.07
20.74
2.31
7.63
22,62
3.79
7.49
21.61
2.87
*Not Included in average.
**Called gluten meal by manufacturers.
Manufactured by :
Collected at:
Water. Protein. Fat.
Joliet Gluten Feed.
Guaranty: None.
Chapin & Co., Boston, Leominster, 6.88 20.39 3.43
Atlas Gluten Feed.
Guaranty: None.
Atlas Distilling Co., Peoria, 111., Chester. 7.36 28.25 10.83
Oswego Gluton Feed.**
Guaranty : None.
Oswego Gliiton Feed Co., Oswego, N. Y., 38.41 8.03 6.73
The Cream and King gluten meals show wider variations than is
desirable. It is hoped that these feed stuffs will in the future run
more even in composition. The golden gluten meal so called has
been classified as a gluten feed, for the reason that it contains less
than 30 per cent of protein and is more bulky than a gluten meal.
This in no way detracts from its feeding value. It is evident that
the gluten feeds should be separated into two divisions, the first
including the Buffalo and golden gluten feeds, having some 28 per
cent of protein, and the second including the remainder of the feeds,
each brand containing about 22 per cent of protein. "Oswego
gluton feed " is evidently the refuse from starch factories and consists
of the hulls, bran, etc. of the corn, It is offered in a moist condi-
tion at about $3 per ton f . o. b. Oswego. If as dry as the regular
chop feed, it would be worth fully as much per ton. While its
present feed value fully equals its cost, its moist condition causes it
to spoil rapidly.
Wheat Brans.
Brand.
Manufactured by:
Collected at :
Water.
Protein.
Fat.
Superior
Daisy Koller Mill Co.,
Pittsfleld,
8.88
17.10
4.77
Best clean
J. C. Davis & Co.
Hinsdale,
9.32
16.29
5.57
"
"
Barre,
8.61
16.69
5.27
Cow
Freeman Milling Co.
Hinsdale,
8.72
15.62
5.23
"
"
Hudson,
8.19
17.23
5.19
"Wheat
Kehlor Bros.
N. Adams,
8.68
15.68
4.28
"
"
Taunton,
8.32
17.81
4.48
Hiawatha
Wm. Listman Milling Co.,
Springfield
,9.83
16.12
5.09
"
" " " "
NewBedf'd,5.09
16.44
5.35
*Not included in average.
* *Manufacturer's sample.
18
Brand .
Manufactured by :
Collected at : Water. Protein. Fat.
Best
Wheat
C.
Coarse
Snow's
No'vvestern Cons. Milling (
Pillsbury, Wasli!)nrn Co.,
Washburn, Crosby Co.
E. S. Woociworth Co.
'o., Warren,
9.31
17.14
5.17
Hinsdale,
8.49
1G.29
4.91
Pittsfiekl,
8.04
16.21
5.20
Franklin,
8.18
1G.43
5.21
Gardner,
7.99
16.99
4.74
Brocktc^n,
8.58
15.98
4.95
N. Adams,
7.57
16.27
4.65
E.Bro'kf'd,
8.15
16.89
5.11
NewBedf'd
8.30
16.65
4.85
Baldwin'le,
8.32
16.81
5.. 59
Warren,
9.57
17.30
5.26
•8.41
16.60
5.04
The brans run very even in couipositiou, and are evidently free
from any adulteration.
Wheat Middlings.
None
Am. Cereal Co.,
North Adams,
, 9.90
16.43
5.05
Puritan
Brooks, Griffiths Co.,
Haverhill,
9.07
20.99
5.70
Dexter
Chapin & Co.,
Winchendon.
9.89
21.45
4.30
Superior
flou
r Daisy Roller Mills Co..
Greenfield.
7.52
19.53
5.20
Choice w
heat
, J. C. Davis & Co.,
Pittsfiekl,
8.35
21.87
7.09
White
Freeman Milling Co.,
Holyoke,
9.77
17.79
5.71
"
"
Millington,
9.96
18.82
5.36
Silver lea
Lf
Holly Milling Co.,
Westfield,
9.46
17.73
4.77
None
N'weste'n Cons. Mill. Cc
). Lawrence,
9.43
19.24
5.64
"A"
"
Middleboro,
9.37
19.48
6.06
"E"
"
Marshfleld,
8.86
18.01
5.31
None
Pillsbury, Washl)urn Co.
, Hinsdale,
8.68
20.40
5.64
"A"
"
North Adams,
9.21
21.93
6.31
"
"
Pittsfiekl,
9.38
20.30
5.93
"
"
Northampton,
8.43
21.47
7.06
"
"
Winchendon,
9.35
21.11
6.24
"B"
"
Ware,
11.24
17.03
5.52
"
"
Brockton,
8.88
18.22
6.01
Daisy
"
Holyoke,
8.90
21.61
5.97
"
" "
Holden,
10.63
18.67
4.22
"
Cl
Lowell,
8.95
21.61
5.70
•'
cc
Fall River,
8.89
20.99
5.56
"
cc
Winchendon,
9.61
20.38
4.61
Grand Repub. Russell & Miller Mill. Co.
Lexington,
9.26
19.30
6.07
Choice
Voigt Milling Co.,
Franklin,
9.16
17.75
4.85
No. 9
Unknown
So. Doerfield.
10.73
16.56
3.69
White
"
Ware,
9 98
17.29
2.57
Spring
"
Upton,
8.72
18.01
5.26
St. Louis
"
Attleboro,
9.23
18.79
4.63
19
Brand.
Manufactured by :
Collected at :
Water. Protein.
Fat.
None
Unknown,
Ayer,
" Furnace,
" Orange,
" Lee,
" North Adams,
Highest, 11 ,24
Lowest, 7,25
Average 9i34
7.89
9.92
9.23
8.38
9.20
17.88
20.51
18.94
19.46
16.08
21.93
16.08
19.28
4.72
4.93
4.98
5.38
3.29
7.09
2.57
5.27
Red Dog Flour.
Regent A. E. Eichler & Co., Princeton, 9.36 20.01 5.34
Comet N'western Cons. Milling Co. Worcester, 8.88 21.18 5.26
None Unknown, Southboro, 11.22 16.53 3.69
Wheat middlings w^ith a few exceptions, show a very even compo-
sition. They contain a noticeably higher percentage of protein than
bran, as well as more digestible matter per ton. This gives them a
higher feeding value (see page 23). Middlings having a brand,
or at least the manufacturer's name, are to be preferred. Many of
those without any marks, show an inferior composition.
Mixed Feeds.
Acme
Acme Milling Co.,
East BrookfieUl,
9.61
16.21
4.00
Anchor
Anchor Mill Co.,
So. Framingham
, 8.65
17.37
5.31
"
" "
Bridgewater,
8.73
18.08
5.07
"
" "
Taunton,
8.76
17.12
5.36
"
" "
Gardner,
9.53
17.14
5.27
None
Blish Milling Co.,
Salem,
8.32
16.86
4.27
Je)sey
Brooks, Griffiths Co.,
Newburyport.
8.45
18.13
5.44
Concord
B. W. Brown,
Concord,
8.96
18.08
4.93
Superior
Daisy Roller Mill Co.,
Mil ford.
8.28
17.28
4.98
"
"
Princeton,
8.53
17.67
5.16
"
"
Taunton,
8.71
17.37
4.59
"
"
Lawrence,
9.05
17.53
5.05
"
"
Orange,
8.35
17.24
5.10
"
"
Fitchburg,
8.71
17.56
4.97
Boston
Dnliith Imperial Mill Co
, Greenfield,
8.9+
16-62
4.94
"
" "
Concord,
8.62
16.22
4.43
K
" "
Newburyport,
8.94
16.89
4.93
<<
" "
Brockton,
8.46
16.19
4.78
<(
" "
Leominster,
8.93
16.28
4.48
"
" "
Barre,
8.97
17.37
5.00
None
Eldred Mill. Co.,
Danvers,
9.15
15.04
3.96
New England Freeman Milling Co.,
Hudson,
9.34
16.94
4.81
Columbia
Grafton Roller Mill,
Concord,
8.29
17.68
5.26
20
Brand.
Manufactured by :
Collected at: Water. Protein.
Fat.
Peerless "R. J. H." Westfleld, 8.00
" " " Southboro, 9.02
Snowflake Lawrenceburg R. Mill Co. Brockton, 8.50
" " " Danvers, 8.33
Snowflake Lawrenceburg R. M. Co., Taunton, 8.05
Lowell, 9.05
Lexington Lexington R. Mill Co., Shelburne Falls, 8.49
Westfleld, 8.19
Fancy Listman MillCo., Leominster, 7.86
" " " " Millington, 8.95
Hiawatha Wm.Listmau Milling Co., Chester, 8.04
" " " Princeton, 8.11
" Baldwinsville, 8.88
" So. Deerfleld, 9.51
Listmans
Northland
None
Rex
American
Quiucy
Gt.Barrington, 8.77
Superior, WashburnCrosbyCo.
Greenfield, 8.91
Fall River, 8.79
Lexington, 9.01
Southbridge, 7.63
Fall River, 8.13
New Bedford, 8.24
Haverhill, 7.09
Leominster, 8.14
So. Deerfleld, 8.65
Northboro, 8.64
Worcester, 7.99
New Bedford, 8.79
Fitchburg, 8.15
Millington, 8.79
Highest, 19,19
Lowest, 13,97
Average, 8.61 17,16
MacKenzie& Winslow,
McDaniel&PittmanCo..
Rex Mills Co.,
J. E. Soper & Co.,
Taylor Bros.,
17.11
18.89
16.89
17.21
15.63
16.55
14.37
13.97
18.51
18.27
17.16
16.77
17.01
17.04
17.60
16.24
19.19
15.74
18.31
18.91
17.36
18.53
18.46
18.54
17.11
16.39
16.56
16.48
17.88
Mixed feeds with one exception show no wide variation,
made by the Lexington Roller Mill Co. is certainly below the
age of other brands. The feeding value of mixed feed as com
with bran is yet to be determined.
Brewers' Refuse.
5.26
5.02
4.55
4.47
4.19
4.54
4.59
4.04
4.95
5.05
5.29
4.85
5.04
4.91
5.09
4.70
5.09
4.36
4.48
4.97
4.38
5.26
4.58
5.83
3.92
4.04
4.41
4.27
5.30
5,83
3.92
4,80
That
aver-
pared
Brewers' grains Unknown,
Malt sprouts Niagara Falls Brewinj
Princeton, 7.59
Co. Concord, 11.79
None
Rye Feed.
Unknown, Shelburne Falls, 9.43
" Southboro, 8.61
" Furnace, 9.03
29.83
5.48
27.57
1.01
14.41
3.38
15.56
3.51
14.99
3.14
21
Brand.
Manufactured by :
Collected at. Water. Protein.
Fat"
Dairy Feed.
H. 0. H. 0. Company, Buffalo, Holyoke, 6.61 17.88 4.77
" " Spencer, 6.50 18.21 4.78
Clinton, 6.28 17.94 4.98
This material consists of oat feed as a basis, mixed with feeds
rich in protein, such as cotton and gluten meals. It contains about
45 per cent of hulls. Its comparative feeding value will be shown
on page 23.
II. Starchy (carbohydrate) Feeds.
Oat Feeds.
Quaker Am. Cereal Co., Chicago
Pittsfleld,
6.36
11.56
4.09
" '
' " "
Gt. Barriugton
6.07
11.70
3.73
<
Shelburne Falls,
6.14
12.15
4.16
Palmer,
7.74
9.45
3.06
'
Marlboro,
7.18
9.79
3.57
Uxbridge.
7.31
9.28
2.71
Taunton,
6.16
12.42
4.32
Templeton,
6.53
11.28
4.16
Fitchburg,
6.23
10.84
3.60
Average,
6.63
7.20
10.94
8.50
3.71
3.28
None
Unknown,
South Deerfleld,
Catena,
Des Plaines Valley Co
, Furnace,
7.14
8.66
3.98
C Feed
km. Cereal Co.
East Brookfleld,
8.85
9.94
3.30
Banner
Unknown,
Leominster,
7.74
12.55
2.81
Windsor
"
Chester,
8.37
11.26
4.14
Average,
7.86
10.18
3.50
Corn
and Oat Feed.
Victor Am.
Cereal Co. Chicago,
Milford,
8.91
8.23
3.06
"
"
Lawrence,
8.82
9.16
3.24
" "
" "
Taunton,
7.66
9.53
3.74
"
"
Gardner,
7.26
9.18
3.45
None Nan
ragansett Mills, Pro v. ,
Bridgewater,
10.23
10.31
3.68
Avei'age
8.57
9.28
3.43
Corn, Oats and Barley Feeds.
None Am.
Cereal Co., Chicago,
Pittsfleld,
8.34
11.38
3.99
(( 11
"
Springfield,
7.00
12.06
4.40
"
"
Worcester,
7.90
11.33
3.96
22
A great variety of oat refuse is now finding its way into our mar-
kets. It has been found to contain from 35 to nearly 60 per cent of
hulls. In some cases it is mixed with corn and with barley ; it is
then quite difficult to ascertain the percentage of hulls the mixture
contains. Oat refuse is low in protein, and high in carbohydrates,
being of the same nature as corn meal. Material of this kind
unquestionably has considerable feeding value. Those articles hav-
ing a special brand, and containing the manufacturer's name, are to
be preferred. In case the farmer is in doubt as to its value he
should send a fair sample to us for examination. Farmers are cau-
tioned against paying excessive prices for material of this kind. See
its value as compared with corn meal, on page 23.
Miscellaneous Starchy Feeds.
Brand. Manufactured by : Collected at. Water. Protein. Fat.
Banner ground oats Unknown, Northboro, 7.35
H. O. horse feed H. 0. Company, Holyoke, 7.96
♦' " " " " Clinton, 8.12
Germ feed Pope Glucose Co., Newburyport, 7.53
Chop feed Glu. SiigarRefi.Co.,N. Amherst, 8.41
Hominy feed Cereal Mill Co., Salem, 7.03
" " Unknown, Walpole, 7.29
" " " Fitchl)urg, 8.04
H. O. horse feed is a mixture of oat feed and corn,
feed looks very much like gluten feed, but has considerable less
feeding value. Its food value is now being determined.
III. Poultry Feeds.*
American Am. Cereal Co.. Concord,
H. O. H. O. Company, Spencer,
" " " Clinton,
" " " Danvers,
Animal meal Bowker Fertilizer Co., Gt.Barrington, 5.83
" " Bradley " '' No. Adams.
Darling " Co., Soutlibriclge, 2.38
Meat scrap Rogers Mfg. Co., Northampton, 7.47
The poultry feeds prepared by the American Cereal Co. and the
H. O. Company are mixtures of oat feeds, corn, and some nitrogen-
ous feed stuff to increase the percentage of protein to about 17 per
cent. Materials of this kind certainly possess considerable feeding
value. It is probable however that the jpoultryman can secure the nutri-
tive value cheaper, by purchasing the unmixed grains.
*We have a considerable collection of patent stock and poultry feeds and tonics
which will be reported on at a later date.
13.68
3.76
12.59
3.58
12.68
4.13
10.09
9.49
9.87
5.56
10.91
7.01
11.59
4.04
10.32
5.78
Chop or
germ
9.89
15.12
5.47
757
17.51
5.60
7.57
16.67
5.56
7.77
16.69
4.82
5.83
44.83
11.15
5.61
39.89
13.72
2.38
37.69
11.26
7.47
48.16
21.44
23
F.
Starchy
(carbohydrate)
feeds,
COMPARATIVE COMMERCIAL VALUES OF CONCEN-
TRATED FEEDS.
f Corn meal, 100
Hominy meal or chop, 100
Cerealiue feed, 100
Chop feed, 85*
Quaker oat feed, 85
Oat feeds (excessive hulls), 75
Victor corn and oat feed, 95
^H.O. horse feed, 95
f
<
Wheat bran, 85
Wheat middlings, 100—110**
Mixed feed, 100*
Dried brewers' grains, 100
Malt-sprouts, 100
Protein feeds ^ H. 0. dairy feed. 103
rroiein leeus, ^ g^jJ^^,(J j^^jj (Golden gluten feeds, 125
Other gluten feeds, 120
61uten me<als, 152
Cleveland flax meal, 138
0. P. linseed meals, 135
[ Cotton seed meal, 152
The above feedstuff's are divided into starchy and protein feeds.
The former are purchased primarily to increase the digestible matter
in the daily ration, while the latter are bought not alone to give more
digestible material but to inciease the protein, in the ration feed
to the animal.
It is not possible in this connection to show the relative effects of
the various feed stuffs on the flow of milk or the production of beef.
The figures are offered rather as a key to the comparative commercial
values of the different feeds based on the nutrients contained in them.
Thus if corn meal is worth 100, Quaker oat feed would be worth 85 ;
or if wheat bran is worth 85, cottonseed meal would be worth 152.
These figures can be easily converted into dollars. Thus if corn
meal is worth $16 per ton or 100, Quaker oat feed would be worth
85 per cent of Sl6 or $13.50, the amount the farmer can afford to
pay for the oat feed. Again with cottonseed meal worth $22, what
♦Estimated but not actually determined.
**The 110 value refers to fine light-colored middlings with 19 per cent protein.
24
can the farmer afford to pay for old process linseed meal? Cotton-
seed meal equals 152, or $22, and linseed meal 135 or $19.60. We
have a case in simple proportion. 152 : 135 : : $22 : xr=:$19.60, the
value of a ton of linseed. It must not be forgotten that these figures
do not take into consideration the mechanical condition, or the par-
ticularly favorable effect which some feeds are supposed to exert
upon the general health of the animal.
G. GRAIN MIXTURES TO BE FED DAILY WITH COARSE
FEED.
100 lbs. corn or hominy raeal.
100 lbs. bran, mixed, or chop feed.
75 lbs. cotton, gluten or lius'd meal.
Mix and feed 8 to 9 quarts daily.
III.
100 lbs. oat feed.
100 lbs. Buffalo or Golden glu'n feed.
Mix and feed 8 quarts daily.
Gluten feeds.
Feed 5 to 6 quarts daily.
rii.
50 lbs. linseed meal.
50 lbs. cottonseed meal.
100 lbs. oat feed or chop feed.
Mix and feed 7 to 8 quarts daily.
II.
200 lbs. chop or cerealine feed.
75 lbs. cotton, gluten or linseed meal.
Mix and feed 7 to 8 quarts daily.
IV.
H. O. dairy feed.
Feed 6 to 8 quarts daily.
VI.
100 lbs. fine middlings.
100 Ibs.bx'evvers'grains or malt sprouts.
Mix and feed 7 to 8 quarts daily.
VIII.
100 lbs. corn meal.
50 lbs. bran.
50 lbs. cottonseed meal.
Mix and feed 7 quarts daily.
SPECIAL NOTICE.
Bulletins containing information concerning
Concentrated Feed Stuffs, and analyses of the
same, will hereafter be sent only to those
especially desiring them. If you wish for these,
send your name AT ONCE to the Director, Hatch
Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass.
HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION
•OF THE-
MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE,
BULLETIN NO. 54.
I. ANALYSES OF MANURIAL SUBSTANCES SENT ON FOR EXAMINATION.
II. ANALYSES OF LICENSED FERTILIZERS COLLECTED BY THE AGENT OF THE
STATION DURING 1898.
jxji^-sr^ isos.
The Bulletins of tJiis Station will be seyit free to all newspapers in
the State ayid to such iyulividuals interested in farming as may request
the same.
AMHERST, MASS. :
PRESS OF CARPENTER & MOREHOUSE,
1898.
HATCH HXFIiRIIIIXSNT STATION
OF THK
Massachusetts Agrictilttiral College,
AMHERST, MASS.
By act of the General Court, the Hatch Experiment Station and
the State P^sperimeut vStation have been consolidated under the name
of the Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College. Several new divisions have been created and the scope of
others has been enlarged. To the horticultural, has been added the
duty of testing varieties of vegetables and seeds. The chemical has
been divided, and a new division, " Foods and Feeding," has been
established. The botanical, including plant physiology and disease,
has been restored after temporary suspension.
The officers are : —
Henry II. Goodell, LL. D., Director.
William P. Brooks, Ph. D., Agriculturist.
George E. Stone, Ph. D., Botanist.
Charles A. Goessmann, Ph. D., LL. D., Chemist (Fertilizers).
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph. D., Chemist (Foods and Feeding).
Charles H. Fernald, Ph. D., Entomologist.
Samuel T. Maynard, B. Sc, Horticulturist.
J. E. OsTRANDER, C. E., Meteorolofjist.
Henry M. Thomson, B. Sc, Assistant Agriculturist.
Ralph E. Smith, B. Sc, Assistant Botanist.
Henri D. Haskins, B. Sc, Assistatit Chemist (Fertilizers).
Charles I. Goessmann, B. Sc, Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Samuel W. Wiley, B. Sc, Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Edward B. Holland, M. Sc, ^ssY C/ie«u'si(Foods and Feeding) .
Fred W. MossMAN, B. Sc, ^ssY C7ie}H?s<(Foods and Feeding).
Benjamin K. Jones, B. Sc, Assistant in Foods and Feeding .
PiiiLii' II. Smith, B. Sc, Assistant in Foods and Feeding .
Robert A. Cooley, B. Sc, Assistant Entomologist.
George A. Drew, B. Sc, Assistant Horticulturist.
Hekhert D. IIemenway, B. Sc, Assista7it Horticulturist.
Arthur C. Monahan, Obsei'ver.
The co-operation and assistance of farmers, fruit-growers, horti-
culturists, and all interested, directly or indirectly, in agriculture,
are earnestly requested. Communications may be addressed to the
Hatcu Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass.
GLASS API'AKAH > LM:1) in llli; DlVrEUMlNATION Ol' MTKOGEN ACCUUIUNG TO TIIK
K.IELDAHL MKTHOD.
CONSTRUCTED BY C. I. GOESSMANN AND H. D. HASKINS.
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY.
C. A, GOKSSMANN.
I.
ANALYSES OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS AND MANO-
RIAL SUBSTANCES SENT ON FOR EXAMINATION.
WOOD ASHES.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
7.27
12.37
11.42
5.17
6.10
2.9H
5.64
6.34
1.28
1.28
1.47
1.28
31.92
27.39
33.16
34.19
9.54
11.81
4.13
7.35
405-499. I- Received from Townseud, Mass.
II. Received from Bostou, IMass.
III. Received from Boston, Mass.
IV. Received from Concord, Mass.
V. Received from Concord, Mass.
Per Cent
I.
Moisture at 100" C, 0.2
Potassium oxide, 4.49
Phosphoric acid, 2.62
Calcium oxide, 48.81
Insoluble matter, 7.52
500-504. I- Received from Concord, Mass.
II. Received from Concord, Mass.
III. Received from Concord, Mass.
IV. Received from Concord, Mass.
V. Received from Concord, Mass.
Per Cent.
I.
Moisture at lOO'* C, 10.52
Potassium oxide, 4.83
Phosphoric acid, 1.47
Calcium oxide, 35.04
Insoluble matter, 9.62
II.
III.
IV.
V.
13.35
13.00
8.06
8.06
6.14
5.72
7.10
8.86
1.15
1.47
.93
1.09
27.39
35.63
31.68
34.36
15.07
14.19
18.26
14.12
I.
10.37
II.
13.60
Per Cent.
III.
19.13
IV.
7.97
V.
9.06
4.70
4.88
1.12
3.48
8.09
1.04
.97
.32
2.30
1.62
33.99
30.77
39.72
25.58
33.90
15.30
13.68
6.52
23.07
10.24
505-509. I- Received from Concord, Mass.
II. Received from South Acton, Mass.
III. Received from Topsfield, Mass.
IV. Received from South Amherst, Mass.
V. Received from Concord, Mass.
Moisture at 100° C.
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoric acid,
Calcium oxide,
Insoluble matter.
510-514. I- Received from South Acton, Mass.
II. Received from South Acton, Mass.
III. Received from Concord, Mass.
IV. Received from Concord, Mass.
V. Received from Wilbraham, Mass.
Moisture at 100« C.
Potassium oxide.
Phosphoric acid,
Calcium oxide.
Insoluble matter,
515-519. I- Received from Concord, Mass.
II. Received from Shirley, Mass.
III. Received from Concord, Mass.
IV. Received from Sunderland, Mass.
V. Received from South Acton, Mass.
Moisture at 100« C,
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoric acid.
Calcium oxide.
Insoluble matter,
I.
13.23
II.
12.14
Per Cent.
III.
11.88
IV.
8.10
V.
13.77
5.74
7.20
7.41
5.34
4.18
1.64
1.47
1.56
1.57
1.54
35.06
36.17
28.84
33.24
30.44
10.57
10.72
10.42
14.21
21.20
I.
9.20
II.
17.47
Per Cent.
III.
16.52
IV.
9.20
V.
8.62
5.92
5.44
4.42
3.92
5.28
1.16
1.28
1.28
1.28
.26
34.68
34.42
30.24
31.55
31.55
11.32
4.71
16.49
19.67
20.62
520-524. I- Received from Concord, Mass.
II. Received from Concord, Mass.
III. Received from Concord, Mass.
IV. Received from Concord, Mass.
V. Received from Concord, Mass.
Moisture at 100" C.
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoric acid.
Calcium oxide.
Insoluble matter.
I.
6.81
II.
5.95
Per Cent.
III.
12.70
IV.
11.08
V.
8.72
6.67
5.48
5.77
5.28
5.65
1.32
I.IO
1.09
1.02
1.02
9.79 10.55 8.52 11.06 13.04
525-529. I- Received from Concord, Mass.
II. Received from East Northfield, Mass.
III. Received from East Leverett, Mass.
IV. Received from North Hatfield, Mass.
V. Received from North Hatfield, Mass.
Moisture at 100^ C,
Potassium oxide.
Phosphoric acid.
Calcium oxide,
Insoluble matter.
I.
0.75
II.
trace
Per Cent.
III.
7.70
IV.
2.07
V.
11.77
6.04
3.04
5.64
4.64
4.76
1.04
1.02
1.28
1.16
.76
*
56.02
36.91
36.90
32.96
1..S6
4.13
9.25
14.34
14.24
530-533. I- Received from Bedford, Mass.
II. Received from Sunderland, Mass.
III. Received from Boston, Mass.
IV. Received from East Medway, Mass.
Moisture at 100^ C.
Potassium oxide.
Phosphoric acid.
Calcium oxide, .
Insoluble matter,
* Not determined.
I.
16.10
Per C(
11.
17.67
nt.
III.
2.40
IV.
13.92
4.28
4.36
4.72
5.92
1.40
1.28
1.40
1.16
31.50
32.05
38.20
38.40
15.92
12.61
22.59
10.70
Per Cent.
1.
II.
III.
IV.
17.46
10.17
13.66
15.80
5.32
5.44
4.93
4.72
0.46
0.09
trace
0.77
32.58
35.84
36.17
32.25
6.31
10.01
10.47
13.41
6
531'537. I- Received from North Hadley, Mass.
II. Received from Sunderlaud, Mass.
III. Received from Leeds, Mass.
IV. Received from Sunderland, INIass.
Moisture at lOO'' C,
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoric acid.
Calcium oxide,
Insoluble matter,
538-542. I. Received from Sunderland, Mass.
II. Received from Sunderland, Mass.
III. Received from Sunderland, Mass.
IV. Received from North Amherst, Mass.
V. Received from Amherst, Mass.
Per Cent.
I.
Moisture at 100'^ C, 15.68
Potassium oxide, 4.70
Phosphoric acid, 0.82
Calcium oxide, 32.35
Insoluble matter, 10.32
An examination of the results of the above stated forty-eight sam-
ples of wood ashes recently sent on for analysis at the station shows
the following variations in their composition :
Number of samples.
INIoisture from 1 to 3 per cent. 5
'' •' 4 to 6 " 2
'• '' 6 to 10 " 12
'' '' 10 to 15 " 18
" " 15 to 20 " _ 11
Potassium oxide above 8 per cent. 2
" " from 7 to 8 " 1
*' " " 6 to 7 '' 6
*' " '• 5 to 6 " 16
•" " " 4 to 5 " l.s
a " " o to 4 '• 4
*' " below 3 " 1
Phosphoric acid above 2 '• 3
" " from 1 to 2 " 34
" " below 1 " U
II.
III.
IV.
V.
20.40
18.74
0.34
18.76
6.26
5.91
4.97
5.09
0.84
0.56
2.41
1.87
27.81
32.54
24.23
33.57
10.01
10.99
41. S8
14.56
Average of Calcium oxide (lime) amounts to 34.28 per cent.,
varying from 25.58 to 56.02 per cent, in different samples.
Mineral matter (coal ash, sand,) insoluble in diluted hydro-
chloric acid :
Below 5 per cent. 2
From 5 to 10 " 7
" 10 to 15 " 19
" 15 to 20 " 8
'' 20 to 30 " 4
Samples of wood ashes of late tested at the station are on the
whole somewhat inferior, as far as percentage of potash is concerned,
to those tested during the preceding year.
LIME KILN ASHES.
543. Received from GreenQeld, Mass.
Per Cent.
Moisture at lOO'^ C, 25.99
Potassium oxide, 1.45
Phosphoric acid, 0.26
Calcium oxide, 33.99
Insoluble matter, 4.39
ASHES FROM CREMATION OF GARBAGE.
544-540. I- Received from Lowell, Mass.
II. Received from Lowell, Mass.
III. Received from Northboro, Mass.
Moisture at 100° C,
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoric acid.
Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide.
Ferric and Aluminum oxide,
Sodium oxide.
Sulphuric acid,
Chlorine,
Carbonic acid.
Insoluble matter.
Per Cent.
I.
II.
III.
.53
1.02
4.48
6.01
5.68
3.72
10.21
7.16
8.96
20.22
»
*
1.16
*
*
9.22
*
*
15.65
*
*
4.57
*
*
4.75
*
*
10.85
*
*
24.26
32.56
*
* Not determined.
PHOSPHATIC SLAG.
547. Received from Waltham, Mass.
Per Cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 1.67
Potassium oxide, *
Phosphoric acid (total), 15.70
Calcium oxide, 39.24
Insoluble matter, 9.91
Material was represented as imported from England.
BLEACHERY REFUSE.
548-549. I- Received from Bondsville, Mass.
II. Received from Bondsville, Mass.
Moisture at 100^ C.
Potassium oxide.
Phosphoric acid,
Calcium oxide,
Sodium oxide.
Insoluble matter.
MEAT MEAL, AND BLOOD AND BONE.
550-551. I- Received from Boston, Mass.
II. Received from Concord, Mass.
Per Cent.
I. II.
Moisture at 100° C, 3.22 4.25
Ash, 8.55 *
Nitrogen, 9.23 5.72
Phosphoric acid, 3.08 14.08
TANKAGE AND GROUND BONE.
552-555. I- Received from Concord, Mass.
II. Received from Northborough, Mass.
III. Received from South Deerfield, Mass.
IV. Received from Boston, Mass.
Per Cent.
I.
II.
5.90
2.49
1.24
0.35
trace
trace
40.70
30.89
12.65
10.74
15.87
30.31
* Not determined.
Per C
snt.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C,
■ 6.62
2.77
13.75
5.60
Nitrogen,
8.12
2.07
2.58
3.89
Phosphoric acid (total),
.13.86
30.19
26.30
25.46
Phosphoric acid (reverted),
*
7.67
6.72
*
Phosphoric acid (insoluble)
*
22.52
19.58
«
COTTON-SEED MEAL.
556-557. I- Received from Hatfield, Mass.
II. Received from Hatfield, Mass.
Moisture at 100° C,
Nitrogen,
TOBACCO REFUSE.
558. Received from Boston, Mass.
Moisture at 100° C,
Nitrogen,
Potassium oxide.
Phosphoric acid,
WOOL WASTE (Sweepings).
559. Received from Shirley Center, Mass.
Moisture at 100° C,
Nitrogen,
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoric acid,
TEOPIK FIBRE.
500. Received from Amherst, Mass.,
Moisture at 100° C,
Nitrogen,
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoric acid.
Calcium oxide.
Insoluble matter,
Per Cent.
I. II.
6.87 7.92
7.57 7.08
Per Cent.
12.35
1.13
5.19
.56
Per Cent.
7.30
3.94
0.29
trace
Per Cent.
56.54
.53
1.26
.55
5.15
.75
Not determined.
Per
I.
12.23
Cent.
II.
7.40
2.09
1.51
.58
.50
2.35
.57
1.85
*
10
ANALYSIS OF FEED STUFFS FOR FERTILIZING
CONSTITUENTS.
5()l-562. I- Mixed feed from Boston, Mass.
II. Broom Corn Seed from Hadley, Mass.
Moisture at 100° C,
Nitrogen,
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoric acid,
Calcium oxide,
ACID PHOSPHATES.
563-565. I- Received from Amesbury, Mass.
II. — III. Received from Amherst, Mass.
Moisture at 100° C,
Phosphoric acid (total),
Phosphoric acid (soluble),
Phosphoric acid (reverted).
Phosphoric acid (insoluble),
NITRATE OF SODA.
566-568. I- Received from Amherst, Mass.
II. Received from Concord, Mass.
III. Received from Concord, Mass.
Moisture at 100= C,
Nitrogen,
GERMAN POTASH SALTS.
569-572. I- Muriate of Potash received from Amherst, Mass.
II. Muriate of Potash received from Concord, Mass.
III. Muriate of Potash received from Concord, Mass.
IV. Sulphate of Potash — Magnesia, received from Am-
herst, Mass.
Per Cent.
I. II. III. IV.
Moisture at 100'' C, 0.85 0.37 0.25 4.91
Potassium oxide, 49.76 50.24 50.80 25.72
I.
7.52
Per Cent.
11.
14.67
III.
15.10
6.38
16.50
15.10
1.92
13.56
12.92
7.30
2.68
1.92
7.16
.26
0.26
Per Cent.
I.
II.
III.
.50
2.10
4.50
15.78
15.25
14.56
* Not determined.
11
COMPLETE MANURES.
573*577. I- Received from Sunderland, Mass.
II. Received from West Boxford, Mass.
III. Received from East Longmeadow, Mass.
IV. Received from South Amherst, Mass.
V. Received from West Milbury, Mass.
Per Cent.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Moisture at 100^ C,
18.98
4.90
10.67
8.22
7.00
Nitrogen,
1.58
2.97
2.95
3.57
1.47
Potassium oxide,
3.98
13.13
1.17
7.64
.02
Phosphoric acid (total),
9.21
10.49
8.19
12.02
.13
Phosphoric acid (soluble).
2.88
2.05
0.05
5.88
*
Phosphoric acid (reverted).
