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U. 8S. DEPARTMENT CF AGRICULTURE.
Department Bulletins
. Nos. 276-800,
) WITH CONTENTS ©2:°° |
: AND INDEX.
Prepared in the Division of Publications.
WASHINGTON: |
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
/ 1917.
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DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 276.—TuHrE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE
Crops:
MINIM I CHONG sel soo ap ei woe ag oes nec clee s oe eee west esa eb
Identity of the species occurring in America.........-----+---------+--2:
Rasihastory.of the pest'and ite injuries tly Baise esos oe Hees bee eye says?
(CLRGVEN CHGS CECRAION E> a ee ne Ae eo Sk OU mee ae ee See eae
Effects on cattle of feeding them infested clover.......-..-...------------
ID SySiissr le UsOVAT EW a0 oy a Fg avehel po am eee PERM (= Jaf he ee
[RtGGS! TOL TOUTS es aera He a a RA Re EEN
Description..... Riles areca tay sich a ere ee Som uh Sia ie pie eS ta aed
LAI: LTS) a oe ee (> Dt eh ae RA rene a
eetlerattony experiments: 20. 0.50 oa Sots a oe een Saye en aereeee eee ea
Jc SGA ATONE (OY EN OSHC el ag ge erg 8 Sales Ae
Ped ORL esp et ene a nS dae das ae saad aie o cie sae. Melee ae ie ree
Age at which females begin reproducing........-.-.-.--.---------------
VE DROCIICLIVC POTION «<< = Saas esis tok ori an, Pei ses © w srane emia nn Se) a oer rae
1 Ly DRYER EN TP Ne ig ge LNt -eA I eees pt E
ecm OL VEVIParoUs females... 5. < 2/2 55-25 ees oe atelier ee
PIEMGURU OLMISs sae sole atelier oe wise eerie oe Paine eae ete Seva ee eee
eciirdiny OLOviparous females: fo.) = cease goats sno en oa
I EtitmM CONGO! Mebiee Ooch e ee ae ere cite eee ec oe tia cen cy ch nae npatatrny are ream
MentrodsOmartiticialycontrol 22. 22st. atlases coe. soa enna een aos
DEPARTMENT Butuetin No. 277.—Cotron WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION:
AIerOPICHI ON es cs Me I, tal cite ye Cae he orale ee ey
fimportance oO: storage NOUSCS.).: 2. 2-5 iis aa Se oe si kegs eee soci
Hates! OL, SLOLAC Cs 2: aelacdsfs=,-<'n)2 = 2s a ci Sein eres aioe ree
Explanation of the term ‘‘standard” as applied to cotton warehouses -----
Migpesionstandard warehouses... <.<.-.-0.0- 5-2 sa ceete yale noe tye ste
Miscellaneous fire insurance schedules. -.....:..--.-4,-<-<-----2-----n--
General consideration relating to cotton storage and fire insurance..---.-..
COG EST 01 geass ap Sp
DrparTMENT BuLLETIN No. 278.—MiscELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGA-
TIONS:
NGROCUCHIOM ae ip ecco es 2 2d. i sage a acre mae eel Apia See
EPapeLimmemian OA i505) Seen |. 22 er he eae Uae
EEpenim enters! O10 tage ee Ss. 5 aot nt ae Soe ey ee ae
Pixeriments. LOA oes soya... a ee ne ee ee el gc
ciGuex peril €NtS:4.5<( 220,95 seis- =~ «22 - ee ee Sree en tet ss de a
SUMMIM ATI Ze Treva e Wrasse le ete es. en a ey een ce elo pene eal
Wome sions: 22s 5 20s es ee cre SR orig Tae era Fae oo
PRON ALO tADLES 30 Seen e ees Sooo ooo. «2 SSC Ren eee oe ge
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 279.—SINGLE-STALK Corron CULTURE AT SAN
ANTONIO: ,
1 EVAN ZO HOG eaTa) ates em ea sy ne eg ame SRE LAS cecal IMIGE Satis COE
Cotton production in the San Antonio region.......5.........:.---+--:--
PaO Lest pee cee ee ee 2a eR Min apa ae) ey eee
Plantine and. cermin atioOn OF SECM... eee ete ge Dou eas
Chopping wide-spaced rowsso-4. +... gee eee ae ak ee emote
Pehinnine simele-stalllkc TOWases. 922%. Jo ee ee Vee eae, ep
FEVESTIMES ON LE eS betes tetany ee OR Ce Sorc ee asamp
Development of vecetative branches... sy ssa fee eo eee
TRG WEI Px RE COT Gaye eae aS os gts Sh nem a ee 8 Ze A eM er
‘slat OVS) epee OO) BS) SCC ine eee aa Wee le rRNA 0 2) a ae a ele
;
.
IV DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276-300.
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 279—Continued.
Numbers'ofilocks inthe polis LEER ey Bs oe ee
Size OF DOL sate pees are ne ee eee ae ere esa aescos
Quality and quantity of fiber 4.22. 2222222. -. -22...225) ee
Resultsin time-of-thinning test:2..-5..-----.-..) 2. eee
Results in distance- between- TOW) CESt A eee cian ie oc non eee
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 280.—Foop Hapnirs oF THE THRUSHES OF THE
UNITED STATES:
Wood thrushvace, shies So. 2 3 oe
Veery and-willow thrush... . 259222222 25Sisas5s 252682 2d2 22) ee
Gray-cheeked and Bicknell’s thrushes...................-....-.---22----
Olive-backed and russet-backed thrushes.................-.-.2.2. 2.2222.
Hermit-thrushes! ©2520 5222 nes See ne ee
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 281.—CoRRELATING AGRICULTURE WITH THE
Pusiic ScHOOL SUBJECTS IN THE NORTHERN STATES:
PN trOduUCtiON es 5 oe es ae oe ee, Se ce to ae
How the teacher may organize a club:::-22-2-.-. 22. 22252223: 22 ete eee
BIZe8 8b ots Sool eb oc Loc eS ty See ee eee
How. to:keep up the ‘club interest-225:¢ -2 225 955-4202)
School-exhbit days)S25. tassios Oe a a eee
September 2 sees esas ene eee eae a ee
October sarees as Soe a ee Bee a
Novelli ber coo lise es cose aa ene oe Sea a ee
Decembers ss sawn: psc Senna Sayan he pepe pene Pee PPrIeen ses) = -<
May and Junew so. A Selous. neigh. ase tee en Oe
Correlation supplemeénts:2 228240). 228 oe. Ae ee _
DEPARTMENT Buiietin No. 282.—A Stupy or THE Sorr Resins my SuL-
PHURED AND UNSULPHURED Hops IN COLD AND IN OPEN STORAGE:
Hnttrodirctions ss as on a8! ISS eee 2c os)
Preparation of the hops studied --:--- ~~ == 72-2 ee
Changesin physical appearances 255325232 22s bo eee
Moisture content and changes in the proportion of soft and hard resins.
INardesinss. oo. - ss om os ce ae one See eet e Pees = eee
‘Changes in the composition of the soft resins-..-.-..........----------- ~
Chemical values of the soft resins. ......- Beovofic..V2.. See
SUMMALy: 5 os Le. Sess sea nse ee eee ess ck ee
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 283.—THE PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID AND A
PROPOSED NEw MetuHop oF MANUFACTURE:
Measurement of a plant’ s efficiency... I ce ORR el =
New: modification of chamber proctess?---+-:225-0/2.222 22-2 ee
Factory considerations: :- 22.222) / eee wo 0 4o eee
ADPONGIR sh. o loo Ss ee eee va
DEPARTMENT Butietin No. 284. —Consrrucrion AND MAINTENANCE OF
Roaps AND BripGeEs:
imtiroduction 298400 50 oto SS OE eee
Work of the Division of Construction—
rhidiaet nest TOUS! oo CS.
erintendence of county roads-.\022. 07-2. t- ee
Work ite Division of National Parks and Forest Roads—
Work done inaiaiional forests.-2: toes.
Work done in national parks. ....--..-......-....-...-. ee ee
Work of the: Division of Maintenances: 22 fio 0 2). 2s ae eee
CONTENTS,
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 285.—Tar Norraprn Harpwoop Forest: Its
ComposiTIoN, GROWTH, AND MANAGEMENT:
laaprod Ur ChlOMsa a yea Mech NS aie a toh. sorpaek ee ony Ae. Bagoin | sal aiss
remortnermmhard wood 1orests. 2-1. soctci- ae eee is a ase eoe nee
BieopmeIVe RITA POLLATICE! Sere a ciclo.) <= =~ fois ore erences oon a in rain7 omen ey sieiers
WWIGiT AETHER BABE Onn 4 ao ae Hee SRE eere > abe O° SoCo San See een an ener
SHeere mentioned tm this! bulletin cere le etal ania tn arin
Appendix...
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 286.—StrrRENGTH TESTS OF STRUCTURAL TIMBERS
TREATED BY ©
OMMERCIAL WOOD-PRESERVING PROCESSES:
@ljecioubne tessa. 2-252 505... Speer aaa oe ok decent
Meastenralanestedeee casein ai: Do 5 Swekinl ile peeaiemeepepe urs: oo to 9d SE AAS aR a oy
Methodstoistreatmentina ccc cee ee Oe Rye ee ee Mo eh pea nek
Miehodvoigtestimes "sat coca | ie, | eae es Se NSS 2s Satter
Results of tests. .....- Ee Pe ec 5 Re ena A ATRL A a
Deductions. -
Publications
relating to strength tests of various woods. ........---.------
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 287.—A DrvVICE FOR SAMPLING GRAIN SEEDS, AND
OTHER MaATERI
Introduction
AL:
Meseniphonvol the sampling devices. ...-- =... 204s a- 22-2 8 sees eee
Operation of
the sampling device. = ..- -cescizee saasoerins ts ao 4p et
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 288.—Custom GINNING AS A Factor IN CorTTron-
SEED DETERIORATION:
Introduction
The possibili
iyotmixine peed. -.5 12 -s4.4 25-33 eiann oe as ee
Minsimemseedsin ihe Toll: POR so. <5 3k a oo pee tial el Awcin | a = sR
Opwtencources Ol MIX be. 5.5.2 aatacecdss Sooo a iseie «cere a oe Re
Sieumticance ofthe resultsiobtained->45.4444-4245- 4555 4-se0eeee eee eee
Ways of minimizing the amount of mixing.......-.....-.....---------+-:-
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 289.—RED-cLOVER SEED PRODUCTION:
Introduction
Previous investigations on the pollinatign of red clover .......-.-.------
Outlineot pollinating: ex periments:.....-- 324. -nssnssoe ae vase ee eee
Sinuenmeot thetred-clover flower.:..- 002.425. s0 cansann nee sanes chaser
Length of the corolla tube of red-clover flowers ........-----------------
Development ofthe flowers of red clover:. 42-222: 422525 sans e ee et
Fertilization
Onred-CloVvierfOWeTScs-.25 5 ee ee
Eoeney ol, pollen in.self-pollination. . 22.22) 5496) 2s. ss 5 asane a ee
Cross-pollination and self-pollination of red clover.........--------------
Aniineialmanipulation of.clover heads...22 .s59222+-25 42-4550 5 4 ae
Bumblebees
asi cross-pollinators of red clover: 25222: 422445555944. pee
Honeybees as cross-pollinators of red clover.......-.-.-..---------------
Mechanical cross-pollinators of red clover.......-..-.---------+-++++++++-
RSS MERUETD CUTTS tS irae Reh aes Oo ase ie 5 wae = 2 a a eo al eS ae
DEPARTMENT BuLuETIN No. 290.—Rait SHIPMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF
Freso Tomatoss, 1914:
Introduction
Methods of, cultivation-and: shipping. |. 2-2/2 teeen ee oO ae eee aie
Methedsqused am compiling datas-=--.-- <5. sae ne ee ee
Detailed-reportiot shipmentsw78 406. 5S. SPR Oe eS LE.
Phapments by; boats. s005 ssl s,s. 5 oe eee 2 ee
toczl shipments. 5 05e. loses... - s. s+ + sh ee ae o_O oe
Explanation
Tomatoes for
OL MAD roel sso 5 ess 2+ 3d Sree ee LLL AEE Leap be
CANIN Ges 52s 4S aso ete eo 2 oo ee aE a Oe CI ae
Commercial supply. of table tomatoes... --...- 2225.20.22 22222 2 Le
Difieuliies encountered ....c..- 00s. 2. a ees Oe ee BAA
Lomato shipments 191402255225... - 25 eee Pe. PIE 30 Ses
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 291.—BREEDING MILLET AND SoRGO FOR DROUGHT
ADAPTATION:
Introduction
The place of
millet and sorgo in the agriculture of the Great Plains... --.-.
Adaptations to drought in millet and sorgo..........-.-...-------+-------
Clintahic- conditionserev tees ts ss os 2 sues Ie year ee ee reeens
Breeding mallet foradaptationto.drought..-9: -.-..-+-.-----.2ssueee ees
Breeding sorgo for adaptation to drought................-2..0.2eees sees
a
Co et TROP WDE
INID Dr
NN OUST RS
“IN OTP PB CO OO DDN
@b Nee
VI DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS, 276-300,
DEPARTMENT BuLietin No. 291—Continued.
central-and‘northern Great Plains.+. 2... ....-2 22 oe ee 12
Water requirements of millet and sorgo......../-22...20.) 723) a 15
Conclusions +... s2s2 cin 2. s ss ee the cee sees eee eee ot eee See 18
DEPARTMENT BuLietiIn No. 292.—DIstRIBUTION AND MIGRATION OF NoRTH
AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES:
Introductions a eeiee. OE ieee oe ee eee
Economie importance of gulls.) & Bt e4sei= 2. 0. a eee
Bird refuges... 22225 ees LO oe OGM I ease SSE! CL
Protection by private -associations-~<----+_-_. _.-.__._...2 2. eee
‘Legal ‘protection: 2<<2-/..-~ 0s oe ee eee te eee
Distribution. 26 05 ee... eee ee ee
Migration 22.2105 2 eee ee ee eee ee eee ee eee
Annotated list of speciess....2:<5...----22-+- == Sse te eee ne
DEPARTMENT BuLuETIN No. 293.—THE GRASSHOPPER OUTBREAK IN NEW
MEXICO DURING THE SUMMER OF 1913:
Introductions: 4) $32 2 Ghee EE EES A ite ee
History. im America. 2s... . 28: see eee See bon os ee eee
Distrib uth One sieeve eae ee le ee
Seasonal history: 7.0.- siecle esta re tee Oe eee
A migratory or nonmigratory species.-::...2)..0. 2). IA eae
Onigin of outbreakie 2 4 .A0 ses Aids OED bse AR Oe
Breeding grounds. -....-22 =... => fest ncn Seee see ees eo ee eee
Methodsiot trav.elu.< isn 75. ys ee, aie ae eRe Se ee
Weather conditionses5.0 S222 656402 eee ee See
Feeding habits. ~ -c.-cieoce cece ede csee cee. ot Le
Boodyplants ese ena see eceees bap eeselo ie eile. tie nescig eee Se
Predacious enemies. 2.022... 252.5 bee ace 6 ee
Parasiti@/enemMies- 2-2 ae eae ee Be ere SH oti» bales epee
Artiticlal: remedies: 2,5 ofp <arna eee aia Fae = BCE ee Sa
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 294.—_LESSONS ON COTTON FOR THE RURAL Com-
MON SCHOOLS:
CUOT HR to DR
RST OD OD DD OT OT HB CO Oe COLO
fond
Mhesson, Vi on ace cee acy etre be eee ade 2 a ee ee
hesson EX 22.) lo oo ae Seems eas enh Ue ae ee
eSSOM DOL V oo ee en cle eee eel = Sisid 1a 14
Exhibits, rewards, and organization for clubs. -...-..------------------- 14
Suggestive: correlations... ..-. o- Ssece cece = eels «in oo ae = 9 15
DEPARTMENT Butietin No, 295.—THe ZimMERMAN PINE Mors:
Imtroductiong.- sens sasicass cic Joe ee en eines os ban o uso. eee eee
Description of the imsect..-..<.=.--nqe6sss224--+-2-3345e5 seen
Seasonal bistoryand habits... oasches--5-is--+>-> =e eee
Relation, to.otheransects.. =... --.c-.csceesenn-2 04s 5 See eee ee
Relation to natural enemies.. 22.2 =. Saeses cee BLe eee eee alee arene
Habitat and ‘host ‘trees: .0-.. 0. -:-n wee ccc~ = oo 7a Eee ree ee
Character of injury and ‘work of larvse.2..-..-...0. J20s. 23 cee). eee
Effect of infestation on tree growth and forest.........---------------+---
REMEY. 2-2 ore. cc htee aden ap cise cee oe ce eer eE ee = 0% 3's os ann
@onclustonie ern seca eee Se ee oe Ba os moe
DePartMENT BuLLeTIN No, 296.—Our Foreign TRADE IN Farm AND FOREST
Propucts:
Summarys arse nse sk Se ene one ae sess s.-5- «=e
ee
HE ODMOMID Cw H
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5
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ip
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sro
CONTENTS.
DEPARTMENT ButietiIn No. 296—Continued.
Pete kato asIS en PLOGUCLtS a ab cscs yap ees er eee PE iin Gane Sinlaiata oto
hhc Es TOC UCTS see cs MASSON SUNS SEES ee Ie re ao Enea
CTUMM. .oscs sg se ebiebaee cod See npesaeeeeeseet@ 2522 os Se ee aR are ra aneta=
SS EIDE IE s c eos cick et CS CE Ie et a Pg 5 alae Bee
Coatieerandtcotteesubstitutesssc. .- 2.2.2 ee eee wae ee einen aac eine
WocomMdnehocolate scence aes os ek te PRR a oy Ca SIA Seale
SPL ESI Lad OSES SSSA CE CERNE 2:8 Ee ele pe eae ea te tbo
Biererialese nee cem ec onek eae = ote ee 2 bes ee ee ner te Sec ners oe
Frui
EERIE (DSS SIEA See Se 56S eR a ER rn a amd aes ALA? hoa
nog ne Mla DLOGUC(S.-.- - 62502 ssian SO eee. aa ak uae ee oe
Presenters timber nn 2 eo a eee a se ee a ee ee
ING A721 SOLES CS Soe da bk ee pale eS Ie eel
WObERSEORES ADEOGI CIS: 2-085 oof Ss So Se ee ares oe er i
ENE ORPIOGUS AP ee ein = aaa S 2 we jad aca Sate Ae EE ere e's Settle ic geai aoe ares
Pipe PH ORCL OM Se Oe Soo) oo sae aye) Byun isi oieaa viat apes talaga oe eye ae sino ane oie
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 297.—CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE
FourcHE EXPERIMENT Farm:
IE ROG OCHO St Se eg ees ae ee ane orto s
Desenipironrob phe field station 7. jit jew. = sit a tite see's n- eee aeisse sees
JD sgbeininnein al) Wael se Reo de sence seccodeosocceoe= sceereenoasosecenoqcceEe
jartenpretation-olexperimental results. .-5.-./---2-3-2- 222: seeeee et eeces
PeapenimMe mis Will MoWRCAb ose cic Seg seine Sete soe os OE teeta
Pinpcevinenishwith O(Sio25 ot 22.2 se sash cere alg Seale hoe Sa ee
DUE CIIIOM IS ym) JORMA EN See Soe sees oSesbe sess osesgessocsecsasbdao-
Bbesperiine nin witie minor Cereals-=-- 22 os iso ea
BEaSCMUBCMIS EWA MAX. a. wo a8 basco snsinix sine nc iwteiwia => aie cle Se ee ae aE oe
SSRRMITIBIN. USS SSE OEE SHEE Seaar MEE EMOnorbeeeroceennae s--iseraane
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 298.—PEAcH SUPPLY AND DistRIBUTION In 1914:
fReoMier Pe tION 0s be hs aoe hae as oo 5 5 = Soe rope pres oe ee oS
= lie] TIUTeN yy TWN Yo oan onc. DOBRO ese ses c5c2cs Coss o5esncdorsaacneoc
Second inquiry—sources of information.......-...-.....-..---------.----
ete MUip pins Seasons Aes Goh 9ie kei. 2 o.oo Ls ee ek ee ee
rcnsaneommercial ProductiOM: ~..: ... .-- = 2st eee se eee ee ee
gnenemibatil on (Oly dabei eS cok La (OPS wie aca occ 2 2. ~ 0.2) chara ee eer rere Nee ee
Nitegkeunden ways: isetiewse So tis esd. 2s oo Sees oa SNS ate
ionenpaMshippino States: 2sss.5 is... Se aS eee eee
Pesplanaiiom Ol map. haces. e4- - 1-4 = 2 ee see os a eas aes
Exospective shipmentsfor 1915: ..<..5:...) qe eee oe eee eae ae
ezehishipments 191425: see S25! oo... ee ees oe ee
DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 299.—Tur AsHEs: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND
MANAGEMENT:
PSTEPORIAM CCL. sare soe Se aes ees 2 - «bial = ee ee aha mae, oe ere ed
I DTITT) OETA OT RA Bea eS tld i RN on Oe nN
Scab VeINGUStReS ois. se yess? SL. o. sa Seee
emoupsyand(SpeClest fie ve.s2s6 0562/2... ~2 eee. a see eg hues
Niiwemiburalsionilcance: 6 see. <\ -.'.. . 0S SaaS ey oe
Relative importance Of SPCCles= sos 2... . . See. Pee Mei s Sope
Weeniitencees 95 Fe aoe I) eS ee eon ote
polntoisture, and heht requirements... -Setyaueeets a2) oo ee
Reproduction. Sak tate bo wedi ete es ~~ a a en RSS NS ooo ot ie
LSD TUSSI See, Sy Arete Mi See at Me a ce, 5 ye ee ope pee aA
Bomnand developmenti.-2t.3 W925 i ne ee
VETS ree ae i Ne A oe en eae RS 2 a ee ae ee ee
Moresi; management: Agee ts Ae. Ss 20 ee ee ee ee esta oe
[ROLES TAROT ape sa Da So ae aa Oa ae
Ralucrotstandime timbers sess. |...) Sa seers a2 oe EN ae :
Vill DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276-300.
DEPARTMENT BuLieTIN No. 299—Continued.
Species for timber erowie,) £14. 4/6 iry-2 42 3-2 ee
Natural: -artificialiretorestatiomis22_- 4.224222 022 2-2 see
Reforesting by natural means... -22---..-2_----22-- (neni See
Reforesting by artificial means. .2225..5--2-. 5225-22 - see ee
ThInninps 2/2 % 22 223-4 ie eee eee poe = os ae 5
SUMMAaryJ5 tee Pes 2 cee enna.» .- oS. e ol
DEPARTMENT Buuietin No. 300.—Excavatinc MacHInery Usep 1x Lanp
DRAINAGE:
Introduction. 2504. ss.. 1 --eeebneeee ee e e ——
Development of excavating machinery =-=*----.-.-.------- 225 eee
The floating dipper dredge... 2 ses. ee ol ee
The floating srab-bucket dredee:2-222.-----+---2--+---= 23+ ae eee
[Thedrag-line scraper excavator = 2sases ss s- sole oe ee ee
The dry-land: dipper-excavator.......-2-02----o-- +--+ 22 eee eee
The dry-landcrab-bucket.excavatotess-s5-s--426-- 2 eee
The templet.excavator.... --i- o-cinc teenie = © - oe eee eee
The wheel type of excavator..:.. 2222 2252-2 s2- 2)... 7-2 ee eee
Reet One ey ee eh Se Pe
INDEX.
Bulletin No.
Acid phosphate, industry, consumption of sulphuric acid. - 283
See also under specific name of acid.
Aeciduim fraxint, occurrence on ash trees. .............--- 299
Agricultural exports, publications (with imports) of Depart-
TLom i, LIU J 3a: Sa aerate er ae 296
Agricultural products—
exports and imports, 1851-1914. .._........-.2.-.--.- 296
markets, foreign, discussion and statistics............. 296
MEM OM MOTeION MEAG! = Scho de a= by npn oe ht ocr sees Sees 296
IAM OLCTO MMe Creo ale Sis nara cion ses al ow hd DS | Ae 296
Agriculture—
correlating with public school subjects in the Northern
States, bulletin by C. H. Lane and F. E. Heald......- 281
extension work, address list of State institutions and
RRBIC ETS MEE CHALIE Se hae ho th a ac bent 2 hoe 282
school exercises and field work for public schools, by
HH GUURS Meee Hee ons ee ele Sea ee ate yh generated 281
teaching in public schools, plan for Northern States... . 281
Alabama, peach shipments, season and stations shipping,
3 5 600605 64964 GROBAN OO DR ARNE SOA arr iraiatoe Coot 298
Alcohol, wood, exports and value, 1914..................- 296
Alcoholic liquors—
AOVEIOU TAG, 00-1914 io. tos ee oe bobs bene ee 296
aEIpORts, TOMO -ONA, value: ots. 22 5s. snes Sook ek 296
Aphidoletes meridionalis, enemy of pea aphis.....-.......- 276
Aphis pomi, effect of insecticides, experiments............ 278
Appalachian States, Southern, hardwood timber stand,
"TID Gr as Se a Ee es ereanye hee 285
Apple—
aphis, green, effect of insecticides, experiments.....-. 278
trees, spraying with insecticides, poison effects, experi-
AMCs Eee eases e\s.0-e)-- ata 4a) eee 278
Apples, foreign trade, 1903-1914..........-.---22222ea5--- 296
Apricots, exports and markets, 1903-1914.................. 296
Argols, imports and sources, 1909-1914. ..........--.--..-- 296
Arizona, road construction and cost, object-lesson work.... 284
Arkansas—
peach shipments, season and stations shipping, 1914... 298
tomato’ shipments, U914 ss isis oth s 2.0. seh ens 290
aaa Insecticides, experiments..........-..-------«-- 278
Ash—
American, groups and species...........-------------- 299
distinguishing characters of different species. .......-- 299
nent and Cevelopment-.- 9.5 6.52. |... a ee 299
groups, commercial and silvicultural importance, com-
PakIsOns. - 1) ead oo ee oo ac. a eee 299
growth rate of commercial species under various condi-
IDES ook. eae Se ee | er 299
BrowsAly Tates s2oses ot. hee he 2, Ae 299
habitat and distribution of various species... .-------- 299
injuries, from development, etc......-..------------- 299
lumber cut by regions and species, 1910......-..--.-- 299
occurrence in northern hardwood forests.........-.---- 285
requirements of soil, moisture, light, and reproduction. 299
_ second-growth, uses by wood-using industries. ........ 299
seed, production, dissemination, germination, etc.-..-- 299
104680°—17——2
142
31
6-25, 31-35
142
9 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276—300.
Ash—Continued. Bulletin No.
seedlings, development. -) {02.0440 J/ 0010 00....-. 299
aSPCELESs MOLE Hs Anema ee setS ae Saad hoo So SS See ee 299
stands, yield, and management.....................-- 299
timber—
bark; volumetandiyield ‘tableste-sassesss.6 424.2 299
economic uses and importance.............------- 299
growing under forest management, financial re-
TUENS NCCC i aN argos jcie oe, se eee ee eee 299
uses and consumption by wood-using industries. -- - 299
trees—
characteristics and management, bulletin by W.
DwSterrettii aes: SO ea ee ee 299
species for forest management in various localities. 299
wood characteristics: andisess sy 550 asl ue ewes ee 299
Ashess American, keyo. 2 2.22422 ee ee ee eee eee ee 299
Ash-leaf rust, nature and occurrence................--.---- 299
Aspen, occurrence in northern hardwood forests........-.- 285
Baits, poison, for grasshoppers, preparation and value.-..-. 293
Bananas, imports and sources, 1903-1914... ........---.-- 296
Banks, assistance in cotton-warehouse construction, note. - PHT
Barks, roots, and herbs, exports, 1914.0. 2.0.2.2 22.222220. 296
Barley—
foreign trade, 1864—-191298 eae he eet OU ae ao oe 296
growing at Belle Fourche experiment farm, varietal
testsiand jaelds::* Ve BOOn Vee A ee 297
yields of varieties in western South Dakota.-.......-.-- 297
‘“Base goods,’’ fertilizer, sources: 2)% 272 2 oa 283
Basswood—
Fomiber cuts LON: sol setae ass ses ve vneetes Wave ee ae 8 285
occurrence in northern hardwood forests.........----- 285
volume and form tables, northern hardwood forest... - - 285
Beans—
foreign trade; 1900-1914 a etn a2 see te eal 296
epreying with insecticides, effect on leaves, experiments 278
Beech—
dumber cuted 92 Su Sci eh ee LONER ee iaaeeeee setae 285
Michigan, diameter growth, maximum. ..-..-.-.-.---- 285
occurrence in hardwood forests.............---------- 285
plots, character of stand, volume and yield per acre in
morthernforestses hc SUA A ee PRR eks earn EE ee 285
volume and form tables, northern hardwood forest... - . - 285
wood, consumption by paper-pulp industry......--.--- 285
Beef, foreign trade (with products), 1852-1914. ........--- 296
Bees, importance in red-clover seed production........-..-- 289
Beeswax, foreign trade, 1895-1914..............-222------- 296
Belle Fourche experiment farm, location, scope of work,
physical and weather conditions.............)..-..----- 297
Betts, H.S.,and J. A. Newt, bulletin on “Strength tests
of structural timbers treated by commercial wood-pre-
HET AIN P| PT OCESSES yee ciate a faia nico) c= at RN eres sieiejeie ee 286
Bibliography—
clover pellinsae Seecuassis: o>: eee Se 289
pee Aphis ben ene e Shes 3S ete ARSE RM: 276
Birch—
black, occurrence in northern hardwood forests. - - - - - - 285
humaber-cut, LOUD" y/o eh NGROS Me TRU REaR ae Cet Sie 285
occurrence in northern hardwood forests. ...-.-.-.-.-.-.---- 285
paper, occurrence in northern hardwood forests. ...- - - - 285
plots, character of stand, volume and yield per acre in
northern hardwood forests............--:----------- 285
yellow—
occurrencé'in New Bngland. . 22/2222. 22. 285
occurrence in northern hardwood forests.......-- - 285
voltime anduorm tables: => so ieeestemee see 285
volume and form tables, northern hardwood forests. 285
35, 36, 37, 38
2
29
9, 10
61, 5-78
40
10-11
29
38
9
25
49-51, 69-71
8, 10
27-49, 67-68
27-49, 67-68
INDEX,
Bird— Bulletin No.
migration, record of herring gull ‘‘ Dick,’’ Newport, R. I. 292
Reservations. resorts for gulls..2-. . nese qaeenes © 292
Birds—
PHCHMESTOMCTASSNOPPCTS! 4 .cts 5. 2-2 -'-s/s' ete epee 293
North American gulls and their allies, distribution and
TEAL T Oe = Pe eo a hr Reet kk a wt me A A TAN SEER 292
thrushes of United States, food habits..............--- 280
Bitter acids. See Resins, soft.
BlaGkeaskeroup, Ke yidO SPCCleS./ nt. ee = 5 on 5S Mais nia 299
Bladders, imports, and sources, 1911-1914.............--.- 296
Blood, dried, imports and sources, 1904-1914.............- 296
Boerner, E. G., bulletin on ‘‘A device for sampling grain,
SecdsHandrounermmatenialiwety. s.- <2... a. sce eee 287
Bones, hoofs, etc., foreign trade, 1895-1914..........-.----- 296
ibreadtaoreion trades 1866-1914 -- 2)... . ese nee cee 296
Bridges, construction and maintenance (with roads) from
lye 1913, to December.31, 1914-.... 2.5... 5toeeet 284
Bristles, foreign trade, 1895-1914. ...........22...22.----- 296
iBYoomucorm-<forelom-brade, 1904 oso aoc So ss 2 orn-asavererorstercvencre 296
Brunner, Joser, bulletin on ‘‘The Zimmerman pine
TAO. Socials ce eae ee eee ean PET LAO ES CE As eye 295
Buckwheat, exports, 1897-1914. ...22.2.2.02s2 2S. 296
Buffalo hides, imports and source, 1911-1914_..........-.-- 296
Building, cotton warehouse construction..............---- 277
Bumblebees—
importance in red-clover seed production..........--- 289
pollination of red-clover flowers, experimental studies. 289
Butter) foreign’ tradey1897-1914.. ann sssee san. 296
Butterine, imports and source, 1910-1914..............---- 296
California—
gull, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and
micratory habits? -.-vacdjo-dtiw coat cate 292
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - 298
UMN IRO SVauigo) OSL OTN Ra ere eee ren yo is 290
Camphor gum, imports and source, 1914............--.----- 296
Canned-meat products, foreign trade, 1900-1914.........--- 296
Carpon, P. V.,and D. A. SaunpErs, bulletin on ‘‘Custom
ginning as a factor in cotton-seed deterioration” ......-- 288
Castor beans, imports and sources, 1910-1914............-.-- 296
Cattle, foreign trade, 1884-1914........2..2.2..22.0.-20---- 296
Cereals—
dry-land, growing, tests at Belle Fourche experiment
farm, method s$-= 220. seus bonaiass Le Bea 297
investigations on the Belle Fourche experiment farm,
pulletimybysCecil’Salmonesss4- 5245-04 eee eee 297
Charcoal, foreign ‘trade, 1914..2.25.0...-.-.4... eee S 296
@heese; forcien trade, 1895—19ldusst9h Lon siete. 288.12 296
Chicle gum, imports, value and source, 1914........-.-.---- 296
Chicory root, imports and sources, 1910-1914.....-.....--- 296
Chinchona bark, imports, value and source, 1914........-- 296
Chocolate, foreign trade, 1851-1914.......-...--.........- 296
Citurs fruit, use in poison bait for grasshoppers, value. ....-- 293
Clover—
cross-pollination machine, description, operation, and
NURI cP SUS, ES eR oie 289
injury by pea aphis, historical notes.........-.-----.- 276
Bean bibliographysdieis hese LHe. 26 289
rea— z
importance in rotation, and scope of investigations. - 289
manipulation of flowers; effect on seed production. - 289
seed production: Pollination studies, bulletin by
Je MesWesteate, andsothers: =...) S30 em ee 289
296
seed, foreign trade, 1895-1914......---..-------------
/
144
15-17, 20-26
1-31
38
4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276—300.
Club— Bulletin No. Paeg.
home projects, organization in public school, plan and
SUSPCSIIONS Oe eee eee c-t eee eee ee te 281 2-4
project, cotton, record blank for rural school.--........- 294 14-15
Cocoa—
butter, imports and sources, 1910-1914................- 296 34
foreign trade, WealSVOl4e | 5. fe. jee Eee 296 31
imports with chocolate, 1910-1914, value..............- 296 3
Coconut oil, imports and sources, 1907-1914..............-- 296 34
Codling moth, effect of various insecticides, experiments. - 278 law mF a
Cor, H.8., J. M. Wesreate, and others, bulletin on ‘‘ Red-
clover seed production : Pollination studies” ......-- 289 1-31
Coffee—
exports, 1910-1914 value... - 2... Ae eee Sie: 296 2
foreign trade; Wi/90-1914. oe en eee eee 296 30-31
imports, 1910-1914, value.2! «200. spe. gana ins 296 2
substitutes and source, 1910-1914..................... 296 31
Colorado, peach shipments, 1914, season and _ stations
SAU pPING esc pare tise sate ie Wess aire erie eieinceue eee 298 7,10
Conifers—
occurrence in northern hardwood forests.............-- 285 6-16
standing timber privately owned in Lake States ...... 285 9
Connecticut, peach shipments 1914, season and stations
BHU PING cso soe Gee Se gee ss if eresey eee tae ee ee oP Penta 298 10
Cooke, WELLS W., bulletin on ‘‘ Distribution and migration
of North American gulls and their allies”... 2............ 292 1-71
Cooperage, slack, consumption of hardwoods by industry .. . 285 30
Conrdwood:- volume Gales soe oro cciecpcrmrssoisiorsinie' si njedee ws ete 285 62-63
Cork wood, imports;t1851, 1914. _-__..2...... SLE its aes 296 48-49
Corn—
foreigntrades 1850-104. fe ee ee eee ee see ae 296 25-26
oil; exports, 1900-1914. Se. sara. Moweree (59022 296 33
yield of forage in Great Plains, comparison with other
forage plantse@= . 2... anigirhivenciiem bak Guess: 291 10, 13-14
Cotton—
crop, storage houses, importance and economic value. - 277 2-3
culture, single- stalk, at San Antonio, bulletin by Row-
and Me Meade =: ==. scien): Sass eee eta ot 279 1-20
custom ginning, factor in seed deterioration, bulletin by
D. A. Saunders and P. V. Cardon.....:....22..2---. 288 1-8
deterioration of varieties, custom ginning as factor... - - 288 1-8
exports, 1910-1914, Sib ae cae le eon 296 2
fire-insurance schedules!i2:: 272 24.20 3teek Bee. 4.2 277 27-28
flowering record in single-stalk and wide-spaced culture. 279 7-11
foreign trade, 1éol—19l4sas2!- Le aae ae eee rey a Ole 296 23-24
1n—_
. custom, methods of operation...........-.-------- 288 2-6
seed mixture in roll box, studies and determina-
THOT ye es oe ace toed Fee eee ee et 288 3-6
growers, cooperation in warehouse enterprise, sugges-
PIOUS. Soe roe eee os ou. o os ree Da Gate 277 37
growing—
distance between rows, experimends............-.- 279 19
BChooMlessOns ss aeemeees sc tee Se ERS as ae 294 6-12
single-stalk method, experimental test, tabulated
Temults Ree Cee. | ATs NR MRR yore. 279 3-19
thinning experiments... 5 ..s5.se-eeeee Loans 279 5, 18-19
vegetative branches, development and suppres-
sion, studies and experiments..............-.--- 279 5-7
holdings. 2. ees CUR aE 1G SA LES 277 6
imports; 11910-1914, valueiciigginig lees AEA: oak 296 2
insect enemies and diseases, school lessons.......-..--- 294 12-13
insurance—
relation to fire protection of warehouses......-- eee 277 ee
25-26, 27-37
relation to storage method 4-5
INDEX.
Cotton—Continued.
judging, considerations, score card, etc., school lessons.
essons—
for the rural common schools, bulletin by C. H.
anes. SSR Og EL oh) NS 21
in rural schools, correlative studies..........---.-
losses from “‘country damage”) 22.222...) 22229.22:
plant. botany, school lessons... 2: ..-...822 5 aera:
production, San Antonio region, peculiarities of season,
ClCHiee Hasse ee ce oe os es sess secsccs sense sseee soe:
protection from weather, advantages...........-------
sheds, emergency, construction and value. .....-...--
varieties, lessons for rural schools...............-------
warehouse—
construction, bulletin by Robert L. Nixon.....-.--
factor immarketine crops F400) {Vy _ Jee eae Maes
yields from single-stalk and wide-spaced rows, record. .
Cottonseed—
deterioration, custom ginning as factor, bulletin by
DEA) sauders and Ve Cardon: ./\. eee
exports, and markets, 1895-1914..............2...--.-
muxpure of varieties at gin-.:.-...2.2.222.25h.eie et ett
odProreron: trade, 1895-1974 0 i), PU a ee
meacucts: school lessons... - 2.2.2.4 3... eee eee
selection, and planting, school lessons .......-..-..---
Cream noreion trade, 19T0-1914e) 2.2.62. sce Sole gees ese:
Creosote, treatment of timbers, effect on strength of material.
Crickets, black, outbreaks in Utah, destruction by gulls. --.
Crop rotation, place of cotton, school lessons.........-..---
Cross-pollination, mechanical, of red-clover flowers, experi-
TD GNIS codec coe OD SO UE OE SCOR HEMEmnt iat eire ceric
Cucumber, occurrence in northern hardwood forests. ....- -
Currants, imports and sources, 1903-1914..............----
Ginry imports and‘source, 19140 P02 22 L
Dairy products—
exports, J9TG=1914 valué-.2-+:. iio eek eceee cece
fGreion trade lS 51-1 OT 4 sed. ee ens
AMpPOrtss TOTOWA. valhwess ws 27 Lee ee ate
Dates, imports and sources, 1903-1914. ............--.-.--
Davis, J. J., bulletin on “‘The pea aphis with relation to
POTRECICTOPS 7 O0e Boas Saws iss e534 bse 5 te ee
Delaware, peach shipments, season and stations shipping,
EA een eee sak tare aL ae AU ARR OTA SET eer
Diiman, A. C., bulletin on “ Breeding millet and sorgo for
droucht adaptation’ 20224 20% 2s. 22222.
Dissosteira longipennis. See Grasshopper, long-winged.
Distilled spirits, foreign trade, 1905-1914.............-.-.-
Distillers’ grains, exports, 1901-1914..................----
itches, machines for cleantmes!) 2022. PESOS.
Douglas fir, tests of strength, selection and treatment of
material ...... a aa ee ee iD rire
Drainage, land, excavating machinery used, bulletin by
AD ieee arn OL ae SP NOt 1100) 0 eee,
Dredge—
floating grab-bucket type, construction and value for
FENCE WOLD ese e eee... ee
Relection*\eonsiderationse:s3.). + >t): Vac Sa |
-Dredges, types, construction, cost, and operation....-.-.---
Dredging machinery, development, early types, etc-.....---
Dry-land crops, millet and sorgo, breeding for drought
Aaa PlahON cc Le eee eee oe ts ys eee gee
Durum wheats, growing on Belle Fourche mieault uy
farm “varietal tests) | SH SARRe 2 FOP ae Bite a4
Wryewoods: amporte: (94st oss sess Poss SSE ees te
Bulletin No.
294
294
294
277
294
279
277
277
294
277
277
279
2-4, 7, 8-14
1-39
17-18
15-17
318, 33-36
2
1-19
14-15, 17,
18-19, 20, 21
48
6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276-300.
Bulletin No.
Earth roads, construction and cost, object-lesson work. -...- 284
Education—
correlating agriculture with public-school subjects in
the Northern States, bulletin by C. H. Lane and
Fo Ws Healde.: sooo chee ce op eee Be eerie 281
lessons on cotton for the rural common schools. ....... 294
Bees, foreign trade, 1897-1914". 5.) eee ace eee - 296
Euiorr, PERRY, bulletin on ‘Our foreign trade in farm
and forest products” See SRS S55 s555 po oS ae 296
Elm—
lumber cut, 1912... - 22... 2522 eels Seen se soe ster 285
occurrence in northern hardwood forest. enh ge.dsr3es3 285
Emmer, growing in western South Dakota, experiments. - 297
Empusa aphidis, enemy of pea aphis...........2.---+---- 276
Europe, pea aphis, outbreaks and damage to crops......--- 276
Excavating—
cost per cubic yard by different types of machine. ....
machinery, land drainage, bulletin by D. L. Yarnell. -
machines, crews for operation, requirements for dif-)
PEVEN bit PES Ske eek oe co eee oe ee as fo
Excavator, dry-land dipper type, construction, operation,
EH V6 (CLO eens 8 OO SEO See iy mi aero cso
IDPH olny CKO NR Moa Oooo sas sstide se baad
Exports—
sence and imports, publications of Department,
TS pee MOR Gites cies oh ocral caine recreate han aoe pee
OU) OV 4s oan Ss See eas “eainsc om eileen des ees
proportion of agricultural products and changes,
1854 sto OU soe a 8 Beier! depyeteiice
Fall webworm, effect of various insecticides, experiments. -
Farm products—
foreign trade (with forest products), bulletin by Perry
OCU PR ERS oieeciitebine Se are See nseeeies Serer
reexports, 1901-1914....... fe ave shat hele, Spare Paaesie ye seer Se
score cards, use in public schools, types, etc.--.-.-..--
Feathers, foreignitrade, 1890-1914... ees cies.
Fertilizer—
Phase) SOOdS ss aSOUTCES, NOL. =. 1-6 .- ace ames sss os
industry, use and value of sulphonicacidee: ayes. se
Fertilizers, cotton, selection and application, school lessons.
Fibers—
animal, imports, 1910-1914, value ..............-------
vegetable—
foreign trade, 1885-1914 -_.------ - jolt eese wb 5=
imports, 1910-1914, value. .
Fife wheats, growing on Belle Fourche experiment. farm,
varietal Genta: sate ee Wek ion ks Sate hen
Fir—
balsam, occurrence in northern hardwood forests... .-.-.
Douglas, tests of strength, selection and treatment of
material. cis.cs2.0ce ek aashecs tea ree eee y~ ape
Fire protection—
classification of cities and towns.......--.-..-----.--.-
cotton warehouses, requirements for standards, reat
to insurance, etc wystedk eueieie.s oid Go apapayohe Se ots~ = ee eee
Fire-insurance schedules for cotton...... CpG HE
Kisvoringiextractawexporia, 1914... se. onan mines =
Flax—
growing in western South Dakota, varietal and date-of-
BEC ESTs eee sinc Sees ete eats Ae eee crea oa) ore as
imports and sourc SNA SOOSLONAY RCo esc nie emer
New Zealand, imports, value and source, 1910-1914.
3004 se
300
300{
300
300
11, 18, 14, 15,
24, 32, 33, 34
1-39
9, 14, 21, 23,
24, 27, 29, 33
25-27
3
50-51
20
1,2
2-7, 19-25
44-45
14, 17, 19
42
8
2-4, 7, 8-14
28-29
9-10, 11, 13,
16, 17, 20
27-28, 29
45-46
39-40
44
44
INDEX.
Flaxseed— Bulletin No.
farcry tradpyal 899-1914 sce yc. ERE eee 296
olpstoreton trade; 1895-1914... AEE ERBAE S052 296
Florida—
peach shipments, season and stations shipping, 1914... 298
roads, construction, cost of different kinds, object-lesson
WOW coe Ste ee EE CE aH Se enna ea a erie 284
Lomatosoipments, 1914. 22 oh. 2. 32528 ee eee 290
Mowers: toreienpirade, 1914 se, east sce ts See geben. sane 296
Food habits, thrushes, United States, by F. E. L. Beal..-. 280
Forage crops—
millet and sorgo, breeding for drought adaptation.....- 291
relation of pea aphis, bulletin, by J. J. Dawvis........-. 276
piHoxeron! exportsge Use.Ol, teYM._ 5... ... si 03 < saebiaee ton 296
Forest—
culledaamanacement ses caters 5-5 =, ~ poeta eee: 285
foreign trade (with farm products), bulletin by Perry
TREO 3 Se ae a ne a nee SE 296
management, place of northern hardwoods...----.---- 285
minor, foreign trade and sources, 1914..............-- 296
northern hardwood, composition, growth and manage-
ment, bulletin by E. H. Frothingham.........---.- 285
northern hardwood, tolerance and reproduction....-.-- 285
products, exports—
and imports, 1851 and 1914, comparison. ........- 296
MT eM OT OST OTA ee eo Siete es hae Diet. ce tyes eet 296
reexports, 1903-1914.......-- SE eee Ce ey eee SS 296
Forestry, publications of Department, list .............---- 285
Forests—
National, work of Division of National Park and Forest
GENO irs 7 ee ee ee ae ne ee ren os ES ei hes S A Soe 284
northern hardwood, tolerance, reproduction, growth
PALO MSOLUL CCUG co ao aireeiels hee a Sie aie Ue aes panes: 285
Fraxinus—
americana, occurrence, commercial importance, etc. - - - 299
anonola, occurrence and importance.......----------- 299
berlandieriana, occurrence and importance.......----.- 299
biltmoreana, occurrence and importance......-.------ 299
coriacea, occurrence and importance...-.......-------- 299
CUSPIGMLG OCCWITCN CC 2222 = «5-2-2 - see ee 299
RIDE LULGOCCULTCN CCS. f2)s052.0, os 0-2. ~8s oe na ae ee = 299
Qreggit. OCCUITENCE = rina fers (4-2) alle ep ae memes 299
lanceolata, occurrence and importance....-....-------- 299
lanceolata, occurrence, commercial importance, etc... - 299
nigra, occurrence, commercial importance, etc....-.-.- 299
oregona, occurrence and importance..-.-..----.--2+---:- 299
PUCLULOTO. (OCGULECNCE «2h 4 rsojcre-1ah mepate Cee ME 299
pauciflora, occurrence and importance............---- 299
pennsylvanica, occurrence and importance..........-.- 299
profunda, occurrence and importance...-..-.----.---- 299
quadrangulata, occurrence and importance............- 299
spp. See Ash.
texensis, occurrence and importance. .......-.-----.-- 299
velutina, occurrence and importance. ...-.-.....-.--.-- 299
FROEusLicH, Pau, WELLS A. SHERMAN, and Houston F.
WaLKER, bulletin on ‘‘Rail shipments and distribution
otinesh tomatoes, 1914? ais 52s 5 eae 290
Frosts, first and last, Belle Fourche experiment farm, 8. D. 297
FRrotTHINGHAM, E. H., bulletin on ‘‘The northern hardwood
forest: Its composition, growth, and management”... ... 285
Fruits—
exports, 191051914 alters 204.02. foe ene a 295
foreion; trader G03 191 Awe 2S. 3 eee 8c. 296
imports, IGLOSOI4S valle. 4.0......2 2) epee lee a ps. 296
supment and distribution, publications of Department, 5
SES Fea atl 2) Ras PA Atle han od NOR BME rtd LIER dP 90
Fuel, use of hardwoods in northeastern and Lake States. .-. 285
7, 9-12
8 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276-300.
Gambier, imports and source, 1914. ... 2.22.02. ese.
Gelatin, imports and sources, 1909-1914...................
Georgia—
peach shipments, 1914, season, and stations shipping. -
tomato shipments, 191420232140 Bes eee ty
Gin—
custom, methods of operation =... keene -4--tn5252 5
seed mixture in roll box, studies and determination. . -
Ginning—
cotton, management to prevent seed mixture. .......-
custom, factor in deterioration of cottonseed, bulletin by
A. Saunders and P..V.Cardon. 28.5 42.2 is -
Ginseng, exports, value and market, 1914.................
Glucose, exports—
LOTO=1914, value: . 9922 Ve SEOUL CARER PRs
Glue—
exports; VS9S 19 LAs ns Wea. tans kia alee DEAR
stock, imports and sources, 1910-1914.................-
Goatskins, imports and sources, 1895-1914............----.--
Grain—
exports, 1910-1914; values: ose ari as OTE
foreion: trade!) AS51914: - sf ey ge ey en eae
products, foreign trade, 1866-1914.........---...-----
sampling device, and for seeds and other material, bul-
letin by EG, Boerner. -i2.s2e.2 bene ee eens ee
Grape sugar, exports—
ALS YONG MA ecg an espe ee ge ei ae SR pa pr pa
T9LOA19N4 vale sss Oho DE Beit AOU G ee Te ists ay
Grapes, imports and sources, 1909-1913-......-......-------
Grasshopper—
control, natural and artificial remedies.............-.-
TOOK PLAM ts Nes VE SA Ae SEAN Ech RN beers na
long-winged—
damage to crops, 1913, area infested, ete.......---
description, history, and distr ibution meine asi
feeding habits and food plants...-.-........------
lifethistory andshabits =. += 5 sss tee
outbreak—
New Mexico, summer of 1913, bulletin by Harrison
By Sma Gly eae etek Ears ae TE eR RS AS FEET
in New Mexico, 1913, origin and breeding grounds.
Parasitic enemies: 2. a5. - sso POE se
travelingsmethods: rate; ete ssit2c. eee eee ee
Gravel roads, construction and cost, object-lesson work. .. -
Great Plains—
agriculture, place of millet and sorgo.......-.----------
precipitation, annual and seasonal............-....-.-
Green—
apple aphis, effect of insecticides, experiments... ---.-
dolphin. See Pea aphis.
cue monument in Salt Lake City, note........--..---.--
ulls—
accidental occurrence in United States .....-.--------
economic importance, discussion...--------------------
migration, habits and routes? vil so. Ue aad ries
North American and their allies, distribution and mi-
eration, bulletin by Wells W. Cooke......----------
protection, private and legal..............------------
species, antouated iS thee Ss oars erent s SEE
Gums—
foreion trades O01 OU 4e ak ae 2 5.55 op yenernce cotceey os acct taeda
imports) LOLO=VSL4: values SSA eee ee eine Sere Gee
Gutta-percha, imports and source, 1914.........----------
Bulletin No.
296
296
298
290
288
288
288
288
296
296
296
296
296
296
296
296
296
287
296
296
296
293
295
293
293
INDEX. 9
Bulletin No. Page.
Hair, animal, foreign trade, 1895-1914............--.....-- 296 16-17
Hardwood—
eoonomicimportancessesessos2.2 225 2st a 285 27-33
forest—
extent, topography, and climatic conditions. . .. - - 285 2-5
growth, comparison of northern and southern.... - - 285 1
northern—
composition, growth, and management, bulle-
tin by E. H. Frothingham.....-..--.-..---- 285 1-80
composition, variations, etc....-.......--.--- 285 6-16
extent, topography, and climatic conditions. . 285 2-5
species, common and botanical names, list - . 285 45
temperature and precipitation.........-.---.- 285 } 5
timber species, list, ranges, etc......2255.02220.-.. 285 ' 6-27
HOGS. co oe scesccon sac boponooeeESaeocooESosoeuoe 285 3
standing timber privately owned in Lake States... -.. 285 9
timber, stand in northern hardwood forests, estimate - - 285 31
Hardwoods—
consumption for various purposes in northern hardwood
RECIOM. \2t. 3) ae Ss eer an bP ane 285 29-31
northern—
CISinibUblOn!: MAP Slh.. 2 Ne Medias Soetee ones 285 2
growth of various species, measurement tables. .... 285 17-21
lumber cut and supply, by States...........-.-.-- 285 26-33
Rea ME SCM UEU Ole aia: clan bic \a'a'~! </nio lm afalopa ninic/a ala aiaia Seloale/= a= 285 32-33
Hay—
LOnCLoMIELN ACS ye LOOZTOVANS osc. ase ral etal aclaw widlelcte wie 296 45
millet, yield ‘of three varieties in Great Plains. - Be 291 6-7
HEALD, F. E., and C. H. Lang, bulletin on “Correlating
agriculture with the public- school subjects in the North-
SER SHANG "2S a a a er 281 1-42
Hemlock, occurrence in northern hardwood forests.......-- 285 8,9
Hemp, imports and value, 1870=1914 ss222Ueb. SR DORR oP, 296 44
Hickory stumpage, price in Mlinois..........---.-.-------- 299 36
Midestdtoreienstrade, L895—LOL4. <2... see RE De 296 14-16
Highway. See Road.
Hogs, foreign trade, 1894-1914.........2....2.202222222.--- 296 7
Home- -projects club, organization in public schools, plan
pipISUSCeSUTONS eee eee ee ere eo eer 281 1-4
Honey, toreignitrade, 1899=19140n.0 2.2. ee 296 22
Hops—
aroma, factor in commercial value......--..--2...---- 282 2
bitter acids, changes in hops, studies........-......-..- 282 2-19
changes—
im appearance in storage....-.-...-o-. saseeeee 282 3-4
in storage of sulphured and unsulphured samples,
EXPeMMments= Se io. ks ek 282 4-19
Exports 1910-1914, ‘valuciees.2... 2... assent 296 2
foreign trade, 1791-1914 APSE Bu J SEE 296 45
resin content in sulphured and unsulphured.......... 282 9-10
soft resins—
factor in’commercial value:..-. 2. 2.25222 2222222. 282 2
in sulphured and unsulphured, study, bulletin by
= Ge Acrussell 226 3533-60. 6-1... eee 282 1-19
Horses, foreign trade, 1884-1914.............2.-.2.......-- 296 6
Hucues, H. D., and others, bulletin on ‘‘ Red-clover seed
production: Pollination studies”’/..22...2525 222e 289 1-31
Hydraulic dredge, construction and cost of operation. ....- 300 33-34
Hylocichla—
j aliciae. See Gray-cheeked thrush.
fuscescens. See Veery thrush.
mustelina. See Wood thrush.
ustulata. See Olive-backed thrush.
10 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276—300.
Iceland gull, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and
migratory Habitsaeeaete. 15 cS) iia age Se eee
Idaho, peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping.
Tlinois—
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. .
tomato shipments, 1914... --Sytces_ bes etd tt-2 Io.80e
Imports—
LOUTH VOU4 ies Sos. 8 nee iid. Lae pee tare. -
and exports, publications of Department, list ........-
value, proportion of agricultural products and changes,
1851 to 1994S.22. 2. Sacstibieey A iipweyln Vieey terns
India rubber. See Rubber.
Indiana—
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - -
tomatoshipments, VOl4 = Ts eee ee ee eee
Indigo, imports and source, 1851, 1914............. een i abr:
Insecticide—
experiments, 1912-1914, laboratory and field tests, ete.
investigations, miscellaneous, bulletin by E, W. Scott
Paik ide del (Sie (i emaeaactetion 54 95q stds soos se soeeS
Insects, injurious to ash trees, occurrence and control..-..-
Insurance, cotton—
relation of storage methodzisie? q5sencezeest eek ete
relation to fire protection of warehouses......---------
Istle, imports, source and value, 1885-1914.............---
Jegers, species, breeding and winter ranges, migration
habits, ete jot eetinoock wapcketoweatal? ate halite ee:
Kansas—
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - -
tomatorshupmlents) UNA ee eee ce eee oe ee
Kapoc, imports and sources, 1911, 1914............-.2224..
Kentucky—
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. -
road construction and cost, object-lesson work...-...--
tomate shipments a OIA he ak eet eee are mais 20
Kittiwakes, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and
migratory Wa UGS es eee eS a SIS aS PS SES
Lace-wing fly larvae, enemy of pea aphis.........--.------
Vadybirds; enemuestot pea aphis:- 2-22. seeeeee een a 3
Lake States—
hardwood timber stand, board feet. ....-....---------
standing timber privately owned...........----------
LANE, C. ce
and F. E. Heap, bulletin on ‘Correlating agriculture
with the public- school subjects in the Northern
SLEW KES Teese Sto Cak ue ate G83.) re
bulletin on “Lessons on cotton for the rural common
schools? 22 Seek Aevcfl fab ite Ga Beeler! mes eg
hard, foreipn trades USo ON ee eee reee err an aer
Larus—
afinis, breeding and winter ranges......-.-------------
argentatus, breeding and winter - ranges, occurrence and
migratory habits.....--..-.---++2++--2+0--++--++-+:
atricilla, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and
migratory habits Me eee ass coe eed: beds
brachyrhynchus, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence
and aMnipratory habits ees whe cee ee. - tePee of
californicus, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and
migratory HAUS. loses ce ee ose vow scare
CUTS FOCCUIILEMCC GI ek 2a Re cilateha ys eRe eR fel aris elnpeleidl
delewarensis, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence
ANG MUIPTALONY NAD TS he eh wnt eh nie v Wile aplinloin«bieje lente
Bulletin No. Page.
292 25-26
298 11
298 i
290 9
296 20
296 50-51
296 1-2,3
298 ul
290 9
296 45
278 142
278 1-47
299 24-25
277 Abs,
11,14, 15,
a77{ 25-26, 27-37
296 44
292 7-14
296 44
298 u
290 9
296 44
298 fuisTl
284 21-22
290 9
292 16-22
276 53
276 52-53
285 31
2855 9
281 1-42
294 1-16
296 12-13
292 35
292 36-10
292 21-54
292 47-49
292 41-42
292 49
292 43-46
INDEX,
Larus—Continued.
franklini, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and
MUICTALOmV MAUS ssa Use Lali 5 voc aya uepeere soeciere
glaucescens, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and
LU OT ALOR ER OULS: Bae Se oes as => asta ot aerate ae
heermanni, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and
MORAL ONYAOLISEL S\sememiee eye fo occ 2 Beate
hyperboreus, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and
PARA LOY, MAILS ee te sole ee se 2 = oun win 2 hee Eee
kumleieini, range and occurrence....-....------------
marinus, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and
TANT KO Ay Lay ov is) Sa eae eee eee e/a, SN
MUTE S ROC EIEECN CO ae i Si- S52). Sc. 3 /=/2, =. «= eer
ME SOMUROCCIEREN CO a2 =) s)a)4 44 05 - 421212} ese
philadelphia, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence
anogmmoratony, habits... ~~ sm Sages atapeee
schistisagus, occurrence and migratory habits. ...------
RegueMOrGUErence. {oh tec Sacre tee occ fat eee
Laughing gull, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and
MMOL ALOGY NMA OLAS. 24.5282 ol: resister Pb sles =\-.0 oasis @aee eo
Werisianonweull protections ;4+a2. $..5 + <2 4:/n- eee eae -
Lemon oil, imports and prices, 1910-1914.............-----
Lemons, imports and value, 1903-1914... ....-......-----
Levee construction, value of floating grab-bucket dredge. -
Levees, construction—
wserohdny-landrerab-buckets 222% s2-< se 2-926 s--2'-
valucromhvdraulic dredge. 22.4 i ose. tees. hk kes.
Library, agricultural, for public schools, selecting and con-
Ee UI ON Seng. . wisi 2s wiatisic.o oc ono oeckerus oR ee sera
Licorice root, imports and sources, 1914..........--.-----
Linseed oil, foreign trade, 1895-1914. .....-....----------
Piiiileyeullmraceummences == 2.53. ccc cc aie ects ogee age
Live stock—
ExporussmMOMOSIO14. Value. cys... ssecieme sacs ccs dae eee
ROVCIOMMIPAC ODO 22) 25 soc oat ace onc50. ere no ea ee ORE
Lizards, usefulness against grasshoppers, note. .......-----
Loblolly pine, tests of strength, selection and treatment of
TAAYWSTE ic oe eo EEE EE Oe Od ko IEC eee ENG Ee beet cae ace
Logs, grade and volume, scale tables for different hardwoods.
Longleaf pine, tests of strength, selection, and treatment of
MNALCTIA ee Pe. 2 Gershon
Louisiana—
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - -
tomato shipments; 1A se csi rita 3 hae eee
Lumber—
AS COsLOn PrOCUCtiON WANS 84.08/28 8 See See ease
CiiipimcreaseloihardwOOds apa - ae eee eee
foreiemtrad eye SOD G14 ee ns 3 3) ee
infestation with moth, objections and uses.........--..
Lupulin, hops, changes in storage, studies........---.-...-
Macadam roads, construction and cost, object-lesson work...
Macaroni, imports and source, 1903-1914......-....---.---
Machinery—
cross-pollinating machine for red clover, description and
excavating, used in land drainage, bulletin by D. L.
Parner eg eer on 3 35 5 5 Se ea Ee
Macrosiphum pisi. See Pea aphis.
Maine, hardwood—
iimber cit amd supply eee 2... eet as,
fmberstandthoard feet: «eas ¢ o-)2.c ei es ee
cee Division, Roads Office, formation and work. .
alt—
vexttact, Imports and source; 1914. 2.25 kee
foreign. tradepaS7s-19N4A = Beis... a acca ad os 05
liquor, foreign trade, 1864-1914. .....----..----+-.-..
11
Bulletin No. Page
292 54-57
292 27-28
292 49-51
292 22-25
292 28-29
292 30-33
292 62
292 30
292 34-35
292 57-62
292 33-3
292 40-41
292 51-54
292 4
296 BE
296 43
300 17-18
300 28
300 34-35
281 29-30
296 45
296 34
292 62
296 Wy,
296 d-7
283 7
286 2-4,6,7, 10-14
285 63-66
286 2-4, 6-7, 8, 10-14
298 11
290 9-10
299 34-36
285 30-31
296 46-47
295 9
282 3-4
284 3-6
296 28
289 20-21
300 1-39
285 28
285 31
284 39-54
296 46
296 27
296 37
1D. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276—300.
Bulletin No. Page.
Manila fiber, imports, value and source, 1891-1914......... 296 44
Maple—
lumber cut pL) emer Bie 2 NaS see mee een Maret ear 285 29
occurrence in northern hardwood forests. -.-...-....-.--- 285 9,10
plots, character of stands, volume and yield per acre
in northerntorests..... 5: : 2-p2ceeeaeeiec +222 eee 285 24-25
red, occurrence in northern hardwood forests... ...--- - 285 8
sugar—
~ occurrence in northern hardwood forests.........-. 285 8,9, 10
volume and form tables, northern hardwood SESE 285 52-54, 72-74
Marketing—
peaches, problems and practices. - te tose 298 2
tomatoes, raij shipments and distribution, Gigiatpecaaee 290 1-12
Markets, foreign for agricultural products, discussion and
statistics: 2825... TeO, sagen sone bau Ss 296 3-5
Marsh elder, occurrence in dry-land region.-.........----- 297 3
MartiIn—
J. N., and others, bulletin on “‘ Red-clover seed produc-
tion: Pollination studies” ......... 289 1-31
L. HerRBert, WELLS A. SHERMAN, ‘and “Houston Bol
WALKER, bulletin on ‘Peach supply and distribu-
onundQla® | as -+ a2, 2: cue eteeeek IUD BOON 298 1-16
Maryland, peach shipments, 1914, season and stations ship-
PING Sein 2 Se as oe ee aed ie pee ae 298 7, 12
Meave, Rowtanp M., bulletin on ‘‘Single-stalk cotton
culture at:San@Amtonio? 26: fo cete cen es ioeoee 279 1-20
Meat, foreign trade, 1852-1914. ----.-.2.-2222225.-2+:2 296 9-10
Megalestri is “sku, breeding places and occurrence..-.--.-.-- 292 24
Megastizus unicinctus, nesting habits; note: -<:s2-2::2s24- 293 --- 10-11
Mew gull, range and ocurrence 242-24) b: spat, eosin B 292 49
Michigan —
hardwood lumber cut and Sup phys tee 285 28
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - - 298 12
tomato shipments, 1914s Sekai hse aekev regen ea a aMe 290 10
Milk, foreign trade OE PNAS SS Wat neh ORE 296 8
Mill feed, exports, BD VO A Ses si Sa SRR yg ana etree toe ee 296 28
Millet—
_ breeding for drought adaptation (and sorgo), bulletin
by A. "Cy Diliman. s220022tar Lenouipaan ete) elas) 291 1-19
Dakota Kursk, characteristics and value in Great Plains 291 5
hay, yields of three varieties in Great Plains.....-....- 291 6-7
root system, growing habits, water requirements, etc... 291 2-3, 16-18
seed, yield of three varieties in Great Plains. ...-....-- 291 7-8
selection of strains for drought adaptation, considera-
tions‘and recommendations. --._=225-25-2-----.-=-- 291 4-8
Siberian, characteristics and value for Great Plains. - - - 291 3, 6-8
yields, comparison with other forage plants, Great
Plains sec Shee rey ole hee eee peresnas stil 291 13-15
Minnesota, hardwood lumber cut and supply-.---.-.------ 285 28
Mississipp1
seaehial shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - . 298 12
roads, construction and cost, eatla -lesson work. -...-- 284 6-8
tomato shipments, 1914.. Ace tee se CLI 290 10
Missouri—
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - - 298 12
road construction and cost, object-lesson work... ...- -- 284 5-6
tomato shipments, |1914- -2_ 2S ee 290 10
Molasses, foreign trade, 1914. . FE eS SA oce tee RO 296 46
Moss, exports, mlgidey Rees Ao 7, ye eae oeeBipe at 296 49
Moth—
pine, bulletin by Josef Brunner. .....-......-.-.------ 295 1-12
tussock, effect of insecticides, experiments. .....-.----- 278 16-17
Zimmerman pine. See also Pine moth, Zimmerman.
Muck land, drainage, use of floating iB ETAL -bucket dredge. . 300 17-18
Mules, foreign trade, 1884-1914... eee ares OP ce ONS. 296 if
Mutton, foreien trade, 1877- 1014: pie Ses cooks 296 13
Myadestes townsendi. See Solitaire, Townsend’s.........-- 280 3-5.
+ —_
INDEX.
Naval stores, foreign trade, 1914......5..-. 25.00. sen. ees e5--
New Hampshire, hardwood—
humbernent and supply 9-20 $2222 3.2 54-209: eee be
Gimber stand spoardieetsasss.5--- =~ -1240) asses eee
New Jersey—
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - -
foOMAnmsmipMentsn Obes ose lst eae aeeee
New Mexico—
grasshopper outbreak, 1913, bulletin by Harrison E.
SSUTLTIUND 55 cao 3 a eee 72 a
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - -
formato napments) 1914 2. oe) Opn ke oa 5a) se agen teases Se
New York—
hardwood—
humiser cutjand supply... ->-2 3 (422289 aasgese:
qimberstand, (ooard feet.-2522----225--5- 455-2
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. . -
TOMATO MNpINENtS: LOTR Saeee a. the ee
New Zealand flax, imports, source and value, 1910-1914...
Newurn, J. A., and H. 8. Berrs, bulletin on “Strength
tests of structural timbers treated by commercial wood-
BLOKE INO DTOCESRES ? 8.2 265 20s ee nee wee apse
Nixon, Rosert L., bulletin on ‘‘Cotton warehouse con-
SRO CHAT? . AES oan eee eee eee reed Seam lee ree kee Oars
North Carolina—
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - -
road construction -and cost of different types, object-
VESSONEWOLK pais) S2l oe. gel li ls oh! Agee Bua
‘Norther hardwoods,” use of term_..---.--....2.._....--
Nurseny stock, foreien trade, 1914......-.....-.5--...b.565,
Nut oils, imports and sources, 1912-1914............-.....
Nuts, imports—
sources of various kinds, etc., 1884-1914.-.-...........
ict lemme OM OSM AR 2 sie ko? 8k alee Nee cin eee
Oak, standing timber privately owned in Lake States. -..---
Oatmeal, foreign trade, 1884-1916. ..... eb eh La ee a re
Oats—
experiments at Belle Fourche experiment farm. . .-.-.
fpreiemirade, 15) 1914. c547 45, ja0/5h 4 bee een
growing on Belle Fourche experiment farm, varietal
ancerate-o1-seedine testssctes..0 =. o)a,1+- 2.0. see
varieties recommended for western South Dakota_.....
peipoda nebracensis. See Grasshopper, long-winged.
io—
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - -
tomatoshipments il ON sii 2 sa ee
Oil cake—
exports (with cottonseed meal), 1910-1914, value... .-
ipreisnvtradesckso5—l9Uas 2122-22 4-0 ae BSE
Oils, vegetable—
exports LO10AGI4. vale: 2. ai... 2... 2 Se
foreiem tirade): IS95-1914.-se2 32. 22 22 dd eee
TMpPoTis1OLOMLOIA value. iirc. 0. os
Oklahoma—
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - -
road construction and cost of different types, object-
EORRON-WOLK way ce ioe DOR Bo | ce eee Ne
Oleo stearin, foreign trade, 1910-1914....-.-....-.---..--.-
Oleomargarine, foreign trade, 1882-1914...-.......--..+.--
Olive oil, imports and sources, 1906-1914...............-.--
Onions, foreign trade; 1895-1914. 2:.....- 22-2 see gecasl---
BoOpium, imports, and sources, 1914... 2... 2. --<5ecc- --
Oranges, foreign trade, 1903-1914......... ee ee
Bulletin No.