4.29
6.46
5.65
2.94
*
Phosphoric acid (insoluble),
1.41
1.98
2.49
3.20
*
578-581. VI. Received from Sunderland, Mass.
VII. Received from Canton, Mass.
VIII. Received from Canton, Mass.
IX. Received from South Sudbury, Mass.
Moisture at 100° C,
Nitrogen,
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoric acid (total),
Phosplioric acid (soluble).
Phosphoric acid (reverted) ,
Phosphoric acid (insoluble),
* Not determined.
Per Cent.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
14.18
13.07
10.99
8.89
3.17
2.92
4.59
3.56
5.85
6.20
8.78
5.62
10.03
10.92
10.70
11.20
4.09
1.36
*
5.30
3.79
8.74
9.22
3.34
2.15
.82
1.48
2.56
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tradp: valup:s
of fertilizing ingredients in raw materials
and chemicals.
1898.
Cents per pounds.
Nitrogen in ammonia salts, 14.
" nitrates, 13.
Organic nitrogen in dry and fine ground fish, meat, blood,
and in high-grade mixed fertilizers, 14.
" " " cottonseed meal, 12.
" " " fine bone and tankage, 13.5
" " " medium bone and tanl^age, 10.
Phosphoric acid soluble in water, 4.5
" " soluble in ammonium citrate, 4.
" " in fine ground fish, bone and tankage, 4.
" "in cottonseed meal, castor pomace
and wood ashes, 4.
" " in coarse bone and tankage, 3.5
" " insoluble (in am. cit.) in mixed fertilizers, 2.
Potash as Sulphate, free from Chlorides, 5.
" " Muriate, 4.25
The market value of low priced materials used for manurial pur-
poses, as salt, wood ashes, various kinds of lime, barnyard manure,
factory refuse and waste materials of different description, quite
frequently does not stand in a close relation to the current market
value of the amount of essential articles of plant food they contain.
Their cost varies in different localities. Local facilities for cheap
transportation and more or less advantageous mechanical conditions
for a speedy action, exert as a rule, a decided influence on their sell-
ing price.
The market value of fertilizing ingiedients like other merchandise
is liable to changes during the season. The above stated values
are based on the condition of the fertilizer market in centers of dis-
tribution in New England, during the six months preceding INIarch
1898.
HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION
-OF THE-
MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.
BULLETIN NO. 55.
jvov^K^]vi:bk^r^, isos.
The Bulletins of this Station will he sent free to all newspapers in
the State and to such individuals interested in farming as may request
the same.
AMHERST, MASS. :
PRESS OF CARPENTER & MOREHOUSE,
1898.
HATCH HKTHRliailNT STATION
Massachusetts Agricultural College,
AMHERST, MASS.
By act of the General Court, the Hatch Experiment Station and
the State Experiment Station have been consolidated under the name
of the Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College. Several new divisions have been created and the scope of
others has been enlarged. To the horticultural, has been added the
duty of testing varieties of vegetables and seeds. The chemical has
been divided, and a new division, "Foods and Feeding," has been
established. The botanical, including plant physiology and disease,
has been restored after temporary suspension.
The officers are : —
Henry H. Goodp:ll, LL. D.,
William P. Brooks, Vu. D.,
Gkorge E. Stone, Ph. D.,
Charles A. Gokssmaxn, Ph. I)., LL. D.
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph. D.,
Charles H. Feknald, Ph. D.,
Samuel T. Maynard, B. Sc,
j. e. ostrander, c. e.,
Henry M. Thomson, B. Sc,
Ralph E. Smith, B. Sc,
Henri D. Haskins, B. Sc,
Charles I. Goessmann B. Sc.
Samuel W. Wiley. B. Sc,
Edward B. Holland, M. Sc,
Fred W. Mossman, B. Sc,
Benjamin K. Jones, B. Sc,
Philip H. Smith, B. Sc,
Robert A. Cooley, B. Sc,
George A. Drew, B. Sc.
Herbert I). Hemenway, B. Sc,
Arthu]{ C. Monahan,
Director.
Agriculturist.
Botanist.
Chemist (Fertilizers).
Chemist (Foods and Feeding).
Entomologist.
Horticulturist.
Meteorologist.
Assistant Agriculturist.
Assistant Botanist.
Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
First Chemist(Foo6s and Feeding) .
Ass't Chemist(F ooc\s and Feeding) .
Ass't Chemist (Foods and Feeding).
Assistant in Foods and Feeding.
Assistant Entomologist.
Assistant Horticulturist.
Assistant Horticu Itu rist .
Observer.
The co-operation and assistance of farmers, fruit-growers, horti-
culturists, and all interested, directly or indirectly, in agriculture,
are earnestly requested. Communications may be addressed to the
Hatch Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass.
SYNOPSIS.
Part I.
Page
Nematode Worms in the greenhouse. (Introductory.) 6
What Nematodes are. 8
Symptoms of Nematode injuries. 8
Galls Due to other causes than Nematodes. (Club Root, Legum-
inous Tubercles, Insects.) lo
Nature of the galls produced by lieterodera radicola, and the harmful
results occurring from them. Secondary effects. ii,i5
Description of free-living Nematodes. i6
Description of the Parasitic, gall-forming Nematode, Heterodera radi-
cola, Greef. 19
a. Early Life. 19
b. Development of male. 20
c. Development of female. 22
Recapitulation of the life history of Heterodera and the formation of
its galls. 23
Historical Review of economic work in gall-forming Nematodes. 24
Identity of our species. 26
Part II.
Nature of the problem in controlling Nematodes. 28
Plants which are subject to Nematodes. 29
Amount of damage caused by Nematodes. 30
Review of the various remedies which have been applied for Nematode
repression. 32
a. Treatment by chemicals. 32
b. Desiccation method. 35
c. The Halle or Catch-crop method of destroying Nematodes. 36
Effects of chemicals upon Nematodes. 37
Sterilizing or heating the soil the most effectual and practical method
of exterminating Nematodes in the greenhouse. 44
Amount of heat necessary to kill Nematodes and their eggs. 45
Methods of sterilizing the soil. 48
Cost of sterilization. 57
Effects of heating the soil on the growth of the crop. 58
Effects of heating the soil upon other greenliouse pests. 59
Relation of Nematodes to their environment. 60
Resum^. 64
Explanation of plates. 68
ERRATUM.
On page 35, line 20 and in foot note, for Va/ine read Vanha.
DIVISION OF BOTANY.
George E. Stone and Ralph E. Smith.
In the presentation of this bulletin by the Botanical department
we ought first of all perhaps to explain why we have undertaken a
work which is zodlogical rather than botanical in its nature. For
five or six years many complaints of damages caused to plants by
nematode worms have been addressed to the Station. Since the
trouble was not brought about by any vegetable organism such as a
fungus it did not strictly belong to our consideration. The only
other department of the Station to which it could be referred was
the entomological, and since worms are not insects it might be
questionable whether investigations of this nature would belong to
that department. What is true in our Station seems to have been
the case in most other states. We find more or less mention of dam-
ages caused by nematodes in the reports and bulletins of the differ-
ent experiment stations, but in hardly any case has the subject been
investigated. This is not due to negligence on the part of station
workers, but simply to the fact that few stations have any department
to which this work would fall, inasmuch as the study of worms
belongs to specialists in the domain of zoology. As a consequence
very little has been done in investigating the pest in this country and
nothing at all in this section, though the necessity for such investiga-
tion has been continually increasing. It should be stated, however,
that such study as has been made upon this subject has been done
almost entirely by botanists.
Realizing the impossibility of making definite recommendations
to those seeking advice in the matter and feeling that the subject
was one of great importance to the gardeners of Massachusetts, we
finally undertook investigations, the results of which are contained
in this bulletin.*
*We wish here to express our thanks to our colleague Prof. C. H. Fernald of the Entomo-
logical Division of the Station for many courtesies which he has shown us in this work.
There are many points of interest connected with the study of the
early life history of nematodes which would delight the embryologists,
but it was not our purpose to enter into this matter as it has no
important economic bearing and does not fall within the sphere of
station work. Our innumerable cultures of nematodes have furnished
us with rare and abundant material for such investigation, but we
have preferred to leave it to those especially practiced along the
lines of modern zoological technique.
Our endeavor has been to acquaint ourselves with the main zoolog-
ical features connected with the subject as far as possible and neces-
sary, by careful examination of the most important literature relat-
ing to the subject as well as by actual research. In stating our
results and drawing conclusions we have endeavored to present
nothing which is not well established on fact and in principle. We
have made no attempt to present a technical treatise upon the sub-
ject, but have aimed to give simply a clear and concise description
of the nature of nematode worms and their relation to greenhouse
plants, together with what we have been able to learn concerning
means and methods for their suppression.
This investigation has been carried on in connection with the reg-
ular botanical work during portions of 1894, 1895, 1896 and 1897.
That portion of the work relating to the life history and development
of the nematode has been done by Mr. Smith while the investiga-
tions of the remedies to be used have been carried on by Mr. Stone.
We have worked in co-operation with each other, however, and hold
ourselves individually responsible for the entire work.
Nematode Worms in the Greenhouse.
The practice of growing plants under glass has seen many and
important changes since its introduction. Beginning no doubt with
the growing of a few plants in the window for the sake of their
beauty in the winter, a comparatively short time has seen the intro-
duction and development of the modern greenhouse, with all its
accessories, improved methods, and appliances for growing plants,
not to mention the great development in the nature and variety of
the plants themselves. Especially recent is the practice of growing
vegetables under glass, now carried on so extensively in the vicinity
of all large towns and cities. During the last decade the value of
greenhouse products in Massachusetts has more than doubled. In
1885 it amounted to $688,813 ; i'"^ ^^95 $1,749,070; an increase of
153'/^.* But with this development in the methods and extent of
greenhouse work there has been a corresponding increase in those
elements and factors conspiring to make the success of such work
difficult and uncertain.
All plants growing in the greenhouse in winter are, and must be, in
an environment which is in a general way the more or less successful
result of an attempt to imitate the natural conditions which exist in
an ideal summer, and the degree of healthy and vigorous growth
which the plants attain, and indeed their very existence, depends
upon the success of this imitation. To be sure the gardener has an
advantage over Nature in his absolute control over the heat and
water supply, which are the two principal factors upon which the
" ideal " conditions depend, but this advantage may or may not be
profitable to him according as he employs it properly or improperly.
Of the factors upon which plant growth depends the most impor-
tant are heat, light, air and water, (both in soil and air), as well as
the mechanical and chemical nature of the soil. It might seem
then that the proper handling of these factors should result in per-
fect success in plant growing, but such is not always the case. There
are other factors which may come in and render of no avail the
greatest skill and knowledge, which reaches only to this point. Arti-
ficial heating, ventilation, watering, fertilizing, etc., may be carried to
perfection and still there are certain troubles or diseases which may
attack the plants and hinder or entirely prevent their growth. The
overcoming of such troubles is one of the most difficult problems of
the gardener's art. They may be due to insects. These in the lim-
ited area of the greenhouse can usually be easily detected and
destroyed. Another and more serious source of trouble lies in the
attacks of fungous diseases, blights, mildews, rots, etc., which cause
so much injury to plants growing in all situations. The Fungi caus-
ing these diseases are plants of low order and microscopic size,
living as parasites upon other plants and causing more or less injury
to them. They are much more likely to attack sickly or unhealthy
plants than those growing vigorously. Their occurrence, therefore,
especially in the greenhouse, depends to a considerable extent upon
the health of the plants. Aside from insects and fungi, injuries may
*Census of Mass. 1S95, vol. VI., pt. 2, p. 327.
be caused to plants by other organisms of various kinds, among which
the nematode worms are probably the most important.
What Nematodes Are.
The Nematodes or Nematode Worms form a class of animals
grouped under the Vermes or true w orms. They are much lower in
the scale than the larvae or caterpillars of insects, which are popu-
larly known as worms and often cause injuries to plants, and are
lower also than the earthworm, which is one of the most highly
developed of the Vermes. The nematodes vary greatly in size,
shape, and manner of life and include many peculiar and remarkable
forms. Most of them however have at some period of their exist-
ence an elongated worm-like form, whence the popular names eel worm,
thread worm, etc. Some keep this form during their whole existence
and live in water, earth, decaying matter, and other damp places.
Most of them are entirely harmless to plants and animals. They
are usually of very small size, scarcely or not at all visible to the
naked eye. Many different species of this kind exist abundantly in
Nature. The well known "vinegar eel " is an example. A great
number of nematodes however live for all or part of their lives as
parasites; many on animals and a few on plants. Such forms pass
through many most remarkable changes in their development. The
Trichina of pork and many other animal and human-infesting worms
are nematodes, while the tape worm, liver fluke, and in fact almost
all organisms of that nature are closely related. The so-called hair-
snake is a nematode, much larger than most kinds. In relation to
plants, we have to consider, in this locality only a few, and, as far as
we know, but one species of nematode. We know of no other
among the many indigenous to our soil capable of causing any con-
siderable injury to plants. All such trouble is due primarily to the
one species, Heterodera radicola, (Greet.) Miill. There is a more
or less prevalent idea that all kinds of nematodes cause injuries to
plants, but such is certainly not the case. The soil may swarm
with nematodes but, if our observations are correct, unless there
are among them this one species no injury will result.
Symptoms Of Nematode Injuries.
The only definite indication of the attacks of Heterodera radicola
is found in the roots of affected plants. These are more or less
covered with what we shall call galls, that is swellings or
enlargements of the roots, more or less roundish, but very-
irregular in shape and varying in size. These galls are some-
times very prominent both in size and number, but at other times are
small, few, and inconspicuous. Their number depends entirely upon
the abundance of the worms. The size and shape of the galls
depends also to some extent upon the abundance of the worms and
their location in the root, but in different kinds of plants we find galls
which are somewhat characteristic in appearance. This is very
natural when we consider that the gall is a growth of the plant itself
and has no organic connection with the worm. As different plants
produce different shaped leaves, flowers, fruits, etc., under the com-
mon influence of nature, so they may produce galls of different
shapes though the worm which causes them is the same.
The smallest galls with which we have met occur on the violet,
none being larger than a small pea and most of them being incon-
spicuous swellings near the tips of the rootlets. They might easily
be overlooked in this plant, even if very numerous. In the cycla-
men also the galls are small, but larger than in the violet. In the
rose they seem to vary somewhat in different varieties, but are mostly
of small size, especially on the smaller roots. On the main root they
become larger and one correspondent writes that he has seen them as
large as a duck's egg. This is an unusual size on any plant and
must have been the result of a growth of considerable time. In the
cucumber and tomato the galls are quite large and very prominent.
Besides the formation of root galls the nematode attacks are indicated
by the effect upon the vitality of the plant, though this effect is not
particularly definite or characteristic. In very badly affected soil
plants may be killed or very much stunted before reaching any con-
siderable size. The tomato and cucumber seedlings shown in plate
VII., figs. 3 and 4, were grown in such soil and never reached
any considerable size. Only in extreme cases, however, is the soil
as full of worms as this was, and more frequently the plants grow
normally at first, but after reaching a considerable size begin to
appear sickly. The leaves die at the edges, the plant stops growing
and gradually fades away or sometimes collapses quite suddenly.
The cucumber is perhaps the most liable to be killed outright, while
roses, violets, etc., often linger for a considerable time, although
this depends largely upon how badly the soil is infested. If the
worms are abundant when the plants are first started their attacks
will become evident at once. If only few at first they will have but
little effect until several generations have developed, but this does
not require a very long time. We feel very sure that more damage
is caused to greenhouse plants by Heterodera radicola than is gener-
ally supposed. Working as it does in the roots of the plant and
frequently producing even there very slight indications of its pres-
ence, plants might, and doubtless often do, linger along and finally
die while the cause of the trouble is vainly sought above ground or
in the soil, without its real location being suspected. If the roots
were examined the casual observer might fail to notice anything
unusual in some kinds of plants, even though they were badly
affected. In all cases, therefore, where greenhouse plants become
unhealthy and sickly and appear to be gradually d3ang without appar-
ent cause, an examination for nematode galls on the roots should be
made.
Galls Due to Other Causes Than Nematodes.
It must not be understood that all galls or swellings on the roots
of plants are due to nematodes. There are other agencies and
organisms producing a somewhat similar effect as regards superficial
appearance, among which two are the most important. These are
two low vegetable organisms, the one (Plasmodiophora Brassicae,
Wor.) causing the well known " club root " of cabbage and turnip,
and the other, a bacterial organism producing galls or "tubercles"
on the roots of plants of the order Leguminosae. Plasmodiophora
Brassicae is one of the very lowest plant organisms, consisting
simply of a homogeneous mass of protoplasm or plant substance
and having no distinct parts, organs, or tissues. It lives as a para-
site in the roots of the cabbage, turnip, kohl rabi, radish, shepherd's
purse, and other plants of the order Cruciferae, and produces an
effect sometimes very similar to that of the nematode. We have
seen roots of tomato affected by nematodes and those of cabbage
with " club root," which could not be told apart except by the odor
of the cabbage or by microscopic examination. The two things,
however, are quite distinct, having nothing in common except their
general appearance. The club root organism enters the root in the
form of minute spores and then increa.ses in bulk so as to cause a
distension of the cells and consequent enlargement of the root into
"clubs." Its effect can usually be distinguished in this locality from
nematode injuries by the plants wliich it affects. Any galls on the
roots of cruciferous plants growing out of doors in summer may
usually be considered as club root.
The other gall-producing organism affects clover, pea, bean,
lupine, horse bean, cow pea, vetch, and all other legumes or plants of
the order Leguminosae. It is a bacterial or microbe-like organism
consisting of extremely minute single cells, each cell being a complete
individual in itself. These little organisms enter the roots of legu-
minous plants from the soil and reproduce and multiply there, causing
the root by their presence to swell up into little galls or tubercles as
they are commonly called. These tubercles are quite similar in
appearance to nematode galls. Instead of injuring the plant, how-
ever, they have, on the contrary, a very beneficial and remarkable
effect. It has long been known that leguminous plants have the
power which is not possessed by other plants of obtaining free nitro-
gen from the air. This is of course very beneficial to them. What
gives them this power was for a long time unknown, but it is now well
established that this peculiar advantage is in some way connected
with and due to the bacteria in the roots, though just how it comes
about is not yet satisfactorily determined. We do not recall any
leguminous plants cultivated to any extent in greenhouses, except
perhaps one or two flowering plants, so that no great confusion with
nematode injuries need arise from this source.
Root galls may sometimes be traced to insects or other causes,
but not to any extent in greenhouse plants and therefore are not
liable to be confused with nematode galls. Galls are sometimes
formed on the root of the raspberrry by an insect (Rhodites radicum)
which are quite similar. We know of no perennial outdoor plant in
our climate which is affected by nematodes.
Nature of the Galls Produced By Heterodera radicola, And the Harm-
ful Results Occurring From Them.
By breaking open a gall from the roots of any affected plant and
carefully examining the fragments there may be seen with the naked
eye or more easily with a hand lens, little, white, glistening, pearl-
like bodies about the size of a pin head, imbedded here and there in
the tissue. These are the mature female worms and the cause of
the formation of the galls and consequent injury to the plant. Their
number varies with the size of the gall, or, more logically, the size
of the gall depends upon their number. In some parts of the root
will be found minute pimple-like excrescences, usually of a yellowish
color, just large enough to contain a single worm. From these the
galls and number of worms contained varies indefinitely.
In order to get an idea of these abnormal root growths, let us
first briefly consider the normal structure of the root in a plant like
the cucumber. If such a root be cut across with a sharp knife there
can readily be distinguished on the cut ends two different tissues or
parts. The central part of the section is occupied by a more or less
star or cross shaped portion differing in color and appearance from
the other tissue which surrounds it. This is called the central cylm-
der, and the other part the cortex. Both are composed of variously
formed celts, as are all parts of the plant. The cortex, (PI. VI., fig.
2, c.) consists of comparatively large, thin walled cells which make it
a sort of spongy tissue, the principal function of which is to absorb
water from the soil. In this water are dissolved the substances fornr
ing the food of the plant. The central cylinder, (PI. VI., fig. 2, p.)
consists of several tissues, each having its particular structure and
function. Its elements are mostly composed of cells of a firmer,
thicker structure than those of the cortex and thus it serves to give
the root its strength and stability, just as the woody portions do in
the stem. Among the elements of this central cylinder one of the
most important is a tissue composed of large, long, thick-walled,
tube like cells, connecting end to end longitudinally to form passages
from the root up through the entire plant to the leaves, (pi. VI., fig. 2,
d.). Through these vessels, which are called di/cts, the crude sap,
i. e. water containing nutritive substances in solution, coming in
through the cortex from the earth is carried up to the stem and
thence to the leaves where it is transformed under the influence of
sunlight into plant substance. We may, in a very general way, con-
sidering only the function of taking water from the soil, liken such a
root to a bundle of tubes composed of some material through which
water can pass, enclosed in a covering of spongy material ; the tubes
of course representing the ducts of the central cylinder and the spongy
material the cortex. Imagining such a contrivance to be placed in
water, it can readily be seen how the water might soak through the
outer layer into the tubes and thence be carried wherever an impelling
force might direct it. Such a force is supplied in the plant by the
so-called root pressure, the force which circulates the sap.
13
If now a section be made of a fair sized nematode gal], a consider-
able difference in the arrangement of the tissues will be seen. The
central cylinderno longer has its regular outline and central position,
but forms an irregular, misshapen area, extending nearly to the out-
side of the root in some places, while in others it is far from the
surface. The cortex also has an irregular shape and thickness, but
it is much thicker than in the normal root. Here and there on the
surface of the section will usually be seen the female worms or their
remains, some near the edge and others at various depths in the root.
Examination with the microscope shows a great disarrangement of
all the root tissues. (PI. VI., fig. 5). The cells of the cortex are
increased in number and size, being affected especially in the vicinity
of the worms, which are located mostly at the inner edge of the cortex
at its junction with the central cylinder. In the latter portion of the
root serious changes have taken place, as a result of which the injury
to the plant is mostly to be ascribed. The ducts and smaller vessels,
instead of running directly through the root as in the normal speci-
men are greatly distorted and deviated so that many of them run
directly at right angles to their natural course, i. e. across the root,
and a cross section shows their sides, which are marked with lines and
dots on their wall, instead of their open ends as in the section of the
normal root. Where one of the worms is located near or in the
cylinder the vessels grow in such a way as to form an irregular mass
completely enclosing it, and even where the nematode is in the midst
of the cortex they are greatly deviated from their natural course.
The size and shape of the galls, as we have already pointed out,
depends largely upon the number and location of the worms, and
also upon the kind of plant, but not, as far as we know, upon the
worm itself. That is to say, we cannot conclude that galls of a
certain shape indicate a particular kind of worm, for while each of
the affected plants has a gall more or less peculiar to itself, the
worm is the same in all. Large galls are formed where several
worms attack the root at the same place. If they be close together
and distributed on all sides of the root the resulting gall will be of
quite regular shape. Irregular galls are formed where several worms
locate on one side of the root, or at short distances from one another
so that several small galls grow into one. Most of the galls start
when the roots are very young, or on the younger portion, near the
tips of older roots. Here the tissues are in a formative stage and
14
the central cylinder is just beginning to form. Plate VI., fig. i shows
a section of a young and normal root at this stage. The cortical
tissue forms the larger part of the structure while the central cylinder
consists of a limited area of small cells in which a few ducts are
just beginning to develop. When a nematode attacks this young
rootlet it very soon begins to appear like those shown on the seedlings
in plate VII. Plate VI., figs. 3 and 4, show sections of these young
galls. In fig. 3 are seen three young worms which are just entering
the root (as shown from the exterior in plate VII., fig. i). There were
others no doubt on the opposite side which did not come into view
in this section. Comparing this with the normal rootlet in fig. i, we
notice first of all the increased size, clue principally to the increase
in number and size of the cortex cells. The central cylinder no
longer forms a definite mass in the center, but has separated into
several portions and occupies an irregular area. The few ducts
which have been formed are already distorted in direction and run
obliquely. Fig. 4 shows a similarly affected root at a somewhat
later stage. We see here a worm farther developed than those in
fig. 3, the broad, large celled cortex, and the central cylinder divided
into two parts in each of which appear several ducts and vessels
growing in an oblique direction. From this stage the abnormal
growth continues and the tissues become more and more confused
and distorted until the gall reaches a considerable size and has the
complicated structure shown in fig. 5.
The effect upon the vital function of the plant produced by this
malformation of the root can be readily imagined. It is brought
about principally in two ways ; first, by the general interruption of
all the functions, and second and particularly by the interruption of
the normal flow of sap from the roots, caused by the distortion of
the ducts. Continuing the comparison of the root with the bundle
of tubes, imagine the latter to have become twisted, "kinked,"
doubled up, and tied into knots. It is very plain then that the
passage of water through them would l)e hindered. The parts of
the plant above ground, absolutely dependent upon the roots for
moisture and food, must necessarily suffer from such an abnormal
growth in a measure proportionate to its extent. A few galls on the
roots produce no apparent effect. Where they are quite abundant
the plant becomes stunted and sickly, and where the roots become
completely covered with galls, as they do in badly infested soil, the
IS
plant is killed outright, for its food and water supply is entirely cut
off. These effects, therefore, are not brought about directly by the
nematodes, but only indirectly. That is to say they are not due to
the direct action of the worm in feeding upon the root as is the case
with the attacks of insects and fungous diseases, where the plant
dies or sustains injury from the loss of its vital substance. To be
sure the worms obtain their food from the roots after entering them,
and must cause some damage in that way, but far more serious must
be the result of the derangement of -the vital functions caused by
the abnormal growth of the plant, which in trying to overcome the
injury in the roots produces greater injury to its other parts. It is
evident from published writings, even in experiment station bulletins,
that a very general impression exists that nematode worm injuries are
brought about by a swarm of little worms feeding upon the roots,
much as insect larvae feed, but this idea is altogether wrong. The
amount of food which the worms consume is insignificant and
entirely disproportionate to the amount of damage caused. The
structure of the affected roots, on the other hand, shows plainly that
therein lies the chief source of injury.
Secondary Effects.
In this connection it will be proper to consider what we may call
the secondary effects of these nematode attacks. This would
inckide the attacks of other injurious organisms which are favored
by the weakened condition of nematode affected plants. Among the
most common of these organisms are those fungi which produce
diseases. It is a well known fact that the least vigorous plant is
most easily affected by disease. While it is true that some of the
most destructive plant diseases attack the strong and weak alike, in
the case of many others like certain "mildews", "blights", "spots",
etc., the disease only appears on plants which for some reason are
not growing vigorously. We believe that the destructive effects of
the well known " violet disease " (Cercospora Violae) are greatly
increased as secondary results of nematode galls on the roots. That
is the galls have weakened the plants and thus given the fungus a
foothold. In the same way we have seen the cucumber powdery
mildew appear on nematode ridden plants while others in the same
house which had no nematodes were likewise free from mildew.
The tomato blight might easily be induced in the same way. We do
i6
not mean that nematodes are always the agent which induces these
diseases, — poor drainage or ventilation, improper temperature or
fertilizers, and a hundred other things may serve to weaken the
plants and stop their growth, thus leaving them an easy prey to
disease, — but we do believe that nematodes are at the bottom of
much more trouble with plants than is generally suspected.
Another secondary result of nematode attacks is worth consider-
ing. In examining roots which are badly infested we find not only
the worms of this particular species but also other kinds of nema-
todes, other low animal organisms, fungi, and bacteria, forms which
have no power to attack the healthy root but which come in after the
plant has been weakened and its root partly destroyed, and no doubt
aid considerably in hastening its death. Thus the injuries caused to
plants by Heterodera radicola are of three kinds ; first the small
direct injury by the worm feeding on the substance of the plant ;
second, and most important, the indirect injury brought about by the
interference with the vital functions of the plant on account of the
abnormal growth ; and third, secondary effects as described above.
Description of Free-Living Nematodes.
A typical nematode of the free-living, harmless class is shown in
plates I. and II. This is a form found in decaying roots which had
been killed by Heterodera. It is a species of Rhabdites. The ani-
mal originates from an egg, (PI. I., fig. i.) which is of a noval shape,
about .07 mm. (-gly of an inch) in length and half as wide, and con-
sists of a membranous covering inclosing a mass of granular proto-
plasm and fat globules. After being impregnated the contents of
the egg divide into two parts (fig. 2) and then by continual division
and development as shown in figs. 1-12, develop gradually into an
elongated structure which assumes the form of a young worm,
doubled up several times in the egg membrane. W'hen fully devel-
oped it bursts the membrane and is discharged into the water or
earth or wherever the mother may be. In this particular species the
young are born alive. In others the eggs are discharged as soon as
mature or when the young worm is partly developed, completing
their development outside the mother. The newly hatched worm
(fig. 13) is a minute elongated organism about .3 mm. (J^ of an inch)
in length, tapering to a rounded end at the head and a pointed tail
behind. Its structure is quite simple. The body wall is composed of
17
muscular layers and incloses an internal cavity almost entirely filled
with the alimentary canal, which forms the very simple digestive sys-
tem. This begins at the head end, in the mouth opening (fig. 15, m.)
and runs back for about one-third the length of the body in a narrow
tube, the oesophagtis, which has a thick wall and two bulb like enlarge-
ments, one near the middle and the other at the posterior end, (fig.
15, X and b.). These parts are rather indistinct in the very young
worm, but become more prominent as it grows older. From the
oesophagus the alimentary canal broadens out into the intestine or
stomach (s) which occupies most of the remaining length of the body,
terminating in a narrow portion, the irctiim, which has its outlet at
the anus, near the posterior end. The whole body is filled more or
less with granular protoplasm and fat globules. The only other
organ distinguishable at this stage is the sexual, which originates in
both sexes in a little cluster of minute cells situated close to the
intestine, near or just posterior to the middle of the body. This is
shown more enlarged in fig. 14. As the worm approaches maturity
it increases in length and proportionally in width, the alimentary
canal becoming more distinct and the sexual organs developing.
The sexes now become distinguishable. In the female the sexual
organ becomes an ovary. The cells composing it increase rapidly in
number, extending toward both ends of the body. At the same time
an opening called the indva (v) is formed through the body wall on
one side, about one third the body length from the tail. The worm
has now reached the stage shown at plate I., fig. 17, or the somewhat
later stage at plate II., fig 1. The ovary extends almost the entire length
of the intestine, forming a long tube full of small, roundish cells, the
immature eggs, and connected with the vulva or opening in the
side of the body. Or we may regard it as two tubes, one extending
forward and the other backward from the opening.
In the male, meantime, the sexual organ has also developed into
a long tube, which however has no special outlet of its own but
opens directly into the rectum just in front of its opening at the anus.
This male organ is the testis, and in it the small round spcrjiiatozoa
are developed. In the extremity of the intestine, just above the
anus, there develops in the male a two branched, curved, sharp
pointed spicule, which can be protruded from the anus and serves as
an aid to copvilation. For the same purpose there is also formed in
the male a hood like expansion of the tail called the bursa. . Plate
i8
II., fig. 5, shows the mature male in its relative size to the mature
female, fig. 4. Fig. 6 shows the posterior end more enlarged with the
spicule (q), anus (y), bursa (z), and the testis (t). At this stage
copulation takes place, the male and female being about equal in
size, having a length of .8mm. (yL of an inch) the male being mature,
but the female not yet fully developed. The male clasps the body
of the female (PI. I., fig. 18) by means of the bursa so that the open-
ing of the testis is directly in contact with that of the ovary, and
discharges its spermatoza into the small cavity which is situated just
under the opening. The male has now completed its life and dies,
while the female goes on to develop eggs and young. The body
continues to increase in length and still more in diameter, assuming a
somewhat distended, cigar shaped form (PL 11. , fig. i). The eggs in
the ovary begin to mature, those nearest the opening first, and soon
the worm reaches the stage shown at fig. 2. The intestine is no lon-
ger the most prominent organ of the body cavity. That is now
almost filled by the ovary, a long wide tube extending from the
oesophagus to the posterior end of the body, filled with eggs in all
stages of development. Soon the young begin to hatch and move
about in the ovary, whence they are forcibly discharged through the
side opening. In adult worms which were killed during examination
the eggs continued to hatch but the young worms seemed unable to
reach the exterior. They squirmed vigorously about, travelling
from end to end of the body cavity (which finally became nothing
but a sack, full of a living mass of young worms) and occasionally
one would chance upon the vulva and protrude its head, but they
always drew back again before getting out completely and showed by
their actions that the forcible discharge by the parent which was
observed in living specimens was necessary for their release. Fig.
3 shows a living mature female, and fig. 4 one which was dead and
somewhat disorganized.
Plate IX., figs. 4 and 5 shows the male and female of another species
in which the eggs are discharged when partially developed. Fig. 1
is a small male of another related species. In this is shown at (<?) a
small opening through the body wall just opposite the oesophagal
bulb, which is the orifice of an excretory organ, a long tube running
down the body which occurs in most nematodes but is not easily
distinguishable. Fig. 2 shows the posterior end of this male
more enlarged, bursa (z), spicule (q), intestine (o), and testis (t).
19
Besides the digestive, sexual, and excretory systems, nematodes
also have a sort of nervous system, consisting principally of a so
called nerve ring, which surrounds the oesophagus just behind its
median bulb. This, however, is usually very indistinct and not highly
developed. A circulatory system is entirely wanting in nematodes.
Description of the Parasitic, Gall Forming Nematode, Heterodera
radicola.
(a) EARLY LIFE.
Turning now from this typical species of a nematode in its sim-
plest form, to the gall forming species which causes the injury to
plants, we shall find some similarities in structure and development
and also some striking differences. The egg (PI. IV., figs. 1-16), as
in the other species is an elliptical or rather bean shaped body .imm.
(o-i^f of an inch) in length, composed of a chitinous membrane inclo-
sing a mass of granular protoplasm and fat globules.
The covering, although very thin, is extremely tough and very
resistant to heat, cold, chemical substances, etc., affording to the
egg contents a protection which is well nigh absolute against the
ordinary influences of nature. In its earliest stage the mature &^^
consists inside the membrane of a loose, undivided mass with a nu-
cleus in the centre. After fertilization the nucleus divides and two
cells are formed (Fig. 3). These divide again and again passing
through various embryological changes and developing into a young
worm as shown at fig. 16. The worm moves about freely in the
shell and finally ruptures it and escapes. In its earliest life it resem-
bles the free living species having a similar form and structure. It is
a minute worm-shaped creature about .33mm. {.K of an inch) in length,
quite invisible to the naked eye. Plate VII., figs. 5 and 6, are intended
to give an idea of the size of the worm at this stage. Fig. 5 show^s
it among the particles of a fine loam 'soil, while Fig. 6 shows an
enlarged portion of an angle worm with two black lines upon it near
the centre, the shorter of which represents a young nematode in its
proportionate size to the angle worm. The longer black line repre-
sents the length of the mature male nematode, at the greatest length
it attains at any time or in any form. Imagining the angle worm
reduced to its normal size, some idea will be obtained of the minute-
ness of the nematode when similarly reduced. It is in this young
stage and in the egg that the worm exists in the soil. Its structure
is simple, consisting of a body wall containing the alimentary canal
(oesophagus, intestine and rectum) and the almost indistinguishable
rudiments of the sexual organ. In these respects it is very similar
to the free living species. In its anterior end, however, within the
mouth opening, is seen a structure not found in the ordinary forms.