296
285
285
ie 296
e206
Page.
13
8, 12-15, 19-21
3
45
34
13
14 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276-300,
Oregon— Bulletin No. Page.
“peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - 298 13-14
tomato shipments, IGA. 2 i Se een so oe 290 11
Ostrich feathers, imports and source, 1912-1914............ 296 23
Oyster-shell scale, injury to ash trees in Ohio.............. 299 24-25
Packing-house—
products—
exports; 1910-1914. -value? =. spear ne ye 296 2
foreign =trade, 19061914 eek ee eee 296 9-18
imports; 1970-1914; value= 222 24S ee" 22 hee 296 2
refuse, use for fertilizer ‘‘base goods”. ..............- 283 2
Pagophila alba, br eeding and winter ranges, occurrence and
migratory ‘habitsspsoi3hs is. Sa et ee 292 14-16
Palm—
kernel oil, imports and sources, 1912-1914............. 296 25
leaf; imports, W904 0% 2 ..< cent ce oe Sos ses eee 296 49
oil, imports and sources, 1907-1914...............2.--- 296 35
PamMeE., L. H., and others, bulletin on ‘‘red-clover seed
production: Pollination studies? = 222 -ee ee, sesh esse 289 1-31
Paper-pulp manufacture, consumption of beech wood. - . -- 285 29
Parasitic jaeger, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and
muisratory habiteves.s..c.-.osctheee se ee eee eee ete 292 9-12
Parks, National, work of Division of National Park and
Borest Roads...5< ..----++~ Fei cca RI 284 57
Pea aphis—
bibliography. See 5. SOLS nih ee 276 55-67
control maturallandrartiicial: eet ste ee ee ' 276 52-55
description, life'eycle:and shistory <<. 222222 t2n2 522 2% 276 12-51
distribution‘andsorigins525:42525-t4 22 asses eee a 276 8-9
field observations 52 22s2tiiee eden kecte st eek ee 276 26-27
KOOGl AEN Sao saccusocosssses dacacues odor sasaso HSS 276 9-12
generation experiments, tabulated data......-.-.----- 276 27-49
history and injuries in Europe and America. ....-.--- 276 5-7
identity of species in America. .-.-..-....------------ 276 4-5
relation to forage crops, bulletin by J. J. Davis.-..-.--.- 276 1-67
ANNONA ob Se abaSsoosadoqnbSnosaEoudabeaosaHoRe Sede 276 2-4
Peach—
industry, Department publications, list ............-.- 298 16
supply and distribution in 1914, bulletin by Wells A.
Sherman, Houston F. Walker, and L. Herbert Martin. 298 1-16
trees, spraying with insecticides, effect on foliage...... 278 10-11
Peaches—
. dried, exports and markets, 1906-1914........-....-.- 296 43
growing, areas of commercial production by States. ...- 298 5-6
marketing, problems and practices.......-------------- 298 2
shipments—
1914 “iby Statess: . 2220.22 6232 Wester ecs: 298 7, 9-15
by States, seasons and stations shipping Beary tcc sais 298 7-16
1OLS APrOsSpeChiVviers os viatenees See Eee ~ Sine on Sin 298 8-9
seasons, by States, sources of data, etc..-...--.--- 298 344, 9-15
Peanut oil, imports and sources, 1912-1914...........-..-- 296 34
Peanuts, foreign trade, 1906-1914...--.:....22:.2.-.------ 296 36
Pears, export trade and markets, 1906-1914........-.....-.- 296 43
Peasyioreien trade 900-1914: : : sis sorrseeeeeec itso 296 40
Pennsylvania—
hardwood—
lumber ctitand supplys) a2 Uwe eo ve oe 285 28
famiber\stande board feet. 20... ti Aeemsmee 2 Scena 285 31
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations phupping- “5 298 14
Bee foreign trade, 1860-1914...................-.------ 296 41
ine—
forests, moth-infested, management............-- 295 10
loblolly, tests of strength, selection and treatment of
material /:/6 0 Stet es: OR SES 286 2-44, 6,7, 10-14
longleaf, tests of strength, selection and treatment of
material: +7 eet pepe cb as eee eeecae tee wee 286 2-4, 6-7, 8, 10-14
INDEX.
Pine—Continued.
moth, Zimmerman—
eniolioorarniyeecion Seersairtetecses 3k, cee Shee
brood trees, menace and elimination............---
etletin' bya tosel Brunmers: .2....0)2.2.5.-. jessie «
description, life history and habits.......-.-.--..---
ee saad catistaal
white, occurrence in northern hardwood forests......-.-
Pineapples, imports and sources, 1903-1914-...-.....2.--.---
Pines—
injury by Zimmerman pine moth.......-........-----
species injured by Zimmerman pine moth.........--.--
Pinipestis—
cambuicola, injury to pines..----..---.-.--------------
zimmermam. See Pine moth, Zimmerman.
iRisspdes schwaret, injury to pines... .--..- 2... sss sen'
Poison baits, orasshopper, preparation and value.......-.---
Pollen, red clover, potency in self pollination and cross-
pollination comparison. ssstosheised oO. 1o5 aOR ee
Pollination, studies in red-clover seed production, bulletin
by J. M. Westgate, H. S. Coe, and others..........2..2---
Polyporus fraxinophilus, injury to ash trees, nature and
ORCIIETENCES 4. \5-2h ccs soot EY Oe yetiataeide eon hae
Poplar—
occurrence in northern hardwood forests. - bey Asn Ts
yellow, occurrence in northern hardwood forests......--
Post roads—
improvement, appropriation and work.......-.-------
maintenance and supervision......-:2/..:02:-i 225222222
Ronkproducts foreign: trade...t...--... +22. . ese mea.
Potatoes—
foreign trades 1851=19 l4o0n soviet ocak) ana Bie log. ze
Beare cardsloriSCWool WOLK |. asc cec cies edtsereveyoraictn| EE
Houliny, foreion tradé, 1895-19147... --....--2- RL oe
Prairie dogs, usefulness against grasshoppers, note....---.--
Priononyx atrata, usefulness against grasshoppers, method
DVO | NPN UIE AOS Te 2 ge aed © eR EOE D etna a
Prizes, home-projects club in public schools, suggestions and
AG wAmitAres tess oe eck Trae (se dT 7 eae por a
Prunes, foreign trade, 1903-1914. .222..2 022.05. 20000222 oe
Egiblications, peachtindustry, list... .......-. - seen
Famlipaywjood ami ports, L914. . oa) oo. ci ws ot = oc wcici eee
Raisins, foreign trade, 1903-1914..... PEST PIAE Hee emer sch RE By
Rapeseed oil, imports and sources, 1912-1914.............-
Rattans, imports and source, 1914.........-.-..).05.-.212
Red-clover—
flower—_
fentiliza hlonnstudies?: 4. Ahjce. cee tee ee
pollinationahy. bees,.studies.......-.cGssseeeemee
structure and development M0LFE 3.2. Le a 2
seed production: pollination studies, bulletin by J. M.
Westgate, H. S. Coe, and others...-.........-.2.-2-
eeds:imports and source, 1914. -0....2... 22 ech gee.
Reforestation, ash stands, natural and art ‘ined methods. -
Rennets, imports and source, 1876-1914.....-22522:2...2--
Resins—
hard, of hops, changes in sulphured and unsulphured
samples i A StOnase lee sees a. ee ee
soft, of hops—
‘acid and ester values, determination.............-.
iodin value, determingtion!. 9... a
sulphured and unsulphured in cold and open stor-
age, study, bulletin by G. A. Russell..........-
Rhodostethia zofet breeding range and occurrence. .-....--
Bulletin No.
295
295
16 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276-300,
Bulletin No. Page.
Ricestoreion trades HAS=V914- 2 sa. eee ens ene nee 296 26
Rissa—
brevirostris, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and
migratory habits 2.2.0... 2epe eee ee. oe See 292 21-22
tridactyla pollicaris, breeding and winter ranges, occur-
rence'and mipratory, habits: cose eer ete ee ee eee 292 19-21
tridactyla tridactyla, breeding and winter ranges, occur-
rence and migratory. habits-- 2320 eeeeee ee) --e oe 292 16-19
Road, Washington-Atlanta highway, maintenance and con-
struction, funds expended, mileage, etc.-.2).2i20..2222 2 284 59-63
Roads—
bituminous— :
macadam, construction and cost, object-lesson
WOT eit cee esc SRS oo ae ee oer peer 284 3-4
surfacmoecost 4-2 ts 2s ee eee eee ee 284 4
cement-concrete, construction and cost, object-lesson
WOT kets Hee eR isin dS AS ON ieee as coh RR PREGE 284 2-3
construction and maintenance (with bridges) from
July 1, 1913, to December 31; 19142 sii. ilo. 2h 284 1-64
county, superintendence, work of Construction Divi-
sion, Roads'Ofiices east. -eehigs ees tee 284 23-50
experimental work of Construction Division of Roads
Offices. Asse Ae Ts SSB esi Mae ae eee 284 50-53
macadam, construction and cost, object-lesson work. - 284 3-6
National Park and Forest Division, formation and work. 284 53-07
object-lesson, construction of various kinds, cost, mile-
age and location! 2300228 alma boo hind ciate 284 2-23
Office, authority for construction and maintenance of
roads and prrdioes eye ee ee er eo are Ia eer ee 284 . 1-2
post, improvement, appropriation and work..........- 284 52-53
post, maintenance and supervision.....-.....--..--.-- 284 59
topsoil, construction and cost, object-lesson work... --- 284 18-21
Rossrns, F. E., and others, bulletin on “ Red-clover seed
production: Pollimation studies”... -- 2-202. ---2ae- eke 289 1-31
Roots} herbs, and barks;:exports, 1914. acs 5..- eee 296 46
Rosinvexports, LOMGs. ose Es. Siete cistenes bape 296 47
Rubber, imports—
Vale VM OSLO MA ers ce Rese ae ceed 296 2
value and sources, 1910-1914..........-....--.2---.--: 296 47-48
Russe, G. A., bulletin on ‘A study of the soft resins in
sulphured and unsulphured hops in cold and open
OMI sess aocao ace seoon sum sasqonaassous5 5 oHoensaCeee 282 1-19
Rye—
foreion ‘trade xa SG4=19N4 oi. Secs kes. Ape Meese on a wie 296 27
growing in western South Dakota, experiments. ......- 297 38
Sago, imports, value and source, 1914....................- 296 45
Satmon, Crcit, bulletin on “Cereal investigations on the
Belle Fourche experiment farm) see eee == --- = 297 ; 1-43
Sampling device, grain—
description and Operation «-).0) BEL pee: eid ta, it 287 14
seeds and other material, bulletin by E. G. Boerner. - 287 1-4
San Jose scale, effect of insecticides, experiments. ........ 278 35-38, 42
Sand-clay roads, construction and cost, object- lesson work. 284 11-18
Sarcophaga. kellyi—
factor in grasshopper control, habits and value... .-.--- 293 7-11
parasitic on long-winged grasshopper, value, etc....... 293 7-9
Saunpers, D. A., and P. V. Carpon, bulletin on “Custom
ginning as a factor in cotton-seed deterioration” ......... 288 1-8
Sausage—
pologna, imports and source, 1878-1914.......-...-..-- 206 14
casings, foreign trade, 1875- 1914, Scere be ae 296 17
Schools—
exhibits, home-projects club, sup roee mare te fovets cia ENs 281 5-6, 25-26
public, correlating agriculture with subjectsin Northern
States, bulletin by C. H. Lane and F. E. Heald..... 281 1-42
rural, lessons on cotton, bulletin by ©. H. Lane........ 294. 1-16
INDEX.
Score card— Bulletin No.
GOLCONDA arsine We sj sehe aes os So 5 ne lee ete 294
farm products, use in public schools, types, etc... ---- 281
Scort, E. W., and E. H. SIEGLER, bulletin on “Miscel-
laneous insecticide IMVestiCattOnsy 62. 2) eee ae oe 278
Seed—
ash, production, dissemination, germination, etc.. 299
bed, cotton, preparation, school lessons...........---- 294
foreign trade, HS Jo NO IAs ROR aN yn > i 8 es jas 296
imports, 1910-1914, svelte RE EE 7D SAO ELE TERE ae RUN 296
millet, production, yield and demand - 291
sampling device, and for grain and other material, bul-
letin by E. G. pBoemensves2ee os -o2 po see ees 287
selection, curing, care, and testing, school work.. 281
Sesia brunnert, TOME LO pIMes.ssaae ss ys ss Se 295
Sheep, foreign Graces 1 SOAS NON sakes 4.) i SE eee 206
Sheepskins, ‘Imports and sources, 1909-1914. see 296
Shellac, gum, imports and source, 1914. 296
SHERMAN, Weis A.—
Houston F. WaLker and L. Hersert Martin, bulle-
tin on ‘‘Peach supply and distribution in 1914”..-- 298
Pau Froern.icn, and Houston F. Waker, bulletin
on “Rail shipments and distribution of fresh toma-
OCS pl GUAR e nse cect ayes fk rota tno ee A ae ee 290
Shipping tomatoes, SEASON Gy oreeo focnd kas slo hee em 290
Siberian gull, breeding and winter ranges....-.----..----- 292
Srecier, E. H., and E. W. Scort, bulletin on ‘“Miscel-
laneous insecticide inv estipatlonsed re tec R aA ae 278
Silk, foreign trade, GOGO IAN selene le nel Minn 296
Silviculture, methods in northern hardwood forests... ...- 285
Single-stalk cotton, culture at San Antonio, bulletin by
amistad Mee Mende, «220d ly) 0.0 / 00s ANON ee 279
SUID), SAGO, IRIE eG = Book ebb eee or eooeeenneceo cee 296
Sisal grass, imports, value and source, 1895-1914. .......-- 296
Skineioreionnirade, 1895-1914... 2. ssc heice oo eee 296
Skua—
breeding places and occurrence. ..-.-..--.-.-+---.--- 292
useful against mice and lemmings, note......-.-.---- 292
Slaughterhouse, by-products, foreign ttad 627 NUE eee eos: 296
SmirH, Harrison E., bulletin on ‘“‘The grasshopper out-
break in New Mexico during the summer of 1913”-...-. 293
Solitaire, Townsend’s, occurrence, distribution, and eco-
MOM GHMDOnbANCE|. sss She. SNL... os 2 se 280
Sorgo—
breeding for drought adaptation (and millet), bulletin
nyp AC. Dilltaan'..-4e sett 2 tooo SS eee 291
Dakota Amber, characteristics and value for Great
[AIOE A Ai We ae ae RR DSSS Sa oa ac 291
root system, growing habits, water requirements, etc... 291
selection of strain for Great Plains... ee 291
yields, comparison with other forage plants, Great
Aneta gi) 3 SRG in Sy Seay 9 2 en - . S 291
South Carolina—
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - 298
- road construction and ‘cost, object-lesson work._.....- 284
South Dakota, western, native vegetation and climatic con-
CAAT OTS ee Vine ENS ARR NILE _ 200 00 NED 297
Soya-bean oi!, imports and sources, 1912-1914. .._........ 296
Spices, foreign trade in various kinds, 1884-1914. _........ 296
se Spike- -top,”’ pine, work of Zimmerman pine moth... ..... 295
Sprinkler, automatic, description, use, and vaiue in cotton
warehouse, tel Ls 2) oc eeei SIM 1CO aia es Oc 277
Sprout reproduction, ash trees: <).: 2.2.22.) Se222220 299
Spruce— -
occurrence in northern hardwood forests.........---- 285
red, occurrence in northern hardwood forests... .....- - 289
104680°—17—3
ial’)
8-12
2-38, 15-16
8
13-15
18 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 276—300.
Starch— Bulletin No. Page.
eX ports, VOLOSLOIA yale). ese eee eee 296 2
foreion ‘trad esd ON iim) eile paceman hh eel Seg 296 46
Stearin, foreign trade, VOWS KV OIA oie ope pers ororers action ae 296 10
Stercorarius—
longicaudus, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence
and migratory Habits, << ee tee ce tone 292 12-14
parasiticus, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and
migra tobyaWAWMS 2-2 scl = eles eee eer i ae ee 292 9-12
pomarinus, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and
migratory habits ess fe hae yep eee hey fe i deb ge 292 7-9
SterrRetTr, W. D., bulletin on ‘‘The ashes: Their charac-
teristics and management eee ah. chaser gama 299 1-88
Storage—
cold; effect onchops, studies:...- .-eeeeaon- = 240s 282 3-19
houses, importance and economic value. ........-..-- 277 2-3
principles and functions of warehouse...........-...-- 277 3-7
Straw, toreion trade 1904. oo. Jo. eee eee PUTS apace te, 296 46
Sudan grass, yield ‘of forage in Great Plains, comparison
with other forage plants \\..5- secs peered ah fees 291 10, 13-14
Sugar—
beet seed, imports and value, 1910-1914................ 296 39
exports, T9V0-1914, value. 250.0045. tiple tbe tenet 296 2
Loreion trade wlS ol ON ee eee a ee eee eee 296 29-30
AIM POLts VOU LOA sVvalue sac sos yee ein eee ere 296 2
maple, occurrence in, northern hardwood forests. ..-.--- 285 8, 9, 10
Sulphuric acid—
ECONOMICHMIPORIANCE sess ccc ct owe we selee's eee eee 283 1-2
manufacture—
contact process, requirements, etc......-----.:--- 283 2-3, 15-26
lead-chamber process, requirements, etc......--.- 283 3-5, 9-13, 27-39
methods, processes, requirements, and comparisons. 283 e 2-3
plant, factory Considerabions eure eee eee ee eee 283 13-14
plant, measurement of efficiency. -..-..-.-.----------- 283 5-9
production—
and proposed new method of manufacture, bulle-
tin by, William Hi. Waggaman......2 s25-:.-==< 283 1-39
in United States, by grades, 1911-1913............ 283 2
Superphosphate, basis of ‘fertilizer industry, note.......-...- 283 1
“Sweat bees,’’ enemies of pea aphis............-..-------- 276 53
Swine. See ‘Hogs.
Syrphid larvee, enemies of Pea aphises toi jsB soil = Satis 276 53
Aga Mts, aM PortsiandiSOULCe see -e---seeee me teie <= <= 3 296 49
Mallow, beef, foreign’ tradej-.2+--|--2 = 5\4-~ ieee - been t im -)- = - 296 10-11
Tampico fiber, imports, value and source, 1885-1914. ....-. 296 44
Tanning material, forelomitrade,, LOVA oo. Soe pots j= bese 296 48
Tapioca, imports and source, (Olina geen cee 296 45
Tea, imports—
andisources spl Spl WOWA an cccahice sic nemeeterte et area tie 296 31-32
value, LOLOHMO LAS Sse eayhs + setrecle. qaapepeetisiscis > selose 296 3
Meazelss mi ponts\amdisOUurceywLO1 A see yee ete ie ee oar ete 296 46
Tennessee—
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. . - 298 14
road construction and cost, object-lesson work... ..-.-- 284 22-23
Tomatoishipments Ole. cre. ser. eee eeEret es aye)ayo -r eee 290 Lil
Tent caterpillar, effect of various insecticides, experiments. 278 12-13
Texas—
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. - - 298 14
road construction and cost of different types, object-
LessOm WOT ei eis) ye ep aarti eee sb) ohys Bini 284 17-18, 23
San Antonio region, single-stalk cotton culture.....-.-.- 279 1-20
Lomato SHIpMents WO ste 2 io. <u seams coach 290 11
Thrushes—
food habits in United States, bulletin by F. E. L. Beal. 280 1-23
hermit, occurrence, habits, and economic importance. . 280 18-23
Species, Habits, (OCCurrence, CC.) wn wets ele ele nice vows 280 1-2
INDEX.
Timber—
ash, cost, lumber production, etc...............--.-.--
FOLEICMBUEAGE NS O01 O14 oe sooo oo oS 2 et ee
form tables, northern hardwood forests. ........-...----
sale practice, management in White Mountains........
second-growth, northern hardwood forests, nature and
TAIT CNG asd eackear Goes On eTa eee ec ossan Ueae
standing, Lake States, board feet, privately owned.....-
stumpage value of northern hardwoods. .......--------
volume tables, northern hardwood forests............-
Tim bers— .
preservative treatment, methods.................-----
shrinkage in volume under preservative treatment.......
structural, treated by commercial wood-preserving
processes, strength tests, bulletin by H. S. Betts and
Ver Ba ING es Rg Sel eth ie ele em I a
HOES ON URSA ths Ae ee it Se RS ee Se Cleve
Timothy seed, exports and markets.........---.----------
Momatoshipments; by States, 1914... -.... 2 Le
Tomatoes—
Gaimengsupplies; remarkss.. 22525050. eee eee
commercial for table use, remarks............--.--.--
cultural method in shipping districts..........-.-----
Pcouo mmc POrtANCCs.--. - 5s... cece = eee wea
ieshespoOashipments, remarks... 222225) eee
fresh, rail shipments and distribution, 1914, bulletin by
shipments, data, methods of compiling, etc. .-.....---
REMI OP OLACUCOS... 48.2 WEL Shotts ok Shee Se eee
Rina CISC ASO See scenes hue See CE eye eee
Tobacco—
Sxporse OlO—Nore ) valielice aly oo. 22. Aes
fonetene@trade. LoOLO—1O14.* 222+.) 3... ees eee
AnapontssQlO=1914. valuel eves. 10.) oe
Trade, foreign—
farm and forest products, bulletin by Perry Elliott... -
THROES, TIT 1100) 1 MON a ek re et es
Transportation—
exports, 901-194. camers) etc_s 22. 32.) ea eee ee
mmiportss 901-1914. carriers'"ete. 2°). SoS eee eee
obstruction by grasshoppers, instance.........-.-.-----
Trifolium pratense. See Clover, red.
Peoupenimne ,exports, L914- cic e2 ss. 1!) ee
Tussock moth, effect of insecticides, experiments... ..-.---
Utah—
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. --
TOUDENOD Slauyowacraurs, MOM ee eee sesosdascescancs
Vanilla beans, imports and sources, 1914...-.-.....-------
Vegetable—
fibers, foreign trade, 1885-1914. ........2..2-.-2--.----
ivory, imports and source, 19142)... --2225seeeee ee:
Vegetables—
exponts 910-1914, values: «220 22 ye ee ee
foreign trade in various kinds, 1851-1914.............--
empment and distribution, publications of Department,
TSS see ok ER a ee Oe oe oe sh eT
Vermont, hardwood—
itmibercut and supply: sss 22k2 22 72 es i)
Beumber stand, board feet== =. -0 +422 2p eeeeee a e
Winerar, foreign trade, 19148 yO os ee
Bulletin No.
299
296
285
285
285
285
285
285
286
286
286
286
296
290
290
290
290
290
290
290
290-
290
290
296
296
296
296
296
296
296
293
296
278
298
290
296
bo
IC ie
DW eS bo
20 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS, 276-300,
Virginia—
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. ...
roads— :
coneeucy cost of different kinds, object-lesson
WOPKL Ss . see cco t o os once eae Ie ra to ene
maintenance, work of maintenance division. .....-
Wafers, unmedicated, imports and sources, 1914..........-
Waceaman, Wi1iam H., bulletin on “The production of
sulphuric acid and a proposed new method of manufac-
GUTO SESE tees SEER soe cee oe Be ee Es oe
Waker, Houston F., Wetts A. SHERMAN—
and L. Herpert Martin, bulletin on “ Peach supply
and: distriputionan 1947797. eee ee
and Paut Freou.icu, bulletin on “ Rail shipments and
distribution of fresh tomatoes, 1914”__..........-.-
Walnut stumpagessprice in Wilinoisa2 3552-2 sere see.
Warehouse—
cotton, construction, bulletin by Robert L. Nixon......
FUNCLIONS Stee ee ee cee oe ee ee ee eee oe
receipts, negotiable, needed legislation ...............
“standard 2storeouton, tseior terme-sseeeeecinccice cei os
Warehouses—
cotton—
considerations relating to storage and fire insurance.
construction, cooperation of bankers and farmers . .
schedules for rating of standard types.-..-..-.-.---
types of standard, descriptions ...............- ae
modern, losses in construction, objections, etc ..-.-...-
Washington—
peach shipments, 1914, season and stations shipping. .
tomatoishipments Ole ese as sen een pee eens
Washington-Atlanta highway, maintenance and construc-
tion, funds expended, mileage, etc......-...-....------
Wasps, sphecid, usefulness against long-winged grass-
hopperssmethods andivalue 2eccs)- ssse teers: -- 2
Wax, vegetable, imports and source, 1914_.........-..----
Webworm, fall, effect of various insecticides, experiments.
West Virginia, peach shipments, 1914, season and stations
Rlaiho) Otic oo Sc Geico eae aCe nit: S55 9S a am
Westcarte, J. M., H. 8. Con, and others, bulletin on ‘‘ Red-
clover seed production: Pollination studies” ...........
eat—
date-of-seeding test of winter varieties, Belle Fourche
experiment farm ....-..-.- Tha aR es Ak Seer
exports, 1791-1914, historical notes .........----------
growing, experiments on Belle Fourche experiment
farm) Warleiies and yields 5-2-5). 2 seeenee ~~ = <n.
rate-of-seeding tests of varieties, Belle Fourche experi-
ment far eas Sees pis i oe, o aia clare eieeeininis Soi wee
spring, growing on Belle Fourche experiment farm,
VANIeLIES ANG RAeClOS Spec): oe- Seer Sel wos
Wheats—
experiments at Belle Fourche experiment farm . ......
varieties, growing on Belle Fourche experiment farm . .
yields of spring and winter varieties, Belle Fourche
experiment farm, comparisons..........-.----------
White—
SALAS PAG, AANES eee. 2). see ses o0'e = Seu
oak, Stumpare price aH WMNOIs & Syepieeeeeear< + scence
rot, ash trees, cause, nature and occurrence..........--
wins 2”, ORIPIN MOLeben es cg! oo. oe) epee ao oa =o = tk
Wrancxo, A. T., and others, bulletin on ‘‘Red-clover seed
production: Pollination studies”. .2:2 cheep eeee s-< ss. -
Wind velocity, Belle Fourche experiment farm, monthly
VOLTAGES Faw ccc cccc ccc cece eset ecw e nana s enact esesewnce
298
284
284
296
283
298
290
299
277
267
277
277
277
277
277
Bulletin No.
|
28-37
36-37
9-10, 12, 14, 17,
20, 21, 22,
25-26, 27
22-28
INDEX,
Wine lees, imports and sources, 1909-1914........-.-..-.--
Wines, foreign trade, 1864-1914....................---.---
Wisconsin, hardwood lumber, cut and supply...-.-...-.--
Wood—
ee adil consumption of hardwoods..........---.--
19) —.
an FPL et Ae aye Oe epemene <8) So 2 ee epee
imports, 1910-1914, VAaLUCKS©. . 2. eee
structural timbers, tests of strength: ..\-; aceasta
testing methods.............. ten Rel oi cae
thrush—
POOde hater ts sae ae eras se ess nls. = = 5 Se oe
occurrence, habits, and economic importance... - -
peornceket, Rocky Mountain hairy, destruction of pine
THOU N. 2 6 SRO ORES ee REO SE Ces Ces een tele sisc eherae
Woods, strength tests, publications of Department, list. -
Wood-using industries, consumption and uses of ash lumber.
Wool, foreign trade, OTe al OS an
Xema sabini, breeding and winter ranges, occurrence and
USOT LE CCE Sie ee ee eer ee ee a
YaRNELL, D. L., bulletin on ‘Excavating machinery
used in land drainage” the oho tia dete cieie wie = eee
EGS, SOOT ESE ee ee ce
Zimmerman pine moth. See Pine moth.
Bulletin No.
296
296
285
285
296
296
286
286
280
280
295
286
299
296
292
300
296
18-19
65-68
1-39
46
Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology
L. O. HOWARD, Chief
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 29, 1915
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE
CROPS.
By J. J. DAvist=
Entomological Assistant, Cereal and Forage Insect Investigations.
CONTENTS.
Page. Page
ITNU ROC CLIO MMs rastare deren ic clove cars ce bicleleretearsieie 1 .|- Generationiexperiments) Jos. 82-4022 5eee eee 27
SIVALOMY MIN yam re etic selene ches om eel secieme cided 2 | Hatichingyomtheege = ease nes seen eee eee 43
Identity of the species occurring in America. 4. | Molbingeeeessasa': Soe: dsc cseee se ceee ee soe 43
Past history of the pest and its injuries... _.- 5 | Age at which females begin reproducing..... 45
Ghraractemotattackerenecencmet esate: cmceac ee 7 | Reproductivesperiode.-----peceeeeeee eee 49
Effects on cattle of feeding them infested LONeyb yeaa aane cSt zoe cinin Sam aremeteneaseaee 49
Clo ete epee sean fsa ciee a5 | Se eels 7 | Fecundity of viviparous females........-.... 49
DistnibutionvanGiorigine 22. --4-----6-- 2 ---- 8 | SexualMonmstere ccmccccmt ence scree seen eee 50
MOOdeplaMiSMote tee ecco sacs e ects ee eles 9 | Fecundity of oviparous females......._..._. 51
DGS CHOON meets tee nina = -e=s</2)s 22 So aee 12' | Naturalicontroleeseanensscs-seseeee acco aeeee 52
ILiRD JOISHOR ssocooedoaoseeeaeesee BeBtEs Seeeeee 26 | Methods of artificial control........-.-....... 54
Hel drobsenvaulOnSesseeericinecese cae ee cee eas. 26
INTRODUCTION.
The periodic occurrence of the pea aphis (Macrosiphum pisi Kalt.)
in unusual abundance on various leguminous crops, more especially
red and crimson clovers, vetches, field and garden peas, and sweet peas,
has placed it among the important injurious insects of the world, for it
is almost cosmopolitan and more or less injurious wherever found. In
Europe it has been the subject of numerous treatises, both from the
systematic and economic viewpoints, and its identity has been much
confused with other closely related species. In America it seems to
have made its first appearance in destructive and noticeable numbers
im, 1899, although it is known to have been present here for at least
two decades previous, and each year since 1899 this aphis has been
recorded as injurious in one or more localities in the United States.
In the present paper we have attempted especially to settle the
identity of the species, an important item from the economic stand-
point, and to report our extended life-history investigations, together
with a summary of all the important facts, both old and new, relative
to the life economy of the species.
98034°—Bull. 276—15—1
2 BULLETIN 276, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
SYNONYMY.
This aphis seems to have been. first authentically described under
the name Aphis pisi by Kaltenbach in 1843 (5),! although two years
previous Boyer de Fonscolombe (3) described a species under the
name Aphis onobrychis, which is still doubtfully considered synony-
mous with pist as will be noted later. Kaltenbach placed Schrank’s
Aphis ulmariae as a synonym of pisi, although this arrangement on
the part of that author is not comprehensible, since he was doubtless
aware of its priority over pisi. In 1855 Koch (6) redescribed pisi
and: placed it in. the genus Siphonophora, no mention being made of
ulmariae, although in the appendix of this work (p. 328) Kalten-
bach’s remarks include the following:
Siph. get Koch ist, nach Herrich-Schiffer’s richtiger Vermuthung, meine Aphis
Pisit Kalt. und Aph. Onobrychis B. de Fonse. Der iltere Schrank’sche Name Aph.
Uimarix verlangt jedoch von allen Dreien das Prioritiitsrecht.
The name pist was adopted by entomologists almost universally
until comparatively recent years when ulmariae was more or less
generally accepted.
In 1909 Dr. N. A. Cholodkovsky (9) published the result of his
studies on Siphonophora pisi and related species, definitely settling
the identity of pisi, and for the first time pointed out that the
Aphis ulmariae of Schrank, which he here placed in the genus
Siphonophora, could hardly be the pist of Kaltenbach. He therefore
concluded that three species had heretofore been confused with pisi,
namely Macrosiphum pisi, which he had found on garden peas (Pisum
sativum), sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus) and Medicago; MM. ulmariae
auct., which occurs on meadow-sweet (Spiraea ulmaria); and M.
caraganae Cholod. on Caragana arborescens, and gives biological and
morphological differences to separate the three. Later, in the same
year and in the same publication, Dr. A. Mordwilko (10) gives a
lengthy treatise on this insect, which he calls Macrosiphum pisi Kalt.,
and the related species. Eight supposedly distinct species are con-
sidered and a table illustrating differences of the following species is
given: M. pisi, M. cholodkovskyt, M. porischinskyt, MM. ononis, M. get,
and M. urticae. Three species occur on Spiraea ulmaria, namely, the
ulmariae of Schrank, which he considers as belonging to the genus
Aphis; JL cholodkovskyi, a name given for the species referred to by
Cholodkoysky and other authors discussing a Macrosiphum on Spiraea
ulmaria; and M. portschinskyi, a new species. The author is eyi-
dently not settled on the identity of MM. ononis Koch, although at
the end of the paper he states that ‘“‘apparently the last species
(ononis Koch) must also be recognized as distinct.’? And, finally,
M. onobrychis B. de Fonsc. is questionably placed as a synonym of
' Numbers (1 to 12) in parentheses refer to the Bibliography of European Literature, p. 55.
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 3
pisi. More recently has come a contribution from Prof. Fred. V.
Theobald (11, 12) who considers ge and ulmariae as distinct species,
thus corroborating the general conclusions of the two eminent Rus-
sian entomologists, Cholodkovsky and Mordwilko. Theobald sepa-
rates these large green pisi-like Macrosiphums into two groups ac-
cording to the structure of the tip of the cornicle: (1) Those with the
tip imbricated, containing pis: Kalt., lott Theob., and trifolit Theob.,
and (2) the group of closely related species with the tip of the cor-
nicle reticulated, including ulmariae Schr., get Koch, and stellariae
Schr. Further, he is of the opinion that ononis Koch is distinct
from pist. Our own studies lead us to follow Mordwilko’s conclu-
sions. Schrank’s description of Aphis ulmariae certainly seems to
indicate that he was dealing with a true Aphis and not a Macrosiphum.
In 1782 Moses Harris, in his ‘‘ English Insects,” (1), figures an aphis
which he calls Aphis pisum and gives a nondescript description.
Theobald (12) has placed this species asa synonym of pisi, but there is
nothing excepting the specific name to link it with the aphidid under
discussion and it must therefore be placed as a possible synonym of
pist but not in the sense of having priority.
In 1841 Sir Oswald Mosley (4) describes Aphis lathyri as follows:
8th Species: Aphis lathyri.icOn the Sweet Pea beneath the leaves; colour green,
becoming when old of a dark purple; antennz longer than the body; abdomen
acuminated, with tubercles nearly extending to the extremity.
There is little doubt but that this description referred to pisi, but
even with two years’ priority the name lathyri can hardly take pre-
cedence over the well-established name pisi and must be placed in
the same category as Harris’s pisum.
The correct name which should be adopted for this insect is still
somewhat questionable, but at this distance we, in America, must
follow largely the researches of European aphidologists. MM. pisi
Kalt. must for the present be considered as having priority, although
further researches may prove Aphis onobrychis B. de Fonsc. to be
identical, this species having two years’ priority over pisi, as stated
above. In this connection Mordwilko (10) says:
The same species of plant louse [referring to pisi] was apparently described two
years earlier (1841) by Boyer de Fonscolombe and named Aphis onobrychis, having
been found on Hedysarwm onobrychis. However, it is still premature to regard these
two names as synonyms.
Walker, Buckton, Ferrari, Schouteden, Theobald, and others have
made onobrychis a synonym of pis but none has given sufficient evi-
dence to support this conclusion. Authors discussing a plant louse
on pea under the name ulmariae doubtless had in mind JM. pisi,
since it seems to have been fully proven that the true ulmariae does
not feed on the hosts recorded for pisi. Further, we must accept
4 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the interpretations of Cholodkovsky, Mordwilko, and Theobald that
species heretofore considered as synonomous with pisi, namely gei
Koch, ulmariae Schr., and ononis Koch, are good and distinct species
and that onobrychis B. de Fonse. is still a doubtful species.
Our own results published herein assure us of the identity of the
pea aphis (pista Kalt.) occurring in America and Europe. In America
there seem to be only two names, originating here, which can properly
be considered synonyms of pisi Kalt., namely destructor Johnson and
trifolit Pergande.
The synonymy of Macrosiphum pisi Kaltenbach, as we now under-
stand it, is as follows:
Macrosiphum pisi (Kaltenbach).
Aphis pisum Harris.
Aphis lathyri Mosley.
Aphis onobrychis B, de Fonsc.?
Aphis pisi Kaltenbach.
Siphonophora pisi Koch.
Siphonophora ulmariae Passerini (nec Schrank).
Nectarophora pisi Oestlund.
Nectarophora destructor Johnson.
Macrosiphum pisi Schouteden.
Macrosiphum trifolit Pergande.
IDENTITY OF THE SPECIES OCCURRING IN AMERICA.
Macrosiphum pisi was first reported in America by Cyrus Thomas
in 1878, although this record has been incorrectly discredited by most
subsequent authors. In’ 1900, following the first noteworthy out-
break of this pest in the United States, Johnson described the species
as new, calling it Nectarophora destructor. The following year San-
derson reported studies to show that destructor is identical with pisi
of Europe, basing his conclusions partly by comparison with speci-
mens labeled pisi from Buckton. Evidently Buckton was confused
on this species, since one of the species sent Sanderson was certainly
not pisi,for the tips of the cornicles were reticulated, a character
which separates pisi from many closely related forms. Doubtless
this error on the part of Buckton led Sanderson to consider certain
American species with reticulated cornicles as synonyms or varieties
of pist. In 1904 Pergande described a species under the name
Macrosiphum trifolii: We have had an opportunity to examine the
type slide of trifolii Perg. and find it to be identical with pis?, and our
determination has been verified by Mr. Pergande. Notes on the
1 Prof. Fred. V. Theobald (Theobald, Fred. V. The British species of the genus Macrosiphum, Passerini,
Pt. I. In Jour. Econ. Biol., v. 8, no. 3, p. 139, fig. 46, Sept. 29, 1913) has described a new species under the
name M. trifolii, overlooking the fact that the name is preoccupied. We therefore propose for this species
Macrosiphum theobaldiin. n. Itis distinguished from pisi, according to Theobald, only by the usually
paler green color, the absence of sensoria on antennal segment III of the wingless female, and relatively
thicker antenne, which are rather variable characters for this genus, Winged forms were mot observed
by Theobald. Itis not improbable that this will prove to be pisi.
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 5
type specimens of érifolit are given in the descriptive paragraphs.
Pergande listed a variety of hosts attacked by trifolii, and although
we have not seen specimens other than the types which were col-
lected on Trifolium pratense, we doubt the correctness of its occurring
on such plants as strawberry, dandelion, wheat, and oats, food plants
noted by Pergande.
Through the kindness of Dr. Albert Tullgren, of Sweden, Drs.
Mordwilko and Cholodkovsky, of Russia, Prof. F. V. Theobald, of
England, and Dr. G. Del Guercio, of Italy, we have been able to
compare the American pisi with specimens from the foregoing
countries and find them to be identical.
PAST HISTORY OF THE PEST AND ITS INJURIES.
IN EUROPE.
¢ )
For at least a century the ‘‘green dolphin,” as this insect is com-
monly known in England, has been a serious pest to peas, vetches,
and clover. One of the earliest records of injury is that given us in
1815 by Kirby and Spence (2), who reported that in 1810 “‘the
produce was not much more than the seed sown; and many farmers
turned their swine into their pea fields, not thinking them worth
harvesting. The damage in this instance was caused solely by the
Aphis, and was universal throughout the kingdom, so that a supply
for the navy could not be obtained.”
In 1876 Buckton (7) writes that this sect ‘‘in some years is very
destructive to the farm crops. It feeds on a large number of plants,
but chiefly it fests the field pea, on the young shoots and leaves of
which it clusters by thousands.’ Thus the pea aphis seems only to
have been occasionally and locally injurious in England; but in 1885
that country suffered from a great plague of pea “‘lice,’’ and this
unusual abundance has been correlated with the slight precipitation
during that year. In her report for 1885, Miss Ormerod (8) notes
that this plant louse particularly damaged peas and vetch.
As has been stated by Mordwilko (10):
In North Europe the pea louse lets itself be heard from only occasionally. For
instance, Kaltenbach (1843-1872) and ©. Koch (1857) mention nothing at all about
damage by the pea louse. Only E. Taschenberg notes briefly that the pea louse is
occasionally very injurious to peas on which it hinders the further growth of the tips
of young runners."
Quoting further from Mordwilko (p. 36):
In Russia as in N. Europe field peas suffer only occasionally from pea lice, namely,
when the latter succeeds to increase greatly by the time or before peas come into
faloomeg® 4%:
1 Taschenberg, E. L. Naturgeschichte der wirbellosen Thiere, die in Deutschland sowie in den Provin-
zen Preussen und Posen den Feld-, Wiesen- und Weide-Culturpflanzen schadlich werden. Bremen, 1865.
Also under title: Die der Landwirthschaft Schidlichen Insecten und Wiirmer.
6 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
IN AMERICA.
Dr. Cyrus Thomas was the first to observe and record this species
from America (1878, 1879). The authenticity of this record has been.
doubted by most writers, but we have examined the specimens used
by Thomas in drawing up his description (Davis, 1913) and find them
to be the Macrosiphum pisi of Kaltenbach. Thomas’s specimens were
collected in Illinois in 1878, which is indicative of its introduction
into America some years previous, possibly as much as 10 or 15 years
before. Subsequently and previous to 1899, pist was reported by
Oestlund (1886), Smith (1890), and Williams (1891).
Macrosiphum pisi, therefore, was introduced into America fully 20
years previous to its appearance in serious numbers and here we have
a case analogous to that of the gipsy moth, which was present in this
country for about 25 years before it became a pest (Chittenden,
1909a).
Although the losses attributed to this aphidid have been largely to
garden peas, still certain other crops have been much injured by it,
the actual damage, however, never being apparent as in the case of
the garden pea. Among other crops field peas are frequently injured
by pisi. As early as 1900 Dr. Chittenden (1900b) reported injury to
this crop, grown for hay, in Virgmia. Mr. G. G. Ainslie records the
total destruction of a plat of Canadian field peas at Nashville, Tenn..,
as early as February 17, in 1911.
The first positive record of injuries to clover in America by this
plant louse was noted by Mr. W. G. Johnson, who wrote in 1900 that
“hundreds of acres of red clover have been destroyed by it [JZ
pisi]. In one instance, reported to me June 13, 1900, Mr. C. Silas
Thomas, of Lauder, Frederick County, Md., stated that the pest had
almost entirely ruined 65 acres of red clover. Many other cases
of a similar nature were reported or observed by us.’’ Dr, E. D.
Sanderson (1900g) reports the occurrence of a plant-louse, presumably
this species, which occurred in injurious numbers on crimson clover
as early as 1890. In the same paper Sanderson says: —
One of our best farmers, Mr. Frank Bancroft, of Camden, Del., tells me that he has
seen what he judges to be the same louse on crimson clover for at least six or seven
years [that is, about as early as 1893].
In 1900 Prof. F. M. Webster (1900) observed this insect in abun-
dance on red clover at Wooster, Ohio. Dr. J. W. Folsom (1909)
reports injury to red clover in the following words:
In 1903 the louse killed an immense amount of red clover and weakened much more
in Dekalb County [Illinois]. * * * J found on the farm of Mr. A. E. Myers, at
Millbrook, August 19, 80 acres of dead clover roots in one field. Not one root in a
thousand showed any signs of life, and on the ground were thousands of the cast skins
of the aphid. At cutting the lice had been such a nuisance that the men objected to
handling the crop. After cutting the clover never revived. In neighboring fields
THER PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 7
there were many bare spots where the aphid had killed the clover locally, and in the
growing clover were many centers of new infestation, due doubtless to migrant winged
females. All of the clover in that part of the country was more or less injured; not
only old clover but also the first-year growth. Returning to the same region the fol-
lowing summer to see the consequences of the injury, I did not stay long, for it was
hard to find a field of clover anywhere. The farmers reported that the clover had
been “winter killed,”’ to their surprise, since the winter had not been a severe one
and the clover had often survived worse winters.
Mr. Harold Morrison (1912), discussing the abundance of this insect
in Indiana, says:
Two years ago [1910] it was so common in-many clover fields near the city [Indian-
apolis] that the clover remained on the ground for more than a week after cutting
without showing signs of curing. The clover stems were so plastered with honeydew.
that the moisture could not evaporate from them.
We have seen clover fields in Indiana so badly infested that the
plants would be covered with the so-called “honeydew,” a sticky,
sweetish fluid ejected by the aphis from the anus. Walking through
such an infested field, oné’s trousers would appear green, so thickly
would they be covered by the plant-lice, and ruined by the honeydew
which covered the plants. While it is seldom that fields are killed
outright as described by Dr. Folsom, there can be no doubt that the
heavy infestations, which are so common, have a decided weakening
effect on the plant and much of the winter killing of clover can be
traced back to the depredations of the pea aphis. Most probably
much damage to clover has been overlooked or attributed to other
causes, for while a crop may be injured on large field crops such as
clover the injury will be overlooked unless the field is almost killed
outright, and subsequent effects, such as the weakening of the vitality
of the plants, is too often attributed to ‘‘winter killing,” as Dr. Folsom
has pointed out. Especially may this species be a very dangerous
clover pest if the weather conditions are favorable to aphides and a
long dry spell retards the growth of the clover.
CHARACTER OF ATTACK.
This aphidid prefers the young tender leaves and stems of its host,
but eventually it covers the entire plant. Garden and sweet peas,
being succulent plants, are seriously attacked and readily succumb
to the depredations of the aphides. Clover, particularly red clover,
on the other hand, is able to withstand considerable injury, but, as
has been noted, even this plant is not free from serious damage; in
fact entire fields of clover are sometimes destroyed.
EFFECTS ON CATTLE OF FEEDING THEM INFESTED CLOVER.
We have no definite reports of injury to cattle by feeding clover
hay which has been heavily infested with aphidids; indeed, we have
been informed by cattle feeders that such clover, which has a slightly
8 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
sweetish taste because of the honeydew covering it, is rather relished
by cattle. Mr. Lawson Caesar (1911) reports that feeding cattle
with infested vines was supposed by one farmer to be the cause of
the death of some of his cattle, but there seems to be no proof and the
conclusions were probably incorrect.
DISTRIBUTION AND ORIGIN.
As will be seen on the accompanying map (fig. 1), this aphidid is
generally distributed over the United States and southern Canada,
especially in the eastern half, where it is more or less destructive
every year. It is likewise generally distributed throughout Europe.
Theobald (12) reports this species from Natal, South Africa, and Dr.
B. Das (Gn litt.) has found it plentiful in British India.
r
Fia. 1.—Map showing the known distribution of the pea aphis ( Macrosiphum pisi) in America. (Original.)
As an injurious species it occurred first in America along the At-
lantic coast. The following year (1900) it was very destructive in
Wisconsin and Michigan, and has since worked its way westward
to the Pacific coast. Recently Mr. F. C. Bishopp has sent in speci-
mens from Texas, where it seems to have gained a strong foothold.!
The fact that M. pisi was first observed in this country within
comparatively recent years and was first apparent in destructive
1 Mr. Bishopp has kindly given the writer permission to quote his letter accompanying the specimens,
under date of Aug. 4, 1914, which reads as follows:
The pea aphis was observed to be doing damage to English peas (garden peas) in experimental pas just
east of Dallas, shortly after the middle of May (1914). The peas began blooming about April 30. On
May 26 the growth of the peas was practically stopped and many vines turned yellow on account of the
exceedinzly heavy infestation of anhides. On May 81 practically all of the pea vines were dead without
having produced a single pod. During the first three wee<s of June, lady beetles, Ms Hippodamia
convergens, Were observed to be destroying the aphides in great numbers, and a few of the pea vines were
almost cleared of the ‘‘lice’’ and started to grow a little; however, they never made any fruit.
Mr. Bishopp further stated that the sweet peas and garden peas throughout the city of Dallas were prac-
tically destroyed.
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 9
numbers only 15 years ago is evidence that it is of exotic origin,
but further evidence of the fact that it is an introduced species
may be obtained by a study of the origin of its host plants.
Hither the sexual forms or eggs of pist have been found on
alfalfa (Medicago sata), M. falcata, red clover (Trifolium pratense),
everlasting pea (Lathyrus sylvestris), Lathyrus angustifolius, and
L. latifolius. All of these, according to De Candolle,’ originated in
Europe, Asia, or northern Africa; indeed, all of the known cultivated
hosts of pisi had their origin in one or the other of these continents,
and from what can be learned from other writers the uncultivated
host plants as well are of exotic origin. Very probably the original
host of pist was one of the perennials, either Medicago sativa or
Trifolium pratense, or perhaps Onobrychis sativa, if the aphis occur-
ring on this plant should prove to be pisi. Of these three hosts
M. sativa is supposed to be the oldest in cultivation, for, according
to De Candolle, it has been cultivated for more than 2,000 years,
while the other two have been in cultivation less than 2,000 years.
From the fact that JM. satiwa is not universally and commonly at-
tacked by pisi, while T. pratense is, we can with reasonable certainty
assume that the latter was the original host of this legume aphidid.
De Candolle has shown us that 7. pratense is a native of Europe,
Algeria, and western temperate Asia, while M. sativa is a native of
western temperate Asia, and Onobrychis sativa originated in temperate
Europe, south of the Caucasus. Speaking further of red clover he
says:” “Trifolium pratense is wild throughout Europe, in Algeria, on
the mountains of Anatolia, in Armenia, and in Turkestan, in Siberia
toward the Altai Mountains, and in Kashmir and the Garhwal.’’
Of alfalfa he says (p. 103): “It has been found wild, with every
appearance of an indigenous plant, in several provinces of Anatolia,
to the south of the Caucasus, in several parts of Persia, in Afghanistan,
in Beluchistan, and in Kashmir.”
From these we may assume with a fair degree of accuracy that
Macrosiphum pisi originated in Europe or Asia, most probably in
western temperate Asia or southeastern Europe.
FOOD PLANTS.
The pea aphis commonly feeds on the clovers—especially red and
crimson clover—garden, grass, Canadian field, and sweet peas, vetch,
and, as will be seen later, not infrequently on alfalfa. Shepherd’s-
purse (Bursa bursa-pastoris) has been repeatedly mentioned as a
host, but experiments conducted by Mr. E. H. Gibson of the cereal
and forage crop insect investigations, and our own tests, have given
negative results. Further the writer has examined a number of
different collections of Macrosiphum from this host, invariably
1Candolle, Alphonse de, Origin of Cultivated Plants, p. 468. London, 1884. 2 Loe. cit., p. 105.
98034°—Bull. 276—15 2
10 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
labeled Jf. pist or its equivalent, and in no case has the true pisi
been found. On the other hand, Dr. Edith M. Patch had no diffi-
culty in getting this insect to live contentedly on shepherd’s-purse.
Theobald (11) lists shepherd’s-purse (Bursa bursa-pastoris) as a
host, but later in his paper says: “Colonies now and then occur on
the shepherd’s-purse, but I have never known them to survive any
length of time.” The species reported for lettuce as M. pisi or a
variety of that species by Sanderson and others is an entirely different
plant-louse. Doubtless the species collected on nettle (Urtica) and
referred to this species by Oestlund is something else, and the same
can be said of the records of this aphidid from beet.
In 1900 Dr. Chittenden reported tests made by Mr. Theodore
Pergande to colonize this insect on the following hosts, but with
negative results in each case: Sonchus asper, dandelion, shepherd’s-
purse, Sisymbrium officinale, and dock,
Dr. Edith M. Patch (1911) has reported a series of insectary host-
plant tests for I. pisi, which may be briefly summarized as follows:
Transfers from peas (Pisum sativum) to potato (Solanum tuberosum),
to barley, wheat, oats, purslane (Portulaca oleracea), beets, and
squash were wholly negative; from peas to red clover partially -
positive, and from peas to shepherd’s-purse (Bursa bursa-pastoris)
positive.
During the late summer of 1911 Mr. C. W. Creel, of this bureau,
and the writer conducted a number of transfer experiments, with
the following results: From red clover to cowpeas, cultivated buck-
wheat, wild buckwheat (Tiniaria cristata), wild morning-glory (Con-
volvulus arvensis), fleabane (Leptilon canadense), pepper-grass (Lepi-
dium sp.), wheat, alfalfa, yellow sweet clover (Ielilotus officinalis),
and cinquefoil (Potentilla sp.), the results were negative; from red
clover to soy beans were partially positive and indicated that the
insect might survive and reproduce on young tender plants; from
red clover to red clover, garden peas, and white sweet clover (Jfeli-
lotus alba) the insect transferred readily and fed and reproduced con-
tentedly. In Chicago, Ill., we found it breeding very abundantly on
tender succulent shoots of Melilotus alba growimg under greenhouse
benches.
Theobald (12) attempted to colonize the species on willow, rasp-
berry, clematis, clover, and Lathyrus, but was successful with only
the two last-named plants.
Mr. C. E. Sanborn (1904) reports this aphidid from rose, but in a
recent letter he writes: “‘ Macrosiphum pisi has been correctly
recorded as being taken on rose. I doubt, however, if rose should
be considered as a regular food plant of this imsect.’’ We have
repeatedly attempted to colonize pisi on rose, but without success,
and there seems to be no reasonable question but that the specimen
collected by Sanborn on rose was a stray migrant.
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 11
Mr. D. T. Fullaway (1910) reports having taken J. trifolii Perg.
(=pisv) on Sonchus oleraceus in. Hawau, but an examination of the
specimens through the kindness of Mr. Fullaway shows them to be
something other than pist. We have also had the privilege of
examining the specimens collected and recorded by Mr. W. M.
Davidson (1909) as J. pisi on Urtica holosericea, and they prove to
be of another species.
We have a number of individual office records reporting J. pisi
on alfalfa. Among these, specimens for which were examined by
the writer, are the following: Mr. C. N. Ainslie collected it on this
host at Prairie Grove, Ark., March 21, 1907, all stages being found.
An examination of this material shows a mixture of Jf. pisi and M.
creel, although the former species predominates. Mr. Ainslie also
collected this aphidid at Arlington, Va., April 6, 1908, on alfalfa.
Mr. V. L. Wildermuth collected it on alfalfa at Holtville, Cal., April
17, 1912, and at Muirkirk, Md., April 28, 1909. At the latter place
the infested alfalfa had a wilted appearance, and because of their
abundance this injury was supposed to be caused by the plant-lice.
Probably the most noteworthy example of pisi occurring on alfalfa
was recorded by Mr. J. A. Hyslop, who, on November 12, 1912,
observed these aphides swarming in an alfalfa field near Funkstown,
Md. At this time very few viviparous forms were observed; the
males and oviparous females predominated, and a few days later
the black shiny eggs were found abundant on the alfalfa leaves. In
this same field Mr. Hyslop observed the aphides abundant in May
(1913), but in August not a single dividual was found. Further
observations were made in this field by Mr. C. M. Packard in October
(1913), at which time the aphides were again abundant. Mr. J. T.
Monell bas determined as this species plant-lice collected on alfalfa
at Wellington, Kans., May 4 to July 30, 1909, by Mr. E. O. G. Kelly.
In all cases where this aphidid occurred on alfalfa it was found on
the young terminal buds and leaves.
The following is a list of the authentic hosts of Jf. pisi as recorded
in America. Although shepherd’s-purse is retained as a host of this
plant-louse, we have never seen specimens of this species collected
on that plant. Shepherd’s-purse (Bursa bursa-pastoris), lentil
(Hrvum sp.), sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus), grass pea (L. satwus),
alfalfa (Medicago sativa), white sweet clover (Melilotus alba),
garden pea and field pea (Piswm satiwwum), crimson clover (Trifolium
incarnatum), red clover (7. pratense), white clover (7. repens),
vetches or tares (Vicia ludoviciana, V. gigantea, V. villosa, et al.).
The following reliable hosts have been recorded by European
writers. Many of the recorded hosts, such as Geum, Ulmaria, etc.,
are certainly incorrect, while others are highly improbable, and as
they have not been corroborated since the correct identity of pisi
has been understood, they are not here included: Shepherd’s-purse
12 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
(Bursa bursa-pastoris), Chaerophyllum sylvestre, C. temulum, lentil
(Ervum), Lathyrus angustifolius, sweet pea (L. odoratus), L. latifolius,
L. pratensis, flat pea (L. sylvestris), Medicago falcata, alfalfa or lucern
(M. sativa), Onobrychis sp. (4), Ononis repens et spp. (2), garden pea
and field pea (P. sativum), Trifolium filiforme, alsike clover (T.
hybridum), red clover (T. pratense), white clover (7. repens), vetch
(Vicia cracca, V. sativa, V. sepium).
Dr. B. Das, of the Government college at Lahore, India, writes
(in litt.) under date of December 18, 1913, as follows:
I have collected it [/. pisi] from Bengal, Behar, United Provinces, and the Punjab.
Though not actually collected by myself, I believe it is present in other parts of
India as well. What looked like a bad attack on a few plants was observed once
on that beautiful flower known as ‘“‘Glory flower” or ‘‘Parrot’s beak” (Clianthus
dampieri). The hosts of this species, so far known to me besides the above are:
Alhagi maurorum, Melilotus alba, Medicago sativa, M. falcata, Lathyrus odoratus (rather
bad once in Behar), Peganum harmala, and Dolichos lablab.
DESCRIPTION.
STEM-MOTHER.
Young hatching from egg, before first molt and not over 24 hours old.—
Body a very pale pea green and dorsum entirely covered with a fine
and uniform whitish pulverulence which gives the insect a terre verte
color. Head with a dusky patch on each side of the dorsal median
line, which is, however, indistinct with the pulverulent covering.
Eyes black. Antenne four-segmented and blackish green, the last
segment apparently black.. Legs blackish green, the distal four-fifths
of the hind tibiz covered with a bloom giving them a whitish appear-
ance and as if covered with a mold. Cornicles blackish green, slightly
paler at the base and a black ring marking the rim of the opening at
apex. Cauda not visible.
Measurements of a single individual, made immediately after
mounting in balsam and before shrinkage occurs: Length of body,
0.956 mm., width, 0.487; length of cornicles, 0.0695 mm., width,
0.037; antenne (the two antenne measured exactly alike), segment
I, 0.052 mm.; segment II, 0.043; III, 0.191; IV, base, 0.078; IV,
filament, 0.178; total length, 0.542 mm.
Wingless adult (fig. 2).—(Described from four specimens, Apr. 24,
1913.) Body color pale green, the abdomen bearing several dark
reddish dots which are the eyes of the embryos within her body.
The dorsal and ventral surfaces show a distinct reticulation in living
individuals, head bearing a faint pulverulence. Eyes dark red.
Antenne more than two-thirds the length of the body but not reach-
ing to the base of cornicles; segments I and II concolorous with head
and semitranslucent, the remaining segments semitransparent with
a faint brownish green tint, excepting the tips of III and IV, distal
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 13
fourth of V, distal half of VI, base and all of filament of VI, which
parts are black; segment IIT sometimes, but not always, bearing a
small inconspicuous sensorium near its base and the usual sensoria
at distal end of V and VI
base. Beak just reaching
coxee of second pair of legs.
Legs with femur very pale
green and semitranspar-
ent; tibia with basal half
pale semitransparent, the
distal half with a faint
brownish tint and the tip
black; tarsus black. Cor-
niclesreaching tip of cauda
(of the four specimens ex-
amined the cornicles
reached a little beyond the
tip of cauda in three speci-
mens and not quite to the
tipin thefourth specimen),
concolorous with body at
base, becoming paler and
semitr ansparent toward Fic. 2.— Macrosiphum isi: Adult stem-mother. Much en-
the apex, the tip blackish; aoa Ween
cylindrical and slender; noticeably widened at base and the tip imbri-
cated. Cauda ensiform and typical of the genus, and concolorous
with body.
Measurements from two specimens immediately after placing alive
in balsam and before shrinkage occurs: Length of body, 2.63 mm., to
tip of cauda, 3, width, 1.45; length of cornicles, 0.74 mm., of cauda,
0.44. Measurements of antennal segments:
ee = VI, fila-
I. 10%, II. IV. Wie VI, base. ree
Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm.
0. 156 0. 069 0. 695 0.348 0. 469 0. 235 0.522
. 156 - 078 - 695 - 348 452 - 243 - 539 °
. 139 078 - 626 . 287 - 400 - 209 . 469
. 139 - O87 . 634 . 296 _ 400 - 209 - 469
SUMMER VIVIPAROUS GENERATION.
First instar, before first molt and about 1 hour old (fig. 3).—(Described
from six specimens, Aug. 20-21, 1912.) Head and thoracic segments
whitish with a pale greenish tint; remainder of body pale green
excepting those segments posterior to and including the segment
14 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
bearing the cornicles, which are cf a decided bright yellow tint.
Antenne five-segmented, reaching a little beyond tip of body, seg-
ments I and IJ concolorous with head or paler, the
remaining segments whitish semitransparent with
the tips of III, IV, and basal part of V dusky.
Eyes bright red. Legs concolorous with antenne,
excepting tarsus which is dusky. Cornicles con-
colorous with antenne the tip dusky, slightly nar-
Fic. 3—Macrosiphum rowed at tip, and reaching beyond tip of abdomen.
pisi: First instar of vi- Style not visible
viparous generaticn. Ae se ; i i
Much enlarged. (Orig Measurements from two specimens, immediately
ee) after placing in balsam and before shrinkage oc-
curs: Length of body, 0.91 mm., width, 0.40; length of cornicles, 0.139
mm. Measurements of antennal segments:
Ite lie TE. EV. V base. | V filament.
Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm.
0.06 0.05 0.19 0.18 0. 087 0.39
a07. OD . 208 - 208 . 094 45
07 05 - 208 . 208 - 100 45
B07 05 . 208 . 208 - 100 45
Second instar, cfter first molt and 50 to'60 hours old.—( Described from
four specimens, Aug. 19-22, 1912.) Entire body pale green; eyes
red; antennz reaching a little beyond tip of abdomen; segments I
and II pale green and somewhat transparent; III, IV, and base of V
pale, semitransparent, with the tips dusky; filament of VI blackish;
segment III sometimes with a dusky ring near middle, but not con-
stricted. Beak reaching coxe of second pair of legs. Legs with
femur very pale green, the tip dusky, tibia pale, becoming dusky
toward tip, the tip blackish, and tarsus black. Cornicles pale, semi-
transparent, becoming pale dusky near apex, the extreme tip black.
Cauda concolorous with body.
Measurements from two specimens, immediately after placing in
balsam and before shrinkage occurs: Length of body, 1.16 mm., width,
0.53; length of cornicles, 0.25 mm. Measurements of antennal
segments:
| Ts | I. | Til. | IV. | V base. | V filament.
| Mm. Mim. Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm,
0.104 0. 060 0.348 0. 261 0.129 0. 765
095 069 330 . 270 . 139 . 608
. 104 060 348 . 270 . 139 600
. 095 . 060 348 E278 . 139 . 608
Third instar, after second molt and 75 to 97 hours old.—(Described
from three specimens, Aug. 20-23, 1912.) Body pale green, the ante-
rior portion, including head, slightly paler or yellowish green; some
THE PHA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 105)
specimens pale yellow-green at posterior end, becoming whitish green
toward anterior end. Eyes maroon red. Antenne a little longer
than body; 6-segmented; segment I pale green; II pale green, with
a fait brownish tint; III, IV, and V pale, sometimes with a faint
brownish tint, and the tips dusky to blackish; base of VI pale brown-
ish to dusky, becoming blackish at the tip; filament of VI blackish.
Beak reaching to coxe of second pair of legs. Legs with femur pale
greenish yellow to greenish, the apex sometimes pale brownish, tibia
pale with a slight duskiness and the tip blackish, tarsus black.
Cornicles reaching just to or a little beyond tip of cauda. Cornicles
pale green to yellowish green at base, becoming pale dusky toward
apex, the extreme tip black. Cauda concolorous with body. Cor-
nicles, cauda, and antennz usuaily semitransparent.
Measurements from one specimen, immediately after placing in
balsam and before shrinkage occurs: Length of body, including
cauda, 1.70 mm, width, 0.64; length of cornicle, 0.40 mm. Measure-
ments of antennal segments:
| | |
r | r , | VI
ie | mye | Te | IV. | Vv. VI base. ‘siaaGiny?.
|
Mm. Mm. | Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm.
0.12 0.07 0.278 0.278 0.370 0.174 0.73
oll 07 . 268 - 295 - 382 silbyry/ 7183
|
Fourth instar, after third molt and between 127 and 128 hours old.—
(Described from two specimens, Aug. 19-24, 1912.) Body pale green,
sometimes with an indistinct yellowish area at the base of each cor-
nicle, the head and thoracic segments sparsely covered with a whitish
pulverulence which gives them a paler green color. Eyes maroon red.
' Antenne reaching beyond tip of cauda; segment I concolorous with
head, II concolorous with head or with a faint brownish tint; ITI, IV,
V, and base of VI pale brownish green, with the tips blackish; fila-
ment of VI blackish. Legs with femur pale green at base, becoming
faintly dusky toward apex, tibia pale brownish with tip blackish,
tarsus black. Cornicles reaching a little beyond tip of cauda, pale
green with the tip blackish. Cauda concolorous with body.
Measurements from one specimen, immediately after placing in
balsam and before shrinkage occurs: Length of body, 2 mm., length
meluding cauda, 2.25, width, 0.92; length of cornicles, 0.61 mm.;
length of cauda, 0.25 mm. Measurements of antennal segments:
! z VI
ie le Til. IV. We VI base. ibseataye.
Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm.
0.15 0.07 0. 487 0. 469 0.504 0. 208 0. 887
ely 07 - 504 ~ 452 - 504 - 208 - 887
16 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Adult wingless viviparous female.—(Described from four specimens
reared on red clover, Aug. 18-22, 1912.) (ig. 4.) Entire body pale
oradually blackening toward tip; VI dark brown to black; segment
green, the anterior part, including head and usually the first and sec-
ond thoracic segments, asarule
paler. The red eyes of the
embryos within the body are
almost always visible through
the dorsal body wall. As seen
through the binocular the liy-
ing individual appears slightly
roughened and_ reticulated.
Eyes dark reddish brown.
Antenne (fig. 4, @) on prom-
inent tubercles; reaching be-
yond tip of cauda; filament of
segment VI thelongest, it being
noticeably longer than III;
segments I and IT concolorous
with head; III and IV dusky
Fig. 4.—Macrosiphum pisi: Adult wingless female of
viviparous generation, much enlarged; a,antenna, and
b, cornicle, of same, more enlarged. (Origina!.)
greenish to pale brownish, with the
tips blackish; V darker, gradually
blackening toward tip; Vi dark brown
to black; segment III with one or
two, and sometimes three, circular
sensoria near the base; segments V
and base of VI with the usual distal
sensoria; hairs short and sparse.
Beak reaching to coxe of second pair
of legs. Legs long and slender, mod-
erately hairy; femur pale green with a
slight brownish tint toward apex,
joint of femur and tibia dusky ; tibia ia. 5 Ach chyna sateen ee
pale green, with a slight brownish generation. Much enlarged. (Original.)
tint, and the tip blackish; tarsus
black. Cornicles long and slender, broadest at base, tip imbricated
and no sign of reticulation, just reaching to tip of cauda, pale green
at base, paler or with a faint brownish tint toward apex, the
extreme tip black. Cauda concolorous with body, ensiform, and
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE. CROPS. 1g
typical of the genus; more than half as long as the cornicles, bearing
a number of moderately long hairs.
Measurements (averages) from three specimens, taken immediately
after placing in balsam and before shrinkage occurs: Length of body,
2.67 mm., length to tip of cauda, 3.22; width, 1.24; cornicles, 0.98
mm.; cauda, 0.59 mm. Measurements of antennal segments:
ity II. It. IV. Vi VEE base: |) 1.01
Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm.
0.191 0. 087 0.904 0.713 0. 713 0. 261 1.180
. 191 . 087 . 930 . 730 6 (A133 . 261 1.026
.191 - O87 817 .678 - 696 . 261 1.026
191 . O87 . 800 .678 . 626 . 235 974
-191 . 087 . 887 . 696 .678 - 261 A
.174 . O87 . 870 . 696 - 696 . 261 1.026
Pupa (fourth instar) (fig. 5)—(Described from three specimens,
Aug. 22,1912). Entire dorsum pale green, sometimes with a delicate
white pulverulence. Wing pads pale greenish with faint brownish
border, the tips darker brown. Underside of body with a distinct
white pulverulence. Eyes maroon red. Antenne with segments I
and II concolorous with head; ITI, IV, and V pale with slight brownish
tint and tips blackish; VI entirely blackish. Beak not reaching
coxee of second pair of legs. Legs with femur pale green, tibia pale
with slight brownish tint and blackish at the tip, tarsus black.
Cornicles pale green at: base, becoming whitish with a faint duski-
ness, the tips black; cauda concolorous with body.
Measurements (average) from three specimens, immediately after
placing in balsam and before shrinkage occurs: Length of body, 2.94
mm., width, 1.19; length of cornicles, 0.63 mm. Measurements of
antennal segments:
i TI. IV. Vv. sya baser| ioe
Mm Mm Mm. Mm Mm Mm
0.078 0.556 0. 495 0.539 0.209 0. 834
078 539 487 1548 209 $52
069 487 469 1513 209 808
078 461 443 487 209 817
078 539 522 539 209 300
078 556 513 1565 200 887
Winged viviparous female (fig. 6).—(Described from three specimens
reared on red clover, Aug. 22 and Dec. 11, 1912.) Head pale yellow-
green, thoracic shield shining yellow-green, other parts of thorax
concolorous with the head, and abdomen pale green with the eyes
of the embryos showing through the skin of the dorsum as in the case
of the adult wingless female. Eyes bright red. Antenne (fig. 6, a)
placed on large frontal tubercles, and reaching beyond tip of cauda;
98034°—Bull. 276—15——3
18 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
filament of segment VI longest, it being noticeably longer than IIT;
segments I and II of a darker green color than body, III with the
extreme base pale, the remainder of that segment brownish with the
extreme tip black; IV pale brown at base gradually changing to
blackish brown toward the apex, the extreme tip black; V and VI
blackish to black, bearmg a moderate number of rather short, fine
hairs; segment III with 11 to 22 (one apparently abnormal specimen
had but 9 and 10 sensoria, respectively, on its two antennez), with an
average of 15.5 for 36 examples examined, circular sensoria arranged
in a row but not extending quite to the tip, the distal one-fifth of the
segment bare, the usual distal sensoria on V and base of VI. Beak
Fia. 6.— Macrosiphum pisi: Winged female of viviparous generation, much enlarged; @, antenna, b, cornicle,
and c, cauda, of same, more enlarged. (Orizginal.)
not quite reaching coxe of second pair of legs. Wings clear, veins
slender and brownish, the second branch of the media varying some-
what but usually about equidistant from tip of wing to the point
where the media first branches; hind wings with normal venation.
Legs long and slender; femur pale green on basal half, becoming
dusky to blackish toward tip; tibia pale greenish with a faint brownish
tint and the apex black; tarsus black. Cornicles (fig. 6, b) long and
slender, reaching beyond tip of cauda, widest at the base, basal third
concolorous with the abdomen, remainder dusky and the extreme
tip black, imbricated, and no sign of reticulation at the tip. Cauda
concolorous with the abdomen.
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 19
Measurements (average) from three specimens, immediately after
placing in balsam and before shrinkage occurs: Length of body,
2.79 mm., to tip of cauda, 3.18., width, 1.11; length of wings, 3.51
mm., width, 1.16; length of cornicles, 0.84 mm.; length of cauda,
0.46 mm.; length of hind tibia, 2.32 mm. Measurements of antennal
segments:
it I. III. IV. Vv. VI, base. | VI; fila-
ment.
Mm. Mm, Mm. Mm. | Mm.
0.826 0.721 0.748 0.304 1.095
me o817 730 748 296 1.061
1. 006 . 716 . 735 -329 1.006
1.006 -677 BBO -310 . 987
. 968 . 658 - 658 -310 - 968
1.045 . 658 .677 LOOM | eee eee
SEXUAL FORMS.
Winged male (fig. 7).—(Described from two specimens, Dee. 4,
1912.) Head and prothoracic segment gamboge with a dusky to
a
—
Fic. 7.— Macrosiphum pisi: Winged male, much enlarged; ¢, antenna of same, more enlarged. (Original.)
brownish longitudinal median dorsal marking which does not extend
quite to tip of head. Thoracic shield brownish with interstices con-
colorous with head. Abdomen pale green with pale dusky markings
as shown in the illustration (fig. 7) and the segments posterior to the
cornicles pale yellowish green. Eyes very dark red, almost black.
Antenne (fig. 7, @) noticeably longer than body; filament of VI longer
than III; entire antenna blackish excepting segments I and II and
20 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
small area at base of III, which are pale dusky; sparsely covered with
delicate, inconspicuous hairs; segment III bearing 40 to 50 irregu-
larly placed circular sensoria, IV bare, .V with 10 to 15 circular sen-
soria, not including the usual distal one, more or less in a row but
more thickly placed toward the apex; base of VI with the usual distal
ones. Beak whitish yellow, the tip black; reaching beyond the coxee
of the first pair of legs but not to the middle coxe. Wings as in the
viviparous female. Legs long and slender, the femur pale yellowish
to yellowish green, becoming blackish on the distal third, tibia pale
brown and the tip black, tarsus black. Cornicles as in viviparous
forms, pale with a shght duskiness and the tip blackish. Cauda
ensiform and bearing moderately long hairs as in other forms, and
pale dusky to dusky in color.
Measurements of body dimensicns not made from living specimens
and mounted individuals are slightly shriveled. The male is con-
siderably smaller than the viviparous female. Measurements from
specimens mounted in balsam except as noted: Length of body, 1.4
mm., to tip of cauda, 1.55, width, 0.52; length of wing, 2.87 mm.,
width, 1.04; length of cornicle, 0.38 mm.; length of cauda, 0.20 mm.
Measurements of antennal segments:
r 7 VI fila-
1 If. III. LViz Vi VI base. merit!
Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. * Mm. Mm. Mm.
0. 156 0.069 0.696 0.539 0. 626 0.217 10. 852
. 156 - 069 - 696 547 - 609 243 11.008
~ 148 - 069 . 626 - 435 - 504 217 2.852
- 148 - 069 . 626 - 400 2495 -191 2.800
- 139 PU] 0} Jian (ee a ieee - 4385 - 469 .174 e
1 Measured immediately after placing in balsam.
2 Specimens killed in 70 per cent alcohol, mounted in balsam the following day, and measured immedi-
ately afterwards.
Wingless male (fig. 8).—(Described from two specimens, one
observed in copula, October 18,1911.) Head dusky brown, thoracic
segments and first abdominal segment pale yellowish; remainder of
abdomen pale green with dusky markings as follows: One spot on
each side, dorsolateral in position, on the thoracic segments and the
first five or six abdominal segments, those on the first two thoracic
segments very faint, the others gradually larger, those on the first
three abdominal segments being transverse markings rather than
simple dots, and the markings on the following abdominal segments,
dots or small circular spots. Antenne situated on prominent
frontal tubercles; much longer than the body; sparsely hairy; fila-
ment of segment VI longer than III; I and Il dusky brown to black-
ish; IIT black, excepting paler extreme base; TV dark brownish and
black at tip; V black, excepting a small portion at the base which is
brownish, and VI black; segment III bearing 47 to 57 irregularly
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. A
placed circular sensoria; IV bare; V with 14 to 18 circular ones, not
including the usual distal sensorium, in a row on the distal two-
thirds; base of VI with the usual ones. Beak reaching about to
coxe of second pair of legs. Legs long and slender, the femur
blackish except-
ing basal third,
which is_ pale;
tibia pale brown
except tip, which
is black, and the
tarsus black.
Cornicles as in
winged male,
pale at base, be-
coming faintly
dusky toward
the tip; the apex
black. Cauda
pale green and
agreeing with
that of the
winged male. Fig. 8.— Macrosiphum pisi: Wingless male, much enlarged; a, antenna of
Nesettremonts same, more enlarged. (Original.)
(averages) from two specimens mounted in balsam, bodies slightly
shriveled: Length of body, 1.55 mm., to tip of cauda, 1.72, width,
0.58; length of cornicles, 0.57 mm.; length of cauda, 0.26 mm.
Measurements of antennal segments:
- = VI fila-
Te 10 Tit. IV. We VI base. monia
Mm Mm Mm Mm. Mm Mm Mm
0. 156 0. 087 0.817 0. 713 0. 748 0. 252 1. 061
156 087 852 .678 730 261 1.009
156 087 817 - 651 748 269 991
- 156 087 817 . 661 739 243 1.043
Wingless oviparous female (fig. 9).—(Described from two speci-
mens, December 12,1912.) General color pale pea green or even
yellowish green, the head paler and the abdomen posterior to the
cornicles with a yellowish tint in some individuals. The eggs within
the body often show through the dorsal abdominal wall. Eyes dark
red. Antenne placed on prominent frontal tubercles; reaching to
or a little beyond tip of body; very sparsely hairy; filament of seg-
ment VI longest; sensoria usually as in the wingless viviparous
female, that is, only 1 or 2 sensoria at the base of segment III, but
we have found exceptions where segment III bore as many as 10
sensoria in a row; segments | and II pale green or yellowish green,
22 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the remaining segments pale with a faint greenish tint and the tips
of III, IV, V, and all the base of VI dusky and filament of VI black.
Legs pale green, the tips of tibia and all of the tarsus blackish, basal
two-thirds to three-fourths noticeably swollen and bearing numerous
small circular sensoria (fig. 95); cornicles as in other forms, just
reaching to tip of cauda, pale with slight greenish tint and the
tip dusky to blackish. Cauda pale green or yellowish. Measure-
Fic. 9.— Macrosiphum isi: Oviparous female, much enlarged; a, antenna, and 4, hind tibia, of same,
more enlarged. (Original.)
ments taken immediately after mounting: Length of body, 1.82 mm.
(Another individual, apparently unfertilized, but with abdomen
abnormally distended with eggs, measured 2.21 mm. in length and
1.28 mm. in width.) Length of body to tip of cauda, 1.97 mm.,
width, 0.93; cornicles, 0.46 mm.; cauda, 0.21 mm. Measurements
of antennal segments:
vy
2 = oe a VT fila-
11. sD Lo Lvs Vv. | VI base. Tents
= | fe is
Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm.
0.139 0.078 0. 487 0.348 0.391 0. 209 0. 661
.139 . 078 . 494 - 348 - 400 . 209 . 643
. 139 - 078 . 696 - 435 .522 . 234 - S17
- 156 . 069 . 748 - 435 sue - 252 . 800
Eqg.—The egg is pale to bluish green and shining when first laid,
gradually changing to jet black. It is elliptical oval, and measures
0.75 to 0.80 mm. in length and 0.35 to 0.40 mm. in width.
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 23
Sexupare.—What we have supposed to be wingless sexupare,
that is, viviparous females which give birth to the sexual forms,
differ from the summer wingless viviparous females only by a larger
number of sensoria borne on antennal segment III. There is no
positive assurance that these are sexupare but all of our mounted
specimens showing this character were collected in September or
later. Likewise, wingless viviparous females, collected in Russia dur-
ing September by Dr. A. Mordwilko and sent us by Dr. N. Cholod-
kovsky, bear a similar number of sensoria. Six antenne of speci-
mens collected at La Fayette, Ind., in October bear 10, 7, 8, 9, 13,
and 16 sensoria, respectively, on segment III, and eight antennex of
specimens collected in Russia in September bear 21, 22, 14, 7, 9, 9,
9, and 10 sensoria respectively, on segment IIT.
Aberrant form.—In the fall it is not uncommon to find a form
which has the hind tibia swollen and bearing numerous sensoria, a
character of the oviparous female, but instead of eggs the body often
contains living young.
DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON TYPE OF TRIFOLHL PERG.
The type slide of M. trifolii Perg. which we examined September
5, 1911, bears the following data on label: ‘7205 (Nectarophora)
Macrosiphum trifolii n. sp. Perg. on clover, Charlottesville, Va., Apr.
28, 1900.” There are five winged viviparous females on the slide,
the bodies of which are shrunken. The second branch of the median
vein branches at a distance from the tip of the wing varying from
one-half or less to three-eighths the distance from the tip to where
it first branches, but usually the branching is nearer to the tip than
to the point where the media first branches. Cornicles imbricated
over their entire length but more distinctly near tip; the tip not
reticulated. From the balsam specimens the tips of the cornicles
appear to have been dusky in life, the remainder concolorous with
body. Measurements of the antennal segments, cornicles, and cauda
were taken as follows:
Antenne.
| VI VI
I. I. Ii. IV. Vv. base. filament.
Mm Mm Mim Mm. Mm. Mm Min
0. 156 0. 069 0. 678 0. 556 0.574 0. 243 Broken
- 156 078 609 - 522 539 Broken Broken
156 069 626 - 487 504 209 0. 749
148 069 591 . 487 @ @ (1)
156 069 731 - O74 582 226 801
156 069 757 . 609 609 POP aan Pe rea es
174 078 835 . 661 661 243 836
156 069 870 . 661 661 261 905
156 069 661 - 556 591 209 731
156 069 661 - 596 582 235 818
1 Not measureable.
SSS SS
24 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Antennx—Continued.
Number Number
Cornicles: Cauda. SeEnentle Cornicles. Cauda. Scenene
Il. Ii.
Mm. Mm. Mm. Mm.
0. 556 0.348 13 OF 69007 Sean 12
SOOO le Sarasa Bietetoere 16 - 749 0.383 14
-574 313 12 HAS eee recs eee 12
SOUS S| 2 Sarre coe care 13 - 678 - 400 14
. 697 .417 15 697>:|2-e2steecaees 11
COMPARISON WITH THE EUROPEAN PISI.
After carefully comparing what is commonly known as Macrosi-
phum destructor or M. pisi in America with specimens labeled pisi,
or its equivalent, from Russia, Sweden, England, and Italy, kindly
sent us by Cholodkoysky, Mordwilko, Tullgren, Theobald, and Del
Guercio, respectively, and with the complete descriptions of Mord-
wilko (10) and others, we can find no substantial difference and must
conclude that the species occurring in Europe and America are iden-
tical. Measurements of European specimens of the wingless and
winged viviparous, and wingless oviparous females, all taken from
specimens mounted on slides in balsam, are given in Table I.
TABLE I.— Measurements of European specimens of Macrosiphum pisi Kalt.
WINGLESS VIVIPAROUS FEMALE.
Antenne. Length. | Wings.
= |e
A oF
Labeled— ] os eens
$ | 8 lses| 8 :
& |e e8e}Si¢/¢ei4
Hol eee lod | a [2 Sel |e eee
ee ctentelste sie | Sea poss a4 © ei Spell
Mm.| Mm.| Mm.| Mm.| Mm.| Mm.| Mm. Mm.| Mm.| Mm.| Mm.
Macrosiphum apist Kalt.
Wye, Kent, England, on |\0. 226) 0.122) 1.165) 0.895) 0.817) 0.313) 1.217 74 Coat 748
eas 26-811. F 7 ~226] .122| 1.165) .939|° .835| .304).....- PA 3A Page a PE FOC DD
neo bald we. eee nase
Siphonophora ulmarize
=S. pisi Kalt.) Firenze, ||.....|...... 1.234] 1.009] .835] .278] 1.148 5] 1.130). 243
SLE AL yO ETS ULTTAS eth LLL | feet ope | ee | ey eS a ee 1..130| (0 3 |-= = |e
8-6-1908. G. Del Guercio. |
4
Does. Seed 193), 5104) 4/304) Seren |S. 2) 1-199 rol de
243) .122) 1.330) 1.078] .878 B48) oes 2) 1.338 mex
cede ns aprec eee 226] .122 me 1 we ae 348 11.304 3| ee if 782)------ | ences
Uy Ser a erect 2 2 2 330,11. 304! 4) 1.078
DO... -2002---22-e-e eee VT 1.286] 1.086] .887| .313| 1.338 3) 1 walt 696)......|..-..-
Macrosiphum ulmarize |
(=M. pisi Kalt.). On Pi- . 226) .113! 1.356] 1.069! .878) .330)11. 200 3) 1. 200 800
sum arvense. Sweden. |f .226] .113| 1.373] 1.095] .921)......|...... | 5|2baee \ Pope
ACU Tull erent eebice ne
Siphonophora pisi Kalt.
Pisum sativum, Esth- |\.....]...... 1.130) .939) .869) .304) 1.156) 3] Le2bZ 765
land (Russia). INE ICHo= |ieens| eee 1.208] .948} .869} .330) 1.182 3 1 oe3 fo4 ooo) | So
lodkovskypeenessee cesses
Macrosiphum pisi Kalt. On
Pisum sativum 1/14 VII
709. Gouvern, Pskow, ||-.....|...--- 1.165) .835) .800) .313) 1.043) 3]. 835
Russia. A. Mordwilko. }|f.....|.....- 1.148} .800) .800) .296) 1.043) 2 Bet amie en cae
Received from N. Cho-
lodkovskye- stesso eee |
Do . 226) +. 122) 1.286) 1.078] .965) .313)] 1.321 3 974 733
ea tha See - 209} . 113) 1.252) 1.043 074) 313) 1.286 3 74 | aa
1 Tip shriveled. 2 Me asurements of segments III, IV, and V combined, 3.355 mm.
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 25
TasLe I.— Measurements of European specimens of Macrosiphum pisi Kalt—Contd.
WINGED VIVIPAROUS FEMALE.
Antenne. Length. Wings.
a (ose
Labeled— oe eerie aes
>) Oesnel n
a S loys] 2 G ?
Pea ae Ss lS eS
oe sys || Ss | [wera ESAS ane VR Sad bisa
Hi = as q a > re IZ oO 6) 4 =
x 7 _ Mm.| Mm.| Mm.| Mm.| Mm.| Mm.| Mm. Mm.| Mm.| Mm.) Mm.
acrosiphum pisi alt.
On sweet peas 20-912. |(0.191] 0.113) 1.069) 0.930) 0.843] 0.313] 1.182 29] 0.748 0.5 ) ‘
England. F. V. Theo- |f .191| .113] 1.060] .913| .852| 330) 1.182| 5 “ealt BS ens) ae
alae ee Ek Sy
Macrosiphum ulmariz
(=pisi Kalt). On Pisum 3208)) 113) 1.148] . SON ST eess2t|e 2. 21) .956) P|
arvense. Simodarty is VAN |(a208| 5113] 1113]... .23| eeeal een |iben 21] i904 f 908)------|------
INDIO SHGYOLS SAR Rie Ae oe
Macrosiphum pisi Kalt. On
Pisum sativum, 1/14 VIII
709. Gouvern, Pskow, || .208) .104] 1.061] .913] .817] .313] 1.304 22) 1.008)
Russia. A. Mordwilko. |f 203] .096] 1.078| :965| .817| .330| 1.278] 26 “Dolly ao
Ree’d from N. Cholod-
IKONS ksyiretsiaciscteistiscicersnie
Macrosiphum pisi Kalt. On|
> Q |
Lathyrus sp-, Oct., 1903. |) 1741 .104111.061| 1.095, .904| .330/21.061| 26 7) aaa
4.45) 1.55
Warschau, ussia. A. |
Mordiwalko merece, Giiromai|ipceea|isge es) =>" "|" > * eats | efalminics| cinicia) aia) ci-iieielc
N. Cholodkovsky ..._....
WINGLESS OVIPAROUS FEMALE.
]
Macrosiphum pisi Kalt. On|
SED RUSISDE Cl 1908. 0.191} 0.104) 0.982] 0.721] 0.765] 0.295 1.043) 2 0.713
ensue if .191| :104| 956]. 730| marrselnn 260) 9.0431 | Oli \fen--=|-- eons
N. Cholodkovsky-......-. ¢
Do - 191}. .113) 1.113) .782) .748} .313) 1.061 2
meaty St LOU. ual 1.130} .765| .748) .295) 1.061 yee te
| |
1 Upturned, and measurements only approximate.
In no case, in specimens included in this table, were sensoria present
on antennal segments IV and V, excepting the usual distal one on V;
the cornicles were imbricated throughout, there being no reticulation
at the tips. The hind tibiz of the oviparous females bore numerous
sensoria as is the case with specimens occurring in America. Figure
10, a-d were made from specimens collected by Dr. A. Mordwilko in
Russia and sent us by Dr. N. Cholodkovsky.
We have not had an opportunity to examine specimens of the
wingless or winged males from Europe but our specimens of the
wingless male agree in every particular with the description given
by Mordwilko (10).
98034°—Bull. 276—15——4
26 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
LIFE HISTORY.
The life history of the pea aphis is quite simple, for it does not
have a true alternate host like some species of plant-lice. As has
been noted, it attacks leguminous plants primarily, some of which
are annuals, others perennials. Clovers, particularly red and crimson
clovers, serve as hosts for this insect the entire year, and it is on these
plants that it usually passes the winter, either as eggs or as viviparous
females, although during the summer months the migrants also pass
to other leguminous crops, such as sweet pea, garden and field peas,
and vetches, and on these they multiply very rapidly, oftentimes
destroying large acreages. In the latitude of La Fayette, Ind., the
species winters both as living viviparous females, usually wingless,
and as eggs. Farther north it may winter exclusively in the egg
stage, although our observations are not complete on this point,
Fic. 10.—Macrosiphum pisi from Russia: a, antenna of winged viviparous female; 6, antenna of wingless
viviparous female; c, cornicle of winged viviparous female; d, cornicle of wingless viviparous female.
Greatly enlarged. (Origina!.)
while farther south, in the latitude of Tennessee, the sexual forms
which lay the overwintering eggs are rare, the insect ordinarily pass-
ing the winter as living plant-lice, both wingless and winged forms
being able to withstand the lower temperatures in that latitude.
Still farther south we know only the viviparous females and our obser-
vations lead us to believe that the species may reproduce yviviparously
indefinitely in localities where the winters are quite mild.
FIELD OBSERVATIONS.
In the latitude of Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, and Delaware
migrants from the winter hosts, namely, red clover and crimson
clovers, begin to spread to new fields of clover and to garden peas
about May 1, and the injury to these crops usually becomes notice-
able about June 1, extending up to July. Ordinarily by this time the
parasitic and predacious enemies have become sufficiently numerous
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 27
to control, or at least hold in check, the aphides, and a little later,
usually depending on the climatic conditions, the aphidid fungus
(Empusa aphidis) becomes prevalent, so much so, in fact, that the
plant-lice are often apparently completely exterminated. However,
as the weather conditions become more favorable for the aphis and
less for the fungous disease and the aphidid parasites, the few sur-
vivors are soon able to cover the plants with their progeny, so that
by September we ordinarily find them again abundant on clover and
late garden peas.
Farther north the insect does not seem to appear in injurious num-
bers until later—that is, not until about July. The following records
of injury for 1899 recorded by Dr. Chittenden (1900) illustrate this
statement. ‘The first record was for Gloucester County and Ports-
mouth, Va., on May 17; Maryland, May 23; Newark, Del., June 2;
East Hampton, Conn., July 3; Long Island, N. Y., July 7: Orono,
Me., July 28; Ontario and Nova Scotia, Canada, August 9.
GENERATION EXPERIMENTS.
We have carried on generation experiments with this species
through two years (1912 and 1913) at La Fayette, Ind., and the fol-
lowing notes were made at La Fayette, except as indicated. The
same general methods, as well as the cages and rearing shelters, here-
tofore used by the writer and described and figured in Technical
Series Bulletin No. 25, Part II, of the Bureau of Entomology, have
been adopted. The writer here expresses his appreciation of the
services rendered by Messrs, C. W. Creel and A. F. Satterthwait, both
of the Cereal and Forage Crop Insect Investigations, who attentively
cared for the experiments during the absences of the writer in 1912
and 1913, respectively.
In 1913 eggs began to hatch on March 31 and from that date until
January, 1914, there was obtained, out of doors, a maximum of 19
generations, no sexual forms being produced in the first-born genera-
tion series. On the other hand, following down “ the last-born of the
last-born”’ generation series, a minimum of 7 generations was obtained,
the last generation consisting of males. The last generation, in this
case, was really the twelfth generation from the egg, for a break in
the first series of last-born generations made it necessary to substi-
tute with the last-born of a later generation. Thus we obtained an
average of 13 generations for the year. (See Table II.)
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THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS.
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BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
30
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AGRICULTURE,
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THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 43
Figure 11 shows graphically the lines of generations carried through
in 1912 and the different individual experiments in each generation,
including the cage number and dates of birth above the line and the
date of death or termination of the experiment below the line, for each
cage record. Figure 12 shows the length of each generation of the
same series (1912).
Thus it will be noticed that the first generation in the series (prob-
ably the second generation from the egg) was the shortest, while the
ninth generation was the longest, extending over a period of 156 days.
Likewise it will be seen that on June 1 two generations coexisted;
on July 1, four generations, from the second to the third; on August 1,
seven generations, from the third to the ninth, inclusive, and on Sep-
tember 1, eight generations, from the fifth to the twelfth.
Tra. 12.—Periods and succession of generations in Macrosiphum pisi, La Fayette, Ind., 1912.
* This is the first generation found in the field and is probably about the third from the egg.
HATCHING OF THE EGG.
At La Fayette, Ind., the eggs of J. pisi hatch the latter part of
March; in the cases recorded in 1913 they hatched March 31. Folsom
(1909) records the hatching of eggs at Urbana, Ill., March 23, in 1905.
MOLTING.
According to our experiments this plant louse, like others of this
family of insects, has five instars and never molts more than four
times. In 1905 Mr. R. L. Webster, then an assistant of Dr. S. A.
Forbes, State entomologist of [lnois, observed 10 individuals, all of
which molted four times, although Mr. J. P. Gilbert, at the same
laboratory, claims to have observed an individual molt five times
(Folsom, 1909). Table IV gives our detailed records.
OR Tt A OL A TE A I tt ts NN ee
44 BULLETIN
276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TaBLE 1V.—Recoras of molts of Macrosiphum pisi.
La Fayette, Ind., 1912.
Period Period Period
be- be- be-
tween tween tween
Date of first molt. | birth | Date ofsecond molt.| first | Date of third molt. | second
and and and
first second third
molt. molts molts
1911. Hours. Hours
11.00 a. m., Aug. 14.} 7.30p.m., Aug.15..| 324 | 11.30a.m., Aug 17-| 40 | Died
1.00 p.m., Aug. 14..| 5.30 a. m., Aug. 16-- 405 | 1.30 p.m., ‘Aug. V2 By eee
11.00 a. m. a Aug. 142).8-00a:m-; Aug-16..) -45° | MiedSse- . o.5.2scetlease on [see eS See
3.30 p. m., Aug. 14..) 5.30a.m., Aug. 16-- 38 | 7.00p.m., Aug.17..)| 374 | 5.:
3.00 p. m., Aug. 14..] 5.30.a. m., ‘Aug. 16..| 383 | 4.30 p.m. Aug. U7 ee| ae ool ino:
4.30 p.m. "Aug. 14..| 12.00 m., Aug. 16... 434 | 5.30 p.m. “Aug. 17.-| 29% | 5.
4.30 p.m. "Aug. 14..| 12.00 m., Aug. 16... 434 | 9.00. a. m. * Aug. 18.. AD eto:
6.00 p.m. "Aug. 14..| 12.00 m., Aug. 16... 42 | 7.00 p.m., Aug. Vien 31 | 5.30a.m., Aug.
9.00 a. m. 7 Aug 15.2 Ould acm Ag Vie 44+ | 5.30 a.m., Aug. 18_. 244 | 11 =
9.45 a.m, "Aug. 51) 5.15 a. m., Aug. 17..| 433! 6.30a.m.,Aug.18..] 254 | 2.
10.00 a,m., Aug. 15.|} 5.15a.m.,Aug.17..| 484 | 5.30a.m.,Aug.18..) 24% | 2.
10.15 a, m., Aug. 15.| 6.00a.m.,Aug.17..| 432 | 9.00a.m.,Aug.18..} 27 | 3.
4.30 p.m., Aug. 18..] 1.00 p.m., Aug. 20..| 443 | 11.45a.m.,Aug. 22.) 462 | 3.3
4.30 p.m., Aug. 18..| 5.80 a.m.,Aug.20..| 37 | 4.45p.m:,Aug.22..)| 592 | 5.
5.00 p. m., ‘Aug. 18..} 10.00a.m., Aug. 20.} 41 | 7.15a.m., Aug. 23 691 | D
10.00 a, m., Aug. 19.| 7.45p.m., Aug.20. 33? | 6.15a.m., Aug. 22 344 | 5.15 a
10.00 a.m., Aug. 19.| 5.30 a.m., Aug. 21. 432 | 5.45 p.m., Aug. 22 363 | 7.30a
1.00 p.m. Aug. 22..| 9.45 a. m., Aug. 24. 442 | 5.30a.m., Aug. 25 192 | Aug. 27
1913 Days. Days
IASDES Os? Se ceeceeee Se ADT a oe Sovacyocen ek Th TAN ei iejercte cia resto eo ee 3 | Apr. 9
IANDEEED 2 sre (oetanionae= = ASD Deedee esc 2: |PEASD Tepes ose Bile Pee AR eee sec Socesce
Marnaglisicc sececcee UNDE SD aye aeresicic oo 5 | Apralses cesses: 11. =) sApral9ee = Se eee 3
| : Period
Period between | Entire
between fourth jimmature
Date of fourth molt. |thirdand) Date offirst young. |moltand!| period
fourth birth of | (approxi-
molts first mate).
young.
1912. Hours Hours Days
NOLO Py peanpe bin 2 BESS ee Se ees coca a seep eeenend SSoc Accu Setar aeeEeE Mesos Ses lsasccssssclcgcesceese
MOO KOS TIN VANS Mase ae sere |epiinsjeiare ists i si-tecs sie = Scie lltee Seeenaerell tte'e co .> 2 Sacre ls coh ene eee | Cee |
it OO mm eA Sl ee ee em eee ae eiciewin fais =. $.e.nsc ni ERIN [iO ea t= #10 a9 cree nee CCE Ee ee Sea Eee
3:30pm; Aug: 14 0222 Hemoy ed’ for descrip=:|-2e 9a os) es2 223 2s Sse cows oe ace eee eee | eee
ion.
3.00 p.m., Aug. 14.......- 5:30'a:m., Aug. 21..... 48°" 15.15 a, m.; Aug. 2222-23 233 7
4.30 p.m. "Aug. 14s okeee H.O0mem. Aug. 20.. 2.5 23% | 5.15a.m., Aug. 22.:_.-. 36} 7s
4.30 p. m., Ag 4s seas 1.00p.m., Aug. 22....- 314 | 6.00a.m., Aug. 23....- 17 e}
6!00;p.m., Aug.14 205.5522 (45pm. Aug. 20... 2 38+ | 5.15.4, m., Aug. 22..--- 334 is
9.00a.m., Aug. 15......--| 5.80a.m., Aug. 21..... 42 | 1.00p.m., Aug. 22. 314 7%
9.45.alm:, Aug beso. cee 8.00'a.m., Aug. 22.__.. 654 | 6.00 p.m., Aug. 24...-- 58 9%
10:00am S Aug. 15 scene 1.00 p.m., Aug. 21. 464 | 1.00 p.m., Aug. 23...-- 48 8}
LOtbiasms, Ags o oe. ceee As poms AUg.\21 25. - 464 | 4.00 p.m., Aug. 23....- 50} 8}
4°30;p.m),Augs 182-7... 22" 215 pem*s, Aug.26.-_.. ABs | AUg., 28.0.2. ae eee | eee 9+
A30spums Aug. Wess ce. cc DIO OM eeielaye ate ja='= -\= -'<1n (el | Sepa eleigie |e omin oe we oe 5 woes oo cic eel Oe |
SLOOP Sm AUS LS ee ee | etic crete eee cena = = «SAREE at oes wen acme cee ee tees eee ee eee Sees
10.00.a.m.,;Aug.19....... Removed. for descrip-.|ss esos. ce Se oe ce ce cee eanin doc soe ces eee eee | eee
tion.
10:00)aamis Ande 19eo sees 8.15 a. m., 8+-
1.00 p.m., Aug. 22........ PANT O29 Bereainic sie. '=\aor= aie 8
1913
PANDY NS (Bee aieceysinpaleoeg claim iajaiere PADI MU ce atiaiclae s -- = 11
ASD I 2 abate ee tac ce PASTA certiatals wiscicse's!s sc 15
Marri lois sf cae eitaaere io PND 23 belo cnw cele ocie 24
1 Winged female; all others wingless.
2 Records by Gibson at Nashville, Tenn., in 1913.
3’ Hatched from egg.
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 45
It will be observed that only one record of a winged female was
noted, and this individual required a noticeably longer time to reach
maturity than did the wingless forms observed at the same time.
This has been our observation time and again, although no definite
records were kept.
AGE AT WHICH FEMALES BEGIN REPRODUCING.
In 1912 the age at which females began giving birth to young varied
from 6 to 35 days, with an average of 10.3 days, from 38 records
covering the months from May 15 to December. (Table V.)
S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
216, U.
BULLETIN
46
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BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
48
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THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 49
An average of all experiments for the two years, carried through
out of doors and apparently under normal natural conditions, was
12.1+ days. As would be anticipated, and as is shown in Tables IV
and V, the age at which females began reproducing was shortest
during the warmer parts of the year and longest during the early
spring and late fall months. In the case where immaturity lasted 56
days the aphis would doubtless have remained immature for a much
longer time, possibly all winter, had it been left out of doors under
natural conditions. (See footnote 1, Table VI.) - From 16 individual
experiments, between March 23 and September 21, Mr. R. L. Webster
(Folsom, 1909) found that a female begins to reproduce 11 days after
birth, on an average.
REPRODUCTIVE PERIOD.
The reproductive period—that is, the time or period during which
the insect gave birth to young—varied from 2 to 68 days in 1912 and
from 2 to 61 days in 1913, or an average for the two years (53 exam-
ples) of 22 days. In computing these averages some records, where
the aphis was known to have died from other than natural causes,
were not considered. Except in cases where death was due to other
than natural causes, the female almost invariably lived several days
after the birth of its last young, the length of time varying from 2
or 3 to 28 days.
LONGEVITY.
As is the rule with all of the Aphididz, the pea aphis lives for a
much longer time in the spring and fall, especially in the fall, than in
the summer. In our records the total length of life—that is, from
date of birth to date of death—of individuals varied from 10 to 85
days in 1912 and from 10 to 78 days im 1913, or an average of 39.1+
days from 51 records made during the two years. Tables IV and V
may be referred to for the variation in lengths of life at the different
times of the year. In Mr. Webster’s experiments reported by Dr.
- Folsom (1909) the length of life of 16 individuals from as many con-
secutive generations varied from 13 to 50 days, with an average of
25.4 days.
FECUNDITY OF VIVIPAROUS FEMALES.
The aphis under discussion is one of the most prolific of all plant-
lice. We find that a female may give birth to as many as 14 young
in a period of 24 consecutive hours. The average number of young per
female for all individuals where records were kept in 1912 and 1913
(59 examples) was 3.7+ per day, but this is the average for the
entire reproductive period of each female, and as we learned, the
birth rate greatly diminishes toward the latter days of its life, often
not averaging one young a day. Taking this into consideration
we find the average birth rate during the active life of the mother
50 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
to be about 7 young per day, or even more. In our experiments indi-
vidual females bore as many as 124 young, and Dr. J. W. Folsom
(1909) reports a case where a single female produced 147 young. In
Mr. R. L. Webster’s experiment conducted at Urbana, IIL, in 1905
(Folsom, 1909) the average number of young borne by females of
16 consecutive generations was 46, while the average number of
young produced by individual females in all our experiments con-
ducted at La Fayette, Ind. (53 examples), excepting a few which
were accidentally or prematurely killed, was 68.3+.
From these figures it is not difficult to see why this insect becomes
so remarkably abundant, apparently within a few days, on its
various hosts, and why it is able, collectively, to ravage and com-
pletely destroy crops almost before they become apparent to the
casual observer.
SEXUAL FORMS.
Sexual forms may occur in the fall of the year, but there seems to
be no uniformity in their production as is the case of certain other
plant-lice. For instance, oviparous females may be produced by
either wingless or winged females and the same female may produce
both viviparous and sexual forms alternately; for example, in one of
the experiment cages of 1912 a wingless female gave birth to her first
young on October 10 and these proved to be oviparous females;
later she gave birth to young which became viviparous females, and
still later again bore oviparous females. A number of instances
where females gave birth to viviparous and sexual forms alternately
were observed in 1912 and 1913. Our earliest record of the birth
of individuals of the sexual generation was October 10 in 1912 and
October 14 in 1913. Dr. Folsom (1909) found the males in the field
as early as October 10 in Illinois, and in one instance, in an experi-
ment cage, an oviparous female was born as early as September 22.
At Funkstown, Md., Mr. J. A. Hyslop observed the sexes of this species
swarming on an alfalfa field November 12, 1912, the males and ovi-
parous females predominating, although some viviparous females
and young were observed. This observation was repeated at the
same place by Mr. C. M. Packard October 28, 1913.
From these observations it is impossible to attribute the pro-
duction of sexes to any particular cause. Certain aphids, notably
Aphis maidi-radicis, Sipha flava, Callipterus trifolii, Chaitophorus
negundinis, Eulachnus rileyi, etc., invariably produce the egg-laying
forms toward winter in this latitude, and this may be attributed
largely to the weather conditions; but in the case of pisi, both yivi-
parous and oviparous forms are commonly borne of the same mother,
and in the same line of generations, conducted under exactly identical
conditions, reproduction may continue viviparously throughout the
winter, while parts of one or more of these generations may become
sexual forms. It is noted, however, that sexes are never produced
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 51
at any time except in fall or early winter, and climatic conditions no
doubt have some direct or indirect influence.
In our experiments oviparous females were produced much oftener
than males, probably accountable from the fact that individual males
may fertilize several females. The oyiparous females are invariably
wingless; but we have found both winged and wingless males, the
latter in only a few instances in 1911. In the field Mr. Hyslop also
observed the wingless male. In the case recorded by him a winged
and wingless male were attempting to mate with the same female.
To our knowledge these are the only two records of the occurrence
of wingless males in America.
Mordwilko (10) has observed wingless males in Russia, and in his
writings has described this form.
Copulation takes place soon after the individuals reach maturity,
and egg laying commences shortly thereafter. Eggs are laid on the
stems and leaves of red clover, according to our observations in
Indiana; but Mr. Hyslop, in his observations with this species on
alfalfa, mentioned above, found eggs only on the leaves of alfalfa
and in no case on the stems, petioles, or axils. We have no records
of the sexual forms being produced or eggs being laid on any plants
other than red clover and alfalfa. However, Mordwilko (10) has
observed the sexual forms on Medicago falcata, Lathyrus latifolius,
and L. angustifolius, and Theobald (11) found them on the flat pea
(Lathyrus sylvestris).
FECUNDITY OF OVIPAROUS FEMALES.
Actual counts of the number of eggs laid by individuals were not
made, but dissections of 12 unfertilized females several weeks after
maturity showed that they were capable of laying an average of 25
eggs. (See Table VII.) These counts indicate that the fecundity
of oviparous females of pisi is twice that of the average aphidid.
Tasie VII.—Number of eggs of Macrosiphum pisi.
Number of
Number of eggs | apparently | Number of pote anny :
Dat laid previous to | {fully devel-! immature ees
ae date of dissec- | oped eggs | eggs in Pade ete
tion. found in modal ca ona.
body. oped ones.
IDO, G2} |) Oe 5 = a aeeeseee Dips actos os 5 28 or 29
IDOssec IOP. 36 GUO Soe 24 | Several....| 25 or 26
Dec. 10, 1912) Avg. of 2 per 9.-- 1033-" || Soha e eres 20
IDO ae selesabe G0). -naeeeesae 25). || Soon oe ees 27
Doea || am O02 Baez BIB) 3 Ng Ae 27
IDO se asal eee Gore oh 32282 1@) = seca eeees 21
DOsse eee GMOpeM re. 225.8 iS oh Same 20
IDO Ale GID). 5 SSR AARON Oe Sees 27
IDS ealecuee Glo) 45 Se ae Pall, |e See a a 23
Doreen Gomes 6 282 Wl eo eee 19
dana” “A Ones |e 2 <= je Se GAS) || eae nee 28
Dore ae ec. ek B00) -Sosdeeeeoes 32
IMYORINGs| sod +a: cece ae BS | hos Bees 24. 8+
52 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
NATURAL CONTROL.
It is doubtful if any species. of plant louse 1s more harassed by
enemies than is the pea aphis. According to the observations of
other writers, which we are able to corroborate, the common aphis
fungus, LEmpusa aphidis (fig. 13), is the most important natural check
on the increase of Macrosiphum pisi. This fungus thrives under
moist conditions, especially
when accompanied by warmth,
and hence it usually makes its
appearance after a few days of
rainy weather and more often
in summer—that is, during the
warmer months. As might be
inferred, this fungus is conta-
gious and spreads with wonder-
ful rapidity, frequently, as ob-
served by us, so completely
eradicating the insects that it
Tic. 13.— Macrosiphum pisi attacked by a fungus. ae difficult and Someumn es ge
Enlarged. (Original.) possible to locate a single living
plant louse. Diseased aphids
first turn brownish and later become covered with the fungus threads.
Thus weather conditions favorable for the growth of Empusa fungus
are indirectly important. Furthermore, driving rains destroy great
numbers of these plant lice, and very hot, dry weather seems to
Fia. 14.—The convergent lady-beetle (Ilippodamia convergens), an enemy of Macrosiphum pisi: a, Adult;
6, pupa; ¢c, larva. Enlarged. (From Chittenden.)
hinder excessive multiplication, so that weather conditions are a great
factor in the natural control of this pest.
Next in importance in the natural control of this aphidid are the
ladybirds, and of these no less than nine different kinds are known
to prey upon it, namely, //ippodamia convergens Guer. (fig. 14),
which is probably the most generally common and abundant of all
the ladybirds; H. glacialis Fab., H. 15-punctata L., H. parenthesis
Say, Cycloneda munda Say, Coccinella 9-notata Ubst., Megilla fusci-
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 53
labris Muls., Adalia bipunctata L., and Chilocorus bivulnerus Muls.
Both larve and adults feed on the plant lice.
The larve of the syrphid flies (Syrphidz), more generally known
)
under the name of ‘‘sweat bees,
are important enemies of the pea
Fic. 15.—Allograpta obliqua, a syrphid fly the larva of which preys upon Macrosiphum pisi. (Original.)
aphis. The larve are sluglike and attack the aphis by piercing it
and sucking the body juices. Each larva is capable of devouring
many aphides in rapid succession. Johnson reports (1899) that one
Fig. 16.—Allo-
grapta obliqua:
Larva. Much
enlarged.
(From Metcalf.)
grower in Maryland, when separating peas, sieved out
about 25 bushels of syrphid larve, mostly of the spe-
cies Allograpta obliqua Say (figs. 15, 16), which is illus-
trative of the abundance of these larve at times. The
adult flies are everywhere abundant in summer, and
especially in the neighborhood of heavy aphis infesta-
tions. They hover in the air and at brief intervals fly
rapidly, but only for short distances. Folsom (1909)
enumerates eight species as attacking Macrosiphum
pist, namely, Ocyptamus (Baccha) fuscipennis Say,
Platychirus quadratus Say, Syrphus americanus Wied.,
S. ribesvi L., Allograpta obliqua Say, Mesogramma mar-
gunatum Say, MM. politum Say, and Sphaerophoria cylin-
drica Say.
Three species of lace-wing fly larvee (Chrysopide),
namely, Chrysopa oculata Say, C. rufilabris Burm., and
C. plorabunda Fitch, feed on this plant louse. They
are predacious in the larval stage, as is the case with
the syrphids. The larve are provided with a pair of
hollow bow-shaped mandibles or jaws, with which they
grasp the aphis and through which its juices are sucked. The
adults are pale green insects with relatively large lacelike wings, and
from this character the common name is derived.
54 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
A small pinkish or orange larva (fig. 17) belonging to the family
Cecidomyiide (A phidoletes sp.) 1s an active enemy of this plant louse,
and although of small size, being only about one-eighth of an inch
long, it has a remarkable capacity and is very prolific. It is the
more effective because it does not attempt to consume all of the body
fluids, as do the syrphids and chrysopids, but seems only to fed upon
the juices of the captive plant louse until the latter is dead, soon
after which the dead plant louse is discarded and another one at-
tacked. Doubtless the predacious larva mentioned by Fletcher as
Miplosis sp. was an Aphidoletes.
Other insects which are known to be predaceous on Macrosiphum
pist are several true bugs (Podisus maculwentris Say, Huschistus
variolarius P. B., and Triphleps insidiosus Say), a tree cricket, Oecan-
thus confluens H. & H., and a beetle, Podabrus rugulosus Lec. Another
beetle(P. pruniosus
Lec.), closely re-
lated to the last
named, has recent-
ly been reported by
Mr. H. FE: Walsom
(1913) asfeeding on
“the vetch aphis
( Macrosiphum pisi
Kalt.?).”’> A mite
(Rhyncholophus
parvus Banks) is
also known to at-
tack this aphidid.
The pea aphis is
attacked by several
internal parasites.
Aphides thus at-
tacked are inactive and finally die, becoming brown in color, and the
adult parasite makes its exit from the dead aphis by cutting a circular
hole in the dried skin. The species hitherto reported attacking this
aphidid are Aphidius fletcheri Ashm. MS., A. washingtonensis Ashm.,
Triorys (Praon) cerasaphis Fitch, and Megorismus fletcherr Cwld.
In the spring of 1915 Mr. W. B. Hall of this bureau reared Aphidius
rosae Hal. and Praon simulans Prov. of this species collected at
Wakeman, Ohio.
METHODS OF ARTIFICIAL CONTROL.
Via. 17.—Larva of the syrphid fly Adlograpta odliqua, which preys upon
Macrosiphum pisi: Enlarged. (Original.)
In the clover field the pea aphis is ordinarily held in check by its
natural enemies. If it is apparent that this aphis is becoming un-
1 Since the above was written Dr. E. P. Felt has determined Aphidoletes reared at La Fayette, Ind.,
in 1915 from larvee attacking Aphis gossypii as A. meridionalis Felt. ‘There is little question but that the
species attacking M. visi is identical.
.
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 55
duly abundant, the clover should be cut as soon thereafter as possi-
ble, since the cutting and drying of the clover will kill most of the
insects. Clover which becomes coated with the honeydew of the
aphides will not cure properly. Spring pasturing or early cutting
back of the clover will check the multiplication of this plant louse.
A more brief general discussion of the pea aphis was published by
Dr, F. H. Chittenden as Circular No. 43 of the Bureau of Entomology
under the title ‘‘The Pea Aphis ( Macrosiphum jisi Kalt.),”’ February
25, 1909, pages 1-10. This publication is now out of print, but can
be consulted in most agricultural college libraries, as well as public
libraries, and in private ones. <A farmers’ bulletin covering the same
subject is in course of preparation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF EUROPEAN LITERATURE CITED IN PAPER.
1. Harris, Mosres. Exposition of English Insects, ete., p. 66, pl. 17, fig. 10-12.
London, 1782.
. Kirsy, WM., AND SreENcE, Wm. An Introduction to Entomology, v. 1, p. 174.
(Ed. 6, 1843, p. 142.) London, 1815.
3. Boyer DE Fonscotomses, E. L. J. H. Description des pucerons qui se trouvent
aux environs d’Aix, Jn Ann. Soc. Ent. France, v. 10, p. 157-198, 1841.
Page 169. Aphis onobrychis Nob.
bo
4. Mostey, Oswatp. Entomology, Genus, Aphis. Jn Gard. Chron. [v. 1], no. 42,
p. 684, Oct. 16, 1841.
5, Katrensacu, J. H. Monographie der Familien der Pflanzenlaiuse, p. 23-24.
* Aachen, 1848.
6. Kocu, C. L. Die Pflanzenliuse, p. 190-191, fig. 261-262. Niirnberg, 1857.
7. Bucxron, G. B. Monograph of the British Aphides, v. 1, p. 134-135. London,
1876.
8. OrmEROD, ELEANOR A. Report of Observations of Injurious Insects and Common
Farm Pests ... 1885. 9th Report, p. 62-63. London, 1886.
9. CHoLopKovskKy, N. A. The pea-louse (Siphonophora pisi Kalt.) and related
species. Dept. Agr. [Russia], Bur. Ent., v. 8, no. 1, 15 p., 8 fig., 1909. (In
Russian. )
10. Morpwitxo, L. Le puceron des pois ( Macrosiphum pisi Kalt.). Sa biologie et les
moyens de lutter contre lui. Dept. Agr. [Russia], Bur. Ent., v. 8, no. 3, 44 p.,
16 fig., 1909. (In Russian.)
11. THEoBALD, Frep V. British species of the genus Macrosiphum, Passerini, Pt.
II. In Jour. Econ. Biol., v. 8, no. 3, p. 134-136, fig. 43, Sept. 29, 1913.
12. THEOBALD, FrED V. Notes on the aphides of the cultivated peas (Pisin sativum
and Lathyrus latifolius) and the allied species of Macrosiphum. Jn Transactions
of the Second International Congress of Entomology, Oxford, Aug., 1912, p. 380-
393, pl. 14-15, Oct. 14, 1913.
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF AMERICAN LITERATURE.!
1878. THomas, Cyrus. A list of the species of the tribe Aphidini, family Aphide,
found in the United States, which have been heretofore named, with
descriptions of some new species. Jn Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Bul. 2,
p. 3-16, June.
Page 8. Lists Siph. pisi on pea.
1 Dates in italics refer to the more important references. Dates preceded by an asterisk indicate papers
which have been inaccessible to the writer.
56 BULLETIN 276, U..S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
1879. Tuomas, Cyrus. Eighth Report of the State Entomologist on the Noxious and
Beneficial Insects of the State of Illinois, 212+-x p., AT fig. Springfield, Ill.
Page 64. Describes Siphonophora pisi from specimens collected at Carbondale, Ill. Has not
been observed in this country in injurious numbers.
1883. Cooks, MarrHew. Injurious Insects of the Orchard, Vineyard, Field, Garden,
Conservatory, Household, Storehouse, Domestic Animals, etc., with
Remedies for their Extermination. 472 p., 368 fig. Sacramento.
Page 332. Brief notes on the characters of the pea aphis (Siphonophora pisi), injury to
peas, and remedies.
1886. OxrsttuND,O.W. List of the Aphidide of Minnesota, with descriptions of some
new species. Jn 14th Annual Report of the Geological and Natural History
Survey of Minnesota, p. 17-56.
Page 25. Siphonophora pisi common in Minnesota. What the author considered same
was found on Ujrtica gracilis.
1887. OzsttunD, O. W. Synopsis of the Aphididee of Minnesota. Geol, and Nat.
Hist. Survey of Minnesota, Bul. 4, 100 p.
Page 82. Nectarophora pisi briefly described and recorded from Capsella bursa-pastoris
and Urtica gracilis.
1890. Smiro, J. B. Catalogue of insects found in New Jersey. Jn Final Report of
the State Geologist, v. 2. 486 p.
Page 448. Siphonophora pisi listed.
1891. Wiit1ams, T. A. Host-plant list of North American Aphidide. Special Bul. 1,
Univ. Nebr., Dept. Ent., p. 5-28.
Reported hosts of Siphonophora pisi as follows: Cultivated beet, Trifolium repens, nettle
( Urtica gracilis), cultivated pea, shepherd’s purse ( Capsella bursa-pastoris).
1899. Hunter, W. D. A preliminary report on insect enemies of clover and alfalfa.
In Gia Rpt. Nebr. State Bd. Agr. f. 1898, p. 239-285, 67 fig.
Page 246. Lists Siphonophora pisi as a clover insect.
*1899a. Jonnson, W. G. [Nectarophora destructor John.]_ In American Packer, Aug.
1, 1899.
Description of the insect, its injuries, outlook, and enemies.
1899b. JoHNson, W. G. The destructive pea louse, a new and important economic
species of the genus Nectarophora. U.S8. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bul. 20,
n.s., p. 94-98. Same in Sci. Amer., v. 81, no. 21, p. 325, 3 fig., Nov. 18.
Notice of the appearance of this plant-louse, which will be described as new under the
name Nectarophora destructor, in very destructive numbers throughout the State of Mary-
land. Notes on remedies, habits of insect, and its natural enemies.
1900. [BurnAU or Enromotoey.| The principal injurious insects of the year 1899.
U.S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook f. 1899, p. 745-746.
Page 745. Reports serious injury to peas in-Atlantic States by Nectarophora destructor.
1900a. CurrreNDEN, F. H. Insects and the weather: Observations during the season
of 1899. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bul. 22, n.s., p. 51-64.
Page 58. Nectarophora destructor was troublesome in vicinity of Washington past season.
1900b. CuirreNDEN, F. H. The destructive: green-pea louse. U. 8. Dept. Agr.,
Div. Ent., Bul. 23, n. s., p. 38-37, fig. 9.
Treats following topies: The important outbreak of 1899; individual records of injury;
brief characterization of the insect involved; question of alternate hosts; natural enemies
and remedies.
1900. Frerr, E. P. 15th Report of the State Entomologist on injurious and other
insects of the State of New York, 1899 (Bul. N. Y. State Mus., v. 6, no. 31),
p. 533-653.
Pages 538, 567. Reports injury to peas on Long Island by Nectarophora destructor
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 57
1900a. FuercHer, JAmEs. Injurious insects in Ontario during 1899. Jn 30th Ann.
Rpt. Ent. Soc. Ontario, p. 106-111.
Page 107. Notice of abundance and injury to field, garden, and sweet peas by Nectarophora
destructor. Natural enemies and remedies,
1900b. FrercHer, JAMES. Report of the entomologist and botanist. In Canada
Expt. Farms Rpts. f. 1899, p. 159-204, 23 fig.
Page 170. Reports injury to garden, field, and sweet peas and vetch by Nectarophora
pisi and quotes from letters (dated from July 29 to October) reporting injury. Notes on
natural enemies of the pea louse. Remedies.
1900. Forses, 8. A., and Hart, C. A. The economic entomology of the sugar beet.
Univ. Ill. Agr. Expt. Sta., Bul. 60, p. 397-532, 97 fig., 9 pl. Also: In
21st Rpt. State Ent. Ill., p. 83.
Page 431. Nectarophora pisi reported from Tlinois. Said to have been found on beets in
Nebraska.
1900. Grsson, ArTHUR. Notes on insects of the year. Division No. 3, Toronto Dis-
trict. In 30th Ann. Rpt. Ent. Soc. Ontario f. 1899, p. 97-98, fig. 60-61.
Page 97. Reports injury to sweet and field peas in 1899 by Nectarophora destructor.
1900. Harrineton, W. Haaur. Notes on insects of the year. Division I, Ottawa
District. In 30th Ann. Rpt. Ent. Soc. Ontario f. 1899, p. 94-96, fig. 58-59.
Page 95. Injury to sweet peas in 1899 by Nectarophora destructor.
1900. Harvey, F. L. Notes on insects and plants. Maine Agr. Expt. Sta., Bul. 61,
p- 31-44, March.
Page 31. Reports much damage to garden and field peas in Maine in 1899 by Nectarophora
destructor.
1900a. Jounson, W. G. The destructive green-pea louse. Jn Canad. Ent., v. 32,
no. 2, p. 56-60, fig. 4-6, Feb.
Description of winged and wingless viviparous females as Nectarophora destructor n. sp.
Distribution of the species and its natural enemies.
*1900b. Jonnson, W.G. [Nectarophora destructor John.| In Canner and Dried Fruit
Bacwet Feb. 15, p. 42.
Injuries, description, habits, and remedies.
*1900c. Jonnson, W.-G. [Nectarophora destructor John.] Circulars Maryland State
Hort. Dept. No. 7 (May 12), No. 11 (May 15), No. 13 (May 31), No. 19
(June 3). Figs.
Describes condition of pest in Maryland and methods being used against it.
*1900d. Jounson, W. G. The green-pea louse In Maryland. Jn Amer. Gard., v. 21,_
no. 284, p. 375, June 2.
1900e. Jounson, W. G. The destructive pea louse. Jn Rural New Yorker, v. 59,
no. 2636, p. 525-526, fig. 178-179, August 4. Also: In Strawberry Cult.
(The strawberry root louse), v. 7, no. 1, p. 7, August.
1900f. Jounson, W. G. Notes upon the destructive green-pea louse (Nectarophora
destructor John) for 1900. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bul. 26, n.s., p.
55-58, 2 pl: Also: Mm 31st Ann. Rpt. Ent. Soc. Ontario f. 1900, p. 99-102
Destructiveness of the pea aphis, with notes on life history and methods of control.
1900g. Jonnson, W. G. Notes on insects of economic importance for 1900. U.S.
Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bul. 26, n. s., p. 80-84.
Page 81. Injuries occasioned by the pea aphis.
1900. Luecer, O. Bugs (Hemiptera) injurious to our cultivated plants. Univ. Minn.
Agr. Exp. Sta., Ent. Div., Bul. 69, eR, 200 fig., 16 pl. Also: 6th Ann.
Rpt. State Ent. Minn.
Page 201. Brief note on injuries in the East and in Wisconsin to peas by Nectarophora
destructor. ;
58 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
1900a. Pamurs, J. L., and H. L. Price. The nature and use of certain insecticides.
Va. Agr. Expt. Sta., Bul. 97 (n. s., v. 8, no. 2), p. 11-26, February, 1899.
Page 23. Reports on damage by Nectarophora destructor in 1898-1899 and on insecticidetests
against this insect.
*1900b. Purmures, J. L., and Priczr, H. L. The English pea louse. Jn South.
Planter, v. 61, no. 4, April.
*1900a. SANDERSON, E. D. [Nectarophora destructor John.] The destructive pea
louse. Jn Amer. Grocer, v. 63, no. 8, p. 13-14, 2 fig., February 21. Also:
In Amer. Packer, Canner and Dried Fruit Packer, February 15, p. 38, figs.
Description, injuries, habits, enemies, and remedies.
*1900b. SANDERSON, E. D. The destructive pea louse. Jn The Canner and Dried
Fruit Packer, March, 1900, figs.
1900c. [SanpDERSON, E. D.] The destructive pea louse. Del. Col. Expt. Sta., Press
Bul. 4, 1 p., May 15.
Injury to peas in 1899. Occurrence on clover, mode of spreading to peas, and means of
control.
1900d. [SANDERSON, E. D.] The green-pealouse. Del. Col. Expt. Sta., Press Bul. 5,
Ip-; dune: 1
Injury to peas in 1900 in Delaware, susceptibility of different varieties, natural enemies,
and control.
*1900e. SANDERSON, E. D. The destructive green pea louse. Jn Rural New Yorker,
v. 59, no. 2629, p. 413-414, fig. 126-130, June 16.
*1900f. SANDERSON, E.°D. Pea louse in Wisconsin. Jn Rural New Yorker, vy. 59,
no. 2644, p. 659, Septem} er 2).
1900g. SanpERSON, E. D. Notes fiom Delaware. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bul.
26, 0. 8., p. 66-72.
Page 69. Record of the pea louse during 1900. Records numerous enemies of this aphidid
and gives remedies.
1900h. SANDERSON, E. D. II. The destructive pea louse in Delaware. Del. Col.
Agr. Expt. Sta., Bul. 49, p. 14-24, fig. 67, pl. 2-3.
Injury by Nectarophora pisi, its past history, brief description, food plants, spread of the
pest, natural enemies, and means of control.
*1900. [SLINGERLAND, M. V.] Pea lice in New York State. Jn Rural New Yorker,
v. 59, no. 2649, p. 737, November 3.
1900a. Smrru, J. B. Report of the Entomologist. Jn 20th Report of the Entomolog-
ical Department of the New Jersey Agricultural College Experiment Sta-
tion f. 1899, p. 423-512, 44 fig.
Page 424. First observed injury to peas by Nectarophora destructor in 1898. Notices of
individual reports of damage by this insect in 1898, and suggests preventive measures.
1900b. Smrru, J. B. Insects injurious to fruits. Jn Amer. Agr., v. 66, no. 25, p. 645,
December 22.
*1900a. WesstER, F. M. [Quoted in Phila. (Pa.) Public Ledger.] April 4, 1904.
Occurrences of the pea louse at Toledo, Ohio.
1900b. Wesster, F. M. Insects of the year in Ohio. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent.,
Bul. 26, n. s., p. 84-90.
Page 88. Reports occurrence of Nectarophora destructcr on Canada {eld peas, as well as red
clover and garden peas, in various parts of Ohio. A fungus identified as 2mpusa aphidis
destroyed myriads of the aphis.
1900. Weep, C. M. Insect record for 1899. N. H. Col. Agr. Expt. Sta., Bul. 72,
p. 61-74, 11 fig.
Page 74. Reports damage to garden and sweet peas in various parts of New Hampshire,
due to Nectarophora destructor.
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 59
1901. [Bureau of Entomology.] The principal injurious insects of the year 1900.
U.S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook f. 1900, p. 725-729.
Page 726. Serious injury to peas by Nectarophora destructor along Atlantic coast and west-
ward to Wisconsin. Remedies.
1901. CxHapais, J.C. L’aphisdes pois. Jn Nat. Canad., v. 28, no. 2, p. 17-20, Feb.
Reports serious injury to sweetpeas in August of 1900. Describes the insect (after John-
son). Observations of injury and remedies.
190la. CoirreNDEN, F. H. Remedies for insect pests in vegetable and flower
gardens and conservatories. 4 p., 4 fig. Philadelphia.
Remedies for the pea louse.
1901b. CuirrENDEN, F. H. The destructive green pea louse. U.S. Dept. Agr.,
Div. Ent., Cire. no. 48, 8 p., 3 fig., May 23.
A concise account of Nectarophora destructor Johns. as a pest of peas, under the following
headings: Recent injury, descriptive, distribution, extent of injury and method of work,
natural enemies, and method of control.
1901. Fett, E. P. Voluntary entomological services of New York State. Jn 16th
Report of the State Entomologist on Injurious and Other Insects of the
State of New York f. 1900 (Bul. N. Y. State Mus.), v. 7, no. 36, p. 1000-1026.
Pages 1003, 1017. Correspondent reports Necfarophora pisi not so injurious on Long Island
as previous year. Also reported from Broome County.
1901. Fernatp, C. H., and Frernautp, H. T. Report of the entomologists. In
13th.Ann. Rpt. Hatch Expt. Sta. Mass. Agr. Col. f. 1901, p. 84-88, Jan.
Page 87. Injury to peas by pea louse in 1900 but not so great as in 1899.
190la. FiuercHer, JAMES. Injurious insects in Ontario during 1900. Jn 31st.Ann.
Rpt. Ent. Soc. Ontario f. 1900, p. 62-72, fig. 14-32.
Page 66. Nectarophora destructor not as abundant in 1900 as in 1899; notes reported injuries,
remedies, and natural enemies.
1901b. FiercHer, JAMES. Report of the entomologist and botanist. In Canada
Expt. Farms Rpts. f. 1900, p. 195-249-++11, 18 fig.
Page 211. Nectarophora destructor was present in same districts as in the preceding year
(1899) but in less injurious numbers. Notices of injuries and discussion of natural enemies,
especially of the orange larva of a species of Diplosis.
1901lc. FuetcHer, James. Farm pests; fodder grasses. Evidence of Dr. James
Fletcher, Entomologist and Botanist, before the Select Standing Com-
mittee on Agriculture and Colonization f. 1901, 25 p.
Page 20. Notice of injuries by the destructive pea aphis.
1901. Harvey, F. L. Notes on insects of the year 1899. Jn 16th Ann. Rpt. Maine
Agr. Expt. Sta. f. 1900, p. 31-42.
Page 31. Reports Nectarophora destructor abundant and destructive to garden and field
peas.
*1901a. Jounson, W. G. The destructive pea-louse. In Rural New-Yorker, v. 60,
no. 2609; p= 17; fig. 7, Jan. 12.
*1901b. Jounson, W. G. Green pea industry threatened. Jn Amer. Agr., v. 67,
no. 6, p. 202-203, 2 fig., Feb. 9.
1901. L., H. H. Pea louse in field peas. Jn Rural New-Yorker, v. 60, no. 2672,
p- 267, April 13.
H. H. L. writes of field peas, grown with barley, being ruined in 1900 by the pea aphis.
Suggests earlier planting.
1901a. SanppRson, E. D. Some plant lice affecting peas, clover, and lettuce.
In Canad. Ent., v. 33, no. 2, p. 31-39, pl. 2, Feb.
Description of the winged and wingless viviparous female and winged male, together with
comparisons with other species and supposed varieties. Concludes pisi of Europe and
destructor of America identical.
60 BULLETIN 276, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
1901b. SanpERsON, E. D. Danger from green pea-louse. Jn Rural New-Yorker,
v. 60, no. 2692, p. 268, April 18.
Reply to correspondent who reports injury to fodder peas by the pea louse and of the
successful use of whale-oil soap in combating it on garden peas.
1901c. SANDERSON, E. D. The destructive pea louse (Nectarophora pisi Kalt.).
In 12th Ann. Rpt. Del. Col. Agr. Expt. Sta. f. year ending June 30, 1900,
p- 169-186, fig. 8, pl. 2-3.
Account contains bibliography, description of the insect, past history, life history, injury,
natural enemies, cause of outbreaks, and means of control.
*1901d. SANDERSON, E. D. Successful sprayer for the pea louse. Jn Rural New
Yorker, v. 60, no. 2685, p. 481-482, fig. 204-205, July 13.
1901. Smirx, Joun B. Report of the entomologist. Jn 21st Ann. Rpt. N. J. Agr.
Expt. Sta. f. 1900, p. 479-572, 10 fig.
Page 505. General account of the life history of Nectarophora destructor. Review of known
remedies and preventives.
1902. Brrrron, W. B. First report of the State entomologist. Jn Report of the
Conn, Agr. Expt. Sta. f. 1901, pt. 3, p. 227-278-+-viii, 11 pl., 2 fig.
Pages 238, 276. The pea louse less abundant than in 1899 or 1900. Injuries and remedies.
1902. CurrrenDEN, F. H. The principal injurious insects in 1901. In U.S. Dept.
Agr. Yearbook f. 1901, p. 674-679.
Page 675. The destructive pea louse not abundant except in a few isolated localities.
1902. FLetcHER, JAMES. Report of the entomologist and botanist. Jn Canada
Expt. Farms Rpts. f. 1901, p. 197-262+ii, 19 fig., 1 pl.
Page 212. Nectarophora destructor, which occurred in Canada in injurious numbers in 1899
and 1900, almost entirely disappeared in 1901, one report only of injury being received.
*1902. Jounson, W. G. Protecting green pea crop from insects. Jn Amer. Agr.,
v. 69, no. 17, p. 584, April 26.
1902. Perrir, Rurus H. Some insects of the year 1901. Mich. State Agr. Col.
Expt. Sta., Bul. 200, p. 179-212, 21 fig., May.
Page 198-200. Reference to injury in the United States and its occurrence in Michigan.
Remedies.
1902. QuarntTANcE, A. L. Injurious insects of the year. Jn Rpt. Md. Hort. Soc.
4th Ann. Sess. held in Baltimore, Dec. 12 and 13, 1901, v. 4, p. 87-104,
fig. 8-22. ;
Page 101. Less injury past year by pea louse. Injury most noticeable to late peas.
1902a. SanpeRSON, E. D. Report of the entomologist. Jn 13th Ann. Rpt. Del.
Agr. Expt. Sta. f. 1901, p. 127-199, fig. 13-33.
Page 168. Results of experiments in the control of Nectarophora pisi on peas.
1902b. SanpERSON, E. D. Insects injurious to staple crops. 295 p., 162 fig. New
. York.
Page 182. Brief account of Nectarophera pisi.
1902. Smirn, J. B. Report of the entomologist. Jn Ann. Rpt. N. J. Expt. Sta.
f. 1901, p. 463-587, 36 fig.
Page 471. The pea louse was not so injurious as in 1900. Describes in detail a new sprayer
adapted especially for this pest and efficacy of various remedies.
1902. Wesster, F. M., And Newer, W. Insectsof the yearin Ohio. U.S. Dept.
Agr., Div. Ent., Bul. 31, n. s., p. 84-90, Jan.
Page 87. Note on occurrence of the pea louse in Ohio.
1903.. CurrrenDEN, F'. H. The principal injurious insects in 1902. U. 8. Dept.
Agr. Yearbook f. 1902, p. 726-733.
Page 727. Reported damage by the pea louse negligible.
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 61
1908a. Frevr, E. P. Importance of injurious insects introduced from abroad. Jn
Report of the State entomologist on injurious and other insects of the State
of New York for 1902 (N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 64), p. 116-126.
Page 122. Mentions Nectarophora pisi as an introduced species responsible for losses to
pea growers in the Atlantic States.
*1903b. Fretr, E. P. Importance of injurious insects introduced from abroad. Jn
Proc. Soc. Prom. Agr. Sci., 24th Ann. Meet., p. 39-48.
1903. FLETCHER, JAMES. Report of the entomologist and botanist. Canada Expt.
Farms Rpts. f. 1902, p. 169-201, 5 fig., 1 pl.
Page 179. Brief account of the destructive pea aphis. Worst attack the past season was
on grass peas, hairy vetch, and field peas.
1903. QuatnTaNncE, A. L. Entomological notes from Maryland. U.S. Dept. Agr.,
Div. Ent., Bul. 40, p. 47-50, fig. 2.
Page 49. Nectarophora pisi was not injurious to peas past season (1902). Growers practice
early planting to avoid injury.
1903. SmrrH, J. B. Report of the entomologist. N.J. Agr. Expt. Sta. Rpt. f. 1902,
p. 425-508, 13 fig.
Page 425. Reports absence of pea louse in 1902, except on very late peas.
1904a. Brrrron, W. E. Third report of the State entomologist. Conn. Agr. Expt.
Sta. Rpt. f. 1903, pt. 3, p. 199-286, fig. 27-42, 8 pl.
Page 212. Nectarophora pisi less abundant in 1903 than in 1902, though some injury to
late peas.
1904b. Brirron, W. E. Insect notes from Connecticut. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div.
Ent., Bul. 46, p. 105-107.
Page 105. Nectarophora pisi less abundant than in 1902, but many late peas were injured.
*1904. Fert, E.P. Pealouse. Jn Country Gent., v. 69, no. 2673, p. 369, April 21.
Methods of controlling Nectarophora pisi.
1904. FiuetcHEeR, JAMES. ‘Insects injurious to Ontario crops in 1903. Jn 34th Ann.
Rpt. Ent. Soc. Ontario f. 1903, p. 62-71, fig. 22-26.
Page 64. Reports injury to field and grass peas by the pea aphis.
1904. PERGANDE, THEO. On some of the aphides affecting grains and grasses of the
United States. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bul. 44, p. 5-23, 4 fig.
Page 21. The clover plant louse Macrosiphum trifolii is here described as new. Reports
what he considers same species from wheat ( Triticwm vulgare), oats (Avena sativa), red clover
( Trifolium pratensis), strawberry, sow-thistle (Sonchus oleraceus), and dandelion ( Tarazacum
dens-leonis).
1904-1906. Sansporn, C. E. Kansas Aphididae with catalogue of North American
Aphididae and with host-plant and plant-host list. Pt. I-II. In
Kans. Univ. Sci. Bul., v. 3, no. 1, p. 1-82, 22 pl., July, 1904, and v. 3,
no. 8, p. 225-274, April, 1906.
Describes winged viviparous female of Macrosiphum pisiand reports taking it on rose.
In the host plant catalogue the following hosts of Macrosiphum pisi are given: Capsella
bursa-pastoris, cultivated beet, Lathyrus odoratus, cultivated pea, Pisum sativum, Spiraea
ulmariae, Trifolium repens, Urtica gracilis, and Urtica dioica.
1904. SanpERsoNn, E. D. Insects of 1903 in Texas. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent.,
Bul. 46, p. 92-96.
Page 96. Reports injury to garden peas in Texas by Nectarophora pisi.
1904. Smrrx, J.B. Report of the entomologist. In Rpt. Ent. Dept. N. J. Agr. Col.
Expt. Sta. f. 1903, p. 557-659, 32 figs.