This is a small spear like organ, (PI. V., s, tig. 5,) which can be moved
about to a certain extent and assists the worm in penetrating roots.
Most of the young worms when hatched are in the interior of the
galls on the roots. They are able to escape without difificulty since
the gall becomes decayed and disorganized and since their small size
makes it an easy matter to force their way through the tissue, between
the cells. Arriving in the soil they at once proceed to attack new
roots if any be present, or if not they are able, as our experiments
have shown, to exist for a considerable time without change, await-
ing an opportunity for further development. Plate VII., fig. i,
shows young worms entering the tip of a rootlet. In this they no
doubt make use of the spear like arrangement in forcing their way
in. Having once effected an opening they are able to force their
way between the loose cortex cells without difficulty. Having pene-
trated the root so that the whole body is covered, the worm comes to
rest and its remarkable course of development proceeds. It does not
simply increase in size retaining the same general form, as do the
ordinary nematodes, but it begins to increase in diameter in the
middle of the body, and in the course of about a week has a sort of
spindle shape, broad in the middle and tapering towards both ends,
(PI. IV., figs. 3 and 4). From now on the swelling occurs more rap-
idly at the tail end, giving the body a club shape, (fig. 5). Thus far
the sexes are indistinguishable but now appears a remarkable differ-
ence in their mode of development. The female continues to enlarge,
but the male undergoes a remarkable transformation and returns-
to the slender, worm like form.
(b) DEVELOPMENT OF THE MALE.
Up to this point the development of the male, like that of the
female, has consisted of an enlargement and broadening of the body.
It now, however, ceases to enlarge in this way and begins to draw in
from the body wall and increase in length inside the wall, which
keeps its original shape, though it is now simply a sac enclosing the
worm with which it has no connection. The transformation whick
the male now undergoes is somewhat similar to the pupal or
" cocoon '' stage in insects. During its increase in length the worm
is obliged to double over inside the old wall, first once, then twice
and even three times. It now appears as shown in plate V., fig. 4, which
stage it reaches in about four weeks after entering the root. The
old skin still retains its tapering form at the head and sharp pointed
tail. Within it is coiled the mature male worm which soon proceeds
to break forth and seek its mate. The mature male is shown in plate
v., fig. 5. It is a slender worm-shaped creature, having a length of
about 1.5 mm., (J=-- of an inch), and a breadth of about .045 mm.,
Gt) 0" '^^ ^^^ inch). The body tapers towards the head, at which end
it is about half as wide as in the middle. Towards the posterior end
the diameter is nearly uniform. The body wall is marked by quite
prominent transverse striae. On the head end is a cap-like thicken-
ing of the wall with six grooved depressions radiating from the
mouth opening in the centre. Strubell considers this as a boring
appliance to assist the worm in forcing its way through the soil and
roots. The spear is quite large and prominent, the three-lobed base
and the enlargement at the centre being plainly visible. The oeso-
phagal bulbs are rather indistinct. The excretory duct is seen at
its opening near the beginning of the intestine and can be traced
down through the body for some distance. The intestine, testis, and
spicule appear much as in tlie free living nematodes. We are able
to find no ground for Atkinson's* statement that the rare case of a
two-branched testis occurs in this species. We have found the organ
to consist of the usual single tube connecting with the intestine near
the spicule. This connection, however, and the general structure at
this point is very indistinct, the most prominent objects being the
two walls of the intestine, which, to judge from his figure of the
male, are what he has regarded as the two tubes of the testis. No
bursa is found in this species, nor is one necessary, since the females
are fixed in the roots during copulation. The male comes to maturity
at a time when the female is still immature, and since its existence
ceases very soon after it reaches the adult stage it is not always easy
to find specimens. Working with old, mature galls as material we
were puzzled for some time at finding plenty of mature females, but
no males. In following through the development of the worm, how-
*Nematode Root Galls. Rep't .\labama Agr'l Expt. Station, iS
3
ever, by examining galls from affected plants at frequent intervals
during their formation, it becomes evident that at the time when the
females are mature the males have ceased to exist, but that they
may be found without difficulty if looked for at the proper time.
C. DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEMALE.
The early stages of the female worm are similar to and indistin-
guishable from those of the male. It does not, however, return to the
worm-like form after once entering the root and beginning to swell
up, but continues in the same way until it comes to have the gourd-
like shape shown in plate IV., fig. 6. This swelling affects the body
wall and also the intestine, which enlarges correspondingly. The
animal retains its pointed tail-like process up to the stage when the
male can be distinguished, but soon after this disappears and the
posterior end of the body assumes a roundish form. This change
takes place by the " moulting " or casting of the skin, a process
which takes place several times (four or five) during the development
of the worm. This moulting is very similar to that of insect larvae,
the skin lining the oesophagus being cast as well as that of the
exterior of the body. Plate IV., fig. 4, shows the female at the time
when the male is just becoming distinguishable (plate V., fig. 2,) and in
plate IV., fig. 5, the female is represented about one week later, i. e. at
the time when the male has completed its transformation and become
mature. At this stage the intestine of the female has become very
broad at the posterior end and contracts suddenly to a narrow por-
tion or rectum leading to the anus. The ovary has been developing
from the immature sexual organ and now consists of a two-branched
tube, starting at the posterior end of the body, where the sexual
opening is just appearing close by the anus. The simultaneous
maturing of the male and development of the sexual opening of the
female leave but little doubt that copulation now takes place, though
we have not actually observed it as we did in the free living form.
The return of the male to the worm-like form is evidently an adapta-
tion to enable it to reach the female, which is entirely immov-
able after entering the root. It is not probable, however, that
the male is obliged to travel a great distance in order to find its
mate, as the worms show a sort of gregariousness in entering the
root and usually several locate near one another. The European
23
nematode which attacks the sugar beet does not form galls such as
we meet with here, but the females locate so near the surface of the
root that in their increase in size they rupture the epidermal tissues
and their posterior portions project into the soil, whence, according
to Strubell, they are fertilized by the males. In our form, however,
while some of the females are located near enough the surface for
this to be possible, most of them are completely imbedded in the
tissue of the gall, through which the male must penetrate in order to
reach them. After copulation the male perishes and the female con-
tinues to develop. It still increases somewhat in size and in about
five or six weeks from the time it entered the root it reaches its
mature form shown in plate IV., fig. 6. It is now about i mm. (75^5 of
an inch) long and more than half as broad, being visible to the
naked eye as a little white pearl-like speck or globule in the tissue of
the gall. It still retains the spear andoesophagal bulb, but the intes-
tine is disorganized and indistinguishable. The body cavity is filled
with fat globules which render it semi-opaque. In the most trans-
parent specimens the ovary can be somewhat distinguished, consist-
ing of two long tubes coiled about in the body, filled with eggs in
various stages of development and uniting at the sexual opening at
the posterior end of the body. Plate IV., fig. 7, shows the ovary
removed from the body by crushing it open. The extremities of the
two tubes are filled with a transparent mass of small cells, the undif-
ferentiated eggs. Below this the eggs become more and more
mature, developing fat globules and a very prominent nucleus. Fer-
tilization takes place in the ovary tube so that the eggs located
toward the opening are partly developed. Life becomes extinct in
the female at the time when the eggs mature and there remains
simply a cavity in the gall filled with eggs, young worms, and the
remains of the old one. The young worms gradually find their way
out into the soil, seek new roots to attack, and a new generation
begins.
Recapitulation of the Life History of Heterodera and the Formation of its
Galls.
Let us now briefly review the course of development of this worm
and the galls which it produces. Young worms coming into the soil
from previously affected plants wander about until they find roots
suitable for their attacks. Aided by a spear-like organ in the head
24
they force their way into the younger portion of the root and imbed
themselves in its tissue. This irritation of the tissues of the plant
causes an abnormal development of the root, consisting in an
increased production of cells and a derangement of the tissues from
their natural arrangement. The worms increase in length and much
more in diameter, assuming a spindle and then a club shape. The
females continue this swelling process until they have the shajDc of
a gourd and a size just visible to the eye. They are now mature,
and having been fertilized by the male previous to their maturity
they produce eggs which develop into the young worms of the next
generation. The life period of the female is about six weeks. The
male worms do not remain in the swollen form, but after about four
weeks from entering the root they change again into a slender worm-
like form which enables them to move about and seek the females,
with which they copulate and then perish. While the worms are
developing, the abnormal growth of the root continues and results in
a gall-like swelling or enlargement and such a disarrangement of the
tissues that the progress of the sap through the plant is hindered to
an extent depending upon the number of galls on the roots. This
injury, together with that caused by the w^orms drawing their food
from the plant, checks its growth and often kills it outright or so
weakens it that fungous diseases come in and hasten its destruction.
Historical Review.
It is difficult or impossible to say just when the injurious effects
of nematode worms on plants were first recognized as such. It is
probable, however, that the first record of such injuries is that of
Hermann Schacht,' a German botanist, who, in 1859, in connection
with studies on the sugar beet, discovered what he described as " lit-
tle white specks of the size of a pin head," upon the roots, which he
correctly determined to be nematodes. Three years later Schacht
published again, giving a more complete description of the
subject of his discovery. In 187 1, Schmidt," another German,
made investigations upon the subject and gave to the worm discov-
ered by Schacht the name Heterodera Schachtii. Schmidt's work
was continued by several different investigators, and in 18SS
1. Zeitschrift f. Rubenzuckerindustrie 1S59, '61, '62.
2. Ibid 1871, 1872.
25
Strubell''' published an elaborate treatise upon this nematode, which
had become a most serious obstacle to sugar beet growing in Ger-
many. In 1872 Greef^ described a gall-forming nematode from
Germany, giving it the name Anguillula radicola, which Miiller'
redescribed in 1883 under the name Heterodera radicola. This
was a form closely allied to Heterodera Schachtii and was never
satisfactorily determined as distinct from it. In 1889 Dr. J. C.
Neap' published under the auspices of the Division of Entomology of
the United States Department of Agriculture, a bulletin ujjon a gall-
forming nematode which was and had been for a long time the cause
of much damage to plants in Florida. This worm he described
under the name Anguillula arenaria. Later in the same year
Atkinson, (loc. cit.) of the Alabama Experiment Station, published a
bulletin upon what was evidently the same species described by Dr.
Neal but referred it to Heterodera radicola of Miiller. In 1890 N.
A. Cobb,' consulting Entomologist to the Department of Agriculture,
New South Wales, published the results of an investigation on a
root gall nematode occurring in that country, which he called
Tylenchus arenarius and considered identical with Neal's species.
This includes the most important general accounts of gall-forming
nematodes from an economic standpoint which have been published,
although the European literature of the subject is very extensive.
Such work, it will be seen, has been very meagre in this country and
confined to the southern portions. In addition to these more elab-
orate publications short notes upon nematodes have appeared in the
bulletins of several Experiment Stations, and in various agricultural,
horticultural, and lioricultural publications, mostly within the last
ten years. Many of these have contained errors and none have
given any comprehensive account of the matter.
It is impossible to say just when the effects of nematode attacks
began to be noticeable in greenhouses. The earliest reference
which we have been able to find is in an article in the Auiericaii
Florist, April 15, 1888, by J. N. May, in which the writer states that
3. Untersuchungen iiber d. Bau und d. Entwickelung d. Riibennematoden Heterodera
Schachtii, Schmidt. Bibliotheca zoologica II., iS88.
4. Sitzungsber. d. Gesellsch. zur Beforder'g. d. Naturvviss. zu Marburg 5 Dez., 1872.
5. Neue Helminthocecidien und deren Erzeuger, Berlin, 18S3.
6. The Root-Knot Disease m Florida. Bull 20 U.S. Dept. of Agr., Div. of Entomology,
1S89.
7. Tylenchus and Root-Gall. Agr'l Gazette, N. S. Wales, Vol. I., p. 155. jSgo.
26
he observed what he calls "club root" in violets in 1876. This
without much doubt was the work of nematode worms. The trouble
seems to have been common since about 1888, most articles on the
subject having appeared since that time. It is now common every-
where and known to every gardener and florist.
Identity of our Species.
We have carefully examined the work of Strubell, Neal, Atkinson,
and Cobb, and compared them with our own. Atkinson's excellent
account of the Alabama species leaves no doubt that it is identical
with ours. The only discrepancy of importance is in regard to the
structure of the male reproductive organ, to which we have already
referred in discussing the structure of the male. In all other
respects his description applies perfectly to what we have found.
That portion of Neal's work which relates to the structure and devel-
opment of the worm is by no means complete and contains not a
few obvious errors, but indicates nevertheless, without much doubt,
that his species was identical with Atkinson's and that which we
have investigated. Cobb, also, appears to have had the same
species to deal with in Australia. It may therefore be assumed that
the forms studied by Neal, Atkinson, Cobb, and ourselves, are all to
be referred to the species which has been called Heterodera radicola,
(Greef) Miill.
An examination of Strubell's very complete and accurate descrip-
tion of Heterodera Schachtii shows that our species^ if not identical
with that, is hardly more than a variety of it. The identity or dis-
tinctness of these species has always been unsettled. The only
really distinctive character between the two of which we have been
able to find any statement is that of Atkinson in regard to the male
testis, and of which, as already stated, we doubt the validity. Aside
from this we find nothing which could not be considered as individ-
ual variation or at most a difference of variety. We were able to
examine a few mature females of H. Schachtii brought by Dr. Stone
from the Experiment Station at Halle, and found them apparently
identical in structure with our H. radicola, but we were not able to
compare the two in all stages of development. It would seem
remarkable that forms should exist agreeing so completely in general
structure and in the details of so unique a course of development
I
27
and yet be distinct species. Certain violet roots sent in for examin-
ation by a gardener in this state were found to be infested with a
nematode agreeing in every way with the ordinary H. radicola which
we were investigating, except tliat the eggs, one of which is shown
in plate IX., fig. 6, were only three-fourths as large. The structure of
the worm was the same in every particular, the embryological devel-
opment was similar, yet every egg of the thousands in the lot had
the unusually small size. Shall this be considered a distinct species ?
If not, then we can see no reason for considering Heterodera radi-
cola as a distinct species from H. Schachtii, until actual comparison
shall show them to be so, on characters not yet established.
Note. — Since the above was written there has appeared a bulletin on the cotton plant
from the Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Department of Agriculture, in which, under
the heading- of diseases of the cotton plant Professor Atkinson has briefly described the
nematode root gall disease. In describing the structure of the male worm he speaks as fol-
lows : " Occasionally some males were found which showed but a single testis. Since
Heterodera Schachtii possesses but a single testis, it might be well to inquire whether that
species was also present and whether they are associated in the same roots in some cases or
whether there is a variation in H. radicola in the possession of paired and single testes.''
This statement has a very important bearing on the question as to the relations between
H. Schachtii and H. radicola in that it casts a doubt upon the only distinctive feature
between the species which has been presented. If the first hypothesis be true ; namely that
both species are present in this country as distinct species, then it would be natural to con-
clude that our species is H. Schachtii while that studied by Atkinson in Alabama in 18S3
was H. radicola. The almost absolute agreement of our results in detail, however, leaves
but little doubt that we had the same species to deal with. If the second hypothesis, that
"there is a variation in H. radicola in the possession of paired and single testes," be correct,
then the separation of the species on this character loses its value completely. We feel,
therefore, all the more certain that Heterodera Schachtii and Heterodera radicola are one
and the same species.
PART II.
Nature of the Problem in Controlling Nematodes.
The problem of nematode control is not the same in all latitudes
or in all countries but is determined by the nature of the conditions
which practical growers have to deal with. In the Southern States
and in those countries in which the winters are mild nematodes can
exist in the soil during the whole winter without any detriment,
whereas in the latitude of New England where the winters are cold
and prolonged the parasitic form Heterodera cannot survive. As a
result of this the parasitic species, the Heterodera, finds its proper
habitat in the greenhouses where the soil is kept from freezing and
it also survives the winter to a large extent in unfrozen manure
heaps. This statement does not hold, however, with the non-para-
sitic species of nematode, inasmuch as these forms or at least their
eggs are capable of standing an exceedingly low temperature and we
have never failed to find them in all kinds of garden soil, or, in fact,
in any soil which contains abundant decomposing organic matter.
These non-parasitic forms are frequently found in decaying vege-
tables of all sorts and we have many times observed them in the
laboratory on decaying matter which had evidently been subjected
to no source of contamination except ordinary water from the faucet.
The fact that Heterodera cannot stand our New England climate
greatly simplifies the problem of controlling nematodes, for here we
have the problem confined to our greenhouses and manure heaps
and not to hundreds of acres of soil as is the case in the milder cli-
mate of Europe and that of the Southern States. Heterodera, how-
ever, does occur occasionally in some of our outdoor plants but such
cases are always where the plants with their contaminating" soil have
been removed from the greenhouses as in the case of violets, etc., or
else where nematode infested manure has been applied to the soil.
It must be evident, therefore, that any rational treatment pertain-
ing to nematodes must take these facts into consideration and
must especially bear in mind the sources of contamination. Then
again we must pay some attention to the life history of nematodes in
order to be successful in controlling them. We have already shown
29
that nematodes propagate by eggs and any method which fails to
destroy these is of little account. Could we succeed in ridding
badly infested soil of adult nematodes it would only be a matter of
one or two weeks before the soil W'ould be swarming again with
nematodes ready to attack their proper host. Our experiments both
in the greenhouse and laboratory have repeatedly demonstrated this,
and this fact is interesting as showing how badly infested soil may
become with nematode eggs. It is verj^ clear that any remedy which
is to be applied to the soil for the purpose of completely ridding it
of nematodes must be one which will not only kill all of the worms
but their eggs as well. It is, in fact, the eggs of the nematode
which constitute the most difficult factor in their control as they are
surrounded by a more or less impenetrable membrane and we have
not as yet discovered any solution capable of destroying them in the
soil which can be employed cheaply and effectively without injury to
the crop.
Plants which are Subject to Nematodes.
The plants which are subject to nematode ravages are quite
numerous and they represent a great many different families. Prof.
Kiihn' in i88t gave a list of i8o European plants belonging to 35
different families w'hich nematodes attack and this list has undoubt-
edly been enlarged since that time. The most susceptible families
according to Kiihn's list are the Gramineae (Grasses) in which there
are recorded 46 species of plants subject to nematodes, while the
Leguminosae (Clovers, etc.) is represented by 33 species, the
Compositae (Aster, etc.) by 16 species and the Cruciferae (Mustards,
etc.) by 14 species. Neal in his work entitled "The Root-Knot
Disease of Plants " has enumerated over 60 species of plants in
Florida susceptible to the attacks of nematodes, and Atkinson (1. c.)
has listed 36 different plants observed by him in Alabama.
In our Northern States the number of plants attacked by nema-
todes is very much smaller and is almost entirely confined to green-
house species. In the North the greenhouse cucumber, tomato,
violet, rose, and cyclamen constitute the most important host plants,
although they are not infrequently found causing considerable dam-
I. Die Ergebnisse d. Versuche z. Erniittelung d. Ursache d. Riibenmudigkeit u.
Erforschung d. Natur d. Nematoden. p. 120, iSSi.
3°
age to other well known greenhouse plants such as coleus, spinach,
heliotrope, fern, moon flower, begonia,* and clematis.''
Halsted'' has also called attention to the occurrence of nematodes
in the leaves of coleus, chrysanthemum, lantana, bouvardia, begonia,
pelargonium, salvia, zinnia and ficus comosa, where they give rise to
decomposed spots in the leaves which finally result in their falling
ofT, and giving the plant a generally unhealthy appearance. Hal-
sted has also observed them in the oat in New Jersey, and Sturgis*
has found them doing considerable harm on the roots of outdoor
asters. From the large list of plants attacked by nematodes belong-
ing to numerous and widely separated families it would seem that
almost every family under peculiar circumstances might be subject
to them. Nematodes normally have a choice in their host, but when
this is not present they will attack other plants which apparently
seem uncongenial to them. Instances have come under our obser-
vation where a crop of lettuce which had been preceded by a crop
of nematode infested cucumbers was profusely covered with nematode
galls. This, however, in our experience is exceedingly unusual
although we are aware of the fact that Kiihn gives the lettuce in
Germany as one of their host plants. We have, however, grown
many crops of lettuce in infested soil without ever finding a gall
upon their roots.
Amount of Damage Caused by Nematodes.
When we take into consideration the large number of host plants
subject to nematode attack and the economic value of these plants,
the losses caused by them must be enormous. The losses, however,
are much more severe in those countries where the winter is mild
than in colder climates where the nematodes are practically confined
to greenhouses. In Europe the greatest loss occurs to sugar beets
and in our Southern States the damage done to all kinds of fruit
trees and garden truck amounts to considerable. In regard to the
extent of the losses caused by nematodes to our economic plants we
can do no better than quote Dr. N. A. Cobb, (1. c, p. 179) Patholo-
2. Selby, Ohio Agr'l Exp. Station, Bull. 73, p. 22S.
3. Comstock. Garden and Forest, Vol. III., p. 59.
4. N. J. Agr'l Exp. Station, Fifth Annual Rept., 1S92. p. 385. See also Garden and For-
est, Vol. III. and IV.
5. Conn. Agr'l Exp. Station Report. 1892, p. 45.
31
gist to the Australian Government, who has made an extensive study
of this whole group of worms from various parts of the world. He
states " The extent of the damage done by gall-forming worms is
difficult to estimate. Much land in Europe has become so badly
infested that certain crops — for example, sugar beets — have to be
abandoned altogether. Not a beet root will mature. The plants
break the ground, languish a few weeks and then die. Were it pos-
sible to sum up in pounds, shillings and pence the damage done (by
nematodes) the total would probably amount to a fortune for a
nation."
In Massachusetts the greatest loss is experienced in the raising of
greenhouse cucumbers. The comparatively soft, tender tissues of
the cucumber offer little resistance to their attacks, and while
the plant is not always killed outright the vines are weakened
to such an extent that the crop is greatly diminished. The amount
of damage done to tomatoes is not so severe according to our expe-
rience as that done to cucumbers, as tomatoes possess a firmer tissue
than the cucumber plant and for this reason appear to suffer much
less from nematode attacks. The roots of roses, however, are fre-
quently nematode ridden and the result is always disastrous as is
evidenced by their generally weak condition and lack of foliage.
Violets are also commonly affected with nematodes, and they are un-
doubtedly the direct cause of many of the difficulties with which violet
growers have to contend. One of our correspondents, an intelligent and
experienced gardener, writes as follows upon this subject : " x^fter
quite a little deliberation I have come to the conclusion that one-half
of the trouble in violets is due to nematode worms either in a direct
or indirect manner, viz., leaf curl in violets may be direct, by the
paralysis of the roots due to the action of the worm, and violet spot
is indirectly caused by insufficiency of nutriment to the leaf, causing
it to be weak there and immature, thus making it an easy prey to
fungous diseases." Nematodes are found less often upon cyclamens
and other greenhouse plants, although when they are abundant they
give rise to unhealthy conditions in the plant which are not easily
overcome and which greatly affect the beauty and value of it.
32
A Review of the Various Remedies which have been Applied for
Nematode Repression.
a. TREATMENT BY CHEMICALS.
In considering the effects of the application of chemical substances
to the soil it must be borne in mind that we have to deal with quite
a different matter from that of applying fungicides or insecticides to
the surface of a branch or leaf. In the case of a leaf or branch we
have organs which are more or less protected with a cuticle, thus
rendering them to a large extent impervious to solutions which in the
case of roots where absorption of nutrients is one of the principal
functions the effects are much more injurious. It is well known to
physiologists that the roots of a plant constitute one of the most sensi-
tive and irritable organs with which we have to deal, and it does not
require a very strong solution of any substance in the soil to produce
abnormal conditions in the plant. The nutritive solutions contained
in the soil w hich the plant utilizes for its food are always exceedingly
dilute and even when slightly concentrated by excessive manuring,
or by the use of an improperly proportioned and too concentrated
fertilizer they greatly injure the plant. Indeed those pathologists
who have an extensive opportunity to observe sickly plants not infre-
quently have to deal with disorders due entirely in the first place to
improper feeding, although the gardener may surmise that the trouble
is brought about by some insect or fungous pest which maybe asso-
ciated with his plants merely in a secondary manner. What applies
to the excessive use of normally nutrient substances would apply with
greater force to substances which do not constitute the food of
plants and some of which are known to be quite poisonous to them.
Chemical solutions for the killing of nematodes in the soil would
have to be applied in a very concentrated form and in considerable
quantities in order to be effectual, although some experimenters have
advocated the homeopathic method of applying remedies. Various
chemical remedies, however, have been recommended, many of which
have been tried with reported success. These have been applied
both in solutions and in a solid form, either upon the soil before
planting, or after the plants were set out. Some of those employed
by various experimenters are as follows : — Potassium permanganate,
Sulfate of Manganese, Tobacco dust. Tobacco decoction, Unslaked
lime, Carbon bisulfide, Kainit, Ammoniacal liquor from gas works.
33
Ammonium sulfate, Potassium ciiloride, cyanide, sulfate, and sul-
fide, Nitrate of Soda, Sulfate of Zinc, Lye, Hyposulfite of Soda,
Carnallit, Potassium sulfocarbonate and xanthogenate, Sulfate
of Iron, Unleached Ashes, Carbolic Acid, Gasoline, Naptholine,
Kerosene Emulsion, Arsenates, Muriate of Potash, Sodium chloride,
Sodium sulfocarbonate and xanthogenate. Sulfur, and Calcium
sulfate. Neal, (1. c.) who employed a large number of chemicals,
obtained negative results with almost everything. He found, how-
ever, that the alkaline solutions gave more encouraging results than
any other and tobacco dust mixed with Kainit also worked well.
Professor Kiihn who has worked upon the problem of nematode
control for many years has experimented with a great variet}- of
chemicals of different strengths. He found no chemicals, however,
that would control nematodes, although the use of some has shown
partial benefits.
Ammoniacal liquor from gas works was recommended by Villet'
who claimed that it destroyed nematodes and acted as a fertilizer at
the same time.
Lye was recommended by Comstock" as a wash for greenhouse
benches before renewing the soil.
Watering rose plants affected with galls with a solution of lime
water or soda was advocated by May'*, although he subsequently
found that even when Nitrate of Soda was applied as strong as i oz.
to 4 gals, of water (1-500) it failed to kill nematodes.
Bailey^ tried concentrated commercial lye, common salt, lime and
Carbon bisulfide on pots of infested soil in which tomatoes were
planted. These experiments were upon a small scale and while
he obtained galls on all of the plants except the one which was
treated with salt at the rate of 2 lbs. to a pail of water he does not
consider them conclusive.
Halsted^ calls attention to the use of lime either by sprinkling it
upon the soil or by plowing it in.
Selby (1. c.) experimented with potash salts such as Muriate of
Potash and Kainit and also Manganese sulfate. Potassium perman-
1. Rev. Scient. ser. 4, 1895. No. i, p. 27.
2. Garden and Florist, Vol. III., p. 59.
3. American Florist, i8g6, p. 649, also 1S97, PP- 77o-77i.
4. Bulletin 43. Cornell University, Agr'l Exp. Station, lE
5. New Jersey Agr'l Exp. Station Report, 1892, p. 384.
34
ganate, lime water and air-slaked lime, but with the exception of a
slightly accelerated growth produced by the use of some of the above
named solutions he obtained entirely negative results.
Hollrung reports some experiments with potash salts such as Kai-
nit, Carnallit, and Potassium chloride. The results obtained were
rather inconclusive but seem to show that potash salts while having a
palliative effect must not be considered as specifics for nematode
repression.
Many European investigators have tried potash salts of various
kinds upon soil for the repression of nematodes. The literature
giving the results of their experiments seems to agree that more
beneficial eifects have been obtained from their use than any other.
On the other hand Dr. Max Hollrung' who has experimented exten-
sively for a number of years on the beet nematode and who has had
opportunity to try a great variety of methods and chemicals, claims
that potash salts in amounts in which they can be used as fertilizers
are not capable of destroying nematodes in the soil, and that the
beneficial effects of potash salts in such soils are due to other chemi-
cal and physical causes. Some sugar beet experimenters' have advo-
cated the use of good fertilizing together with the practice of plant-
ing early. They claim that by this method sugar beets can be
started at a time when they are likely to be less attacked by nema-
todes, as the plants can thrive even when it is too cold for the nema-
tode to be active and consequently less loss will be experienced by
their ravages. In regard to the efficiency of chemicals it must be
borne in mind that there are probably no instances where soil has
been completely rid of nematodes by this means, although in many
instances better crops have been produced after their application.
Various methods of treating nematodes have been practiced for a
great many years in Europe, and a considerable amount of literature
has already made its appearance relating to this subject. Many
methods have been recommended and tried only to find that they
were not in every instance sure and practical, and these in turn have
been followed by others which have promised better results.
One thing, however, appears to be certain, that many of these rem-
edies have only been given a superficial trial. Had the case been
otherwise, many of the remedies advocated would have become
I. Zeitsch. landvv. Cent. Ver. Sachr., 1S92. No. 12.
35
obsolete long before this. Instances have occurred where experi-
ments have been carried on by the use of similar remedies which
have given exactly opposite results. It must be borne in mind that
it is impossible to draw reliable deductions from experiments which
have been tried only once or twice upon a small scale. Especially is
this true in regard to nematodes, as they normally manifest different
periods of activity. We have observed instances where nematodes have
disappeared from soil where no treatment has been applied and
under circumstances which rendered their disappearance not easy of
explanation. Upon this point it should be remembered that we do
not as yet fully understand all of the environmental conditions which
play a role in their life history, and for this reason we are more
likely to fall into errors in interpreting results from experiments.
Our own experiments which were very extensive have convinced us
that the application of chemical substances to the soil is of little
practical value in ridding it of nematodes.
(b). THE DESICCATION METHOD.
It is well known that drying is very destructive to nematodes and
we have repeatedly seen the effects of this in our laboratory and
greenhouse. Vahne* who has advocated this method of treat-
ment takes advantage of a long dry spell of weather, either in
the fall or spring, and by working the soil repeatedly with plows
and cultivators, thus giving it a chance to become as dry as possible,
claims to have succeeded in making it an uncongenial habitat for the
worm. After the drying process is partially completed he applies
imslacked lime at the rate of 2-4 tons to the acre which assists fur-
ther in the desiccation of the soil and destruction of the worm. He
has tried this method with reported success upon fields where sugar
beets were planted, and he further maintains that it is efhcient as a
remedy for certain parasitic fungi such as the damping fungus
(Pythiun de Baryanum) Leaf spot of beet, (Phoma Betae) etc. This
method is undoubtedly a very cheap one of controlling nematodes pro-
vided it works satisfactorily, although it must be difficult out of doors
in a variable climate to always find the right season for its applica-
tion. We have frequently found that drying small masses of soil in
the greenhouse for a number of weeks completely rids the soil of
*J. Vahne, Zur Frage d. Vetilgung v. Nematoden aus schadlichen Pilzen im Boden,
Wiener landw. Ztg. 1897, p. 732.
36
nematodes but we have no data in regard to this method when car-
ried on upon a large scale. We have, on the basis of our own ex-
periments, frequently advised cucumber growers who were troubled
with nematodes, to try this method on a more extensive scale than we
covild. But as yet we have received no reports. Most of our
cucumber houses lie idle long enough during the summer to give this
method a more thorough trial than is possible out of doors, inasmuch
as greenhouse soil is not subject to occasional drenchings from rain
and consequently the drying can be carried on to a much greater
extent. This treatment is so simple that it is hoped reliable data
may be furnished ere long.
(c). THE HALLE OR CATCH CROP METHOD OF DESTROYING NEMATODES.
The method of treating nematodes other than by chemicals was
originated and employed some years ago by Dr. Julius Kiihn of the
University of Halle, Germany, and it has since been extensively test-
ed by Dr. Kiihn and his colleague Dr. Hollrung, both of whom have
spent some years in investigating the nematode pest in connection
with the sugar beet industry. In 1896 we visited Halle and exam-
ined the work done at this institute, and we wish here to express to
Dr. Max Hollrung our appreciation of the many courtesies shown us
while there.
The parasitic nematode (Heterodera) is widely distributed and
very injurious to the sugar beet in Europe and any method which
endeavors to control it must be one which can be applied cheaply, on
account of the large area which it is necessary to treat. The meth-
od employed is based upon the knowledge gained from a study of
the life history of the organism. It has been shown by Strubell that
the worm on entering the beet develops its young in the course of
six weeks, and Kiihn taking advantage of these facts reasoned that, if
the infested host plants could be dug up and destroyed before the
worms laid their eggs, the soil could be rid of a large number of
worms. His method, therefore, consists in trapping the worm and is
popularly known as " The Catch-crop Method ", and for the succes-
ful carrying out of this idea in treatment he made use of a host plant
especially susceptible to Heterodera, generally a species of mustard
(Brassica Rapa rapifera, Metzg.) which he sows on the soil in the
spring. The nematode attacks the mustard, gains entrance to the
root, and locally stimulates the plants to produce galls. About the
37
time the roots of the mustard become well covered with galls, which
is an indication that the worms are confined within the tissues of the
host, and before they have laid their eggs, the roots of the mustard
are plowed up and are either exposed to the drying rays of the sun
or are raked up and burned. In this way the catch-crop method not
only destroys a great many nematodes contained in the infested
soil, but also hundreds of eggs, which if left would in a
short time give rise to innumerable adult worms. Dr. N. A. Cobb
(\. c. p. 170.) states that the female nematodes lay from 300-400 eggs,
and when we consider that some galls are one inch or more in diam-
eter and contain numerous females the crop of young must be enor-
mous. We have frequently obtained hundreds of them when only
two or three females were introduced. By continual planting catch
crops in the soil the nematodes can be reduced to a considerable
extent, as the experiments of Kiihn and Hollrung seem to show,
but it is impossible to completely rid the soil of the worms.
Such a method might be of some value in our Southern States where
the nematodes are very abundant and attack a large variety of cul-
tivated plants, but in the north, where the Heterodera cannot stand
our winter climate and where they attack almost entirely green-
house plants, more effective remedies must be sought.
The Effect of Chemicals upon Nematodes.
Our first experiments relating to the control of nematodes were
largely along the line of many of those we have just described, that
is to say we endeavored to find some chemical method of control.
The problem confronting us was to be sure somewhat difiierent from
that confronting those having large areas of infested soil out of
doors with which to deal. Granting that the chemical method of
treatment might be more or less successful out of doors, we
ought nevertheless to require some more absolute method in green-
houses, because there is much less area of soil there to be treated
and it is under conditions which can be more readily controlled. Never-
theless we made many hundreds of experiments with chemicals in
order to give them a thorough trial and to see if such a method of
treatment was practical. We carried on our experiments simultane--
ously in the laboratory and in the greenhouse which were connected
with each other. Parts of the greenhouse had been devoted to nem--
4
38
atode work for over three years and the space devoted to the purpose
was large enough to pursue our experiments to advantage. In gen-
eral, however, the solutions were tried in the laboratory first to see
what effect they would have upon the adult worm. For this purpose
numerous cultures of nematodes were kept on hand. In order to
test the various solutions upon them we emploj'ed hollow glass slides
placing the worm directly in the solution, and where volatile solutions
were used we utilized what is known as the Van Tieghem drop culture
chamber which consists of a glass cylinder about | in, in diameter,
having a capacity of about 3CC., fastened to an ordinary' slide. This
gave us a tight moist chamber in which the nematodes were
suspended in a drop of water on the under side of the cover slip, the
volatile solution being placed in the bottom of the chamber. The
number of nematodes selected for treatment varied anywhere from
5 to 100. The experiments were confined entirely to the adult worm*
and not to the eggs of the nematode which were, however, sometimes
present. In some instances the solutions were made up from pure
chemicals, in other instances commercial chemicals were used. The
following table shows the various experiments made in the laboratory
with chemical solutions of different strength.
*Note. In these experiments various free living species of nematodes were used.
39
TABLE SHOWING THE EFFECTS OF VARIOUS
STRENGTHS OF CHEMICAL SOLUTIONS UPON ADULT
NEMATODE WORMS.
Solution.
Manganese sulfate,
Common salt,
Potassium nitrate, c. p.,
Magnesium sulfate, c. p.,
Calcium sulfate, c. p.,
Kainit,
Sodium nitrate, c. p..
Potassium sulfid,
Hydronapthol,
Tobacco decoction,
Ammonia sulfid,
Potassium permanganate,
Lime water (slacked).
Lime water (air slacked).
Lime and sugar equal parts,
(saccharate of lime),
Caustic potash (crude),
Ammonia, c. p. (vapor),
Benzole (vapor).
Ammonia, com'cial (vapor).
Ammonia water (vapor).
(from gas works).
Potassium sulfid.
Formalin (commercial),
Carbon bisulfid,
Strength
of
solution.
\ 1-250
/ I-IOO
j 1-250
I I-IOO
j 1-250
I I-IOO
T-IOO
sat. sol.
j 1-250
I I-IOO (
I
I-IOO
\ I-IOO
i 1-50
1-2000
I-IOO I
1-200
1-250
1-400 <
1-500
1-800 j
(^ I-IOOO
sat. sol.
sat. sol.
f i-ioo
J 1-40
] 1-20
1^ I-IO
I-IOO
I-IOO
full str.
I full str.
t I-IOO
\ full str,
( 1-5
I-IOO
full sir,
full str.
Time of
observa-
tion.
9 days
18 hrs.
2 days
52 hrs.
52 hrs.
52 hrs.
6 days
24 hrs.
5 hrs.
52 hrs.
10 days
52 hrs.
3 hrs-
1-2 hr.
96 hrs.
18 hrs.
3 hrs.
3 mm.
10 min.
35 mm-
3 hrs.
4 hrs.
I hr.
4 hrs.
18 hrs.
5 hrs.
24 hrs.
24 hrs.
24 hrs.
24 hrs.
30 mm.
30 mm.
30 mm.
3 mm.
iS hrs.
I min.
2 hrs.
I min.
5 mm.
I i-2hrs
7 min.
Results.-
alive.
alive.
alive.
alive.
alive.
alive.
alive.
alive.
alive.
alive.
alive.
alive.
alive.
alive.
alive.
alive.
alive,
most all movement ceased.
all dead but two.
all dead.
dead.
dead.
slight movement.
apparently dead.
dead.
some living.
all dead.
dead.
alive.
alive.
dead.
dead.
dead.
dead.
alive.
killed instantaneously.
all succumb.
slightly quicker than benzole.
dead.*
all succumb.
all succumb.
alive.
dead.
died instantaneously.
*The exact time was not observed at which tliey all succumbed.
4°
From these experiments it will be readily seen that there are many
solutions that will kill the isolated nematode instantly, and there are
many other solutions that have apparently no effect upon them when
left in the solution for a number of days. Those solutions that are
volatile and which give off a penetrating vapor are the most effective
as nematode destroyers, such for example as Carbon bisulfid. Ben-
zole, Ammonia, Formalin, and Ammonia water from gas works, the
latter solution besides containing Ammonia, possesses many of the
coal tar products and has some value as a fertilizer when used in
dilutions. The most effective solutions applied were Potassium per-
manganate, Lime and Sugar, (Saccharate of lime), and Potassium
sulfid. The first named solution 1-200 killed all nematodes in three
hours and this strength of solution can be applied to the plants with-
out injury to them. The lime and sugar was made as follows : 5
grms. of lime were slacked in water and to it was added 5 grms. of
sugar to which was added 100 cc. of water, thus making practically
a 10% solution or 10-100. For more accurate purposes the degree of
alkilinity could be employed as a basis for the solutions. This was
reduced to various proportions. In a saturated solution of slacked
lime water the worms were alive and apparently well after 24 hours.
This experiment was not continued as it was thought to be useless.
In a solution of 1-250 Manganese sulfate they thrived 9 days and sim-
ilar results were obtained with common salt. Potassium nitrate. Mag-
nesium sulfate, Kainit and Sodium nitrate. Hollrung also experi-
mented with solutions of Kainit, Carnallit, Chlorid of Potassium
and Sulfate of Potash in a similar way. He employed different
strengths of solutions which were as follows 0.1%, 0.5%, 1.0%,
2.5% and 5.0%, or i-iooo, 1-200, i-ioo, 1-40, and 1-20, and exam-
inations were made at different periods ranging from 5 minutes to 96
hours. He concluded that these solutions were not capable of being
used as a remedy for nematodes.
Most of the solutions enumerated in the preceding table were
also tried upon cucumber plants in the greenhouse which were plan-
ted in nematode infested soil. As a rule the pots employed were 10
inch ones and numerous seeds- were sown in each. The roots of the
seedlings were examined from time to time with the naked eye and
also with the microscope to ascertain whether nematodes were pres-
ent and the amount of infection to which they were subject. The
following table shows the results in a condensed form of only a few
41
of the experiments made along these lines. The name of each solu-
tion tried is given in the first column, and the strength of the solu-
tion, the amount applied, and the size and number of pots are also
given.
The strengths of the solutions are given in proportion as in the
previous table, for example, 1-200, which indicates that one part
of the solution was used to 200 parts of water or practically a 0.5%
solution.
While the experiments with chemicals given in this table constitute
only a few of the many which we have made, they are nevertheless
representative as far as reaching any positive results are concerned.
In fact the solutions given in the table are those which in our labora-
atory experiments appeared to give the most promising results and as
we have already pointed out some of them have been recommended by
other experimenters. From the many hundreds of microscopic exami-
nations of the young cucumber roots and previously infested soil in
which they were growing there can be no doubt but that some of
these solutions when applied quite strong and in considerable quan-
tities are capable of killing many of the adult worms in the soil.
We have repeatedly found many dead nematodes in the soil after
applying large amounts of Potassium permanganate of the strength of
1-200 or 1-300, or of Potassium sulfid at the rate of 1-250, etc., and all
of the experiments with Carbon bisulfid, commercial Ammonia, and
most of those with Ammonia water from gas works showed the same
thing. The remaining solutions appeared to have no effect upon
the adult worms at the strengths at which we used them and even
where we covered the surface of the soil with lime to a depth of 1 inch
and watered the same with a saturated solution every few days, nem-
atodes were abundant in the soil. Evidently the most effective
solutions for the worms were Carbon bisulfid and the two Ammonia
solutions. The killing of a few adult worms in the soil, however, is
of absolutely no consequence. As long as the nematode eggs are
present a new crop of large proportions can be expected within a
few days. The solutions appear to have no effect upon the eggs
because they are protected by an almost impervious coating. Dr.
N. A. Cobb states that the young embryo is well protected in the
shell and can withstand very strong poisons.
42
TABLE SHOWING THE EFFECTS OF SOLUTIONS UPON
NEMATODE-INFESTED EARTH IN WHICH
CUCUMBERS WERE GROWING.
Solutions.
Strength
of
solution.
Amount
applied to
each pot.
No. of
pots Results,
employed.
I-200
1-250
700 CC.
800 "
6 lo-in.
6 " i
Potassium
permanganate,
1-500
1-750
I -1 000
1-300
800 "
800 "
800 "
800 "
6 "
6 "
6 "
8 "
* Negative.
1-250
2500 "
I "
^
Kainit,
1-200
1-200
Soo "
800 ''
6 "
6 "
[ Negative.
Manganese
sulfate,
1-200
1-200
800 "
Soo "
6 "
6 "
■ Negative.
Potassium
sulfid,
1-250
1-200
I-IOO
250 "
250 "
250 "
4 7-m.
2 "
( Negative. i-ioo injured the
( plants.
Slacked
lime water,
saturated sol.
applied
freely,
4 "
[ Negative.
Nitrate of soda
1-150
500 cc.
4 "
Negative.
Ammonia,
(commercial).
I-IOO
full strength,
11 u
250 "
10 "
15 "
25 "
2 lo-in,
Negative.
] Negative. Solution applied
1 before planting.
"
5 "
6 "
-
Carbon
bisulfid.
u u
10 '•
15 "
6 "
6 "
6 '■
[Negative. Solution applied
' before planting.
" "
30 "
>
Ammonia
water,
(gas works).
l( u
10 "
20 "
25 "
40 "
6 "
6 "
8 "
6 "
[Negative. Solution applied
1 before planting.
J
1-4
1-5
1-6
1-8
800 "
800 "
900 "
800 "
12 "
9 "
6 "
6 "
1 Negative. Solution applied
}- after planting. 1-3 and 1-4
1 injured the plants.
1-3
150 "
I "
J
43
Plate X. illustrates the result of one experiment which bears upon
this point. The photograph was taken in our experiment house and
shows six pots with dead immature cucumber plants in them which
were set out at the same time as the other robust uninfected plants
shown at their right and left. In this experiment two of the pots
received before planting 30 cc. of Carbon bisulfid each ; two also
received 30 cc. of Ammonia water from gas works ; and two pots
were treated with 2 100 cc. of Potassium permanganate at the rate
of r-300. The Potassium permanganate pots were again treated
twice some days afterwards with the same amount and strength of
solution except that the last treatment was at the rate of 1-250.
Microscopic examinations of the soil after treatment showed many
dead worms, but ten days afterwards when the young cucumbers had
already appeared, an examination of the soil showed abundant
nematodes, and galls had commenced to form profusely upon the
roots. The cucumbers in each of the six pots were in badly infested
earth and none of them ever lived to be more than 15 inches in height,
and notwithstanding the fact that each pair of pots received differ-
ent treatments of a severe nature there was no choice between the
plants a few weeks later. Such results as these demonstrate the
futility of attempting to treat nematodes by chemicals, for here we
had them confined to pots, or in other words to narrow limits and
under the most favorable conditions for exterminating them. Even
should this treatment have proved successful the amount of sol-
ution which would have to be applied to open soil on a large scale
would be costly. Almost all solutions when applied to the soil in
considerable quantities are harmful to the plants. Potassium per-
manganate appears not to injure plants as much as one would sup-
pose. We have applied at a single time 2500 cc. (over two quarts)
of this solution at the rate of 1-250 to a 10 inch pot of earth con-
taining cucumbers, without the slightest ill effect. Ammonia water
from gas works as we obtained it is injurious when applied even at
the rate of 1-6 ; that is one part of Ammonia water and six parts of
ordinary water. Potassium sulfid is more injurious to plants than
Potassium permanganate and a mixture of Sugar and Lime even when
considerably reduced is quite injurious; although Lime itself causes
no harm to cucumber plants and is sometimes used by practical
growers to improve their soil. Carbon bisulfid was applied to the
soil usually before the plants were set out. This was done as fol-
44
lows : a hole was made with a stick in the soil reaching nearly to
the bottom of the bed, or pot if such happened to be used, into this
was inserted a funnel to catch the liquid and convey it to the bottom
of the hole, after which the funnel was removed and the top of the
hole was stopped up with earth. The fumes from the very volatile
liquid soon permeate the soil and in this way many worms are killed.
It was not possible, however, to apply much of this solution to
pots containing cucumber plants, as we found that they were invaria-
bly injured even when as small a quantity as 15 drops were used,
although in the open soil it can be employed with much less injury
to the plants. Commercial Ammonia and Ammonia water from gas
works were usually applied in the same way as was the Carbon bisul-
fid, although neither of them at the concentration used caused any
injuries to cucumber plants.
From the experiments with solutions we may draw the following
deductions : —
There are many solutions capable of killing a certain percentage
of adult worms that can be applied to the soil either before or
after planting without injuring the plant. The strength and the
amount of the solution necessary to kill the adult worm in the soil
is considerably greater than that necessary to apply when the worm
is isolated. This is due to the difficulty in getting the solution to
come in contact with each particle of matter m and around which
the nematodes thrive. None of the solutions named above are
capable of killing the eggs of the nematode in the soil, and unless
this is accomplished the treatment is of no account.
Sterilizing or Heating the Soil the most Effectual and Practical Method
of Exterminating Nematodes in the Greenhouse.
Our experiments in heating the soil by means of steam for the
control of nematodes have been carried on for three years. At the
outset we did not happen to know of any practical method of heating
soil with steam — neither did we consider it wise to experiment too
extensively along this line until we had obtained more knowledge
of the efficiency of chemicals upon nematodes. Subsequently, how-
ever, we learned of some investigations being made by B. T. Gallo-
way' of the U. S. Dept. of Vegetable Pathology on the effects of
heating soil by steam for the purpose of ridding it of violet
I For description see American Gardening Vol. XVIII, 1S97 P- '27.
45
nematodes, and this led us to make more extensive trials of the
steam heating method. While our experiments upon sterilizing'
the soil were well under way there appeared Bulletin No. 73 of the
Ohio Station' which gave some account of sterilizing the soil for
the nematodes on cucumbers. It appears from this bulletin that
Mr. Lodder, a practical cucumber grower in Ohio, who had experi-
enced severe losses from nematodes reported favorable results from
the use of steam. In looking up the matter further we also found
that a Mr. W. N. Rudd'^ had earlier emplo3'ed a method similar to
that described above with favorable results. More recently Mr.
J. N. May'*, a large rose grower, has described a method which he has
used extensively for sterilizing his soils to rid them of nematode
worms. Mr. May's heating is done on a large scale and it would
appear to be a practical method of treating nematodes even when
carried on in connection with a large range of houses. Our own
experiments along this line have demonstrated that as far as green-
house culture is concerned the method of sterilizing the soil by means
of steam for the purpose of ridding it of nematodes is at the present
time the most practical method which can be employed, although it
is not at all improbable that some other cheaper method may yet be
found.
Amount of Heat Necessary to Kill Nematodes and Their Eggs.
From the account given by Mr. May it would appear that consid-
erable heat is required to kill nematodes in the soil. He states that
"by the best authorities it is proven that nothing short of 225° F.
will kill them (nematodes) when protected in the soil, but to make
sure work 235° F. of heat is necessary". In regard to this state-
ment we shall have to take some exceptions and will subsequently
show that such temperatures are unnecessary to kill nematodes except
under exceptional conditions.
It is well known that a temperature of 212*^ F. will kill any organ-
ism in a short time and in fact the great majority of organisms are
killed at much lower temperatures. Again the resistance of animals
1 Note. While the term sterilizing has been employed by all writers who have described
their experiments upon steaming soil, it must be borne in mind that probably in every
instance complete sterilization has not been accomplished. We made cultures of soil which
had been heated up to 204 F. and in every instance bacteria were abundant.
2 Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 73, p. 227, 1896. By A. D. Selby.
3 American Florist, \'ol. IX, p. 171, 1S94.
4 American Florist, Vol. XIII, Feb., 1S9S.
46
to heat is not so great as the spores of bacteria and fungi. In the
case of nematodes we have not only to kill the adult worm which is
not remarkably protected against heat and desiccation, but also its
eggs which are able to offer considerable more resistance to the vari-
ovis elements, inasmuch as they are provided with a more protective
membrane. Nevertheless there is nothing about the structure of a
nematode egg which would render it so impervious to heat as some of
the smaller spores which every bacteriologist has to deal with in ster-
ilizing his culture media. If a large mass of soil is heated and the
circulation of the steam is irregular through it then it may be neces-
sary to use high temperatures in order to thoroughly impregnate
every particle of the soil with steam and thus bring every particle to
the same temperature. From a letter which we received from Mr.
May we inferred that this was the principal reason for his using high
temperatures. Our own experiments upon this point were numerous
and they were made with earth containing abundance of nematodes
of various species in all stages of development. For the sake of con-
venience we will designate these experiments as a-, b, c, etc. In all
of these experiments we employed cucumbers in pots of various sizes,
(from 4 in. to lo in.), and the plants were left until they were suf-
hciently large to show root galls upon them if nematodes were pres-
ent in the soil. In every case except "a" the pots containing the
infested earth w'ere sterilized in an Arnold steam sterilizer and when
moderate heating was required they remained in the sterilizer only a
few minutes. The earth in experiment "a" was part of a large lot
which was sterilized in a box by means of steam from a boiler. (See
lig. II., I, 2, 3). In every instance numerous microscopic examina-
tions were made of the soil and roots of the plant in order to deter-
' mine whether nematodes were present. The non-parasitic species
are generally present in almost every soil and their presence can
very often be suspected by the coloration of the root. They are
generally found on the older parts of the root near the surface of the
soil as indicated by the dirty brown color of the epidermal tissue.
The experiments are as follows :
Exp. a. Six 4-in. pots were filled with infested earth which had been
heated at 212° F. The pots were also sterilized and the cucumber
seed after soaking 12 hours in water was placed for 10 minutes in a
saturated solution of corrosive sublimate and before using was
rinsed with sterilized water. During germination and the growth of
47
the plants they were always watered with filtered water. Hence all
source of contamination was eliminated. Result, no nematodes.
Exp. b. Six plants treated as above. Result, no nematodes.
Exp. c. Twelve pots of cucumbers, the seeds of which were
treated as in Exp. "a" and the plants watered with sterilized water.
Instead of the soil in the pots all being heated to 212*^ F. they
received the following various degrees of heat before planting :
No. of pot, I 2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 10 II 12
Temperature, 114° 118° 127° 140° 147° 150° 159° 161° 163° 163° 170° 176° F.
Result. Nos. 1,2, and 3 all damped' off. The remainder were
perfectly free from the damping fungus and nematodes.
Exp. d. Sixteen pots of cucumbers treated the same as "c."
No. of pot, I 2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16
Temperature, 147° 149° 154° 159° 163° 167° 168° 172° 176° 183° 185° i8&° 192° 194° 196° I99°F.
Result, no nematodes.
From these experiments which only represent about one-half of
what was clone it appears that a very high temperature is not neces-
sary in order to free infested soil of nematodes. The number of
degrees of heat necessary is about 140"^ F., but as a matter of safety
the temperature should go above this inasmuch as in large areas of
soil the distribution of heat is always unequal, and while one portion
may be heated as high as 190° F. another portion may not exceed
110° F. The conclusion then that the soil must be heated under
pressure to a temperature of 225'* or 235° F. in order to kill all
nematode life is therefore not valid in all cases. These experiments
were made with sufficient care and were repeated often enough with
the same results to consider them trustworthy. The practice of
soaking the seed in a strong solution of corrosive sublimate before
planting them was perhaps an unnecessary precaution inasmuch as
we have never been able in repeated examinations to find any evi-
dence of nematode infection from this source, but the watering of
the pots with filtered water- or water which had been previously
boiled was quite necessary where we were making observations upon
non parasitic species. We have observed many instances of steril-
ized soil becoming infested with the non parasitic nematodes from
1. The damping fungus in this case was the Pythium De Baryanum, Hesse, which is
frequently troublesome to cucumber seedlings.
2. We used for this purpose an ordinary sand filter which we attached to the faucet.
48
the water supply, although we have never detected a case where the
parasitic species originated from this source. It is quite likely that
the infection comes more often through the nematode eggs contained
in the water and less often through the adult worm. The non para-
sitic nematodes are in general associated with all kinds of decay, and
all of our public water supplies which contain decomposing vegetation
furnish no doubt an environment for certain species of nematodes.
It is not improbable that the high temperatures recommended by
some for the control of nematodes were based upon experiments in
which care was not taken to prevent contamination, but it is more
likely that the large mass of soil employed was not heated evenly and
perhaps some portions fell below the requisite degree of temperature.
This is more likely to occur where defective methods of piping are
employed and also where the soil is piled up to a considerable depth,
in which case a thermometer thrust into the top layers of the soil
would not always indicate the temperature of some portions under-
neath.
Methods of Sterilizing the Soil.
Descriptions of methods of sterilizing the soil have not been very
numerous up to the present time.
In 1892 Sturgis' recommended a method of heating soil for Aster
culture. In this case the plants were grown out of doors and the
roots became covered with galls probably through the introduction
of unfrozen soil or manure which was infested with the worm. It
can easily be seen that there are many difficulties in heating soil out
of doors to kill nematodes and when attempted on a large scale it
would not be practicable nor in this climate necessary, providing
proper precautions are taken . Should such a measure become
necessary, however, the method advocated by Dr. Sturgis might
be employed on a small scale. He recommends the application
of a device commonly used for drying earth in the prepara-
tion of asphalt pavements. It consists of a large piece of sheet
iron 6 or 8 feet square, raised from the ground. A wood fire is built
under this and the earth is thrown on and allowed to heat for 10 or
15 minutes. When this is completed the earth is removed and
another supply is placed upon it and heated for the same length of
time. A considerable quantity of earth can be heated in this way in
I. Conn. Agr. Expt. Station Report, 1892, p. 48.
49
a single day, but as we have previously stated we question whether
for nematodes there is ever any necessity for treating out of door
earth, provided careless inoculation of the soil is guarded against.
This method of heating would, of course, produce different condi-
tions in the soil from that of steaming. We have never found the
dry heating method as satisfactory as the steam method, inasmuch
as the former leaves the soil dry and disturbs the mechanical condi-
tions, while the latter method leaves it moist and porous and more
suitable for plant growth. The iirst notice of the application of
steam for sterilizing upon a large scale which we have observed is
that used by Mr. W. N. Rudd' of Mt. Greenwood, 111. The steam
method has probably been used by other growers even before this
but we have taken no particular pains to look up this point. Mr.
Rudd employed a box 20 ft. long, 6 ft. wide, and 4.I ft. deep, over
the top of which he placed some hot bed sash and in the bottom of
the box he ran three lengths of i^ in. steam pipes which were bored
every 18 in. with -^\ in. holes, thus allowing the steam when forced
in to penetrate through the soil. He does not state the pressure of
steam used or the temperature to which the soil reached, but says
that when a potato which he usually put in the soil is cooked the
earth is ready to be used and that two hours steaming is sufficient
for this purpose.
Mr. Lodder^ later describes a method similar to that used by Mr.
Rudd but with some variation in the details of constructing the box
and utilizing the steam. He used a box 20 ft. long, 6 ft. wide, and
5 ft. deep, which sat upon the ground and was provided w'ith a solid
bottom and a cover for the top. The floor of this box upon which
the soil was placed was raised i ft. from the bottom, thus forming a
superstructure, and consisted of i^ in. steam pipes laid close together
which were open at each end presumably for the free circulation of
the steam. The main steam pipe passed lengthwise through the box
just under the superimposed pipe floor and was li in. in diameter
with i in. openings' every foot. The pipes constituting the floor
were covered with a layer of straw to prevent the earth which cov-
ered them from sifting through. The steam which is let into the
pipes soon completely fills the space below the soil and when under
pressure passes upwards between the pipes and through the straw,
1. American Florist, Vol. IX., p. 171, 1896.
2. Ohio Agr. Expt. Station, Bulletin No. 72- P- 231, 1896.
5°
permeating the soil. Mr. Lodder claimed to sterilize the earth in
this box, which contained 480 cu. ft., in four hours when a pressure
of steam equal to 40 lbs. was maintained, and in three hours when
the pressure was equal to 60 lbs.
Mr. Galloway' of the Dept. of Vegetable Pathology, Washington,
D. C. has given a brief account of a method employed by him for
sterilizing soil infested with rose and violet nematodes. He made
use of an ordinary porous 2 in. drain tile instead of steam pipes
punctured with holes. The drain tiles are placed in the bottom of a
box of any convenient size and connected with a steam pipe leading
from a boiler having a high pressure. The box used in his experi-
ment was 12 ft. long, 12 in. deep and 6 ft. wide, filled with soil, and
through this three lengths of tile were placed. This was covered
with hot bed sash in order to inclose the steam. Such a box will
hold 72 cu. ft. of earth and he claims that this amount of soil can be
heated in two hours. From the results of our own experiments
along this line we feel quite certain that with six lengths of tile in a
box of this size instead of three this soil could have "been heated in
one hour.
Mr. J. N. May,^ an extensive rose grower, has recently described
a method of sterilizing soil which he employs on a large scale. He
makes use of two bins, each of which is 12 in. deep, 3^- ft. wide, and
16 ft. long, and which hold together 112 cu. ft. of soil. These bins
are provided with covers rendering them as air tight as possible.
They are constructed upon the ground which is slightly graded so
as to slope in one direction for the purpose of taking care of the
condensation in the pipes. At the bottom of the bins are placed a
number of steam pipes i in. in diameter which are provided with
manifolds at each end and which virtually make a coil. Every third
pipe is bored upon the side with holes about 15 in. apart. When
the soil is put in and the steam is turned on, part of it escapes
through the holes in the pipes and penetrates the soil above. The
condensation is conducted by the manifolds back to the boiler.
When one bed is sterilized it is uncovered and taken away while the
other bed, which in the meantime has been prepared, is steamed.
By this method Mr. May empties five or six bins in a day, but to
American Gardening:, Vol. XVIII, p. 127, 1S97.
Sterilizing Soil for Destroying Eel Worms. American Florist, Feb. 5,
SI
accomplish this he states that it is necessary to have a boiler of some
25-horse power carrying at least 50 lbs. pressure of steam continually.
These are the only methods for sterilizing soil, so far as we are
aware, that have been described, and all of these methods have been
described within two or three years.
In our experiments' relating to soil sterilization we have tried
many methods and found the tile system as used by Galloway cheap,
and satisfactory for many purposes, especially when w'e wish to ster-
ilize the soil in the bed in which the crop is to be grown. Another
advantage which it possesses is that it can be . used for subirri-
gating purposes. To ascertain the best method of using tile we
arranged them in beds of equal size containing the same amount of
similarly prepared earth. The beds were iS ft. long, 30 in. wide
and I ft. deep and each contained 45 cu. ft. of soil suitable for grow-
ing cucumbers. Part of the soil had been used 43reviously for
cucumbers and tomatoes and was well infested with nematodes, and
previous to sterilization it was mixed with fresh horse manure. The
beds contained a different number of feet of pipe which w^ere laid in
various ways and in each case they were placed about 2 in. from the
bottom. For details concerning the manner of piping see fig. I.,
a, b, c, d, e. Bed (a) was piped with two lengths of tile without any
end connection. Bed (b) was piped with three lengths of tile with
end connections, thus forming a continuous circuit. Bed (c) was
piped with two lengths of tile with end connections and cross tile
every two feet. Bed (d) was piped with three lengths of tile as in
(b). Bed (e) was not piped at all. Each bed was treated separately
from a 4-horse power portable boiler having a pressure of steam
varying from 40 to So lbs. The steam was conducted from the
boiler through a half-inch pipe provided with a valve, and this led
into a I in. pipe, (tig. I., 1), which had a four way connection, the ends
of which were inserted into the free open ends of the tile. The con-
nections were easily made with the boiler and when one bed was ster-
ilized it was disconnected and the pipe attached to another bed. The
steam was confined by means of boards placed over the top, although
straw mats or blankets would have served the purpose better. The
valve regulating the amount of steam from the boiler was never
turned on more than half way, this being found sufficient to supply
I. See Nematode Worm and Root Gall on Cucumbers and Tomatoes, New England
Farmer, Feb. 26, 189S.
52
I, I ,1
1 I r
I 111 I ~r
I 1 r
I I
Fig. I Showing the arrangement of piping beds with 2 in. tile. The beds are iS ft. long, ih. ft. wide and i ft-
deep. The tile are placed about 2 in. from the bottom and the various methods of arranging them are shown in.
cross and vertical section.
53
all the steam required, and it was, moreov^er, necessary in using so
small a boiler in order to keep the pressure of steam high.
The results of these experiments are as follows :
Bed (a) was heated to 204^ F. in 1.15 hrs.
Bed (b) " " " " " " 45 min.
Bed (c) " " " " " " 1. 00 hr.
Bed (d) practically the same as (b).
These experiments show that bed (b) which was piped with three
lengths of tile gave the best results, with bed (c) following, and the
most unsatisfactory results were given by bed (a). Bed (d) gave
practically the same relative results as (b). Bed (b) contained a few
more feet of pipe than (c), and more than ^ more than (a), and for this
reason alone it might be expected that the heating of the soil in the
bed (b) would be more effective. There is another more important
difference, however, and that is in the method in which the steam
circulated. The cross tiles in (c) were not nearly as effective as the
middle lengths in (b), neither would they have been even if they had
contained the same linear feet. Bed (a) would have heated more
effectually if there had been a continuous loop. Had the four beds
been piped the same and all connected at once with a large boiler
maintaining a high pressure of steam they could have been heated
in two hours time. The tile which were employed for sterilizing were
left in the soil, but in these experiments they were not used for sub-
irrigation purposes. Should the soil, however, be removed and
replaced by other soil it would be desirable to remove the tile, which
can, however, be easily put back. We have tried many different
methods of piping with variations in the pressure of steam and we
will state, that in order to get the cheapest and best results it is
necessary to pay attention to two points, namely, that the higher the
pressure of steam maintained, the quicker and more effectual are the
results, and the greater tile area in which the steam has to circulate
the quicker it will find its way through the soil and accomplish the
sterilization of the same. It is not only necessary that there should
be a number of feet of pipe in the soil in order to sucessfuUy heat it,,
but the area of cross sections is equally important.
In regard to the cross section area of the pipe we will relate the
results of one of our experiments in trying to sterilize a box of soil
with ^ in. lead pipe made up into a coil of four lengths. This coil
had holes in it 2 in. apart and was placed in a box containing
5
54
i6 cu. ft. of earth which was easily heated in one hour's time when
three lengths of 2 -in. tile were used and a pressure of 4 or 5 lbs. of
steam. With the small lead pipe it was found that it was impossible
to heat the soil after running it for a number of hours. The method
just described is especially adapted to sterilizing soil in the bed
where it is subsequently to be used in growing some greenhouse
crop subject to nematodes. It should be stated, however, that cer-
tain beds are more suitable for this purpose than others. Soil can
be more effectually heated in a narrow bed than in a wide one.
Many of our cucumber growers raise their plants in a bed 15 or 18
in. wide, 8 to 12 in. deep, and 50 to 100 ft. or more in length. Beds
approximating these dimentions could be easily heated in a short
time at little expense, and in a cucumber house it would be most
desirable to construct them after this manner. Not unfrequently,
however, cucumber houses are not provided with benches but the
vines are grown directly in the ground soil. In this case should
sterilizing become necessary, the earth in which the plants are grow-
ing can be separated from the remaining soil by means of 12 in.
boards or plank and this lot of earth caji be'tiled and then treated.
The boards or plank arranged in this manner restrict the amount of
soil to be treated and prevent contamination from the untreated. In
case pots are used as frequently happens in tomato culture the earth
can be sterilized in a special bed or the pots containing the earth
can be placed in a tight box and sterilized, although this latter
method is not so practical as pots take up more room than soil
placed in a bed. For sterilizing small quantities of earth we make
use of an ordinary small house boiler which heats our laborator}^
and seldom indicates more than 3 or 4 lbs. pressure of steam. This
is connected with a box, (see fig. II., i, 2, and 3), containing 15 cu. ft.
of earth, in the bottom of which is buried three lengths of tile sup-
plied with steam from the boiler. With a pressure of 3 or 4 lbs. of
steam the box can be easily heated to 212° F. in one hour's time and
this amount of earth will fill about fifty 10 in. pots. A small bed of
this description would be exceedingly convenient for florists in steril-
izing earth for such pot plants as cyclamens etc. Another conven-
ient arrangement for sterilizing which we use for a variety of pur-
poses is shown in fig. II., 4, which represents a cross section of a box,
but it is not adapted for sterilizing earth except when in trays or
pots. This is simply an ordinary zinc lined box. It is provided
:pH-
^
CO
Fig. II Showing the details of a small sterilizing apparatus, i, 2, and 3 represent various
sections of a box furnislied with tile and capable of holding 15 cu. ft. of earth, (m) steam pipe from
boiler, (p) four way connection which enters the tile. 4 represents a cross section of a zinc lined
box and cover for sterilizing pots and small boxes of soil, (a) valve or hole for drawing off the
condensed steam.