Page 563. Late peas were badly infested with the pea-louse.
{
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1995.
1905.
1905.
1905,
1906.
1906.
1906.
1907.
1907.
1908.
1908.
1908.
1908.
BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Stange, A. E. When tospray. Formulas and notes on spraying. R. I. Agr.
Expt. Sta., Bul. 100, p. 121-148, 6 figs.
Page 129. Means against green pea louse.
CHITTENDEN, F. H. The principal injurious insects of 1904. U. 8. Dept.
Agr. Yearbook f. 1904, p. 600-605.
Page 604. Only few complaints of injury by Nectarophora destructor reported from Colorado.
Fett, E. P. 20th Report of the State Entomologist on injurious and other
insects of the State of New York f. 1904. In N. Y. State Mus., Bul. 97,
p. 359-597, 24 fig., 19 pl.
Pages 408, 416. Brief notes on life history, natural enemies, and remedies for Nectarophora
pisi.
FLetcHerR, JAMES. Insects injurious to grain and fodder crops, root crops,
and vegetables. Canada Cent. Expt. Farm, Bul. 52,48 p., 8 pl. June.
Page 27. Brief account of injuries by Nectarophora pisi, and remedies.
Pertit, Rurus H. Insects of the garden. Mich. State Agr. Col. Expt. Sta.,
Dept. Ent., Bul. 233, 77 p., 65 fig.
Page 40. Host plants and remedies for Nectarophora pisi.
[BurzEAu or Enromo.oey.] The principal injurious insects of 1905. In
U.S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook f. 1905, p. 628-636.
Page 629. A few reports of injury by Nectarophora destructor.
Conrapr, ALBERT F, Insects of the garden. Tex. Agr. Expt. Sta., Bul. 89,
52 p., 44 fig.
Page 4. Nectarophora destructor apparently widely distributed in Texas. Natural enemies
and remedies.
FLETCHER, JAMES. Report of the entomologist and botanist. Jn Canada
Expt. Farms Rpts. f. 1905, p. 59-81.
Page 67. Refers to extensive destruction of pea crops in Canada in 1899.
Betuune, C.J. 8. Injurious insects of 1906 in Ontario. Jn 37th Ann. Rpt
Ent. Soc. Ontario f. 1906, p. 45-56, fig. 3-17.
Page 49. Reports occurrence of plant lice on sweet peas.
Hircuines, E. F. Second Ann. Rpt. of the State Entomologist of Maine f.
1906. i sto tie, pl.
Page 4. Nectarophora pisi reported from several localities in Maine.
[Bureau or Entomoioey.] Principal injurious insects of the year 1907
U.S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook f. 1907, p. 541-552.
Page 544. Macrosiphum pisi reported rather more abundant than usual. Louisiana re-
ported as a new habitat.
Cmsar, L. The annual meeting of the entomological society of Ontario.
In Jour. Econ. Ent., v. 1, no. 6, p. 397-401, December.
Page 399. Serious damage to the late peas by the pea aphis was reported. Aphis fungus
effective in some localities.
Gossarb, H. A. Spring practice in economic zoology. Ohio Agr. Expt. Sta.,
Bul. 198, p. 15-88+-viii, 9 pl., November.
Page 86. Brief description of Nectarophora destructor, its injury to peas, and remedies.
NEWELL, Witmon, AND Rosenretp, ArtHuR H. A brief summary of the
more important injurious insects of Louisiana. Jn Jour. Econ. Ent., vy. 1,
no. 2, p. 150-155, April.
Page 153. Reports injury to cowpeas by Neciarophora pisi.
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 63
1909. Barre, H. W., anp Conrapr, A. F. Treatment of plant diseases and inju-
rious insects in South Carolina. §. C. Agr. Expt. Sta., Bul. 141, 52 p.,
1 fig.
Page 41. Means against green pea louse.
1909. [BurEAU or Enromotoey.] The principal injurious insects of the year 1908.
In U. 8. Dept. Agr. Yearbook f. 1908, p. 567-580.
Page 571. Macrosiphum pisi was more injurious than for many seasons.
1909a. CHITTENDEN, F. H. The pea aphis. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Circ. 43,
ed. 2,10 p., 7 fig., Feb. 25.
Revised account of an earlier edition. See 1901, Chittenden.
1909b. CuirrENDEN, F. H. Insects Injurious to Vegetables. 262 p., 163 fig., New
York,
Page 114. Concise account of Nec/arophora pisi as a pest to garden peas.
1909. Crawrorp, J.C. Notes on some Chalcidoidea. Jn Canad. Ent., v. 41, no. 3,
p. 98-99, March.
Describes “ Megorismus Fletcheri”’ n. sp., which was reared from Neclarophora pisi at
Ottawa, Canada.
1909. Davipson, W. M. Notes on Aphididae collected in the vicinity of Stanford
University. In Jour. Econ. Ent., v. 2, no. 4, p. 299-305, August.
Page 304. Reports Macrosiphum pisi from Urtica holosericea and Lathyrus. (The speci-
mens from Uriica have been examined by the writer and prove not to be pisi. J.J. D.)
1909. Fotsom, J. W. The insect pests of clover and alfalfa. Univ. Ill. Agr. Expt.
. Sta., Bul. 134, p. 113-197, 35 fig., 2 pl., April. Also in 25th Rpt. State
Ent. Ill., p. 41-124, 35 fig., 2 pl.
Page 138. Important contribution, including distribution of the insect, its food plants,
injury, descriptions, life history, habits, natural enemies, control, and bibliography of
important literature. .
1909. Gipson, ArTHuR. Insects of the year 1908 at Ottawa. In 39th Ann. Rpt.
Ent. Soc. Ontario f. 1908, p. 116-120, fig. 31-32.
Page 119. Nectarophora pisi reported abundant on field and sweet peas. Notes parasite
reared.
1909. Hunter, S.J. The green bug and its natural enemies. Univ. Kans. Bul.,
v. 9, no. 2, 221 p., 66 fig., 3 pl., folded tables 31-33.
Page 154. Unsuccessful experiments attempting to parasitize Macrosiphum trifolii with
Lysiphlebus tritici. (Identification of the aphid doubtful. J. J.D.)
1909. Jarvis, C. D. Control of insects and of plant diseases. Storrs Conn. Agr.
- Expt. Sta., Bul. 56, p. 220-282, pl. 5-11, April.
Page 258. Remedies against pea louse.
1909. NeweLL, WitMon, AND RosENFELD, ARTHUR H. Some common insects inju-
rious to truck crops. State Crop Pest Comm. of La., Cir. 27, p. 93-131,
21 fig., July.
Page 108. Brief account of Macrostphum pisi, including remedies and enemies.
1909. SwenK, Myron H. The principal insects injurious to horticulture during
1908-1909. Jn 40th Ann. Rpt. Nebr. Hort. Soc. f. 1908 and 1909, p. 75-
ZS AG ole
Page 104. Nectarophora destructor reported injuring sweet peas.
1910. Bernune, C. J. S. Observations on Ontario insects in 1909. Jn 40th Ann.
Rpt. Ent. Soc. Ontario f. 1909, p. 63-67.
Page 63. Garden peas attacked by plant lice.
64 BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
1910. Davipson, W. M. Further notes on the Aphididae collected in the vicinity
of Stanford University. Jn Jour. Econ. Ent., v. 3, no. 4, p. 372-381, fig.
28-29, Aug.
Page 380. Records pisi from Vicia sp., cultivated bean, and Urtica holosericea. (See notes
under 1909, Davidson.)
1910. Essta, E. O. Aphididae of Southern California. V. Jn Pomona Col. Jour.
Ent., v. 2, no. 4, p. 335-338, fig. 124-125, Dec.
Page 336. Describes winged and wingless viviparous female Nectarophora pisi.
1910. Furnaway, Davip T. Report of the entomologist. Jn Ann. Rpt. Hawaii
Agr. Expt. Station f. 1909, p. 17-46, 8 fig.
Page 23. Describes Macrosiphum trifolii Perg. from specimens collected on Sonchus olera-
ceus. (The writer has examined these specimens and they prove not to be Macrosiphum
trifolii Perg. J. J. D.)
1910. Gipson, ArtHuR. Reports on insects of the year. Jn 40th Ann. Rpt. Ent.
Soc. Ontario f. 1909, p. 9-14.
Page 14. Occurrences of Nectarophora pisi on sweet peas but less numerous thanin 1908
Parasite mentioned.
1910. Perrir, R. H. Insects of field crops. Mich, State Agr. Col. Expt. Sta., Bul.
258, p. 36-84, 51 fig., February.
Page 47. Briefly noted as a pest on peas.
1910. Rosenretp, ArtHuUR H. Insects notably injurious in Louisiana during 1908
and 1909. Jn Jour. Econ. Ent., v. 3,-no. 2, p. 212-217, April.
Page 214. Considerable injury by Nectarophora pisi but less than in 1907.
1910. Smirn, J. B. Annual Report of the New Jersey State Museum Including a
Report of the Insects of New Jersey, 1909. Trenton.
Page 118. [Nectarophora] Throughout the State south of Piedmont Plain and seasonably
abundant and destructive.
1910. Saunpers, Wint1am. Report of the Division of Entomology and Botany. In
Canada Expt. Farms Rpts. f. 1909, p. 37-64.
Page 56. Reports serious injury to garden, field, and sweet peas by Nectarophora pisi in
Quebec and Ontario. Number of enemies noted, including a species of Aphidoletes and a
new chalcid parasite ( Megorismus fletcheri Crawf.) Remedies.
1910. Wiiu1ams, T. A. The Aphididae of Nebraska. Jn Univ. (Nebr.) Studies, y.
10, no. 2, p. 85-175, April.
Page 168. Reported for clover in Nebraska.
1911. Cmsar, Lawson. Insects of the year in Ontario f. 1910. Jn 41st Ann. Rpt.
Ent. Soc. Ontario f. 1910, p. 21-27.
Page 26. Nectarophora destructor reported destroying field of peas. Also report of cattle
poisoning from eating infested vines.
19lla. Davis, J. J. List of Aphididae of Illinois, with notes on some of the species.
In Jour. Econ. Ent., v. 4, no. 3, p. 325-331, fig. 10, pl. 10, June.
Page 330. Lists pisi from Tllinois under names trifolii and ulmariae. White sweet clover
is a new food plant listed.
1911b. Davis, J. J. Preliminary report on the more important insects of the truck
gardens of Illinois. Jn Ill. Farmers’ Institute Cire. 4, 1911, 50 p., 42 fig.
Also in 26th Ann. Rpt. State Ent. Ill., p. 99-160, 42 fig. Also in Ill.
Farmers’ Institute Report, v. 16, p. 216-263, fig. 142.
Page 34. Briefaccount of Macrosiphum pisi as pest on garden peas, and remedies.
191le. Davis, J. J. Williams’ ‘“‘The Aphididae of Nebraska;’’ a critical review. Jn
Univ. (Nebr.) Studies, v. 11, no. 3, 39 p. (p. 193-291), 8 pl., July.
Page 34. Listed.
e
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 65
191la. Essta, E. O. Host index to California plant lice (Aphididae). Jn Pomona
Col. Jour. Ent., v. 3, no. 2, p. 457-479, May.
Compiled list of hosts for Macrosiphum ulmariae includes sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus),
wild pea (Lathyrus sp.), pea (Pisum sativum), nettle ( Urtica holosericea), vetch ( Vicia sativa).
1911b. Esste, E. O. Annual Report of the work of the County Horticultural Com-
missioner for the year ending June 30, 1911. Ventura Co. Hort. Com.,
Bul. 2, 60 p., 49 fig. "
Page 48. Figures Macrosiphum destructor and mentions it as a pest of peas and vetches.
1911. Gossarp, H. A. Fall manual of practice in economic zoology. Ohio Agr.
Expt. Sta., Bul. 233, p. 53-164+-vii, 2 fig., 11 pl., Nov.
Page 78. Advocates late cutting or pasturing of clover, especially first-year clover, as a
remedy against Macrosiphum pisi.
1911. Gipson, ArtHuR. Reports on insects of the year. Division No. 1, Ottawa
District. Jn 41st Ann. Rpt. Ent. Soc. Ontario f. 1910, p. 11-16.
Page 16. Occurrence on field and sweet peas but not especially injurious. Several natural
enemies noted.
1911. Gmetrr, C. P. Plant louse notes, family Aphididae. Jn Jour. Econ. Ent.,
v. 4, no. 4, p. 381-385, pl. 16, Aug.
Page 383. Reports Macrosiphum pisi from Albany, N. Y.,on red clover, and from Colorado
on garden and sweet pea, alfalfa, and sweet clover ( Melilotus alba).
1911. Gossarp, H. A. Entomological review of the year 1910. Jn Jour. Econ. Ent.,
v. 4, no. 2, p. 203-209, April.
Page 208. Reports Macrosiphum pisi abundant in northwestern Ohio, some fields of clover
dying out after the clover was cut. Droughty conditions probably responsible for unusual
abundance of the aphid.
19l1la. Hewitt, C. Gorpon. Report of the entomologist. Jn Canada Expt. Farms
Repts. f. 1910, p. 223-250, 3 pl.
Page 243. Nectarophora pisi was destructive in Quebec and Ontario from July to September.
1911b. Hewrrr, C. Gorpon. Report of the Dominion Entomologist. Jn Canada
Expt. Farms Rpts. f. 1911, p. 202-235, 3 fig., pl. 5-7.
Page 230. Macrosiphum destructor was present in most parts of Ontario and appeared to
check growth of plants.
1911. Parcu, Epira M. Macrosiphwm destructor and Macrosiphum solanifolii. Maine
Agr. Expt. Sta., Bul. 190, p. 81-92, fig. 59-72, June.
Discussion of characters of these two species, their differences, and insectary host-plant
tests.
1911. Ruaaues, A. G., AND Staxman, E. C. Orchard and garden spraying. Univ.
Minn. Agr. Expt. Sta., Bul. 121, 32 p., March.
Page 30. Remedies for sweet-pea plant louse.
1911. Witttams, T. A. The Aphididz of Nebraska. Jn University [Nebraska]
Studies, v. 10, no. 2, f. 1910, p. 85-175, April.
Page 84. Reported for clover in Nebraska.
1912a. Esste, E. O. Plant lice. Jn Proc. of 40th Fruit Growers Conv. of the State
of Cal. f. 1911, p. 11-24, 3 fig.
Page 15. Macrosiphum destructor included as one of the injurious aphidids of California.
1912b. Essic, E. O. Plant lice affecting citrus trees. Pt. I. Mo. Bul. Cal. State
Com. Hort., v. 1, no. 4, p. 115-133, fig. 40-45, March.
Page 126-127. Compares Macrosiphum destructor with Macrosiphum rosae and Macro-
siphum citrifolii.
66
LOU2:
1912.
1912.
1912.
1913.
1913.
1913.
1913.
1913.
1913.
1914.
1914.
L914.
1915.
BULLETIN 276, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Morrison, Haronp. A preliminary list of the plant-lice or Aphidide of
Indiana. Jn Fifth Annual Report of Indiana State Entomologist f. 1911-
1912, p. 195-236, 33 (unnumbered) fig., 3 pl.
Page 232. Occurrence of Macrosiphum pisi in Indiana, injuries and remedies.
O’ Kanes, W. C. Injurious Insects. 414 p., 606 fig. New York.
Page 200. Brief account of Macrosiphum pisi as a pest on peas.
Sanporn, C. E. Garden and truck crop insect pests. Okla. Agr. and Mech.
Col. Agr. Expt. Sta., Bul. 100, 76 p., 70 fig.
Page 43. Briefaccount of Macrosiphum pisi, including remedies.
SanpeRsOoN, E. D. Insect Pests of Farm, Garden, and Orchard. xii+684 p.,
513 fig.
Page 322. General account of the pea aphis ( Macrosiphum pisi), its natural enemies and
control.
Davis, J. J. The Cyrus Thomas collection of Aphididae, and a tabulation of
species mentioned and described in his publications. Ill. State Lab. Nat.
Hist. Bul.; v.10, art. 2, p. 97-121, pl. 6-7.
Page 98. Examination of type slide of species described by Thomas as Siphonophora pisi.
Esste, E.O. Injurious and beneficial insects of California. Mo. Bul. Cal. State
Com. Hort., v. 2, nos. 1 and 2, p. xxxi+367, 321 fig., Jan. and Feb.
Pages 73, 203. Brief notes on Macrosiphum destructor and remedies.
Hewirt, C. Gorpon. Report of the Dominion Entomologist. Jn Canada
Expt. Farms Rpts. f. 1912, p. 173-187,.1 pl.
Page 184. The destructive pea aphis reported injuring garden crops.
Lovett, A. L. Insect pests of truck and garden crops, 1913. Oregon Agr.
Col. Bul. 91 (Ext. Ser., no. 4), 39 p., 12 fig.
Page 16. Briefaccount of Macrosiphum pisi and means of control.
Morr, A. W. Notes on important insects of the year. Jn Filth Annual
Report of the Arizona Commission of Agriculture and Horticulture, June
30, 1913, p. 33-48, fig. 7-11.
Page 37. Reports injuries to garden peas by Macrosiphum pisi. Temedies.
Wiuson, H. F. Notes on Podabrus pruinosus. In Jour. Econ. Ent., v. 6,
p. 457-459, 1 fig., December.
Notes on the beetle, Podabrus pruinosus, which has proved efficient in destroying aphidids
among other species Macrosiphum pisi. Briefly describes various stages of the beetle.
Brirron, W. E., anp WaLpEN, B. H. Field tests in controlling certain insects
attacking vegetable crops. Jn 13th Rpt. State Ent. (Ann. Rpt. Conn.
Agr. Expt. Sta., pt. 3) f. 1913, p. 232-237.
Page 235-237. Reports Macrosiphum pisi destructive to peas past season and experiments
in methods of control.
Camsar, L. Insects of the season in Ontario. Jn 44th Ann. Rpt. Ent. Soc.
Ont. f. 1913, p. 49-53.
Page 52. Macrosiphwm pisi was troublesome in a few localities in southwestern Ontario
in 1913. i
Sarra, L. B. Control of green pea aphis in 1914. (Macrosiphum pisi.)—A
preliminary report. Virginia Truck Sta. Bul. 13, p. 301-812, fig. 66.
Remedies, based on recent spraying experiments, for the control of Macrosiphwm pisi
as a pest to peas are given.
3RANIGAN, E. J. [Insect Notes.] Jn Mo. Bul. California State Com. Hort.,
v. 4, no. 5-6, p. 285, May—June.
Macrosiphum destructor reported damaging pea crops in Alameda County.
1915.
1915.
1915.
1915.
1915.
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO FORAGE CROPS. 67
Casar, L. Insects of the season in Ontario. Jn 45th Ann. Rpt. Ent. Soc.
Ontario f. 1914, p. 42-46.
Page 45. Reports injury to late peas by Macrosiphum pisi.
Essia, E. O. Injurious and beneficial insects of California. Supplement Mo.
Bul. California State Com. Hort., v. 4, no. 4, Ixxxi--541 p., 503 fig.
Tage 104. Brief account of Macrosiphum pisi.
LocHHEAD, W. Brief notes on some of the injurious insects of Quebec, 1914.
In 45th Ann. Rpt. Ent. Soc. Ontario f. 1914, p. 59-61.
Page 6C. Reports considerable injury to peas by Macrosiphum pisi.
Petcu, C. E. Insects injurious in southern Quebec, 1914. Jn 45th Ann. Rpt.
Ent. Soc. Ontario f. 1914, p. 70-71.
Page 71. Reporis consilerable injury by Macrosiphum pisi.
Ross, W. A. Reports on insects of the year. Division No. 7, Niagara Dis-
trict. In 45th Ann. Rpt. Ent. Soc. Ontario f. 1914, p. 22-25.
Page 24. Muacrosiphum pisi was very destructive to peas.
ADDITIONAL COPIES
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SYR A
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Contribution from the Office of Markets and Rural
Organization, CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief
Washington, D. C. Vv : August 7, 1915
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION.
By Rosert L. Nixon,
Assistant in Cotton Marketing.
CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
ImitnOdUCtIONe Reena secon caesee= 22sec cele 1 | Types ofstandard warehouses......-.------- 7
Importance of storage houses. ......--------- 2 | Miscellaneous fire-insurance schedules... ..-- 27
erINGipleSsOMSLOLAaSOsecerieceeeeis-\ee cle eine = 3 | General considerations relating to cotton stor-
Explanation of the term ‘‘standard”’ as ap- areandufineinsurance=. 3.2. - 22. serene 28
plied to cotton warehouses.........--.---- 7 | -Conglisionmeeeeceecnciccs ice teae eee ieeeiee 37
INTRODUCTION.
The purpose of this bulletin is to outline, in a gencral way, some of
the essential features of a warehouse for the storage of cotton. It
is afact, not a theory, that loans on cotton in warehouses of ‘“stand-
ard’’ construction can be obtained much more readily and at a lower
rate of interest than on cotton stored in many of the other types of
warehouses now widely used. The expense of storing cotton in an
accepted type of warehouse, such as the standard, is much lower than
in many of the structures now used. The present system of storing
the bulk of the cotton crop in buildings which are not considered good
risks by the insurance companies and the consequent high rate of in-
- surance demanded on the cotton, together with the higher rate of inter-
est on loans made on cotton stored in these warehouses, has resulted in
a marked movement for the improvement of cotton-storage facilities.
It may be used as a guide in deciding what type of warehouse to build
and in making plans for the building; but neither the descriptions
nor the illustrations should be used as specifications. An endeavor
has been made to keep in mind the cost of construction, the arrange-
ment necessary to minimize the cost of handling cotton, and those
features which tend to reduce the insurance rate. The term “‘stand-
ard warehouse”’ does not refer to any Government standard, but to
Note.—This bulletin should be of special interest to warehousemen, cotton dealers, and those con-
templating the construction of cotton warehouses, and of general interest to all farmers, bankers, and
business men of the South.
_ . 98036°—Bull. 277—15——1
za
2 BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the standards recognized by the fire insurance underwriters’ associa-
tions. ‘Rates, Rules, and Forms” of the Southeastern Under-
writers’ Association are followed in discussing these standards and
the insurance rates on cotton stored in such buildings. This associa-
tion has jurisdiction in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina,
Georgia, Florida, and Alabama. The rates and standards used in
Mississippi are practically the same as those used by the Southeastern
Association. The standards and the rates recognized in other cot-
ton-producing States are very nearly the same as those outlined in
this publication.
While this bulletin is intended primarily to treat of the construc-
tion of cotton warehouses, it seems advisable to discuss in a general
way the importance of storage houses and the principles of storage.
Thorough investigations show conclusively that the present storage
houses are not rendering satisfactory service. An adequate system
of warehouses would bring about important economic reforms in
the handling and marketing of cotton. For this reason it seems wise
to discuss these subjects before describing in detail the different types
of warehouses.
IMPORTANCE OF STORAGE HOUSES,
It has long been realized that the inauguration of an adequate
system of warehouses would aid greatly in marketing the cotton
crop. This valuable staple, with an annual value of approximately
$1,000,000,000, usually is harvested and marketed in 3 or 4 months.
It requires 12 months for the mills of the world to consume this
supply. It is quite evident that if this cotton continues to be forced
on the market within a comparatively few months in each year, as at
present, the price will be depressed unduly. This not only results
in a material loss to the farmer, but the various branches of the trade
are taxed in the effort to handle it in such a rush. When the output
of any factory is in excess of the demand, the production is curtailed
or the excess of manufactured articles is stored in order to conserve
them properly until there is an mereased demand. This is also
true in the case of some agricultural products, but unfortunately the
South is not prepared to conserve, even temporarily, the excess pro-
duction of cotton in a proper and economical manner. It is also true
that many of the farmers and dealers suffer a great loss because they
do not understand the importance of protecting and conserving cotton
while it is awaiting a fair market.
This condition becomes very serious during practically every
cotton-picking season. The price is depressed during October,
November, and December, when it is being sold by the farmer,
The price then gradually increases, but this increase is of little
benefit to the farmer, for he has disposed of his holdings. There
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 3}
seems to be only one way in which he can protect himself. He must
prepare to hold his cotton until it is needed by the manufacturers
and exporters. Then, and not until then, will he get a fair market
price for the chief agricultural product of the South. In preparing
to hold cotton it is very important that he should make some pro-
vision to protect it from damage by weather. [It is also necessary
to arrange his business affairs so that he can hold his cotton for a
considerable length of time without becoming financially embar-
rassed.
An adequate storage system is essential for the proper handling
and marketing of the cotton crop of the South, which, including the
seed, is worth annually approximately $1,000,000,000. In many cases
it is difficult for small merchants and growers to borrow money on
cotton at 7, 8, or even 10 per cent. If it were stored in a standard
warehouse belonging to a properly organized system it would un-
questionably be possible for merchants to reduce this interest rate
to 5 or 6 per cent and possibly to 4 or 43 per cent. This would help
ereatly in financing and marketing this valuable staple.
In addition to cotton, various other articles could be stored to
advantage if adequate facilities were offered. There is a great
demand for storage space for fertilizers, farm implements, feed-
stuffs, and merchandise of various kinds. Storage facilities are
needed also for various other agricultural products. There are at
least $2,000,000,000 worth of farm products and merchandise that
undoubtedly should be stored annually. It is remarkable that this
opportunity for profitable investment of capital should be neglected.
The inauguration of such a system of warehouses would give great
impetus to the commercial development of this section. This subject
is uppermost in the minds of the best business men, and all concur
in the belief that properly equipped warehouses are a great necessity.
PRINCIPLES OF STORAGE.
Conservation is the central idea involved in warehousing. Storage
is not entirely a modern business development. Some of the oldest
business establishments of which we have any account were founded
on the use of storage places. Ancient history gives some good illus-
trations of the value of conservation. The Pheenicians developed a
wonderful commerce on the Mediterranean and became a rich and
powerful people. Their facilities for handlmg and conserving wares
made this great development possible. The Egyptians saved the sur-
plus grain during years of abundant harvests, and when years of
famine came they not only had plenty but sold the surplus they had —
saved to their neighbors at ‘‘corner” prices. Unfortunately, the
American people have not been inclined to conserve their resources.
4 BULLETIN 277, -U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Nature has dealt so generously with them that they have not been
compelled to realize the importance of saving. The South particu-
larly has been inclined to disregard the future. The present crisis in
the cotton market comes in a most unexpected manner and drives
home the lesson of the importance of conservation. The grain grow-
ers of the Middle West have long realized the absolute necessity of a
system of elevators for handling and storing their grain. Now the
South realizes that a system of warehouses is essential for saving,
handling, and marketing the cotton crop. Many are suffermg be-
cause they have been too short-sighted to take the necessary pre-
caution. Cotton lends itself more readily to storage than does any
other valuable farm product. In view of this, it seems strange that
storage has not been practiced. On the other hand, it is injured less
by exposure than are most products. This partly accounts for the
present attitude toward storage. Cotton does not demand storage;
consequently it is grossly neglected. 7
FUNCTIONS OF A WAREHOUSE.
A warehouse has three legitimate and very important functions:
First, it offers temporary storage facilities when the person owning
the product is not in a position to store it himself. In the cotton
business, in normal years, this will cover the period from the time
the cotton is ginned until it is sold by the farmer. It also provides
the cotton dealer with a place in which to store his cotton from the
time it is purchased until it is shipped.
Second, the warehouse should furnish the owner of the stored
product a negotiable receipt. This receipt should show definitely
what product is stored, the ownership, the amount of goods, the kind
or grade, the condition, and the location of the warehouse. It should
also show that the stored products are properly protected by insur-
ance. The legal holder of such a receipt would be protected as fully
as if he had the goods securely locked in his own vault.
Third, the warehouse provides a reservoir for surplus durmg years
of overproduction or when market conditions are very unsatisfactory.
When there is a surplus of any product there should be some way of
saving it until there is a better demand for it.
In keeping qualities, cotton is superior to all other agricultural
products. Properly stored it can be kept indefinitely without the
slightest deterioration. It seems remarkable that so little advantage
has been taken of this superior keeping quality. The fact that cot-
ton can be left in the weather for several months doubtless accounts
for some of the existing indifference to the subject. The South could
save millions of dollars in normal years by protecting cotton from
the weather. It is to be hoped that the lesson which is costing so
much now will result in the saving of many times the present loss in
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 5
future years. The inauguration of an ample and efficient system of
warehouses would mark the beginning of a progressive revolution in
the cotton markets.
Storage not only protects cotton from the weather, but from other
forms of wear and tear. In many places where cotton is sold on the
street, numerous large holes are cut in the wrapping for pulling sam-
ples. Frequently the owner loses several pounds in this unnecessary
process, and the bale is left in a ragged and unsightly condition. It
has been rendered less resistant to fire and exposure to weather by
this damage. The samples are frequently thrown on the street and
become a menace on account of increasing danger from fire. Besides
this, they are unsightly and destructive of civic pride.
As yet the warehouse is the most practical and economical means
of holding the cotton until it is needed. A recent investigation made
by this office indicated that the total storage capacity of the ware-
houses now in use in the South is ample for protecting a maximum
crop, but the same investigation showed clearly that only a very
small percentage of these storage ltouses were properly located or so
organized as to render efficient service. It is also true that most of
the present. buildings are poorly constructed, thereby making it nec-
essary to pay an excessive rate of insurance, and they are so arranged
that the cost of handling cotton is unreasonably high. While it is
true that in total capacity the present storage houses are sufficient,
the results of the investigation emphasize the fact that in point of
convenience and service rendered they are entirely inadequate.
The same investigation showed that cotton, when properly stored
and insured with a reputable company, is considered by the most
substantial bankers the very best collateral that can be offered.
Numerous companies in the South have such arrangements with
bankers as will enable the owners of cotton to store it with these
companies and readily obtain loans on the best possible terms.
Yet a large majority of the storage houses have very little business
standing; consequently it frequently is difficult or almost impossible
to borrow money on cotton stored with them. It is often true that
these poorly organized companies are located in the cotton-producing
communities. These are the kinds of warehouses with which many
farmeis have been compelled to deal, and frequently they are the only
kinds of which they have any knowledge. For this reason their atti-
tude toward storing is almost hostile. They know from experience
that they have to pay entirely too much for the service rendered by
the companies, and they naturally have concluded that it does not
pay to store cotton.
1 Nixon, Robert L. Cotton Warehouses: Storage facilities now Available in the South. U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bulletin 216, 1915.
Oe
———
6 BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Notwithstanding all of the objectionable features of the storage
business as now conducted, the farmer frequently considers it neces-
sary or to his advantage to hold his cotton. The past year has been
most strenuous for the cotton farmer; one of the largest crops ever
produced in the United States, the growth of 1914, has left his hands.
However, the world’s visible supply, at the opening of the new
cotton year, August 1, was in round figures about 1? million bales
larger than a year earlier. That means a large proportion of the
world’s cotton crop of 1914 growth was carried over and added to
this season’s crop. However, the exports of cotton from this coun-
try during the cotton year closed August 1, 1915, were very close to
those of the year ended August 1, 1914. This year’s crop, at the
time of this bulletin’s going to press, is still in the making. But
when it is considered that in normal years there is a loss of from
$30,000,000 to $75,000,000 from what is generally, although incor-
rectly, called ‘country damage,” it will be seen that there is ample
need of an adequate warehousing system, regardless of whether the
crop is larger or smaller than normal.
In connection with the value of a negotiable warehouse receipt, it
should be said that proper State laws covering the issuance of the
receipts are necessary. In order to be of greatest value the ware-
house receipts should show beyond question the ownership of the
product stored, and this accuracy can not be accomplished unless
the States in which the warehouse companies operate have laws that
properly guard the issuance of receipts. If the laws of the State in
which the warehouse is located are such as to throw any cloud upon
the title of the goods covered by the receipt, the receipt immediately
becomes almost worthless as collateral and defeats any effort to
borrow money at cheap rates from outside sources. In addition to
enacting such laws as will guarantee effectively the integrity of ware-
house receipts, it seems advisable for all States to adopt a law of
uniform warehouse receipts. This law is now in effect in many of the
States, and has been approved by the American Warehousemen’s
Association, the American Bankers’ Association, and the American
Bar Association as being the best form in which laws can be made to
protect both the owner of the goods and the lender of money against
the receipts covering such goods.
The investigations previously referred to showed that there has
been great loss in the construction of the present warehouses. The
data gathered seemed to prove that the average insurance rate on
cotton in the buildings now in use is not less than $2 per annum
on $100. It is also true that if the money that has been spent on
these buildings had been expended economically and intelligently
in the construction of standard warehouses, properly protected with
automatic sprinkler equipment, the rate of insurance could be
4
Ey
i
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. q
reduced to 25 cents per $100. This would represent an enormous
annual saving. Many of the inferior buildmgs now in use should be
discarded entirely, and new warehouses, located with reference to
the probable demands for storage, should be built. It would be
possible also to remodel many of the poorly constructed buildings
which are well located, so as to increase their efficiency and effect a
great saving in the cost of insurance.
EXPLANATION OF THE TERM “STANDARD” AS APPLIED TO COTTON
WAREHOUSES.
An endeavor has been made to give reliable information in regard
to types of warehouses and insurance rates. A person who is pre-
paring to build will get better results, especially in insurance rates,
by following the suggestions given here, but, as previously stated,
the types of warehouses described are not to be regarded as ‘‘Govern-
ment standards” in any sense. ‘They are the standards recommended
by the fire insurance underwriters’ associations. Buildings erected
in accordance with these standards command a much lower rate of
insurance than those that do not conform to them. While endeavors
have been made in this bulletin to give definite information about
msurance rates, no responsibility is assumed by the writer as to the
correctness of the rates quoted, or the accuracy of the descriptions
of the different types of storage houses. Anyone planning to build
should have specifications drawn by an architect (many carpenters
can make satisfactory plans) and submitted for approval to the
underwriters having jurisdiction. This plan usually will save the
prospective builder a great deal of money, especially 11 insurance
rates.
TYPES OF STANDARD WAREHOUSES.
STANDARD I.—CLOSED COTTON WAREHOUSE (DETACHED), COMPARTMENTS LIMITED
TO 600 BALES’ CAPACITY. :
The standard for the closed warehouse of two or more compart-
ments requires that it should not be exposed by other buildings
within 100 feet, and that no compartment should have a capacity
exceeding 600 bales. To be most effective, this warehouse should
be a low, one-story structure. In figure 1 is shown the proper size
and arrangement of the compartments composing such a warehouse.
The bales of cotton should be stored on end, only one bale deep, and
at least one passageway with a minimum width of 4 feet should
extend through the compartment the longest way, leading to a door
at each end. (See fig. 12.) Such a passageway facilitates handling
cotton during the transaction of ordinary business and is a necessity
in properly controlling a fire.
8 BULLETIN Dilly U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Walls.—A blank wall of brick not less than 17 inches in thickness 1
should separate each compartment. This wall should be parapeted
above the roof at least 3 feet, and the parapets should be capped with
durable coping. The wall and parapet should extend 3 feet beyond
the frame end walls. Division walls forming a T instead of extending
beyond the frame end walls would be a desirable improvement.
Outside end walls should be constructed of clapboards (weather
boards) securely nailed to posts and studding, which render the wall
Fie. 1.—Closed cotton warehouse, compartments limited to 600 bales capacity—detached.
spark proof and weatherproof. All woodwork exposed to the weather
should be painted or whitewashed. When the end of the warehouse,
which is formed by the outer side walls of the end compartments, is
exposed, this wall should be of brick at least 13 inches thick and
coped in the same manner as the division walls.
Floors.—F loors should be preferably of concrete, but may be of
earth, brick, or some other incombustible material. (See discussion
of floors on p. 32.) When the floor is elevated to the height of the
car floor, with frame platforms extending across the ends of the com-
partments, the division walls should be built from the ground to the
1 The thickness of walls referred to in all of the standards are for one-story buildings. For thickness
required in buildings of greater height, see table on p. 82.
>
]
G
:
q
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 9)
height of the platform and should extend through these platforms so
as to cut them off into divisions corresponding to the compartments
in the warehouse. |
Roof.—The roof should be of light mill construction, with a mini-
mum thickness of 2 inches splined er tongued and grooved, supported
by timbers single thick (not less than 6 by 8 inches) and spaced 8 or
10 feet apart. One end of the timber should rest on brick ledges or
division walls, corbeled out to form suitable supports. The posts
should be not less than 8 by 8 inches, and all corners of timbers
and posts should be chamfered. Monitors, skylights, and roof Jan-
terns should not be allowed unless they are made of wired glass,
properly set in metal frames. The roof should be covered with
eravel or approved composition. <A roof of ordinary open-joist con-
struction covered with gravel or approved composition will be classed
as standard, but if automatic sprinklers are to be installed, it will be
necessary to have from 25 to 50 per cent more heads than are neces-
sary in the case of a roof of mill construction.
Samples.—All standards should require that the cotton be graded,
and all books showing the number of bales, weights, and marks
should be kept in some locality a sufficient distance from the ware-
house or in a separate fireproof compartment or vault, so as not to be
-damaged by fire. Such books and samples also should be kept in a
fireproof compartment or vault.
Doors.—The ends of the compartment should have as many doors
as possible, and in no case should the doors be more than 3 feet
apart. They should be heavy and securely made, hung on strong
hinges, and should open outward so as to facilitate the rapid move-
ment of cotton in case of fire.
Ventilators—The top of each compartment should be provided
with one or more approved metal ventilators.
Fire protection —A connection of not less than a 6-inch pipe with
a city water main of equal or larger diameter is necessary. One
standard hydrant for each three compartments should be placed
opposite the front or rear ends. Not less than 100 feet of approved
23-inch cotton, rubber-lined hose should be kept attached to each
hydrant. Six casks and 12 pails filled with water must be provided
for each 600 bales storage capacity.
SCHEDULE FOR RATING.
City.1 Town.!
First Second Third Fourth
class. class. class. class.
IB ASISMalCe eee en eee $1.15 $1.25 $1.35 $1.50
1 For classification of cities and towns, see p. 28,
98036°—Bull, 277—15 2
10 BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
This schedule of rates is subject to material reduction if the property is protected
with standard automatic sprinkler equipment.
Add for deficiencies as follows:
1... Floors, not:standard sc. oc 2 oe eee ool Se eee eee $0. 10
2. Variation from requirements as to number of doors, 5 cents for each door;
total charge not to exceed.........--- ser 2... 23's Se ee Balltey
3. Skylights, not standardis:.:...2-.. Vane! Oo .10
4. Private fire protection, none, or not standard=:......:.....2.. 222 eee 225
5. Fire pails and casks of water, none, or insufficient supply (6 casks and 12
pails: to:compartment)os5....2-. 07. eee 2. ee 50
6. Storage of lime or oils or use of any portion of building for stabling purposes
or for? “camping: 72. 2.26 5,....0% sce ve 2 oo . 50
7. Accumulation of loose cotton on floor or in other than closed bins.......--- 1. 00
Make deduction as follows: ;
Chemical fire engine (40-gallon, approved, on wheels, having sufficient hose attached
to reach any part of plant or premises): A deduction of 5 per cent of final rate will
be granted, except on risks that have full credit in rate for standard private fire pro-
tection; said deduction not to be less than 5 cents and not to exceed 30 cents.
ADAPTATION OF STANDARD I.
The standard warehouse with compartments limited to 600 bales
capacity, as just described, is used largely by the cotton mills. The
Office of Markets and Rural Organization has just published the
results of an extensive survey in Georgia and North Carolina, which
showed that a large number of mills have constructed warehouses of
this type and equipped them with automatic sprinklers at a cost of
less than $3 per bale capacity. The same investigation showed that
the rate of insurance on cotton stored in such buildings, when fully
equipped with automatic sprinklers and fire hose, is frequently less
than 124 cents on $100 of value.t| While buildings of this char-
acter are used largely by the mills and designed primarily to meet
their particular needs, it would be well for any person preparmg to
erect either a public or private warehouse to consider very carefully
the merits of this type.
No attempt is made to convey the impression that every public
warehouse of this type would be able to insure cotton at 124 cents
per $100. The underwriters’ association does not publish any
schedule for rating such sprinkled risks, but it seems to be safe to
state that cotton stored in such a building and in a first-class city
could be insured for 25 cents, or for 30 cents in a second-class city,
35 cents in a third-class town, and 40 cents in a fourth-class town.
The cotton mills are able to get a much lower rate on their own
warehouses in the mill yards because the mill mutual insurance
companies make special rates on this particular kind of risk. A
certain mutual insurance company also writes insurance on such
private warehouses at a much lower rate than the so-called “old-
1 Nixon, Robert L. Cotton Warehouses: Storage Facilities now Available in the South, U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bulletin No, 216, 1915,
eo
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. ial
line” companies. When a person is building a warehouse for private
use in which his own cotton will be stored largely, he can often
cut the public rate materially by having his storage house conform
very closely to the standard as outlined. It will be seen that this
particular type of warehouse will save much in insurance rates,
especially when it is used for private purposes, and it has many
advantages as a public storage house.
STANDARD I—COTTON WAREHOUSE OF FRAME CONSTRUCTION (DETACHED).
In capacity, arrangement of doors, and general construction,
Standard IT 1s exactly the same as Standard I. However, in Stand-
ard IL each compartment is a separate warehouse. These houses
PS NTE
SAINTS VAMOS ITNT SITE TTISW IS
Fig. 2.—Cotton warehouse of frame construction—detached.
must be placed at least 100 feet apart, and must be no nearer other
buildings than that distance. ‘This avoids the use of brick division
walls. The ends, roof, floor, etc., are exactly the same as in Stand-
ard I, but the side walls are of wood. In this type, two board walls
and a space of 100 feet are substituted for the standard fire wall
separating the compartments in Standard I. The diagram (fig. 2)
shows three of these compartments properly arranged. The require-
ments for private fire protection are the same as in Standard I. .
12 BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
SCHEDULE FOR RATING.
City. Town.
First class. | Second class. | Third class. | Fourth class.
Basis ratecs. sce ne=sasscmeesesececres sacs seco: $2. 15 $2. 25 $2. 35 $2.50
Charges for deficiencies for this type are the same as for Standard I. Deductions
as outlined under Standard I will also apply to Standard IT.
ADAPTATION OF STANDARD Ii.
The standard warehouse of frame construction limited to 600
bales storage capacity is net to be recommended for general use.
Where real estate is so cheap that it can hardly be considered as an
item in the cost of a storage plant, and where cotton is to be handled
in small lots of 500 or 600 bales, it might be to advantage to con-
struct such houses, but in most cases the additional land required
would cost much more than it would to erect a warehouse with several
compartments separated by standard fire walls. Where large
quantities of cotton are handled, the cost of trucking would be
greatly increased by having each compartment separated from the
others by a space of 100 feet. It is also well to take mto consid-
eration the fact that insurance on cotton in such buildings is much
higher than it 1s in the building described under Standard I.
STANDARD II.—CLOSED COTTON WAREHOUSE (OR COMPRESS), COMPARTMENTS
LIMITED TO 1,000 BALES’ CAPACITY.
Construction of building.—The outside walls of a one-story build-
ing conforming to this standard should be of brick not less than
13 inches in thickness, with or without standard parapets. (See
p. 82 for requirements of thickness of walls for buildings more than
one story high.) The roof should be of slate, metal, or approved
composition. The storage capacity of no compartment should
exceed 1,000 bales, which requires about 72,000 cubic feet. If
divided into compartments, the division walls should be at least
17 inches in thickness for a one-story building and should extend
at least 2 feet above the roof. AIL joists should rest on ledges,
metal hangers, or metal wall plates. Each compartment should
have one or more standard fireproof doors, not more than 40 feet
apart, opening outward, in éach outside wall, whether at end or side
of compartment. The floors should be of earth, shell, cement, or
some other noncombustible material. Monitors, skylights, and roof
lanterns, or texas, are not allowed unless they are made of wired
glass properly set in metal frames. The top of each compartment
should be provided with one or more metal ventilators. The com-
press tower should be of metal or some other noncombustible material.
Samples.—All cotton stored in a warehouse of this standard
should be graded, and the samples, together with books and other
records, should be properly stored at 1 safe distance from the storage
compartments,
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 18
Fire protection.—Six casks and 12 pails filled with water should
be provided for each 1,000 bales storage capacity. Not less than a
6-inch connection with a city main of equal diameter or larger is
required. One standard hydrant for each three compartments or
fraction thereof is necessary. The hydrants should be placed
opposite the front and rear ends of the compartments. Not less
| CONCRETE PLATFORM
BOILER
Fig. 3.—Closed cotton warehouse (or compress), compartments limited to 1,000 bales capacity.
than 100 feet of approved cotton, rubber-lined hose should be attached
to each hydrant, and a standard hose house fully equipped should be
erected over each hydrant. |
An approved and convenient arrangement for a warehouse of
this type is shown in figure 3. This diagram shows a warehouse of
one compress compartment, as indicated. A warehouse conforming
to Standard III may be constructed without a compress.
14 BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
SCHEDULE FOR RATING.
City. Town.
First Second | Third Fourth
class. class. class. class.
1. Standard mill construction with fire walls and approved roof $1.15 $1.25 $1.35 $1.50
2. Same as No. 1, with shingle or unapproved roof.........-.-. 1. 40 1.50 1.60 1.75
3. Same as No. 1, except that walls are of concrete blocks or of
COTmUPgatediron: sea cee eerie caine coco n coe eee eee Eee 1. 65 1.75 1.85 2.00
4, Frame building with approved floor.......-.-----.-.-------- 1.90 2.00 2.10 2.25
5. Frame building with shingle or unapproved roof........-.--- 2.15 2.25 2.35 2.50
This schedule of rates is subject to material reduction if the property is protected
with standard automatic sprinkler equipment
Add for deficiencies as follows:
1. Height:
For 2-story building *2s 20-2. ...<\) $yeeec-- 222-22 be eee $0. 10
For-3-story building: afic...2 0... 2 eee: no ee 25
Bor 4-stony- building =: 322222...24 eee. = Sees, ee ee 50
Hor d-story building ou22: .. 2. . 2 eee - - ets ee 75
2. Variation from standard as to joist supports. ....----- weten es Scene . 10
3. Outside brick-walls; not standard... . 522252. ---.-- ar <725
4. One. outside frame-or iron-clad. wall. = ee 52s... .-.-- 2... s2a5-2 see 50
5. Division walls, notmtandard .... 24.25.25 geee-. 2 et ta ee . 25
6. Excess in capacity of compartments or warehouses:
or Ot Or
Over 1,000 bales and not exceeding 1,500 bales......-......----.:--.- . 25
Over 1,500 bales and not exceeding 2,000 bales...........----- Soe 50
Over 2,000 bales and not exceeding 2,500 bales.............---.------ eT
Hor.each:1-000jbales' additional = ep een: - = ee <2
7. Variation from requirements as to number of doors.....----.---.-- $0. 05 to . 1
8. Skylights, monitors, or roof lanterns, not standard.....-..-.--------- eaten .10
9. Private fire protection,.none, or not standard--....-.--.--..2..-<- === 25
10. Fire pails and casks of water, insufficient supply (i. e., less than 6 barrels
and 12 fire pails for each 1,000 bales capacity)..-..-..--.-----.----- Bol)
11. Storage of lime or oils, or use of any portion of building for stabling pur-
POSES/OT fOr “VEANpINS)” <2... See eae = 2-2 9 50
12. Accumulation of loose cotton on floors or in other than closed bins......-- 1.00
ADAPTATION OF STANDARD II.
This standard is used largely for public warehouses, especially in
the small towns of the Southeast. It will be seen in the ‘Schedule
for rating’ that it may be of standard brick construction with
approved roof, or, with unapproved roof, built of concrete blocks,
corrugated iron, or of frame construction. When a warehouse is
exposed within a hundred feet it would seem to be advisable to
have it conform to Standard III, but outside walls of corrugated
iron or wood are not to be recommended in such cases. As a rule,
the more costly building is to be recommended. Such a building
will command a much lower insurance rate and it will prove more
satisfactory in many respects. Where a warehouse is not exposed
within 100 feet, it is well to consider Standard I. A building con-
forming to that standard, but with a storage capacity of 1,000
+
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 15
bales, can be constructed for less money than where the outside
walls are-of standard brick construction. There would be only a
slight difference in insurance rates.
STANDARD IV.—COTTON WAREHOUSE WITH OPEN COURT OR YARD.
Construction of building.—The outside brick walls should be not
less than 13 inches thick, with or without a standard parapet, for a
one-story building. (See p. 32 for required increase of thickness
for additional height.) The roof should be of slate, metal, or standard
composition. The building must be subdivided into compartments
with a storage capacity not exceeding 1,000 bales each, or 72,000
cubic feet. The division walls should be of brick not less than 17
inches in thickness, and should rise at least 2 feet above the roof
and extend at least 3 feet beyond the apron of the roof. The joists
of compartments should rest on ledges, metal hangers, or metal wall
plates. Each compartment should have one or more outside (not
court) standard doors, not more than 40 feet apart, opening outward.
The floors should be of earth, shell, concrete, or other noncom-
bustible material. The standard width of the open court from shed
to shed is 100 feet or more. In figure 4 is shown an approved dia-
eram for this type of warehouse.
Doors to court.—Sliding doors to the open court should be of light
frame construction, covered with approved terneplate, with single
hook jomts running horizontally and double lock seams running
vertically on each side. The space between the two layers of tin
should be filled with asbestos, magnesia, or some similar fire-resisting
substance. A rolling, corrugated steel shutter which can be easily
rolled or pulled down may be used in leu of sliding doors. All slid-
ing doors must extend at least 3 inches over the masonry at the sides
and top of doorway openings and lap over each other at least 6 inches.
The rail or track should be of wrought iron, secured to the walls with
bolts passing through the walls, and fastened with washers and nuts.
The hangers should be of wrought iron and fastened to the door by
bolts passing through it and secured with nuts. Binders of iron,
secured to the masonry in the same manner as catches and hanger
blocks, should be used. The binders should be so placed at the top
as to prevent the doors from rolling off the track at either end, and
at the bottom to hold the door in position when closed.
Fire protection.—A connection of not less than 6 inches with a
city main of at least equal size should be required. One standard
fire hydrant should be provided for each three compartments or
fraction thereof, with not less than 100 feet of 24-inch cotton, rubber-
lined hose attached to each hydrant at all times. <A standard hose
house, fully equipped, should be erected over each hydrant. Six
or more fire pails filled with water should be suspended in front of
each standard compartment and press room, and a proportionately
16 BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
larger number when the compartment exceeds the standard. A
sufficient number of casks filled with water should be kept outside
the door of each compartment, and three casks of water should be
placed inside of each compartment. A watchman should be con-
stantly on duty day and night, and should be provided with an
approved watch clock, or report to an approved central station.
—t
oa
8 |
9 |
‘)
Tt a
be 50:0"—> — 220-0" dee
/20-O—
Fic. 4.—Cotton w<rehouse with open court or yard.
Samples.—Samples of cotton on storage should be kept entirely
away from the warehouse, so as to more bertainky insure their preser-
vation in case of loss of cotton.
Smoking.—No smoking in or about the warehouse will be war-
ranted in the insurance policy.
Compress.—Where a compress is connected with the foregoing
standard warehouse, the boiler and machinery should be separaten
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. il
by walls not less than 17 inches thick, which should rise above the
roof at least 2 feet. All openings in this wall should have standard
fire doors on each side of the walls. These doors should be closed
at all times when the compress is not in operation. All openings in
the outside walls on, to, or overlooking the platform should be pro-
tected by single fire doors. The compress tower should be of all-
metal or other noncombustible material.
Cotton in court.—Storage of cotton in courts is prohibited by a
condition in the policy unless the warehouseman states at the begin-
ning of the season that he wishes to use the court for storing, in
which ease the risk is rated for its full capacity, and such rating is
not to be changed during the season unless it has been in effect at
least 90 days.
SCHEDULE FOR RATING.
| City. Town.
First econd Third Fourth
class. class. class. class.
Basis aloe eee eee ee ee, | $1.15 $1.25 $1.35 $1.50
This schedule of rates is subject to material reduction if the property is protected
with standard automatic sprinkler equipment.
Add for deficiencies as follows:
1. Height:
Homiwe-stonyabulldime” 2... /.-. ... eee. 9252 eee eee $0. 10
Horunree-story~oullding....... . ... 2 eee = oie eee ae . 25
Homiour-story, bUlIdIing ..: 2... ...:: 2. eee a= cies ie eine . 50
Horstivesstory loulldines 5... . 2 eee 2 2 oe ree te .75
PeVariaton irom standard as to joist supponusweseeees s+. 2 2 ee ee . 10
3. Openings to open court not protected by standard sliding doors or doors not
SUING ONGIE = SaaS ee ES 2 - 5a Sommers odeodas ees 5
4. Outside brick walls of less than 13 inches thickmess................---- . 25
Se ikion mame or ironclad outside (not court)iiwalllpyses 2222-2 ee . 75
6. For outside concrete-block walls (not court).....................-....- .50
(PAD ivasronuwallss mot standard... .\.... eee ee eer 5 OS
8. Shingle roof or composition roof, not standard ..-............---......- 25
9. Excess in capacity of compartments and (or) warehouses and (or) courts:
Over 1,000 bales and not exceeding 1,500 bales....................- . 25
Over 1,500 bales and not exceeding 2,000 bales.............-......- .50
Over 2,000 bales and not exceeding 2,500 bales...................-- 5B
owmeachsl:00OMbalessaddistional - _. 3ayaaeee area an ek ee enna .25
10. Variation from standard as to outside doors (number) ........-....------ . 05-. 15
hieehloor ouner thanstandards: =. ........ . . =epeaeenetn spy ei ee . 25
12. Private fire protection, none or not standard....- ee ht eS a 5S
13. Fire pails and casks of water, insufficient supply (i. e., less than 6 casks and
i2iire pails for each 1000sbales capaciiygyeeesr= >... 2---2---2-552-45- 50
14. No watchman and approved watch clock...-__................-.-----.- 50
15. Storage of lime or oils or use of any portion of building for stabling pur-
POSES OT LOLp CAMPING so 4o:5 2... . eye ie eS eu eae ve B60)
16. Accumulation of loose cotton on floors or in other than closed bins. ..... 1.00
Deduction for chemical fire engines will be made as outlined in Standard I. _
98036°—Bull. 277—15 3
18 BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ADAPTATION OF STANDARD IV.
The open-court warehouse has very much the same use as Standard
III. This warehouse is readily adaptable for use as a large public
storage plant. This is especially true where the house occupies a full
block. Where available land is in a narrow strip, it is frequently
necessary to use Standard III, but in most cases where the warehouse
has a storage capacity of not less than 10,000 or 15,000 bales it is
advisable to use the open-court type.
STANDARD V.—STANDARD FOR HOLLOW-SQUARE OR OPEN-COURT WAREHOUSE OF
FIRE-RESISTIVE CONSTRUCTION.
Construction of building.—This standard requires that the building
should be constructed of reinforced concrete or standard brick through-
out.. The building should be constructed of an approved mixture of
concrete (where concrete is used), properly reinforced with steel.
Concrete blocks (whole or hollow) will not be considered reinforced.
The area of any compartment should not exceed 2,950 square feet
(59 by 50 feet) and the area of any compress compartment should not
exceed 5,644 square feet (83 by 68 feet). (See fig. 5 for approved
diagram). The height of any storage compartment should not exceed
13 feet 8 inches at the lower side or 16 feet 8 inches at the higher side.
- Walls, doors, etc-—The outside walls should be at least 9 inches
thick if concrete, or 13 inches thick if brick. Division walls should be
4 inches thicker than required for outside walls. The wall around the
compress tower above the main roof should be 6 inches thick and
should be constructed of reinforced concrete. All walls should have
parapets 3 feet above the roofs of the same thickness as the wall.
The parapets should be parallel with the contour of the roof and
properly coped if built of brick. The flcors should be of noncom-
bustible material, with no air space undezn>-th. To meet the stand-
ard, the building should have a concret> ‘ inches thick, covered
with approved composition roofing, A‘i columns, girders, and
cross girders supporting the roof shomc 32 ci reintcreed concrete.
No windows should be allowed except 1 tho ofice and compress
tower. Doors should be allowed only in outside e2d court walls,
and these should be fully standard in all respects. “ach storage
compartment should have one or more standard fireproof doors,
not more than 50 feet apart, opening outward. On the court side of
the walls the doors must be placed before cach tier of cotton. The
court should be at least 200 feet wide, and no combustible material
of any kind should be permitted in the court.
Arrangement, ete.—Not over 600 bales should be stored in any
one compartment. The cotton bale should be laid flat on the side,
and piled not to exceed 5 bales high. . The sizes listed above will
allow the storage of 600 standard bales, five tiers high, 120 bales to
wr a
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 19
the tier. Loose cotton should not be allowed to accumulate, but
should be picked up before closing the compress and placed in an
50% 59°
: {
|
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ELEVATION
_ approved loose room with the samples. The records also should be
kept a safe distance from the storage compartments. Cotton left in
the court over night should not be piled or headed, and should be
20 BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
covered entirely with tarpaulins, properly battened down to prevent
the wind from blowing them off the cotton. A clear space of 30 feet
should be maintained between any cotton in the court and also in
front of the compartments. <A 15-foot aisle should be maintained
longitudinally through the center of the court and a 30-foot aisle
across the center of the court.
Boilers, fire protection, etc.—The boilers should be in a separate
compartment of standard construction and should be well ventilated.
Provision should be made for keeping fuel, oils, and waste in a safe
place. Approved ash cans should be provided in order to prevent
fire from this source. This standard also requires that a watchman
with an approved clock should be on duty at all times when the plant is
not in actual operation. A sufficient number of casks and pails
should be placed in each compartment, in front of the compartments,
and also in the open court. Yard mains should have a connection
at least 6 inches in diameter with a city main of the same or greater
diameter. A sufficient number of two or three way fire hydrants
should be installed, as designated by the underwriters haying juris-
diction, and be so located that the required number of standard fire
streams can be brought to bear on all sides of the plant. Hydrants
should be located 50 feet from the building and not over 200 feet
apart. When automatic sprinklers are to be installed, plans and
specifications will be furnished without cost upon application to
underwriters.
SCHEDULE FOR RATING.
Building. Contents.
{
Basis rate:
G00 balesicapacitysemece meee meee i= soiclats.c = sales i eee oe eralai= ==) ~ io inlets aeeatee $0. 68 $0. 85
960ibales'capacity. 2 accheneeeeeee ism: == neo ae,feeie eee ee cae oditec = sjcic aeiste tone 85 1.10
For end of open court not closed by 7-foot close fence, add......-..--..--.--.-------- .10 10
For locomotives passing within 80 feet of open end, add.......--...-.--2---22------- .50 .50
This schedule of rates is subject to material reduction if the property is protected
with standard automatic sprinkler equipment.
Deduction for chemical fire engines is the same as outlined for Standard I.
ADAPTATION OF STANDARD VY.
This type is used largely in cities by companies that try to give
the most efficient service possible. It is needless to say that such a
building commands a very low rate of imsurance. Some compart-
ments in such a house are frequently used for storage of cotton,
while others in the same building may be used for storing merchandise
and various other products. The first cost of such a building is high,
but when the fact that the cost of insurance is greatly reduced and
that the building will last almost indefinitely is taken into considera-
tion, it will be seen that it is economical in many cases to erect a
building of fire-resistive construction.
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 21
STANDARD VI—STANDARD FOR SINGLE OR COMPARTMENT WAREHOUSE OF FIRE-
RESISTIVE CONSTRUCTION.
In thickness of walls, roofs, floors, materials used, etc., this stand-
ard is practically the same as Standard V. The area of each single
warehouse or compartment is 6,405 square feet (105 by 61 fect).
The height of any single warehouse should not exceed 7 feet on the
lower side and 10 feet on the higher side. Each single warehouse
Fig. 6.—Standard for single or compartment warehouse of fire-resistive construction.
should have eight sliding doors, two to each wall. Not over 600
bales of cotton should be stored in any smgle warehouse or compart-
ment, and they should be stored standing on end, one bale high only.
A separate compartment should be provided for loose cotton, sam-
ples, records, etc. An approved diagram of this warehouse is shown
in figure 6.
SCHEDULE FOR RATING.
|Building. ‘Contents.
Basis rate:
G0OIbalesicapactty Ase 2-2-2 - et aes - - 1 2) oem a ee $0. 60 | $0. 85
S60ibalesicapacityes-ces se see see as cis ---- 4 oe ees. Seo ee aermeas -85 | 1.10
This schedule of rates is subject to material reduction if the property is protected
with standard automatic sprinkler equipment.
Deduction for chemical fire engines is the same as outlined for Standard I.
ADAPTATION OF STANDARD VI.
This type of warehouse is used in much the same way as Standard
V. However, Standard V is used chiefly in connection with com-
presses where a large amount of cotton is handled. Standard VI
may or may not be used in connection with such a compress. Houses
of this type are used generally by smaller plants.
STANDARD VII._OPEN-SHED COMPRESSES AND PLATFORMS AND YARDS ATTACHED.
The open shed may be composed of one or more compartments.
The storage capacity of no compartment should exceed 5,000 bales,
or 55,000 square feet. Each compartment should be separated by
standard brick division walls, 17 mehes thick, without openings.
The floors should be of heavy plank, laid on the ground with no space
underneath. The roof should be of ight frame construction, covered
with gravel or approved composition. The roof and floor should be
22 BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
supported independently of the brick division walls. Supporting
joists oc timbers may rest on corbels of division walls and be entirely
self-releasing. Such sheds should have hydrants with not less than
a 6-inch connection with city mains, and a sufficient amount of hose
should be provided. Hose houses, built in conformity with national
board requirements and with full equipment, such as wrenches and
lanterns, should be placed over each hydrant.
SCHEDULE FOR RATING.
| City. | Town.
First Second Third Fourth
class. class. class. class.
Basis ratess: 022: Pace eee cs. 2. es a ee | $2.25] $250] $275/ — $3.00
This schedule of rates is subject to material reduction if the property is protected
with standard automatic sprinkler equipment.
Add for excess capacity as follows:
Over 5/000 and not exceeding 6,000. bales. #es2--.:. ..<.... 0.5), .2 oe eee $0. 10
Over'6:000 and! not-exceedine7,000: bales-..2832-...... 22.5.5. .2 5 eee 325
Over'7,000:and not:exceeding:8.000 balesi2i esze. 2.225. -2. eee 50
Over 8,000and not.éexceeding 10,000 bales..252222..-....----- <2) 2 oe 1.00
Over 10:000:and not exceeding 15:000 bales=.ct22s......:........2- 8 eee 2. 00
Over To%000 ales Sys peters ot. 0s tic a a: tS nee peer ts tl Ee en 3. 00
Add for deficiencies as follows:
JE iresprotection; nonesormot standard .. 232.920 2.5). 20-2 22 $0. 25
2. Compress boilers not cut off by 17-inch brick wall parapeted 3 feet above
roof, and (or) openings not protected by standard double fire doors...... . 50
3. Less than 6 casks and 12 fire pails, filled with water, for each 1,000 bales
CHW OP KOMI 6 eon but ho SoBe EMME aE GoD dos 6 CopOnueeeeeee oc eScocccccc- - .00
4, No watchman and approved clock Leo Te oa ie a cio.e ole ee 50
5. Storage of lime or oils or use of any portion of building for stabling purposes
OP TOL ss CAMPING) yep meets. «!.0'n' a Goo eee esc ss 6S ee. 50
6. Accumulation of loose cotton on floors or yard or in other than closed bins... 50
Deduction for chemical fire engines is the same as outlined for Standard I.
ADAPTATION OF STANDARD VII.
These sheds are used frequently in connection with compresses.
In figure 7 is shown a complete and approved arrangement of such a
shed with four compartments. These sheds have a very low cost
compared with their storage capacity, but insurance rates are so high
thet they are not usually considered economical, especially when
cotton is stored any considerable length of time. Much of the cotton
handled at such a plant, however, is considered in transit and is
covered by ‘‘floaters.”’ In such cases a cheap shed is economical.
STANDARD VII.—_EMERGENCY SHEDS.
The specifications for emergency sheds given here are recommended
by the Southeastern Underwriters’ Association. These sheds should
be located at least 100 feet in the clear, not being exposed to passing
locomotives or other sheds or buildings. A diagram of the construc-
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. re
tion and arrangement of a group of emergency sheds is shown in
figures 8 to 11.
275 f4 —-—— -
Fic. 7.—Open shed compresses and platforms.and yardss .chod.
Construction.—These sheds or units should be ~ — ted of light
framework, each shed or unit being approx? 221 .6 3dy 85 feet.
The roof should be of joist construction, cov-red v. «2 ar _oved com-
oa BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
position roofing and supported by eight posts. Six of the posts -
should be 4 by 4 inches by 64 feet long and the other two should be
4by 4inches by 27 feetlong. Three posts shouldbe placed at each end,
supporting the eaves of the shed, which should extend within 4 feet
of the ground. Two posts in the middle of the shed should support
a 2 by 6 inch ridgepole. All posts should be set 12 inches in the
ground. The sides and ends of the sheds may be open if not exposed
within 100 feet to a railroad main line or open-end switch tracks. It
is recommended, when feasible, that composition roofing should be
Fia. 8.—Emergency sheds—single unit.
used to inclose the ends of the shed from the peak of the roof down to
within 4 feet of the ground, in order to protect the cotton entirely
from weather. Metal sheets should not be used for inclosing the ends
or sides of sheds. (A single unit, or shed, is shown in figure 8.)
Arrangement of cotton.—Cotton to be stored in sheds (units) should
be arranged in two tiers (see fig. 11), the bales forming each tier being
placed end to end. No tier should exceed 36 bales. The bottom
layer of each tier should contain 8 bales. Each layer from the
bottom up should contain 1 bale less than the layer next below, no
tier being more than 8 bales high. The total number of bales in any
shed or unit should not exceed 72.
The tiers should be supported on stringers, as follows: There should
be three 4 by 4 by 10 inch mud sills laid on the ground crosswise with
the shed and lengthwise with the bale or at right angles to the line of
tiers. (See figs. 8 and 11.) These in turn should support four 4 by
6 inch by 15 foot stringers laid at right angles to the mud sills
and spaced about 3 feet apart so as to properly support the bales.
(Four of these stringers are required for each tier, as it requires two
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 25
lengths to one end of the shed.) The bottom line of the lower layer
of cotton should be at least 10 inches above the ground and should
be piled in tiers so arranged that the eaves on the extreme ends of
the roof extend 3 feet beyond the outer line of cotton.
6 FOOT BOARD FENCE
6 FOOT GOARD
6 FOOT BOAFO
Fic. 9.—Emergency sheds—plan for 1 group of 15 units.
Arrangement of units—The units should have at least 25 feet of
clear space on all sides and ends and should be arranged in groups of
not exceeding 15 units. (See fig. 9.) These groups should be
inclosed with a 6-foot board fence, with 15 feet clear space between
the fence and the ends or sides of the sheds or units. (See fig. 10.)
Fic. 10.—Emergency sheds—isometrie view of sheds and fence.
A group of 15 units requires an inclosed area of 128 by 305 feet.
Where more than one group is used they should be at least 100 feet
apart. Two or more groups may be included in the same inclosure,
provided 100 feet clear space is maintamed between each group.
The insurance policy covering risks outlmed above should have a
warranty attached showing that not exceeding 72 bales will be stored
in any one unit and not exceeding 1,008 bales in any one group.
SCHEDULE FOR RATING.
The basis rate on cotton stored in emergency sheds as outlined is
$1.75 in cities or towns. Where such sheds do not have standard
STS
26 BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
fire protection, or the requisite number of casks and pails, 25 cents
must be added to this basis rate. Where no watchman with an
approved clock is on duty, an addition of 25 cents must be made.
ADAPTATION OF STANDARD VII.
Emergency sheds are not to be recommended as a place for per-
manent storage. It may be seen readily that these sheds require
\
1s
+
TNIV AM ESINZAVAINT SCALA INZA NEN BAIN
—y S . = —~/ =. NEI
S\WZANEANY S\tvo DAY —SSTISNMEISS DCA WAN SNE
Ne Oars ELEVATION OF UM/T~ See 2%
Fic. 11.—Emergency sheds—arrangement of cotton in unit.
a large amount of land and would be very inconvenient where cotton
had to be handled frequently. When conditions are such that a
considerable amount of cotton must be stored pending better market
conditions, but where permanent storage is not desirable, it might
be well to erect such sheds, inasmuch as the original cost of con-
struction is very low. As the name indicates, they are intended
entirely to meet emergencies, and not as permanent storage sheds.
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. Oi
Estimate of bill of material and approximate cost for building one shed.
MjOmeetlumiber rata’ Sper Miceck 1... . . . Se ee $14. 00
Ninmemolismootne.atyp2.o0 per roll... 14... . SMe ee ye 22. 50
INAS. oc eae deco ee MMS. = cic eee yen a a Mele Pag a 1. 00
ILBISOI. 2 sc ia ue Bhs Ses ee) <2 a Sea ae aaa 10. 00
Movalyapproxamate cost for one shed. . /SaeMee eee 2-2 =m) 2-5 2c vied 47. 80
Estimate of bill of material and approximate cost of building a group of sheds.
Croupromloeneds: atnb4/.00....:...-...... -SeeeeMee eso te cess elec ele! $712. 50
Oso nect umber dtortence,.at $18 per M... seer ee oe ol 91. 00
IN GIS) TO? HETCE ae See eS oo ec Oe eae 2. 00
arormionncnccrand) Vo UnItsss)-)2...-..-. - . . eee et oooh he 175. 00
otalapproximate cost for group. ..2.peeeeeeees se. - 25 fen sects 980. 50
MISCELLANEOUS FIRE-INSURANCE SCHEDULES.
Schedules for rating cotton when stored in streets and various
places other than the standard warehouses described are given
below:
COTTON IN STREETS.
Rate in first-class city, if within 500 feet of standard city hydrants............ $4. 25
Rate in second-class city, if within 500 feet of standard city hydrants.......... 4. 50
Rate in third-class town, if within 500 feet of standard city hydrants.......... 4.75
RAceRMeourta-Class, LOW cic. -------.. See eee 24s kee aeeee 5. 00
COTTON IN YARDS AND IN OPEN OR COVERED PLATFORMS, NOT EXPOSED WITHIN 100
FEET BY COMPRESS (STORAGE LIMITED TO 5,000 BALES).
City. | Town.
First. | Second | Third | Fourth
class. class. class. class.