56
with a wooden cover of double thickness which with the use of an
old blanket makes it fairly tight. The steam pipe enters in one
side near the top and passes down the inside to within an inch of
the bottom. A wooden support made up of slats keeps the object
to be sterilized from touching the bottom, and a valve (a), or much
simpler, a hole plugged with a cork, allows for the drawing off of the
condensed steam which gathers in the bottom of the box. This
manner of sterilizing' is very convenient for steaming small boxes of
earth, pots, etc., as it can be done in a very short time, and at very
little expense. An old zinc lined refrigerator, however, could be
substituted for the box to good advantage. The method of ridding
the soil of nematodes where such plants as cucumbers, tomatoes, etc.,
are sown and where the crop is obtained from the seed offers fewer
obstacles than such plants as violets where transplanting is accom-
plished by separation, as the latter process necessarily includes tak-
ing some of the old soil with the plant. If the violet plants are
affected with nematodes it must be clear that the separating and
transplanting of the plant into new soil would infest it whether steril-
ized or not, and result in a crop of sickly plants covered with leaf
spots and few flowers. The only method which can be employed at
present to control this trouble would be to start cuttings of the
violet in sterilized earth, and when the cuttings were ready to trans-
plant to place them either out of doors in some newly turned up
land, or land which had not been contaminated with nematode
infected manure, or else into earth in the greenhouses which has
previously been sterilized. Experiments with violets are now under
way and we shall report them at some other time. The manner in
which roses are propagated also gives rise to similar obstacles in
regard to nematode infection. If the same care is taken in regard
to contamination as in violets the nematode problem is one which
need give no alarm. Some rose growers in Massachusetts have
never been troubled with nematodes. Mr. Montgomery who pos-
sesses considerable skill, knowledge, and experience in rose growing
and who has charge of the extensive Waban conservatory at Natick,
informs us that they have never been troubled with nematodes upon
I. Since the above was written Prof. Britton has described a similar box in the Annual
Report of the Conn. Expt. Station p. 310, 1S97. He uses wooden trays which just fit the
box, the- bottoms of which are covered with galvanized iron netting which makes it more
desirable for sterilizing earth.
57
their roses. They make a practice of using soil composted with cow
manure which is allowed to remain out over winter. There is no
doubt that owing to this method of preparing the soil they are able
to keep nematodes in check.
Cost of Sterilization.
The expense of sterilizing the soil will largely depend upon one's
equipment and the conditions under which it has to be done. If one
has a large steam boiler which he uses for heating his houses, then
the necessary expenses involved would not be very great. The
expense of purchasing tile, or steam pipe if one happens to use
such, which in the latter instance w^ould have to be drilled and
connected, would be the heaviest to bear. We prefer tile to steam
pipe and think they are fully as effective, and then again they can
be used for subirrigation purposes, a practice which according to
those who have experimented with it gives beneficial results. On
the other hand if one had to purchase a steam boiler together with
the tile the first expense might be of some account. The 2 in. tile,
however, cost about one cent each, or purchased in quantities some-
what less, and are slightly over one foot in length, and a second hand
steam boiler* of 6 or 8 horse power giving a pressure of steam equal
to 40 or 80 lbs. can be purchased for about $50 or $60, and would
answer the purpose for most greenhouse growers. Larger boilers
would be better as they carry m.ore water, a necessary feature in
this kind of work, inasmuch as there is considerable water used up
in heating owing to the condensation of the steam. The soil in a
bench 12 in. deep, 15 in. wide, and 80 ft. long, or in other words
100 cu. ft. of soil, in which were placed two lengths of tile 2 or 3 in.
from the bottom, could be easily heated in one and one-half to two
hours time. The tile in such a bed we will say costs $1.75 and the
extra expense for coal would be vmimportant. Some further idea of
the expense of heating the soil can be obtained from the amount of
soil employed and the time required to heat it to 212° F. as ascer-
tained by Galloway and others. According to Galloway he suc-
ceeded in heating about 72 cu. ft. of earth in two hours time.
Lodder's beds evidently contained 480 cu. ft. of soil which he heated
in three hours, while Rudd's beds contained 600 cu. ft. which he
*In purchasing a second-hand boiler of high pressure it would be well to obtain the State
Inspector's certificate.
58
heated in two hours, and according to Mr. May he heats 112 cu, ft.
in one and one-half hours.
Effects of Heating the Soil on the Growth of the Crop.
In the numerous crops of cucumbers, tomatoes, and lettuce which
we have grown in sterilized earth we have never noticed any thing
of a detrimental nature, but on the other hand a decidedly beneficial
effect as the result of sterilization. Not only is this shown in the
difference in color which the plants take on, but in an appreciable
acceleration of their growth. We have repeatedly run parallel cul-
tures of sterilized and un sterilized soil and have invariably noticed
these effects on cucumbers and lettuce. Mr. W. N. Rudd whom we
have already quoted as having tried the sterilizing method says as
follows': — " One would imagine that the cooking would make the
soil soggy, but it has no such effect, and indeed the soil seems in
better condition afterwards than before the steam was applied, and
the fine condition of the plants growing in soil which has been
treated proves that the soil has not been injured in the least." It
has long been known among practical gardeners that heating the
soil produces beneficial results. Every greenhouse soil contains
humus or vegetable mold and it is recognized by vegetable physiolo-
gists that the presence of humus in the soil plays an important part in
assimilation and plant growth, but its efficiency depends partly upon
the stage of decomposition at which it has arrived. It has been
shown by experiments in which plants are treated in one case with
humus in the raw condition, and in the other with humus which had
been subjected to the action of steam for several hours at a temper-
ature of 212^^ F., that there is considerable difference in the yield of
the crop. It has been found that the same quantity of soil, after the
action of heat, yields a crop many times in excess of the former or
untreated soil. In other words by heating we convert the humus
compounds in the soil into a more available form for the utilization
of the plant. That the heating of the soil gives rise to some changes
is shown by its darker color and more porous condition, and it is
undoubtedly due to these changes which have taken place in the
humus compounds which account for the accelerated and vigorous
growth of the plants. Another feature which is characteristic of
sterilized soils is the unusual occurrence of humus loving plants, or
I American Florist, Vol. IX, p. 171-197.
59
saprophytes, that grow upon it, which is a good indication that the
organic matter contained in the soil has undergone changes through
the action of the heat. We have ourselves observed more than once
certain species of saprophytic fungi growing upon our steamed beds
which have never shown any tendency to grow on unheated soil,
although with the exception of being steamed the soil was exactly the
same as that upon which they never appeared.
Effects of Heating the Soil Upon Other Greenhouse Pests.
Besides the destruction of nematode worms, and the gaining of
robust and vigorous plants which steaming the soil gives rise to,
there are other beneficial effects worthy of being taken into consid-
eration. Many of the fungous and insect pests to which our green-
house plants are subject find their normal habitat in the soil. In
our experiments upon heating the soil in the beds we killed thou-
sands of red spiders, and we presume that we did the same with the
cucvnnber aphis, or with the eggs, as we were remarkably free from
them, although the soil had previously been used for cucumber crops
which were badly contaminated with aphis. This latter statement,
however, in regard to killing the aphis, is nothing more than a con-
jecture, as Entomologists tell us that they do not know where the
aphis breeds, but they surmise that it breeds upon particles of organic
matter in the soil or upon the old cucumber vines thrown out upon
the compost heap. The soil undoubtedly harbors many of the
spores of the mildews which are common to cucumbers, tomatoes
and lettuce.
One of the most common and troublesome diseases to young
cucumbers is the so-called " damping fungus," Pythium De Barya-
num, which attacks the young plants at the surface of the ground and
causes them to wilt and collapse. We have repeatedly found as a
result of heating that this did not make its appearance when they
were subjected to a temperature which was over 140° or 150° F.;
when, however, the temperature went below these points the fungus
appeared to be accelerated in its growth and development and
damping was more likely to show itself than in normal pots. This
fungus must be distinguished from the ordinary " damping fungus "
(Botrytis) which attacks begonia cuttings, etc., in the propagating
pit. Sterilizing the soil for this fungus would be of no account as
the spores (conidia) of this species are everywhere and only await a
6o
favorable opportunity to germinate and develop themselves, whereas
with the Pythium the conditions of dissemination are much more
restricted. What is true in regard to the Botrytis is probably true in
regard to some of the mildews, as there is no reason to doubt that
the spores can thrive in the house for some time without coming in con-
tact with the host, although sterilizing the soil would undoubtedly kill
many of them. The so-called "drop" in the lettuce which is caused
by a facultative parasite, a species of Botrytis, is also completely
controlled by sterilization. This fungus causes no end of trouble to
some lettuce growers and is confined entirely to the soil where it
propagates only by means of its mycelium, but it frequently becomes
disseminated from one part of the house to the other by means of
the gardener's tools. Sterilizing the soil has also an effect upon
the weed and grass seeds which constitute more or less of a nuisance
in a house. The difference between a heated bed and one that is
not heated is very marked indeed in this respect. In the beds which
were heated at 204° F. there were no weeds or grass seeds to trouble
us and the only things appearing were one or two clover plants.
The seeds of the clover appear to be more resistant than other seeds
and their presence can be accounted for probably by the fact that
the temperature at certain points did not quite reach 204'^ F. In
the beds that were not heated we hoed under a number of crops of
weeds as the horse manure which was mixed with our soil was
largely contaminated with seeds.
Relation of Nematodes to their Environment.
A knowledge of the relationship of the environment to an organism
is of considerable importance in all experiment work where we have
to deal with some pest which causes injury to our economic plants.
Indeed some of the methods of controlling nematodes are based
upon a knowledge of the influence of the common external factors or
agencies which go to make up the environment and to which all
organisms strive to adapt themselves. Such for example is the
desiccation method which forms an important factor in the treatment
recommended by Vanha.
The external factors playing an important part in the life history
of an organism are heat, light, moisture, etc., and it is the variation of
these ever changing factors with which the organism has to contend,
and which gives rise to characteristic manifestations in its activities.
6i
Every organism, however, is limited in its power to withstand the
effects of these external forces. The range of susceptibility is repre-
sented by what is known as a minimum, optimum, and maximum con-
dition. Whenever this range is disregarded, or in other words
whenever the minimum or maximum conditions of the organism are
passed, death results, but what constitutes the minimum, optimum, or
maximum condition for one organism does not necessarily constitute
the same for another and hence arise specific forms of susceptibility
or powers of response in organisms.
EFFECTS OF HEAT.
We have already shown the effects of heat upon nematodes. A
temperature of about 140'' F. kills them and destroy the eggs, but
they appear to thrive at those temperatures of the greenhouse soil
which may vary anywhere from 45'^ F. to 75° F. The optimum
temperature for Heterodera is probably not far from 60° to 70° F.
EFFECTS OF COLD.
Undoubtedly most, if not all, of the non parasitic forms of nema-
todes found here are indigenous to our northern climate, as their eggs
will stand our severest winter temperatures. The adult worms, how-
ever, are easily killed by freezing as we have frequently seen in our
experiments. That the eggs of these species can stand low temper-
atures is shown by an observation on old squashes which we have
examined after they had lain upon the ground most of the winter and
been subjected to alternate thawing and freezing even at a tempera-
ture equal to 20° F. below zero. When the squashes were brought
into the laboratory no nematodes could be found, but when moist-
ened with sterilized water and examined again after having remained
in a warm room a week or ten days they were swarming with nema-
todes. We have observed the same thing in cultures of nematodes
which we purposely allowed to freeze. This, however, does not
apply to the parasitic species such as Heterodera which attacks
cucumbers, tomatoes, violets, etc., inasmuch as this species is not
native and freezing always kills the adult worms and their eggs.
We have repeatedly shown this to be the case by allowing badly
infested nematode soil to become frozen and on making thorough
examinations of the soil afterwards have never found nematodes.
62
EFFECTS OF MOISTURE AND LIGHT
A certain degree of moisture is evidently essential to nematodes
and they do not appear to suffer much from an excess of it, as we
have kept them in watery sohitions for days at a time with no detri-
mental results. While nematodes naturally prefer the dark, as does
their relative the earth worm, their exposure to light, as far as we
have observed, causes no appreciable harm and they appear to mul-
tiply and thrive as well in it as they do in darkness.
EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY.
Some experiments were made with nematode infested earth with
alternating electric currents of varying strengths. The infested
earth was placed in a glass tube | in. in diameter and the various
samples were subjected to different strengths of an alternating cur-
rent for a period of one minute each. It is sufficient to say that the
experiments proved of very little value, but they indicated that the
amount of current necessary to rid the soil of nematodes would have
to be large enough to produce considerable heat in the soil and at
the present time there is no indication that this method of treatment
would be practicable. We have demonstrated by experiments in our
laboratory that the amount of alternating current which seeds can
stand without being destroyed is largely determined by the amount
of heat they are capable of enduring and in all probability the same
would hold true of nematodes. There is reason to believe, however,
that this statement would not hold good for direct currents. A cur-
rent sufficiently strong to produce electrolysis in an organism would
probably cause disintegration and death to nematodes.
EFFECTS OF DESICCATION.
Neither nematodes nor their eggs can stand desiccation. Jars
containing innumerable nematodes were allowed to dry at the tem-
perature of the laboratory and when examined one year afterwards,
after having previously been moistened with sterilized water for some
weeks, showed no evidence of nematodes. The same results have
been obtained when we allowed nematode infested earth and other
infested material to become dry. It is hoped that some practical use
can be made of this fact in treating nematodes in greenhouses.
(>3
NATURE OF THE SOIL AS EFFECTING NEMATODES.
Some observers' have maintained that when artificial soils such
as coal ashes mixed with peat were used, nematode galls were not
formed except in the small ball of earth clinging to the plants when
transplanted. It might be supposed that a soil of the nature of coal
ashes would not constitute a favorable medium for nematodes and
we have never observed any galls on plants in this medium, although
we have obtained them abundantly on roots cultivated in peat soil
and also to a certain extent in sawdust cultures. A single experi-
ment made with a lo in. pot of peat containing cucumbers will suf-
fice to show that nematodes will thrive in a strong acid soil such as
peat. About a thimblefull of nematode infested earth was inserted
I in. beneath the soil close to the plant. Six weeks later the plant
was taken up and examined and there were more than one hundred
galls upon the roots. Cucumbers were again planted in the pot and
their roots likewise became covered with galls. Nematodes in all
probability can thrive to a limited extent in every soil in which their
host plant is capable of flourishing, although there are certain soils
such as coal ashes which do not appear to be especially adapted to
their development and growth.
INFLUENCE OF CARBON-DIOXID AND OXYGEN.
All animals require Oxygen although not in the same degree.
The fact that nematodes live in the soil which is richer in Carbon-
dioxid than the air would indicate that they are normally adapted
to a larger percentage of this gas than ordinary animals, and since
they thrive in decomposing manure heaps they must be subject to a
great variety of gases and chemical solutions of a strong nature.
We observed, however, that when nematodes were placed in an
atmosphere containing 85% of Carbon-dioxid their movements
largely ceased in a very few minutes, but as soon as air was supplied,
they resumed their movements.
I. See experiments of E. H. Jenkins and W. E. Britton in Conn. Agrl. Expt. Station
Report, 1S95, P- 92-
64
Resume.
Nematodes are small, mostly microscopic worms allied to the
earth worm ; many are entirely harmless, some are parasitic in ani-
mals, and a few in plants. Of the many species occurring in this
section only one is known to damage plants. This is called Hetero-
dera radicola and is the cause of the so-called " root-knot " disease
of many plants. The species is very similar to and perhaps iden-
tical with the European H. Schachtii which causes so much damage
to the sugar beet.
The amount of damage caused by nematodes to economic plants
throughout the world is quite large.
The number of families and species of plants subject to nematodes
are numerous. They not only attack the roots but frequently other
parts of plants as well.
Certain species of nematodes, Tylenchus, etc., are indigenous to
our climate and by means of their resistant eggs they are capable of
surviving our winters, but the parasitic species Heterodera cannot.
The greatest amount of injury done to plants in the Northern U.
S. is largely confined to greenhouses and occurs to such plants as
the cucumber, tomato, violet, rose, cyclamen, etc. which are affected
in their 'roots. Not infrequently, however, outdoor plants are subject
to nematodes by being brought in contact with infested earth or
manure.
Plants affected by Heterodera usually appear sickly and gradually
fade away and die. The roots of such plants are found to be more
or less covered with various sized galls or swellings. These galls
are the result of an abnormal growth of the root due to the young
worms forcing their way into it, and there remaining to complete
their development. The damage to the plant is not due to the feed-
ing of the worms upon the roots, but rather to the fact that the flow
of sap from the root is cut off by the abnormal development of the
tissues.
The nature of the problem of nematode control is one which must
be based upon a knowledge of the life history and environmental
conditions affecting the organism.
It has been found that the use of chemicals is of no practical
value. None of the chemicals which we have used are capable of
killing the eggs of nematodes when confined in the soil, and unless
this is accomplished the treatment is of no account.
6s
There are many solutions capable of killing a certain percentage
of adult worms and that can be applied to the soil before or after
planting, but the strength and the amount of the solution necessary
to kill nematodes in the soil is considerably greater than that neces-
sary when the worms are isolated. This is clue to the difficulty of
bringing the solution into contact with each particle of matter in and
around which the nematode thrives.
The most effectual, complete, and practical method at the pres-
ent time of exterminating nematodes in greenhouses is by heat-
ing the soil by means of steam. This can be accomplished with-
out much expense providing proper attention is paid to the meth-
ods of applying the steam.
A pressure of steam exceeding 50 lbs. is not only cheaper, but
more effective than a pressure which falls below this, and the
amount and cross section area of the tile is important. See p. 53.
The cost of heating soil depends upon the equipment employed
and cost of labor, etc. Probably not far from 100 cu. ft. of soil
under the most favorable conditions can be heated in one hour's
time to a temperature of over 200° F.
The minimum amount of heat necessary to kill nematodes and
their eggs while confined to the soil is about 140° F., but for all
practical purposes it is desirable to make use of a higher tempera-
ture, at least from 180^-212° F.
The benefit of steaming or sterilizing the soil is not alone confined
to the destruction of nematodes. Many other greenhouse pests are
killed. The mechanical conditions of the soil are moreover greatly
improved ; the humus compounds are rendered more available for
plant food, which results in giving plants grown in sterilized soil a
considerable acceleration in their rate of growth.
The changes of the environment which appear to affect Heterodera
the most are freezing and desiccation. Either of these agencies
might be employed in certain cases to kill nematodes. The latter
gives promise of becoming a cheap and efficient method.
66
Explanation of Plates.
Plates I. and II. Development of a free. living nematode, Rhab-
ditis sp. PI. I. Figs. 1-12, development of embryo in the egg. X3S0.
Fig. 13, young worm just hatched; m, mouth; o, oesophagus; x & b,
oesophagal bulbs ; s, stomach or intestine ; r, rectum ; a, anus ; p,
location of sexual organ, shown more enlarged in fig. 14. Figs. 15,
16, 17, further development of the female, showing ovary at o, and
vulva at V, fig. 17. Fig. 18, male and female in copulation. Figs.
13, 15. 16, 17, 18, X 135- Plate II. Figs. 1-4, further develop-
ment and maturity of female. Fig. 3, mature female; i,lips; o,
oesophagus, with x and b bulbs; s, stomach; r, rectum ; a, anus; v,
vulva; e, eggs. in various stages; w, young worms. Fig. 4. dead
mature female filled with young. Fig. 5, mature male. Fig. 6,
posterior end more enlarged ; z, bursa ; q, spicule ; y, anus ; u,
spermatozoa. Figs, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, X 135.
Plate III. Figs. 1-16, eggs of Heterodera radicola, showing
development of the embryo. X 325.
Plate IV. Development of the female Heterodera. Fig. i, young
worm just hatched. Figs. 2, 3, and 4, stages of development in the
swelling up process of the female. Fig. 5, stage at which copulation
takes place; h, spear; k, bulb; g, vulva; e, anus; c, ovary; w,
stomach or intestine ; d, rectum. Fig. 6, mature female with ovary
tubes partly visible. All X 100. Fig. 7, ovary, more enlarged.
Plate V. Development of male Heterodera. Fig. i, just hatched,
indistinguishable from the female. Fig. 2, beginning of male
metamorphosis, showing the body drawing in from the wall, and at t,
the rudimentary testis. Fig. 3, same in later stage. Fig. 4. mature
male, about to emerge from old body covering. Fig. 5, mature
male ; c, cap-like thickening on head ; s, spear ; e, excretory canal ;
t, testis; x, spermatozoa; i, intestine. Figs, i, 2, 3, X 175- Fig. 4,
X 90. Fig. 5, X 500-
Plate VI. Sections of normal and nematode-attacked cucumber
roots, at various ages. Fig. i, very young, normal root. Fig. 2,
mature, normal root ; c, cortex ; p, central cylinder ; d, ducts. Fig.
3, young root same age as fig. i, attacked by nematodes. Fig. 4,
same, one week later. Fig. 5, section of mature gall, showing dis-
tortion of tissues. All X 20.
Plate VII. Fig. r, tip of cucumber root with young nematodes
just entering, enlarged. Figs. 2, 3, and 4, seedlings of rape, cucum-
67
ber, and tomato, from badly infested soil. Fig. 5, young Hetero-
dera among the particles of a tine loam soil, X i75- Fig. 6, portion
of an angle worm contrasted in size with Heterodera, represented by
the two black lines near the center, the longer representing the length
of the mature male, the shorter that of the young worm. X lo-
Plate VIII. Species of free living nematode.
Plate IX. Various forms of nematodes; figs, i, 3, 4, 8, 5, free
living species.
Plate X. Photograph showing the effect of nematodes on cucum-
bers grown in pots. The plants in the two middle pots have died.
The plants on each side are uninfected ones and of the same age as
the infected plants.
Plate XI. Cucumber root showing galls.
Plate XII. Tomato root showing galls.
Plate I.
Plate II.
\,t
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^";
^l
p
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1
i'l
r"*^^
w
?^
M
,*)
1
v..
''*f' W ''1
'1
1
i
{'m
mM
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Plate m.
Plate IX.
%
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PLATE X.
PLATE XL
KATCH EXPERIMENT STATION
-OF THE
MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.
BULLETIN NO. 5©.
CONCENTRATED FEED STUFFS.
^ ^^4^^*
CHEMICAL LABORATORl
The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to all newspapers in
the State and to such individuals interested in farming as may request
the same.
AMHERST, MASS. :
PRESS OF CARPENTER & MOREHOUSE,
1898.
HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION
OF THE
Massachusetts Agrictilttiral College,
AMHERST, MASS.
By act of the General Court, the Hatch Experiment Station and
the State P^lxperiment Station have been consolidated under the name
of the Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College. Several new divisions have been created and the scope of
others has been enlarged. To the horticultural, has been added the
duty of testing varieties of vegetables and seeds. The chemical has
been divided, and a new division, "Foods and Feeding," has been
established. The botanical, including plant physiology and disease,
has been restored after temporary suspension.
The officers are : —
Henry H. Goodell, LL. D., Director.
William P. Brooks, Pii. D., Agriculturist.
George E. Stone, Ph. D., Botanist.
Charles A. Goessmann, Pii. D., LL. D., Chemist (Fertilizers).
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph. D., Chemist (Foods and Feeding).
Charles H. Fernald, Ph. D., Entomologist.
Samuel T. Maynard, B. Sc, Horticulturist.
J. E. Ostrander, C. E., Meteorologist.
Henry M. Thomson, B. Sc, Assistant Agriculturist.
Ralph E. Smith, B. Sc, Assistant Botanist.
Henri D. Haskins, B. Sc, Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Charles I. Goessmann. B. Sc, Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Samuel W. Wiley, B. Sc, Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Edward B. Holland, M. Sc, i^(>si C/iemis^(Foods and Feeding).
Fred W. MossMAN, B. Sc, u4ssY C/te»)i2s((Foods and Feeding).
Benjamin K. Jones, B. Sc, J.ss7 C/iemisf (Foods and Feeding).
Philip H. Smith, B. Sc, Assistant in Foods and Feeding .
Robert A. Cooley, B. Sc, Assistant Entomologist.
George A. Drew, B. Sc. Assistant Horticulturist.
Herbert D. Hemenway, B. Sc, Assistant Horticulttirist.
Arthur C. Monahan, Observer.
The co-operation and assistance of farmers, fruit-growers, horti-
culturists, and all interested, directly or indirectly, in agriculture,
are earnestly requested. Communications may be addressed to the
Hatch Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass.
DIVISION OF FOODS AND FEEDING.
Joseph B. Lindsey.*
RESULTS AND SUGGESTIONS.
I. Farmers are especially cautioned against adulterated cottonseed
meal. Samples of this substance were found in a large number of
towns, especially iu northeastern Massachusetts, during the spring
months. Sea Island Cottonseed^ so called, is also very much infe-
rior to the genuine material. A prime cottonseed meal should have
a bright yellow color, and contain at least 6.75 per cent of nitrogen,
equivalent to 42 percent of protein. The adulterated meal con-
tains about 3.75 per cent nitrogen equal to 23.4 per cent protein.
It is therefore only one-half as valuable as the prime article. It is
evidently prepared by grinding the black hulls quite fine, and mixing
them with the yellow meal. The resulting product is as a rule of a
darker yellow than the pure meal. Samples of adulterated meal
have also been found that were bright yellow. This meal had either
been artificially colored or mixed with some inferior substance other
than hulls. We urge purchasers to buy only the guaranteed article,
and to absolutely refuse the unbranded meal. Pure cottonseed meal
is one of the very cheapest concentrated feed stuffs.
II. Linseed meals, branded gluten meals, and gluten feeds, show
no adulterations.
III. Wheat bran, middlings, and, with a few exceptions, mixed
feeds, have not been found to contain any foreign admixtures.
He ilman's mixed feed was found to be of very poor quality. It
contained a large amount of woody material, of very little feeding
value. Several unmarked mixed feeds were similarly adulterated.
The Lexington mixed feed showed several per cent less protein than
the average.
IV. Many unbranded oat feeds have been found to contain as
high as 65 per cent of hulls, and only from 5 to 7 per cent of pro-
♦Assisted by E- B. Hollanp, B. K. Jones and F. W. Mobsman.
4
tein. Such foods prove very costly at prices asked for them. See
more extended remarks under analyses of these feeds.
V. fProtein Standards of unadulterated Feed Stuffs are as
follows :
Starchy
(carbohydrate) {
Feeds. I Oat feeds,
FEED STUFFS.
' Corn meal,
Hominy meal or chop.
Chop feed,
Protein Feeds.
I Corn and Oat feeds,
I
l^H. 0. horse feed,
( Wheat bran,
I
1 Wheat middlings,
I
I Mixed feed,
I
I Dried brewers' grains,
I
I 3falt sprouts,
I
\ H. 0. Dairy feed,
I
\ H. 0. Poultry feed,
American Poultry feed,
Buffalo and Golden gluten feeds.
Other gluten feeds,
Gluten meals,**
Cleveland flax meal,
0. P. linseed meal,
^ Cottonseed meal,
PROTEiy STANDARD.
9 per cent.
10-11
8-9
9-10
9
11
16
18-20
17
22*
24
19
17
14
28
22-24
36
39
36
42
I
'Minimum.
**Klag gluten meal should have 33 per cent protein and 15 per cent fat.
flJy "protein standard" is meant the per cent of protein an unadulterated feed
should contain,
CONCENTRATED FEED-STUFFS.
A. Classification.
B. Guaranteed Feed Stuffs.
C. Results of Inspection.
D. Cheapest Feeds at Present Prices.
E. Grain Mixtures, etc.
F. Key to Comparative Commercial Values.
This Bulletin is issued in accordance with Chapter 117 of the
Acts and Resolves of Massachusetts for 1897. The law will be
found in Bulletin 53 issued by the Station in April, 1898.
A. CLASSIFICATION OF CONCENTRATED FEEDS.
The term " concentrated feed," taken in its broadest sense, is
meant to include the grains and other seeds of agricultural plants,
as well as their manifold by-products left behind in the process of
oil extraction and in the preparation of human foods. As here used
it is applied more particularly to the various by-products.
The following classification is made on the basis of the amount of
protein contained in the several feed stuffs, those in Class I. showing
the largest amount, and those in Class IV. the smallest quantity.
Division I. Protein Feeds.
Division II.
Curboliydrate
or starchy feeds.
Class I.
30 to -to'f protein.
50toW« *c!irbobj'd's.
75 to iWc; digestible.
Cottonseed meal.
Linseed meals.
Chicago, Cream,
King, Hammond
and Star gluten
meals.
Class II.
20 to SO'^ protein.
60 to 70^4 *carbobyd's.
80 to 855i tligestible.
Bnffalo, Golden.
Diamond, Daven-
port, Climax, Joli-
et, and Standard
gluten feeds made
from corn, Atlas
meal, dried brew-
ers' grain, and malt
sprouts.
Class III.
14 to 20i protein.
70 to 755f *carbohyd's,
60 to 755J digestible.
Wheat brans and
middlings, "mixed
feeds" and H. O.
dairy feed.
Class IV.
8 to 14<!i protein.
75toS5?4*carbohyd'3
75 to 90?S digestible.
Wheat, barley,
rye, oats, corn,
cercaline, hom-
iny, and oat
feeds, corn and
oat chop, corn
germ feed, and
chop feed.
♦Including fat reduced to carboliydrates.
B. GUARANTEED FEED STUFFS.
Although the law does not require that concentrated feed-stuffs be
accompanied with a guaranteed analysis, it would most assuredly
be a source of satisfaction to the consumer, and greatly to the inter-
est of all reliable manufacturers, if the package containing the arti-
cle be marked with the name under which the feed stuff is known in
the trade, the net weight of the package, tlie name and address of
the manufacturer, and the percentage of protein and fat it contains.
Feed stuff's thus marked and guaranteed, ought to be given the prefer-
ence by all intelligent purchasers.
The following firms now guarantee their products :
American Cotton Oil Co.,
J. E. Soper & Co.,
Dyersburg Oil & Fertilizer Co.,
Sonthern Cotton Oil Co.,
Glucose Sugar Refining Co.,
Chas. Pope Glucose Co.,
Cleveland Linseed & Oil Co.,
Cottonseed meal.
Chicago gluten meal.
Buffalo gluten feed.
Diamond gluten feed.
Cream gluten meal.
Cleveland flaxmeal.
RESULTS OF INSPECTION.
I. Protein Feeds.
Cottonseed Meal.
Guaranteed.
Found.
Manufactured by : Collected at :
Protein
Fat.
Water.
Protein
. Fat.
American Cotton Oil Co., Greenfield,
43%
9%
6.40
45.03
10.12
" " " " Uxbridfie,
43
9
5.61
47.47
10.54
•" " " '• Wilbraliara,
43
9
5.24
46.29
11.37
•'< " " " Spencer,
43
9
6.12
42.34
11.95
•" " " " Shelburne Falls,
43
9
7.60
47.25
9.54
" " Fall River,
43
9
6.46
44.84
11.47
Average,
....
•6.24
45.54
10.82
Cottonseed Meal (continued)
Manufactured by :
Collected at :
Guaranteed. Found.
Protein. Fat. Water. Protein. Fat.
J. E. Soper & Co., Holyoke,
" " " Gardner,
" " " Marlboro,
" " " Lawrence,
" " " Brockton,
Average,
Dyersbnrg Oil & Fert.Co.,IVIilford,
" " " Lynn,
Average,
Southern Cotton Oil Co., Westminster,
" " " " Attleboro,
"Owl Brand," Athol,
" " Marlboro,
" " No. Wilbraham,
Average,
43
9
7.35
46.13
15.04
43
9
6.46
44.88
11.96
43
9
8.87
45.19
9.50
43
9
7.49
45.29
10.^2
43
9
7.27
41.51
12.57
••7.49
44.60
46.11
11.90
11.11
43
9
8.77
43
9
8.62
45.20
9.74
8.70 45.68 10.43
None, 6.46 46.65 12.89
43 9-10 6.82 44.23 11.20
43 9 8.14 45.65 9.70
43 9 8.35 45.13 9.28
43 9 8.86 45.06 9.06
7.72 45.34 10.42
Particular attention is called to the fact that the above firms place a
guaranty upon their goods.
Without name or guaranty.
Manufactured by : Collected at : Water. Protein. Fat.
Unknown, Dalton, 5.76 43.08 13.32
Worcester, 6.33 48.74 8.36
So. Amherst, 7.66 47.23 8.97
Wakefield, 6.35 46.59 9.21
Lowell, 6.31 45.82 11.89
" Ware, 6.50 47.00 10.98
Lowell, 8.14 45.60 9.21
" Lexington, 8.47 44.38 8.60
" Waltham, 8.53 46.50 10.18
" Middleboro, 6.21 42.71 18.54
" Franklin, 6.11 42.13 14.01
" Ayer, 8.58 41.97 9.67
" Plymouth, 8.23 43.22 10.79
Hudson, 7.83 46.34 9.46
Highest 48,74 18.54
Lowest, 41,97 8,36
Average, 7,22 45,10 10.94
Adulterated Cottonseed Meal.
Manufactured by or for: Collected at: Water. Protein. Fat.
S. S. Sprague & Co., Franklin, 8.20 25.31 6.12
Unknown. So. Fraraingham, 7.56 23.33 5.47
Gardner, 8.82 26.08 7.52
Baldwinsville, 7.47 19.16 8.03
" Ayer, 7.34 19.66 7.04
" Clinton, 7.47 21.50 8.71
" Fitchburg, 7.22 25.25 6.16
" Leominster, 7.64 23.67 5.75
" Pepperell, 7.22 24.96 5.92
Cambridge, 7.19 20.35 8.20
'« Salem, 7.49 34.56 7.78
" Lynn, 7.34 34.96 7.91
Made at Memphis, Tenn., So. Acton, 8.32 26.07 6.28
Unknown, Williamstown, 10.28 24.47 5.13
Highest, 34,96 8.71
Lowest, 19,16 5.13
Average, 7,83 24.95 6,86
I
Sea Island Cottonseed Meal.
Guaranty: None.
Butler, Breed & Co., Lawrence, 8.34 25.43
Unknown, Newburyport, 8.04 36.10
Sea Isl. C. S. Meal Co., Middleboro, 9.25 22.63
Butler, Breed & Co., Brockton, 8.19 34.66
Highest, 36.10
Lowest, 22.63
Average, 8.46 29.71
6.35
8.22
6.38
8.00
8.22
6.34
7.24
Both the adulterated and Sea Island meals are very inferior and
most of them are worth only one-half that of a prime article. See
remarks under ^'■JResuUs and Stiggestions" on jpage 3.
Cleveland Flax Meal.
Guaranty: Protcin 38 to 40 per cent.
Manufactured by :
Collected at:
Water. Protein. Fat.
Cleveland Linseed Oil Co.
No. Adams, ~|
Greenfield, |
Williamstown, I
Hudson, j
E. Brookfleld, |
Needham, J
8.94 37.22 2.61
9
Old Process Linseed Meal.
Guaranty : None.
Manufactured by:
Collected at:
Water. Protein. Fat.
National Linseed Oil Co., No. Adams,
" Hubbardstou,
" So. Amherst,
" Lowell,
" Attleboro,
Pittsfleld,
Average,
Douglas & Co.,
Mittineague,
Concord,
8.73
8.29
8.76
8.69
10.08
9.30
••8.98
9.07
7.29
37.33
36.75
36.57
36.60
36.11
37.38
36.79
38.79
25.84
5.93
7.30
5.84
6.47
2.67
6.90
5.85
2.75
7.52
Without name or guaranty.
Unknown— Old process, Pittsfleld,
Concord,
New
Worcester,
So. Amherst,
Athol,
Gardner,
Baldwinsville,
Average,
8.99
9.30
8.18
9.07
9.50
9.85
10.55
•9.35
35.77
33.19
36.23
36.32
38.59
38.16
39.93
36.88
6.96
7.92
2.35
3.19
3.35
3.11
2.95
4.26
The linseed meals, with one exception — that of a saruple manu-
factured by Douglas & Co. and collected at Concord — appear to be
free from adulteration, and to run quite even in composition.
Chicago Gluten Meal.
Guaranty: Proteln 37.50 per ceiit. Fat 9 per cent.
Glucose Sugar Ref. Co., Huntington,
" Williamstown,
" Springfield,
No. Adams,
" Dalton,
" Uxbridge,
" Hubbardston,
Fall River,
" Northbridge,
" Uxbridge, ~|
E. Brookfleld, |
Pittsfleld, I
Med ford, |
" Lowell, I
Westfield, J
Highest,
Lowest,
Average,
9.78
40.03
1.81
9.21
37.29
2.06
9.87
37.35
2.72
8.72
39.59
2.05
9.34
35.26
2.65
9.40
37 00
3.14
10.35
36.77
2.34
10.38
39.81
1.91
9.40
37.00
3.14
9.89 38.16 1.74
40.03 3.14
35.26 1.74
■9.72 37.94 2.15
10
Cream Gluten Meal.
Guaranty: Protciii 37.12 percent. Fat 3.20 percent.
Manufactured by :
Collected at :
Water. Protein. Fat.
Chas. Pope Glucose Co., Chester,
" " Northampton,
" Milforcl,
" " Spencer,
" " Attleboro,
" " Baldwinsville,
" " Lowell,
" " North Adams, ~|
" " Uxbridge, |
" " Attleboro, [
" '• Wincheudon, |
" " Orange, J
Highest,
Lowest,
Average,
8.99
34.88
1.58
9.88
41.23
6.11
10.54
37.50
2.11
9.92
36.73
2.16
9.04
32.50
3.05
n.25
34.97
2.79
6.55
36.41
1.73
9.19 33.66 2.30
41.23 6.11
32.50 1.58
•9.34 35.21 2.59
King Gluten|Meal.
Guaranty: None.
Nat'l Starch M'f'g Co.
Springfield,
North Adams,
Westboro,
New Bedford,
North Wilbrahara,
Average,
7.74
33.84
15.02
7.82
33.57
14.05
5.31
34.03
15.50
6.53
33.08
5.03
6.49
36.14
19.77
8.16
33.47
11.71
7.01
34.02
13.51
Hammond Gluten Meal.
Guaranty : None.
Stein, Hirsh & Co.,
Uxbridge,
8.06 40.01 3.42
Star Gluten; Meal.
Guaranty: None.
Narragansett Milling Co., Bridgewater,
" " " Plymouth,
" " " Winchendon,
Average,.
7.31 36.15 5.03
7.21 33.55 4.81
6.85 36.47 6.50
7.12 35.39 5.45
The gluten meals here reported are all free from adulteration and
resemble each other quite closely in chemical composition. Neither
the King nor Star gluten meals are guaranteed. The King meal con-
tains a large amount of oil, and should be fed with caution. The
Star brand is comparatively new in the market. The Cream meal
11
still occasionally shows some wide variations in composition, which
it is hoped the manufacturers will endeavor to correct.
Buffalo Gluten Feed.
Guaranty: Protcin 28.9 per Cent. Fat 3.38 percent.
Manufactured by : Collected at : Water. Protein. Fat.
Chicago Sujjar-Ref
.Co.
,* Chester,
8.79
26.69
4.14
Springfield,
8.16
26.86
4.27
Natick,
8.63
28.36
2.15
South Framingham,
7.74
28.99
2.41
Haverhill,
8.29
26.92
2.72
Waltham,
8.50
27.20
2.52
Beverly,
8.28
26.89
2.89
New Bedford,
7.81
26.17
2.44
Waltham,
8.69
27.57
2.51
Fall River,
7.51
26.30
2.72
Concord,
7.72
26.96
2.99
Need ham.
8.31
25.77
2.64
Salem, ]
North Brookfield, |
Great Barrington, [-
Walpole, 1
Haverhill, J
18.85
25.34
2.80
Hi"!
•28.99
4.27
2.51
2.85
Average
8.40
26.60
♦Peoria Factory.
tGuaranty : Protein 25 per cent. Fat 4 per cent.
Golden Gluten Feed. J
Guaranty : None.
Glucose Sugar-Ref. Co.,§ Natick, 7.97 26.66 3.70
Milford, 8.72 29.51 3.98
Plymouth, 8.02 27.74 3.63
Concord, 9.43 27.85 2.86
Waltham, 9.58 23.63 3.22
Brockton, 9.86 23.81 2.58
Lowell, 9.52 23.93 2.14
Lawrence, 8.34 27.05 3.97
Lowell, 9.50 27.44 2.35
Highest, 29.51 3.98
Lowest, 23.63 2.14
Average, 8.99 26.40 3.16
The Buffalo and Golden gluten feeds resemble each other in com-
position and have about the same feeding value.
JCalled gluten meal by manufacturers.
§Marshalltowu, la., Factory.
12
Diamond Gluten Feed.
jjiamona ijmien f eea.
Guaranty: Protein 24.2 per cent. Fat 3.7 per cent.
Manu
factt
ired by : Collected at :
Water.
Protein.
Fat.
Glucose Sugar
Ref. Co.* South Deerfleld,
8.08
27.01
3.07
(
' " Marlboro,
8.66
26.95
3.34
(
' " Ashburuham,
8.81
21.65
*9.81
(
' " Lowell,
7.24
22.20
2.77
(
' " South Acton,
7.25
24.52
3.04
(
t
' " Franklin, ]
' " Lowell, 1
' " Pittsflel<l, [-
' " Nortli VVilbrahara, j
' " Worcester, J
8.72
23.69
3.15
Highest
Lowest,
Average,
•••8.36
•27.01
• 21.65
24.08
9.81
2.77
3.78
Without Name or
Guaranty.
Unknown,
Pittsfield,
7.10
18.23
2.65
" Joliet,"
Holyoke,
South Amherst,
8.72
7.44
17.29
27.78
2.90
2.64
Average,
•••7.75
21.10
2.73
Diamond, Davenport, etc., have generally contained several per
cent less protein than the Buffalo, and could be purchased for about
a dollar less per ton. The tendency now is to make all of the stand-
ard gluten feeds of similar composition. Those without manufact-
urer's name or brand almost always are of inferior quality. Notice
the two above, without name or guaranty.
Wheat Brans.
Pillsbury,
C. A. Pillsbury,
Mittineagne,
9.56
16.22
4.57
"
"
So. Deerfleld,
11.18
15.88
4.70
Winter,
Kehlor Bros.,
Springtield,
5.59
16.34
4.41
Kehlors,
"
Lowell,
9.77
16.54
4.47
None,
M. &M. M Co.,
Becket,
10.97
16.05
5.35
"
Washburn, Crosby & Co.
, So. Deerfleld,
9.82
16.30
4.62
"A,"
N. W. Cons. Milling Co.
, New Bedford,
10.17
16.16
5 01
None,
.c
So. Deerfleld,
10.50
15.83
4.56
Spring wheat.
"
Westminster,
10.34
16.72
5.06
"
Unknown,
Winchendou,
10.41
17.52
5.06
" '•
"
Norwood,
9.78
16.37
4.37
*01d process feed.
13
Wheat Brans (continued).
Brand. Manufactured by : Collected at: Water. Protein. Fat.
Winter, Unknown, Winchendon, 10.14 15.63 4.41
Spring, " Bakhvinsville, 9.65 17.45 4.91
K. B., Needhani. 10.38 16.32 4.82
None, Victoria Mills, Clinton, 11.32 15.58 4.80
Harders, Isaac Harder & Co., Lawrence, 11.74 14.26 4.31
B. Bran, F. W. Stock, Salem, 9.84 14.75 4.16
Athol, 8.42 15.47 4.45
Meyers, J. T. Meyer & Co., Lawrence, 9.44 15.84 4.69
Winter Bran, H. C. Cole Milling Co., North Adams, 9.97 17.25 4.60
Cow Bran, Freeman Milling Co., Newburyport, 8.65 16.69 5.15
None, Holly Milling Co., Fitchbiirg, 8.47 16.13 3.53
Minkota, Minkota Milling Co., Nortliboro, 9.42 17.34 4.96
Star. Star&CresceutMillingCo. Concord, 9.15 16.16 4.92
None. Hnnter Bros., Ware, 9.46 16.00 4.14
Spring wheat, Unknown, North Adams, 8.89 15.91 4.73
Winter wheat, " Middleboro, 9.36 15.50 4.31
Highest, 17.52 5.35
Lowest, 14.26 3.53
Average 9.72 16.15 4.63
The wheat brans as a whole show an even composition, and appear
to be free from adulteration.
Wheat Middlings.
Brand.
Manufactured by :
Collected at : Water.
Protein.
Fat.
Snow's,
E
S. Wood worth & Co.
S. Deerfleld, 10.64
20.00
3.72
Snow's,
"
S. Amherst, 11.64
18.79
3.37
None,
N
W. Cons. Milling
Co.
, S. Amherst, 10.48
17.28
4.61
None,
"
Becket, 10.04
17.92
5.56
Comet,
"
So. Acton, 9.43
20.59
3.76
None,
None,
" '* "
Winchendon \q on
Tanuton, j •'■^•^
17.59
5.67
Comet X X,
'
Haverhill, 8.97
22.23
5.71
Daisy XX,
C.
A. Pillsbury,
Athol, 9.77
19.20
5.36
Daisy B.,
Bakhvinsville, 10.61
Haverhill, 10.80
18.41
18.94
4.68
3.82
None,
Ware, 9.92
20.68
4.94
"B,"
Orange, ]
Palmer, |
E. Brookfl'd | ,„ „„
Cheshire, {^^'^^
Greenfield, |
Plymouth, J
16.85
5.20
14
Brand.
Wheat jMiddlings (continued).
Manufactured by : Collected at: Water. Protein.
C. A. Pillsbiu-y, G.Barrington, 10,90 19.23
Green flelcl, 10.50 19.33
" " Newt)ui7port, 10.91 18.97
" " Huntington, 11.72 18.93
r. A. Stock, Salem, 9.60 18.34
Fitchburg, 10.32 18. Of!
Imperial Milling Co.. Salem, 9.38 18.42
Washburn, Crosby Co., Athol, 10.23 18.00
Gardner. 10.16 17.62
J. M. &B. S., 9.19 18.48
Narragansett Milling Co.,Bi-idgevvater, 10 02 17.05
Unknown, Fitchburg, 8.75 19.80
Cambridge, 10.36 18.06
" Cambridge, 9.50 15.45
" Orange, 9.95 19.66
No. Adams, 10.99 18.43
Westfleld, 9.56 17.06
Middleboro, 9.37 17.94
Ashburnham, 10.14 14.85
Daisy Roller Mills Co., N. Wilbraliam,9.98 18.34
G.Barrington, 10. 21 19.59
Star & Crescent Mill. Co., Concord, 10.24 18.28
Stratton & Co., Newburyport,10.57 15.22
Hunter Bros., Ware, 9,53 16.75
N.Brookfleld, 10.94 16.06
Chapin&Co., Mittineague, 11.49 19.98
Freeman Milling Co., Holyoke, 9.41 18.57
M. & M. Co., So. Acton, 10.73 16.09
Highest, 22,23
Lowest, 14,85
Average, 10.14 18.34
Fat,
"A,"
None,
Daisy,
None,
"S,"
Flour,
Standard,
None,
R. D. Fancy,
"E."
Fancy,
Daisy,
None,
Winter wheat.
None,
Daisy Flour,
Star Middlings,
None,
St. Louis No. 1,
Dexter,
White Pig,
None,
492
5.15
4.30
3.28
5.02
4.84
6.34
4.33
4.86
5.06
5.10
4.99
5.33
2.55
5.32
4.25
2.78
4.96
3.27
4.94
5.00
5.40
4.03
3.95
3.28
4.89
5.89
5.14
6.34
2.55
4.64
Red Dog.
None,
Grand Republic Mills, Taunton,
10.46 17.24 3.44
Wheat Middlings show practically no adulteration. One sample
unmarked, contains but 14.85 per cent of protein, and is inferior.
Hunter Bros, and Pittsburg's "B" middlings are rather inferior to
most of the others here reported. JMiddlings will vary in composi-
tion, as is illustrated by the various brands sold by C. A. Pillsbury.
These private marks, such as Daisy X X, Daisy B, "A," and "B,"
without guaranty, are a blank to most purchasers. It is certainly
no more than fair, that the farmer should be given the opportunity
to know the quality of the goods he desires to purchase.
15
Mixed Feeds.
Brand.
Manufactured by :
Collected at: Watei-. Protein. Tat.
Acme,
Anchor,
Hiawatha,
Fancy,
Man me,
Vermont,
Superior,
Quincy,
Daisy,
Minliota,
Jersey,
Acme Milling Co.,
Anchor Milling Co.,
Wm. Listman Milling Co
Listnian Milling Co.,
Maume Valley Milling Co.
Chapin & Co.,
Lake Superior Mills,
Taylor Bros.,
Daisy Roller Mills Co.
Minkota Milling Co.,
Brooks, Griffiths Co.,
Huntington,
10.51
16.84
4.33
Natick,
10.71
15.78
3.9»
Springfield,
11.41
16.18
4.11
Lawrence,
1
Lexington,
1
Marshfleld,
1
Palmer,
1- 10.00
16.75
4.27
Shelb'neF'Us
1
Concord,
1
N.Brookfield
J
Gt.Barrington,10.70
17.86
4.94
Lawrence,
8.76
16.41
5.05
Oranse, )
Marlboro, (
10.47
17.09
5.16
.Williamstow
n, 9.66
16.59
4.72
Holyoke,
10.00
17.03
4.83
Huntington,
9.83
17.01
4.62
Worcester,
9.93
17.80
4.59
Gardner,
9.83
16.75
5.02
Concord, ")
Athol, V
9.69
16.88
4.65
Lexington, j
Worcester,
10.78
17.00
4.61
Worcester,
10.68
16.23
4.73
Huhb.irdston
, 9.91
18.64
4.72
Hudson,
10.64
18.92
4.56
Mil ford.
9.72
17.61
4.61
Baldwinsville, 9.05
16.76
5.16
Fitchburg,
9.23
18.14
4.69
Princeton,
1
Lowell,
1
Mansfield,
Shelb'neF'Us
ho. 33
1
17.56
4.70
Greenfield,
1
Webster,
J
Aver,
9.41
16.77
4.45
Fitchburg,
9.11
16.35
4.30
New Bedforc
, 10.72
16.60
4.12
Ayer,
Wiiichendon,
} 9.71
15.75
3.90
Wakefield,
9.89
18.51
4.64
Taunton,
9.14
18 51
4.72
Lynn,
11.27
17.65
3.83
Hudson,
10.91
15.78
4.49
Worcester,
10.41
17.14
4.60
Haverhill,
10.16
18.41
5.20
Needham,
10.76
18.46
5.19
Westboro,
10.13
16.94
4.76
16
Mixed Feeds (continued).
Manufactured by : Collected at: Water. Protein.
Imperial Milling Co., Brockton, 1069 16.90
Concord, 8.88 19.76
:; :: s^'Ti'TP^'H 9.52 15.75
" " " Medtielcl, J
Washburn, Crosby & Co., Bridgewater, 10.88 18.27
Blish Milling Co., Salem, 9.36 16.88
Waketteld, 8.82 15.93
Model Roller Mills, Lexington, 8.84 16.68
Eidred Mill Co., Lawrence, 9.85 14.98
B. W. Brown, Concord, 8.62 16.41
C. A. PiUsbury, Norwood, 10.57 19.98
Feed, A. M. Cereal Co., Williamstown, 10.57 15.66
Gt.Barringlon, 10.96 15.69
" " " " Princeton, 9.59 15.88
Fall Eiver, 9.62 15.44
Geo. T. Evans, Walpole, 9.02 16.25
Rex Milling Co., Waltham, 9.81 17.06
Lawrenceb'gRoUerMillCoNewb'ryport, ]
" " " Princeton, i „ „„ ir ka
,, -n Ti • ^ r 9./2 16.50
" " " E. Braintree, j
" N.Brookfield J
F. W. Stock, Winchendon, 9.24 15.28
Unknown, Lawrence, 9.35 16.44
Salem, 9.42 16.92
Chapin & Co., Winchendon, 8.23 17.94
Unknown, Haverhill, 10.92 15.87
New Bedford, 9.22 16.69
Athol, 8.84 17.22
" Greenfield, 8.89 17.34
Northampton, 10.10 17.06
Concord, 9.61 16.44
" Greenfield, 9.22 7.94
" So.Framingham9.41 16.44
Lexington, 10.05 15.22
" Gardner, 9.43 10.59
Fall River, 9.75 17.56
Franklin, 9.73 16.09
Lowell, 12.16 9.31
So. Deerfleld, 10.10 16.84
Heilraan Milling Co., Worcester, 10.20 10.88
Wilbraham, 10.22 11.03
Ashburuham, 10.08 10 63
Lexington Roller Mill Co. Worcester, 10.61 13.82
Highest, 19.98
Lowest 7i94
Average, 9,93 16.30
Brand.
Fat.
Boston,
None,
Mill Feed,
Concord,
Daisy,
Buckeye W
Hosier,
Rex,
Snowflake,
None,
St. Louis,
None,
Heilmau's,
Lexington,
4.79
4.56
4.27
4.59
4.43
4.47
3.85
4.44
5.05
4.43
4.44
4.40
4.46
4.13
4.31
4.51
4.32
4.36
4.47
4.60
4.87
4.77
4.79
4.75
4.96
4.72
3.70
1.69
4.27
3.88
2.89
4.32
5.05
3.58
4.65
3.70
3.51
3.30
4.27
5.20
1.69
4.43
17
Mixed feeds with few exceptions show only ordinary variations,
and are free from adulteration. An average of a large number of
determinations shows these feeds to consist of about 76 percent bran
and coarse middlings, and 24 per cent flour middlings or red dog.
They cannot be considered as being worth over 5 per cent more than
bran. Heilmati's mixed feed (see above) containing but 11 per cent
of protein, is very inferior. Several mixed feeds, without name,
said by dealers to have come from the Heilman Co. show only from
7.94 to 10.59 per cent protein. These feeds contain large quantities
of woody material ground fine. They are not more than one-half as
valuable as the genuine article, and all farmers are especially cau-
tioned against their use. The Lexington mixed feed is also below
the average in quality.
H. O. Dairy Feed.
Brand. Manufactured by : Collected at: Water. Protein. Fat.
H. 0. Company,
Average, 7.5| 20,06 4.31
This feed shows a very even composition. See its comparative
value with other feeds on page 23.
Miscellaneous.
Protena, National Dairy Feed Co., Lowell, 7.99 27.86 9.54
" " " " Waltham, 9.68 26.35 8.39
Malt Sprouts, Niagara F'lls Brewing Co. Concord, 12.03 26.34 1.20
Unknown, Concord, 11.24 25.38 1.35
Brewers' Grains, " Taunton, 9.10 22.44 7.26
Malt sprouts and brewers' grains are of average quality. Protena
is evidently a mixture of several feeds. Its value would be about
equal to the better class of gluten feeds.
Pittsfleld,
6.50
19.97
4.61
Westboro,
6.41
20.55
3.75
Haverhill,
8.15
20.28
4.73
Lynn,
7.73
19.78
4.40
Haverhill,
8.75
19.72
4.08
II. Starchy (Carbohydrate) Feeds.
Corn
Meal.
Brand.
Manufactured by :
Collected at :
Water.
Protein
Fat.
F. L. Worthy & Co.,
E. Brookfield
11.84
9.18
8.13
Garland & Lincoln,
Spencer,
11.61
9.20
3.70
Cutler Co.,
Spencer,
7.28
3.1.5
2.74
Potter & Sons,
So. Amherst,
13.43
8.64
3.58
J. L. Holly,
So. Amherst,
14.01
8.94
3.08
Unknown.*
Lowell,
8.13
10.79
8.56
Unknown,
Plymouth,
12.42
9.14
3.76
Smith & Northam,
Needham,
13.33
9.03
3.66
•11.51
9.27
4.03
*White Corn.
The above analyses of corn meal show it to be free from
adulteration.
Oat Feeds.
Quaker,
Am. Cereal C
o., Cheshire,
7.54
11.68
3.70
"
Dalton,
7.58
10.15
2.78
"
' Uxbridge,
6.G5
10.83
3.33
i(
' Hubbardstou,
7.35
10.32
2.89
■ tt
Pepperell,
8.42
11.63
3.79
"
' Somerville,
8.61
7.63
3.28
"
' Middleboro,
7.40
8.76
2.61
((
' Gardner,
6.95
10.55
3.34
' Gardner, "1
Salem, j
7.85
9.78
3.20
Average,. .
•7,62
10.11
3.21
Windsor,
Unknown,
Huntington,
8.36
13.23
4.28
None,
"
Dalton,
6.93
5.91
2.18
"
(t
Worcester,
8.09
8.99
3.30
Oatintine,
"
So. Amherst,
7.66
9.35
3.52
None,
•'
Lynn,
9.23
7.18
2.76
A No. 1,
"
Lowell,
7.28
8.63
3.96
None,
"
Lynn,
6.24
5.93
2.03
"
((
Taunton,
6.83
8.28
3.17
"
((
Salem,
5.63
8.38
3.25
((
•'
Lowell,
5.43
7.93
3.40
((
C(
Wakefield,
7.15
5.92
2.40
"
<(
Fall River,
6.91
9.87
3.92
<<
"
Westminster,
8.44
9.24
3.33
19
Oat Feeds (continued).
Manufactured by : Collected at : Water. Protein. Fat.
DesPlaines Valley Co., Lynn, 9.07 8.31 3.70
Unknown, Lawrence, 7.56 7.07 2.82
American Cereal Co., Lexington, 7.97 3.59 1.39
Haverhill, 8.95 7.25 2.61
Unknown, New Bedford, 8.57 10.38 3.43
Milford, 8.44 5.06 1.61
Newburyport, 8.05 6.25 1.86
Tannton, 6.63 6.44 2.63
East Braintree, 8.43 7.97 2.52
Highest 13.23 4.28
Lowest, 3,59 1,39
Average, 7,63 7.78 2.92
Brand,
Oatena,
X,
Vim,
X,
None,
Oat feeds, as is well known, consist of the residue from the oat
meal mills. They are liable to show wide fluctuations in feeding
value. Oat feeds average about 46 per cent of hulls and 54 per
cent of fine material. Quaker oat feed runs fairly constant in com-
position. Farmers arc cautioned against purchasing oat feeds not
marked or guaranteed. Many of the analyses given above, show only
5 to 7 per cent of protein. Such feeds have a very inferior feeding
value and are not worth over one-half as much as corn meal.
Corn and Oat Feeds.
Victor,
American Cereal Co.,
Pittsfleld,
7.83
11.05
4.45
"
Springfield,
8.32
8.38
2.38
"
Gt. Barrington, 9.23
9.21
4.23
■"
Palmer,
8.88
7.43
2.59
-"
Pepperell,
10.62
8.65
3.85
"
Gardner,
9.12
8.53
3.45
"
Norwood,
6.78
11.43
3.75
"
Taunton,
Pittsfleld,
Springfield,
Northampton,
■9.49
1
J
8.31
3.44
Provender,
Sprague & Williams,
S. Framingham,9.67
8.28
3.41
"
Cntler & Co.,
Milford,
10.68
8.46
3.26
None,
F. L.
AVorthy & Co.,
E. Brookfield,
11.71
10.05
3.91
"
"
"
So. Amlierst,
11.50
9.01
3.42
"
J. L.
Holly,
"
10.95
9.33
3.66
"
Uukn
own.
"
11.67
9.02
3.48
Provender,
'
'
Concord,
11.54
8.27
2.91
20
Corn and Oat Feeds (continued),
Brand.
Manufactured by :
Collected at: Water. Protein. Fat.
AcTTie Provender, Acme Milling Co., Clinton,
Provender, R. C. Snow, Ware,
" Narragansett Milling Co.,Bridgevvater,
Clinton,
Ayer,
Northboro,
Lowell,
Northampton, 11.98
North Adams, 9.90
10.58
12.28
12. 9G
11.54
10.75
8.91
7.70
9.64
9.83
9.99
8.18
10.49
9.31
9.41
10.31
9.06
11.43
Iroquois Prov'd'rIroquoi.s Grain Co.,
Provender, J. Cushing & Co.,
Banner Oat FeedUnknown,
Windsor, "
Provender, M. L. & M. W. Graves,
SterlingProv'd'r M. L. Chittenden,
Highest,
Lowest, 7,43
Average, 10,11 9.|0
The many corn and oat feeds and "provender " now in our mar-
kets consist of oat feed as a basis, mixed with more or less corn.
Ground oats and corn are rarely found, except when prepared by
the local miller. Corn and oat feeds are of uncertain value, depend-
ing on the amount of oat refuse they contain. They are generally
worth from 70 to 90 per cent as much as corn meal.
Corn, Oat and Barley Feed.
5.35
4.13
3.22
8.08
4.19
3.06
2.95
4.33
4.07
5.35
2.38
3.59
None,
Am. Cereal Co.,
No.Wilbraham
, 7.83
12.81
4.77
"
"
Worcester,
7.94
11.39
4.42
Schumachers,
"
Westboro,
9.31
10.22
3.77
"
"
Westfleld,
8.86
11.53
4.31
"
"
Worcester,
9.56
11.28
4.43
None,
Henry C. Rolfe,
Lowell,
9.14
12.32
4.26
Average,
•8.78
11.59
4.33
Corn oat and barley feed is worth rather more (5 to 10 per cent)
than " corn and oat feed."
Hominy Feeds.
Mohawk,
Unknown,
Princeton,
8.06
11 03
7.31
None,
"
Fitchbnrg,
9.03
10.69
8.76
Des Plaines Valley Co.,
Needhara,
10.26
10.65
6.61
Unknown,
Taunton,
11.71
10.87
8.70
"
Fall River,
10.15
11.55
8.77
IC
New Bedford,
9.61
11.44
7.07
Holiister, Crane & Co.,
Princeton,
8.04
11.38
9.71
Unknown,
Concord,
8.31
10.94
9.01
"
Worcester,
7.35
11.31
9.32
Shelbarkers,
"
Slielburne Fall
s,8.52
11.31
8.46
Average,
•9.11
11.11
8.37
Hominy feeds are free from adulteration, and show a value equal
to cornmeal.
21
Miscellaneous.
Brand.
Manufactured by :
Collected at : Water.
Protein.
Fat.
H. 0. Horse,
H. 0. Company,
Pittsfleld,
8.66
10.68
3.61
Oat Meal,
Unknown,
Lynn,
8.54
11.82
4.43
"
"
Salem,
9.02
10.75
3.54
Rye Feed,
"
Northampton,
9.39
13.89
2.47
"
F. L. Worthy & Co.,
N.Wilbraham,
10.69
13.41
2.23
"
"
Westfleld,
9.40
13.00
2.81
Chop Feed,
R. J. Hardy & Sons,
Franklin,
9.42
8.52
3.64
"
"
"
8.80
8.16
2.68
Comb. Feed,
Davis Feed Co.,
Wakefield,
10.54
9.28
3.00
For comparative values of H.O. horse and chop feeds, see page 23.
III. Poultry Foods.
American, American Cereal Co.,
H. O.,
H. 0. Company,
Dessicated Fish, Red Star Mnfg. Co.,
Concent'd Meal, Darling Fertilizer Co.,
Animal Meal, Bowker Fertilizer Co.,
Meat & Bone Meal, Beach Soap Co.,
Superior Meat " Bradley Fertilizer Co.,
Pure Beef Scraps, Darling Fertilizer Co.
Dedham,
Somerville,
Westminster,
Lawrence,
Lawrence,
Haverhill,
Leominster,
Fall River,
Wiuchendon,
Lawrence,
Baldwiusville,
New Bedford,
Fall River,
8.68
10.11
9.42
8.74
8.31
8.93
8.30
7.34
5.16
3.79
6.08
6.23
10.11
14.68
15.53
13.59
13.53
17.58
17.88
45.21
34.23
37.59
33.90
42.80
43.19
56.63
5.79
5.73
4.82
5.90
5.63
4.75
1.70
11.80
11.06
12.13
17.55
15.85
16.51
The poultry feeds prepared by the American Cereal Co. and by
the H. O. Company are mixtures of oat feed, corn, and some nitrog-
enous feed stuff, the latter added to raise the protein to 14—17 per
cent. A mixture of 100 pounds of wheat middlings, 75 pounds of
corn meal or cracked corn, and 25 pounds of gluten meal, would
make a feed equally valuable, which would cost about 90 cents
per 100 pounds. The various meat scraps and meat meals are mix-
tures of meat, containing some fat, and bone. Those running high-
est in protein contain the least bone and are the most valuable.
They are generally sold at a fair price.
22
D. CHEAPEST FEEDS AT PRESENT PRICES.
At present market prices as here given, those feeds are cheapest
that stand first in the list, and those the most costly that stand last.
These results have been obtained by using the Key under F.
Feeds.
I.
Starchy •
2.
Feeds.
3.
L4.
fl-
2.
II
3.
Protein
4.
Feeds.
5.
6.
7.
Present retail price.
17 per ton.
Corn meal,
Victor corn and oat feed, and iiominy feed, $16 and $18
Quaker oat feed, $16
Oat feed and chop feed, $16 and .$17
Gluten meals and gluten feeds.
Cottonseed meal,
Dried brewers' grains.
Wheat middlings,
Mixed feed (bran and red dog).
Wheat bran.
Linseed meal and H. O. dairy feed.
$20 and $17 per ton.
$23
$16
$17 to $19
$16
$16
$27 and $20
Because corn meal is the cheapest of the starchy feeds, and gluten
meal or feed the cheapest of the protein feeds, it does not follow
that either corn or gluten meal should be fed exclusively. A judi-
cious combination of the starchy and protein feeds is desirable, and
various grain mixtures are recommended below. Prices are
liable to fluctuate, and the above relative values may be changed at
any time.
E. GRAIN MIXTURES TO BE FED DAILY WITH COARSE
FEED.
I.
100 lbs. corn or hominy meal.
100 lbs. bran, mixed, or chop feed.
75 lbs. cotton, gluten or linseed meal
Mix and feed 8 to 9 quarts daily.
III.
100 lbs. oat feed.
100 lbs. Buflalo or Golden glu'n feed.
Mix and feed 8 quarts daily.
F.
Gluten feeds.
Feed 5 to 6 quarts daily.
rii.
50 lbs. linseed meal.
50 lbs. cottonseed meal.
100 lbs. oat feed or chop feed.
Mix and feed 7 to 8 quarts daily.
II.
200 lbs. chop feed.
100 lbs. cotton, gluten or linseed meal.
Mix and feed 7 to 8 quarts daily.
IT,
H. 0. dairy feed.
Feed 6 to 8 quarts daily.
ri.
100 lbs. fine middlings.
100 Ibs.brewers'grains or malt sprouts.
Mix and feed 7 to 8 quarts daily.
VIII.
100 lbs. corn meal.
50 lbs. bran.
50 lbs. cottonseed meal.
Mix and feed_7 quarts daily.
23
KEY TO COMPARATIVE VALUES OF CONCEN-
TRATED FEEDS.
Starchy
(carbohydrate)
feeds,
Corn meal,
100
Hominy meal or chop,
100
Cereallne feed,
100
Chop feed.
80*
Quaker oat feed.
85
Oat feeds (excessive hulls),
75
Victor corn and oat feed.
95
H. 0. horse feed,
95
Wheat bran,
85
Wheat middlings.
100-110**
Mixed feed.
90-95*
Dried brewers' grains,
100
Malt-sprouts,
100
H. 0. dairy feed,
103
Protein feeds, BulTalo and Golden gluten feeds, 125
Other gluten feeds, 120
Gluten meals, 152
Cleveland flax meal, 138
0. P. linseed meals, 135
1^ Cotton seed meal, 152
The above feedstuflfs are divided into starchy and protein feeds.
The former are purchased primarily to increase the digestible matter
in the daily ration, while the latter are bought not alone to give more
digestible material but to increase the protein in the ration feed to
the animal.
How to use the Key.
It is not possible in this connection to show the relative effects of
the various feed stuffs on the flow of milk or the production of beef.
The figures are offered rather as a key to the comparative commercial
values of the different feeds based on the nutrients contained in
them. Thus if corn meal is worth 100, Quaker oat feed would be
worth 85 ; or if wheat bran is worth 85, cottonseed meal would be
worth 152. These figures can be easily converted into dollars.
Thus if corn meal is worth $16 per ton or 100, Quaker oat feed
♦Estimated but not actually determined.
* *Tlie 110 value refers to fine light colored middlings with 19 per cent protein.
24
would be worth 85 per cent of $16 or Si 3. 60, the amount the farmer
can afford to pay for the oat feed. Again with cottonseed meal
worth $22, what can the farmer afford to pay for old process linseed
meal? Cottonseed meal equals 152, or $22, and linseed meal 135 or
$19.60. We have a case in simple proportion. 152 : 135 : : $22 : x
r=$19.60, the value of a ton of linseed. It must not be forgotten
that these figures do not take into consideration the mechanical con-
dition, or the particularly favorable effect which some feeds are sup-
posed to exert upon the general health of the animal.
SPECIAL NOTICE.
Bulletins containing information concerning
Concentrated Feed Stuffs, and analyses of the
same, will hereafter be sent only to those
especially desiring them. If you wish for these,
send your name AT ONCE to the Director, Hatch
Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass.
HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION
-OF THE
MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.
BULLETIN NO. 57.
I. ANALYSES OF MANURIAL SUBSTANCES SENT ON FOR EXAMINATION.
II. ANALYSES OF LICENSED FERTILIZERS COLLECTED BY THE AGENT OF THE
STATION DURING 1898.
3r -,
jyg* r£ BTuOltafv.
CHKMICAL LABOKATORI
IVOV^E^]VI]BE>IilJ, ISO^.
The Bulletins of this Station ivill be sent free to all newspapers in
the State and to such individuals interested in farming as may request
the same.
AMHERST. MASS. :
PRESS OF CARPENTER & MOREHOUSE,
1898.
HATCH Z3xfz:rii¥ez:n't station
Massachusetts Agricultural College,
AMHERST, MASS.