IBASISIT ALC sateen ee samen e eae eeeisiciis0\c)-\-\-)- ++ - >. =o $2. 00 $2. 25 $2. 50 $2.75
Add for excess capacity as follows:
Oivero,000;and not exceedinei6, 000 bales. 2 eseeeeeenen 2 ete ee eee $0. 10
Over 6,000 and. not exceeding 7,000 bales............... fs Save Ned Meeupee: Brecah tice as)
Over 7/000 and not exceeding,8,000. bales. . eens: - 22. be 5 a 550)
Overs000/and not exceeding 10000 bales Seaauemeee oS ee 1. 00
Over 110:000)and mot exceeding 15,000 balesSeaaREe es =) S202 eee ee, 2.00
Overalls O00 bales si 2295. oe eee se oe S.-i ee Sees Tee We care re 3. 00
Add for deficiencies as follows:
1. Fire protection, none or not standard...-.--.2.......... AMR eek ve $0. 25
2. Less than 6 casks and 12 pails of water for each 1,000 bales capacity.......- 50
3. No watchman with approved watch clock@@yaygee =. 222 . 50
4. Storage of lime or oils or use of any portion of premises for stabling purposes
OLMOTAMCATMD ING 2 eaenee...... . <a Onn fe oes ea ae 50
5. Accumulation of loose cotton on yard or platform or in other than closed bins. 1.00
Gamlimnelosed) by barbed=wire tence. ......-2aMMNMMN 2 Se 25
Make deductions as follows:
7. If inclosed by 7-foot high close board fence, deduct................-.------ 15
Deduction for chemical fire engines the same as in Standard I.
e
28 _ BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
COTTON IN BALES ON RIVER BANKS AND PLANTATIONS.
In buildings other than gin houses.
1. Standard mill construction with fire walls and approved roof..............- $2.50
2. Same as 1, with shingle or unapproved roof:-2¢-_......--.--2. eee 2.75
3. Frame building with corrugated iron sides and approved roof...........---- 3. 00
4: Wooden building with:approved root.-..3222222...|..------ 2 2552. 2
5. Wooden building with shingle or. unapproved roof..........--------------- 3. 50
6.-Cotton inthe opens :2- =... 2232.-2-. eee eso 3. 50
»
On cotton wharves.
Standard: One-story frame or iron-clad building, not exceeding 25,000 square feet,
under first-class city fire protection. .Private fire protection to conform to standard
requirements. Fire pails every 50 feet; watchman and approved watch clock.
| | Third
: d
| First- | Second-| ,20
| class city.| class city. fount
{wee towns.
IBASIS va heise 2s See Sols: 2 | eee So ay Se | $2. 25 $2.40 | $2. 50
|
Add for deficiencies as follows:
1. Excess area, for each 5,000 square feet above 25,000 but not to exceed 50,000
Square techs Suse se sa... 82 2 eee es i $0. O1
For each 10,000 square feet in excess of 50,000 square feet.............-.-- .O1
2 ootne mot standard! sep >. 2....... J So See ee le. oi od 2 eae)
3. For second story (no charge for office occupancy above first story). ......- 10
4) beating by stovessumsately arranged. 2- 2 se) s2-nsc-- 6-2 -. - oe . 25
5. Lights, kerosene oil, acetylene, or gas, with swinging brackets............ 10
6. Steam hoisting engine with boiler, or wood cutting on pier.......-.-.---.-- 25
7, Ateboilerjstack is without spark arrestere§sas-----22----...:---). eee 25
Switce and ceneralvcondation : ......: . sapere. 2 ee $0. 05 to . 25
9. No standard private fire protection (two water supplies required). ......-- . 25
10:“Casks*ofwaterand.firespails, none. 4:-eeeeess------------+- 2 . 10
Ji: Watchman and approved watch clock; momnet=...-.....:....._) 223g Bos
Make deductions as follows:
i: “Hor amcovered wharteesee=:. 2: ... See. Sk 50
2. If covered pier of steel-frame construction throughout.................--- 125
3. For pier built all on land or filled in underneath, deduct for contents rate. . 10
4. For fire-boat protection, according to efficiency.................--- $0. 05 to . 25
5. For piers having all reinforced concrete foundations and piling (on piers
only; mo} deductionsorcontents) .... saeeeeeees =2- -). .-. 2 25
Deduct for chemical fire engines the same as in Standard I.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS RELATING TO COTTON STORAGE AND
FIRE INSURANCE.
CLASSIFICATION OF CITIES AND TOWNS.
For convenience in quoting insurance rates, cities and towns are
divided into four classes:
First-class city.—This class requires that the city have an efficient,
fully paid fire department, with standard equipment throughout,
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 29
and waterworks that will insure an ample supply of water under the
proper pressure at all times. The streets must be paved and standard
in width, an efficient police force must be maimtained, and the city
must have proper ordinances for assuring caution in regard to fire.
It is also necessary for a first-class city to have well-defined fire
limits.
Second-class city —The requirements for a second-class city are
very much the same as for the first-class, except that the fire company
may be only partly paid, but it must be in charge of a competent
chief. The streets need not be paved, and the requirements in regard
to equipment ars not so rigid as in class 1.
Third-class towns.—In this class the fire company is voluntary, but
must be under a competent chief. This voluntary fire company must
be provided with adequate hose wagons or hose reels and a sufficient
quantity of standard 24-inch cotton hose. The town must have
standard waterworks and a fire alarm centrally located.
Fourth-class towns.—This class includes towns and villages having
no approved waterworks or fire department.
INSURANCE RATES.
Explanation.—In discussing insurance rates every effort has been
made to give authentic information. The data which have been used
are taken from the rates quoted by the Southeastern Underwriters’
Association. In many instances the exact language employed in
“Rates, rules, and forms’ has been used. After this material was
prepared it was submitted to experienced insurance men. It is con-
fidently believed that every statement made is correct, but at the
same time no responsibility is assumed for the correctness of the rates
quoted in this bulletin.
_ Segregation.—In controlling or preventing fires one of the funda-
mental principles is segregation. This is accomplished in various
ways. One way is to erect small buildings a sufficient distance from
each other or from other buildings, so that if one house be com-
pletely burned none of the others will be affected by the fire. When
larger buildings are erected, division or fire walls divide the space
into compartments. A fire in one compartment may destroy all of
the contents and the combustible portion of the building without
affecting other adjoming compartments.
This plan of segregation is very important in the case of cotton,
for it is of such an inflammable nature that it produces a flash fire.
This is the case particularly with cotton in the form in which it is
ordinarily stored. It is not properly wrapped at first, and, after it
has undergone frequent samplings it reaches the warehouse in a very
ragged condition. Much of the lint is not covered at all, and this
loose lint is sometimes hanging from the bale. These methods leave
30 BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the bale in such a condition that a spark will sometimes start a blaze
which will flash over a loose lot of cotton in a very short time. When
hundreds of bales are stored in one compartment this fire will flash
from one bale to the other and frequently will extend over a lot of
a thousand bales in a very few minutes. It can be seen readily that
cotton stored in large quantities in a single compartment would be
subject to a very costly fire, but a large warehouse might be divided
into several smaller compartments and so avoid an extensive fire.
This is the principle on which the insurance companies base their
specifications.
Automatic sprinklers.—The automatic sprinkler also has proved to
be of very decided advantage in protecting cotton warehouses from
fire damage. By means of automatic sprinklers a fire automatically
releases the water which is to isolate it. A detailed investigation of
90 fires in cotton warehouses under sprinklers shows that the average
number of heads opening was 13.5 per cent, while in 52 per cent of
the cases less than 10 heads opened. Later in this bulletin a brief
description of a modern sprinkler system is given, which will show
just how this desirable end is accomplished.
A study of fires in cotton warehouses which are protected by auto-
matic sprinklers shows that out of a total of 159 fires, 69, or 43.4 per
cent, were entirely extinguished by the sprinklers, and 74, or 46.5
per cent, were successfully held in check, making a total satisfactory
sprinkler record of 143 fires, or 89.9 per cent. Of the 16 fires which
were classed as unsatisfactory, in 8 cases the water was shut off from
the sprinklers; in 2 cases the water supply was defective; 1 fire was
due to faulty building construction; and 3 to obstruction to distri-
bution. Of all of these cases, 13 were really not attributable to the
standard sprinkler equipment in the standard warehouses, and in
only 1 case was it found that the hazard of occupancy was too severe
for the average sprinkler system.
LOCATION OF A WAREHOUSE.
It is very important to have a cotton warehouse conveniently
located on a sidetrack. This saves drayage, which is a considerable
item when the business is large. However, the warehouse should
not be within 100 feet of the main line of a railroad or a sidetrack
which extends beyond the building, for if it is so located the insurance
rate will be increased. This is avoided by having the warehouse at
or near the end of the sidetrack. :
Many companies have made the mistake of deliberately locating
the warehouse away from the business section. This is a serious
mistake, for several reasons: First, there is the cost of drayage. In
the second place, persons who are not directly interested in such a
warehouse will patronize an establishment nearer the business center.
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. ol
In many cases warehouses belonging to farmers’ organizations have
been located in the suburbs, or even in the country. It frequently
happens that the cotton buyers of the town would use this space if
it had been located properly, but they find it impossible to dray their
cotton to the edge of town for storage, with the prospect of hauling
it back to the station when it is sold. This causes the failure of
many promising farmers’ organizations.
‘PLATFORMS.
It is desirable to provide ample platform space at every ware-
house. There should be a convenient place for unloading cotton
from wagons, and, where cotton is shipped in, provision should be
made for unloading it from cars. It is also necessary to have ample
room for trucking when cars are being loaded or unloaded. In
many markets cotton is sold by the farmers on public platforms near
the warehouses: In such cases platforms should be of adequate
proportions and so located that the cotton may be conveniently
trucked to the warehouse or to the railroad platforms for loading.
The mistake is made frequently of buildmg platforms which are
entirely too narrow next to the railroad. When different lots of
cotton are being arranged for storage or for shipment, it is very
desirable to have sufficient space to accommodate several hundred
bales in addition to room for trucking. There are times during
emergencies when such space can be used to advantage for temporary
storage.
In figure 12, page 32, is shown a view of a well-arranged warehouse
conforming to Standard I. It will be seen that there is ample plat-
form space on either side and that the warehouse isnot exposed by
otber buildings. Fully equipped hose houses are placed at opposite
ends of the compartments. This view also shows the proper method
of storing cotton, the bales being placed on end only one bale high,
and a clear passage is maintained from one end of the compartment
to the other. The view also shows in a very general way an auto-
matic sprinkler system. In this case the tank is placed on the
extended walls of the building, which arrangement is economical in
that it saves in the cost of constructing a tower for the tank, but it
is not altogether as satisfactory as a separate steel tower.
SALVAGE.
Another important consideration is the salvage. While loose
cotton burns very rapidly, it frequently requires several days for a
bale to. damage seriously. In many fires the outside of the bales is
burnt and damaged to a considerable extent, but where ample pro-
vision is made for removing the cotton from the burning building,
it is frequently possible to save at least 50 per cent of the original
value. It is for this reason that’ all standards require many doors |
32 BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
so that the cotton may be removed rapidly during the fire. For the
same reason a risk takes a much higher rate when the warehouse is
surrounded by a barbed-wire fence or when there are any other
obstructions that might hinder the prompt removal of the cotton.
HEIGHT OF WALLS.
In all of the foregoing types the thickness of wall mentioned has
been for buildings one story high. The standards for fire walls for
Fic. 12.—Standard cotton warehouse fully protected, showing the proper method of storing.
buildings of different heights are given below. In the table the
thickness refers to the outside walls. In all cases the division walls
between the storage compartments should be 4 inches thicker than
outside walls.
Standard fire walls.
Thickness of outside walls, in inches.
Height of building. ay ]
First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth
story. story. story. story. story. story.
| [ie
OnOSlObyer seen ee eee = 139) Seema. <= Noa ee S| pee Ee as oc [nee ae ee
TW G/SUOLIES Hee eee ee ee nn ee he ae. ! 17 Ss [es Soe 320... 23] ae Es. Reem:
THYEGStOLIeS aes eee) oe one eee a: - - | 17 17 13')}:. eee Bees > a
OUr StOLIES 22. Soe ee oe eee Se mens | 22 17 17 13 2 pe ee eae
Wiv.e SHODICSS Soe as. aoe oe Seem tae 3a 22 22 17 17 13! Soe
SEX SUOGICS seca eee eee eae am 26 22 22 17 17 13
FLOORS.
All of the standards recommended by the insurance companies
require that floors be of concrete, dirt, shell, or other incombustible
material. Many warehousemen object to any of these floors for
the reason that when cotton is stored on such floors for any length of
time ‘country damage” usually occurs. This is undoubtedly true
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 88
in the case of dirt floors unless drainage is unusually good. Many
of the best warehouses, however, have dirt floors. If the drainage
is good, the cotton will not be damaged when stored temporarily.
When it is to be stored for any length of time, it should be placed on
timbers that will keep it well off the ground. Most warehouses
keep a supply of skids or stringers, 6 by 8 inches or 4 by 6 inches.
These timbers keep the cotton well off the ground, and there is no
danger from damage from too much moisture. The great advantage
of the dirt floor is the saving in cost of building and insurance. The
dirt floor does not require such high walls as are required where a
plank or concrete floor is used, and the cost of a standard floor such
as cement or brick is very high. The imsurance rate is 25 cents
higher on plank floors.
Concrete.—There is a wide difference in opmion among ware-
housemen on the advisability of using concrete as a floor. In the
first place, there is the very high cost. In the second place, it is
contended that cotton will be damaged when stored in contact with
such a floor. Others are highly in favor of using it and do not think
that the cotton damages to any appreciable extent. It seems safe,
however, to state that there is some danger unless there is perfect
underdrainage. If a suitable space under the floor is built up with
coarse, clean sand, as required by the standards, and a proper outlet
is maintained for any water, it seems that damage from this source
is almost negligible. If, however, the drainage is not sufficient, there
will certainly be some damage. This is especially true if the cotton
is too damp when stored. It is also claimed that cotton will lose
weight when in contact with a concrete floor during excessively dry
seasons.
Paving blocks.—Some warehousemen are now advocating the use
of wooden paving blocks for flooring. This material is not included
in the present standards of the underwriters’ associations, but there
seems to be no good reason why it should not be classed as fully
standard. A floor made of this material would last indefinitely, and
there would be apparently no danger of damage from excessive
moisture nor loss from undue drying. The suggestion is certainly
worth consideration by any who are preparing to build. The cost,
however, would be rather high.
If for any reason a standard floor is not built, the owner should be
very careful to have a good, substantial wooden floor. In the first
place, substantial pillars of brick or other strong material should be
used, and they should be placed often enough to make a strong foun-
dation for the floor. Sleepers should be of the best material, not
less than 6 by 8 inches in diameter. The flooring should be not less
than 2 inches in thickness and should be splined or tongued and
34 BULLETIN 277, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
grooved. To get the best insurance rate, the space from the floor to
the ground should be filled in with some noncombustible material.
Tf this is not done it is essential that there should be no openings
from this space to the outside of the building.
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS.
While it is not possible to give specifications for a system of auto-
matic sprinklers, the installation of such systems in ali cotton ware-
houses is urged. To do so means additional cost, but the saving in
insurance will more than offset this cost of installation. The ex-
penditure is fully justified by the protection given the cotton, which
results in saving in the cost of imsurance. Numerous warehouses
have been found where the insurance rate has been reduced from
$1.50 per hundred dollars to 30 cents. Many companies are now sell-
ing and installing these systems. Before anyone purchases he should
have detailed specifications prepared, and these should be submitted
to the underwriters having jurisdiction. The importance of this can
hardly be overestimated. An owner of a warehouse recently had a
sprinkler system installed in his warehouse, expecting to get the usual
reduction in insurance rate. However, it developed that the capacity
of his tank was only 3,000 gallons, while the requirements called for a
minimum capacity of 25,000 gallons.
History.—In connection with the discussion of the automatic
sprinkler as a means of controlling fires, it 1s interesting to note the
development of this system. Formerly there were many fires in cot-
ton mills, especially m picker rooms, in which department much
loose cotton is handled. Disastrous fires frequently start in the
picker itself. This machine has spikes on a cylinder which tear or
loosen the cotton. When one of these spikes becomes slightly bent,
it may touch another spike on the machine, and the resulting spark
usually starts a fire. Fora long time there was no protection against
such fires except the casks of water and pails. Finally it became cus-
tomary to provide this room with a crude sprinkler system. This
consisted of numerous perforated pipes throughout the room. These
pipes were connected with a supply of water. A valve on the out-
side of the building was designed to turn the water into the perfo-
rated pipes. Under this arrangement when a fire started some em-
ployee went out to the valve and turned on the water. This appa-
ratus was a great improvement over the old condition, but it was
weak in several respects. In the first place, the water was not turned
on until some one went from the scene of the fire and opened the
valve. Another very serious objection was that the water was
applied to all portions of the room. This damaged the building,
machinery, and cotton in places where it was not necessary, besides
exhausting the water supply unnecessarily.
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. 35
Description of a modern automatic sprinkler system.—The direct out-
erowth of this crude arrangement was the present automatic sprinkler
system. This system consists of a tank or other means of supplying
water. Ordinarily it is a large gravity tank and has direct connec-
tion with at least one city main. Pipes connecting with this main
are in all portions of the building. The water is distributed by
sprinkler heads. These heads are so arranged that when they are
heated to a certain degree they open and send out a considerable
stream or spray of water Under good pressure one head will dis-
charge some 40 or 50 gallons of water per minute. This system has
two very important advantages over the earlier form. The water is
liberated automatically—that is, when a fire starts the heat opens
the heads and the water is turned on without the attention of any
person. A second advantage is that only those heads near the fire
are opened. This prevents damage to wares in other portions of
the compartment and also conserves the water.except for the par-
ticular space where the fire is burning.
The automatic sprinkler system in its latest development consists
of a tank or other water supply of ample capacity—depending upon
the amount of space protected by the system—proper connections
with the city mains or other sources of water, sprinkler heads distri-
buted over the building with the necessary water supply pipes, and an
alarm which is set off automatically when a fire starts. If a dry-pipe
system is used, in order to prevent freezing of the water in the pipe,
the system requires draining after a fire, and the dry-pipe valve is
then reset. The water pressure at the heads should be at least 15
pounds, which makes it necessary for the tank to be at least 30 feet
above the highest head. A dry valve is not always used, except
where there is danger that water will freeze in the pipes, and thus
render the system worthless at a time when it might be needed.
When it is possible, the system should have at least a 6-inch con-
nection with the city main. The sprinkler heads should be distrib-
uted over the building in such a way that one head would cover a
space of 65 to 90 square feet, depending upon the arrangement and
construction of the building. These heads should be placed near
the ceiling. If a fire occurs near the floor, the heat rises immediately,
and the heads directly over the fire are opened automatically. It
requires 155° to 165° F. to melt the solder and automatically release
the water.
A fully protected warehouse which conforms in every respect to
the requirements of the underwriters’ association is shown in figure
13. When cotton is valued at 10 cents per pound, or $50 per bale,
it is possible to insure it in this warehouse at the rate of 5 cents per
bale per annum. ‘This illustrates forcibly the advantage to be gained
by conforming to the underwriters’ standards and installing approved
36 BULLETIN 277, U: S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
automatic sprinkler equipment, which effects a great saving in the
cost of Insurance.
FENCES AROUND WAREHOUSES AND COTTON YARDS.
It is very important that cotton stored in open sheds or yards
should be fenced in. Such a fence should be made of good boards,
securely nailed to railings, which are in turn fastened to strong posts.
In other words, it should be a good, close, substantial board fence at
least 6 feet in height. These fences prevent prowling, the careless
throwing of cigarette stubs, and various other practices that fre-
quently prove costly. It is usually possible to reduce insurance
rates materially by taking this precaution. While it is not at all
Fia. 13.—A standard two-story cotton warehouse.
essential, it would be well for such a fence to be erected around all
warehouses, together with the adjacent yards that are used for
handling cotton.
A wire fence should never be placed around yards or sheds, for i
interferes with handling cotton during a fire, and consequently increases
insurance rates.
FINANCIAL CONNECTION.
When the construction of a warehouse is being contemplated, it is
well to take into consideration the financial assistance that probably
will be extended by the banks to those who store cotton. It is fre-
quently the case that owners store cotton primarily for the purpose
of obtaining money for use until the conditions of the market are
improved. If it were possible to obtain money on the best terms,
much cotton would be stored which at present is allowed to damage
and remain unprotected from fire and theft. Many companies get
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION. OM
comparatively little business and eventually fail because the banks
are not willing to advance money on cotton stored with them. This
should certainly be taken into consideration when preparing to build
a warehouse. If satisfactory financial connections can not be
arranged, the chances are that the undertaking will prove a disap-
pointment and the promoters will necessarily lose by making such an
investment.
COOPERATION OF FARMERS.
Other investigations ' have shown conclusively that most of the
small warehouses located near the poimts of production do not pay
for the operating expenses and deterioration of the property. For
this reason very few companies in the small towns are inclined to
operate warehouses that give adequate service. If the farmers in
such a community wish to be assured of storage service at all times,
they should form cooperative associations and build their own stor-
age houses. In most cases such associations would not be expected
to pay any dividends, but the farmers would be sure that they would
have available storage space at all times, and in this way they would
be independent of factors, merchants, and others who now control
most of the storage space. If the farmers in such communities
would go further and organize selling associations, it would be pos-
sible to employ an experienced cotton man who would be able to
market the cotton more profitably than is now done. The cotton
mills are saving considerable sums of money by cooperation in insur-
ance. The mutual companies insure cotton belonging to mills for
much less than it is necessary to pay when cotton is stored in a
public warehouse. There is no reason why farmers should not
save by cooperating in building and insuring their own cotton ware-
houses.
CONCLUSION.
An adequate system of storage houses is one of the most impera-
tive needs of the South. Such an improvement would bring about
an annual saving of millions of dollars from what is usually called
“country damage.” This change would also eventually bring about
many reforms in the present method of marketing cotton. In addi-
tion to cotton, the South annually handles products worth hundreds
of millions of dollars that would be stored if it were possible to do so
under favorable conditions. There is also a great demand for storage
space for merchandise and various manufactured products, such as
fertilizers and farm machinery.
In concluding this discussion of the construction of warehouses, it
is urged again that it is of the greatest importance that warehouses
1 Nixon, Robert L. Cotton Warehouses: Storage Facilities now Available in the South. Bulletin 216,
U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1915.
38 BULLETIN 277, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
conform to the standards of the underwriters’ association. These
standards have been worked out very carefully and represent the
best thought in protecting cotton from both fire and weather at a
minimum cost. Many millions of dollars have been spent unwisely
in the construction of warehouses that do not conform to these stand-
ards. A thorough survey made by this office shows conclusively
that many of these houses cost more to build than they would if
they had been made to conform to the recognized standards. Most
warehouses, as they are now constructed, are not only subject to
unnecessarily high insurance rates, but are usually costher than those
conforming to the standards, and the cost of handling cotton stored
in them is unnecessarily high.
The diagrams in this bulletin should not be treated as plans for
building. An attempt has been made to outline some of the essen-
tial features of each type. It is very important that a competent
architect draw up specifications for any warehouse. While it will be
necessary to pay a fee for this service, the plans will save a great
deal in the cost of construction and insurance and add much to the
value of the storage house by making it possible to handle cotton
more economically. It is also important to have warehouses prop-
erly located. This is frequently the determining factor between
success and failure. Many warehouses erected by cooperative organ-
izations and by others have been so located that they are not avail-
able to a large majority of the people who frequently wish to store
cotton. This has resulted in the failure of many such enterprises.
Farmers should form cooperative organizations for building better
storage houses where adequate facilities are not available on favor-
able terms.
OC
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
4; BULLETIN No. 278 ¥%
aie
WHRS
A
Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology
L. O. HOWARD, Chief.
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. October 5, 1915
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. '
By E. W. Scorr and E. H. Steauer, Lntomological Assistants, Deciduous-Fruit Insect
Investigations.
CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
Tntroduetionver tere -ccetilene = sete cece ellie. 1 | Pield\experiments 22-2. 225-2. - fe teen ssc 27
IM POMIMO NPS yl N22 eee Leask ae decesa-.es 1 | Summarizedtneviews--o--2 ease ee eceosceeeee 38
HR PELIMOENES yl Olas ctecj\aseie eae ese eee e's - 1 | Conclusions taser sein-ciaae se Cee ec ee eee 42
Experitiornbts; Loud see fess sess 2: 19 |. Keyatortablestenteeseanacc cle eteee Cee ate 43
INTRODUCTION.
Numerous experiments with miscellaneous insecticides and spray
combinations, including tests of a new and promising arsenical,
namely, arsenate of calcium, were conducted in connection with other
work at the field station for deciduous-fruit insect investigations, at
Benton Harbor, Mich., during the seasons of 1912, 1913, and 1914.
Various homemade and proprietary msecticides, alone and in com-
bination with other sprays, were tested in the laboratory and in the
field. This work was done under the instructions of Dr. A. L.
Quaintance, in charge of Deciduous-Fruit Insect Investigations, and
much valuable assistance in carrying out the work was rendered by
Messrs. J. H. Paine, H. G. Ingerson, and D. M. Hamilton.
EXPERIMENTS, 1912.
A series of poison-feeding experiments were made to determine the
comparative killing effect of various arsenicals and also doubtful
stomach poisons on different species of chewing insects. At the be-
ginning of the tests 32 different materials were used, but since the
1 See key to the table ofinsecticides on page 43.
Note.—This bulletin describes experiments with various chemicals, singly and combined, for the
destruction of insect pests. It will be ofinterest to horticulturists in general and apple growers in particular.
98119°—Bull. 278—15——1
2 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
first few experiments showed that many of these were of little value
as stomach poisons, their use was discontinued.
A few homemade preparations were tested in the course of these
experiments. Those used in 1912 were arsenate of iron, arsenate of
zine, and arsenite of lime. The methods of preparation of these ma-
terials were as follows:
Arsenate of iron was prepared by dissolving 4 pounds of sodium-
arsenate crystals and 4 pounds of iron sulphate each in 2 gallons of
hot water. The iron-sulphate solution was then poured slowly into the
sodium-arsenate solution, the solution being stirred vigorously at the
same time. Arsenate of iron was used at arate equal to 0.8 pound of
sodium arsenate to 50 gallons of water for the ordinary strength.
The arsenate of zinc (homemade) was prepared in the same way
as arsenate of iron, sodium arsenate and zinc sulphate being used,
and the strength being based upon the sodium-arsenate content, the
same as for arsenate of iron.
Arsenite of lime was prepared by boiling 2 pounds of white arsenic
and 2 pounds of sal soda in 14 gallons of water until thoroughly dis-
solved, and this was used to slake 4 pounds of stone lime. After
slaking, enough water was added to bring the total to 2 gallons. This
was used at the rate of 2 pints to 50 gallons of water, which is
equivalent to one-fourth pound of white arsenic to 50 gallons of water.
LABORATORY TESTS.
During the season of 1912 the fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea
Drury) was used for all the experiments, since this insect could be
readily obtained in large numbers, and proved to be an ideal species
for handling in the laboratory. Very young larve, usually 3 or 4
days old, were used in all the tests. The larvee were fed with foliage
of the wild black cherry (Prunus serotina), which was found to be a
favorite food plant of the fall webworm in Michigan. Twigs having
from 20 to 30 leaves each were sprayed by means of a large atomizer
of the type in which quart jars are used as a container for the liquid,
and the stems of the twigs were placed in small glass jars containing
water.
After the spray had thoroughly dried, allowing from 6 to 12 hours,
20 insects were placed on the leaves of each twig. A large paper bag —
was then placed over the twig and held to the glass by means of a
rubber band to prevent the escape of the larve. At each examina-
tion the bag was removed and the dead larvee taken out and counted.
When all the insects were dead or had pupated, as the case might be,
the amount of foliage consumed was measured in square inches. A
sheet of celluloid, cross-sectioned to 0.01 of a square inch, was util-
ized for this purpose. These measurements were easily taken where
effective poisons were used, as the young larve died before very
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 3
much foliage had been consumed. In other cases, where the entire
leaf except the midrib and larger veins was consumed, the measure-
ment was obtained by measuring an average-sized leaf and substi-
tuting it for the leaf which had been destroyed. Carefui attention
was given to the condition of the foliage throughout the experiments
so as to supply the larve with palatable food at all times.
EXPERIMENT I.
COMPARISON OF THE KILLING EFFECT OF DOUBTFUL STOMACH POISONS WITH VARIOUS
ARSENICALS ON LARVA OF THE FALL WEBWORM.
In this experiment the arsenite of zine compounds and other pro-
prietary insecticides were used at the strengths recommended by the
manufacturers. The homemade arsenical compounds, where sodium
arsenate was employed, were used at a rate to equal 0.8 pound
sodium-arsenate content to 50 gallons of water, except in the case of
arsenate of iron, which was used double strength. Arsenite of lime,
homemade, was used at the rate of 2 pints to 50 gallons of water.
All other compounds containing arsenic were used at a strength
equivalent to 2 pounds of arsenate of lead paste to 50 gallons of water.
These calculations were based upon a 15 per cent arsenic-oxid (As,O,)
content in arsenate of lead paste. Compounds containing no arsenic
were used at the rate of 6 pounds to 50 gallons of water. The larvee
used in this test were about 4 days old. The results are given in
Table I.
BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
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As will be noted, while the triplumbie arsenate of lead was very
effective against the larve, it was somewhat slower in its killing
effect than the diplumbic and the mixture of diplumbie¢ and triplumbic
arsenate of lead. This held true in the other experiments that
follow. Of the three commercial arsenates of lead, commercial (1),
which consisted of the triplumbic form, required a greater length of
time to kill the larve than was required by the other two commercial
brands, which consisted mainly of the diplumbic form.
Arsenate of iron, both chemically pure and homemade, was used
at double strength, owing to indications of slow killing effect in
previous tests. At this strength it was somewhat slower than
many of the other arsenicals. Like results will be noted in later
experiments with this material.
The arsenates of zinc were effective and seemed to be safe to
use on the foliage.
Arsenic sulphid, arsenic tersulphid, arsenic trioxid, arsenite of
lime, and the arsenites of zine were effective, but burned the foliage
more or less seriously.
Mercury bichlorid and zine chlorid, while effective, were very
injurious to the foliage.
All the other compounds were ineffective.
EXPERIMENT II.
_ COMPARISON OF THE KILLING EFFECT OF VARIOUS ARSENICALS AND DOUBTFUL STOMACH
POISONS COMBINED WITH LIME-SULPHUR SOLUTION ON LARVZ OF THE FALL WEB-
WORM.
In Table II are given the results of using lime-sulphur at the rate
of 14 gallons to 50 gallons of spray in combination with all the
materials used. Little difference was noted from the use of these
combinations of lime-sulphur with the arsenicals. However, in
case of the materials which had no effect on the larvae when used
alone a marked difference was evident from the addition of lime-
sulphur. In all cases the larve were killed, the length of time of
killing varying considerably with the material used. The difference
no doubt was largely due to the difference in chemical reaction
between the material and the lime-sulphur. Lime-sulphur alone
killed the 20 larve in 15 days with only 0.73 square inches of foliage
consumed. In Table II are shown the results.
BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
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MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 7
EXPERIMENT III.
; COMPARISON OF THE KILLING EFFECT OF VARIOUS ARSENICALS ON LARV OF THE FALL
WEBWORM.
In this experiment the same arsenicals were used as in Experiment
I, all the other materials being omitted. However, since half-grown
larve were used the strength of the materials was doubled. The
results are shown in Table III.
TaBLe III.— Tests of the killing effect of various arsenicals on the fall webworm. Larve
half grown.
[Experiment started July 24, 1912, Benton Harbor, Mich.; 20 larve in each lot.]
Dates of examination and number of
larves dying in each lot.
Total Num- | Square
Pays ih = EG ber | inches
Name and dilution. July. August. bor days re-| foliage
dead. quired | con-
—— to kill. |sumed.
26 | 27 | 28 | 29} 31 | 2 4 1f |) 3
Arsenate of lead, di., 2-55 .-....-.--.--- OF} 0)|. Lae Ron eee eee 20 7 1.22
Arsenate of lead? tri, RA Deen aiciuiaimeicia =e OF} 10) |: 07 aU es iia ees) | ne 20 14 60
Arsenate oflead, di. and tri. , 2-50. SH a ess ers es) i) od! 20 9 43
Arsenate of lead’, triplumbic, com. Tay,
A (Se Ry a are Bec 2 LN eres Of 2 | 2) a ale eae 20 14 . 84
Arsenate oflead, com. (2), 4-50.....-.-- TEX e era) Go|) 10) |loscelsace 20 U 94
Arsenate oflead? com, (3), 4-50.....-.-- 0]. 0} SOR eae ees eae 20 7 .37
Arsenate ofcalcium, c.p. (pow der),2-50.| 0}; Oj] 1] 0/10; 4) 5 20 11 1.15
Arsenate ofiron, c. D. (powder), 4-50...| 0} O| O| 1] 1] 3] 1] 4} 2 12 19 (2)
Arsenate ofiron, Jo eal eh) eee aes Ooe COMMU fmt Celt GE) ik], TL] Sha) epg, 9 19 (2)
Arsenate of zinc, c. p. (pow der)),.2=465-.|| 64.1.0) | 0) on | Eee ee sett 20 u 2.03
Arsenate of zinc, h. m., 155-50.--------- CEO MN 7 [20 4) BN SS BA ee oe 20 14 87
Arsenic sulphid, De A te eeysiareia niciaernietere = 32)| 90: |" 25/7 om eee |e She 20 7 .95
Arsenic tersul hid, OO ee on eeeen cme 4 (1) 3s Bee Gee eee: bas 20 9 19
Arsenic trioxi , 1-36 Ae eee Bee 2 ee 5p) 60) - 4) ON ie ea ee 119 9 . 06
Arsenite of lime, AND USRDO Bases eee ce el eee) |) 0)" (3 oes es = Bh 20 1 56
Arsenite of zine, Chip h @)h 2-43 ee eee - By OF}! :2)5/SROM ease | ees eres Bee 118 7 M15
Arsenite of zine, com. (2), S00 ie eeraies= O10") 3) | a ear: ae 20 9 1.08
Arsenite of zinc, com. (3), T= 50) NSS Oe 1s) 2h Om oe ar aoe 20 9 94
Arsenite of zinc, com. (4), 13-50......-. Qe Bi OB aes 119 9 41
Check (unspray ed) (CD RUS, Ue One OO} OF OF OF @ 0 19 (2)
Check (unsprayed) (2) ...............-- 0 || 0 | OV akOR ON KON ONO") =O 0 19 (2)
1 Remainder escaped. 2 Not measured.
The results of these tests agree very well with the results obtained
from Experiment I. The experiment was discontinued August 12,
when all the larve were dead except in the case of arsenate of iron,
chemically pure, where 8 larve still remained living, and arsenate
of iron, homemade, where 11 remained living. All the larve on the
unsprayed lots were alive at the time the experiment was closed.
EXPERIMENT LY.
FIELD TESTS OF VARIOUS ARSENICALS AGAINST THE CODLING MOTH IN MICHIGAN, 1912.
Several arsenicals were tested in comparison with arsenate of lead
against the codling moth in Mr. J. T. Beckwith’s apple orchard in the
vicinity of Benton Harbor. The trees were of the Ben Davis variety
and about 35 years of age. The plats consisted of from 4 to 12 trees,
and the fruit was counted from 3 trees of each plat. The extent of
foliage injury from the various sprays was also noted. Thehomemade
8
preparations were prepared and diluted as given on page 2.
BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The
results against the codling moth are shown in Table IV.
TasLe IV.—Sound and wormy apples from sprayed and unsprayed plats.
[Poison test, Benton Harbor, Mich., 1912.]
Condition of fruit.
Ree Treatment. pres
Wormy.| Sound. | Total. | Ee" cent
IT | Arsenate of lead (paste), 2 pounds to 50 gallons
lime-sulphur solutions s22.5.3-..22-22 se eee 1 64 4, 430 4,494 98. 58
2 14 1, 542 1, 556 99. 10
3 9 879 888 98. 98
Plat totale oso. . ee oss sce wes b/c lo ae eee ere 87 6,851 6,938 98. 74
II | Arsenate of lead (paste) commercial No. 1 (tri-
plumbic), 2 pounds to 50 gallons lime-sulphur
SOLITONS ee eoreree is nicaciicse o's <a clelcicaalee ce eee 1 33 874 907 96. 36
2 84 1, 727 1,811 95. 36
3 44 1, 115 1, 159 96. 20
Plat totals sees tee coho cee ac aces cot eee fee ese 161 3,716 3,877 95.85
III | Arsenite of zine (powder), ? pound to 50 gallons
lime-sulphur'solutione: 52:25. .t2sio2 esis 1 4 734 738 99. 46
2 20 1,110 1, 130 98. 23
3 15 744 759 98. 02
Plat total soso bse oe eae 2 ie Gas bt eee eee ee 39 2,588 2,627 98.52
TV | Arsenite of zinc (paste), 14 pounds to 50 gallons i
lime-sulphur'solutione. 22: 32-222. 25022. eee 1 19 1,387 1, 406 98. 65
2 27 2,638 2,665 98. 99
3 7 486 493 98. 58
Plat Gotal: 70 ee ge So 2 5h 2 ee 53| 4,511| 4,564] 98.88
V | Arsenite of lime, homemade, 2 pints to 50 gallons
lime-sulphur/solutione:. 252. 5-5-<- 2osnces eee 1 32 680 712 95. 50
: 2 75 1, 282 1,357 94. 47
3 52 1,201 1, 253 95. 85
Blattobalc tetas: oo see sd oekes soa 2 eee eee 159 | 3,168 3,322 95.21
VI Arsenate of zinc, homemade, at rate of 0.8 pound
sodium arsenate to 50 gallons lime-sulphur so-
MU GIOT Fee eas Sees ss oc ones ceca dee ee eee 1 80 1,030 1,110 92. 79
2 261 1,597 1, 858 85. 95
3 108 1, 257 1,365 92.09
Platitotalcccsasoccoe= a cnet ne <n a ee eee 449 3,884 4,333 89. 63
VII | Arsenate of iron, c. p. (powder), 4 pound to 50
gallons lime-sulphur solution................--- 1 174 942 1,116 84. 41
2 413 1,176 1,589 74. 01
3 254 1, 228 1, 482 82. 86
Platitotal saa ee seks. J 22k 841 3,346 4,187 79.91
VIII; Arsenate of iron, homemade, at rate of 0.8 pound
sodium arsenate to 50 gallons lime-sulphur so-
HUpiGn ee sce oe cases teh cob bse tee eee 1 228 800 1,028 77. 82
2 205 970 1,175 82. 55
3 537| 1,466 | 2/003 73.19
IDA CTAB Gs ee Gamer... |! GaN 970| 3,286 | 4,206 76.93
IX | Arsenate of calcium, c. p. (powder), } pound to 50 |
gallons lime-sulphur solution.............-..-.-- 1 205 1, 672 1,877 89. 03
2 95 529 624 84.77
3 160 847 1, 007 84. 11
RIAU LOUR ec nee seen a seas oe ~ ana 2 oe eee 460 3,048 3,508 86.88
Ke] heck (unsprayed).. 2. te es. --<-..- -s os ee act. 257 | 231 488 47.33
2 487 274 761 36. O1
3 744 445 1,189 37. 43
PIR Cote eee 1,488 950 | 2,438 | 38.96
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 9
Arsenate of lead held the codling moth to 98.74 per cent of fruit
free from worms, with no foliage injury resulting. Commercial
arsenate of lead No. 1 (triplumbic) produced 95.85 per cent free from
this insect, and the foliage was not injured. Arsenite of zinc powder
and arsenite of zinc paste were as effective against the codling moth
as arsenate of lead, but considerable foliage injury resulted from
their use, about 50 per cent of the leaves being burned on these plats.
Arsenate of zinc, homemade, was effective, but fell somewhat below
arsenate of lead in its efficiency. The foliage was not in the least
injured from the use of this material.
Arsenates of iron, chemically pure and homemade, did not burn
the foliage, but they were only moderately effective against the cod-
ling moth. As will be noted from the laboratory feeding tests with
this material, its killing effect is slow.
Arsenate of calcium, chemically pure, 0.5 pound to 50 gallons,
held the codling moth to 86.88 per cent of fruit free from injury.
This fell somewhat below the efficiency of the standard arsenate of
lead. However, the use of a slightly increased strength of this mate-
rial would no doubt have been as effective as arsenate of lead, since
it proved to be an effective poison in the laboratory feeding tests.
Absolutely no burning resulted from its use, and its sticking qualities
were excellent, as was indicated by the abundance of the material
that could still be found on the foliage after several hard rains.
Only 38.96 per cent of the fruit from the three trees of the unsprayed
plat was free from codling-moth injury.
EXPERIMENT JY.
FOLIAGE INJURY TESTS OF VARIOUS ARSENICALS AND LIME-SULPHUR SOLUTION ON
FOLIAGE OF PEACH AND BEAN.
A bean patch was planted in the laboratory yard, August 1, for
the purpose of testing the burning effect of the various poisons used
in the feeding tests. The leaves were sprayed with a large atomizer
August 31. One row containing about 30 plants was used for each
poison, one-third of the row being sprayed with the poison alone,
one-third with the poison combined with lime at the strength of 2
pounds to 50 gallons of spray, and the remaining third with the
poison combined with lime-sulphur, 14 gallons to 50 gallons of spray.
The spray was prevented from blowing to other parts of the row
and to other rows by a canvas frame which was placed around the
part bemg sprayed.
An experiment was also conducted on peach foliage on several
trees in the laboratory yard. ‘The poisons were used alone in all
cases and were applied by means of an atomizer, using one peach
limb for each poison. The spray was prevented from reaching other
98119°—Bull, 278—15——2
10 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
parts of the tree by the use of a funnel-shaped canvas protector that
was placed over the limb being sprayed.
The results of both bean “and peach foliage tests are shown in
Table V.
TABLE V.—Tests of the effect of various arsenicals on foliage of bean and peach.
[Experiment started Aug. 31, 1912, Benton Harbor, Mich. Foliage examined for two weeks.]
INJURY TO BEAN FOLIAGE.
Poison combined | Poison combined
Name and dilution. Poison used alone. with lime, 2 to with lime -sul-
50. phur, 14 to 50.
Arsenate of lead, di. (powder), 1-50......-.- No burning....... No burning...--.- No burning.
Arsenate of lead; tri. (powder), 1=5 OU. aloes COs se licced G0 essa Do.
Arsenate of lead; di. and tri. (powder), 1-50.|...-. (6 Ko oie Ae aes aa doz ie Do.
Arsenate of lead} tri. com. paste (1), 2-50... -}...-. Cos te ek 0: 230.2555. 208 Do.
Arsenate of lead? tri. com. paste (2), 2-50. . Moderate burning.|...-. dois. ee =e Do.
Arsenate of lead? tri. com. paste (3); 2-00:2.-| No burning. 22: -).. 5.2 GOs /se cos eee Do.
Arsenate of calcium; c. p. (powder), 1-50 d Do.
Arsenate of iron, c. D. re O50) si te Do
Arsenate ofiron, Phe meee 50a tes pass da fae | Do
Arsenate of zinc, Caps (pc owe, 1-50 Sees eee ae cm Do.
Arsenate of zinc, h. M58 50S i sodas cat Do.
Arsenic salpnids ll —o0l- sence toate seb n ee ing... i .-| Severe burning.
Arsenic tersulphid SOOT eS RVers do... do Do.
Arsenic trioxid, 450 sceeeees . sient burning... Do.
Arsenite of lime, h.m., 2 pts.-50...2-..: --| Moderate burning.| No burning......- Moderate burning.
Arsenite of zinc, powder (1) ec. p., 1-50.......| Severe burning... |...-. G0>. 2. so Severe burning.
Arsenite of zinc (2), com. powder, 3.50.. seeete Moderate burning. fg22: G02:..2) 2 Moderate burning.
Arsenite of zine ey ;com.paste, 12-50... ...--.- |... Ore eee cca 00:25 Do.
Arsenite of zinc (4), com. powder, 2-602t-2tr |e? EK Lo 1-9. See do.ztisrst eas Do.
Paris PTeCM, FO so cee see acim ae teste cee to site ce 2 dole eb ac Moderate burning. Do.
Eime-sulphur{13-50_ m2). Sees sss 8. o2 No burmingsMeG4s|. thee: 28 seen ee
INJURY TO PEACH FOLIAGE.
Name and dilution. Poison used alone.
Aresenateiotlead:.disi(pOw der) l-50 co). ne See ince acs kes a Very slight burning.
Arsenate of lead, ‘tri. (Dowden) 1-50 Ne vac as sae oe eee neces ceca secs No burning.
Arsenate of lead; dijand:tris(powder) 21-50: as 55 eee et 2eas HS. e8 Slight burning.
Arsenate of lead? triscomapastol (hl) V2—50l 2 See oe seer epee ela coins wine aie oi No burning.
Arsenate of lead; tri. coms pastei(2) 2-50) _ 58 is ee ters ek Severe burning.
Arsenate of lead, trizicomspaste(3) 52-50) 5-225. «ase oe cece Very slight burning.
Arsenate of calrium, Glps(pow der) 1-50.22 so Jee enn aces eticicies Moderate burning.
Arsenate of iron, c. Dp. (powder), Oey Sie. 173 if ee SAL cba Nee Ly No burning.
Arsenate of iron, *h.m. 5 (EDT eg oC EL eR SES rac: eT Ncw Do.
Arsenate of zinc, c. p. Ggamaeay: MOORE oS Ss ee gone. 222s. aS Severe burning.
Arsenate of zinc, *h.m. Be omer scopia eic)= ce 0 SUS oe cra ee SS hia Sota ee Very slight burning.
Arsenic sulphid; Tt ee RE he eae Le de a a 8 ee Severe burning.
Arsenic tersulphid, Bes ee ae eee tn ers inci cjaye cis Soe EERE t = ois a areleie esi Do.
ATSENIC TrIOxId 4-50: se se. taee - Soo; CELE en SITIES Do.
Arsenite of lime, hem 2p ts —bOe eee epee occ ecis esse Do.
Arsenite of zinc, ’ powder LN) Coe OO tk es See eke oes om Do.
Arsenite of zinc (2), com. powder, , os) | REE te ROB anaes Do.
Arsenite of zine (ay? com. paste, 14-50 Reo afion soto. eee). dessa ey Do.
Arsenite of zinc (4), com. powder, BOO ole cae poe Ree nie mintinraiais oe Do.
(Paris| preenta—o0F soso kb reeset eos Sto Ses eee Re Cisie wid ties wteial Do.
Lime-sulphur, LO aais So SSAODOMGSE > SORREE BERDeS 2.0 25..2r aCe eee e eee
Of the arsenates of lead, the diplumbic form had no burning effect
on bean foliage and burned peach foliage very slightly. Arsenate of
lead, consisting of a mixture of the diplumbic and triplumbic forms,
burned peach foliage slightly, but no injury resulted on bean foliage.
The commercial No. 1, consisting of the triplumbic form of arsenate
of lead, did not injure peach or bean foliage. The commercial (2)
burned the peach so badly that all the leaves were shed, and produced
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 11
moderate burning on the bean, about 25 per cent of the leaves being
shed, but no burning where it was combined with lime or lime-
sulphur. The commercial (8) produced no burning on bean foliage
and very slight burning on peach foliage.
Arsenate of calcium, c. p., caused about 15 per cent of the leaves
to drop on peach, but had no burning effect on bean foliage.
The arsenates of iron, chemically pure and homemade, did not
burn either bean or peach foliage.
Arsenate of zinc, c. p., did not burn bean foliage, but seriously
injured peach foliage, causing complete defoliation. The home-
made form of arsenate of zinc produced very slight burning on peach
and no burning on bean foliage.
Arsenic sulphid produced severe burning in all tests.
Arsenic tersulphid produced the same results as arsenic sulphid.
Arsenic trioxid burned severely in all cases except when com-
bined with lime, in which case the burning was slightly less.
Arsenite of lime, homemade, burned the bean foliage moderately
when used alone and in combination with lime-sulphur. However,
no burning resulted when extra lime was added. The peach foliage
was severely burned by this material, causing all the leaves to drop.
Arsenite of zinc (1), chemically pure, burned severely in all cases
except where lime was used, in which case no burning resulted.
Arsenite of zinc powder, commercial (2), burned moderately on
beans except where lime was added, in which case no burning resulted.
It caused all of the peach leaves to drop. Arsenite of zinc, commercial
(3) and commercial (4), gave the same results.
Paris green produced moderate burning in all the tests on bean
foliage and burned all the leaves off the peach.
EXPERIMENTS, 1913.
LABORATORY TESTS.
Several poisons, namely, arsenate of lead paste, commercial; two
commercial brands of powdered arsenate of lead; arsenate of calcium,
commercial; two forms of arsenate of calcium, homemade; arsenate
of zinc, homemade, and arsenite of zinc, homemade, were tested against
the larvee of several different species of chewing insects.
The arsenates of lead and the arsenite of zinc were used at the
strengths recommended by the manufacturers. Arsenate of cal-
cium, commercial paste, was used at the rate of 14 pounds to 50 gal-
lons of water. Arsenate of zinc, homemade, was prepared and used
as given on page 2. Arsenate of calcium (1) was prepared by dis-
solving 1 pound of sodium arsenate and 1 pound of calcium acetate
each in 1 gallon of hot water and pouring them together slowly, at
the same time stirring the solution vigorously. This was used at a
strength equivalent to 0.8 pound of sodium arsenate to 50 gallons of
12 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
water. Arsenate of calcium, homemade (2), was prepared from
sodium arsenate and calcium chlorid, the method of procedure
being the same as for arsenate of calctum, homemade (1), and was
used at the same strength.
Lead chromate, commercial, was used at the rate of 8 pounds to
50 gallons. Lead chromate, homemade, was prepared by dissolving
2 ounces of lead nitrate in one lot of water and 1 ounce of potassium
bichromate in another lot of water. The two solutions were then
mixed, and a dense yellow precipitate of insoluble lead chromate was
formed. The amount of lead chromate formed is 2 ounces, and the
strengths at which the material was used in these experiments were
based on the amount of lead chromate formed.
H. Maxwell-Lefroy and R. 8. Finlow state the following in regard
to the use of the above form of homemade lead chromate as an insecti-
cide: 1
During this year we have applied this compound to a great variety of crops. We
have sprayed them till every leaf was yellow. The poison has remained on for over
three weeks, thickly on the leaves, which were uninjured. Sprayed on to crops at-
tacked by caterpillars, the caterpillars are killed, and the results obtained have beer.
excellent. We have used this at 1 pound in 32 gallons. At thisstrength it is entirely
safe, poisons caterpillars, and acts as a very powerful deterrent. * * * Lead
chromate has not the poisoning effect of Paris green, for instance, which can be applied
at 1 pound in 200 gallons, but it has a poisoning effect comparable with that of lead
arsenate, and is, in our experience, a perfect substitute.
As a result of this success with the use of this preparation as an
insecticide in India, thorough tests were made with it in experiments
conducted during the season of 1913.
EXPERIMENT VI.
ARSENATE OF LEAD VERSUS ARSENATE OF CALCIUM AGAINST LARVZ OF THE TENT
CATERPILLAR.
In this experiment arsenate of lead paste and the different forms
of arsenate of calcium were tested in comparison against newly
hatched larve of the tent caterpillar. The results of this test are
shown in Table VI.
Arsenate of lead alone killed the 50 larve in each of the two lots
in 5 days, with 0.04 square inch of foliage consumed. Combined
with lime-sulphur it required 2 days longer to kill, but only 0.01
square inch of foliage was consumed.
Arsenate of calcium, homemade (1), prepared from sodium arse-
nate and calcium acetate, killed the larvee in 5 to 7 days, with 0.05
and 0.06 square inch of foliage consumed when used alone, and in 5
days when combined with lime-sulphur, with 0.02 square inch of
foliage consumed. Arsenate of calclum, homemade (2), gave prac-
tically the same results.
1 Maxwell-Lefroy, H., and Finlow, R.S. Inquiry into the insecticidal action of some mineral and
other compounds on caterpillars. Jn Memoirs Dept. Agr. India, Ent. Ser., v. 4, no. 5, p. 269-327, 1913.
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 13
Tasie VI.—Tests of the killing effect on the tent caterpillar of arsenate of calcium, alone
and combined with lime-sulphur, in comparison with arsenate of lead.
[Experiment started May 17, 1913, Benton Harbor, Mich.; 50 larvze in each lot.]
Larvee dying in each lot.
Arsenate of cal-| Arsenate of cal-| Arsenate of cal-
Arsenate oflead,| cium (home- | cium (home- cium (com-
2 to 50. made, 1),0.81b.) made, 2), 0.81b.) mercial paste),
to 50. to 50. 14 to 50.
Check
(un- 7 iS a a
sprayed). 3 3 E E
Dates of examination. 6 rh : e i
2S aS aS BS
ze Ee Ee Ee
o = oS sa © an o ok)
B. |B pemeramaleilie) (26) 8 log) Boa
= = < 5 < = < =
: ro) xo a o =
sl N oO bi Yen) eo} ~ ie.) for) al ol rd a —
» » > > » ad » » ~ » » » » »
° fo} ° fo} ° ° ° ° lo} ° ° ° lo} fo)
4H 4 4H 4 4 4 a) 4 4 4 | 4 4 4 4
| Le ae
WER DADS aSane cabicae Speoeee ace 1) 1 42 45| L6lyesbiie esi ee27ie 80l25 33 20, 35] 43 28
IL) Ge domes | ae ee ee 2 1 8 5). 27 |e al | ak 2 23 18 L7| 20 15 u 18
IMiaiy 28 ee eek oo uie ee YL 1 OVS sal ake 7 Pale t= ea Zee acre LOSE eee 4
IN EW Ribas 5) oe Seale eae ae 0 0 Re eee eee eee ead adood soba bobde ceed dered aceae setes
Total number dead... 4 2) 50) 50] 50) 50)) 50) = 50)" 50; 50) 50) 50) 50) 50
Days required to kill........|...-- 2 ee 5} O85 7 Ay esl TG Al eh dh 5 7
Square inches foliage con- |
SUMEeset cece caececclee = 8. a 6. 75) 0.04) 0.04! 0.01) 0.05) 0.06} 0.02} 0.04) 0.06) 0.02) 0.06) 0.05) 0.03
Arsenate of calcium, commercial (paste), used at the rate of 14
pounds to 50 gallons killed all the larve in 5 days with 0.05 and
0.06 square inch of foliage consumed. The same preparation com-
bined with lime-sulphur killed in 7 days with 0.03 square inch of
foliage consumed.
It will be noted that when lime-sulphur was used with the poison,
less foliage was consumed.
EXPERIMENT VII.
LEAD CHROMATE VERSUS ARSENATE OF LEAD AGAINST THE LARVA OF FOUR SPECIES
OF INSECTS.
Experiments were conducted with lead chromate, commercial and
homemade, used at various strengths in comparison with arsenate of
lead used at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water, against four
species of insects, Hriocampoides cerasi Peck, Hyphantria cunea,
Halisidota caryae Harris, and Datana ministra Drury. The results of
these experiments are given in Table VII.
Neither the commercial nor homemade lead chromate was very
effective against the pear slug (Hriocampoides cerasi), 6 larvex living
through to pupation in each case, and almost as much foliage was
consumed as on one of the checks. Arsenate of lead killed 8 of the
larve in 3 days. The other 2 larve escaped. Nine of the larve
pupated in each of the two unsprayed lots.
14 ‘BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TaBLe VII.— Tests of the killing effect on four species of insects of commercial and home-
made lead chromate in comparison with arsenate of lead.
[Benton Harbor, Mich., 1913.]
a) : 3 «ee [eg
2 | Sale \ee (ee
o g| $ . Date ex- | Dateex-| $5 | 25/73 :
Name ofinsect. [2 5 | Name ee ae and | periment | periment | 5 Si- 3 ee a 23
As . started. | closed. = P| SU (geciaSs
= | 5 s 7 5 Hele FA
A | 2 |e |4 |e
Eriocampoides cerasi...} 10 | Check (unsprayed).........- July 2|July 7 5 So EEE 9. 64
LOG) e GOrets i. as oe eee aoe ozs -d0sene 5 Mr Ul os 4.36
10 | Arsenate of lead, commer- |...do..-.| July 5 37) 28 3} 0.25
cial, 2-50.
10 | Lead chromate, commer- |...do....| July 7 5 VA Soe 3. 48
cial, 2-50.
10 Lead chromate, homemade, }...do...-.|...do.... 5 WA | Sates 3.39
2-50.
Hyphantria cunea..-..| 20 | Check (unsprayed) --| July 14] July 31 9 Au ee 41.00
205/255 (0 eM ss oe Eee do=-=|22-dosse- 9 7 eon 37.00
20 | Arsenate of lead, commer- |...do...-| July 18 2 20 4 - 08
cial, 2-50.
20) | o025b Os Ot icc osc ons tosses} ste dOz% -=|22: 0023 2 20 4 -14
20 | Lead chromate, commer- }|...do..--.} July 21 4 20 7 - 96
cial, 8-50.
20) 2" 22 Bs Se SE a5 mies do. do 4 20 uf BL
20 | Lead chromate, homemade, |...do...-| July 23 5 20 9] 1.04
13-50
20h)s2 2/2 (t EER CRESS e eo sEe toad Fed do....| July 21 4 20 7 -88
Halisidota carye.-....-. 20 | Check (unsprayed)..-.------].-. do... ..| Aug: 11 9 1s | ees 3.50
Z0i| See: dO sei2o3 sb ees [EES doz52 =|. 2:d0i-2. 9 Ls|ssece= 2.20
20 | Arsenate of lead, commer- |...do...-.| July 18 2 20 4 30
cial, 2-50.
20322 2 Onrelge ac aee scene sees | oes GO22.-;<|-2-002-e7- 2 20 4 -50
20 | Lead chromate, commer- }...do....}| Aug. 1 9 UE so 3.25
cial, 2-50.
20j\ see (c Co Re ee se sie ee dos2 =:|: =.d0- 42- 9 Be Sess = 3.50
20 | Lead chromate, homemade, |...do.--.|...do..-- 9 bey bee 1.50
3-50.
20) ee oe dO. Nie esate eee lose dO=25-\- --d0s=5" 9 Ont Soa 1.60
Datana ministra.....-- 20 | Check (unsprayed)........-- Aug. 8 | Aug. 14 6 SS Se
20 | Arsenate of lead, commer- |...do....| Aug. 10 2 20 PH Fe eane
cial, 2-50.
20 | Lead chromate, commer- |...do....|...do...- 2 20 21 | aaee8
cial, 8-50.
20 Lead chromate, homemade, |...do....| Aug. 14 6 20 Gilde sees
3-50.
20 | Lead chromate, homemade, |...do....}| Aug. 13 5 20 Oy Pass
13-50.
20 | Lead chromate, homemade, |:-.do....| Aug. 10 2 20 PI ee ee
3-50.
1 Remainder pupated. 2 Remainder escaped.
Against the fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea) lead chromate,
used at the rate of 8 pounds to 50 gallons of water, was effective,
although 3 more days were required to kill in this case than in the
case of arsenate of lead used at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons
of water. The strength of lead chromate in this case is four times
greater than was used against the pear slug. Lead chromate, home- -
made, was used at the rate of 14 pounds to 50 gallons of water, twice
the strength that was used against the pear slug. All the larvee were
killed in 7 to 9 days, which was considerably slower than with ar-
senate of lead, and considerably more foliage was consumed. Four
of the larve were dead in each lot of the checks at the end of the
experiment, which was closed July 31.
The experiment against JZalisidota caryae ran for 18 days,at the
end of which time the lead chromate, commercial and homemade,
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 15
used at the weaker strengths, apparently had no effect on the larve.
- The arsenate of lead killed all the larve in 4 days.
For the Datana ministra, the commercial lead chromate was used
at the rate of 8 pounds to 50 gallons of water, and at this strength
the lalling effect of the material compared favorably with that of
arsenate of lead, 2 pounds to 50 gallons. The lead chromate, home-
made, was used at three strengths—?, 14, and 3 pounds to 50
gallons of water. The weakest strength killed all the larve in 6
days, the next stronger in 5 days. Only one larva had died in the
unsprayed lot at the time the experiment was closed, August 14.
EXPERIMENT VIII.
COMPARISON OF THE KILLING EFFECT OF ARSENATE OF LEAD, ARSENATE OF CALCIUM,
ARSENATE OF ZINC, ARSENITE OF ZINC, AND LEAD CHROMATE ON LARVZ OF THE
FALL WEBWORM.
Different forms of arsenate of lead, arsenate of calcium, and lead
chromate were tested against the larve of the fall webworm (Hy-
phantria cunea). Arsenate of zine and arsenite of zinc were also
included in this test, as shown in Table VIII.
Taste VIII.—Tests of the killing effect of various materials on the fall webworm.
[Experiment started July 23, 1913, Benton Harbor, Mich.; 20 larve in each lot.]
Dates of examination and number of larvee dying 3/2 a
in each lot. Slaai| sy
B| eG | oq
ro) a os
N d dilution re wo | oF
: ao 5 July. August. Belen leas
s A} ES / 28
A a a | ao
3 24 |o5|26{27| 28/29 la0/ar/ilels|aislee| ae
=| %: % H|A |o
1 | Arsenate of lead paste, com-
mercial 2-50 285 heen ee. cee (OD hs CO [ie OR ne Ol Pee 28 1D |) 7 dee celleaesalledsalicadelladae | 20 7! 0.42
PH Ge GOnp ae she esis Soke CO) Eee rea BWA) |) |) sed lsSacllecsaleeudlessc , 20 7 24
3 | Arsenate of lead powder,
commercial (1), 1-50....-.. CO) CN SO OR bee) 1 2 We cclleondleosellessdlocoe 20 7 41
Zea Oma seen ee ee CON aCe el ae Weal) ih 2! |) 2 besa bScelleéea boael Sere 20 7 APP
5 | Arsenate of lead powder,
commercial (2), 1-50....... COG O)el [es i ESB 7 dlecacllboselleseclldecel aescsess 20 6 aal83
Ghlloee ee Oana Nae ciel i cues OO ermal ray 8) | 2 salseealesee|[easellacce 20 7 24
7 | Arsenate of calcium paste,
commercial, 14-50..-..-..- Qu pee | On 1, LOR MRI aro ees | ee | ree | 20 8 75
Swett COs onbtaudaeaonesndeeoue CO) oid El Nore Gal earl Resta]: 83.4) Gj Bul lsesellses4 aeise| eer 20 8 . 88
9 | Arsenate of calcium, home-
made (Gp Reece acneic (Os) es) hese hana UL) 2 seeollacsalloesdlacsalsocaleeee 20 6 15
MORRO sa, ose ee oe ee OPE al Resi ales ft les oo sofjescollcodalenuclecee 20 6 ally
il ears of calcium, home-
made (2); 38,-50/- 22.5 -222-- One FON P25) 2252" | eee Ee i ea ae |e see 20 7 19
7 aces Omen at ena es ee, (O)i| ea) aes al Natae4e R24) 83) 2 ies alleaea besallabsellesoc 20 7 12
13 | Arsenate of zinc, homemade, :
Oia Sabb oeeeeee aaeaG (Aol Oe ea balls) ik oe cowed beeolseoc saee| anes 20 6 29
TAS | oscar Om see eerie emer Saar (Oy eet) a ae ed aaa a als} |] 8) lee cllsooalleeon bacclaaen locos 20 6 . 20
15 | Arsenite of zine powder,
pommercial, #5 On Sous ee Op Ds |& 25°57.) sige ea | | ee 20 8 - 50
EG eee GO ness shee cuican coon One |) 08) 22) Se Si ee ele Wer sulem se ace |e eee 20 8 -79
17 aa chromate powder,
comumptclal, ba aie ce A ONO! |) 08210. |: Ue RS Sa eer ees Sere |e 20 8 . 84
USE acs ko) Se seer eee ers OW Ol i.0),| 5.02 )2 Ob een arn acest re leat eal 20 11} 2.01
19 | Lead danpaesties homemade,
TSO O i cise tsa cloeteis cine secretes ON OV AOR Oat CG Sl I Blew esses 20 10} 1.70
20) lppece GOW ete Ss sae eae ee ON Ou) 20 |! 0 | SOc RAR GS is Sh) 4: |e 20 12} 2.09
21 Teds ager) Bae Ol Ol Oreo! O} OG} Di OW Oy Be Or SB llecced- 20.17
2a eee AO sisi chenic ae cece cesses OMe On 20: |= OF] ON ROR ROR ON | Ol le Oniie Lia|enOn| yl emcee 20. 56
16 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Seven days were required to kill the 20 larve by arsenate of lead
paste, and the two powder forms of arsenate of lead gave almost
identical results. Arsenate of calcium, commercial, was one day
slower in killing, and slightly more foliage was consumed where this
material was used. The two forms of arsenate of calcium, home-
made, killed in 6 and 7 days, comparing favorably with the arsenates
of lead both in the length of time required to kill and in the amount
of foliage consumed. Arsenate of zinc, homemade, killed in 6 days,
with 0.20 to 0.29 square inch of foliage consumed. Arsenite of zine,
commercial, required 8 days to kill all the larve and 0.79 to 0.84
square inch of foliage was consumed. Lead chromate used at
increased strengths was again slow in its killing effect, and more
foliage was consumed than in the case of the arsenates. Three larvee
in one lot and one larva in the other lot of unsprayed were dead at
the time the experiment was closed August 4. On the two checks
20.17 and 20.56 square inches of foliage were consumed, respectively.
EXPERIMENT IX.
COMPARISON OF THE KILLING EFFECT OF ARSENATE OF LEAD, ARSENATE OF CALCIUM,
ARSENATE OF ZINC, ARSENITE OF ZINC, AND LEAD CHROMATE ON LARVA OF THE
TUSSOCK MOTH.
Three forms of arsenate of lead, three forms of arsenate of calcium,
lead chromate (commercial), arsenate of zinc, and arsenite of zinc
were tested against larvee of the tussock moth (Hemerocampa leuco-
stigma S. and A.). The experiment was started June 26 and closed
July 6, when all the larvee were dead except in the unsprayed lots.
Table IX gives the results of this test.
The three forms of arsenate of lead killed in 4 days, except in one
lot of the paste form which required 6 days to kill; the amount of
foliage consumed for all the forms varying from 0.01 to 0.08 square
inch. Arsenate of calcium, commercial, required on an average more
than twice as long to kill as required by arsenate of lead, and consid-
erably more foliage was consumed. The two forms of arsenate of
calcium, homemade, killed in slightly less time than was required
by the commercial form. Lead chromate, commercial, used at the
strength of 8 pounds to 50 gallons of water killed in 6 to 8 days, which
was a longer time than required by the ordinary strength of arsenate
of lead. Arsenate of zinc, homemade, and arsenite of zinc, commer-
cial, were slower in their killing effect on this insect than was arsenate
of lead. Three larve were dead in each of two lots of the unsprayed
and four dead in the remaining lot, and 5.55 to 7.20 square inches of
foliage had been consumed at the time the experiment was closed.
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 17
Taster IX.—Tests of the killing effect of various poisons on the tussock moth.
[Experiment started June 26, 1913, Benton Harbor, Mich.; 25 larve in each lot.}
1 o
Dates of examina-| vg | 2 Ba
tion and larve | § coment
dying in each lot. ue) bal} ag
Bip Salar
Sa 2 |Ue|sa8
Name and dilution. g be os
June. July. 53 |°9 | 83
q Ok oo
en GEN els
ani alia thigetiis wes Eh
28 | 30 & 7 iS
113}.)) APA 25 4; 0.06
ow eeLO S| elect 25 4 O01
11 | il BulleSsall 25 6 - 08
183199129 ancl oosel 25 4 OL
nL SH errs | ees | 25 4 . 05
TSH evel eeyaretacats 25 4 . 02
LOW PSR ES sees 25 4 .07
1Ge |e Gee esl Secale 25 4 . 04
RO Sale Ssaleeasals 25 4 . 02
4) 11 1 5 4 25 10 - 50
MWe ie We leaks | 25 8 . 68
5 8 | 10 2). 25 8 . 42
Oi alee eal 2iiltee 25 10 . 20
LOM ayeele 4h 4ai 25 Sul 38
6 | 15 Le ele 25 6 15
10 | 6 1 0 5 25 10 .10
Aaa nS eile 25 8 . 23
17 7 eeoalls 25 6 . 06
OnleOrl) 16) hosel 25 6| .55
OVO e1GE sue 25 8 . 20
Ono 20M Rese 25 6 . 18
22 | Arsenate of zinc, homemade, 0.8-50...............-------- TO): Tf TO] aL ee 25 8 46
28) loci COMA ce see anish oe teniceicau tees Secon 2h. ee 1) sly TR 25 8 38
AN Nester CLOSE Re Ae weet ce ee eg oa ae en ee Srll5e |. On| 255 25 8 62
25 | Arsenite of zinc powder, commercial, 3-50.........--.-.-- 3) aso eal ye al 25 10 . 60
26n|peere Oe ee cee ee ub slenete nes) 2). GuPeOnle Sh |oale 25 8 74
OTe ON eee ee ee de Sule sil euse one 25 8 72
OAR || OVavsvolle: ((UbaIS 0} eh {clel) Eee Soe es oS PN Sh OOH) 33 Hiieeaces 5. 80
2) I heeee ClO). 6 sobaage san Caee BeBe tes cope ee eee ooo oc. OOF Oy Bo Ha eee 7. 20
Omer 010). casdosdoohe S eAO SHEED n | SERIE Bae mmm. Onl 2t |e Onl aia 0. $e 5. 55
EXPERIMENT X.
FIELD TFSTS OF VARIOUS ARSENICALS AGAINST THE CODLING MOTH, 1913.
Field tests were made with the following preparations against the
codling moth on apple: Arsenate of lead paste, commercial; arsenate
of calcium paste, commercial; arsenate of calcium, homemade, pre-
pared from sodium arsenate and calcium acetate; arsenate of cal-
cium, homemade, prepared from sodium arsenate and calcium
chlorid; arsenite of zinc powder, commercial; and arsenate of zinc,
homemade. (For methods of preparation of the homemade mate-
rials, see p. 2.) All the materials were used in combination with
__ lime-sulphur, 14 to 50. The spraying was done in Mr. J. T. Beck-
with’s orchard in the vicinity of Benton Harbor, Mich., the same
orchard that was used for the experimental work of the previous
season. The results of this experiment are shown in Table X.