By act of the General Court, the Hatch Experiment Station and
the State P^xperimeut Station have been consolidated under the name
of the Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College. Several new divisions have been created and the scope of
others has been enlarged. To the horticultural, has been added the
duty of testing varieties of vegetables and seeds. The chemical has
been divided, and a new division, " Foods and Feeding," has been
established. The botanical, including plant physiology and disease,
has been restored after temporary suspension.
The officers are : —
Henry H. Goodell, LL. D.,
William P. Brooks, Ph. D.,
Georgk E. Stone, Ph. D.,
Charles A. Goessmann, Ph. D., LL.
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph. D.,
Charles H. Fernald, Ph. D.,
Samuel T. Maynard, B. Sc,
j. e. ostrander, c. e.,
Henry M. Thomson, B. Sc,
Ralph E. Smith, B. Sc,
Henri D. Haskins, B. Sc,
Charles I. Goessmann, B. Sc,
Samuel W. Wiley, B. Sc,
Edward B. Holland, M. Sc,
Fred W. Mossman, B. Sc,
Benjamin K. Jones, B. Sc,
Philip H. Smith, B. Sc,
Robert A. Cooley, B. Sc,
George A. Drew, B. Sc,
Hkhhert D. Hemenway, B. Sc,
Arthur C. Monahan,
Director.
Agriculturist.
Botanist.
Chemist (Fertilizers).
Chemist (Foods aud Feeding) .
Entomologist.
Horticulturist.
Meteorologist.
Assistant Agriculturist.
Assistant Botanist.
Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
First Chemist(Foods aud Feeding) .
Ass't CJiemist(Foo6s and Feeding) .
Ass't Chemist{Fooc\a and Feeding) .
Assistant in Foods and Feeding.
Assistant Entomologist.
Assistant Hortic^iUurist.
Assistant Horticidturist.
Observer.
The co-operation and assistance of fanners, fruit-growers, horti-
culturists, and all interested, directly or indirectly, in agriculture,
are earnestly requested. Communications may be addressed to the
Hatch Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass.
DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY.
C. A. G< ESSMANN.
I.
ANALYSES OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS AND MANO-
RIAL SUBSTANCES SENT ON FOR EXAMINATION.
WOOD ASHES.
582-586. I- Received from IMarshfield Centre, Mass.
II. Received from Sherborn, Mass.
III. Received from Lexington, Mass.
IV. Received from Sunderland, Mass.
V. . Received from Sunderland, Mass.
Moisture at 100° C,
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoric acid,
Ferric and Aluminum oxide,
Calcium oxide.
Insoluble matter,
587-591 • I- Received from Sunderland, Mass.
II. Received from Sunderland, Mass.
III. Received from Boston, Mass.
IV. Received from Deerfield, Mass.
V. Received from North Amherst, Mass.
Per
Cent.
I.
ir.
III.
IV.
V.
6.42
16.16
12.35
19.73
14.94
6.84
8.36
8.06
3.15
2.70
1.30
1.22
1.46
1.22
1.16
7.10
6.50
8.70
*
*
33.74
32.96
35.84
31.68
34.00
16.46
6.65
8.76
10.72
10.58
*Not determined.
Percent.
I.
ir.
III.
IV.
V.
Moisture at 100°
c,
25.70
4.83
3.11
1.36
17.63
Potassium oxide,
4.46
3.86
6.72
3.71
4.94
Pliosphoric acid,
1.05
1.26
1.55
.83
1.51
Calcium oxide,
24.06
40.04
39.58
29.21
30.00
Insoluble matter.
14.96
10.87
3.27
16.91
10.43
An examination of the results of the above stated ten samples
recently sent on for analysis at the station shows the following vari-
ation in their composition :
No. of samples,
Moistur
e from
1 to 3%
1
u
ii
3 to 6 %
2
ii
a
6 to 10%
1
((
a
10 to 15%
2
((
it
15 to 20%
3
u
above
20%
1
Potassii
im oxide above 8%
2
u
ii,
from 7 to 8%
0
((
u
" 6 to 7%
2
u
((
" 5 to 6%
0
((
C(
" 4 to 5%
2
((
((
" 3 to 4%
3
u
( (
below 3%
1
Phosph(
3ric acid above 2%
0
((
((
from 1 to 2%
9
((
((
below 1 %
1
The average of Calcium oxide (lime) amounts to 33.11 per cent.,
varying from 24.06 to 40.04 per cent, in different samples.
Mineral matter (coal ash, sand,) insoluble in diluted hydrochloric
acid :
Below 5% 1
From 5 to 10% 2
" 10 to 15% 5
" 15 to 20% 2
LIME-KILN ASHES AND MARL.
592-593. L Lime-kiln ashes received from So. Hadley, Mass.
II. Marl received from Amherst, Mass.
Per
Cent.
I.
II.
Moisture at 100'' C,
1.20
21.73
Potassium oxide,
2.25
.54
Phosphoric acid,
1.22
trace
Magnesium oxide.
*
1.30
Calcium oxide,
42.23
39.05
Insoluble matter.
6.52
1.09
ASHES FROM PEACH TREE TRIMMINGS.
594- L Received from Marshfield Centre, Mass.
Per Cent.
Moisture at 100* C, .54
Potassium oxide, 4.92
Phosphoric acid, 2.44
Ferric and Aluminum oxide, 10.50
Calcium oxide, 18.74
Sodium oxide, 7.53
Sulphuric acid, 2.20
Insoluble matter, 13.54
The ashes had evidently received some addition of earthy matter.
ANALYSES OF POTATOES (air dried).
595-599. No's I., II., III., IV., and V. received from Amherst,
Mass.
Per Cent.
I.
11.
III.
IV.
V.
Moisture at 100'^ C,
6.99
6.69
6.78
6.70
7.12-
Potassium oxide.
1.36
1.29
2.74
1.48
2.40'
Phosphoric acid.
.39
.48
.36
.27
.42;
Nitrogen,
1.65
1.93
1.40
1.61
1.41i
*Not determined.
Percent.
I. II.
III.
13.54 12.69
11.29
3.23 2.87
2.02
600-603. No's VI., VII., VIII., and IX. received from Amherst,
Mass.
Per Cent.
VI. VII. VIII. IX.
Moisture at 100° C, 8.33 6.88 7.38 6.52
Potassium oxide, 2.49 1.66 1.21 2.40
Phosphoric acid, .44 .35 .36 .52
Nitrogen, 1.32 1.49 1.92 1.48
SWEET CLOVER HAY.
604-606. I- Received from Amherst, Mass.
II. Received from Amherst, Mass.
III. Received from Amherst, Mass.
Moisture at lOO'^' C,
Nitrogen,
TOBACCO STEMS AND HOP REFUSE.
607-608. I- Tobacco stems received from Hatfield, Mass.
II. Hop refuse rec'd from a Brewery, Springfield, Mass.
Moisture at lOO'^ C,
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoric acid.
Organic matter,
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter,
DRIED BLOOD AND PEAT.
609-610. I- Dried Blood received from Amherst, Mass.
II. Peat received fi'om North Middleboro, Mass.
Moisture at 100° C,
Phosphoric acid,
Organic matter,
Ash,
Nitrogen,
Per Cent.
I. II.
8.40 83.92
6.10
.05
.32
.11
*
1.71
2.23
.49
*
.83
Per
Cent.
I.
II.
7.09
28.22
1.50
*
*
69.12
*
2.66
.40
1.11
*Not determined.
SULPHATE OF AMMONIA AND SULPHATE OF POTASH
AND MAGNESIA.
611-612. I- Sulphate of Ammonia received from Amherst, Mass.
II. Sulphate of Potash and Magnesia received from
Amherst, Mass.
Per Cent.
I. II.
Moisture at 100° C, 1.20 4.91
Potassium oxide, * 25.72
Nitrogen, 21.44 *
TANKAGE.
613-614. I. Received from Fall River, Mass.
II. Received from Amherst, Mass.
Moisture at 100° C,
Total Phosphoric acid.
Reverted Phosphoric acid.
Insoluble Phosphoric acid,
Nitrogen,
BONE MEAL.
615-519. I- Received from Amherst, Mass.
II. Received from Amherst, Mass.
III. Received from Marshfield Centre, Mass.
IV. Received from Marshfield Centre, Mass.
V. Received from Florence, Mass.
Per Cent.
Per
I.
5.41
Cent.
11.
7.07
14.96
14.72
*
7.68
*
7.04
6.63
5.64
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Moisture at 100° C,
4.88
7.98
7.72
3.96
8.21
Total Phosphoric acid,
24.86
24.82
23.62
28.84
27.06
Reverted Phosphoric acid.
12.30
6.78
9.16
11.82
9.35
Insoluble Phosphoric acid.
12.34
18.04
14.46
17.02
17.71
Nitrogen,
2.98
4.08
2.79
1.26
3.79
MECHANICAL
ANALYSIS
OF NO
. V.
Fine Bone,
48.90
Fine Medium,
37.70
Medium,
13.40
*Not determined.
Per Cent.
I.
11.
III.
IV.
2.53
5.88
7.79
65.28
*
9.04
1.18
.73
23.92
11.82
13.58
.48
*
*
5.50
*
11.76
2.36
5.00
*
12.16
9.46
3.08
*
1.26
3.64
1.08
.24
*
*
*
5.56
COMPLETE FERTILIZERS.
620-623. I. Received from Ashby, Mass.
II. Received from North Orange, Mass.
III. Received from Gran by, Mass.
IV. Received from Amherst, Mass.
Moisture at 100° C,
Potassium oxide,
Total Phosphoric acid.
Soluble Phosphoric acid,
Reverted Phosphoric acid.
Insoluble Phosphoric acid,
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter,
624-625. V. Received from Greenfield, Mass.
VI. Received from Greenfield, Mass.
Moisture at 100° C,
Potassium oxide.
Total Phosphoric acid,
Soluble Phosphoric acid.
Reverted Phosphoric acid.
Insoluble Phosphoric acid.
Nitrogen,
BARNYARD MANURES.
626-629. No's I., II., III., and IV. received from Amherst,Mass.
Moisture at 100" C,
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoric acid,
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter,
*Not determined.
Per Cent.
V.
VI.
7.65
9.56
10.34
7.37
5.70
6.60
1.40
1.54
2.26
2.50
2.04
2.56
6.42
3.42
p
er Cent.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
73.21
74.30
73.13
65.23
.51
.56
.50
.63
.28
.23
.28
.34
.41
.42
.41
.53
1.97
2.06
2.49
3.05
630-633. No's v., VI., VII. and VIII. received from Amherst,
Mass.
Per Cent.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
Moisture at 100''
C.
?
57.09
72.53
71.46
65.28
Potassium oxide,
.88
.26
.64
.73
Pliosphoric acid,
.48
.16
.46
.48
Nitrogen,
..36
.43
.66
.24
Insoluble matter.
SEWAGE.
17.48
18.83
6.50
3.56
434. I- Sewage received from Concord, Mass.
Per Cent.
I.
Moisture at 100° C, 99.80
Solid residue, .20
Nitrogen, .30
Nitrogen as nitrates and albuminoids, .27
Nitrogen as ammonia, .03
Chlorine, .033
*!Not determined.
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24
TRADE VALUES
OF FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS IN RAW MATERIALS
AND CHEMICALS.
1898.
Cents per pound.
Nitrogen in ammonia salts, 14.
" nitrates, 13.
Organic nitrogen in dry and fine ground fish, meat, blood,
and in high-grade mixed fertilizers, 14.
" " " cottonseed meal, 12.
" " " fine bone and tankage, 13.5
" " " medium bone and tankage, 10.
Phosphoric acid soluble in water, 4.5
" " soluble in ammonium citrate, 4.
" " in fine ground fish, bone and tankage, 4.
" "in cottonseed meal, castor pomace
and wood ashes, 4.
" "in coarse bone and tankage, 3.5
" " insoluble (in am. cit.) in mixed fertilizers, 2.
Potash as Sulphate, free from Chlorides, 5.
" " Muriate, 4.25
The market value of low priced materials used for manurial pur-
poses, as salt, wood ashes, various kinds of lime, barnyard manure,
factory refuse and waste materials of different description, quite
frequently does not stand in a close relation to the current market
value of the amount of essential articles of plant food they contain.
Their cost varies in different localities. Local facilities for cheap
transportation and more or less advantageous mechanical conditions
for a speedy action, exert as a rule, a decided influence on their
selling price.
The market value of fertilizing ingredients like other merchandise
is liable to changes during the season. The above stated values
are based on the condition of the fertilizer market in centers of dis-
tribution in New England, during the six months preceding March
1898.
HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION
-OF THE
MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGlv
BULLETIN NO. 58.
MANURIAL REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS.
IVIi^ICCH, 1S0O.
The Bidletins of this Station loill be sent free to all neivsj^apers in
the State and to such individuals interested in farming as may request
the same.
AMHERST, MASS. :
PRESS OF CARPENTER & MOREHOUSE,
1899.
HATCH EXFERIZMESNT STATION
Massachusetts Agricultural College,
AMHERST, MASS.
By act of the General Court, the Hatch Experiment Station and
the State PLxperiment Station have been consolidated under the name
of the Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College. Several new divisions have been created and the scope of
others has been enlarged. To the horticultural, has been added the
duty of testing varieties of vegetables and seeds. The chemical has
been divided, and a new division, " Foods and Feeding," has been
established. The botanical, including plant physiology and disease,
has been restored after temporary suspension.
The officers are : —
Henry H. Goodell, LL. D.,
William P. Brooks, Ph.D.,
George E. Stone, Ph. D.,
Charles A. Goessmann, Ph. D., LL. D.
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph. D.,
Charles IL Fernald, Ph. D.,
Samuel T. Maynard, B. Sc,
j. e. ostrander, c. e.,
Henry M. Thomson, B. Sc,
Ralph E. Smith, B. Sc,
Henri D. Haskins, B. Sc,
Charles I. Goessmann. B. Sc,
Samuel W. Wiley, B. Sc,
Edward B. Holland, M. Sc,
Fred W. Mossman, B. Sc,
Ben-jamin K. Jones, B. Sc,
Philip H. Smith, B. Sc,
Robert A. Cooley, B. Sc,
George A. Drew, B. Sc.
Herbekt D. Hemenway, B. Sc,
Arthur C. Monahan,
Director.
Agriculturist.
Botanist.
Chemist (Fertilizers).
Chemist (Foods and Feeding).
Entomologist.
Horticxdturist.
Meteorologist.
Assistant Agriculturist.
Assistant Botanist.
Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Assista7it Chemist (Fertilizers).
Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
First Chemist(Foods and Feeding) .
Ass't Chcmist(Fooi\s and Feeding) .
Ass't C/ie«iisf( Food.-. and Feeding).
Assistant in Foods and Feeding.
Assistant Entomologist.
Assistant Ilorticultu rist .
Assista nt Horticidtu rist .
Observer.
The co-operation and assistance of farmers, fruit-growers, horti-
culturists, and all interested, directly or indirectly, in agriculture,
are earnestly requested. Communications may be addressed to the
Hatch Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass.
Division of Agriculture.
WILLIA3r P. BROOKS.
MANURIAL REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS.
The results and conclusions stated in this bnlletin are based upon
experiments begun in 18S9 and continued until the present time. A
complete account of these experiments will be published in a later
bulletin, where also will be found a statement of the leading results
of similar experiments both in this and other countries as well as
the summary, conclusions and practical advice herein given. The
experiments have been conducted solely with reference to gaining
light as to the particular requirements of different crops upon various
soils. The fertilizers applied to the several plots, under the usual
arrangement, have been the same from year to year, and were as
follows : —
Plot 1. Nothing.
" 2. Nitrate of soda (160 lbs. per acre), furnishing nitrogen.
" 3. Dissolved bone-black (320 lbs. per acre), furnishing phos-
phoric acid.
" 4. Nothing.
5. jNIuriate of potash (160 lbs. per acre), furnishing potash.
Nitrate of soda (1(30 lbs. per acre).
>issolved bone-black (320 lbs. per acre).
Nitrate of soda (160 lbs. per acres).
Muriate of potash (320 lbs. per acre).
8. Nothing.
J f Dissolved bone-black (320 lbs per acre).
■ I Muriate of potash (160 lbs per acre).
( Nitrate of soda (160 lbs. per acre).
10. < Dissolved bone-black (320 lbs. per acre).
( Muriate of Potash (160 lbs. per acre).
11. Plaster (160 lbs. p^r acre).
12. Nothing.
f Ni
JDi
{
These fertilizers have always been applied broadcast just before
planting hoed crops and harrowed in. They have been applied in
early spring to grass-land. The rotation upon the acre longest
under experiment has been : — corn, corn, oats (with grass and clover
seeds), grass and clover, grass and clover, corn, rye followed by
white mustard as a catch crop, soy beans and white mustard follow-
ing a failure to get onions started. The area of the plots in these
experiments has always been one-twentieth of an acre.
The conclusions presented are based upon some thirty such exper-
iments with corn, some six with oats, twelve with grass and clover,
and one each with rye, soy beans, turnips and cabbages.
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND TEACTICAL ADVICE.
A brief statement is here made of the conditions affecting the ex-
periments described in these pages. The reasons why the experi-
ments were begun and the questions upon which it was hoped the
experiments might shed light are stated ; and a brief account of the
leading results and conclusious, and practical advice based thereon
are given.
CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE EXPEKIMENTS HEREIN DESCRIBED.
1. Our soils, mosti}' of glacial origin, exhibit great variety in
mechanical condition and composition.
2. These soils have been for the most part long cultivated, and
profitable crops can be produced only when the soil is enriched.
3. The supply of home-made manure is in most cases insufhcient ;
and our farmers purchase and use fertilizers in large quantities.
4. Their ideas as to what had best be purchased are in most in-
stances vague ; and they, in the majority of cases, buy either some
" phosphate" or some "special complete" fertilizer.
5. These "• specials" bear the iu»me of the crop Cor which" each
is supposed to be suited. Most of them are nominally specialized
with reference to the crop only. With few exceptions they contain
about twice as much phosphoric acid as potash ; in many cases there
is four times as much. Fertilizers recommended for one and the
same crop exhibit most astonishing variations. The same fertilizer
is in many cases recommended for several crops, as for corn, oats
and grass.
6. Our farmers, as a rule, sell no grain to carry away phosphates.
They do sell hay, straw, vegetables and fruits, all of which contain
more potash than phosphoric acid.
7. Many of our farmers are milk producers : they buy and feed
large quantities of wheat bran, cottonseed meal, gluten meal, oats,
etc. These foods are rich in i)hosphates and nitrogen, and conse-
quently the manures of home production are rich in these elements.
REASONS WHY INQUIRY SEEMED CALLED FOR.
1. On account of the well known variation in soils.
2. Analyses of plants and agricultural products showed them, as
a rule, to contain much more potash than phosphoric acid ; while
the fertilizers in most cases contained the latter in much the larger
quantities.
3. It is known that plants vary widely in respect to their ability
to gather food from the soil. One finds enough of a given element
where another fails to do so ; and this may be true even though the
latter contains less of the element in question than the former. It
did not appear that this factor, or what may be designated the feed-
ing capacity, of crops had been sufficiently taken into consideration
in compounding and selecting fertilizers for them.
QUESTIONS PROPOSED.
1. To what extent and in what way do the plant food require-
ments of ditfereut crops cultivated in rotation vary?
2. Are the so-called complete ^'- special" fertilizers offered upon
our markets rationally compounded?
3. Is the practice of our farmers in so frequently using phos-
phates alone wise, and calculated to insure the largest possible crops
at the least cost?
RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENTS.
With Corn: — This crop was grown upon the field reported upon
in detail, in 1889, 1890 and 1894.
1. Potash applied in the form of muriate most largely increased
the crops both of grain and stover. It greatly exceeded either
nitrogen or phosphoric acid in its influence upon the crops.
2. In a large majority of the experiments tried in difterent parts
of the state similar results were obtained.
Our conclusions for corn, then, stated with reference to the ques-
tions proposed are : —
1. This crop profits particularly from an application of potash
salts.
2. The so-called " special " fertilizers for corn offered in Massa-
chusetts markets are not rightly compounded. The average of such
fertilizers in 1897 was : Nitrogen, 2.80 per cent. ; phosphoric acid,
J 1.31 per cent ; potash, 3.57 per cent. The best contained : Nitro-
gen, 4.04 per cent; phosphoric acid, 1 1.80 per cent ; potash, 9.94
per cent. I would suggest the following proportions : Nitrogen,
3 ; phosphoric acid, 4, and potash, 11.
3. The use of phosphates to supplement natural supplies of man-
ures is not wise and does not promise to insure largest crops at least
cost.
With Oats: — Oats occupied the land in 1891, following corn which
had been raised the two years previous.
1. Nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda much more largely in-
creased the oat crop than did either phosphoric acid or potash.
2. In the majority of the experiments in the different parts of
the state similar results have been obtained.
Our conclusions for oats stated with reference to the questions
proposed are : —
1. The requirements of oats are in a marked degre^ different
from those of corn upon the same soil. The latter requires potash ;
oats are remarkable for their ability to extract potash from the nat-
ural stores of the soil ; and profit from an application of nitrogen.
2. Fertilizers for oats offered in our markets are not properly
compounded. The average of those offered in 1897 contained:
Nitrogen, 2.65; phosphoric acid, 11.96, and potash 4.90 per cent.
The best contained: Nitrogen, 8.92; phosphoric acid, 18.68, and
potash, 10 per cent. I would suggest the following proportions:
Nitrogen, 4 ; phosphoric acid, 3, and potash, 5 parts.
3. The extensive use of phosphates alone for oats does not prom-
ise to be profitable.
With Grass and Clover: — The field reported in detail was seeded
to grass and clover with the oats in 1891, Two crops of hay were
cut in each of the years 1892 and 1893.
1. Nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda increased the yield of
g7Xiss in a marked degree, while neither phosphoric acid nor potash
exercised any great effect.
2. The potash applied controlled the development and growth of
clovers.
3. The first cut in each year (mostly grasses) was most affected
by the application of nitrate of soda ; the second cut (rowen, mostly
clovers) was increased chiefly by the potash.
i. Results which have been obtained in other parts of the state
and by other investigators are in entire agreement with our own.
Our conclusions for grass and clover stated with reference to the
three questions proposed are : —
1. Grass is similar in its requirements to oats (nitrogen in the
form of nitrate of soda most beneficial) : the clovers are to a con-
siderable extent similar to corn in their dependence upon potash,
but are more benefitted by phosphoric acid than the latter.
2. The "special" fertilizers for grass lands are not properly
compounded whether for grasses or for the clovers. They contain
too little nitrogen for the former ; too little potash for the latter.
The average of those offered in 1893 was : Nitrogen, 4.02 ; phos-
phoric acid, 8.30, and potash, 5.52 per cent. I w^ould recommend
for use, where timothy is to be grown, a fertilizer supplying the ele-
ments in the following proportions : Nitrogen, 8 ; phosphoric acid,
3 ; potash, 3. For manuring where clover is desired : Nitrogen, 2 ;
phosphoric acid, 5, and potash, 10.
3. Maximum crops of hay at minimum cost, whether of grasses
or clovers, are not to be looked for from the application of phos-
phates.
With Rye: — This crop was sown after corn in the fall of 1894.
1. Potash in the form of muriate increased the crop somewhat
more largely than either nitrogen (nitrate of soda) or phosphoric
acid (dissolved bone-black) ; but the rye showed a greater degree of
dependence upon all the fertilizers applied than any preceding crop.
This was no doubt in consequence of the greater degree of soil ex-
haustion resulting from one-sided manuring which had then been
continued for six years.
2. The quality of the grain was superior on all plots where
potash had been applied. The kernels were larger, plumper and of
better color than on other plots.
3. That rye apparently cannot as readily as other cultivated
plants appropriate the potash of the soil, has been noticed by other
observers. This accounts for the beneficial effects of the applica-
tion of this element.
Our conclusions for rye stated with reference to the questions pro-
posed are :. —
1. Rye shows a more general dependence upon applied fertilizers
than the other crops under experiment. The difference in the de-
gree of effectiveness of the elements applied (nitrogen, phosphoric
acid and potash) is not great.
2. The same fertilizers are offered in Massachusetts, as a rule,
under the name of " grain " ftrtilizers, both for oats and rye. This
is not warranted by the facts brought out concerning the two crops.
Nitrogen should be most piomiuent in fertilizers for oats ; while for
rye, the fertilizer must be richer in potash.
3. The results of our experiment do not encourage the belief that
one-sided phosphate manuring for rye will give most profitable
results.
WitJi White Mustard, Cabbage and Sicedish Tiirnips: — The white
mustard was sown as a catch crop, after rye, in 1895 ; the cabbages
and turnips were grown oa similar soil, in 1896.
1. Phosphoric acid in the form of dissolved bone-black benefited
all these crops more largely than either nitrogen or potash.
2. The potash when used in connection with phosphoric acid was
also very beneficial to the cabbages and turnips.
Our conclusio-ns are : —
1. These crops (all belonging to the same family) are markedly
different in their requirements from any of the others experimented
with — responding in highest degree to an application of phosphate,
which none of the otheis have done.
2. There appear to be but few "special" fertilizers upon our
markets for these crops.
3. The use of phosphates to supplement farm manures for these
crops promises to be profitable.
With Soy Beans: — This crop followed the white mustard, occupy-
ing the field in 1896.
1. It showed a close dependence upon an application of potash
— resembling corn and clovers in this respect.
2. The crop was not materially increased by the application of
either nitrogen or phosphoric acid.
Our conclusions with reference to the questions proposed are : —
1. This crop differs widely in its requirements from both the rye
and the mustard which had preceded it.
2. No "• specials " are made for this crop in our state ; but fertil-
izers for it should be rich in potash.
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.
1. It has been shown that the widest differences in plant-food
requirements exist between crops cultivated upon the same soil ;
corn, clovers, rye and soy beans being benellted mostly by potash;
grasses and oats, by nitrogen ; and mustard, cabbages and Swedish
turnips, by phosphoric acid.
2. Our experiments indicate the desirability of changes in the
composition of the complete '•'•special'" fertilizers offered in our
markets. For most crops these fertilizers contain too much phos-
phoric acid. For oats and grass they contain too little nitrogen.
^3. It is believed that for none of our crops, except those of the
mustard family, is the ap[)lication of phosphates to supplement farm
manure called for.
PRACTICAL ADVICE.
Farmers are urged to try experiments with fertilizers with a view
to getting light as to the requirements of different crops upon their
own soils ; for soils as well as crops differ in manurial needs. Plain
directions for simple experihients will be sent upon application to all
who desire to try such experiments.
Under existing conditions farmers are advised to purchase fertil-
izer materials and to make their own mixtures, rather than to pur-
chase mixed or complete special fertilizers. This course is believed
to be advisable for two reasons : first, because the '• specials " are
not properly compounded, and second, because the needed plant-
food can be thus procured at lower cost.
10
Taking into consideration the present market prices of fertilizers,
and the results of my experiments, I recommend the following mix-
tures of materials for the several crops dealt with in this bulletin.
In every instance the quantities given are designed for one acre.
1. For Corn on Sod Land in Fair Condition.
Nitrate of soda, 100 pounds
Dry ground tish, 200 "
Acid phosphate, 250 "
iMuriate of potash, (or high
grade sulphate), 220 "
These materials furnish about : nitrogen, 30 pounds ; phosphoric
acid, 40 pounds, and potash, 110 pounds.
2. For Cor)i on Land Rather Poor in Organic Matter.
Nitrate of soda, 200 pounds
Dry ground fish, 200 "
Tankage, 100 "
Acid phosphate, 200 "
JMuriate of potash (or high
grade sulphate, 250 "
These materials furnish about : nitrogen, 42 pounds ; phosphoric
acid, 50 pounds, and potash, 125 pounds.
3. For Corn in Connection ivith Farm Manure.
Nitrate of soda, 50 pounds
Dry ground fish, 100 "
Acid phosphate, 100 "
Muriate of potash (or high
grade sulphate), 100 '•
These materials furnish about: nitrogen, 141 pounds: phos-
phoric acid, 21^ pounds, and potash, 50 pounds.
4. For Oats on Land in, Good Condition.
Nitrate of soda, 125 pounds
Acid phosphate, 100 "
Muriate of potash (or high
grade sulphate), 50 "
These materi:»ls furnish nitrogen, 20 pounds ; phosphoric acid, 14
pounds, and potash, 25 pounds.
11
5. For Oats on Land in Low Condition.
Nitrate of soda, 175 pounds
Dried blood, 100 "
Acid phosphate, 200 "
Muriate of potash (or high
grade sulphate), 90 "
These materials will furnish about : nitrogen, 37 pounds; phos-
phoric acid, 27 pounds, and potash, 45 pounds.
6. For Mixed Grasses or Timotliy.
Nitrate of soda, 1 50 pounds
Tankage, 125 "
Acid phosphate, 50 "
Muriate of potash (or high
grade sulphate), 25 "
These materials will furnish about: nitrogen," 32 pounds; |)hos-
phoric acid, 15 pounds, and potash, 13 pounds.
7. For Mowings zvith Considerable Clover.
Niti'ate of soda, 100 pounds
Acid phosphate, 300 "
Muriate of potash (or high
grade sulphate), IfiO "
These materials furnish about: nitrogen, 16 pounds; phosphoric
acid, 40 pounds, and potash, SO pounds.
8. For Rye.
Nitrate of soda, 125 pounds
Acid phosphate, 150 "
Muriate of potash (or high
grade sulphate), 125 "
These materials furnish: nitrogen, 19 pounds ; phosphoric acid,
20 pounds, and potash, 63 pounds.
9. For Cabbages or Sicedish Turnips.
Nitrate of soda, 150 pounds
Dried blood, 200 "
Dry ground fish, ' 400 "
Bone meal, 200 "
Acid phosphate, 500 "
Sulphate of potash (high
grade), 25u "
Furnishing nitrogen, 70 pounds; phosphoric acid, 141 pounds,
and potash, 125 pounds.
12
10. For Soy Beans.
Nitrate of soda, 100 pounds
Dry ground fish, 150 "
Acid phosphate, 300 "
Sulphate of potash (high
grade), 200 "
Furnishing nitrogen, 27 pounds ; phosphoric acid, 52 pounds, and
potash, 100 pounds.
The experimental work of the past few years indicates that the
continuous use of muriate of potash may so far deplete the soil of
lime that an occasional application of this material may be required
in case of such use. We have also some results which indicate that
the sulphate of potash is a safer material to use where a growth of
clover is desired than the muriate. For these reasons it may oftea
be wise to use the sulphate in such formulas as are given above
where muriate is specified. The high grade sulphate should be
selected. It costs about forty cents per hundred more than the
muriate.
These materials should as a rule be mixed just before use, and
applied broadcast (after plowing) and harrowed in just before plant-
ing the seed. Where nitrate of soda is to be used in quantities in
excess of 150 pounds per acre, one-half the amount of this salt may
be withheld until the crop is three or four inches high, when it may
be evenly scattered near the plants. It is unnecessary to cover this,
though it may prove more promptly effective in absence of rain if
cultivated in.
The quantities recommended are in most cases moderate. On soils
of good physical character it will often prove profitable to use about
one and one-half times the amounts given.
Notes on the Proper Handling of Barn-
yard Manure.
C. WELLINGTON.
Every practical fanner knows certain facts about barnyard
manure, which for present purposes may be summecl up as follows :
1. " Barnyard manure" is the name given to mixtures of various
excrements with a great variety of other material and cannot be
fairly represented by a single analysis. Generally speaking it is a
mixture of horse and cow manure, with straw or leaves or sawdust,
which has served as litter. Sometimes earth is used in place of such
litter. The mixture is then of a very different nature and will be
referred to after barnyard manure with litter has been described.
2. Any one of these mixtures excepting that with earth is known
in three different conditions, namely :^ fresh manure, half-rotted
and well- rotted, manure.
3. Of these, half-rotted manure gives the best results, and well-
rotted the poorest, while fresh manure shows a medium elfect.
The pur|)0se of the present remarks is to explain why the last
statement is true, and to note briefly the best manner according to
present information in which to make barn-yard manure and to use
it.
If a pile of fresh manure, that is, a mixture of solid and liquid
excrement and straw, etc., lies for several months without disturb-
ance it grows smaller and smaller. It is comparatively dr}^, the
straw has disappeared and has become " humus."
The whole mixture is more uniform in color and character. It is
half-rotted ; then after a few more months the bulk has grown very
much smaller and a black, moist, slimy, homogeneous mass results,
and the manure is icell-rotted.
Chemists have long known in a general way what changes take
place during this process, but not until recently has anything like a
14
satisfactory explanation of them been made. This explanation
depends upon the discovery of the existence and the actions, in the
manure, of three classes of very small microscopic organisms called
bacteria. They are responsible not wholly, but chiefly, for the
changes mentioned. Let us note here just what chemical materials
are in the manure at the beginning and what they are changed
into.
The fresh manure contains mineral substances like potash and
phosphates, and also organic material of two kinds, ntimely: The
nitrogenous, found in the liquid manure and to some extent in the
solid, and the non-nitrogeuous, which largely makes up the straw,
leaves, sawdust, and solid excrement. It is just these two kinds
of organic constituents and what they become, which concern us
now.
In those portions of the manure which are accessible to the air,
one class of bacteria live and breed in enormous numbers. They
feed on the oxygen of the air and the nitrogenous portion of the
manure, and, in their excrements, give off large quantities of nitrates,
the latter being the direct products of the oxidation of nitrogenous
organic matter anywhere, whether in the bodies of these bacteria or
not. These nitrates being very soluble in water, drain down into
the interior of the manure heap, just as they drain through the soil.
But, instead of all going off in the drainage water and becoming lost,
as they often do in the soil, they are chiefly lost by an entirely dif-
ferent process.
In the interior of the heap, shut awa}' from the air, these nitrates
fall prey to another class of bacteria known as " nitrate destroyers."
They completely undo the work of the other bacteria or " nitrate
formers." The "nitrate destroyers "live on the non-nitrogenous
constituents of the straw and leaves and the oxygen of the nitrates.
This liberates the nitrogen in the form of gas which escapes into the
air and is lost to the farmer. The process also consumes the non-
nitrogenous portion, which is chiefly the remainder of the litter. It
is formed into water and carbonic acid gas which escape into the air
and thus diminish the bulk of the pile. "While the '• nitrate formers "
live near the surface of the manure and require air for their work,
the " nitrate destroyers" live away from the air and do not need it.