98119°—Bull. 278—15——3
18
BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TaBLe X.—Sound and wormy apples from sprayed and unsprayed plats.
[Poison test, Benton Harbor, Mich., 1913.]
Plat Treatment.
Arsenate of lead (paste), 2 pounds to 50 gallons of
lime-sulphur solution: -- 227-65. -.- 0.2. sseeen-
Plat total
II | Arsenate of calcium, homemade (1), at rate of
8/10 pound sodium arsenate to 50 gallons lime-
sulphur'solutioni ee. ccese one seen cose eee
Plat total
III | Arsenate of calcium, homemade (2), at rate of
8/10 pound sodium arsenate to 50 gallons lime-
sulphur: solutions.224- sees c2 5-2 co eeeeee ees
Blatitotal Ve etek eh hs 26 acco cesses
IV | Arsenate of calcium, commercial (paste), 14
pounds to 50 gallons lime-sulphur solution....-.
Plat total
V | Arsenite of zine powder, ? pound to 50 gallons
lime-sulphur solution
Plat total
VI | Arsenate of zinc, homemade, at rate of 8/10
pound sodium arsenate to 50 gallons lime-sul-
phurisolubionsesecdaceceeie. eee eece eee eee
Plat total
Condition of fruit.
ree
oO.
Per cent
Wormy. | Sound. Total. saan’
1 129 2,144 2,273 94.32
2 132 2,490 2, 622 94.96
3 135 2,244 2,379 94.32
4 157 1, 850 2,007 92.17
5 125 1,927 2,052 93.90
pat 678 | 10,655 | 11,338 94.01
1 398 2, 767 3,165 87.42
2 208 1,443 1,651 87.40
3 180 740 920 80. 43
4 254 720 974 73.92
5 331 976 1,307 74. 67
on ae 1,371 6,646 8,017 82.89
1 580 2, 607 3, 187 81.80
2 388 897 1, 285 69. 80
3 497 1,195 1,692 70.62
4 387 955 1,342 71.16
5 260 600 860 69. 76
ateaye 2,112 6,254 8,366 74.75
1 251 813 1,064 76.41
2 241 918 1, 159 79.20
3 53 277 330 83.94
4 240 681 921 73.94
5 303 1,025 1,328 77.18
eet | 1,088 8,714 4,802 77.84
1 241 2,345 2,586 90. 68
2 83 978 1,061 92.17
ipiea hse 324 3,328 3,647 91.11
1 365 2,342 2, 707 86.51
2 503 1, 867 2,370 78.78
3 376 1, 731 2,107 82.15
4 213 1,386 1, 599 86. 68
5 186 1,951 2, 137 91.92
Rae 1,643 9,277 | 10,920 84.95
1 927 877 1, 804 48.61
2 670 503 1,173 42.88
3 1,082 1,086 2,168 50. 01
4 606 592 1,198 49. 41
5 933 780 1,713 45.53
Ses 4,218 3,888 8,056 | 47.64
The arsenate of lead plat produced 94.01 per cent of fruit free
from codling-moth injury. Arsenate of calcium, homemade (1),
fell below this in its efficiency, the percentage of sound fruit
being 82.89.
efficiency, producing 74.75 per cent
Arsenate of calcium, homemade (2), fell still lower in
of fruit free from this insect.
Each of these materials burned the foliage very slightly. Arsenate
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 19
of calcium, commercial, produced 77.34 per cent of sound fruit,
about an average of the efficiency of the two homemade prepara-
tions. The slight burning effect on the foliage amounted to about
the same as on the homemade arsenate of calcium plats. Arsenite
of zinc powder, commercial, produced 91.11 per cent sound fruit.
This material produced moderate burning, about 20 per cent of the
leaves being more or less spotted by the spray. Arsenate of zinc,
homemade, produced no burning of the foliage and held the codling
moth to 84.95 per cent free from worms. The unsprayed plat
averaged 47.64 per cent of fruit free from codling-moth injury.
EXPERIMENTS, 1914.
Experiments with various insecticides, alone and combined with
fungicides, were made, both at the laboratory and in the field, during
the season of 1914. The investigations were continued along the
same lines as during the two previous seasons.
The field experiments were conducted in the J. T. Beckwith apple
orchard, the John Hamilton pear orchard, both of Benton Harbor,
Mich., and the William Birkit vineyard, located at Glenlord, Mich.
The field experiments were on a relatively large scale, so that the
results represent what may be expected on a commercial basis.
LABORATORY TESTS.
The fall webworm (Hyphantria cunea Drury) was not so abundant
as during the seasons of 1912 and 1913, and it was not always possible
to secure a sufficient number of young larve for the poison-feeding
tests. Consequently, when larger larvee were used, the strength
of the poisons was increased to accelerate the killing of the larve.
However, the same size of larva was used in all lots in each experi-
ment, and the results are therefore comparative.
The laboratory experiments included commercial and homemade
insecticides, used alone or combined with a fungicide... Wild-cherry
twigs were sprayed by means of a hand atomizer and the spray mate-
rial allowed to dry thoroughly before placing the larve upon the host
plant. Time did not permit daily observations, and accordingly the
results do not always represent close comparisons, but from a prac-
tical point of view they are sufficient.
EXPERIMENT XI.
VARIOUS ARSENICALS ALONE AND COMBINED WITH OIL EMULSIONS AGAINST LARVA OF
THE FALL WEBWORM.
The chief object of this experiment was to ascertain whether the
combining of arsenate of lead with kerosene emulsion would affect
the individual value of either material for insecticidal purposes.
20 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Other arsenicals, namely, commercial arsenite of zinc and commercial
arsenate of calcium, were likewise tested. The results are given in
Table XI.
TaBLe XI.—Tests of the killing effect of various materials on the fall webworm.
[Experiment started July 17, 1914, Benton Harbor, Mich.; 10 larve: in each lot.}
Dates of exami- 3 &
nationandnum-| 3 |°3 =
ber of larvee Fale [Brealey | |scE te
dying in each lot. 2 Ball Beane
no (9)
Name and dilution. \———_————_| § | 2x s SI
3 July. |August. g he £\|- g
S a 3 29
8 2 | 90 | 7 | gel a
7 o
3 3 | 29] 7 | 13 £ |e Zz
ie ieKerosene.emulsion:.10/per'cent:-....-.-.2 -ccereneeeee oes eee 0, })-.0' | 20530 (UH Bee 61.00
2 | Arsenate of lead powder, 14-50 + kerosene emulsion, 10 per cent.| 10 |....|.-..|-..- 10 6 | 0.36
3 | Arsenite of zinc powder, 13-50+ kerosene emusion, 10 per cent.) 10 |....|....|....] 10 6] 0.20
4| Arsenate of calcium, commercial powder, 13-50+ kerosene
emulsion WO jpericentie ce eee. ee a) eee ee cas = 0} 32] 263} el 10 27 | 13.50
5 | Anthracene‘emulsion, 10 per cent::.j3-92. 2) PORE ss. ca. WO. |. 2s) Sckspaeee 10 6} 0.01
6 | Arsenate of lead powder, 14-50+ anthracene emulsion, 10 per
(sn eae RPE See eee ee See ae ee es 5 2 8 ee oy CM fees (epee 1 re 10 6} 0.01
7 | Arsenate of lead powder, 13-50..........---.-.-0cce---ece-- ene 10 | osco|ooee eee 10 6] 0.14
$i(Arsenite:of:zine powder, 13-50)... 2) to. Sas tokio se. 10:|2 Fo cleRee sone 10 6} 0.04
9 | Arsenate of calcium, commercial powder, 143-50 -.....--..-...- 10 |. -celaeee es 10 6] 0.48
10!) Check\(unspray.ed) as Ae0 Besse 2 hha. ocd RS ee ER ome oo toes bs oe = 0; 0} O| O OF 53.00
1 Foliage badly burned—unfit for consumption.
Kerosene emulsion alone, at a 10 per cent strength, had no poison-
ous effect upon the fall webworm larve—at least none had been
killed after having fed for a period of 27 days, with a consumption
of 61 square inches of foliage. The arsenate of lead alone killed the
10 larve in 6 days—foliage consumed, 0.14 square inch. A com-
bination of these insecticides also caused the death of all the larvee
in 6 days after 0.36 square inch of foliage had been eaten. The
other arsenicals, alone or combined with the emulsion (except arse-
nate of calcium combined), likewise killed in 6 days after a relatively
small amount of foliage had been consumed. Arsenate of calcium
powder, used alone, was quite as effective as the other arsenicals, but
in combination with the emulsion 27 days were required to kill the
larve, which consumed 13.50 square inches of foliage. A similar re-
sult was obtained in a later experiment. (See Experiment XIII.)
Anthracene emulsion, 10 per cent, alone and combined with arsenate
of lead, burned the foliage badly, rendering it unpalatable.
As shown in Experiment XV, kerosene emulsion, 10 per cent, com-
bined with arsenate of lead is also an effective aphidicide. Although
there is some breaking down of the materials in combination, no
injury to the foliage was noted in the laboratory tests.
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. DAIL
EXPERIMENT XII.
COMBINED SPRAYS AGAINST LARVZ OF THE FALL WEBWORM.
The purpose of Experiment XII was to test by the laboratory
method certain spray combinations, some of which were being used
under field conditions. The arsenate of calcium used in this experi-
ment was prepared by using 4 pounds of stone lime, to which was
added 18 ounces of sodium-arsenate crystals during the slaking.
This, when mixed with the proper quantity of water, was used for
the making of Bordeaux mixture 4-4-50. This combination was
made with a view to using it as a vineyard spray. The results of
this experiment appear in Table XII.
TaBLE XIJI.—Tests of the killing effect of various materials on the fall webworm.
[Experiment started July 24, 1914, Benton Harbor, Mich.; 10 larve in each lot.}
fe)
Dates of exami- 3 Bo
nationandnum-| 3g |'‘3 ea
ber of larvze Sto |&
dying ineach lot.) 9 a. 2 Z
aoe
Name and dilution. & | eu) s3 5
¢ July. |August. g ‘ 24 g
© q © oo
a a 2 =
3 ; a\8 |e
3 29 yaad: (fea) ez 5 Sy
1 | Arsenate of lead powder, 14-50+lime-sulphur, 14-50....-.-...- 7b ye eed | eta 10 8| 0.18
ei plaiane-sulp hun jhs-o0 one fee shy2 4. lens. fss22- cs see ee lh aba 2 10} 14] 0.82
3 | Arsenate of lead powder, 13-50.......-......-.-.----22----00e- A ios St see Ie se 10 8 | 0.46
4 | Commercial sodium sulphid, 2-50..........-.-..---------+--+-- PAN AN ST 10 20 | 3.34
5 | Commercial sodium sulphid,2-50+arsenateof lead powder,14-50} 7| 3]....].... 10 8} 0.22
6 | Commercial barium tetrasulphid, 5-50...-...-.-....- Ee Eats A 05) PSN PEL 10 20 | 5.76
7 | Commercial barium tetrasulphid, 5-50+ arsenate of lead pow-
Ger sep Oe a a Soke ja re BI Gy ae eec.) TO Ta @at
8 | Sodium arsenate (crystals, tech. pure), 18 ounces+ Bordeaux
Mixture 4-4 SO ee ees he 5.2. 3 ee BI Dae sale es 10 8} 0.10
9 | Sodium arsenate (crystals, tech. pure), 18 ounces+ Bordeaux
mixture, 4-4-50+ nicotine sulphate, 40 per cent, 1-1,600...-.-- Gy PROM lene Rees 10 8] 0.10
HORMeCHecks(unsprayed) oss s--e-nc5 a ccc asec c++ oc epee eee nee Ee se Os) © PalBoonbe 13.50
As will be noted in Table XII, arsenate of lead, either alone or com-
bined with lime-sulphur solution or commercial sodium sulphid,
killed all the larve in 8 days. The same arsenical combined with
commercial barium tetrasulphid compound required 14 days to kill
the 10 larvee, although 9 of these were recorded dead at the end of
the eighth day. The arsenate of calcium made in the same operation
of slaking the stone lime for Bordeaux mixture caused the death of
all the larve in 9 days. This combination was tested in a vineyard
and caused no foliage injury. At the end of 20 days, when the experi-
ment was closed, but two larve of the unsprayed lot were dead.
22 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
EXPERIMENT XIII.
ARSENATE OF CALCIUM VERSUS ARSENATE OF LEAD, ALONE AND COMBINED WITH KERO-
SENE EMULSION AND WITH LIME-SULPHUR SOLUTION AGAINST LARVZ OF THE FALL
WEBWORM.
In this experiment a comparative test was made with homemade
arsenate of calcium at several strengths, commercial arsenate of cal-
cium, paste and powder, and other materials.
The homemade arsenate of calcium used in this and succeeding
experiments was prepared by adding sodium-arsenate crystals to
stone lime durmg the course of slaking.
Formula 1.—Stone lime, 1 pound; sodium arsenate, 4 pound; water, 1} quarts.
This formula, according to chemical analysis, gave a total arsenic oxid (As,O;) content
of 4.19 per cent; no soluble arsenic oxid.
Formula 2.—Stone lime, 3 pounds; sodium arsenate, 3 pounds; water, 4 quarts;
analysis—total arsenic oxid (As,0;), 6.16 per cent, no soluble arsenic oxid.
Formula 3—Stone lime, 4 pounds; sodium arsenate, 2 pounds; water, 4 quarts;
analysis—total arsenic oxid (As,O0;), 3.93 per cent; no soluble arsenic oxid.
Formula 4.—Stone lime, 4 pounds; sodium arsenate, 1 pound; water, 5 quarts;
analysis—total arsenic oxid (As,O;), 1.88 per cent; no soluble arsenic oxid.
Formula §.—Stone lime, 3 pounds; sodium arsenate, 1 pound; water, 3 quarts;
analysis—total arsenic oxid (As,O;), 2.92 per cent; no soluble arsenic oxid.
Formula 6.—Stone lime, 4 pounds; sodium arsenate, 2 pounds; water, 4 quarts;
slaking not vigorous; not analyzed.
In all of the homemade formulas lime has been used in considerable
excess, with a corresponding decrease of the arsenical content. The
commercial arsenate of calcium, paste, showed an analysis of 18.82
per cent total arsenic oxid—soluble arsenic oxid, a trace.
With a view to making a combination spray for peaches and other
stone fruits, arsenate of calcium was prepared in the same operation
with the making of self-boiled lime-sulphur (8-8-50 formula). As
soon as the lime started to slake, 2 pounds of sodium-arsenate crys-
tals and then the sulphur were added and the mixture made up in
the usual way. Arsenate of calcium made with self-boiled lhme-
sulphur may be of value as a spray for stone fruits, owing to the fact
that the large excess of lime would tend to prevent burning. Arse-
nate of calcium, alone, causes injury to peach foliage, unless there is an
excess of lime. The calcium on exposure to the atmosphere gradually
combines with the carbon dioxid of the air and becomes calcium car-
bonate, thus releasing some soluble arsenic. For the results of this
experiment, see Table XIII.
Arsenate of lead alone killed all larve in 8 days; combined with
kerosene emulsion, 10 per cent, in 6 days (see Experiment XI); with
lime-sulphur in 6 days, and with self-boiled lime-sulphur in 8 days.
Commercial arsenate of calcium, powder, required 8 days to kill.
Commercial arsenate of calcium, paste, required 27 days, but when
combined with lime-sulphur solution, killed in 10 days.
23
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS.
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24 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The homemade arsenate of calcium products, as noted previously,
were low in arsenic oxid content, but as a whole proved relatively
effective as poisoning agents. Formula (2), arsenic oxid 6.16 per
cent, at the rate of 4 to 50, required 14 days, which was the same
length of time required by formula (3), arsenic oxid 3.93 per cent,
4 to 50, combined with lime-sulphur solution. The arsenate of cal-
cium prepared along with self-boiled lime-sulphur killed all larvee in
10 days. The experiment was closed at the end of 36 days, only
one larva of the unsprayed lot having died.
EXPERIMENT XIV.
ARSENATE OF CALCIUM VERSUS ARSENATE OF LEAD, ALONE. AND COMBINED WITH
LIME-SULPHUR SOLUTION, AGAINST LARV# OF THE FALL WEBWORM.
Homemade arsenate of calcium was again tested in comparison
with commercial arsenate of calcium (paste and powder) and arse-
nate of lead, paste. These arsenicals were used alone and combined
with lime-sulphur solution, 14 to 50. The results of this experiment
will be found in Table XIV.
TABLE XIV.—Tests of the killing effect of various materials on the fall webworm.
[Experiment started Aug. 27, 1914, Benton Harbor, Mich.; 10 larve in each lot.]
Dates of examination and number
of larvee dying in each lot.
Total Num- | Square
Tot Pre ae ber | inches
No. Name and dilution. September— her days ree foliage
A dead.| Quite Ons
ue : to kill. | sumed.
2| 5 | 8 |] 10)] 14] 16} 19
il Srecuale of lead paste, 3-50..........--. 0; 0} 6] 4}. 10 12 3.00
Del es SOs sea emcee ta eat Aaa qaiereiahs ten 0}. 0) 9) 1). 10 12 3.00
3 Resenate of lead paste, 3-50+lime-sul-
phur, TP 50 ete seas se eoe cise 0; cl Ga lie 2). 1 10 14 2.25
4 QOS Se Se aeincte sie aatetassite oie tote ate 6 ON On Pele 28): aL 10 14 -25
5 Arsenate of lead paste, 5-50............- 0} | AON Ss). 23): 10 12 2.50
(yi RSE Ka ati senARe e A DS S2R ROM 2h Vise 2 =| cee llobie 10 12 3.50
7 Dienate of lead paste, 5-50+lime-sul-
ph au 1p SO) be aie Sls ae COSI: = GSN Unc So esa Les Pee 10 12 50
8 0 a ES Can eB aC SN Ba OC AG SESE MEe Ora OW SN ae S Me ceo] hey 10 14 1.50
9 | Arsenate of calcium, commercial paste,
BBO tei ray ie Ney bs Nie a eat cy CANS SH 0) OR OR” 07) 0). 35) 20). 1 4 eae 63. 00
TOW eeees (0 Ko ese Ce ea SH Se a ON ZcOMROn One as et 0 6) Soeeeees 38. 00
11 | Arsenate of calcium, commercial paste,
5-50-+lime-sulphur, ASO Natectses clove psi- OF 50M adil) 244) 33 10 14 13.50
10} ee (OSE CSRs CODE MORE CE CO am BC Ee Geile COL SE es a4 eee (eet boar 10 14 3.75
13 | Arsenate of calcium, commercial pow-
Cla) AGS ea ee Oe el er Se ON ER ONIRMON ial ios |seeele Sea] Geer 10 14} 10.50
Maier Loa arenirete ase ainay Meee Dart Ose eee On) ctu led |2 ber awe 10 18 20.05
15 | Arsenate of calcium, commercial pow-
der, 24-50+-lime-sulphur, 14-50....... Ly RMON Sto nh ele 4a) steel tec emis 10 14 4.00
UGH Rees Oe ce STR EER aie hehe yas aie ert |e Pea eee Caee Biaee ociae 10 12 1.75
17 | Arsenate of calcium (homemade paste,
forma) \5-50)\eretaeteteleciseser el- ON LORETO SOR e221 21) 501 40 Sil tees 42.00
Sse ( ap BAER Once dbcdoaddpocaeremesee 0) | OMRON cON Sei .05)) KON 2 Br lcoseaee 27.50
19 | Arsenate of calcium (homemade paste,
formula 1), 5-50+lime-sulphur, 13-50..} 0] 0} 4] 4] O} 2/]-...].... 10 18 9. 25
QO Woes Oe. asm see fee <meta cle emetemetateielmcaie OF EO) | Reza esil saa] \0 Onl vb 10 20 10.00
21 | Arsenate of calcium (homemade paste,
formiuls'3) 55-50 sectors meine terse eric I= ON POON On|) ot 1 1 0 3h] oe seems 63. 00
LOH reine CO sence ce chiceite metic enter: On On On FON] 08) 0") {ONE 0 One eocces 72,25
23 | Arsenate of calcium (homemade paste,
formula 3), 5-50+lime-sulphur, 14-50.| 0|] 3] 0} 1] O| 6}....].... 10 18 19.50
243 | olan GO Lear arses he ae ere ieee ers ee tose els ON ROR Rei tetoa| cb Sal ceil cioere| toes 10 14 17.00
25 | Lime- rSuIpnUE, LADO Mectctes emis erties eice.-a= (Ut cs) |p 24a Sale Ol) ee 10 20 8.00
PAO asa ea GoSeke an SBE OIC OO C MAC OOOO COU LSS Pes ee ar eel 10 14 1.25
27 Check ((UnsSpraved) fsesterenerenmestae ee 1 On en pe O01) mONs 0.1) TOs" 10 lad BSS 81.00
28j| Sue COscseaane ee mee eee eee nee ean LF eee ein ehea uioer |i] gO HNO Dj oe 69. 25
|
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 25
As will be noted in Table XIV, arsenate of lead as usual killed the
larve more quickly than any of the other arsenicals. Arsenate of
lead paste at the rate of 3 to 50 or 5 to 50 required 12 days to kill
all of the larvee; when combined with lime-sulphur it required slightly
longer with a decreased amount of feeding.
As shown in the preceding experiments of 1914, commercial arse-
nate of calcium when combined with lime-sulphur is a relatively
effective poison. Likewise, in this experiment, both lots of the paste
form in combination with lime-sulphur killed in 14 days; the pow-
dered form mixed with lime-sulphur in 14 and 12 days.
The homemade arsenate of calctum compounds, when employed
with lime-sulphur, were also relatively effective, especially when their
low arsenical content is taken into consideration. Homemade arse-
nate of calcium, formula 1 (As,O;=4.19 per cent), plus lime-sulphur,
was effective in killing all the larvee of both lots in 18 and 20 days.
Homemade arsenate of calcium, formula 3 (As,O,;=3.93 per cent),
required 18 and 14 days.
EXPERIMENT XV.
COMPARISON OF THE KILLING EFFECT OF VARIOUS CONTACT POISONS ON APHIS POMI.
A series of laboratory tests was made with various contact insecti-
cides, alone and combined with other materials, against the green
apple aphis (Aphis pomi De G.). Apple twigs well infested with this
species were thoroughly sprayed and then placed in separate glasses
containing water. The results were taken one day after date of
application. Four tests were made, namely, (1) August 20, p. m.;
(2) August 21, a. m.; (3) August 21, p. m.; and (4) September 17.
For test (1) all the materials were freshly combined except No. 17,
which had been mixed several days previous to its application. The
spray materials used in tests (2) and (3) were the same as those
employed in test (1), except that they had stood mixed about 18
and 24 hours, respectively, before usage. The chief object of tests
(2) and (3) was to ascertain whether or not the mixing of these mate-
rials some time in advance of their use would affect their insecticidal
value. In test (4) a bucket pump was used for applying the spray,
a hand atomizer being used in the other three tests. The results of
this experiment appear in Table XV.
26
BULLETIN 278, U.
S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE XV.—Aphis pomi, contact insecticide experiments.
[Benton Harbor, Mich., 1914.]
ed Name and dilution.
1 | Nicotine sulphate (Com. No. 1), 40 per cent, 1-800......-..-..-..--
2 NiSotine sulphate (Com. No. 1), 40 per cent, 1-800+laundry soap,
3 | Nicotine sulphate (Com. No. 1), 40 per cent, 1-1,200+laundry soap,
4 Tyotte sulphate (Com. No. 1), 40 per cent, 1-1,600+laundry soap,
5 Nicotine sulphate (Cha No. 1), 40 per cent, 1-2,000+laundry soap,
SO shat eden Sees Si Sees ale Lc J 24 seem Rails iS vss
6 Niotine Sulphate (Com. No. 1), 40 per cent, 1-800+ arsenate oflead
Aste; 2-50-22 -2i e222 sok oct oh cece. Ek, eee eee taht Sei
th nkotine sulphate (Com. No. 1), 40 per cent, 1-800+arsenate of lead
paste, 2-50+laundry soap, SUB A" 12. so eee Bins 2 = ns Fu
8 | Nicotine sulphate (Com. No. 2), 40 per cent, 1-800......-...--.-.--
9|N ahr ge sulphate (Com No. 2), 40 per cent, i-800-Farsenate of lead
FES ISB TD par ate ag es ER os ey ae
10 Nicotine sulphate (Com. No. 2), 40 per cent, 1-800+laundry soap,
11 | Nicotine sulphate (Com. No. 2), 40 per cent, 1-800+laundry soap,
3-50+ arsenate of lead paste, 2-50.....-...-.----------- eee eee eee
12 | Kerosene emulsion (66 per cent stock), 1 per cent...
13 | Kerosene emulsion (66 per cent stock), 3 per cent
14 | Kerosene emulsion (66 per cent stock), 5 per cent
15 | Kerosene emulsion (66 per cent stock), 10 per cent....-.-.-.------
16 | Kerosene emulsion (66 per cent stock), 10 per cent+arsenate of
lead paste s2-50 wera see ee i tare ate ct cee eee emcee ce ne
117 | Kerosene emulsion (66 per cent stock), 10 per cent+arsenate of
lead paste!:2-50!. sisrckteecee ast ge Jot at ke ee ae Se Se
18 | Kerosene emulsion (66 per cent stock), 10 per cent+arsenate of
calcium, commercial paste; 2-50.05. . isch aS eee sew Ste 2
19 | Kerosene emulsion (66 per cent stock), 10 per cent-+-arsenate of
calcium) .commercialipaste, 2-5022.< 1: 2-2 nea se- ee ---5
20 | Anthracene emulsion (66 per cent stock), 5 per cent...........-..-
21 | Anthracene emulsion (50 per cent stock), 3 per cent.......--------
22 | Anthracene emulsion (50 per cent stock), 1 per cent...........-.--
23s ALAUNGLYiSOBD 1S -O0 we wana one serene ta ion aaron eae abe cle nse
24 BAUNndry,SOAaDY 5-50 seem eats <<. 21s2 vc nisicle See eee rIaer eile sce
25 | Nicotine sulphate (Com. No. 1), 40 per cent, 1-800+arsenate of
lead paste, 2-50+lime-sulphur, 13-50..-.-..-...-----------------
26 | Nicotine sulphate (Com. No. 2), do ee cent, 1-800-+arsenate of
lead paste, 2-50+lime-sulphur, 14-50
27 | Arsenate of lead paste, 2-50
28 | Naphtha soap, 3-50..-....--
29 t{Naphtha soap, io-50ss2- s-te~c nec csleases soe ne ee ease eee nee cee
30 | Kerosene emulsion (50 per cent stock—made with naphtha soap,
coldiwater))10iper conti eeae 2S ge eee es ee
31 | Kerosene emulsion (50 per cent stock—made with naphtha soap,
coldiwates) so menCentiee scent ee - <2ans sc -aeee ea aiaee eas 5
32 | Kerosene emulsion (naphtha soap, cold water), 10 per cent ....-..
33 | Anthraceneemulsion (50 per cent stock—made with naphtha soap,
cold; water) -3ipericentssseeere eect ccc eee spoen ee oe sao.
34 | Anthracene emulsion (50 per centstock—made with naphtha soap,
Coldwater) Tpericent:cse- 22. eens ieee ee eee ees tee ce
Soul phish-ollisoap s3—o00f 5=-ees onsen ee cm atscien oe coat -seeeiteeo eek wats Soe
361) Rish-OlUSOaD0-DO sac cce soe cee cine e oc ce cece eeec ae bs ccna
37 | Nicotinesu phate (Com. No. 2), 40 per cent, 1-1,200+laundry soap,
38 | Nicotine sulphate (Com. No. 2), 40 per cent, 1-1,600+laundry soap
39 | Nicotine sulphate (Com. No. 2), 40 per cent, 1-2,000+laundry soap,
AQuVChecki(ansprayed) paeseceme nec ceecccs-k cco eee eee cine se:
effective aphidicides.
Per cent of aphides killed.
| Test 1, | Test 2,| Test 3, | Test 4,
Aug. 20,/Aug. 21,)Aug. 21,| Sept.
| p.m. | amis ep-an. 17.
100 100 100} | Maaeees:
| 100 100 100 100
Lette bale 2. SNS eee 100
iffc. 2) 225 ee eee 100
Par emeTy preter pasate: Mite fe 100
| 100 100 100}: -22he=
| 100 100 JOD) ceteaeee
100 100 100) eee
100} 100 100;|:-2-eas
100 100 100 100
1 Stood combined several days before usage.
2 A few adults not killed.
8 Foliage severely burned.
4 Adult aphides not killed.
5 No adult aphides killed.
100 100
| 100 100
298 | 298
100 100
100 100
; 3100] #8100
[475 | 0 475°
100 100
foe wie eee
As will be noted in Table XV, the majority of the materials proved
Thus it will be seen that several combinations
may be used with good effect when it is aimed to control both chew-
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. on
ing and sucking insects at the same time. It would appear that it is
not well to allow kerosene emulsion and arsenate of lead to stand
combined too long previous to its application, if the best results are
to be obtained. However, a standing for a day or so would make
no material difference, since there is but slight breaking down of the
soap. In general, insecticides should not be combined until they are
to be used. Anthracene emulsion, 5 per cent, burned the foliage
badly. Laundry soap, 3 to 50, was effective against the young aphides
only. Arsenate of lead alone, as was to be expected, had little or no
effect upon the aphides. The combination of arsenate of calcium with
kerosene emulsion is not a desirable one, since an insoluble calcium
soap is formed, thereby releasing some free kerosene.
According to the results of the above experiment a 10 per cent
kerosene emulsion should prove effective against the green apple
aphis. In one instance, however, not all of the aphides were killed.
The nicotine solutions, with a dilution up to 1 to 2,000 combined with
soap, were likewise effective aphidicides. Anthracene emulsion, 3
per cent, gave satisfactory control, and at this strength caused no
foliage injury. The kerosene emulsions under 10 per cent were not
satisfactory, neither were the soaps at the strengths tested, except
that fish-oil soap, 5 to 50, killed 90 per cent of the aphides.
FIELD EXPERIMENTS.
POISON TESTS IN EXPERIMENTAL APPLE ORCHARD.
The Ben Davis orchard which had been used for experimental pur-
poses during the seasons of 1912 and 1913 was again secured for con-
tinued investigations. The orchard was in very fair condition and
responded very creditably in fruit production, the crop in 1914 being
larger than any produced in the past. The experiments included
tests of insecticides combined with fungicides, since, in commercial
orcharding, a combination spray is usually made. Most of the plats
received five spray applications, namely: (1) Dormant application,
April 16 and 17; (2) cluster-bud stage, May 5 and 6; (3) when petals
dropped, May 23, 25, and 26; (4) three to four weeks later, June 15,
16, and 17; (5) nine weeks after petals dropped, July 27 and 28.
The orchard was sprayed with a power outfit having a pressure aver-
aging about 225 pounds.
The results of the investigations as reported in the succeeding
pages were obtained from an examination of the fruit. Certain trees
in each plat are designated as count trees. The dropped fruit from the
count trees was picked up and examined weekly throughout the sea-
son, and at harvesting time the picked fruit was likewise examined.
The more important results of the experiments for the control of the
codling moth are herewith reported.
28 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
EXPERIMENT XVI.
FIELD TESTS OF ARSENATE OF CALCIUM VERSUS ARSENATE OF LEAD AGAINST THE COD-
LING MOTH, 1914.
One of the most promising of the insecticides tested during the
season of 1914 was an arsenate of calctum paste. A commercial
article was employed at the rate of 2 pounds to each 50 gallons of
lime-sulphur solution. The plat sprayed with this material consisted
of 12 trees, the fruit from five of which was examined throughout the
season. ‘The plat sprayed with arsenate of lead paste, 2 pounds com-
bined with 50 gallons lime-sulphur solution, included 12 trees, the
fruit from six of which was examined. Plats III, IV, and V, located
in different parts of the orchard, were left unsprayed as a check,
These plats had a total of eight trees, all of which were examined.
Three applications were given Plats I and II, for the control of the
codling moth: (1) When petals dropped; (2) three to four weeks
later; (3) nine weeks after petals dropped, for the control of the sec-
ond brood.
The arsenate of calcium paste was analyzed by the Bureau of
Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, as follows:
Analysis of arsenate of calcium (puste).
Per cent.
IMIOISH UTC eet ae few IP ine ea USSSA SN Senate eet 2. re 55. 80
Total-arsenic oxidvAs; Oyercwiys 2.15 os RS Gk othe = eer iirc ee cee ee 18. 82
Rotalkcalermm oxide; Ca Owes: 8 = sl: SNE Oe 17.93
Total Jeadtoxid PbO} 2 OL ee PO) ROO a eo) SUVS eis Se
Soluble impurities, exclusive of PbO and As,O,.................-.----+------ 1. 84
Water of constitution and undetermined (small amount of CO.) .......-...-- 1.89
Mo tales see StF CRA eA eS CTL pe SEE EL Lt ee 100. 00
Olmblerarsemicyse ee eis. wee A. ta OE SRE, E52 ee oe ge ee Trace
This sample contains lead equivalent to approximately 5.5 per cent
lead arsenate. The results of this experiment are shown in Table
XVI.
TaBLeE XVI.—Sownd and wormy apples from sprayed and unsprayed plats.
{Poison test. A comparison of arsenate of calcium with arsenate of lead. Benton Harbor, Mich., 1914.]
Condition of fruit.
Plat r
num- Treatment. bree | i ;
ber. : ; . ~ er cen
Wormy. | Sound. Total. sonnds
Tee sack Arsenate of calcium (commercial paste) , 2 pounds 1 123 8, 087 8, 210 98. 50
to 50 gallons lime-sulphur solution. 2 78 5, 424 5, 502 98. 58
3 47 4, 988 5, 035 99. 06
4 44 6, 132 6,176 99. 43
5 63 4, 283 4,346 98. 56
Platitotalsj2osee sem sesen si sis Ne «5 ee eee aioe B55 28,914 29,269 98.79
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 29
TaBLE XVI.—Sound and wormy apples from sprayed and uns prayed plats—Contd.
Condition of fruit.
Plat
num- Treatment. Te
ber Wormy.| Sound. | Total Het ont
10 eae Arsenate of lead (paste), 2 pounds to 50 gallons 1 29 3,777 3, 806 99, 24
lime-sulphur solution. 2 12 2,399 2,411 99. 59
3 28 5, 146 5,174 99. 46
4 13 3, 833 3, 846 99. 66
5 26 3,972 3,998 99. 35
6 26 4, 757 4,783 99. 46
Blatarotaliees see cee sheckler 134 23, 884 24,018 99. 44
Til Vee @hecks (unsprayed)2o2s2.-. 22.22.0550... eee 1 1, 548 3,907 5, 455 71. 62
2 3, 208 5, 556 8, 764 63. 40
3 2, 342 5, 682 8, 024 70. 81
4 2, 432 4,116 6, 548 62. 86
5 2, 635 3, 722 6, 357 58. 55
6 2, 385 1, 566 3,951 39. 64
7 2,902 2,197 5, 099 43. 09
8 2,312 1,356 3, 668 36. 94
Plat totale js jtoste se ont t chk. oc See eee 19, 764 28, 102 47,866 58. 71
As will be noted in Table XVI, out of 29,269 apples from the plat
sprayed with arsenate of calcium 98.79 per cent were free from cod-
ling moth. The fruit examined on Plat II, 24,018 apples, sprayed
with arsenate of lead, was 99.44 per cent free from the codling moth.
The unsprayed trees yielded 47,866 apples, of which but 58.71 per
cent were free from worms.
It will thus be seen that the arsenate of calcium compared very
favorably with the arsenate of lead, and since it can be produced
more cheaply than the lead arsenate it would appear to have distinct
value. The foliage in Plat I was as healthy appearing as in Plat II
throughout the season, and, further, the fungicidal value of lime-
sulphur was practically the same, whether arsenate of calcium or
arsenate of lead was used. While arsenate of calcium has not been
sufficiently tested to recommend it for general use, yet it would seem
that this arsenical will probably serve as a satisfactory and cheap
substitute for arsenate of lead. Arsenate of calctum may be manu-
factured either in the paste or powdered form or made at home in the
paste form.
HOMEMADE ARSENATE OF CALCIUM.
Arsenate of calcium may be prepared at home from various chem-
icals, the more important being arsenic acid and lime, sodium arsenate
and calcium chlorid, sodium arsenate and calcium acetate, etc.
Potassium dihydrogen arsenate may be substituted for the sodium
arsenate, but is more expensive and would have no distinct advan-
tages over the latter.
The logical way to make arsenate of-calcium is by combining
arsenic acid with lime, but at the present writing arsenic acid can
30 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
not be obtained on the market to advantage. In view of this fact
arsenate of calcium may be prepared at home by combining fused
(dry powdered) sodium arsenate with lime. The by-product is largely
sodium hydroxid, most of which may be decanted. It is possible
that decantation will not be necessary when the arsenate of calcium
is to be applied to foliage that is not too tender. The formula for
making is herewith given:
Stone lime;(90 percent CaO) 2. 222....1- 2 Seeeeeses eet ate ect eee pounds.. 55
Sodium arsenate, fused (dry powdered) 65 per cent As,O;.....---------- do.... 100
WWikter an SSS te ES SSI 2 ods o.5 2.4 oti acs Ser tions one ee gallons.. 26
Place the stone lime in a wooden container and add a small amount of water, just
enough to start slaking. When slaking is well under way pour in the sodium arsenate,
which should first have been dissolved in hot water. Keep stirring until the lime
has thoroughly slaked. Sufficient water should be added from time to time to prevent
burning.
The resulting arsenate of calcium should contain about 18 per cent
of arsenic oxid. In making this compound it will of course be neces-
sary to know approximately the calcium oxid and arsenic oxid con-
tent of the materials employed and to vary the formula accordingly.
Arsenate of calcium was prepared at the laboratory in the propor-
tions as given below: —
Stone. lime: (80«per:centiCa@) 232255 2k sie a. cel. ews pounds... 6
Sodium arsenate,” fused (dry powdered) 62 per cent As,O;........------- do==- 38
NYE FSS pie Ses tee Soe res Fee tric ire Sa SRN "2 ee ea a ER te gallons.. 2
The above was analyzed by the Bureau of Chemistry, United States
Department of Agriculture, as follows:
Per cent.
IMOISEUTO eres oS oa a ee ais os EERE o os cS co eer 46. 90
Totaltarsenic oxid, AsiOp neetee he. . 2 OR RR eae. Sh Ja eee 20. 37
Rotallarsenious/Oxid PAs OF Wes ot BE a ts OS ee ee .21
Galcrumvoxid;:CaQ: epi tae: Set bee: oe 8 RO Sei ce ee Se yh ee 18. 95
Carlonedioxdd CO j335 task ee eo. ac RS 8 2S 8 osha 18
Wndetermined , mainly sodium:hydrate.. 2 ac. ae ao as ee 13. 39
otal asap: saysserteis = Fo eo gaa A cael $26 0 te peice See 100. 00
Soll plearsenicioxid Ag Ope se. ee eS 04
EXPERIMENT XVII.
FIELD TESTS OF POWDERED ARSENATE OF LEAD VERSUS PASTE ARSENATE OF LEAD
AGAINST THE CODLING MOTH, 1914.
Since the advent of the powdered form of arsenate of lead the
question has naturally arisen as to whether this newer form of the
arsenical is as effective as the older or paste form. The powdered
arsenate of lead has been on the market for several years and is now
being recommended by several manufacturers, who claim for it
1 This lime was not well burned, since it contained considerable calcium carbonate.
2 Sodium arsenate, fused (dry powdered) NazH AsO4y. As2O5=61.86 per cent; AsoO3=1.42 per cent.
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. Sib
certain advantages. The principal pomts given in favor of the
powder over the paste are that it can be more conveniently mixed,
that the proper amount to be used for each spray tank may be
weighed out with a greater degree of accuracy, and that it can be
stored more readily without deterioration. There is also a distinct
saving in freight. For the advantages enumerated the fruit grower
is asked to pay a trifle more in price, since it costs the manufacturer
somewhat more to produce the powdered form.
With this in view, experiments were conducted to test the efficiency
of the powdered form in comparison with the paste. Since the
powdered arsenical has approximately twice the strength of the paste,
one-fourth pound of the powder was directly compared with one-half
pound of the paste, one-half pound of the powder was compared with
1 pound of the paste, and 1 pound of the powder was compared with
2 pounds of the paste. All of these were combined with 50 gallons of
lime-sulphur solution, with the exception of Plat IV, where a com-
mercial precipitated sulphur was employed.
Three spray applications against the codling moth were made: (1)
when petals dropped; (2) 3 to 4 weeks later; (3) 9 weeks after petals
dropped for second-brood larvee.
The dropped fruit from certain count trees in each plat was picked
up weekly and examined. The fruit gathered at harvest time was
likewise examined and the results recorded.
Plat I consisted of 9 trees, the fruit from 5 of which was examined;
Plat II, 9 trees, 5 examined; Plat III, 4 trees, 3 examined; Plat IV, 5
trees, 3 examined; Plat V, 9 trees, 5 examined; Plat VI, 7 trees, 5
examined; Plat VII, 12 trees, 6 examined; Plats VIII, IX, and X,
total 8 trees, 8 examined. For the results of this experiment see
Table XVII.
TaBLE XVII.—Sound and wormy apples from sprayed and unsprayed plats.
[Benton Harbor, Mich., 1914. Poison test. Comparison of arsenate of lead in powdered and paste form.]
Condition of fruit.
Plat Treatment. Tree
No. Ne: Per cent
Wormy.} Sound. | Total. aa
I | Arsenate of lead (powder), 1 pound to 50 gallons
lame-sulphur/solution=2-2 52-2. 225-2 32-40. eee 1 28 667 695 95.97
2 16 1,036 1,052 98. 48
3 155 3,052 3,207 95.17
4 117 1, 650 1, 767 93.38
5 61 806 867 92. 96
Platstotaly. 2 eee ss soe 2... eee eee 377 7,211 7,588 95.03
II | Arsenate of lead (paste), 3 pound to 50 gallons
lime-sulphur solution........-.--.-------- aooe 1 387 6,979 7,366 94.75
2 221 5, 282 5, 503 95.98
3 222 5, 064 5, 286 95. 80
4 355 5, 098 5, 453 93.49
5 128 3,771 3,899 96.72
Plat totale... 1,313 | 26,194 | 27,507 95.22
Fg Le CS a
32 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TaBLE XVII.—Sound and wormy apples from sprayed and unsprayed plats—Contd.
Condition of fruit.
oe Treatment. pie =
x * er cent
Wormy. | Sound. Total. souridh
TII | Arsenate of lead (powder), 3 pound to 50 gallons
lime-sulphur/soltions2.6 5 - oj. <0 -0-selseeeos- 1 97 7,250 7,347 98. 68
2 123 5,615 5, 738 97.85
3 68 6,315 6, 383 98.93
Platitotalis.- $5. .:2 secacbs cence ceeeaeees| sees ae 288 | 19,180] 19,468 98.52
Iv | Arsenate of lead (powder), 3 pound combined
with commercial precipitated sulphur, 7
pounds, to 50 gallons water............----.-- 1 44 5, 618 5,662 99.22
2 93 8, 958 9,051 98.97
3 82 7, 791 7,873 98.96
Platitotal. sci sesssnssticas <2 es apes ase esee oe 219 | 22,367 | 22,586 99.03
V | Arsenate of lead (paste), 1 pound to 50 gallons
Jime-sulphursolitionies. sc cesce oon seeeeeeer 1 74 6,160 6, 234 98. 81
2 39 4,163 4,202 99.07
3 65 4,836 4,901 98. 67
4 64 6,394 6, 458 99. 01
5 76 5, 787 5, 863 98. 69
Plattotalcs veccenssenes acct neste ee Peele eas | 318 27,340 27,658 98.13
VI | Arsenate of lead (powder), 1 pound to 50 gallons
lime-sulphur/solution®: s 32 sss <2 ene seceseed 1 | 123 5,043 5, 166 97.62
2 | 41 6, 718 6, 759 99.39
3 79 5, 418 5,497 98.56
4 51 7,224 7,275 99.30
5 121 7,749 | 7,870 98. 46
Plattotalss sos casiese se’ boob oleae ease 415 32,152 32,567 98.73
VII | Arsenate of lead (paste); 2 pounds to 50 gallons
Jime-sulphur solution... 22... oe cscs c cesses 1 29 3,777 3, 806 99. 24
2 12 2,399 2,411 99.59
3 |} 28 5, 146 5, 174 99. 46
4 13 3,833 3, 846 99. 66
5 26 3,972 3,998 99.35
6 26 4, 757 4, 783 99. 46
Plat Potal hye ob, ppl bes ys eve ven eee 134 | 23,884] 24,018| 99.44
ViITI=X)\'Checks) (unsprayed)) 9... 325-2 sien des doch ae ene 1 1,548 3,907 5,455 71.62
2 3,208 5, 556 8, 764 63.40
3 2,342 5, 682 8,024 70. 81
{ 2,432 4,116 6,548 62. 86
5 2,635 3, 722 6,357 58.55
6 2.385 1,566 3,951 39. 64
7 2,902 2,197 5,099 43.09
8 2,312 1,356 3,668 36.94
Platvtotale ss acentes pest tas cian oe ee eee eee | 19,764 | 28,102 | 47,866 | 58.71
As will be noted in Table XVII, there is practically no difference
from an insecticidal point of view in the effectiveness of the powdered
and the paste arsenate of lead. The fruit grower would be justified
in using the powdered form if the present difference in cost is con-
sidered reasonable for the advantages secured.
One-fourth pound of the powdered arsenate of lead gave 95.03
per cent of fruit free from codling moth against 95.22 per cent where
one-half pound of the paste was used. The two plats sprayed with
one-half pound of the powder gave 98.52 and 99.03 per cent of sound
fruit, respectively, as compared with 98.13 per cent for 1 pound of the
paste. One pound of the powder averaged 98.73 per cent sound
Ye eee
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 33
against 99.44 per cent for 2 pounds of the paste. The unsprayed
trees yielded 47,866 apples, of which number 58.71 per cent were free
from codling-moth infestation.
EXPERIMENT XVIII.
FIELD TESTS OF VARIOUS ARSENICALS COMBINED WITH FUNGICIDES AGAINST THE
CODLING MOTH, 1914.
Arsenate of lead was tested against the codling moth in combina-
tion with the following commercial fungicides, namely, lime-sulphur,
commercial; precipitated sulphur, commercial; sodium sulphid, com-
mercial; and commercial barium tetrasulphid compound. The follow-
ing combinations were also tested:
Arsenite of zinc (paste) was used at the rate of 14 pounds combined
with Bordeaux mixture 4-4-50. This arsenical was added to the
lime while being slaked for the Bordeaux mixture.
Arsenite of zinc (paste), 14 pounds, was added to 2 pounds stone
lime while the lime was slaking. This was mixed with 50 gallons lime-
sulphur solution.
Arsenate of zinc (homemade), prepared from sodium arsenate
crystals and zine sulphate, was used at the rate of eight-tenths pound
sodium arsenate to 50 gallons lime-sulphur solution. Three spray
applications were made with the above combinations. The results
of this experiment will be found in Table XVIII.
TaBLE XVIITI.—Sound and wormy apples from sprayed and unsprayed plats.
[Poison test. Miscellaneous. Benton Harbor, Mich., 1914.]
Condition of fruit.
Plat ,
No. Treatment. No.
I | Arsenate of lead (paste), 2 pounds to 50 gallons 1 29 3, 777 3, 806 99. 24
lime-sulphur solution. 2 12 2,399 2,411 99. 59
3 28 5, 146 5,174 99. 46
4 13 3, 833 3, 846 99. 66
5 26 3,972 3,998 99. 35
6 26 4,757 4,783 99. 46
Platibotaleee: Huse eens oho ce ok wisi meee | emis 134 | 23,884 | 24,018 99.44
II | Arsenate of lead (powder), 4 pound + commercial 1 44 5,618 5, 662 99. 22
precipitated sulphur, 7 pounds, to 50. 2 93 8,958 9,051 98.97
3 82 7,791 7,873 98.96
Plat totale ee eece asec ncesic=cnice ss 7scieeee prea 219 |} 22,367 22,586 99.03
Til | Arsenate of lead (paste), 2 pounds + commercial 1 72 7, 898 7,970 99. 08
sodium sulphid, 2 pounds, to 50. 2 30 7, 784 7, 814 99. 62
3 34 8, 739 8,773 99.61
Iplatbotaleeermec erect cette Jace om seit Eee 136 | 24,421 24,007 99.45
IV | Arsenate of lead (paste), 2 pounds + stone lime, 1 35 8, 295 8, 330 99.58
2 pounds + commercial sodium sulphid, 2 2 22 6, 269 6, 291 99. 65
pounds, to 50.. 3 39 9, 639 9,678 99. 60
Plat totale eeesessscces Basqpodooadoorodeosc|oonasd 96 | 24,203 | 24,299 99.65
34 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Taste XVIIT.—Sound and wormy apples from sprayed and unsprayed plats—Contd.
Condition of fruit.
Plat Treatment. peree
a ai Worm Sound Total Percent
y- : * 7 sound.
V | Arsenate of lead (paste), 2 pounds + commercial 1 806 9, 224 10, 030 90. 97
barium tetrasulphid 5-50. 2 450 7, 864 8,314 94.59
3 216 6,988 7, 204 97.00
4 258 7,107 7, 365 97.85
5 328 10, 340 10, 668 96.91
Plat total yjccs22 ost. edhe et eedoct 2s ees eee 2,058 41,523 43,581 95.28
VI | Arsenite of zinc (paste), 14 pounds + Bordeaux 1 42 3,982 4,024 98. 96
mixture 44-50. 2 29 5,121 5, 150 99. 44
3 27 3, 231 3, 258 99.17
Platitotal ers cco tess cee ccine esses ce Soccer 98 12,334 12,432 99.21
VII | Arsenite of zine (paste), 13 pounds + stone lime, 2 1 347 4,092 4, 439 92.18
pounds, to 50 gallons lime-sulphur solution. 2 244 5,478 5, 722 95. 74
3 274 5, 885 6,159 90. 68
Plattotal's: 222. 35t3i-n ee scec el 5-2= VIS ea eee 865 15,455 16,320 94.70
VIII | Arsenate of zine (homemade), sodium arsenate 1 221 38, 654 3,875 94.30
crystals, {8; pound, to 50 gallons lime-sulphur so- 2 167 3,544 3,711 95. 50
HOME a SRE RE See Ue tds aso Sal 309 5,306 5,615 94.50
latitotale ss nsec ches on. seats cone se scence 697 12,504 13,201 94.72
X= |Checks |(unsprayed). 8220222. 72seccce sete lesser 1 1,548 3,907 5, 455 71. 62
aXal 2 3, 208 5,556 8, 764 63.40
3 2,342 5, 682 8, 024 70. 81
4 2,432 4,116 6,548 62. 86
5 2, 635 3,722 6,357 58. 55
6 2,385 1,566 8,951 39. 64
7 2,902 2,197 5,099 43. 09
8 2,312 1,356 3, 668 36. 94
Plat itotales sen. leech tis S seo nn.csaaine aE eee 19,764 28,102 47,866 58.71
Arsenate of lead gave satisfactory control of the codlng moth
when combined with lime-sulphur, commercial precipitated sulphur,
and commercial barium tetrasulphid. In combination with com-
mercial sodium sulphid, lead arsenate held the codling moth in check,
but caused considerable foliage injury and defoliation due to the
formation of soluble sodium arsenate. ‘The addition of lime lessened
the foliage injury somewhat.
Arsenate of zinc, when added to lime being slaked for Bordeaux
mixture, was effective and caused no foliage injury. Arsenite of
zinc added to slaking lime and then mixed with lime-sulphur solution,
and likewise arsenate of zinc (homemade) combined with lime-
sulphur solution, were slightly less effective than the other arsenical
combinations.
EXPERIMENT XIX.
COMBINATION SPRAYS—COMPATIBLES AND INCOMPATIBLES.,
Combination sprays for the control of apple chewing and sucking
insects and fungous diseases were tested in the experimental orchard.
Arsenate of lead with nicotine solutions and lime-sulphur solution is
a compatible mixture and will give satisfactory results if the applica-
tion is timely:
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 35
Arsenate of lead, kerosene emulsion, and lime-sulphur in com-
bination is an incompatible mixture, usually causing severe injury to
the foliage. The calcium of the lime-sulphur breaks down the soap
of the kerosene emulsion, forming an insoluble calcium soap. The
result is that free kerosene is released in sufficient quantity to cause
foliage injury.
A combination of lime-sulphur and kerosene emulsion, 10 per cent,
was tested on apple in the cluster-bud stage to determine the extent
of damage likely to occur. The plat which later received one-fourth
pound to 50 of powdered arsenate of lead was used for the test. Both
the foliage and unopened blossoms were so seriously injured as to
reduce materially the size of the crop.
By reference to Table XVII the effect upon the crop yield will be
noted. All plats in this table having five count trees were sprayed
with lime-sulphur alone during the cluster-bud stage except Plat I.
Plat I, which was sprayed with the combination of lime-sulphur and
kerosene emulsion, yielded 7,588 apples (39 bushels); Plat II, 27,507
apples (109.5 bushels); Plat V, 27,658 apples (118 bushels); Plat VI,
32,567 apples (128.5 bushels). The number of bushels represents the
amount of fruit picked from the trees at harvest time. An estimate
of the loss of crop per tree due to the application of lime-sulphur and
kerosene emulsion is approximately 16 bushels, or, in other words,
the normal crop yield was reduced to about 33 per cent of that
from the lime-sulphur plats alone.
Lime-sulphur and soap in combination is likewise impracticable,
since a calcium soap is thrown out, thus weakening the value of
each material.
Diplumbic arsenate of lead, especially the powdered form which is.
chiefly diplumbic, is likely to cause foliage injury when combined
with an alkalin solution, such as sodium sulphid. But when com-
bined with lime-sulphur some calcium arsenate is formed. “This is
comparatively insoluble, and hence the possibility of burning is
reduced.
EXPERIMENT XX.
COMPARISON OF SODA, POTASH, AND SULPHUR SPRAYS AGAINST THE SAN JOSE SCALE.
The pear orchard owned by Mr. John Hamilton, of Benton Harbor,
Mich., was used for the San Jose scale insecticide investigations.
This orchard consisted of 209 trees about 15 years of age. Four
varieties, planted in separate rows, were represented as follows:
Three rows of Bartlett, one row Clairgeau, three rows Beurré d’ Anjou,
and one row Seckle. This orchard had been more or less neglected
for several years and was accordingly quite uniformly infested with
the scale. The orchard was divided into nine plats so as to include
all varieties in each plat, so far as possible. Trees were left un-
36 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
sprayed at each end of the orchard and also in central sections as a
basis for comparison with the sprayed. The spray materials were
applied while the trees were dormant, April 10, 11, and 13, using a
small power outfit.
To determine the efficacy of the scale insecticides two methods
were employed; first, the examination of the scale-infested twigs for
dead and live scales by means of the binocular microscope. This
method proved to be anything but satisfactory. The second and
better method of determining results was the examination of the
fruit for scale which crawled thereon. All of the dropped fruit from
the count trees was picked up and examined weekly throughout the
season. The picked fruit at harvest time was also examined. In
Table XIX will be found the results according to variety. Table XX
is a commercial summary of Table XIX.
As will be noted in Table XX (commercial summary), the percentage
of fruit (all varieties) free from scale and that with a light infestation
has been combined for a comparison with the percentage of fruit with
an infestation medium and heavy. The scale upon the fruit classified
as lightly infested was usually found more or less concealed in the
calyx cavity and, therefore, did not mar the appearance of the fruit
for market. Furthermore, a large percentage of the fruit lhghtly
infested had but two or three scales per fruit.
The fruit with a medium and heavy scale infestation was unmarket-
able. Frequently the fruit in the heavy scale infestation class was
blood red in appearance and would average 500 to 1,000 scales per
fruit. This condition was chiefly found on the unsprayed trees,
whose foliage was likewise heavily infested with the scale insects.
TaspLeE XIX.—San Jose scale insecticide investigations, Benton Harbor, Mich., 1914.
Per cent of fruit.
uber ol Number of fruits.
Free from scale.
Plat. Nameand dilution.
£18 Renal ||) 3
3 | 2 aD > = 5 ey ie
“ to} 2 cP) = oD =) C3) _ bo =| oO
ea] Sf) |) 8 ) a = ad = = = ad
CJ] eect Nests ya hake 3 & is 3 3 & ra 3
AyJol|/ain| A |o!}] =< nQ 9 o < nR
I | Lime-sulphur, 1-7...........- 8} 3) 5] 3) 1,841) 453 242) 389,75. 667/53. 201/51. 241 68. 637
II | (1) Commercial sodium sul- |
phid, 12.5 pounds-50.......- 5} 2| 2 1) 1,717) 306 94 10 59. 059/41. 505/20. 215 90. 000
III | Caustie potash, 11 pounds+
sulphur, 12.5 pounds-50....| 2) 0; 3] 2) 1,008; 0} 191) 1,522/25.101)...... 30. 892 39. 490
IV | (2) Commercial sodium sul-
phid, 12.5 pounds-50......- 0) ed Seay |) 0} 485} = 238 O| Rear 38. 622/32. 774). .....
V | Caustic soda, 11 pounds+sul- |
phur, 12.5 pounds-50......- Al 2) 0} 1,865} 1389) 140 0/78. 709/34. 559/41. 430)......
VI | Lime-sulphur, 1-7+nitrate of
soda, 50 pounds-50.....- oat 6; O; 2) 2) 946) OF; 113 15/76. 289). ..... 50. 445 80. 000
VII | Caustic soda, 15 pounds+sul-
phur, 17.1 pounds-50....... 5} 1) 2) = 1) 1,581) 143) 208) 521/89.877/51. 750/70. 194 54. 892
VIII | Caustic potash, 15 pounds+
sulphur, 17.1 pounds-50.... 4 1 3 0} 1,116} 179) 263 0|89. 247)78. 771/51. 716). .....
IX | Check—unsprayed............ 33] 2) 11] 3] 8,100} 299) 1,825) 4, 474/52. 595/25. 420 a 6. 841
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. ot
TaBLeE XIX.—San Jose scale insecticide investigations, Benton Harbor, Mich., 1914—
Continued.
Per cent of fruit.
Light infestation, 1-10 | Mediuminfestation,11-| Heavy infestation, 21-
scales. 20 scales. over scales.
Plat.| Name and dilution.
iD a0 3 i) £ dp 3 ir) 2 80 3 ir)
= A=} od om a a=] <3 hd = A= <3 Ad
a & q 8 3 S&S q 3 S S& q 8
aa Oo < io) faa} (5) < mn faa) iS < nN
I | Lime-sulphur, 1-7 . .|23. 954/33. 554/38. 016/26. 737| 0.271|13. 245] 8.677| 3.598] 0.108 0} 2.066) 1.028
II | (1) Commercial so-
dium sulphid,
12.5 pounds-50. - . .'36. 167/50. 000/67. 021/10. 000) 3.377) 6.535] 6.382 O| 1.397) 1.960) 6.382 0
TII | Caustic potash, 11
pounds+sulphur,
12.5 pounds-50.-../61.111)...... 49. 738)}42.312|11.011)...... 7.339) 6.570
IV | (2) Commercial so-
dium sulphid,
12.5 pounds-50 - --}...... 46. 666/39. 916]......]..-.-- 28873) 14705 |e eee acces 1. 839}12. 605)... ...
V | Caustic soda, 11
pounds +sulphur,
12.5 pounds-50-. - ./20. 005/36. 690/48. 571)...... 1.018|21. 561] 7.857)...... OS |leiratL Oia acre 2 | lee ae
VI | Lime-sulphur, 1-7+ :
nitrate of soda, 50
pounds-50.......- 22..305|.....- 40. 707|20. 000) 1.313)-...--. 5.309 ON 093 ease Ne 3.539 0
VII | Caustic soda, 15
pounds+sulphur,
17.1 pounds-50....] 9. 797)46. 153/28. 365/39. 731} .261) 1.398} .961| 4.418) .065} .699) .480) .959
VIII | Caustic potash, 15
pounds+sulphur,
17.1 pounds-50.. . .|10. 663/21.
IX | Check—unsprayed. .|2 48
bo
“I
“I
~1
paceen 12. 041/11. 628
29/43. 722)... . . 090 OWA566L eer 0 OL TOOL eas
29/18. 356/33. 281) 6.358)14. 046) 9. 205/18. 506/15. 393)11. Beles 383/41. 372
TasBLe XX.—San Jose scale insecticide investigations (commercial table), Benton Harbor,
Mich., 1914.
Per cent of fruit.
Number| Total Free from
Plat. Name and dilution. ofcount | number |_ scale to Medinmtg
: trees. | of fruits. | light infes- fee ‘ara
tation y
market- | U2market-
able. oll
| PIM e-SUlp HUT fae tase ceierecic cit sis cia= See eee 19 2,925 98. 052 1.948
IL | (1) Commercial sodium sulphid, 12.5 pounds-50.. - il 2,127 94.359 5. 641
TIL | Caustic potash, 11 pounds-+sulphur, 12.5 pounds-50 7 2,721 83.352 16. 648
IV | (2) Commercial sodium sulphid, 12.5 pounds-50 ... 5 673 80. 833 19. 167
V | Caustic soda, 11 pounds+sulphur, 12.5 pounds-50. a 2, 144 97.942 2.058
VI | Lime-sulphur, 1-7+nitrate of soda, 50 pounds-50. . 11 1,074 98.511 1. 489
VII | Caustic soda, 15 pounds+sulphur, 17.1 pounds-50. . 8 2, 403 98. 378 1.622
VIII | Causticpotash, 15 pounds-+sulphur, 17.1 pounds-50 8 1,558 99. 167 - 833
TX-XT | Checks—unsprayed...........-.----------++------ 49 14, 693 60. 793 39.207
Although the spray materials were subjected to a severe test, all,
with the exception of the materials employed in Plats III and IV, gave
satisfactory results. Lime-sulphur was used alone and also in combi-
nation with nitrate of soda. The addition of sodium nitrate did not
affect the insecticidal value of the lime-sulphur. These plats yielded
98.052 and 98.511 per cent of marketable fruit, respectively. The
homemade sodium and potassium sulphur solutions, with the excep-
tion of the materials used in Plat III, gave 97.972 to 99.167 per cent of
38 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
marketable fruit. Plat III (KOH, 11 pounds, and sulphur, 12.5
pounds), 83.352 per cent, No. 2 commercial sodium sulphid 80.833
per cent, and the unsprayed plats averaged but 60.793 per cent of
marketable fruit.
EXPERIMENT XXI.
FIELD TESTS OF VARIOUS ARSENICALS COMBINED WITH BORDEAUX MIXTURE ON THE
FOLIAGE OF GRAPE.
Several arsenicals in combination with Bordeaux mixture (4—4—50)
were tested on grape foliage at the vineyard of William Birkit, of Glen-
lord, Mich. Two applications were made with a power sprayer,
June 23 and July 2, 1914, 50 gallons to the plat.
Plat I (applications 1 and 2), commercial arsenate of lead (powder),
14 to 50; Plat II (applications 1 and 2), arsenate of calcium, home-
made (sodium arsenate crystals, 18 ounces + calcium chlorid to 50);
Plat III (applications 1 and 2), arsenate of zinc, homemade (sodium
arsenate crystals, 18 ounces + zincsulphate to 50); Plat IV (applica-
tion 1), commercial arsenate of calcium (paste), 3 to 50, (application
2) homemade arsenate of calcium (sodium arsenate crystals, 18
ounces + stone lime, 3 pounds to 50); Plat V (application 1),commer-
cial arsenite of zinc (paste), 12 to 50 (application 2), commercial
arsenite of zine (powder), 18 ounces to 50.
No foliage injury resulted from the applications of these arsenicals.
SUMMARIZED REVIEW.
ARSENATE OF LEAD.
LABORATORY TESTS.
Used alone.—Arsenate of lead was used throughout the experi-
mental work as a basis of comparison for the other compounds tested.
The rapidity of killing was greatest with diplumbic arsenate of lead,
while the triplumbic form was the slowest. Arsenate of lead of a
mixed diplumbic and triplumbic composition closely approached the
effectiveness of the diplumbic form. Commercial arsenate of lead No.1
(triplumbic) was likewise slower in killing than the other commercial
compounds, which were largely diplumbic. In tests with the several
forms of arsenate of lead upon tender foliage, the triplumbic, the
most insoluble form, was found to be the safest.
With kerosene emulsion.—Arsenate of lead may be combined with
kerosene emulsion for the purpose of combating mandibulate and
haustellate insects. Although there is a slight breaking down of
the materials, the value of neither material is depreciated when used
jointly asaspray. In order to secure the best results, it is advisable
not to mix these materials until needed. Ina general way this is appli-
cable to the use of most insecticides in combination.
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 39
With lime-sulphur.—Triplumbic arsenate of lead combined with
lime-sulphur solution again proved to have a slower toxic effect than
either di or di and tri arsenates so combined. The triplumbic com-
mercial No. 1 arsenate of lead was again less rapid as a poisoning
agent than the commercial products of diplumbic compositions. It
was found that the mixing of lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead results
in asmaller consumption of foliage than when arsenate of lead is used
alone.
FIELD TESTS WITH APPLES.
With lime-sulphur.—Arsenate of lead consistently proved to be the
most effective poison tested during the three years of experimentation.
Triplumbic arsenate with lime-sulphur did not hold the codling moth
in check quite as well as the ordinary commercial (diplumbic) arsenate
of lead. Powdered arsenate of lead is equally as effective as the paste
form for the control of the codling moth.
LABORATORY AND FIELD TESTS.
With commercial sodium sulphid No. 1.—The value of arsenate of
lead is not decreased when combined with sodium sulphid; in fact
the sodium arsenate formed is more active as a toxin than lead
arsenate. However, field experiments with apples show that this
combination is impracticable, owing to the frequency of foliage injury
due to the formation of the soluble sodium arsenate.
With commercial barium tetrasulphid.—Arsenate of lead mixed
with barium tetrasulphid was used with satisfactory results for the
control of the codling moth. This combination was found safe for
use on apple foliage.
With nicotine solutions and lime-sulphur.—Arsenate of lead may be
mixed with nicotine solutions and lime-sulphur for the control of
certain apple sucking and chewing insects, as well as fungous dis-
eases. The mixing of these materials does not lessen their individual
value and moreover may be applied to apple foliage with safety.
With kerosene emulsion and lime-sulphur.—The combination of
lead arsenate, kerosene emulsion, and lime-sulphur should not be
used as an orchard spray, owing to the breaking down of the materials
and the subsequent foliage injury.
With fish-oil soap and lime-sulphur.—The combination of arsenate
of lead, fish-oil soap, and lime-sulphur is not a compatible mixture
for spraying purposes, since an insoluble calcium soap is formed.
In our experience, any combination containing lime-sulphur and soap
should not be used.
ARSENATE OF CALCIUM.
An effort was made to secure a satisfactory substitute for arsenate
of lead, a compound which would be as efficient and at the same time
less costly. With this object in view arsenate of calcium was used
40 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
in the experimental work during 1912, 1913, and 1914, and has
given encouraging results. This arsenical can undoubtedly be manu-
factured at a somewhat cheaper cost than arsenate of lead. It is
of further interest to note that this compound may be readily pre-
pared at home by combining fused sodium arsenate with stone lime.
(For a discussion of the method of making, see p. 30.) While it
would be preferable to use arsenic acid in place of sodium arsenate,
this acid can not be readily secured at low cost at the present time.
When arsenic acid is used the method of preparation as described
should be modified somewhat.
LABORATORY TESTS.
Used alone.—Arsenate of calcium, commercial powder and paste
and homemade paste, in accordance with several formulas, was used
in poison-feeding tests with several species of chewing insects. In
some instances the rapidity of killing was equal to that of arsenate
of lead, but was generally somewhat less.
With lime-sulphur.—With lime-sulphur, arsenate of calcium was
as a rule more effective as a poisoning agent than when used alone.
When these compounds are combined, the amount of foliage consumed
by the larve is less than when arsenate of calcium is used alone.
FIELD TESTS WITH APPLES.
With lime-sulphur.—During the years 1912 and 1913 the several
forms of arsenate of calclum combined with lime-sulphur gave fairly
satisfactory control of the codling moth, considering the strength of
the arsenical used. In 1914 a commercial arsenate of calcium
(paste), arsenic oxid 18.82 per cent, combined with lime-sulphur
solution, gave very excellent control of the codling moth in com-
parison with arsenate of lead and unsprayed plats; arsenate of
calcium, 29,269 apples, 98.79 per cent sound; arsenate of lead,
24,018 apples, 99.44 per cent sound; unsprayed, 47,866 apples, 58.71
per cent sound. It is of further interest to note that arsenate of
-alctum may be combined with lime-sulphur without lessening the
value of the latter as a fungicide.
FIELD TESTS WITH GRAPE.
With Bordeaux mixture—Commercial arsenate of calcium and
homemade compounds were used combined with Bordeaux mixture
in vineyard experiments. These combinations caused no foliage
injury.
ARSENATE OF IRON.
LABORATORY AND FIELD TESTS.
Arsenate of iron is a slower acting poison than many of the other
arsenicals tested. Laboratory tests, even at increased strengths,
show that this arsenical is not quick to kill. In the field tests at the
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 4]
experimental apple orchard arsenate of iron was not an effective
insecticide for the codling moth. When used at greater strengths,
however, this arsenical should give fairly satisfactory results, but
would have no advantages over arsenate of lead.
ARSENATE OF ZINC.
LABORATORY AND FIELD TESTS.
Arsenate of zinc was used with very fair success in laboratory and
field tests, but fell somewhat below the efficiency of arsenate of
lead. This arsenical has no distinct advantages over arsenate of
lead.
ARSENITE OF LIME.
LABORATORY AND FIELD TESTS.
Arsenite of lime is an active and relatively cheap arsenical poison.
Unfortunately, however, its use is frequently attended with injury
to the foliage.
ARSENITE OF ZINC.
LABORATORY AND FIELD TESTS.
Arsenite of zinc was used in both the paste and powdered forms
alone and combined with fungicides. In common with other arse-
nites the zinc compound is an active poison, but frequently causes
foliage injury. Arsenite of zinc combined with milk of lime and
arsenite of zine mixed with lime-sulphur caused considerable burn-
ing in the experimental apple orchard during 1912.- In 1914 arsenite
of zinc (paste) added to slaking lime and then mixed with lime-
sulphur solution gave practically no foliage injury, but the value of
the arsenical was apparently impaired. Arsenite of zine (paste)
added to slaking lime for Bordeaux mixture gave excellent codling-
moth control and caused no foliage injury. It is possible that the
latter combination may be of value in sections where apple growers
use Bordeaux mixture along with an arsenical for the control of the
coding moth, bitter-rot, and blotch. Commercial arsenite of zine
in combination with Bordeaux mixture was tested in a vineyard dur-
ing the season of 1914, with satisfactory results.
MISCELLANEOUS ARSENICALS.
The following arsenical compounds were also tested at the labora-
tory: Arsenic sulphid, arsenic tersulphid, and arsenic trioxid. These
materials are destructive to leaf tissue and therefore undesirable in-
secticides.
NoNARSENICAL COMPOUNDS.
Several compounds containing no arsenic were tested, namely,
barium chlorid, barium sulphate, calcium chlorid, copper oxid, lead
acetate, lead carbonate, lead chromate, lead oxid, lead peroxid,
42 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
mercury bichlorid, zine chlorid, zine oxid, and zine sulphate. While
some of these compounds gave more or less satisfactory results, they
were not of sufficient promise to warrant further testing.
SODIUM AND POTASSIUM SULPHUR SOLUTIONS.
Caustic soda and caustic potash (homemade and commercial) were
combined with sulphur for the control of the San Jose scale. Cer-
tain of the solutions proved to be generally satisfactory as scalecides,
in some instances equaling lime-sulphur solution. Such solutions
can be readily prepared at home without the use of heat.
CONCLUSIONS.
During the course of the experimental work information on the
value of many compounds and combination sprays has been se-
cured. Several of the materials proved to be less valuable than
those now in common use, owing to their slow killing effect, to their
injury to foliage, to their cost, or to their incompatibility. While
many of the compounds proved to be impracticable for insecticidal
purposes, certain new spray materials and combinations were used
with success. Since the prevention of fungous diseases is intimately
associated with insect control, many of the insecticides were tested
with a fungicide in order to ascertain the results of such a combina-
tion.
Arsenate of lead proved to be the most consistent and valuable
stomach poison tested, giving satisfactory results throughout the
experimental work.
Arsenate of lead is equally effective in either the paste or pow-
dered form.
Triplumbic arsenate of lead is less rapid as a poisoning agent than
diplumbic arsenate, but is safer for use on tender foliage.
Arsenate of lead may be combined with nicotine solutions and
lime-sulphur solution for the control of certain apple chewing and
sucking insects, and fungous diseases.
For the control of certain sucking and chewing insects arsenate of
lead may be combined with kerosene emulsion.
Arsenate of lead, kerosene emulsion, and lime-sulphur is an incom-
patible mixture, due to the formation of an insoluble calcium soap
and the subsequent release of free kerosene. In our experience any
combination containing lime-sulphur and soap should not be used,
owing to the formation of an insoluble calcium soap.
Arsenate of lead should not be mixed with sodium sulphid com-
pounds, since the soluble sodium arsenate formed is destructive to
leaf tissue.
Arsenate of lead combined with a commercial barium tetrasul-
phid gave satisfactory control of the codling moth and caused no
foliage injury in the experimental apple orchard.
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 43
The most promising new insecticide developed during the course
of the experimental work is arsenate of calcium. This arsenical may
be manufactured at less cost than arsenate of lead or may be
_ readily prepared at home as described on page 30. During the sea-
sons of 1912 and 1913 arsenate of calcium gave encouraging results.
In 1914 a commercial arsenate of calcium paste in combination with
lime-sulphur gave very satisfactory control of the codling moth.
While arsenate of calcium may have certain limitations, it will doubt-
less prove of value for the control of chewing insects on certain host
plants.
Arsenate of iron and arsenate of zine are not as satisfactory as arse-
nate of lead.
Arsenite compounds are dangerous to use on tender foliage. In
some instances, however, it may be possible to prevent foliage injury
somewhat by combining the soluble arsenic with lime.
Sodium-sulphur and potassium-sulphur compounds gave fairly sat-
isfactory control of the San Jose scale, in some instances equaling
lime-sulphur solution. They may readily be prepared at home with-
out the use of heat.
KEY TO THE TABLES OF INSECTICIDES AND COMBINATION SPRAYS
USED IN THIS BULLETIN.
{(Com=commercial; c. p.—chemically pure; h. m.=homemade.]
Reference. Table.
MEMMACCHOLEMMUISOM a: sree 55 EL TSU i Pe SR EE aN XU OXGY:
Anthracene emulsion, arsenate of lead (powder)........-.-.------------------ XI
IAT REMA Te OLealcium (com paste). - == =~... s-- eee ee ee ee VI, XIII, XIV
Arsenate of calcium (com. paste), kerosene emulsion..................------- XITI
Arsenate of calcium (com. paste), lime-sulphur.............. VI, X, XIII, XIV, XVI
Arsenate or calcium’ (com. powder)..-+.-.--4222222204 4552 046-- AMODE DOE NEE. OGD
Arsenate of calcium (com. powder), kerosene emulsion.............---------- axel
Arsenate of calcium (com. powder), lime-sulphur...................-------..- XIV
Arsenate orcalerum\(c.+ps powder) <= ~~. --: tls oe ees ee IE JOOS WW
Arsenateorealcium: (ec. py powder), lime. 2. ces2eeasceee moo an ee On ONG
Arsenate of calcium (c. p. powder), lime-sulphur.......-........---/.---- JOE NY WW
Arsenate of-calcium (h. m. paste)--.......i-eeeeeee ee eee VI, VIII, 1X, XIII, XIV
Arsenate of calcium (h. m. paste), Bordeaux mixture................--------- Xil
Arsenate of calcium (h. m. paste), Bordeaux mixture, nicotine sulphate. - ---- XII
Arsenate of calcium (h. m. paste), kerosene emulsion........ SEAR Ge Ges XIII
Arsenate of calcium (h. m. paste), lime-sulphur_.................. V1, X, XIII, XIV
Arsenate of calcium (h. m.), self-boiled lime-sulphur.............-...--------- XIII
mEsenateror iron (C."p: Powder) «4.0.2.5. 5555 ek ee I Ee I, III, V
Arsenate ofaron: (csp: powder), lime... 2/2 52 =e Ay aE oe V
Arsenate of iron (c. p. powder), lime-sulphur-....2222..2..22.. 222 022225.- LIES I
Arsenate or iron: (hs mi: paste) = 22... 2... ee es es ea eae AV
ATsenate orion. (hem: spaste)s lime-...... sseeeeeee een ee eee ee Vv
Arsenate oi 1ron (hy m= paste); lime-sulphurIs gees see. see LEBEN AV)
Arsenate of lead (com. paste)..-..------- T, TT Veal. Val Val DX) XCnDS SOE axXe
Arsenate of lead (com. paste), barium tetrasulphid...........-.-..--------- XVIII
Arsenate of lead (com. paste), kerosene emulsion............-.-----------+--- XIII
44 BULLETIN 278, U. S$. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Table
Arsenate of lead (com. paste), laundry soap, nicotine sulphate...............- XV
Arsenate of lead (com. paste), lime........-- Beles co .csee te ee VY
Arsenate of Jead’(com:. paste), lime-sulphur-©.-.... =... .:..122. 2.) eee LT,
IV, V, VI, X, XIII, XIV, XVI, XVII, XVIII
Arsenate of lead (com. paste), nicotine sulphate...........--.-.....---------- XV
Arsenate of lead (com. paste), nicotine sulphate, lime-sulphur................- XV
Arsenate of lead (com. paste), self-boiled lime-sulphur...............-.....-- xT
Arsenate of lead (com. paste), sodium sulphid (com.)..................------ XVIII
Arsenate of lead (com. paste), sodium sulphid (com.), lime.............-...-. XVITI
Arsenate of Iead' (com. powder)=:.-.-:-.22.00 02. 22202... 22.02 2h eV aaa
Arsenate of lead (com. powder), anthracene emulsion................--..---- XI
Arsenate of lead (com. powder), barium tetrasulphid.....................---- ecb
Arsenate of lead (com. powder), kerosene emulsion................-....----- XI
Arsenate of lead (com. powder), lime-sulphur...............2:.....-.-- XII, XVII
Arsenate of lead (com. powder), sodium sulphid (com.)............-.-------- XII
Arsenate of lead (com. powder), sulphur (com. precipitated)...........-...-- XVIIT
Arsenate of lead: (diplumbic powder).c Giieeie oo lt See TEV
Arsenate of lead: (diplumbic powder), lime: ivs222-..2-<...-.< - 2c ee ae V
Arsenate of lead (diplumbic powder), lime-sulphur................----------- II, V
Arsenate of lead (di-and iriplumbic' powder):.-.). 2 21: -: = 24)... ee PAEEE ay:
Arsenate of lead (di and triplumbic powder), lime....................--..---- V
Arsenate of lead (di and triplumbic powder), lime-sulphur...-..............-- TERY,
Arsenate of lead (iriplumbic powder). 2.20 paste. es te eee 1p ATE ESA
Arsenate of lead (triplumbic powder), lime......... oj eea es oe ea ee V
Arsenate of lead (triplumbic powder), lime-sulphur...-.........-.--------- EE TIVE,
Arsenate of lead /(triplumbiccom paste) Meee yo 2a i ee LOU AY
Arsenate of lead (triplumbic com. paste), lime... -=.:......-.....:...-2236—eee V
Arsenate of lead (triplumbic com. paste), lime-sulphur......-.-.....------ II, IV, V
Arsenate of 21nc: (Cp. DOWGer). <2... 2 schaeneee feet ae Soci so ee TLE, V
Arsenate ofzine (¢c.p.. powder), lime... .25e245.- beth .in- -. 13s eee ee eee Wi
Arsenate of zinc (c. p. powder), lime-sulphur............----------2.-------- II, V
Arsenaterolzine (h. me paste)... : .-..)- sz eRe eee. cee J; DL, V5 Varese
Arsenate of zinc (him... paste), lime... --- seem eck: os. = oo eee V
Arsenate of zinc (h. m. paste), lime-sulphur......-.....------ -v JUL EVe VG SS exaVeiin
Arsenic sul phidis osc sees dn oe ein <, Sa ee ais = a REE fs A ia 5 TIO:
Arsenic sulphid. lim e-sulphur.:- 5... - -... cepewieciie hee eels: Sto -/-< 2 er II
Arsenic tersulphider: Wiese 220 oo i ee ey Ae I, III, V
Arsenicitersulphid: -lime-sulphur: ©: = cas ee eeees- 24) be 2-2. ee eee II
ATSPOICHTIOXIG 39 Soe Se ee nel. | EE ae teed Skene 0 LUE, WV
Arsenic trioxid, Jime-sulphur. Jos) sid Soe ee-eh- aa tee: <4- 2 2 oS II
Arsenite of Jimes(hyamsspaste) = Ns .)2 2520 sees ete: 5s = eee ee Lt WV
Aysenite-of lime (h:'m.*paste), lime .jsa:. saeeece.- --\--ce- ~+---e segs eee V
Arsenite of lime (h. m. paste), lime-sulphur....-....-----2.-.---2+-+--:- II, IV, V
Arsenite) of zine; (com: ipaste) jz). i: j- a Seat 2 ha... oe. ee ee I, III, V
Arsenite, of zinc (com. paste), Bordeaux mixture.-.-.:--&---.222sue ques eee XVIII
Arsenite of zine (com. paste), lime... .....ses)-<ees- --e Sees ck 3-2 eee ee V
Arsenite of zinc (com. paste), lime, lime-sulphur. .............-.....-...-- XVIII
Arsenite of zinc (com. paste), lime-sulphur..............-...-..-------+-- LL LVS:
Arsenite olzinel(Com. powder)... -<...-semeee eee} cme I, TI, V,, Vile
Arsenite of zinc (com. powder), kerosene emulsion.........------.---------+-- XI
Arsenite of zine (coms powder); Hlime.).7). 8922 4. 225 sas 4. dsm eens see V
Arsenite of zinc (com. powder), lime-sulphur. ......-.-.-.-..-+-------- TI, TV3i/ Vyas
Arsenite of zine\(c. p. powder). ...-. 2 re) Geese ce = Cobbs eee Eee I, III, V
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 45
Table.
Ansemtelomzime (Cc: p. powder), lime?) 5... eae en) ak ok V
Arseniteiotzime (Cc: p.-powder), lime-sulphur.: 2) 288322422 v2 2 i200 leis. 2S: IBLE AY,
Baruummellontaisyas see lin ee ee [ose oa ee see EO I
Barn megehloridlaime-sulpi ur: 2...) Rs ee II
IBeuetioucay (Sul joe hie Pie eh A ka ae PRE i a Lie eset nN ame I
Daring lohate «lime-sulphurs 52... ... See ae oe ice LE
PIM LE TAS MTG Y (COM) Os cas. asin. 2 ee ee ee ee SGUE
Barium tetrasulphid (com.), arsenate of lead (com. paste)........----..-.--- XVIII
Barium tetrasulphid (com.), arsenate of lead (com. powder)... .-.....------- XL
Bordeaux mixture, arsenate of calcium (h. m. paste). ......--.-------------- XII
Bordeaux mixture, arsenate of calcium (h. m. paste), nicotine sulphate.....-. XII
Bordeauxamixture. arsenite of zinc (com.:paste)ee esse es 6b. 2 2 ee XVIII
Calcimmerehlonid ews oe oa eRe UN te SCE A EN Las I
Calcium chiorid 4 lime-sulphur.:: 222: 5.2. 1 ee os ek te es IE
(HOD) OCL? CEAC ss a5 li PR Os ACU SER Ee reer Cane TD I
Coppemoxitdslimre-sulp lure... 1... 2... ee ee AO UN I hh aie II
Meroseneremul stom net Wel eo. 223s... 2 8 ss oe ee XT, XTII, XV
Kerosene emulsion, arsenate of calcium (com. paste)......----.--------- XIII, XV
Kerosene emulsion, arsenate of calcium (com. powder)..........------------- XI
Kerosene emulsion, arsenate of calcium (h. m. paste)...-.-.-..------------... XIII
Kerosene emulsion, arsenate of lead (com. paste). .....--..-------- NAA XIII, XV
Kerosene emulsion, arsenate of lead (com. powder)....-........----------+--- XI
Kerosene emulsion, arsenite of zinc (com. powder)....-.-..-.- Sint ce MRED Ice x
WEA ACCLALCM Rte eet nce 8 tlk Oren ie URE oy ENE Ts WAS eke T
Weacracetare. Hime-cUlphursss 5... 2 2. 2s eR eae Jag
Weadcanbonatessncscy <2. 2s. ok abs a 3h 5 te ete ie oneness I
Weacncanbonatelime-sulphur. \. 22.2... ss: seein ne ei eens 10
imeadichromate (Com powder) 2°... ...- 5-22 eee J, VII, VIII, 1x
juead chromate (com. powder), lime-sulphur... 4522227) 022 0) e 2 es 2 II
eadvehromate, (a) na. paste): -:. 2.22: . UU eee VII, VIII
IL@RG) C220 shea S ee po ore eu cA Odi a meen es Gina I
Weadroxidedime-culphur. 2:22:22. 02..:... 122s eee eet sone ee eee II
ILA! TORIROD- IG hs oii hg a ee er Fey pe etn ce Si J
Weadsneroxtdalimve-sulplur. 250542: .. . 2 22 ee ee ee ee II
ifmmeyarsenate of calcium, (c. p) powder) .:-\ eae eer en ee teenie hs Vv
humewarsenate of iron;(c- p. powder)... .- 52 aaa ee SNe ae Vv
ihemevarsenate:ol irom: (hs mipaste)./...-- - Ps se eee AS cee os aS era VE
ihimerarsenate or leadi(com: paste)... ...: Saueereee ete em ne ee nee Vv
Lime, arsenate of lead (com. paste), sodium sulphid (com.).........--.----- XVIII
ikime. arsenate’ ot lead: (diplumbic powder): 222222202 2 rt Vv
Lime, arsenate of lead (di and triplumbic powder). _....-:...-..-..-..-..-.- ME
Lime, arsenate of lead (triplumbic powder)..-................-----+---.------ Vv
Wimewarsenate of lead (triplumbic paste)-:2-ss ere ee Vv
mimes arsenateror zine: (Cs Ps DOWEL) ¢.'.. - = eee eee eke ee ae Vv
iimewarsenate ot zinei( m. paste) i... 52 Vee ee ee Vv
une arsemite or lime)(h.m paste)... --- See Se i Vv
iimevarsemite ot zime (com, paste): 2. . 2... cee ye Vi
Lime, arsenite of zinc (com. paste), lime-sulphur.....................-..-- XVIII
ine arsenite or zie (com, powder): -. <2. yekeeee eh Vv
hie scrsemite or Zimel(Cy po POWGE!) . .- 27s eee sie eee V
LANs HOPI Case a aC ae Se SO HARES eo J oo Soe Gbaes Heb emes aimee coo Vv
LINAS Wy MO Sok ea Se OE MOR ere odo Sab uee TUS V5 XT, XS, XS XX
Lime-sulphur, arsenate of calcium (com. paste)-.-..........- VI, X, XIII, XIV, XVI
,
46 BULLETIN 278, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Table.
Lime-sulphur, arsenate of calcium (com. powder).....-.....---.-----------..- XIV
Lime-sulphur, arsenate of calcium (c. p. powder)...-.....---------------- II, IV, V
Lime-sulphur, arsenate of calcium (h. m. paste). ...........----- VI, X, XIII, XIV
Lime-sulphur, arsenate of iron-(c. p. powder). ....--------+:----322 eee TEIVaN:
Lime-sulphur, arsenate of iron (h. m. paste)---.--.---.:-----------s2=eee TL EVE
Lime-sulphur, arsenate:of lead (com. paste):....------=----\-+-2-2--ss-eeeeee TEs
IV, V, VI, X, XIII, XIV, XVI, XVII, XVIII
Lime-sulphur, arsenate of lead (com. paste), nicotine sulphate...-........... XV
Lime-sulphur, arsenate of lead (com. powder).............------------- XII, XVII
Lime-sulphur, arsenate of lead (diplumbic powder)........-..-...------------ LEN;
Lime-sulphur, arsenate of lead (di and triplumbic powder)..-.......-.-..--..-- Tis
Lime-sulphur, arsenate of lead (triplumbic powder). ......--..------.---- TI, IV, V
Lime-sulphur, arsenate of lead, (triplumbic com. paste)....-.-....-----.--- II, IV, V
Lime-sulphur, arsenate of zinc (c. p. powder)_...<-:-. -. 2-2 52.-22a5. eee IDG N/
Lime-sulphur, arsenate of zinc (h. m. paste)..............------ IL, IV, Vx 2xevalihi
iLime-sulphur, arsenic sulphid.:....... 2-222 cee... -+-+--eds!o se II
iime=sulphur, arsenic tersulphid..... 24-352. .-- 2. s+ +--+ 2+ 2 ee eee ee II
Ihimezsulphur, arsenic trioxid.... 2s .<6..:5 ceaes gee oei tats Janis sees ee eee II
Iime-sulphur, arsenite of lime (h.im. paste) 3-222 2-22<¢ .....-.<2e=7 ea eee II, IV, V
Lime-sulphur, arsenite of zinc (com. paste)..........--.--5.------2-2---5- II, IV, V
J.ime-sulphur, arsenite of zinc (com. paste), lime.....- ~~... 24. 4.2siG-ceee8 XGIENS
Lime-sulphur, arsenite of zinc (com. powder).........----.--.--------- TT, EVE
Lime-sulphur, arsenite of zinc (c. p. powder)...-...-------.-.2222--+-23.2ee85 LV
itime=sulphur,sbariumchlorid..2.2. 4. oc 2 see ae = eo II
iime-sulphur,“barinm. sulphate. <2... 5.225288 5.222... - 221 {95 Se df!
ikime-sulphur, calcium. chlorid. ....2.:22. 22922252: 0---- 222.2242 if;
Itime-sulphur, ;copperOxid!= 2.2... 32.5.5 see eee 2s yes ee II
Iime-sulphur lead acetates. --... 2... eae wes 2s ae oe eee II
iiame-sulphur, lead ‘carbonate. ........2: -<eBstass ec: - 2-4 aca - ans eee II
Lame-sulphur, lead chromate (com. powder). ...-.--- ~~~ 2.14... 12+ -4 5 eee II
Wame-sulphur lead oxidase so. <3 o-c.7e,-ee ee Seo. ooo eee II
ihume-sulphur, peroxid... ce S<<2 os. eee es +. Se - . - - e e II
ame-sulphur: mercury, bichlorid..:..-.: s28ee.----2--.- 2... 5205. II
imme-sulphir nitrate Of coda...2..- 3205. ose een lo... oo ol a XIX, XX
hame-sulphur,; Paris Preens 0 - = = 2) = Pe ee nie 22 ome <n bee V
hame-sulphur szinechlorids :\. 5 1s... 5.2) eee eee eee <a ee II
HAM eC- Sul ph 71NC OX1G soe. oe a. - <5 2 3/2 ee sie, ee II
ime-sulphur, zine sulphates. <7... <a a foo n ie +(e go a II
MerenmygD1C MLOTA Gs aie so Nake erste Sypla oes =a ee ieee os = 0 = I
Mercurysbichlorid;lime-sulphur. - -..--—- ease cht oe leech a II
Nacotineisgulphate - <2 5. cc.<nnc = - c/n tem aeeeetieeeieci=: fe 2 43-bo ae XV
Nicotine sulphate, arsenate of lead (com. paste).......----.------------+---- XV
Nicotine sulphate, arsenate of lead (com. paste), laundry soap.......-.-- Ss XV
Nicotine sulphate, arsenate of lead (com. paste), lime-sulphur..........-...-- XV
Nacotime sulphate, laundry soap... 2... teen. 6 opi: eee eee XV
Natrate ‘of soda,.Jame-sulphur: -:--<--..:.:-s2252< eae ---- «9-8 a ee
(PATS OT COD coy o nie spake lee einiste fates w 9 oS oe Ree sie peels pn oc ee V
(Ramis oreen sme 2.15 sa wee eet wins = oo cet epee = anes * Seno e ee V
paris preenlime-sul puns penn oon 2 o's Sere emvai Gina = 5 a V
orassham sul pl id (i aie) see ao nc, a eee XIX, XX
Self-boiled lime-sulphur, arsenate of calcium (h. m. paste)..-....---.----.-..- XIII
Self-boiled lime-sulphur, arsenate of lead (com. paste).........-...----------- XII
BOs p (HSNO) wre ees ctl Seats cis 2s» = =<. fei. eeteert: ss eigen a XV
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE INVESTIGATIONS. 47
- Table
Son (eiinchiy)) Ae ssesccdoe Oca nee ae eee 6 56 Choe. Coe e a enp eiar eee XV
Soap daumany,) arsenate of lead (com. paste)-.s-s2s-----2-----,---5--- 42. IY
Soap (laundry), arsenate of lead (com. paste), nicotine sulphate............... XV
Soupadaundiny) snicotine sulphates. -:2...... sue ee gee we. ec XV
SOD (meySlOlD)) See see toot BARE epee cee eMe ee oo 5 copa an cock oH e oe neu oconteds XV
Solin, siwllolokel (Geli) Besa Santee ae oars '2 oo Sc ess eae ese XT RO NOE
Sodium sulphid (com.), arsenate of lead (com. paste).......---..----.------ XVIII
Sodium sulphid (com.), arsenate of lead (com. paste), lime.....-........-...- XVIII
Sodium sulphid (com.), arsenate of lead (com. powder). .......-.-.--.--.----- XII
Sioclinan gulljolne! (Un, s)he as coc e eee eeeensccH o0 05 OC SCH br Ol BaOpe tears XIX, XX
Sulphur (com. precipitated), arsenate of lead (com. powder)................ XVIII
PN CRCMMORICM Per ire oes cl )= 2 ove lols ooo 2 + 3 SS RRM erepa 2) =iciclal aiccalats israel Se I
Primero Ml origeg itn -SULP MUN -<<....215 0.520. - one eee nee a= = eee sae i
BNE, CFEC -cosdoboQe Cones eee EE aS «SECU he Meee Seeinee ne eens See I
Lime Czael, lites 00h o) th) he CoA eee ees C6 ooh ee ee aR SS, II
SiS TOMS 3 CaS COS SEB CHE GAA ee ETERS © oo AOE orn ae Dae err ae I
Piers natewame-sulphure. . 25.22... -. -!pail Paes eleioe ele lec cle tele II
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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 279 e
Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief
Washington, D. C. W August 24, 1915.
SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO.
By Rowranp M. Meape, Scientific Assistant, Office of Crop Acclimatization.
CONTENTS.
Page. | Page.
Imitfroductionmererssccccce asec. c2 q-s ences 1.)) Numiberompollsisetieseeeeesceae oer ener 11
Cotton production in the San Antonio region. 2 | Numbers of locks in the bolls..._..........-- 12
PIG OF TESc ok SASSER IR See ens eee eee 3°’ |" Sizelotboll Sempee meer ea meres ae reser ceeaiy ner 13
Planting and germination of seed._.........- 4 | HOGMSOUGOWSer cence cece sce merece eee ae 13
Chopping wide-spaced rows...-.....---.----- 5 |) Yields fromisections Avand! Bij. 2t 2525202 14
Thinning single-stalk rows........-.-.------- 5 | Quality and quantity of fiber................ 18
Results of the test...........-- ELE oa 5 | Results in time-of-thinning test.............- 18
Development of vegetative branches........- 6 | Results in distance-between-row test .....-.- 19
Ow eriniomecondSte ee aqacees-ee- sice-s- - - 7! (SUMIN aye eee eee enon ce chcoeee eee eree 19
INTRODUCTION.
Single-stalk cotton culture, as explained and discussed in previous
publications of the Bureau of Plant Industry, has proved more sat-
isfactory than other systems of culture in various sections of the cot-
ton belt, especially in regions having short seasons. This is so for
two reasons: (1) Single-stalk culture promotes earliness and (2) it
increases the acre yield. The single-stalk system of cotton culture
embraces late thinning and short spaces between the plants in the
row. The late thinning suppresses the vegetative branches and re-
stricts the size of the plants, so that they can be left from 6 to 12
inches apart in the row without injurious crowding. ‘The plants are
left close together, so that the row space is more efficiently utilized
and higher yields are obtained than by the common system of wide
spacing.
1 The publications of the Bureau of Plant Industry concerning the single-stalk system of cotton culture
are as follows: ‘““A New System of Cotton Culture,” a paper in Circular 115; Farmers’ Bulletin 601, ‘A
New System of Cotton Culture and Its Application”; and Document 1130, “Single-Stalk Cotton Culture.’’
Farmers’ Bulletin 601 and the paper in Circular 115 explain the single-stalk system and give the results of
experiments at Norfolk, Va., and in South Carolina. Document 1130 is an illustrated circular that shows
how the vegetative branches are controlled and why larger yields are possible.
Notre.—This bulletin will be of service generally in acquainting those who are interested in cotton
growing with the several advantages to be gained through the application of single-stalk culture as com-
pared with the more common methods. It will be particularly helpful to farmers and experimenters in
locations similar to the San Antonio region.
98553°—Bull. 279—15——1
2 BULLETIN 279, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The period during which conditions are favorable for the setting
of bolls in the region of San Antonio, Tex., is usually less than two
months and frequently less than 80 days. In order to secure a good
crop of cotton it is necessary, therefore, to practice the system of
culture that will promote the production of the greatest number of
bolls in the least time. For this reason the single-stalk system of
culture has been looked upon as most nearly meeting the require-
ments of local conditions. To compare the merits of the common
practice of wide spacing and the new single-stalk system, a series of
tests was conducted in 1914 on the United States experiment farm
at San Antonio. The results of these tests showed striking differences
in favor of single-stalk culture.
In spite of the fact that the season was somewhat out of the ordi-
nary, in that two months of excessively wet weather were followed
by two months of drought, 1t was even more favorable for the pro-
duction of cotton than ordinary seasons. Yields higher than the
average were secured from rows grown according to the ordinary
method of culture, even though the period during which bolls were
set was shorter than normal. Whether the results in a normal
season would have been more or less in favor of the single-stalk cul-
ture can not be definitely stated, but results of previous experiments
indicate that even if the season had been normal the differences in
the two methods of culture would have been comparatively the same.
COTTON PRODUCTION IN THE SAN ANTONIO REGION.
In the San Antonio region the development of cotton seedlings is
frequently retarded because of the low temperatures that prevail
often as late as the middle of May. As a result of exposure to low
temperatures the plants are variously affected with the disorder
known as leaf-cut,! some only slightly, others so seriously that the
terminal buds abort. From the middle of May to early July the
plants usually develop normally and constantly, June being espe-
cially favorable for their growth. Flowering commences from the
first to the middle of June and reaches the maximum early in July.
About the middle of July a drought usually ensues and continues
until some time in August. This droughty condition causes the
flowers to fall from the plants and only a very small percentage of the
flowers that open in that period develop into bolls. By the end of
July the plants cease to grow and very few flowers open. Rains
usually fall during the latter part of August, and if the succeeding
two months continue warm and the weevils are not numerous a ‘‘top
crop”’ is sometimes produced.
1 For a detailed explanation of the nature of this disorder, see the paper entitled “‘Leaf-Cut, or Tomosis,
a Disorder of Cotton Seedlings,’”’ in Circular 120 of the Bureau of Plant Industry.
SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO. 3
Usually the boll weevils do not appear in sufficient numbers to
interfere materially with the setting of the crop before the first of
July. During seasons of continued drought they are unable to
reproduce rapidly enough to overcome the mortality caused by the
falling of punctured squares and the action of the hot, dry atmos-
phere, and consequently they inflict little damage. In other words,
drought is to a degree a beneficial factor in the production of a cotton
crop in this region.t’ During more humid seasons, however, weevils
infest practically all buds and squares by the middle of July.
From these facts it will be seen that cotton crops in the region of
San Antonio must ordinarily be set within a month or a month and a
half after flowering begins. Under the ordinary system of wide
spacing, yields are usually rather low, averaging less than half a bale
to the acre. During the season of 1914, however, nearly a bale to
the acre was secured by the single-stalk system. Moreover, the bolls
that produced this crop were set in less than 30 days.
The season of 1914 was exceptional only in the distribution of the
rainfall, which tended to shorten the period of setting the crop.
While the normal rainfall for April and May, respectively, is less than
3 inches, in 1914 more than 6 inches fell during each of these months.
No rain fell from the first of June until the middle of August, so that
a continued drought followed an extended period of rainfall.
PLAN OF TEST.
A plan of the field on which the ordinary system of wide spacing
and the new single-stalk system of cotton culture were tested and
compared in 1914 is shown in figure 1. In order to facilitate com-
parisons, the field was divided into four sections, which are desig-
nated as A, B,C, and D, respectively. All of the sections were planted
with the same variety of cotton, Acala, a promising new type recently
acclimatized from Mexico, which has given excellent results for several
seasons at San Antonio.
In section A the two systems were compared in alternating rows;
that is, single rows in which the plants were thinned early to 2 feet
apart alternated with single rows in which the plants were thinned
late and left less than 10 inches apart.
In section B 4-row blocks grown by the common system of culture
alternated with 4-row blocks grown by the .single-stalk system of
culture.
In section C there were three blocks of five rows each. The plants
in the five rows of each block were spaced to 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 inches
apart, respectively. The blocks were thinned on three different dates,
1See Bulletin 220 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, entitled “The Relation of Drought to Weevil
Resistance in Cotton.’’
a BULLETIN 279, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the first representing early, the second late, and the third very late
thinning.
In section D the two systems were compared in alternate rows,
the rows being planted 3, 4, 5, and 6 feet apart.
A guard row between sections A and B was not thinned at any time
during the season.
Throughout this paper the rows representing the common practice
of wide spacing are designated as wide-spaced rows and those repre-
senting the new system of close spacing are referred to as single-
stalk rows.
PLANTING AND GERMINATION OF SEED.
Tt has been found desirable to plant from 25 to 30 pounds of seed
to the acre if the rows are 4 feet apart, in order to secure a stand
SECTION A SECTION B See TON SECTION D
pap ti OLD AND NEW
40 ROWS 4 FEET APART |40 ROWS # FEET APART |NTHINNED \SYSTEMS OF
IN WHICH OLD AND NEW|/N WHICH OLD AND NEW} TO CULTURE CO Aa
SYSTEMS ARE COM- |SYSTEMS ARE COM- \OIFFERENT AE age
PARED IN ALTERNATE | PARED IN ALTERNATE |OISTANCES AT
S/INGLE ROWS. BLOCKS. ON DIFFERENT
DISTANCES
DIFFERENT) © 544 oF:
K
y
CO FEET
Fig. 1.—Plan of the field at San Antonio, Tex., in which the common system of wide spacing and the
new Single-stalk system of cotton culture were tested and compared in 1914.
in which the young plants become crowded sufficiently to restrict
the development of the vegetative branches. Accordingly, the seed
for the San Antonio test was sowed at the rate of about 30 pounds to
the acre. The planting was done on April 14, with a 2-row planter.
Heavy rains and low temperatures rendered the conditions unfa-
vorable for the germination of seed; but on account of the high rate
of seeding a good stand was obtained. Nearly all rows had a short
‘‘skip” or two in which no plants appeared, but none of these skips
were more than a few feet long, and it is believed that they had little
effect on the yields. The skips were more numerous in section B
than in any other section of the field, but were as frequent in single-
stalk blocks as in wide-spaced blocks, and they therefore balanced
the comparison of the two systems. Aside from these occasional
skips, the stand was very satisfactory.
SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO. 5
CHOPPING WIDE-SPACED ROWS.
In the region of San Antonio the general practice is to chop the
plants when they are still very small, leaving one or two plants every
18 to 24 inches apart. This is usually done as soon as possible after
germination, depending generally on weather conditions or when the
choppers are best able to do the work, rather than on the stage of
the plants’ development. In the San Antonio test an attempt was
made to approximate this practice in the wide-spaced rows. The
plants were spaced to 2 feet, but owing to rain the chopping was
delayed until May 6, 22 days after planting. At this time the plants
were about 3 or 4 inches high and had one or two foliage leaves in
addition to the seed leaves.
THINNING SINGLE-STALK ROWS.
In the single-stalk rows it was planned to leave the plants from 6
to 8 inches apart, and except in the short skips it was possible to
secure the spacings desired. In order to have the spacing as accurate
as possible and to leave the most promising plants the thinning was
done by hand.
Care was exercised near the skips to leave the plants slightly
closer together, in order that the effect of the open space might to a
degree be overcome and that the development of vegetative branches
might be prevented. Later observation showed, however, that one
or two vegetative branches generally developed on plants next to
skips or at the ends of rows.
The plants developed slowly during the cool, cloudy days of April
and early May, so that it was late in May before they were in the
proper condition for thmning. Because of continued rains the thin-
ning was not done, however, until June 2. At this time the plants
were about 12 inches high and had about eight full-grown leaves.
On some of the most precocious plants fruiting branches had begun
to develop. It is believed that had it been possible to do the thin-
ning a week or 10 days earlier, when the plants had but five or six
full-grown leaves and were only 8 or 10 inches high, it would have
been more effective.
RESULTS OF THE TEST.
In compering the wide-spaced and single-stalk systems of culture
the following points were considered: Development of vegetative
branches, rate of flowering, number of bolls set, number of locks in
bolls, size of bolls, the form of rows, yields of seed cotton, and
percentage and quality of lint.'
1 The writer was greatly assisted in securing the data at different times during the season by Messrs.
Robert E. Kerr, James Taylor, H. Gregory McKeever, G. B. Gilbert, and G. W. R. Davidson. There
was at all times close cooperation with the staff of the United States experiment farm at San Antonio.
6 BULLETIN 279, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
While comparative yields comprise the most important consid-
eration in such tests as long as the quality of the fiber is not injured
in the system giving the highest yield, it is important to know what
factors influence productiveness. Since the success of single-stalk
culture depends primarily on the suppression of vegetative-branch
development, it is important to know how conditions of climate
and culture affect the growth of these branches. The rate of flower-
ing and the setting of bolls are directly associated and have con-
siderable bearing on the yields. The number of locks in the boll is
not important so long as good yields are obtained, but a great
reduction in the size of bolls would, of course, be undesirable under
any system of culture. The distance to which plants spread between
rows, especially near the ground, is important, since it may affect
cultivation, picking, etc., and the distance apart rows should be
planted may be limited by this feature. Data on all of these points
were secured only in sections A and B, which included the largest
part of the field. Onsome of the points, however, data were obtained
from all sections.
DEVELOPMENT OF VEGETATIVE BRANCHES.
During warm and favorable spring weather in the region of San
Antonio, cotton plants in wide-spaced rows develop five or six
vegetative branches, but if the weather remains cool only two or three
branches may develop. Though the development of vegetative
branches was restricted more than usual by low temperatures in the
season of 1914, it was possible by leaving the plants crowded in the
rows to induce a further reduction in the number of branches. This
can be clearly seen in Table I, which presents the average number of
vegetative branches on plants in wide-spaced and single-stalk rows
of Acala cotton in sections A and B. These averages represent the
census from 25 consecutive plants in each of the rows.
TaBLeE I.—Average number of vegetative branches on plants in wide-spaced and in single-
stalk rows of Acala cotton in sections A and B, San Antonio, Tex., 1914.
Alternate single rows (section A). Alternate 4-row blocks (section B).
Single-stalk W ide-spaced Single-stalk W ide-spaced
rows. rows. rows. rows.
_ | Average _ | Average _ | Average . | Average
BOMPWirokeS Mien ON Le | | ofa qlee) of Ba. |VRO ta ata
Sage plants. oS plants. ie plants. : plants.
0. 48 4 1. 56 62 0. 40 58 1. 56
- 56 6 1. 60 63 . 64 59 1.68
50 8 1.72 64 . 60 60 2. 00
40 10 1. 64 1. 20
SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO. a
Table I shows that during the cool spring of 1914 an average of 1.6
vegetative branches developed on the wide-spaced plants, while the
average on the single-stalk plants was 0.53 branch per plant. The
range of averages in wide-spaced rows was from 1.2 to 2 branches
per plant, while in single-stalk rows it was from 0.4 to 0.64 branch per
plant.
FLOWERING RECORDS.
Beginning with June 17, when the first flowers appeared, a daily
flower census was taken in sections A and B to compare the rate of
flowering of wide-spaced and single-stalk rows. This was continued
for 20 days. The results of the census are given in Table I.
In the first part of Table II, which represents the census in section
A, it may be seen that for three days more flowers opened in the
wide-spaced rows than in the single-stalk rows, while in the second
part of the table, which represents the census taken in section B,
this was true only on the first day that flowers opened. After the
flowers in the single-stalk rows began to outnumber those in the wide-
spaced rows the lead was maintained throughout the entire period.
The increase in the number of flowers in single-stalk rows over that
in the wide-spaced rows ranged from 30 to 204 per cent, the average
for the 20-day period bemg 125.6 per cent in section A and 135 per
cent in section B.
At the end of the 20-day flower census, July 6, the drought had
become severe, and most of the flowers produced after that date
failed to develop into bolls. Consequently the census for the entire
field was not carried further, but was continued for 20 days longer on
eight representative rows in each of sections A and B. None of the
flowers opening after July 10 produced bolls, so these flowers had no
part in increasing the yields of either single-stalk or wide-spaced rows.
Their numbers are given, however, in Table III for four 10-day peri-
ods in order to show that the single-stalk rows continued to produce
more flowers than the wide-spaced rows for the extended period.
Table III shows that at the end of 40 days 12,574 flowers had opened
on 20 wide-spaced rows in section A, while 84.4 per cent more, or
23,189, had opened on 20 single-stalk rows. In section B 20 wide-
spaced rows opened 13,725 flowers, while 20 smgle-stalk rows opened
78 per cent more, or 23,401 flowers.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
5 Se
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27
BULLETIN
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AT SAN ANTONIO.
COTTON CULTURE
SINGLE-STALK
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BULLETIN 279, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
10
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SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO. 11
TaB LE II1.—F lower census by 10-day periods in wide-spaced and single-stalk rows of Acala
cotton in sections A and B, San Antonio, Tex., 1914.
Total flowers in alternate Total flowers in alternate
single rows (Section A). || 4-row blocks (section B).
Row No. gael eS |e Row No. calonlas|as| ob
i 3/°PHa | 7 C= h 3 = 5 toon
exletiet|S5| 5 Je Epa) Saas
“SiON | Blab! +5 Piro a ee ete
AE Bo Ee E'S © Ras Be Peels fo)
He |Sala 15>] bs He |S8/e | s>] 64
& |ae|e |e | ws & |oele |& |e
EES | Ee LA ear
3, single stalk........... 67/1, 791)2, 222)1, 620) 5,700|| 58, wide spaced....... 131| 836/1,533/1, 289] 3,789
4, wide spaced.......-.. 60] 856/1, 231/1,079| 3, 226|| 59, wide spaced....... 139| 938]1, 455/1, 215| 3,747
5, single Stalk. - 2... --- 120)2, 046|2, 110/1, 686] 5,962) 60, wide spaced.....-- 98] 823}1, 438)1, 231] 3,590
6, wide spaced....-....- 52} 9301, 253/1, 147) 3,382|| 61, widespaced......- 68} 605)]1,078) 848) 2,599
7, Single stalk.....-.---- 105}1, 893|2, 064)1, 553} 5,615|| 62, single stalk....-..- 314/2, 013|2, 265/1,316) 5,908
8, wide spaced.......... 59] 662) 986] 833] 2,540|| 63, singlestalk........ 272|2, 002|2, 373/1, 098] 5, 745
Ousingle\stalike ase. oh! 198/2, 070/2, 204|1, 440] 5,912) 64, singlestalk.......- 2512, 002|2, 292| 947) 5, 492
10, wide spaced......-.-. 93 975 1, 375) 983] 3,426)| 65, single stalk.......- 302)2, 345]2, 523/1, 086) 6, 256
Total,singlestalk..-.- 490/7, 800 8, 600 6, 299 23, 189|| Total,widespaced....| 436)3, 202|5, 504/4, 583/13, 725
Total,widespaced..... 264/3, 423|4, 845/4, 042/12, 574|| Total, singlestalk. .. .|1, 139|8,362/9, 453/4, 447/23, 401
Increase, single Increase, single
stalk, per cent. --. 86} 128; 78) 56] 84. 4)| stalk, per cent...| 161) 161) 72) —3 87
NUMBER OF BOLLS SET.
To compare tne efficiency of single-stalk and wide-spaced rows in
the production of bolls, the total number of bolls set in rows 3 to 10
in section A and in rows 58 to 65 in section B were recorded. The
results of the census are presented in Table IV.
TasLe IV.—Bolls matured on wide-spaced and single-stalk rows of Acala cotton, 264 feet
long, San Antonio, Tex., 1914.
|
Bolls Bolls
: Bolls ; Bolls
Row No. (section A). zlanis tate d pet Row No. (section B). Elanis are d we,
) on row.| Pp 5 on row. | P22
|
Suisinelestalles es a ele 350 | 2,021 5.7 | 58, wide spaced......... 100 | 1,129 11.3
A WwACelIspaced sn - sass onions. 120 750 6.2 | 59, widespaced......... 98 | 1,070 10.9
onsingle|stalik. 22.25.5222 -0=- 405 | 2,086; 5.1 | 60, widespaced....-.... 110 999 9.0
6, wide spaced........-...-. 124 $41 7.6 | 61, wide spaced..-.--.-. 109- 731 6.7
sine lelstallkeaneet sac cee ee SUG 29120 5. 1 | 62; singlestallcs = 55-2222 276 | 2,001 LY
Seawaiderspacedsee en sce sos. 95 806 8.5 | 63, single stalk...-....... 303 | 1,669 5.5
Orsimelestalle: fs. 22.5) L2: 387 | 2,203 5.8 | 64, single stalk.......... 290 | 1,465 5.0
10, wide spaced...-...-..... 108 893 8.3 | 65, single stalk.:........ 451 | 1,889 4.2
Average, single stalk.....- 380 | 2,108 5. 42 Average, single stalk. 332 | 1,756 5. 47
Average, wide spaced. ..-- 112 848 7.65 Average, wide spaced. 104 982 8. 6
Increase, single stalk, per 232 49! eee cretetaie Increase, single stalk, 222 WS Nsssose ae
cent. per cent.
Table IV shows that plants in single-stalk rows set an average of
five or six bolls each and those in wide-spaced rows about eight bolls,
but the single-stalk rows contained about 225 per cent more plants
than the wide-spaced rows, so that the total number of bolls set in
single-stalk rows was greater. The single-stalk rows in section A set
149 per cent more bolls than the adjoming wide-spaced rows. In sec-
tion B the single-stalk rows set 78 per cent more bolls than the wide-
12 BULLETIN 279, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
spaced rows. The increase of inside rows, which approach most
nearly the conditions of uniform field culture, was 47 per cent in favor
of single-stalk rows. As will be shown later, the difference in yields
from these rows favored single-stalk culture in about the proportion
indicated by the number of bolls set.
NUMBERS OF LOCKS IN THE BOLLS.
Another census was made of bolls in single-stalk and wide-spaced
rows to determine the percentages of 3, 4, and 5 locked bolls produced
under the different systems of culture. Although the number of
locks, or carpels, is always a variable character, the relative number
of 3, 4, and 5 locked bolls is somewhat altered by different conditions
of culture or climate. For instance, under irrigation a higher per-
centage of 5-locked bolls is produced than under dry-land culture.
In previous years it has been found that a. lower percentage of
5-locked bolls was produced under the single-stalk system of culture
than under the wide-spacing system, and the census taken at San
Antonio in 1914 corroborates these former results. To determine the
percentages of bolls with 3, 4, and 5 locks, a count of at least 300 bolls
was taken in each row and the number of locks recorded. It was, of
course, possible to secure the required number. of bolls in less row
space in the single-stalk rows than in the wide-spaced rows. The
percentages of 3, 4, and 5 locked bolls in sections A and B are pre-
sented in Table V. |
TaBLE V.—Ratio of 3-locked, 4-locked, and 5-locked bolls in rows of Acala cotton in sections
A and B grown under the wide-spaced and single-stalk systems of culture, San Antonio,
Tex., 1914.
Wide-spaced rows. Single-stalk rows.
Row: No. Locks in bolls— Locks in bolls—
5-locked 5-locked
bolls. bolls.
3 4 5 Total. 3 4 5 Total.
Alternate single rows
(section A): Per cent. Per cent.
Bao odbbeEdec Laos] Foceddl ddocoaeq toauedd BeSBeHeallbocdcec ood! amaes 202 165 367 45.0
(mnasseapocceleisonoo 91 230 321 71d Reese MBO Seeee pc obsue ce ceccc| Fyoccinos ss
HOBOS CO COSC ER OEOo booecee.| boceeaoc Bapmecsolloodopccocc 5 193 188 386 48.7
Be cpalcrsiniatatol=tetatetsial| cleleesis es 168 201 369 94510) || n:ni0j=;, a0] wine inycivinl= | wleie eicteeic| Cae teent eaten
UsseHonctooscnoc Pecooc |bodeocca lasers pomemoos bouccécoeT 3 199 162 864 44.5
Sr ceectecinctisicen 2 156 199 357 SRY fll SERGES BEcpobod peooooed bonemeod scce se secr
De ictolaretate i ealaicininal| cia cette | eral eleieieiaisi| six (a miele eo oimte eictalcaal| ieintctateatetetate 2 200 155 357 43.4
I) -ebeSssenbeeee 1 149 202 352 BVOC) | enh 4 Based) ooo sam |e neicmeistel pierem eeteteneet
Alternate 4-row
blocks (section B):
BB RES sete Melelsois]| bela eine 154 181 335 RU) Rees Became em sert ier sells se 3
Yu eeiscosedesoconlbeboce 142 171 313 GY: Ot dl Beene MRAp mene oseeene Poosorco|Sisscece ss
COs ee Se ce Os eee 161 207 368 bP Al BeBe Se ee Sse ssa Seams Sec nc cc te
Ole emepaeiinenve sierers|leratcetete 192 169 361 AB NB oh os oo] Sc eB jercll Sere ceric. nll Ce eno eT Sieeeeanene an
WPocgunonHecboel edcdell-¢ seidtoc) SoS 5664 BGA soe ateceicc.-| [moos 171 3 304 43.7
(S Geaigacoooordal broods Esobecoe SS oScseHr Saba soael ssoooerccel Heseor 186 1 332 44.0
Ce ROB AG As Seihcod os Shccoc GHCEe nme BEE Senor toamcces So Peesas 180 120 800 40.0
UI EGSRSEC OGRE SOE Pepe sclten ct os 4) GOOG ORee betbor oc boscwiooroc Barer. 130 2 332 60.8
otal a seeeer 3 1, 213 1,560 AO eters 10 1,461 1,271 2,192) =eice ae eee
Per cent......| 0.08 43.7 56. 2 100 56.2] 0.4 53.3 46.3 100 46.3
SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO. 13
Table V shows that the range in percentage of 5-locked bolls in
wide-spaced rows was from 47 to 72, with an average of 56, while in
single-stalk rows the range was from 43 to 61 per cent, with an average
of 46 per cent.
The production of a higher percentage of 4-locked bolls in single-
stalk rows need not be considered an undesirable feature, since 4-
locked bolls are more readily picked and the lint in them is fully as
good as that in 5-locked bolls. The number of 3-locked bolls is
insignificant.
SIZE OF BOLLS.
A comparison of the size of bolls was obtained by weighing 25
4-locked and 25 5-locked bolls from wide-spaced and single-stalk
rows. The 4-locked bolls from single-stalk and wide-spaced rows
weighed 5.04 and 5.32 grams, respectively, a difference of 0.28 gram.
The weights of the 5-locked bolls were 5.64 and 6.2 grams for single-
stalk and wide-spaced rows, respectively, the difference being 0.56
gram. Bolls from wide-spaced rows in both 4 and 5 locked samples
weighed slightly more than those from single-stalk rows. In other
words, 19 4-locked bolls from single-stalk rows have the same weight
as 18 4-locked bolls from wide-spaced rows, and 11 5-locked bolls from
single-stalk rows equal 10 5-locked bolls from wide-spaced rows.
Five-locked bolls weighed from 0.6 to 0.8 of a gram more than 4-locked
bolls. A slight reduction in the size of the bolls may be looked upon
as a necessary consequence of producing a larger crop under the con-
ditions of drought that ruled durmg the period of development of the
bolls.
FORMS OF ROWS.
Tt has been previously shown that plants in wide-spaced rows de-
veloped more vegetative branches at the base than plants in single-
stalk rows. The vegetative branches spread out from the base of the
plants in the wide-spaced rows, forming rows that in cross section
were broader near the ground than near the top of the plants.
Few plants in single-stalk rows had vegetative branches, so that
the plants were made up of main stalks only. These grew erect and
formed a narrow hedgelike row early in the season. Later, however,
as the plants became taller, they leaned to one side or the other,
making the rows broader at the top than near the ground. A cross
section of a single-stalk row resembled an inverted cone or pyramid.
This feature is clearly illustrated in Plate I, which shows an end view
of a single-stalk row of Blackseed cotton. The contrast in form be-
tween the single-stalk and the wide-spaced rows is illustrated in
Plates II and IV. At the end of the season the plants in the single-
stalk rows were more than 6 inches taller than those in the wide-
spaced rows, being 3.96 and 3.36 feet in height, respectively.
14 BULLETIN 279, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
It was found possible to cultivate close to the plants in single-stalk
rows without injury to the stalks. On the other hand, it was difficult
to cultivate so close to the plants in wide-spaced rows without injuring
the vegetative branches and the stalks.
All fruit was borne on the lower half of the plants in both kinds of
rows, as may be seen in Plates I, III, IV, and in figure 1 of Plate V.
As previously stated, the drought caused the shedding of all the bolls
and flowers that would have developed after July 10. The bare stalks
that appear above the fruited portions of the plants represent the
erowth made after the middle of July. Until the August rains rcla-
tively little growth was made, but after these rains the growth was
very rapid. It was after this period of rapid growth that the taller
plents in the single-stalk rows began to lean to one side or the other,
resulting in the form of row shown in Plate I.
YIELDS FROM SECTIONS A AND B.
It has been shown that, compared with wide-spaced rows, the
single-stalk rows in sections A and B showed far less vegetative-branch
development, and that the plants grew to a greater height, thus
facilitating cultivation between the rows; they produced flowers in
ercater abundance, and they set more bolls of about the same size as
the others, though a higher percentage contained four instead of five
locks.
It now remains to be shown how the two systems of culture com-
pared from the standpoint of yield, which is the most important con-
sideration, provided that the quality of the lint is not affected. The
yields are recorded in Table VI.
Table VI shows that in section A, in which wide-spaced and single-
stalk rows were compared in alternate rows, the yields from wide-
spaced rows ranged from 9 to 14.4 pounds, while in single-stalk rows
the range was from 17.6 to 31 pounds, the lowest yield from the
single-stalk rows being 22 per cent greater than the highest yield
from wide-spaced rows. These results are shown graphically in
figure 2. The increase in the total yield of the single-stalk rows over
the adjoiming wide-spaced rows ranged from 63 to 227 per cent, with
an average of 125.5 per cent. (See Pl. TL.)
At the time the first picking was made, on August 11, 31 per cent
of the total crop from the wide-spaced rows was picked, as compared
with only 26 per cent of the crop from the single-stalk rows. In
spite of this fact, the first picking from the single-stalk rows yielded
88 per cent more seed cotton than the wide-spaced rows. The
second picking was made on September 8, when the yield obtained
from single-stalk rows was 144 per cent more than that from wide-
spaced rows.
alll
on
SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO.
15
TasLeE VI.— Yields from wide-spaced and single-stalk rows of Acala cotton in sections
A and B, San Antonio, Tex., 1914.
[Rows 4.1 feet apart, 264 feet long.]
spaced, pounds..|..-.--|-.----
stalk, pounds....|..-.--|...-.-
Pie}
Alternate single = S
rows (section A). | %&
ae) oS
Bie |e |. | oe
Row No. fee. Ute bs 2 = Row No.
ma 4a | 2 ay 5
x = oD as s foP) 6
2 AP oh] & | Bag
I 2 Rn i=] CEE
Ss q -) 6S Oheae
zii| molar Woe
Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Pr.ct.
1, single stalk...| 404) 3.3] 27.5 30.8 161| 42, wide spaced....
2, wide spaced..| 109) 2.8) 9.0} 11.8)........ 43, wide spaced....
3, Single stalk...]- 350} 6.1) 21.0 | 27:1 153] 44, wide spaced....
Anwaderspacedee|. 1201)" 82.3)) dee 10. 722-22. 45, wide spaced....
5, single stalk...}| 405) 6.9] 21.8 | 28.7 109| 46, single stalk.....
6, widespaced..} 124; 3.8) 9.9) 13.7)......-. 47, singlestalk.....
7, Single stalk.-.| 377) 7.2] 22.2) 29.4! 227| 48, single stalk....-
8, wide spaced. . 95) 3.1) 5.9 OF Olesen 49, single stalk....-
9, singlestalk...| 387) 7.4] 21.7] 29.1) 122} 50, wide spaced...-
10, wide spaced. 108) 416 SS5) |S Me 2 51, wide spaced....
11,singlestalk..} 361) 8.6) 22.4 | 31.0) 142} 52; wide spaced....
12, widespaced.| 121) 4.9} 7.9 | 12.8)........ 53, wide spaced...-.-
13, single stalk..| 362} 10.2) 20.8 | 31.0) 161] 54, single stalk.....
14, widespaced.} 102) 4.1) 7.8] 11.9)........ 55, single stalk...-.
15, single stalk..] 351] 10.0) 19.9 29.9} 114] 56, single stalk.....
16, wide spaced. 131) 5.4] 8.6 1450) 528 ees 57, single stalk_....
17, single stalk..| 350) 7.0| 19.6 | 26.6 96] 58, wide spaced...-
18, widespaced.| 105) 4.2) 9.4] 13.6!........| 59, widespaced...
19, single stalk..} 286) 8.9) 19.5 | 28.4 97| 60, wide spaced.
20, widespaced.| 138) 4.8) 9.6] 14.4|........ 61, wide spaced...
21, single stalk..| 342) 7.1) 19.3] 26.4 126] 62, single stalk.....
22, wide spaced. TOO) “ZEQ |e EM BOR eee eee 63, single stalk....-
23, Single stalk..} 283] 4.9) 18.3 | 23.2 117| 64, single stalk.....
24, widespaced.| 100) 3.6] 7.1] 10.7|-...-.-. 65, single stalk....-
25, Single stalk..| 380) 8.4) 14.1] 22.5 63} 66, wide spaced...
26, wide spaced. 132 Ata OR Aa e338) Ne 67, wide spaced ..
27, Single stalk..) 396) 8.9] 21.6 |- 30.5 135] 68, wide spaced.
28, wide spaced. TAY) S SSG) Ove" le GRR ee See 69, wide spaced..
29, single stalk..| 416) 7.6) 21.3] 28.9 121} 70, single stalk. ....
30, widespaced.| 127) 4.3) 8.8] 18.1|....-.-. 71, single stalk.....
31, single stalk... 319 6.9} 19.5 | 26.4 161| 72, single stalk.....
32, widespaced.| 103) 2.8] 7.3] 10.1|...-.... 73, single stalk....-
33, Single stalk..| 354) 5.3] 20.6 | 25.9 101| 74, wide spaced...
34, widespaced.} 131] 3.7) 9.2] 12.9]..-.-... 75, wide spaced...
aia, singe Stalk..| 292)...... a20.9 | 20.9 95| 76, wide spaced..
36, wide spaced. MO} s65s5 GAKOSY/ Ip Os 7\eee eee 77, wide spaced....
37, single stalk..| 295|...... a17.6| 17.6 83] 78, single stalk.._..
38, wide spaced.| 100|-...-. a9. 6 PhG) Beaasene 79, single stalk._...
39, single stalk..] 268)-..... a21.6| 21.6 90) 80, single stalk...-.
40, wide spaced. 122 | eee Pali ay yt TA eee Se 81, single stalk.....
Total, sin- Total, wide
gle stalk. _| 6,978! 124. 7/351. 1 | 535. 9)..-.-.-- spaced ......
Total, wide Total, single
spaced...) 2,299) 66.3)144.0 | 242.0)......-. Stalk 2529-2.
Average, sin- Average, wide
glestalk....| 349; 7.3] 20.65| 26.8|........ spaced........
Average,wide Average, single
Spacedeese rs ellolmerse Oy G- 4lebon Losec cee Stalikeyeee eee
SEIS, oer eon ces
S » per > per
centeea hss y ea eee oe 2652/3780) LOONO == — 2 -- Centasaaenes e eee!
Open crop, wide Open crop, single
spaced, per stalk, per cent...|..-..-
x cent eG et 31.5) 68.5 | 100. 0)......-- Acre yield, wide
yield, sin-
gle stalk,
qe. eye SPA a PE | aL NOGA Wee soe Acre yield, single
cre yield, wide
spaced,pounds]......|......]..-.-- Aa ere asiaye Increase, single
Tnerease, smgie stalk, per cent...|.
sta per
contel sthelte.4, 88 [144 | 121.5] 121.5
ike)
Alternate 4-row a gs
blocks (section B).) % 8,
. on
g En ©
a or oD | ss
i ¢ q fo¥e) as
i= eedteort| | ed ae qd oH
seas led rat eon aaa OSES
H Sey) Be a) co)
5 AP Lelitry a PA an
A le<| 4) 3 | SEE
=) A= | % i) Sasa
Z & A a pe
Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Pr.ct
100) 2.8 Ber 9 | ills fen | eerie rss
104; 3.2 TS el’ 5s, On| evra
103) 2.1 O35 | L2G ees
83) 2.6 eS LONAU| ee eise oe
233) 6.1 15. 4) 21.5 84
320) 7.5 14. 4) 21.9 53
258] 7.4 14. 8} 22.2 51
410) 7.0 13. 8] 20.8 100
100) 4.0 Soll 2am |serelser ce
113} 4.4 IPS OAC See eae dad
100) 3.4 Ey Oy le oaeo aes
EB) les 4) ONO Wal 74M |eerers re
362} 8.0 14.3] 22.3 81
271) 8.7 12. 5) 21.2 29
388} 8.4 12. 1) 20.5 60
284) 6.1 11. 8} 17.9 34
100) 6.0 SO ela ON | eae
98) 6.0 Q1G|elon Giles cemac
110) 5.5 Hey IGS) llbgsecoos
109) 3.5 GES lO NSe |eeeesee
276) 10.0 14. 6) 24.6 76
303) 10.3 8. 4] 18.7 20
290) 10.6 6. 6} 17. 2 20
451) 11.0 11. 6] 22.6 119
EN 5G) (h8)] Heb iy ae asaca
107) 6.8 428 |PLAH Gy ee ee:
128) 5.2 Sad les 4) liscassoae
133] 6.4 G7 IE Seca Seon
370} 11.1 12. 3] 23. 4 69
399} 13.3 9.0} 22.3 53
413) 11.4 9. 3} 20. 7 53
431) 13.4 11. 8} 25. 2 92
126) 6.4 G64 UPR ese ebeae
128) 7.3 OO 03 B sceeooac
136) 8.6 SHA AO Eee es =
106) 6.9 Gyo Ge Oe =sessee
409} 12. 2 10. 5} 22. 7 79
348} 11.5 7. 3} 18.8 15
389) 10.9 9. 5) 20. 4 20
271| 12.6 8. 3] 20.9 60
ZAQU TL OQ | O47 27228) |e eee =
6, 840/197. 5 | 228. 3/425.8 |.......-
110) 5.1 S20 plosO4 | eaeeeee-
BAA ONO Mle Uke ay Zien ss | ers
i aaeents 37.4 62. 6/100. 0 |--------
46.4 D340 LOOs Op |Eeeeee
seats DA Gtuuee eee 4
Besos 852 Sa tone
Bones 93.5 | 33.7) 56.1 56. 1
¢ Not included in total.
16 BULLETIN 279, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The yields from the alternate blocks of section B shown in Table VI
represent more nearly what may be expected under field conditions.
The results are similar to those obtained from the alternate rows in
section A, though the differences are less extreme. The total yields
from the wide-spaced rows ranged from 10.3 to 17 pounds and those
from the single-stalk rows fam 17.2 to 25.2 pounds, the minimum
yield from the single-stalk rows being practically the same as the
maximum yield from the wide-spaced rows. These results are pre-
sented graphically in figure 3. At the time the first picking was
made, August 11, 37 per cent of the crop in the wide-spaced rows was
AVERAGE YIELD OF
IN POUNDS
i
YIELD
WIDE SPACED ROWS SINGLE STALK ROWS
(AVERAGE Y/IELO OF \
ll
/
3
S +
7
9
43
‘5
be)
ROW Paes,
Fig. 2.—Diagram showing the yields from single-stalk and wide-spaced rows of Acala cotton in section
A, San Antonio, Tex., in 1914. Wide-spaced rows represented by double lines, single-stalk rows by
heavy lines.
harvested, as compared with 47 per cent of the crop in the single-
stalk rows, the latter yielding 93 per cent more seed cotton. The
second picking from the single-stalk rows was 33.7 per cent greater
than that from the wide-spaced rows. The increase in the total
yield of individual rows in any single-stalk block over the correspond-
ing rows in the preceding w ide-spaced block ranged from 15 to 119
per cent, the average heme 56.1 per cent.
Reference to figure 3 will show that in most cases the inside rows
of wide-spaced blocks and the outside rows of single-stalk blocks
yielded more than the other two rows of the same blocks. This
Bui. 279, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Reel
END VIEW OF THE SINGLE-STALK ROW OF BLACKSEED COTTON SHOWN IN PLATE III,
FIGURE 1, IN WHICH THE CORRESPONDING PLANTS ARE DESIGNATED BY THE SAME
LETTERS USED HERE.
This illustrates the form of row common to the single-stalk system of culture. Note how the
plants lean to one side or the other.
Bul. 279, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture.
‘110}}00 Jo sattd aoSavy oyy Aq poyuosordor o1B TOT ‘SMOI Y[VIS-OLSUIS OY} JO [ALOIS JO QB JOoII OLOUL a) PUB IY Soy 10}v915 9Y) 9ION
"SMOY BSHL JO SONA SHL
Ly WAH WOud NANVL NOLLOO daag JO LNNOWY TWWLOL 3HL HLIM ‘NOLLOO VIVO JO SMOY G20vdS-30IM INV AIWLG-STONIS ONILVNES LY
Bul. 279, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
PLATE III.
Fig. 1.—SIDE VIEW OF THE SINGLE-STALK ROW OF BLACKSEED COTTON SHOWN IN
PLATE 1, THE CORRESPONDING PLANTS BEING DESIGNATED BY THE SAME LETTERS.
These 11 plants, with only 2 vegetative branches, produced a total of 88 bolls. Most of the
leaves have been removed to show the branching habit and slender form of the plants.
Note the lack of crowding. Compare with Plate III, figure 2. (The plants were 8 feet
from the camera when photographed.)
Fia. 2.—SIDE VIEW OF THREE PLANTS IN A WIDE-SPACED ROW OF BLACKSEED
COTTON.
These 3 plants bore 11 vegetative branches and produced a total of 67 bolls.
the same extent of row space as those in Plate III, figure 1. Most of the leaves have been
They cover
removed to show the branching habit and bushy form of the plants.
(The plants were 8
feet from the camera when photographed.)
Bul. 279, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.
| Fig. 1.—ELEVEN PLANTS IN A SINGLE-STALK ROW OF ACALA COTTON WITH A TOTAL
r | OF 3 VEGETATIVE BRANCHES AND 59 BOLLS.
This shows a single-stalk row as it should look when properly spaced. Note the absence of
vegetative branches and the uniform position of the fruit. Compare with Plate LV, figure 2.
(The plants were 8 feet from the camera when photographed. )
Fla. 2.—THREE PLANTS IN A WIDE-SPACED ROW OF ACALA COTTON WITH A TOTAL
OF 8 VEGETATIVE BRANCHES AND 38 BOLLS.
Note the development of vegetative branches and the irregular placement of the fruit. Com-
pare with Plate lV, figurel, (The plants were 8 feet from the camera when photographed. )
Bul. 279, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. REATE Vi
Fic. 1.—SIXTEEN PLANTS IN AN UNTHINNED ROW OF ACALA COTTON WITH 10
VEGETATIVE BRANCHES AND 70 BOLLS.
Seven of the 10 vegetative branches were produced on the two end plants of the section,
adjacent to open spaces in the row. This illustrates the effectiveness of crowding to sup-
press the development of vegetative branches. But note thesmaller plants, which produced
no bolls. This probably is due to the suppression or abortion of fruiting branches, brought
on by the overcrowded condition of the row during itsfruiting period. Single-stalk culture
aims to avoid such a condition. Compare with Plate III, figure 1, and Plate IV, figure 1.
(The plants were 8 feet from the camera when photographed.) |
eS
Fia. 2.—THE FIRST PICKING OF SEED COTTON FROM Rows IN SECTION C.
The plants in ‘the rows from left to right were spaced early to 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 inches, |
respectively. The yields in pounds per row were 13.2, 11.8, 8.9, 8.6, and 7, respectively.
(The piles of cotton were 8 feet from the camera when photographed. )
Bul. 279, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTE VI.
Fia. 1.—TOTAL YIELDS FROM FOUR CONSECUTIVE WIDE-SPACED ROWS OF ACALA
CoTTON IN SECTION B, NUMBERED FROM LEFT TO RIGHT 58, 59, 60, AND 61,
RESPECTIVELY.
The yields in pounds per row were 14, 15.6, 14.3, and 10.3, respectively. Note the greater
yields from the inside rows. Compare with Plate VI, figure 2. (The piles of cotton were 8
feet from the camera when photographed.)
Fie. 2.—TOTAL YIELDS FROM FOUR CONSECUTIVE SINGLE-STALK ROWS OF ACALA
CoTTON IN SECTION B, NUMBERED FROM RIGHT TO LEFT 62, 63, 64, AND 65,
RESPECTIVELY.
The yields in pounds per row were 24.6, 18.7, 17.2, and 22.6, respectively. Note the greater
yields from the outside rows. Compare with Plate VI, figure 1. (The piles of cotton were8
feet from the camera when photographed. )
SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO. Le
point is illustrated further in Plate VI, figures 1 and 2, which pre-
sent yields from rows in wide-spaced and single-stalk blocks,
respectively.
General observations made throughout the season, comparing the
development of single-stalk and wide-spaced rows, showed how the
above conditions might be accounted for. Plants in the single-stalk
rows seemed sooner to take advantage of any inter-row or inter-plant
soil space and to more readily utilize the available soil moisture. On
this account plants in single-stalk rows may have gained an advantage
over adjoming wide-spaced rows early in the season and to a degree
have invaded the soil that would otherwise have been utilized by
the wide-spaced rows. This advantage would be cumulative, and
as the season progressed the plants in the single-stalk rows appeared
to show distinct superiority in this respect. This may also account
ROWS
ROWS
YIELD 1N POUNDS
aS ry, cee
% » - © © e
ROW NUMBERS
Fig. 3.—Diagram showing the yields from rows in wide-spaced and single-stalk blocks of Acala cotton in
section B, San Antonio, Tex.,1914. Wide-spaced rows are represented by double lines, single-stalk
rows by heavy lines.
for the greater differences in the yields obtained from the alternate
rows of section A.
Because of the effect of single-stalk rows on wide-spaced rows
throughout the test, it is necessary to compare the inside rows of the
4-row blocks of section B in order to learn the differences that might
be expected if the planting had been made upon a field basis.
It is found by doimg this that the mside rows of single-stalk blocks
yielded from 15 to 60 per cent more seed cotton than the inside
rows of the wide-spaced blocks. The average difference is 47.7 per
cent.
EEE EEEEOEOOEEOEOEOOOOOOeee
18 BULLETIN 279, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The yields from the guard row that separated sections A and B
proved more interesting than was anticipated. This row, which was
not thinned at any time during the season, contained 594 plants and
yielded more than either the nearest wide-spaced or single-stalk row.
A section of this row is illustrated in Plate V, figure 1. The non-
thinned row yielded 23.7 pounds of seed cotton, while the wide-spaced
rows on either side yielded 11.4 and 11.7 pounds, respectively. The
nearest single-stalk row, the second row distant, yielded 21.6 pounds.