They are dependent, however, on food of a certain kind and must
have plenty of it, otherwise they become inactive and can do no
damage, though millions of. them may exist in the interior of the
\
15
manure pile. One of their principal foods, the non-nitrogenous
material of the litter, they cannot use as food until it has been made
soluble by a third class of bacteria which causes the rotting of the
litter. Nitrates are also indispensable for their nourishment. If
therefore they are deprived of either one of these constituents of their
diet they either die or at least become harmless.
The work of the " nitrate formers "' is beneficial ; it converts
organic nitrogen into nitrate, a most available form of plant
food. Half-rotted manure contains nitrogen largely in this form.
The work of " nitrate destroyers" is destructive. It removes the
soluble nitrates from the manure. It converts half-rotted manure
into well-rotted manure. In this way the different effects produced by
manure in the three different conditions are explained. The nitrogen
in fresh manure is largely organic and not immediately available. It
therefore has a slower and less effect than half-rotted manure. The
nitrogen in half-rotted manure is largely in the form of nitrates, and
this is available. The nitrogen in well-rotted manure has all been
converted into nitrate also, and was once available, but has subse-
quently been lost in the air. This is why the well-rotted condition
is the least valuable of the three.
In handling manure the farmer should strive to place it at the dis-
position of the growing crop just at that moment when the most
nitrate has been formed and before any has been destroyed. The
most favorable conditions are obtained when fresh manure is packed
as tightly as possible, away from the air, and kept in that condition
till half-rotted, and then plowed under just before planting or sow-
ing. Under these circumstances, although the third class of bacteria
have in the rotting of the litter made soluble food of one kind for the
•nitrate destroyers," the latter have been deprived of their other
necessary food, the nitrates, for none could be formed in the tightly
packed mass and thej' have remained harmless. But the heap has be-
come half-rotted, even without them. After the manure is plowed in,
the "nitrogen formers," now having plenty of air, rapidly produce
nitrates which is beyond the reach of the destroyers ; for by this time
all their soluble noii-uitrogenous food has been decomposed and has
goue into the air leaving them to die. The growing plants, in the
meantime, absorb the nitrates.
If fresh manure is plowed in directly before seeding, a poor result
is obtained, for the nitrates are not formed until after tlie plants
have passed their growing period, and they consequently starve. As
16
might be supposed, winter crops fare better with this procedure than
spring crops. By plowing in fresh manure several months before
seeding, a much better result is obtained, because the nitrates are on
hand and are being formed at the growing period of the crops.
Experience has abundantly proven that it is better to plow manure
into the soil and allow it to lie there rather than in the pile. Whether
it is better to leave manure spread upon the surface of the
land rather than to plow it in or leave it in the pile, depends chiefly
on the amount of loss caused by surface drainage. This may be
small, but if the ground is frozen, the surface inclined, and the man-
ure half-rotted or more, the loss will be considerable. The nitrate
destroying bacteria are of several species and have thus far been
found in straw and various other litter, in soils, and in the dung of
herbivorous animals. They have not been found in human excre-
ment or that of the carnivora or birds.
When barnyard manures are made with bedding devoid of much
decomposable organic matter, the nitrate-destroj'ing bacteria cannot
work in them, for they cannot obtain the soluble organic food neces-
sary for their subsistence. Anything like sand, loam or turf, there-
fore, may be used for bedding without incurring the disadvantage
due to litter.
Wherever much nitrate of soda is applied to crops, there is pro-
duced a relatively large yield of straw, which, in turn, leads to a
large use of this material as litter. This excessive quantity of straw
in the manure materially lessens its value in the manner described.
CONCLUSIONS :
Of the three common conditions of barnyard manure, half-rotted
manure is the most valuable, and well-rotted manure the least,
because of their relative amounts of nitrates.
Manure should be kept i)acked away from the air as tightly as
possible, and if netted should be plowed under just before planting,
otherwise several months before that time.
The more litter used in the manure, the greater liability to loss of
nitrogen.
The use of bedding material free from decomposable organic mat-
ter is a means of protection against loss of nitrogen.
HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION
'OF THE-
MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGF,.
BULLETIN NO. 59.
I. ANALYSES OF MANURIAL SUBSTANCES SENT ON FOR EXAMINATION.
II. ANALYSES OF LICENSED FERTILIZERS COLLECTED BY THE AGENT OF THE
STATION DURING 1898.
'^^^^ik^j^i^-:^.
■„fUU r.vlUlM,
CHF.MICAL LABOEATOKY.
Tlie Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to all newspapers in
the State and to such individuals interested in farming as may request
the same.
AMHERST, MASS. :
PRESS OF CARPENTER & MOREHOUSE,
1899.
HATCH EXFERIMI3NT STATION
OF THK
Massachusetts Agrictdtural College,
AMHERST, MASS.
By act of the General Court, the Hatch Experiment Station and
the State Experiment Station have been consolidated under the name
of the Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College. Several new divisions have been created and the scope of
others has been enlarged. To the horticultural, has been added the
duty of testing varieties of vegetables and seeds. The chemical has
been divided, and a new division, " Foods and Feediog," has been
established. The botanical, including plant physiology and disease,
has been restored after temporary suspension.
The officers are : —
Henry H. Goodell, LL. D., Director.
William P. Brooks, Fh. D., Agriculturist.
George E. Stone, Ph. D., Botanist.
Charles A. Goessmann, Ph. D., LL. D., Chemist (Fertilizers).
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph. D., Chemist (Foods and Feeding) .
Charles H. Fernald, Ph. D., Entomologist.
Samuel T. Maynard, B. Sc, Horticulturist.
J. E. Ostrander, C. E., Meteorologist.
Henry M. Thomson, B. Sc, Assistant Agriculturist.
Ralph E. Smith, B. Sc, Assistant Botanist.
Henri D. Haskins, B. Sc, Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Charles I. Goessmann, B. Sc, Assista7it Chemist (Fertilizers).
Samuel W. Wiley, B. Sc, Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Edward B. Holland, M. Sc, First Chemist(Fooc]sandYeeding).
Fred W. Mobsman, B. Sc, J.ssY C/iemis«(Foods and Feeding).
Benjamin K. Jones, B. Sc, ^ss'i C/iemjsf(Food» and Feeding).
Philip H. Smith, B. Sc, Assistant in Foods a7id Feeding .
Robert A. Cooley, B. Sc, Assistant Entomologist.
George A. Drew, B. Sci. Assistant Horticulturist.
Herbert D. Hemenway, B. Sc, Assistant Horticulturist.
Arthur C. Monahan, Observer.
The co-operation and assistance of farmers, fruit-growers, horti-
culturists, and all interested, directly or indirectly, in agriculture,
are earnestly requested. Communications may be addressed to the
Hatch Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass.
DIVISION OF CHEMISTRY.
C. A. GOESSMANN.
I.
ANALYSES OF COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS AND MANU-
RIAL SUBSTANCES SENT ON FOR EXAMINATION.
WOOD ASHES.
635-638. I. Received from Orange, Mass.
II. Received from Concord, Mass.
III. Received from North Hatfield, Mass.
IV. Received from Concord, Mass.
Moisture at 100° C,
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoric acid,
Calcium oxide,
Insoluble matter,
639-642. I. Received from Concord, Mass.
II. Received from East Whately, Mass.
III. Received from Sudbury, Mass.
IV. Received from Milford, Mass.
I.
16.90
Per
II.
7.30
Cent.
III.
9.07
IV.
11.42
4.87
4.93
5.12
4.50
1.64
1.28
1.42
1.24
30.44
34.33
46.73
30.70
7.68
28.87
13.60
8.96
Moisture at 100° C,
I.
12.33
Per Cent.
II. III.
11.65 6.80
IV.
.48
Potassium oxide.
4.06
4.29 2.16
7.85
Phosphoric acid.
Calcium oxide.
1.16
28.62
.99 .69
31.83 9.68
1.61
42.88
Insoluble matter.
22.72
12.53 56.59
5.34
643-646. I- Received from Clinton, Mass.
II. Received from Sunderland, Mass.
III. Received from Concord, Mass.
IV. Received from Concord, Mass.
Per Cent.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C,
.20
14.51
10.18
12.47
Potassium oxide.
8.20
6.66
5.91
4.77
Phosphoric acid.
1.98
1.68
1.41
1.37
Calcium oxide.
43.45
26.04
35.55
31.43
Insoluble matter.
16.25
13.76
11.40
16.94
Per Cent.
I. II.
14.35 ■ 7.82
6.24
6.68
1.79
.31
35.63
36.39
9.71
14.50
647-648. I. Received from North Wilbraham, Mass.
II. Received from Concord, Mass.
Moisture at 100^ C,
Potassium oxide.
Phosphoric acid.
Calcium oxide,
Insoluble matter.
Wood ashes for manurial purposes are in our State subject to official
inspection, and dealers in that commodity have to secure a license to
sell in Massachusetts before they can legally advertise their articles
for sale. This circumstance makes it obligatory to the dealer to state
the amount of potash and of phosphoric acid they guarantee in
these materials ; and to fasten that statement upon the package or
car, etc., which contains it.
Some dealers in wood ashes have adopted of late the practice of
stating merely the sum of both, phosphoric acid and potash instead
of specifying the amount of each of them present. As phosphoric
acid and potassium oxide contained in wood ashes are considered in
our section of the country, pound for pound of a nearly equal com-
mercial value, from 4.5 to 5 cents per pound each, no particular
objection can be raised against a joint statement of both as far as the
mere mouey value of the sample is concerned ; yet as this mode of
stating the guaranteed composition is apt to lead to misconception
and abuse, it ought to be discouraged and discontinued.
As the dealer is only obliged to guarantee the amount of potash
and of phosphoric acid present in a given quantity of wood ashes,
no serious objection can be raised on the part of the buyer on account
of moisture, etc., as long as the article contains the specified amount
of both potash and phosphoric acid.
Wood ashes ought to be bought and sold by weight, and not by
measure ; for both moisture and the general character of foreign
matters present are apt to seriously affect the weight of a given
measure.
The majority of dealers guarantee from4.5% to o% of potassium
oxide in their articles ; from a review of our publications of the
last year it will be seen that quite a number of the samples are
below the lowest guarantees, showing on the whole that the quality
of wood ash sold in 1898 as a potash source has been somewhat
inferior as compared with the preceding year.
Whether this circumstance is due to a general decline of the
article or to the management of any particular dealer or importer is
difficult to decide on our part as long as farmers do not state the
name of the party they have bought of and the cost per ton of the
ashes they send on for examination.
It is for obvious reasons most desirable to ascertain whether the
general character of the wood ash is gradually declining from gen-
eral causes or whether some parties in particular handle inferior
goods. All parties interested in the solution of this question will
confer a favor on us by sending with their samples of wood ashes
the names of the parties they bought the article of, and the cost per
ton at the nearest depot for general distribution.
The large percentage of lime, from 30 to 40 per cent, found in
genuine wood ashes, imparts a special agricultural value to them as
a fertilizer, aside from the amount of potash and phosphoric acid
they contain. Wherever an application of lime is desired, wood ashes
deserve favorable consideration, on account of the superior mechan-
ical condition of the lime they furnish.
LIME KILN ASHES AND MARL.
649-650. I- Lime Kiln Ashes received from Littleton, Mass.
II. Marl received from Lincoln, Mass.
Per
I.
.67
Cent.
II.
31.71
2.32
1.12
.70
.56
52.90
38.49
*
12.86
1.71
7.14
Moisture at 100° C,
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoric acid,
Calcium oxide,
Carbonic acid.
Insoluble matter,
GERMAN POTASH SALTS.
651-652. I- Muriate of Potash received from Hudson, Mass.
II. Sulphate of Potash and Magnesia received from
North Hadley, Mass.
Per
Cent.
I.
II.
.10
7.68
50.20
19.55
Moisture at 100° C,
Potassium oxide,
NITRATE OF SODA.
653-654. I- Received from Hudson, Mass.
II. Received from North Hadley, Mass.
Percent.
I. II.
Moisture at 100° C,
Nitrogen,
.03 .10
15.85 14.56
DRIED BLOOD, MEAT
AND BONE.
655-656. I- Dried blood received from Milford, Mass.
II. Meat and bone received from Milford, Mass.
Moisture at 100° C,
Nitrogen,
Total phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Per Cent.
I. II.
10.43 9.98
10.15 7.18
* 14.71
* 3.35
* 11.36
*Not determined.
I.
5.57
Per Cent.
II. III.
2.75 3.25
IV.
5.67
23.92
26.08
24.44
23.74
7.54
4.58
4.62
4.68
16.38
21.50
19.82
19.06
2.65
2.47
2.27
3.36
FINE GROUND BONE.
657-660. I. Received from Wilbraham, Mass.
II. Received from Milford, Mass.
III. Received from Milford, Mass.
IV. Received from Milford, Mass.
Moisture at lOO'' C,
Total phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Nitrogen,
ACID PHOSPHATE AND BONE ASH.
661-662. I. Acid Phosphate received from Hudson, Mass.
II. Bone Ash received from Hudson, Mass.
Moisture at lOO'' C,
Total phosphoric acid.
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
LIQUID FERTILIZER AND PLANT FOOD IN TABLET FORM.
663-664. I- Liquid Fertilizer received from Natick, Mass.
II. Plant food in tablets received fi'om Newtonville, Mass.
Moisture at 100" C,
Total phosphoric acid.
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Nitrogen,
I.
2.73
Per Cent.
11.
.34
11.60
39.14
7.98
«
3.18
*
.44
*
Percent.
I.
II.
90.46
3.39
1.24
16.59
1.24
14.58
none
1.67
none
.34
1.12
7.65
*Not Determined.
2.79
7.96
1.67
6.19
1.82
4.04
.07
5.30
none.
17.17
.02
6.05
none
14.33
Potassiuin oxide,
Sodium oxide,
Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide,
Sulphuric acid,
Chlorine,
Insoluble matter,
VELVET BEANS AND TOBACCO DUST.
665-607. I- Velvet Beans (with pod) received from Fitchburg,
Mass.
II. VelvetBeans (kernel) received from Fitchburg, Mass.
III. Tobacco Dust received from Boston, Mass.
Moisture at 100® C,
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoric acid.
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter,
p
er Cent.
I.
II.
III.
1.52
11.13
7.70
1.31
1.23
5.72
.84
.63
.81
1.96
2.66
1.75
.012
.036
*
DAMAGED GRAIN.
668-670. I- Received from Littleton, Mass.
II. Received from Littleton, Mass.
III. Received from Littleton, Mass.
Moisture at 100° C,
Potassium oxide.
Phosphoric acid.
Nitrogen,
I.
14.07
.43
.83
1.97
Per Cent.
II-
61.35
.16
.35
.84
III.
51.05
.26
.47
1.52
COMPLETE FERTILIZERS.
671-674. L Received from Wilbraham, Mass.
II. Received from North Brookfield, Mass.
III. Received from North Brookfield, Mass.
IV. Received from North Brookfield, Mass.
*Not Determined.
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid,
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphori'c acid,
Nitrogen,
Potassium oxide,
I.
16.18
Per Cent.
II. III.
10.55 6.26
IV.
5.38
7.34
8.99
8.12
9.70
4.30
2.78
1.57
.91
2.06
4.36
2.02
3.33
.98
1.85
4.53
5.46
1.72
2.83
2.99
3.11
7.24
7.03
2.62
3.27
watp:r abstract of dry forest leaves.
675. Received from Amherst, Mass.
Per Cent.
Moisture at lOO''
C,
99.47
Solid residue at 100° C,
.53
Nitrogen,
.0035
Potassium oxide.
.0287
Phosphoric acid.
.0220
Calcium oxide,
.0249
Ash,
.16
COTTON SEED MEAL.
676-677, L Received from North Hatfield, Mass.
II. Received from South Deerfield, Mass.
Moisture at 100° C,
Nitrogen,
Per Cent.
I. II.
6.10 7.80
7.00 6.37
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TRADE VALUES
OF FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS IN RAW MATERIALS
AND CHEMICALS.
1899.
Cents per pound.
Nitrogen in ammonia salts, 15.0
" nitrates, 12.5
Organic nitrogen in dry and fine ground fish, meat, blood,
and in high-grade mixed fertilizers, 14.0
" " " fine bone and tankage, 14.0
" " " medium bone and tankage, 10.0
Phosphoric acid soluble in water, 4.5
" " soluble in ammonium citrate, 4.0
" "in fine ground fish, bone and tankage, 4.0
" "in cottonseed meal, castor pomace
and wood ashes, 4.0
" "in coarse fish, bone and tankage, 2.0
" " insoluble (in water and in am. cit.)
in mixed fertilizers, 2.0
Potash as Sulphate, free from Chlorides, 5.0
" " Muriate, 4.25
The market value of low priced materials used for manurial pur-
poses, as salt, wood ashes, various kinds of lime, barnyard manure,
factory refuse and waste materials of different description, quite
frequently does not stand in close relation to the current market
value of the amount of essential articles of plant food they contain.
Their cost varies in different localities. Local facilities for cheap
transportation and more or less advantageous mechanical conditions
for a speedy action, exert as a rule, a decided influence on their
selling price.
The market value of fertilizing ingredients like other merchandise
is liable to changes during the season. The above stated values
are based on the condition of the fertilizer market in centers of dis-
tribution in New England, during the six months preceding March
1899.
HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION
"OF THE-
MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE.
BULLETIN NO. SO.
INSECTICIDES.
FUNGICIDES.
SPRAYING CALENDAR.
>2VI»I«IIv, 1S90.
The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to all newspapers in
the State and to such individuals interested in farming as may request
the same.
AMHERST, MASS. :
PRESS OF CARPENTER & MOREHOUSE,
1899.
HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION
OF THE
Massachusetts Agricultural College,
AMHERST, MASS.
By act of the General Court, the Hatch Experiment Station and
the State Experiment Station have been consolidated under the name
of the Hatch Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College. Several new divisions have been created and the scope of
others has been enlarged. To the horticultural, has been added the
duty of testing varieties of vegetables and seeds. The chemical has
been divided, and a new division, "Foods and Feeding," has been
established. The botanical, including plant physiology and disease,
has been restored after temporary suspension.
The officers are : —
Henry H. Goodell, LL. D., Director.
William P. Brooks, Pu. D., Agriculturist.
George E. Stone, Ph. D., Botanist.
Charles A. Goessmann, Ph. D., LL. D., Chemist (Fertilizers).
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph. D., Chemist (Foods and Feeding).
Charles H. Fernald, Ph. D., Entomologist.
Samuel T. Maynaro, B. Sc, Horticulturist.
J. E. OsTRANDER, C. E., Metcorologist.
Henry M. Thomson, B. Sc, Assistant Agriculturist.
Ralph E. Smith, B. Sc, Assistant Botanist.
Henri D. Haskins, B. Sc, Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Charles L Goessmann. B. Sc, Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Samuel W. Wiley, B. Sc, Assistant Chemist (Fertilizers).
Edward B. Holland, M. Sc, i^jrs^ C7tem(".sf (Foods and Feeding).
Fred W. MosSMAN, B. Sc, Ass'i C/«eHus<(Foods and Feeding).
Benjamin K. Jones, B. Sc, ^ssV C/ieHus?( Food.-. and Feeding).
Philip H. Smith, B. Sc, Assistant in Foods and Feeding.
Robert A. Cooley, B. Sc, Assistant Entomologist.
George A. Drew, B. Sc. Assistant Horticzdttirist.
Herbert D. Hemenway, B. Sc, Assistant Horticulturist.
Arthur C. Monahan, Observer.
The co-operation and assistance of farmers, fruit-growers, horti-
culturists, and all interested, directly or indirectly, in agriculture,
are earnestly requested. Communications may be addressed to the
Hatch Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass.
Horticultural Division.
S. T. MAYNARD.
Spraying for the Destruction of Insects and Fungous Pests.
Farmers, fruit growers and gardeners are coming more and more
to see the necessity of spraying tht ir crops to protect them from
insects and fungous pests, and as a rule those most successful in the
above lines practice spraying systematically and have as complete
equipment for this work as for the work of cultivation.
The results of spraying the past season have shown many inter-
esting features and have led to some slight changes in the spraying
calendar for 1899 accompanying this paper.
Many kinds of pumps and nozzles are in use, and some new
features have been introduced, the most important of which perhaps,
is the combined kerosene and water sprayer (kerosprayer). These
pumps are made with two cylinders, one for the water and the other
for the kerosene. These are worked by the same lever or handle,
the kerosene being forced into the hose with the water and distrib-
uted from the same nozzle in a very fine mixed spray. The pump
can be so regulated that 5, 10, 20, 25 and even 50% of kerosene
may be used. With these pumps the kerosene may be used with the
copper sulfate solution or the Bordeaux mixture, though with the
latter it has not given as satisfactory results as with the former.
Whatever the kind of pump purchased it is important that it be used
carefully, that the spraying material, if containing coarse particles,
be carefully strained before use, that all parts be kept well oiled and
after using, that the pump be cleaned by pumping sufficient water
through it to clear it of corroding materials.
Good judgment and considerable mechanical 8kill must be exer-
cised to get the best results with any complicated machine, and only
those persons possessing these qualifications should be allowed to
use the pumps.
insecticidp:s.
While there are many new insecticides offered, there is so little
exact knowledge of their effect upon farm and garden crops that
until further trial is made we can only recommend for general use
Paris green, arsenate of lead and hellebore for chewing insects and
keroseiie and water and kerosene emnlsion for sucking ineects, with
pyrethrum or insect powder in a very few cases.
PARIS GREEN.
This insecticide needs no description. Special care however
should be taken that only pure Paris green be used. A much larger
per cent of this may be used without injury to the foliage if mixed
with the Bordeaux than if applied in water alone. The cherry,
peach and Japanese plum cannot be sprayed with Paris green with-
out injury to the foliage.
ARSENATE OF LEAD.
Formula. 11 oz. Acetate of Lead.
4 oz. Arsenate of Lead.
150 gallons water.
This insecticide has th's advantage over Paris green that when
used in large quantities it will not injure the foliage of the peach,
cherry, Japanese plum or other trees of delicate nature. It is how-
ever more expensive and its effectiveness in destroying the common
insects attacking our fruit and garden crops is not so well proven as
that of Paris green. It should be given a thorough trial especially
on those crops where Paris green is known to be injurious.
"*This insecticide is easily prepared by putting 11 oz. acetate of
lead in 4 qts. of water in a wooden pail and 4 oz. arsenate of
lead (50 per cent strength) in 2 qts. of w^ater in another wooden
pail and when entirely dissolved mixing in a hogshead or tank con-
*Prof. C. H. Fernald in 45tb Annual Report of Mass. State Board of Agricul-
ture, 1S97.
HATCH EXPERIMENT STATION,
HORTICULTURAL DIVISION.
Correction f^or Bulletin No. 60.
The formula and direction for the use of the Arsenate of Lead should
be changed as follows :
Formula.
11 oz. Acetate of Lead.
4 oz. Arsenate of SODA.
150 gallons of Water.
This insecticide has the advantage over Paris green that when
used in large quantities it will not injure the foliage of the peach,
cherry, Japanese plum or other trees of delicate nature. It is how-
ever more expensive and its effectiveness in destroying the common
insects attacking our fruit and garden crops is not so well proven as
that of Paris Green. It should be given a thorough trial especially
on those crops where Paris green is known to be injurious.
'''*This insecticide is easily prepared by putting 11 oz. acetate of
lead in 4 qts. of water in a wooden pail and 4 oz. arsenate of soda
(50 per cent strength) in 2 qts. of water in another wooden pail
and when entirely dissolved mixing in a hogshead or tank containing
150 gallons of water, when a chemical reaction will take place
forming arsenate of lead as a pure white powder in suspension in
the water." If the common 50 gallon barrel or cask is used the
formula would be 3f oz. acetate of lead and 1-| oz. arsenate of soda.)
" If cold water be used the solution of acetate of lead will require
a little time, but however, if the water be hot it will dissolve quickly.
It is customary to add from 1 to 4 qts. of glucose to the above
amount of water to make the poison adhere more firmly, but this
may not be necessary. If it is desired to use larger proportions of
the arsenate of lead it is only necessary to use more acetate of lead
and arsenate of soda, but always in the proportion given above."
*Prof. C. H. Fernald in 45th Annual Report of Mass. State Board of Agriculture,
1897.
taining loO gnllons of water, when a chemical reaction will take
place forming arsenate of lead as a pure white powder in suspension
in the water." (If the common 50 gallon barrel or cask is used the
formula would be 3f oz. acetate of lead and 1-| oz. arsenate of lead.)
" If cold water be used the solution of acetate of lead will require
a little time, but however, if the water be hot it will dissolve quickly.
It is customary to add ftom 2 to 4 qts. of glucose to the above
amount of water to make the poison adhere more iirmly, but this
may not be necessary. If it is desired to use larger proportions of
the arsenate of lead it is only necessary to use more acetate of lead
and arsenate of lead, but ahvays in the proportion given above."
KEROSENE EMULSION.
Formula. ^ lb. common bar soap.
2 gals, common kerosene.
Cut the soap into thin pieces or shavings and dissolve in about
2 gallons of hot water. While still hot, as nearly boiling as ^wssihle,
pour in the kerosene and with the hand pump or syringe, pump it
back and forth until a thick cream-like substance is formed. In this
condition the kerosene is divided into very minute globules and will
be readily diluted or suspended in water.
Before using, add water enough to make
(A) 10 gallons of emulsion
(B) 20 gallons of emulsion.
Formula A, to be used when the insects are in large numbers and
the foliage is known not to be easily injured by it. Formula B,
under other conditions.
KEROSENE AND WATER.
It has been found by numerous experiments that clear kerosene
mixed with water if applied upon a bright clear day and in a condi-
tion of fine mist so as not to form drops may be used without injury
to the foliage of most of the trees attacked by aphides and other
sucking insects, the pear tree psylla and scale insects. This insecti-
cide however cannot be recommended unless it is applied with an atom-
izer or with a pump by which a definite quantity can be applied. The
amount* that may be used must depend upon the condition of the
atmosphere. During a bright, dry, windy day a much larger quan-
tity may be used than on a still day when the atmosphere is moist.
It should never he xised in cloudy or rainy weather, and this applies in
a greater or less degree to the kerosene emulsion.
Pyrethrum Powder and Hellebore should be obtained in a perfectly
fresh condition and be kept in sealed tin cans or glass stoppered jars.
FUNGICIDES.
BORDEAUX MIXTURE.
Formula. 4 lbs. Copper Sulfate, {Blue Vitriol).
4 lbs. Caustic Lime (Unslaked Lime.)
Dissolve the copper in hot water. If suspended in a basket or
sack in a tub of cold water it will however dissolve in from two to
three hours.
The lime is then slaked in another vessel adding water slowly that
it may be thoroughly slaked, then add enough water to make 5 to 10
gallons of the liquid. When both are cool, pour the lime into the cop-
per solution straining it through a fine meshed sieve or burlap strainer,
and thoroughly mix. Before using, add water enough to make 50
gallons of the mixture, and strain again when poured into the pump.
Many persons make the mistake when preparing the Bordeaux mixture
of straining the lime mixture while too thick, under which condition
much of its value is lost. Five to ten gallons of water should be
added to the lime wash before it is strained into the vessel contain-
ing the copper sulfate solution. The fine particles of lime hold the
copper and Paris green to the foliage and prevent injury, and if
properly strained nearly all of this fine material will go through the
nozzle without clogging.
Stock solutions of both lime and copper i. e. 20, 36 or 48 lbs. of
* It is best to begin with 10 to ISj^laml increase unless some injury is noticed.
each, may be prepared atone time and they will keep in good con-
dition for a week or two but they should never be put together until
ready to be used. Before mixing, the lime solution should be
thoroughly stirred and diluted.
The copper solution will retain ils strength and value indefinitely,
but the lime mixture is never as good as tinthin an hour or tivo of the
time it is made and we would caution those purchasing the prepared
Bordeaux mixture, not to expect as satisfactory results as from the
fresh home-made mixture which is also much cheaper.
The active agent in this mixture is the copper, the lime being used
simply to hold it in place upon the foliage and branches of the plants
sprayed. Here it is given up with each rain, destroying the spores of
the fungi as they are brought in contact with it by the surrounding
atmosphere.
Should the lime be air slaked at all more than four pounds may be
needed as it will have lost much of its strength.
This fungicide is recommended as more satisfactory than any
other, from the fact that it adheres a long time to the branches, buds
and leaves and seldom causes any injury to the foliage.
It has been found more effective if made up fresh for each appli-
cation. Two or three thorough applications give better results than
many light ones.
When both fungous growths and insects attack a crop, Paris green
should be applied with the Bordeaux, as in a combined state both
are as effective as if used singly, one-half of the labor being saved and
the lime preventing injury to the foliage by the Paris green.
DILUTE COPPER SULFATE SOLUTION.
After the fruit has nearly matured it is often disfigured by the
adhesion of the Bordeaux mixture especially the plum, peach, cherry
and grape and in place of this we would advise the use of copper
sulfate 2 to 4 oz. to 50 gallons of water. The foliage of many plants
will stand a much stronger solution, but this is as concentrated as
can be generally used.
It must be remembered that this -solution will be washed off by
every hard rain, and to keep the copper on the foliage or fruit during
frequent rains will sometimes require spraying every day. This has
been done in some cases and with profit, for often without it the
8
crop is a total failure. The expense of this work however, for the
few clays or a week when cherries, peaches and plums are near ripen-
ing is not so great as at first appears for only the simple solution is
used and there can be no clogging of the nozzles to delay the work.
SPRAYING CALENDAR.
SPRAYING CALENDAR.
PLANT.
APPLE
(Scab, codlin moth, bud
moth. Tent caterpillar, can-
ker worm, i>lu7n curculio.J
BEAN
(Anthracnose, leaf blight. J
CABBAGE
( Worms.)
CHERRY*
(Rot, aphis, slug,
curcu Ho . Black knot.)
CURRANT )
GOOSEBERRY ( • •■ ■
{Worms. Leaf blight. J
GRAPE
( Fungotis diseases. Hose
bug.)
NURSERY STOCK ...
(Fungous diseases.)
PEACH, NECTARINE*. .
(Rot, mildew.)
PEAR
(Leaf blight, scab, psylla,
codlin math, blister mite.)
PLUM* t
(Cnrculio. Black knot, leaf
blight, brou-n rot.)
FIRST APPLICATION.
SECOND APPLICATION.
When buds are swelling,' If canker worms are
Bordeaux. abundant just before blos-
soms open, Bordeaux and
Paris green.
QUINCE
(Leaf and fruit spot.)
RASPBERRY )
BLACKBERRY} . . .
DEWBERRY )
(Rust, anthrucnose,
blight.)
STRAWBERRY
(Rtist.)
leaf
TOMATO
(Rot, blight, Jim beetle.)
POTATO
( Flea beetle, Colorado beetle,
blight and rot.)
When third leaf expands,
Bordeaux.
Insect powder 1 lb. to 25
lbs. of plaster or cheap
flour dusted into the head.
As buds are breaking,
Bordeaux; when aphis ap-
pears, kerosene emulsion
or kerosene and water.
At first appearance of
worms, hellebore. Thor-
ough application in watev.
In Spring when buds
swell, Bordeaux.
When first leaves appear,
Bordeaux.
As the buds swell, Bor-
deaux. Arsenate of lead
for plum curculio.
As buds are swelling,
Bordeaux.
When buds are swelling
Bordeaux.
When blossom buds ap-
pear, Bordeaux.
Before buds break, Bor
deaux.
As soon as growth begins,
with Bordeaux.
Before appearance of
blight or rot, Bordeaux.
Spray with Paris green
and Bordeaux when about
i grown.
10 days later, Bordeaux.
7-10 days later, repeat.
When fruit has set, Bor-
deaux. If slugs appear,
dust leaves with air slaked
lime or hellebore. Try
arsenate of lead for plum
curculio.
10 days later, hellebore.
Bordeaux.
Just before flowers un-
fold, Bordeaux and Paris
green.
10-14 days, repeat first.
When fruit has set, Bor-
deaux. Arsenate of lead
for curculio.
Just before blossoms
open, Bordeaux. Kerosene
and water or kerosene
emulsion when leaves open
for psylla.
When blossoms have
fallen, Bordeaux and Paris
green. Begin to jar trees
for curculio.
When fruit has set, Bor-
deaux.
Bordeaux, just before the
blossoms open.
When first blossoms open,
spray both young antl old
plantation. Bordeaux.
Repeat first if diseases
are not checked. Fruit can
be wiped if disfigured by
Bordeaux.
Repeat before insects be
come numerous.
*Paris green cannot be used on foliage of cherry, peach or Japanese plum with-
out injury.
fBlack knot on plums or cherries should be cut and burned as soon as discovered.
11
THIRD APPLICATION.
When blossoms have
fallea, Bordeaux and Paris
green.
14 days later, Bordeaux.
7-10 days later, repeat.
FOURTH APPLICATION.
8-12day9 later, Bordeaux
and Paris green.
14 days later, Bordeaux.
Repeat in 10-14 days if
necessary.
10-14 days if rot appears, 10-14 days later, weak
Bordeaux. Arsenate ot|SOlution of copper sul-
lead for plum curculio. fate
If worms persist, helle-
bore.
When fruit has set, Bor
deaux and Paris green.
10-14 days repeat first.
When fruit is one-half
grown, Bordeaux.
After blossoms have fal-
len, Bordeaux and Paris
green. Kerosene emulsion,
if necessarj^ or kerosene
and water.
10-14 days later, Bordeaux.
Paris green cannot be safely
used on Japanese varieties.
10-20 days later,Bordeaux.
(Orange or red rust is
treated best by destroying
the plants attacked in its
early stages.)
Spray young plantation
Bordeaux.
Repeat first when neces-
sary.
Repeat for blight, rot and
insects as potatoes ap-
proach maturity.
2 to 4 weeks later, if any
disease appears, weak solu-
tion of copper sulfate.
2 to 4 weeks later, Bor-
deaux.
10-14 days repeat first.
5-7 days later, weak solu-
tion of copper sulfate.
812 days later, repeat
third.
10-20 days later, Bordeaux,
10-20 days later, Bordeaux,
Spray after fruit is gath-
ered with Bordeaux.
Repeat third if weather
is moist.
Try weak solution of cop-
per sulfate.
FIFTH APPLICATION.
10-14 days later, Bordeaux.
Spraying with Bordeaux
after the pods are one-half
grown will injure them for
market.
Repeat after every rain
when fruit begins to color.
After fruit is gathered,
Bordeaux.
Weak solution of copper
sulfate.
5-7 days later, repeat.
10-14 days later, weak solu-
tion of copper sulfate.
10-20 days later, weak
solution of copper sul-
fate.
10-20 days later, copper
sulfate solution as fruit is
ripening.
*For aphides or plant lice use kerosene emulsion or kerosene and water.
V5-
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