The nonthinned row yielded 104 per cent more than the wide-spaced
rows and 9 per cent more than the single-stalk rows. The yields from
this and other nonthinned rows in the test indicate that the full possi-
bilities of securing advantage from leaving the plants closer together
have not yet been obtained in the experiments with the single-stalk
system. The fact that the nonthinned row was favorably situated
between two wide-spaced rows should not, however, be overlooked.
QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF FIBER.
A careful examination of the fiber in the field resulted in the con-
clusion that there were no perceptible differences in the quality of the
fiber produced on single-stalk and on wide-spaced plants. The length,
strength, luster, drag, and evenness were compared and found to be
the same.
That even closer spacing than that used in the single-stalk rows does
not affect the quality of lint is shown by the fact that the fiber pro-
duced in the guard row between sections A and B, which was not
thinned at any time during the season, was up to the standard in
quality.
The abundance of the lint on the seed was determined as far as
possible in the field and found to be the same in the single-stalk and in
the wide-spaced rows. An actual ginning test corroborated the field
test, proving the lint percentage to be about 32 in each case.
RESULTS IN TIME-OF-THINNING TEST.
The blocks of the ‘‘time-of-thinning”’ test in section C were all
planted on April 14 and were thinned 25, 41, and 51 days after plant-
ing, respectively. Each block contained five rows, in which the
plants were thinned to 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 inches apart, respectively.
It was not possible to arrange the rows in the same order in all of the
blocks because of the poor stands in some of the rows, making it
) oS
necessary to select the best rows for the closer spacings. On account
of this irregular method of arrangement and also because the rows are
5 =)
so few in number, only a general statement of the results will be given.
) oy, fo) 5
With respect to vegetative-branch development it was found that
the longer thinning was delayed the greater was the restriction in the
branch development. There was a gradual increase in the number
oD
SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE AT SAN ANTONIO. 19
of branches as the distance between the plants increased, regardless
of the time of thinning.
The yields were closely associated with the distance between the
plants in the row. This is illustrated in Plate V, figure 2, which
shows the first picking from rows of Acala cotton thinned at the ordi-
nary time, the plants being left 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 inches apart in
the different rows. As the distance between the plants increased,
the yields decreased.
The rows that were thinned late gave higher yields than those
thinned either early or very late.
RESULTS IN DISTANCE-BETWEEN-ROW TEST.
As in other sections the rows in the ‘‘distance-between-row’’ test of
section D were planted on April 14. This section contained four
blocks, in which the rows were spaced to 3, 4, 5, and 6 feet apart,
respectively. The blocks contained 8, 6, 5, and 4 rows, respectively.
In all the blocks single-stalk rows alternated with wide-spaced rows.
The wide-spaced rows were chopped 25 days after planting and the
single-stalk rows 47 days after planting. This test was also limited,
and as the results are indicative rather than conclusive only a general
summary is given.
The boll census showed that as the distance between the rows
increased, the percentage of 4-locked bolls decreased, this decrease
being offset by a corresponding increase in the percentage of 5-locked
bolls. The wide-spaced rows had a smaller percentage of 4-locked
bolls and a greater percentage of 5-locked bolls than the single-stalk
rows, regardless of the distance between the rows. Single-stalk rows
6 feet apart gave higher acre yields than wide-spaced rows either 3,
4, 5, or 6 feet apart.
The results of this experiment suggest the desirability of further
testing the single-stalk system of culture in rows 5 or more feet apart
in dry regions.
SUMMARY.
Drought and boll-weevil ravages shorten the period durig which
bolls are set in the region of San Antonio, and a cotton crop must be
set ordinarily in about one month. In 1914 the crop was set in about
25 days. Because of the very short season of setting the crop, the
single-stalk system of cotton culture promises to be especially useful.
The single-stalk and wide-spaced systems of culture were com-
pared in alternate single rows and alternate 4-row blocks in rows 4
feet apart and again in alternating rows 3, 4, 5, and 6 feet apart. In
one instance plants were thinned early, late, and very late to 6, 9,
12, 18, and 24 inches apart. The stand was satisfactory in all cases.
The spring of 1914 in the region of San Antonio was cooler than
usual, and more than twice the normal amount of rain fell during
20 BULLETIN 279, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
April and May. No rain fell between the first of June and early in
August. These abnormal conditions caused a restriction in the
development of vegetative branches. That the single-stalk system
was effective in still further reducing vegetative growth is shown by
the fact that even though the average number of vegetative branches
produced on plants in wide-spaced rows was only 1.6, on single-stalk
plants it was reduced to 0.53 branch per plant.
More flowers were produced daily on the single-stalk rows than on
the adjoining wide-spaced rows. At the end of 40 days single-stalk
rows alternating with wide-spaced rows had produced 84 per cent
more flowers than the latter. In alternating blocks single-stalk rows
had produced 78 per cent more flowers than wide-spaced rows in the
adjoining block.
Single-stalk rows produced an average of 5.5 bolls per plant and
wide-spaced rows 8.6 bolls per plant. The difference in the number
of bolls per plant was much more than offset by the greater number
of plants in the single-stalk rows, so that the single-stalk rows set
from 50 to 150 per cent more bolls im the same row space.
A larger percentage of 4-locked bolls was produced in single-stalk
rows and in rows close together than in wide-spaced rows where the
plants were set either close together or far apart.
The bolls in the single-stalk rows were slightly smaller than those
in the wide-spaced rows. Nineteen 4-locked bolls from single-stalk
rows were required to equal the weight of eighteen 4-locked bolls from
wide-spaced plants. The ratio of weight for 5-locked bolls is 11 to 10
for single-stalk and wide-spaced rows, respectively.
The plants in single-stalk rows were taller than those in wide-
spaced rows. The single-stalk rows were spreading at the top, while
the wide-spaced rows were broader near the ground.
Tn all cases single-stalk rows yielded more than the adjoming wide-
spaced rows, regardless of the distance between the rows.
An examination of the fiber in the field showed that there was no
perceptible difference in the quality or quantity of lint produced in —
single-stalk and in wide-spaced rows.
Plants thinned to a few inches apart in the row had fewer vegeta-
tive branches than plants spaced farther apart, the thimning having
been done at the same time in each case. Late-thimned plants had
fewer vegetative branches than plants thinned earlier to the same
distance.
Early thinning and late thinning gave higher yields than very late
thinning.
WASHINGTON :; GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1915
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey
HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 27, 1915
FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES OF THE
UNITED STATES.
By F. E. L. Bear, Assistant Biologist.
CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
INGrodictionyse= = Ne 1 | Gray-cheeked and Bicknell’s thrushes_ 11
Townsend’s solitaire ______________ 3 | Olive-backed and _ russet - backed
NWiood) thrushea2e ee 5 bhrushes 2S Sees _ Se 13
Veery and willow thrust___________ 93>) Hlermitaath rushes =e = - see seen 18
INTRODUCTION.
North American thrushes (Turdide) constitute a small but inter-
esting group of birds, most of which are of retiring habits but
noted as songsters. They consist of the birds commonly known as
thrushes, robins, bluebirds, Townsend’s solitaire, and the wheatears.
The red-winged thrush of Europe (Z'urdus musicus) is accidental
in Greenland, and the wheatears (Saaxicola enanthe subspp.) are
rarely found in the Western Hemisphere except in Arctic America.
Within the limits of the United States are 11 species of thrushes, of
which the following 6 are discussed in this bulletin: Townsend’s
solitaire (A/yadestes townsend), the wood thrush (Hylocichla muste-
lina), the veery and willow thrush (Hylocichla fuscescens subspp.).
the gray-cheeked and Bicknell’s thrushes (Hylocichla alicie subspp.),
the olive-backed and russet-backed thrushes (Hylocichla ustulata
subspp.), and the hermit thrushes (Hylocichla guttata subspp.).
account of the food habits of the 5 species of robins and bluebirds
appeared in Department Bulletin No. 171.
As a group thrushes are plainly colored and seem to be especially
adapted to thickly settled rural districts, as the shyest of them, with
Norr.—This bulletin treats of the economic relations and value to agriculture of the
thrushes of the United States other than robins and bluebirds. These two forms were
discussed in Department Bulletin No. 171, issued February 5, 1915.
98551°—Bull. 280—15 1
2 BULLETIN 280, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
the exception of the solitaire, do not require any greater seclusion
than that afforded by an acre or two of woodland or swamp.
The thrushes are largely insectivorous, and also are fond of spiders,
myriapods, sowbugs, snails, and angleworms. The vegetable portion
of their diet consists mostly of berries and other small fruits. As a
family thrushes can not be called clean feeders, for the food eaten
often contains a considerable proportion of such matter as dead
leaves, stems, and other parts of more or less decayed vegetation. It
might be supposed that this was gathered from the ground with
insects and other food, but investigation shows that much of it has
a different origin. It was noticed that the sete or spines of earth-
worms were a very common accompaniment of this decayed vegeta-
tion. Earthworms themselves are rather rarely found in stomachs,
although some birds, as the robin, eat them freely. It is well known
that the food of earthworms consists largely of partially decayed
vegetable matter found in the soil. Hence it is probable that decayed
vegetation found in the stomachs of thrushes is the food contained
in the earthworms when they were swallowed. The tissues of worms
are quickly digested, leaving the contents of their alimentary canals
mixed with the hard indigestible setee or spines.
Thrushes of the genus Hylocichla show a very pronounced taste
for ants, and the average consumption of these insects by the five
species is 12.65 per cent. Few birds other than woodpeckers show
so strong a liking for this highly flavored food. Hymenoptera in
general, including ants, bees, and wasps, are the second largest item
of insect food. Lepidoptera (caterpillars) stand next as an article
of thrush diet, while Orthoptera (grasshoppers), which are a favorite
food with most birds, do not seem to appeal much to the thrushes.
The thrushes are pronounced ground feeders, and may often be
‘seen picking small fruit that has fallen to the ground. The vege-
table portion of their food (40.72 per cent) is largely composed of
fruit, which constitutes over 34 per cent of the total food. Of this
30.88 per cent is made up of wild berries, which outweigh the do-
mestic varieties with every species. In all, 94 species of wild fruits
or berries were identified in the stomachs of these birds, although it
is not always practicable to identify such material unless seeds or
some other characteristic parts are present. As this is not often
the case, a considerable portion of the stomach contents must be pro-
nounced “ fruit pulp” without further identification; thus probably
many more species are eaten than are recorded. Moreover, in the
case of some fruits, it is not possible to distinguish species by the
seeds, so that many species go unrecognized except as to genus.
Domestic fruits are eaten so sparingly by the thrushes here consid-
ered as to be of no economic importance.
FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. 3
TOWNSEND’S SOLITAIRE
(Myadestes townsendi. )
Townsend’s solitaire, a bird of the far West, is a resident of high
mountains and lonely gorges. It is partial to running streams and
often builds its nest just above a rushing mountain torrent. It
ranges from Alaska through the Sierras south to San Bernardino,
Cal., and through the Rockies to Arizona and New Mexico, and
occasionally farther east. The species is not evenly distributed over
this region, but is restricted to such high mountainous portions as
afford its favorite surroundings. As long as it retains these habits
the bird will have little or no effect upon the products of husbandry,
and its food can have only a scientific interest. The song of this
species is said to be at times the finest of any of the thrush family.
As this bird is comparatively rare in settled regions only 41
stomachs are available for determining the character of its food.
The most southerly and easterly one was taken in Texas, the most
westerly in California, and the most northerly in Wyoming. They
are distributed through all the months of the year, although April
and May are represented by but one each and December by but two.
Every other month has three or more. An investigation based upon
such limited material can be considered only as preliminary, but
will serve to show some of the more important elements of the food.
This was made up of 35.90 per cent of animal matter to 64.10 of
vegetable.
Animal food—The animal food consists of insects and spiders,
with a few hair worms (Gordius) found in one stomach. These
last may have been contained in the insects eaten. Among insects,
beetles constitute the second largest item (10.74 per cent), but 5.89
per cent of these were the useful predatory ground beetles (Cara-
bide). This is not a good showing, but too few stomachs have been
examined to allow sweeping conclusions. As evidence that this can
not be taken as a fair sample of the bird’s food habits it may be
stated that all of these beetles were taken in January and October.
The one stomach collected in January contained 95 per cent of Carab-
idz—the only animal food in it—and 93 per cent of the contents of
one October stomach was made up of the same material. Evidently
in these cases the bird had found a colony of the beetles and filled
up with them. Had they constituted the usual diet of the species
they would have appeared in other months and in more stomachs,
but in smaller quantities. Other families of beetles are eaten so
sparingly as to be of little importance. Scarabeide stand the next
highest, but they amount to less than 2 per cent of the food.
Lepidoptera (caterpillars) make the largest item in the food of
Myadestes. Eaten much more regularly than beetles, they probably
4 BULLETIN 280, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
are a standard article of diet. They were found in the stomachs
collected in every month of the year but four, and a greater number
of stomachs would probably show them in every month. The one
stomach taken in May contained the maximum (72 per cent). The
total for the year is 12.95 per cent. Ants are eaten to the extent of
4.71 per cent, while other Hymenoptera, as bees and wasps, make
up less than half of 1 per cent. Diptera (flies) are represented
by a mere trace in the stomachs. Observers who have seen this bird
in its native haunts testify that it takes a considerable portion of its
food on the wing. In view of this fact it seems curious that the two
orders of insects most active on the wing (Hymenoptera and Dip-
tera) should be so scantily represented in the food. Hymenoptera
are a standard diet with flycatchers and would seem to be the natu-
ral food of any bird that feeds upon the wing.
Hemiptera (bugs) were found to the extent of 3.51 per cent of the
total food. All were contained in three stomachs taken in March,
June, and July. In the July stomach four cicadas, or dog-day flies,
constituted the whole contents. Grasshoppers amount to less than 1
per cent and all other insects to but a trifle. Spiders were eaten to
the extent of 2.94 per cent of the food and were found in the stomachs
taken in seven of the twelve months, and judging from their dis-
tribution they are eaten whenever available. A hair snake (Gordius)
was found in one stomach. Following is a list of insects identified
and the number of stomachs in which found:
COLEOPTERA. HEMIPTERA.
AGIAN CTrOtiCcd est Pres 1 Piatypedia: putnamis) 22 eee ii
ATO CSUs DES == >. — a Ee 1
IB OLOIUNUSESp =. eee ee 1
Vegetable food—tThe vegetable portion of the food of Myadestes
is 64.10 per cent of the whole, and 58.70 per cent of this, or more than
half the whole food, is classified as wild fruit or berries. These
were found in stomachs collected in every month. From the even dis-
tribution of this food through the year and from the quantity eaten
it is evidently a favorite article of diet. Nothing was found in any
of the stomachs that could be identified as cultivated fruit, with the
possible exception of a mass of fruit pulp found in one. A few
seeds of poison ivy and sumac, with fragments of flowers and a few
weed seeds, complete the vegetable food. Following is a list of fruits,
seeds, etc., identified, and the number of stomachs in which found:
Rocky Mountain cedar (Juniperus sco- | Wild cherries (Prunts sp.) ~----_-=—_
OULOTUTNY) ete, _ 3 | Sumac berries (Rhus sp.)___-___-_. :
Western cedar (Juniperus monosper- Poison ivy (Rhus toricodendron) ~~ _—
MNALATL)) Poe emcee A i | Waxwork (Oelastrus sp.) 2-2. 32>) oe
Madrona berries (Arbutus menziesii) —
Ifoneysuckle berries (Lonicera sp.)---
Ilderberries (Sambucus sp.) ---------
Fruit not further identified-___._____
Other cedars (Juniperus sp.) ~-------
Hackberries (Celtis occidentalis) ~~ __
Douglas hackberries (Celtis douglasii) —
Service berries (Amelanchier sp.) —~-—--~
Rose haws' (hose sp:)) 2 eee
Oe eS Ole ee Re
ee ee
FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. 5
Summary.—With so small an amount of material it is not safe to
draw general conclusions, but in the case of Myadestes one point
seems clear—the bird’s favorite food is small wild fruit, and as long
as this is abundant the bird will probably not attack cultivated
varieties; but should any portion of the region occupied by the soli-
taire be cleared of its wild fruit and cultivated species be introduced
these would likely be preyed upon. Under such conditions this bird,
now perfectly harmless, might inflict considerable damage.
WOOD THRUSH.
(Hylocichla mustelina.)
The wood thrush is distributed over the eastern part of the United
States wherever suitable conditions are found. It is a lover of
open groves and bushy pastures, and may be found along little-
traveled roads and near low bushy swamps. The bird is noted for
its sweet song, and many country people who are well acquainted
with its notes know little or nothing of the bird itself. Its favorite
time for singing is in the early evening at the close of a sultry
afternoon when a shower has cooled the air. As a rule, it does not
nest in gardens or orchards and is seldom seen about farm buildings.
It is strictly migratory, and the greater number pass out of the
United States in winter, though a few remain in the Southern States.
It usually migrates north in April or early May.
For the investigation of the food habits of the wood thrush 171
stomachs were available. One of these was collected in Florida in
January and another in Alabama in February, and these two will
be treated separately. The remaining 169 were collected from April
to October, and are fairly well distributed over that time. The food
consisted of 59.59 per cent of animal matter to 40.41 per cent of
vegetable. The greatest quantity of animal food was eaten in April,
the month of arrival from the south, and the least in October, the
month of the return migration.
Animal food.—Beetles, collectively (20.40 per cent), constitute the
largest item of animal food. Of these, 2.23 per cent are the preda-
cious ground beetles (Carabide), generally considered useful. The
remainder belong to several more or less harmful families, of which
the May-beetle family (Scarabzeidee) amount to 10.17 per cent. Snout
- beetles, or weevils (Rhynchophora), are eaten to the extent of 2.16
per cent only, and the wood-boring chick-beetles (Elaterida) to 2.18
per cent.
Among the various species of these insects were noted the remains
of the well-known Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemline-
ata), in two stomachs, and Coptocycla signifera, also injurious to the
potato, in one stomach. Remains of Otiorhynchus ovatus, a weevil
~
6 BULLETIN 280, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
destructive to strawberry plants, were found in two stomachs, and
in one other a weevil, Sphenophorus parvulus, that injures the roots
of grass. The well-known white grubs that attack grass roots and
a host of other plants are the immature forms of many species of
Lachnosterna, of
several species of
Euphoria and of
Allorhina nitida.
Of these, re-
mains of Lach-
nosterna were
found time 2G
stomachs and of
Allorhina and
Euphoria in one
each.
Lepidoptera
(caterpillars)
stand next to
Coleoptera (bee-
tles) in the ani-
mal diet of the
wood thrush.
Although eaten
with a fair de-
gree of regular-
ity during every
month of the
bird’s stay in the
north, the most
were taken in
July (1632 per
cent). The aver-
age for the sea-
son is 9.42 per
cent. Ants as an
B2084-73 item of food are
Fic. 1.—Wood thrush (Tylocichla mustelina). third in impor-
tance, though if other Hymenoptera were included the order would
rank next to beetles. They seem to be a rather favorite food with
all birds of the genus /ylocichla. With the wood thrush they
begin with 18.12 per cent in April and gradually decrease through
the summer and disappear in October. The total for the season is
8.89 per cent. Hymenoptera other than ants were eaten with great
Pre. YY
De.
- ae,
Y
a
FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. 7
regularity (8.86 per cent) throughout the season, but not in large
quantities. Diptera (flies) are eaten in small quantities and rather
irregularly. Most of them were the long-legged crane flies (Tipuli-
dz), both in the adult and larval form. The total for the season is
2.70 per cent. Hemiptera (bugs) do not appear to be a favorite
food, though a few were taken in all of the seven months except
October. The average for the season is only 1.33 per cent. Orthop-
tera (grasshoppers) are eaten in small quantities until July, after
which they form a fair percentage till September. The total con-
sumption amounts to 2.28 per cent of the food. A few other in-
sects make up a fraction of 1 per cent. Spiders and myriapods
(thousand-legs) appear to be a “favorite food with the wood thrush,
constituting in April 20.94 per cent of the, food, but gradually de-
creasing in quantity until September. The aggregate for the year
is 8.49 per cent. A few sowbugs (isopods), snails, and earthworms
(1.83 per cent) close the account of animal food.
Following is a list of the insects identified in the stomachs of the
wood thrush and the number of stomachs in which each was found:
HY MBPNOPTHRA, Chrysomela*pulenna@.. 3) Pe eee 1
Leptinotarsa decemlineata________ 2
iphiar wnornata l= 22S sess) eee li} Odontotaspasenan=. . See Pe eee 1
Coptocycla signifera _.~_-- 2. ee 1
COLBOPTRRA. Coptocycla=Spsae==2~ _ ei aa 1
ANAMETUSHOTISCUSSe - - BREPEE Ia Ia ii
Harpalus herbivagus_—-__~---~-=----=- Li PRY GEUSERIGIC TSR. IR eee Reet al
Necrophorus tomentosus____--______- 1 Otiorhynchus ovatus. / Tees aes Gy
Philtonthus lomatus.—--—~--=-—---_--_- I | Tanymecuseconferntis. . es aE 1
HAStETS UUOKEUICtUS = 1 | Bandeletejus-alanise> See eee Sa 1
Huster) AEpULaton————— 1 | Barypithes pellucidus_2 222 1
Haster, awericanwsy 2+ 2 2 | Listronotus) latiusculuszs 2 1
Ing quadriguttatus.— — ~~. 92_ —_ = _~ b>] MGCKOD Se sSi) are a: + Sane ae ete yg 1
Melanotus americanus_____--__--___- 1 | Conotrachelus posticatus=2252 222 2
Corymbites cylindriformis______-§_-_-___ Is |, Alcattes caninavus! — _ 2 ee ee 1
aignilus) bilineatus— = mM ie OO WHEN) 50) a cues enue = he RE 2
Telephorus carolinus____-______-____ Lb | PEUDSQUS ANU = 5 ae eee 1
Onthophagus striatulus____— ~~ 1 | Sphenophorus: parvulus2 1
Onthophagus tuberculifrons__________ 1
Onthophagusra spas ee ee 3 HEMIPTERA.
PANNETULS Sper eee A ee E zy 2 :
Aphodius granarius.. ~_.____-_-_______- T o\\¢ MCZ OT CU Se SRE ee ea 2
NSB OD ISTH 0 SI I Th Daa 1
Dichelonycha testacea________-______ 1 ORTHOPTERA.
MACH ELONY CROs IS eee eo at
LWEOMIOSUGHIE F022 See See ee 27 | Diapheromera femorata _____________ 1
LET YRS ESS SS SEES A SO Pietra Sees 1
Aillorhina nitida.—— 2°. ts 1 ISOPTERA.
BUD ICO. Cam UL GG Cae ean ee a SL 1
ELD WOTUOARS Reese RRS ONE ok 2 Nerness faotpese —— 2 ee ae ee ees i
Vegetable food—More than nine-tenths of the vegetable food of
the wood thrush can be included in a single item—fruit. Culti-
vated fruit, or what was thought to be such, was found in stomachs
taken from June to September, inclusive. It was eaten regularly
8 BULLETIN 280, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
and moderately, and the total for the season was 3.74 per cent of
the whole food. Wild fruits or berries of 22 species were found in
72 stomachs, distributed through every month of the bird’s stay at
the north. Beginning with 1.18 per cent in April, the quantity
gradually increases to 87.17 per cent in October, when it makes more
than five-sixths of the whole food. The average for the season is
33.51 per cent. In this investigation Rubus seeds (blackberries or
raspberries) are always reckoned as cultivated fruit, though prob-
ably most often wild. Besides fruit, a few seeds and rose haws were
found, which with a little rubbish complete the vegetable food (40.41
per cent). 3
Following is a list of fruits, seeds, etc., identified and the number
of stomachs in which found:
Woodbine berries (Psedera quinque-
i
Yew berries (Tarus minor) --------_
False Solomon’s seal (Smilacina race- — folia) 2. 22022 2b_ ee eee 1
MOSQ) eros Fs Sa ne 1 | Frost grapes (Vitis cordifolia) _______ 4
Bayberries (Myrica carolinensis) —~_ ~~~ 1 | Wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis) — 1
Mulberries’ (Morus sp.) 2-2 =~ 10 | Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) __ 3
Spiceberries (Benzoin estivale) __-___~ 5 | Rough-leaved cornel (Cornus asperi-
Currantss(Ribes spa 2- SS ee 1 fold) --......_ 2 aS Eee 4
Mountain ash (Pyrus americanus) —~_~ 2 | Dogwood (Cornus sp.) =222225- 22225 1
Service berries (Amelanchier canaden- Black gum (Nyssa sylwatica) __-----_- 1
S18) Ae eae aes ae a eee 2 | Huckleberries (Gaylussacia sp.) -----~ 1
Blackberries or raspberries (Rubus sp.)- 17 |; Blueberries (Vaccinium sp.) ~--------~ 6
Rose haws (Rosa sp.) --------------- 1 | French mulberry (Callicarpa americana) 1
Wild black cherries (Prunus serotina) — 1 | Black elderberries (Sambucus canaden-
Chokecherries (Prunus virginiana) ___~ uf 818)... _ ee eee 1
Domestic cherries (Prunus cerasus) —_~ 4 | Other elderberries (Sambucus sp.)—--~ 3
Croton, ((Croton_sp.) see ee a= 1 | Fruit pulp not further identified______ 2
5
American holly (Ilex opaca)__---___-
Of the two stomachs not included in the foregoing discussion, the
one taken in Florida in January contained 93 per cent of wild fruit
and 7 per cent of weevils, wasps, and spiders; the one collected in
Alabama in February was entirely filled with animal food, of which
88 per cent was caterpillars, 5 per cent May beetles, 6 per cent bugs.
and 1 per cent spiders.
Summary —The animal food of the wood thrush includes remark-
ably few useful insects and contains some very harmful ones, as the
Colorado potato beetle and many of the Scarabeide, the larval
forms of which are the well-known white grubs which are a pest
to agriculture in preying upon roots of plants. The vegetable
portion of the food contains a small quantity of cultivated fruit, but
observation shows that the thrush is in the habit of picking up
fallen fruit instead of taking it fresh from the tree. The eating of
wild fruit has no economic interest except that it serves to distribute
the seeds of many shrubs and trees. There is no occasion to dis-
criminate against this bird in any way. It should be rigidly
protected.
FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. 9
VEERY AND WILLOW THRUSH.
(Hylocichla fuscescens fuscescens and Hylocichla fuscescens salicicola.)
The veery is distributed over the eastern portion of the United
States during migration and breeds in the Northern States as far
south as Pennsylvania, and in New England and Canada. In win-
ter it disappears almost entirely from the country, only a few re-
maining in Florida and perhaps in other Southern States. Its
western representative is the willow thrush. Like other thrushes,
birds of this species are shy and retiring in disposition, keeping for
the most part in the shade of woods or bushy swamps, or building
nests in a damp ravine with a brook gurgling past. They have been
Inown, however, to visit orchards and sometimes gardens which are
not kept too trim. It is thus evident that the food has little direct
economic interest, as this bird does not come in contact with the
farmer’s crops.
For investigating the food of the species 176 stomachs were avail-
able. They were collected during the seven months from April to
October, and represent 18 States, the District of Columbia, and
Canada. The food separates into 57.27 per cent of animal matter
-and 42.73 per cent of vegetable. The former consists mostly of
remains of insects, and the latter of fruit.
Animal food—Predacious ground beetles (Carabide) amount to
0.82 per cent. They are evidently not a preferred food. Beetles in
general comprise 14.67 per cent of the food, but no family or other
group appears to be distinguished except the Carabidee, which are
conspicuous by their absence. Weevils, or snout beetles, amount
to 2.49 per cent, and one stomach contained a specimen of the notori-
ous plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar). A number of other
harmful beetles were noted, but none are so well known as the plum
destroyer. Ants make up 10.35 per cent and are eaten with great
regularity. Hymenoptera other than ants amount to only 3.26 per
cent, but are eaten regularly throughout the season. Hemiptera
(bugs) were eaten to a small extent (1.30 per cent) in the first four
months, but they are not seen after July. Exactly the same may be
said of Diptera, which total only 0.85 per cent.
Lepidoptera (caterpillars) are, next to Hymenoptera, the favorite
insect food. They were eaten in goodly quantities in every month
except October. The average for the season is 11.91 per cent. Grass-
hoppers appear to some extent in every month except April, the
greatest consumption taking place in October (24 per cent), but as
only small numbers are eaten in the earlier months the aggregate for
the year is only 4.91 per cent. A few other insects of various orders
-:98551°—Bull. 28015 _—2
10 BULLETIN 280, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
amount to 0.98 per cent. Spiders (6.34 per cent) are eaten regularly
and constantly through the season, except that none were taken in
October. A few sowbugs, snails, etc. (2.70 per cent), complete the
quota of animal food. Following is a list of insects identified and
the number of stomachs in which found:
HYMENOPTERA. Lachnosterna hirticula__._ =. 2 22k
Lachnosterng -sp_--- 2 ee 1
THphaG Anornat a... eset tT ak 1 | Chrysomela pulchra.2_-_2__1))_ _ ee
Chilamys: plicata_—2 See ee
COLEOPTERA. Lypophorus canellus__________
Graphops simpléte {ita Bie eee
Graphops (sp2—o_ 4 ee eee
Calligrapha philadelphica___________—
Gidionychis quercata_____ 4 = | At a
Microrhopala vittata__.__._____=7____
Hormorus. undulatus ae eee
Phyveis rigidus=__._- = 12 _ Oth See
Otiorhynchus .ovatus222 at eee
Neoptochus -adspersus___ —~__=__- 3
Cercopeus chrysorrheus__________-__
Barypithes’ pellucidus —_.--2__§_- 2
StloneseSple. = = Sk" Aner
Phytonomus nigrirostris_______-______—
Conotrachelus nenuphar____~_________
Conotrachelus posticatus ________2—__
Tyloderma ‘spi 2-22 eee eee
Monarthrum mato —2= eee eee
Xyloteres politus =____ = Sse eee
ALUDRTUS - HUSCATIUS\ =. =
Anisodactylus harrist.2.2
AM/SOOGCLYLUS: Sp tains cs Ses eee
Pterostichus lucublandus________--_-~-
Hydrobius: \fuscipes2see. 8 =
TSO FASCURL( LL 1s Rees Re EEL
BYP TRUS VUTINUS 2 eee ee ee
Dolopius lateralis i) 5 ae nes ae
EAMONMUS CO Cra — = ees eh ee
Corymbites cylindriformis _______-___
Corymbites .spinosus 22 --~—~-__--_
Cormybites! tarsalisztaie ee ee
Corymbites hieroglyphicus—_________~
Podavrus “flavicollis Taw eo a a ns
Telephorus’ bilineatus se a
Telepnrorusy Spa se 2 OR Se we
Onthophagqus” sp222e ime a a
Atenius:cognatus. se 28 a sk j
Apnodiusnspes 20) aie Ee
Dichelonychaw sp Saw eee
SEGICH SCT ICCUS VMI iE ARIE SOE HEN ik
lll eel oll eel oe SO a a a ee
DIPTERA,
HENOWHNDHNH HHH EEN Hee eee
BEOLO ASD Oe Bre 2 Se 1
Vegetable food.—The vegetable portion of the food of the species
is made up of fruit, with a few seeds and a little miscellaneous mat-
ter more or less accidental. Fruit collectively amounts to 35.30 per
cent, of which 12.14 per cent was thought to be of cultivated varie-
ties and so recorded, while the remainder, 23.16 per cent, was quite
certainly of wild species. This percentage of cultivated fruit is
more than three times the record of the wood thrush, while the wild
fruit eaten is correspondingly less, as the sum total of the fruit con-
sumed is very nearly the same with both birds. From this per-
centage of domestic fruit one might infer that the veery was, or
might be, a serious menace to fruit growing, but no such complaints
have been heard, and it is probable that the species is not numerous
enough to damage cultivated crops. A close inspection, however, of
the fruit eating of the veery removes all doubts. The cultivated
fruit, so called, was in every case either strawberries or Rubus fruits,
i. e., blackberries or raspberries, and as both of these grow wild and
in abundance wherever the veery spends its summer, it is probable
that all of the fruit eaten was taken from wild plants, though 12.14
per cent has been conventionally recorded as cultivated.
FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. ial
Besides fruit, the veery eats a few seeds of grasses and weeds and
a few of sumac, but none of the poisonous species were found in the
stomachs. ‘These seeds (7.25 per cent of the food) were eaten so
irregularly as to suggest that they are merely a makeshift taken for
want of something better. Rubbish (0.18 per cent), consisting of
decayed wood, bits of leaves, plant stems, etc., completes the vege-
table food.
Following is a list of the items of vegetable food and the num-
ber of stomachs in which found:
Yew berries (Taxus minor) _-—---~-~-- 1 ; Other sumac (Rhus sp.) -4-2---+--=__ 1
Pigeon grass seed (Chetochloa sp.) ~~~ 1 | American holly (Jlez opaca)—-_____--_- 1
Rush grass seed (Sporobolus minor) —— 1 | Woodbine berries (Psedera quinque-
False Solomon’s seal (Smilacina sp.) -—~— 1 OULG) ee ee eee ts Ire 1
Greenbrier berries (Smilax sp.) —~--~~ 2 | White cornel (Cornus candidissima) __ 2
Hackberries (Celtis occidentalis) —~__~~ 1 | Alternate-leaved cornel (Cornus alter-
Poke berries (Phytolacca decandra) —__ 3 HLH OULD) ey a Se By SL 3
Spice berries (Benzoin estivale) —____~ 2 | Rough-leaved cornel (Cornus asperi-
Service berries (Amelanchier canaden- 7 ROX AG A) )) ie OE i Ml a ti Ta it
ERIS) Se a epee pO ok 3 | Dogwood berries (Cornus sp.)——~—~---~— 2
June berries (Amelanchier sp.) —~~~~~- 9 | Sour gum berries (Nyssa sylwatica) —_— 1
Mountain ash (Pyrus americana) ———__ 1 | Huckleberries (Gaylussacia sp.) -—-~—~ 1
Crab apples (Pyrus sp.) ------------- 1 | Blueberries (Vaccinium sp.) --------~ 4
Strawberries (Fragaria sp.) _~-------- 3 | Snowberries (Symphoricarpos racemo-
Blackberries or raspberries (Rubus sp.) — 8 IS 2L,S)) eee ee eT Le Ea 2
Wild black cherries (Prunus serotina) — 1 | Black elderberries (Sambucus canaden-
Bird cherries (Prunus pennsylwanica) — 1 Si. S)) ye EN AE See a 2;
Chokecherries (Prunus virginiana) —___~ 1 | Red elderberries (Sambucus pubens) —_ 4
Staghorn sumac (Rhus hirta)—--~~~-~ 2 | Other elderberries (Sambucus sp.) ~~~ 3
Dwarf sumac (Rhus copallina) __--__- 1 | Fruit pulp not further identified______ 4
Three-leaved sumac (Rhus trilobata)_ 1
Summary.—tit is hardly necessary to make a summary of the
food of this bird in order to bring out its good points, for it seems
to have no others. The animal food includes less than 1 per cent of
useful beetles, and the remainder is either harmful or neutral.
In the matter of vegetable food there seems to be no chance for
criticism, as nature evidently supplies all it needs. The bird has
never been harmed, but has been held in high esteem for sentimental
reasons; let it also be valued and protected for its economic worth.
GRAY-CHEEKED AND BICKNELL’S THRUSHES.
(Hylocichla alicie alitie and Hylocichla alicie bicknelli. )
The gray-cheeked thrush (/. a. aliciw) is found in migration
over all the Eastern States, but breeds farther north, beyond our
limits. Bicknell’s thrush (/. a. bicknelli), a closely related form,
while having somewhat the same general range, breeds farther south
and nests in the mountains of northern New York and New Eng-
land. Both subspecies have the same general habits as other forms
of the genus so far as haunts and choice of residence are concerned,
but their far-northern range excludes them from coming into con-
tact with cultivated crops. The species does not seem to be very
12 BULLETIN 280, U. 3. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
abundant anywhere, and consequently only a few stomachs have been
received for examination. In all they number but 111 and are very
irregularly distributed in time. None were taken in August and
only one in July and two in June. From so scanty and unevenly
~ distributed material it is impossible to draw final conclusions, but
we can get some idea as to the nature of the bird’s food and its
economic importance.
The first analysis of the food gives 74.86 per cent of animal matter
to 25.14 per cent of vegetable. This is the most animal food found
in the stomachs of any bird of the genus Yylocichla and the largest
but two of any of the thrushes.
Animal food—Beetles collectively amount to about one-third of
all the food (33.32 per cent). Of these, 2.83 per cent are the useful
Carabide. The rest belong to harmful families, such as the Scara-
beeidee, Elateridee, and the weevils, or snout beetles. Ants amount
to 16.34 per cent and are eaten very regularly—the most in the early
part of the season. Hymenoptera other than ants, as wasps and
bees, were eaten to the extent of 5.60 per cent, and with the ants make
21.94 per cent, placing this food next in rank to beetles. As in the
case of ants, most of the bees and wasps were eaten in the first three
months of the season. No honey bees were found. Lepidoptera
(caterpillars) were third in order of abundance (8.81 per cent).
No special pest was discovered, but all caterpillars may be considered
as harmful. A few grasshoppers were found in the stomachs taken
in April and May, and more in those collected in September and
October. They do not appéar to be a favorite food and amount to
only 1.72 per cent. Other insects, as flies, bugs, and a few others,
collectively amount to 2.89 per cent. Among these, it is of inter-
est to note in one stomach the remains of the famous seventeen-
year locust (Vibicen septemdecem), rather large game for so small
a bird. Spiders are freely eaten by the gray-cheeked thrush in
spring, and sparingly in fall. For the season they constitute 5.77
per cent of the food. A few other animals, as crawfish, sowbugs,
and angleworms (0.41 per cent), complete the animal food.
Following is a list of the insects identified and the number of
stomachs in which found:
HYMENOPTERA. Steudota’§-maculata.—— 2 eee
Ryrrhus murinus ~~ sora. o S923 oe
Hucinetus. morio.____.__ Se eee
Monocrepidius vespertinus___._______
Agrtotes :Uimosupsos= 222222 See
Corymbites signaticollis —— : Ms
Cychrus andrewsi___ as = pe tela 2” POGUOTACS’ TLAVICOLUS 2 eee
Cychrius sp) 2-222. yes Bo 2 | Velephorus bilineatus _.2 2 2beU as
Dyschirius- hispidus_~ =a 1 Onthophague Sp =---~ --=2 = 4 eee
Hister sedecimstriatus______-__-_~- ejb 1 Atenas strigatus———— ~=- 2S 0
Phelister vernus__——~ ees 1 Atenus-ovattilus eeu 222s eee
Epurea rufa—____ = ee 5 LL EV ALS SD ot er ee
TODAS CS Dee. ee 1
Aphenogaster tennesseense____-___ 1
COLEOPTERA,
a a
FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. 105
Aphodians ruricotaa — 25-5 2 Ii) Sitonestspyyss =e es Ee ee 1
Aphadius inquinatus _-_-_—__-____-__ 3. |\PRVlO0TUSED OES = es ee ee 1
AMOUR EY Sa ee eee Lt | Desmomssconstmctus=—— ae 1
SGEEC CES) Saat tees Ee 1)| Bagoustsellatus. Sst oe ss ES eS 1
LAMAN OSIT TD Oe a 10 ) Anthonomus sycophanta_________-____ 1
AUK TTC 0 es ee eee 1 | Conotrachelus posticatus____________— 2
heptura sphmricollis ——--—-- + -_______- le) Atcatlestelavatus = ae 1
Gepiure mutabilis.-——— 22h ee et |, Alcailesgsp reste a et 1
CREUSOMELORDULCHT A= == oe 4 | Cryptorhynchus ferratus____________— 1
Blapstinus metatlicus ____-___-_--___ 1 | Sphenophorus melanocephalus __~-__—___— if
ERELO TIS MN CIS ens BE A 1
Hormorus undulatus____~-~~~ pea ei 1 HEMIPTPRA.
Otiorhynchus ovatus —--—_-—. ein __ 1
Cercopeus chrysorrheus __~-____-_____ 2 | Tibicen septendecem _____ eh if
Pandelerejus mMiaris. = = Tl (NiC2ZOntenilOTnis===———— _- - . SS 1
Vegetable food—A tew Rubus seeds were recorded as cultivated
fruit, but they were found in only two stomachs and probably were
wild, as the gray-cheeked thrush does not live where it is likely to
come in contact with cultivated blackberries or raspberries. In
any case they amount to only 0.15 per cent. Wild fruits of 18 dif-
ferent species (23.98 per cent) make up nearly one-fourth of the
whole food—in fact, the vegetable food, other than wild fruit, is
insignificant. Wild berries supplement the regular food, which con-
sists of insects and spiders.
The following hst shows the fruits and seeds identified and the
number of stomachs in which found:
a
Or
False spikenard (Smilacina racemosa) —
sreenbrier berries (Smilax sp.) -----~-
Bayberries (Myrica carolinensis) _~-~~
Poke berries (Phytolacca decandra) ~~~
Grabsapplesn(Byrws sp;))|-—-———————__
Wild black cherries (Prunus serotina) —
Blackberries or raspberries (Rubus sp.) —
Sumac berries (Rhus sp.) ------------
Black-alder berries (Jlex verticillata) —
WildsoranesnGVatis Sp.) ———=__-_2_ 7.
Wild sarsaparilla (Aralia sp.) _-_-_-__
Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) ——
Rough-leaved dogwood (Cornus asperi-
[GUL t8S FOa READS eo SY.
White cornel (Cornus candidissima) __—
Doswoodm(Go7n111s) Sp.) 2 ee
Sour gum (Nyssa sylvatica) _—~________
Black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) —
Dockmackie (Viburnum acerifolium) ———
Arrowwood (Viburnum sp.) ——~-—--~-~~
Elderberries (Sambucus canadensis) —_—
Fruit not further identified__________
POR eH to OTR WR hb
Awrre- loeb
Summary.—tn the food of the gray-cheeked thrush the only
useful element is a small percentage (2.83) of useful beetles. The
remainder of the animal food is composed of either harmful or
neutral elements. The vegetable food, drawn entirely from nature’s
great storehouse, contains no product of human industry, either of
grain or fruit. Whatever the sentimental reasons for protecting
this bird, the economic ones are equally valid.
OLIVE-BACKED AND RUSSET-BACKED THRUSHES.
(Hylocichla ustulata swainsoni and Hylocichla ustulata ustulata.)
The olive-backed thrush and its relative, the russet-backed, occupy
the whole of the United States at some time during the year. The
olive-back breeds north of our northern border, except in the higher
mountains, and the russet-back on the Pacific coast nests as far
14 BULLETIN 280, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
south as southern California. The habits of birds of this species
resemble those of others of the genus in living in swamps and woed-
lands rather than in gardens and orchards. The russet-back en the
Pacific coast, however, seems to have become quite domestic, and
wherever a stream runs through or past an orchard or garden, or
the orchard is near thick chaparral, this bird is sure to be found
taking its toll of the fruit and rearing its young in the thicket be-
side the stream. During the cherry season it takes a liberal share
of the fruit, but its young, then in the nest; are fed almost entirely
on insects. “The eastern subspecies, on the contrary, does not come
in contact with domestic fruit or any other product of husbandry.
A great number of the subspecies nest far north of the region of fruit
raising.
For this investigation 403 stomachs of the olive-backed thrush
were available, collected in 25° States, the District of Columbia,
and Canada. Florida, Louisiana, and Texas represent the most
southern collections and New Brunswick, Ontario, and Northwest
Territory the most northern. In California 157 stomachs were ob-
tained; which, with those taken in Oregon and Washington, fairly
represent the Pacific coast region. The whole collection was fairly
well distributed over the nine months from March to November. The
food consisted of 63.52 per cent of animal matter to 36.48 per cent
of vegetable.
Animal food.—Beetles of all kinds amount to 16.29 per cent. Of
these 3.14 per cent are the useful Carabide. The others belong
to harmful or neutral families. Weevils or snout beetles (Rhyn-
chophora) amount to 5.29 per cent, a high percentage for such in-
sects. One Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) was
found in a stomach taken on Long Island. Hymenoptera col-
lectively aggregate 21.50 per cent. Of these, 15.20 per cent are ants—
a favorite food of Hylocichla. The remainder (6.30 per cent) were
wild bees and wasps. No honeybees were found. Caterpillars, which
rank next in importance in the food of the olive-back, form a good
percentage of the food of every month represented and aggregate
10.30 per cent for the season.
Grasshoppers are not an important element in the food of thrushes,
as they chiefly inhabit open areas, while Wylocichla prefers thick
damp cover, where grasshoppers are not found. An inspection of
the record shows that most of the orthopterous food taken by the
olive-back consists of crickets, whose habits are widely different from
those of grasshoppers, and which are found under stones, old logs,
or dead herbage. The greatest quantity is taken in August and
September. The average for the season is 2.42 per cent.
‘Diptera (flies) reach the rather surprisingly large figure of 6.25
per cent. These insects are usually not eaten to any great extent
—
*
FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. 15
except by flycatchers and swallows, which take their food upon the
wing. The flies eaten by the olive-back are mostly crane flies
(Tipulide) or March flies (Bibio), both in the adult and larval
state. Crane flies are slow of wing and frequent shady places. The
larvee of both groups are developed in moist ground, and often in
colonies of several hundred. With these habits it is not surprising
that they fall an easy prey to the thrushes.
Hemiptera (bugs), a small but rather constant element of the
food, were found in the stomachs collected every month, and in July
reach 11.11 per cent. They were of the families of stinkbugs (Penta-
tomide), shield bugs (Scutellerids), tree hoppers (Membracide),
leaf hoppers (Jasside), and cicadas. Some scales were found in one
stomach. The total for the season is 3.76 per cent. A few insects
not included in any of the foregoing categories make up 0.48 per
cent of the food. Spiders, with a few millipeds, amount to 2.22 per
cent, the lowest figure for this item of any bird of the genus Hylo-
cichla. Snails, sowbugs, angleworms, etc. (0.32 per cent), complete
the animal food. |
Following is a list of insects identified and the number of stomachs
in which found:
HYMENOPTERA. Aphodius inquinatus _____-__________
Aphodins 'sp=eares-. Seas eee
Geotrunes sp24=2—). . eee
Dichelonycha elongata_____________-—_
Lachnosterna hirticula _.____________
HLachnosterna)sp=—_-. See 1
Anomalaamndulata.—_ eee
Anonatassps 22 ee aS
Huphorniawjuloida ee eee
Donaciaenargnata: 2
Hemoniainigricornis a
SUNneCLIpOlidd, =) see es ee
Leptinotarsa decemlineata__________~_
Gastroidea ‘spa. - eae papas
Galenucella "decora. --aeee ea
DOOR XO SE | ee
DiGgenolica Spee =o ee Se ee
Gonioctenaspaliida See aa
LEY NOROCES WORALCHUES 2———
Opagtininus, notus.. 2 eee ee
Blapstinus metallicus 2-~-
BLD SELILILS AIUOES TS ae a ea
BIGUSEINUSE SD! — = eames Lee
Otiorhynchus ovatussee ss ees
DRiNOLENUSIS) = -. aa ee
Cercopeus enrysorrhagis ae
Borypunhes pellucdi =
Sitones flavescens-____-_______
SLUGIVESTES pe eee LL ce ee
Phytonomus punctatus ______________
Pachylobius picivorus______-________
Conotrachelus posticatus ____________
Micromastus elegans________________
PACOLLCSIRCLOUCt1LS = — ae Ee
Cryptorhynchus bisignatus________--_—
Rhinoncus pyrrhopus______--_______~
—
Camponotus pennsylvanicus____-----~
MipniGinornatas— sss eee
-
COLEOPTERA,
Cychrus mtidicotlis _-_-____-.-______
Cychrus stenostomus________-_______
INOLLODRAUUS (EN CUS = aa ae A eS Se
PUCTOSULCUSES AYU == ee ee
Pterotichus Wustrans2s = ses
Agno intersiiians ss 2 ee
LEPXTANGE UDEAG THAT se es
Agonoderus pallipess— 22
SOU TUG as CATO SG 2a ee se a
Staphylinus cinnamopterus___--—_-—_~—~
Tachyporus californicus —_____-__~___
OUT OC OFAUSIO TOU Sie eee ge oy
SAT OGRD! OS eee
HE SUCKLNVCTICANUS = ee De
WOSMCUCOTIOMGLOUUS = en eee
TET ULES) SCI CO US a wr a ee eee St
Agriotes stabilis______ 18 Bi rk SE a Se
EOUORES [ULMWCOLIS EE SS SS See eae
POUTUPUS 1LOUPGSGUIB Le ee ee
(STAI GORE G ID, San oyna al ace
RELCDLOGUSEGOGOUIUS a ee ee
Helepnorws oiineatus——
RElEphOTUsS CivisSUse— ae ee
Onihophagus heeate= = eee
Onthophagus striatulus_____________~
Onthophagus tuberculifrons__—~_______
ONTO SILAGUSES hae ee ee ee
NCA REDS GOCE IS a ie el ee
ADROMUS NANO USe eee
Aphodius fimetarius_____-_-§__-
BEEP HEY EHP EeE eee eeEEEENHEDHOAN
ORE RW HE HN OTH HNN HH BHP HB Eee ee eee eR
SS
16 BULLETIN 280, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BQlLQNinis ‘Sp. eee 3 TRICHOPTERA.
Sphenophorus parvulus________-----~ 1
Sphenophorus spusa2ien ooo 1 | Phryganea californica __--—___ 3-5 1
NCOWLUS ANU CUS an ee ee 1
HEMIPTERA.
LEPIDOPTERA.
Myodocha-serripes___-_ =... > eee
HAeEmus aoifronsseee re 1 |) Sineadiadena — 2a ee eee 1
This list of insects contains a considerable number of injurious
species and some that at various times and places have become de-
cided pests. Such are the Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa de-
cemlincata) , the spotted squash beetle (Diabrotica soror), the clover-
leaf weevil (Phytonomus punctatus), and the various species of
Lachnosterna, the parent of the destructive white grubs. Many
others are plant feeders and may increase to such an extent as to
inflict great damage upon agriculture.
Vegetable food—The vegetable food of the olive-backed diene
consists of small fruit. The bird has a weak bill and can not break
through the tough skin of the larger kinds. In the cherry orchards
of California the writer many times observed the western subspecies
of this bird, the russet-back, on the ground pecking at cherries that
had been bitten open and dropped by linnets and grosbeaks. Black-
berries and raspberries have a very delicate skin and are successfully
managed by weak-billed birds, so that all the records of domestic
fruit eaten by the eastern form relate to these berries, and it is
probable that in most cases the fruit was not cultivated. The total
of cultivated fruit for the season is 12.63 per cent of the whole
food, but if we consider the eastern subspecies alone this item would
practically disappear. Wild fruit (19.73 per cent) is eaten regularly
and in a goodly quantity in every month after April. Weed seeds
and a few miscellaneous items of vegetable food (4.04 per cent)
close the account.
Following is a list of vegetable foods so far as identified and the
number of stomachs in which found:
White cedar seeds (Thuja occidentalis) _ 1 } Bird cherries (Prunus pennsylvanice@) — 2
Red cedar berries (Juniperus commu- Domestic cherries (Prunus cerasus)--~ 29
WS) eee Cee eS Domestic plum (Prunus domestica) ——- 2
False Solomon’s seal (Smilacina tri- Apricot (Prunus armeniaca) ——---_---- 3
TOULO) eS ae SS 31| Milaree (Hrodium sp:)-__—_ 1
Greenbrier (Smilax tamnifolia) ~~--__- 1 | Poison oak (Rhus diversiloba) _-----__ 4
Cateprier (Smilaa) sp.)e=——————— 1 | Staghorn sumac (hus hirta)-------_ 2
Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) ______ 3 | Dwarf sumac (Rhus copallina) ______~ 4
Marlberry (Morus Sp: ) -sesee oe 2} (Other sumac) (Rius spe) nee 4
Mio (HiCUSsSD.) = as — eee a 3 | Pepper tree (Schinus molle)------_-- 1
Pale persicaria (Polygonwm lapathi- American holly (Ilex opaca)__--__--_ 1
LOM) == See. 5 ee 1 | Black alder (Jlex verticillata) _---_-__-_ 1
Poke berries (Phytolacca decandra) —_~ 9 | Coffee berries (Rhamnus californicus) — 3
Mountain ash (Pyrus americana) ~-___ 1 | Woodbine (Psedera quinquefolia) ---_- 10
Service berries (Amelanchier sp.)—----~ 1 | Frost grape (Vitis cordifolia) _-_----~ 6
Blackberries or raspberries (Rubus sp.)_ 67 | Spikenard (Aralia racemosa) -----~-~- 2
ROSe Load ws. (IOSGEND.) eee 1 | Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) —— fe
Wild black cherries (Prunus serotina) . 15 | Kinnikinnik (Cornus amomum)-—-—---~- y
a
FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. 17
Red osier (Cornus stolonifera) _______ 1 | Snowberries (Symphoricarpos racemo-
Panicled cornel (Cornus paniculata) __ 3 S08) eh eee ee 2
Dogwood unidentified (Cornus sp.) —~--~ 6 | Dockmackie (Viburnum acerifolium) —— 1
Huckleberries (Gaylussacia sp.) ~-____ 1 | Arrowwood (Viburnum sp.)—-----_--__ 1
Three-flowered nightshade (Solanum Black elderberries (Sambucus canaden-
EN LILOGALI) eet ee ee a 1 SS) ee en Ot ae eS 6
Nightshade unidentified (Solanum sp.) — 8 | Red elderberries (Sambucus pubens) ~~ 5
Black twinberries (Lonicera involu- Blue elderberries (Sambucus glauca) — 15
CHOU) en ree eer TY LS 2" | Larweed (Madia> sp*)—- eee 1
Honeysuckle berries (Lonicera sp.)__~ 2) Fruit pulp not further identified_.____ aT
Food of young of russet-bached thrush—Before concluding the
discussion of this species it will be of interest to note the results
obtained from an investigation of stomachs of 25 nestlings of the
russet-back taken in June and July when the birds were from two
to eleven days old. These were from eight broods, ranging from
three to five nestlings to the brood. The percentage of animal food
of the young (92.60 per cent) is considerably higher than that of the
parent birds.
The distribution of the animal food is as follows: Caterpillars
were found in every stomach but seven and aggregated nearly 27
per cent; beetles, including the useful Carabide (7.7 per cent), are
irregularly distributed to the extent of 22 per cent; other more or less
harmful species included five families of (Hemiptera) bugs, 13.8
per cent, viz, stinkbugs, leaf hoppers, tree hoppers, shield bugs, and
cicadas; ants and a few other Hymenoptera amount to 12 per cent,
and spiders the same. These latter were mostly harvestmen or daddy
longlegs (Phalangidz). The remainder (6 per cent) included a few
miscellaneous insects. Only three stomachs contained remains of
grasshoppers. Carabid beetles were eaten by the young birds to the
extent of 7.7 per cent, which is more than three times the amount
eaten by the adults, a remarkable fact when is considered that these
insects are very hard shelled, thus seemingly unsuited for young
birds.
The vegetable food consisted of fruit (6.8 per cent), mainly black-
berries or raspberries, found in 11 stomachs, and twinberries in 1,
and two or three other items, including a seed of filaree and some
rubbish. From the irregular variety of food in the different
stomachs, it would seem that the parents make little selection, but
fill the gaping mouths of their young with the nearest obtainable
supply.
In addition to the examination of stomach contents of nestlings
two nests were carefully and regularly watched, and from these it
was determined that the parent birds fed each nestling 48 times in
14 hours of daylight. This means 144 feedings as a day’s work for
the parents for a brood of three nestlings, and that each stomach was
filled to its full capacity several times daily, an illustration that the
digestion and assimilation of birds, especially the young, are con-
stant and yery rapid. Experiments in raising young birds have
18 BULLETIN 280, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
proved that they thrive best when fed small quantities at short in-
tervals rather than greater quantities at longer periods. Aside from
the insects consumed by the parents, a brood of three young birds will
thus each require the destruction of at least 144 insects in a day and
probably a very much greater number.
Summary.—tin a résumé of the food of the olive-backed and russet-
backed thrushes one is impressed with the fact that they come in
contact with the products of industry but rarely. The olive-back’s
food habits infringe upon the dominion of man but little. The bird
lives among men, but not with them. The western form, the russet-
back, comes more into relations with the cultivated products because
it visits orchards and partakes freely of the fruit. Even then the
damage is slight, as much of the fruit eaten is that fallen to the
ground. Moreover, while the adult bird is feeding upon fruit a
nestful of young are being reared upon insects which must be largely
taken from the orchard, thus not only squaring the account but
probably overbalancing it in favor of the farmer.
HERMIT THRUSHES.
(Hylocichla guttata subspp. )
The hermit thrush of the subspecies 7. g. pallasi inhabits the
Eastern States in winter as far north as Massachusetts and breeds
from the mountains of Maryland and Pennsylvania and from north-
ern Michigan and central Minnesota northward to Alaska. Several
other subspecies occupy the. Pacific coast region in suitable locali-
ties—that is, in the higher and more wooded sections, as this bird,
like all of the genus /ylocichla, does not live in treeless or arid regions.
In the East the bird is a late fall migrant and may often be seen.
sitting silent and alone on a branch in the forest in late October
or even in November, when the great army of migrants have passed
on to the South. While a beautiful songster, the species is so quiet
and unobtrusive that by sight it is entirely unknown to many.
Inquiry into the food habits of this bird covered 551 stomachs,
collected in 29 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada, and
representing every month of the year, though all the stomachs
taken in winter were collected in the Southern States the District
of Columbia, and California. In the primary analysis the food
was found to consist of 64.51 per cent of animal matter to 35.49 per
cent of vegetable. The former is mostly composed of insects with
some spiders, while the latter is largely fruit, chiefly wild species.
Animal food—Beetles constitute 15.13 per cent of the food. Of
these 2.98 per cent are of the useful family, Carabidae. The remain-
der are mostly harmful. Scarabeide, the larve of which are the
FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. 19
white grubs that destroy the roots of so many plants, were eaten to
the extent of 3.44 per cent. Snout beetles, among the most harmful
of insects, were taken to the extent of 3.13 per cent. Among these
was the notorious plum curculio (Conotrachelus nenuphar) found in
two stomachs taken in the District of Columbia in April of different.
years. Two other
species of the same
genus also were
found, as well as
the clover weevil
(EB picerus imbri-
eatus). The Colo-
rado potato beetle
(Leptinotarsa de-
cemlineata) and
the striped squash
beetle (Diabrotica
vittata), with a
number of other
species of less no-
toriety, were
found in several
stomachs. Thus,
in spite of the
bird’s retiring
habits, it comes
in contact with
some of the pests
of cultivation.
The ants de-
‘
a
FS - —
stroyed—12.46 per > AN =
iy } y Y as<\ SSS
cent of the food— 2 A SVS \ ES Ss See
5 ; = \) eS) SSeS Sa
ce eo oe RS; seN LS aN ee
B \ 2 Awe eee
ation of thrushes [= SES JS
as ant eaters. — ae aathy Ay IN Cp - |
They were taken |{s| au iiaae IS wale: C = ==
® constantly every {3 = oe SV
month, with the B2085-73
Fig. 2.—Hermit thrush (Hylocichla guttata).
greatest number
from May to September; a falling off in July is partly accounted for
by the fact that more fruit is taken in that month. Other Hymenop-
tera (bees and wasps) were eaten to the extent of 5.41 per cent, a
suprising amount for a bird that feeds so largely upon the ground,
as these insects are usually of fleet wing and live in sunshine and
open air.
reo
20 BULLETIN 280, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Caterpillars, eaten in every month and mostly in goodly quantities,
appear to be a favorite food of the hermit thrush. December is the
month of least consumption (2.75 per cent), while the most were
eaten in June (17.08 per cent). The average for the year is 9.54 per
cent. Hemiptera (bugs) seem to be eaten whenever found, as they
appear in the food of every month, but rather irregularly and not
in large quantities. The greatest consumption was in June (9.17 per
cent), but July, September, and December show the least (less than
1 per cent). The total for the year is 3.63 per cent. Of the six
families represented, the Pentatomide, or stink bugs, predominate.
These highly flavored insects are eaten by most insectivorous birds
often, but usually in small quantities.
Diptera (flies) comprise 3.02 per cent of the food of the hermit
thrush. The record shows, however, that nearly all of them are
either crane flies (Tipulide) and their eggs and larve, or March flies
(Bibio) and their larvee. Over 150 of the latter were found in one
stomach. Both of these families of flies lay their eggs in the ground,
which accounts for their consumption by ground-feeding birds. Or-
thoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) are eaten by the hermit thrush
to the extent of 6.32 per cent of its food. While this figure is not
remarkable, it is the highest for any of the genus. These birds are
fond of dark moist nooks among trees and bushes and do not feed
extensively in those dry sunshiny places so much frequented by
grasshoppers. A close inspection of the food record shows that the
Orthoptera eaten by the thrushes are mostly crickets, which live in
shadier and moister places than those where grasshoppers abound.
A few miscellaneous insects (0.27 per cent) close the insect account.
Spiders and myriapods (7.47 per cent) seem to constitute a very ac-
ceptable article of diet, as they amount to a considerable percentage
in nearly every month, and in May rise to 20.79 per cent. A few
miscellaneous animals, as sowbugs, snails, and angleworms, make up
the balance of the animal food (1.26 per cent).
Following is a list of insects so far as identified and the number
of stomachs in which found:
HYMENOPTERA. Tropisternus limbalis_______
Hydrocharis obtusatus ~~ _
Spheridium lecontei
Ptomaphagus consobrinus — ___
COLEOPTERA, Anisotoma valida :
Megilla maculata______ _2 a
to
Minhig Moma a ee
La
1
1
1
1
Elaphris sp-== = —. aa = ae oe 1 2¢ 1
Notiophilus senvistriatus___._-___-~_-~- 1 | Anatis 15-maculata____- 1
Scarites subterraneus____~_-- .- 1 | Psyllobora tedata ____ 1
Dyschirius pumilis=__ = SS 1 | Brachycantha ursina__. 1
Pterostichus patruclis________~ 1 | Endomychus biguttatus— 1
Pterostichus spo == — Sa eee 1 Cryptophagus sp —--- 1
Amara sp ==5 =a 2 ae es 1 THister marginicellis__— 1
Chlenius pennsylvanicus ~~~ : 2 | Hister americanus —_-- 1
Stenolophus sp-——--- 2a = 1 | Saprinus fimbriatus__. : £95 ie |
1
Anisodactylus agilis__ a | Carpophilus hemipterus—— = ae
FOOD HABITS
OF THRUSHES.
b
—
Perthatyena murray? -s—~—__- l \e¢helymorpiancribvrnaria,. Sees 1
Ins quadriguitatus_———- = = 3 | Opatrinus notus_______ a SS 1
Cuitusiseniceus) == eee ees 2 | Opatrinus aciculatus__———--__-2-_____ I
OMS) Saas ee 1 | Blapstinus metallicus,_._______-__-___ 1
PU RRIULS MICU OY Ure ae ne 1S | ERlAvSlinUsm Rui peSp===—==—=— — eee 1
Byrrhus cyclophorus_——-——----_ Lo |SSalpingwsmurrescens —== =) eee 1
Cryptohypnus, bicolor =~ 2 2 | Anti Cus pwO0esGeis—— = =. sae 1
WRASTERUUSNAOTSAUS—=— 2 1 | Notoxus monodon_______~ a. ea 1
Dotopvwsilateralist= ==) ls eee ee 1 | Notozws denudatum__—_—_+-—-=__ I
MUCLONOCUWSMS Die eS ee 2s NOLO LILSES De Se aS > a 1
Podabrus tomentosus_____________ =: 1. Avteltabusenihois==.—— = __ __ ee 2 eas 1
COMENONES Dee es ae ees PEL Ta 1 | Rhigopsis effracta ~_____- met) ECE SES 1
Onthophagus tuberculifrons__~—_______ 1. | Cexcopeusschnysorrnhoius —_ sees 4
OncgnopRaGuUsyspy=—— === — = 3) | Bandeletejus hilaris= =. ___ =e 1
ALGIGUA LUGUSTTIS == —— ea ee it || Barypithesspelluciaus __. ae 1
VEU SSCUUUGRS CCU Ce es eee Se LA Sitoneseiispidalis)==— = eee 4
AN ENIUS NODOULUS= =e Lt | Sitonessiavescens=—— ____ __ _aeaee 1
ALLENIWS: COONATUS==— =~ 2 oak 1 | Trichatophus atternatus _2_2=——_ 5 _ t
ACA QUIS Vase ee Lit) AmtOTES pene Ls. eI se iy
Aphodius fimetarius_________-____- = 11 | Listronotus latiusculus-___=__—- _--~= 1
AMNOGIWS ONONGHIUS\= k=. 1 | Listronotus inequalipennis_—__________ t
INO LOUIS OG SY OL a Le PaAstronotusesp == _ we. Ha 1
Aphodius maquinatus——_.. =~ —__-_ 9 SMGChODSES Dre ee ae a 2
LUO ROME ORC B= ee eee 1 | Smicronyz corniculatus______ oo Se Tas) 1
ADROdiws prodnomus.——— = 4 || Trachodes plinoides—____ = 1
Aphodius crassiusculus ______-____-___ 1 | Conotrachelus nenuphar_--———_—_2- =~ 2
PAN ROCLUSI SDE oa oes 11 | Conotrachelus posticatus ____--_____~-_ 5
Geotrupes semipunctata________~ Souk = &, 1 | Oonotrachelus erinaceus__—=—__ 1
DUCK CLOMY CILCANS De ee ee ee = Li) RRNONCUS DYULTNODUSS == = ae eee 1
WOCKNOSLCINOGN SD aa ae 17 |W Onychobansinsidiosus —— eee it
Olhrysomela pulehna.—_ == = 3 | Balaninus nasicus ~____ 1
TCM NigGrourttata == Lil Bateninus spas] eS See ee a 1
Chlamysypliicata = =) 2 ee 1 | Sphenophorus parvulus___——___ aes RR iL
Myochrous) denticollis,.-—---__--_-___-__ 2) | WSDRENODNOTZALSHIS Die ee na 1
xkanthonia. 10-notata_=——--_=-=____-__ 1 | Dendroctonus terebrans _-___________ 1
Galiigraphayscataris--- 2 Soe 1
Leptinotarsa decemlineata ____+-_____ 1 HEMIPTERA,
PLLA OO I 1 Podops cinctipes 1
Miabrotica: vittata —-_=_2$==__ 1 = i ne eo nae ea
INICZORC AULT IS a a ee een eee 6
Odonttotasenng see 1 xe ;
Arhaphe cicindeloides ===") Tr 1
OdGtitOlLOmSD sn ae ee iL : E
: Corimelend ‘denudata = it
[ERLE Ue : Myodocha serripes 2
Crepidodera helwines________________ DERG Grok io, a ae eS yee Fr
Syneta ferruginea -__-_-~---------_- 1 ORTHOPTERA,
Systena elongata _-~—-_---~_________ 1
Chetocnema pulicaria______------_~~- 1 | Amblycorypha rotundifolia___________ 1
Psylliodes punctulata _-_--_____-___- LWiGQicanthus niveus=—— =) aa 1
Vegetable food.—The vegetable diet of the hermit thrush consists
largely of fruit, as with most birds of this group. As might be ex-
pected of a bird of such retiring habits, but little of the fruit eaten
can be classed as cultivated. In September 5.45 per cent was so
considered, but in most months the quantity was small, and in March,
April, and May was completely wanting. The total for the year
as found in 17 stomachs is 1.20 per cent. One stomach contained
strawberries, one grapes, one figs, one currants, two apples, and the
rest Rubus fruit, i. e., blackberries or raspberries. These last as well
as the strawberries were probably wild. Of the wild fruit (26.19
per cent) 46 species were identified with a reasonable degree of cer-
tainty in 248 stomachs. A few seeds, ground-up vegetable matter
’
22 BULLETIN 280, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
not further identified, and rubbish make up the rest of the vegetable
food (8.10 per cent). Among the seeds were some of the various
species of poisonous hus. These were found in 18 stomachs, mostly
from California. The dissemination of these seeds is unfortunate
from the standpoint of husbandry, but many birds engage in it, as
the waxy coating of the seeds is nutritious, especially in winter, when
fruit and insects are not easily obtainable.
Following is a list of the components of the vegetable food so far
as identified, and the number of stomachs in which found:
Cedar berries (Juniperus virginiana) —— 2 ] Poison ivy (Rhus radicans)___-______ 3
False Solomon's seal (Smilacina race- Poison oak (Rhus diversiloba) _______ ats
MOSO) === = =e eee ee Ee 4 | Laurel-leaved sumach (Rhus lawrina) — 2
Faise spikenard (Smilacina sp.) -~---~- 1 Other sumachs -(Rhus sp.) l= 12
Greenbrier (Smilax walteri) _-------- 2 | Pepper berries (Schinus molle)_______ 15
Cat brier (Smilax bona-nor) _~_-_-__-_ 2 | American holly (Ilex opaca) ~~ 9
Laurel-leaved greenbrier (Smilax lawri- Black alder (Ilex verticillata) ________ 12
FOU) Benen =) Seen Smee a See 1 | Ink berries. (lex: glabra) = ae 9
Other greenbriers (Smilaw sp.) -----~- 1. | Other hollies: (Tlea-sp.) 2 eae eee Y
Wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera) ____---~- 1 | Strawberry bush (Huonymus america-
Bayberries (Myrica carolinensis) ~~~ ~ 7 NUS)s <2 oo ee es 1
Chinquapin (Castanea pumila) ~~~ 1 Roxbury waxwork (Celastrus scan-
Western hackberries (Celtis occiden- dns). 2-2 kw ieee 1
ELAS) sys aa hn MRI eS Ee EEN Se Seah 5 | Supple-jack (Berchemia volubilis) ____ 2
Other hackberries (Celtis sp.) ------_~- 8 | Coffee berries (Rhamnus californicus) — 1
Higgin(Ulccusisp:) ase eee te ies ee ee 1 | Woodbine (Psedera quinquefolia) _____ 10
Mulberries~ (Worws isp) 2 2 se 1 | Frost grapes (Vitis cordifolia) _______ 2
Mistletoe berries (Phoradendron villo- Wild-grapes (Vitis -sp:) =2222422 ee 1
SUNY) a ION Soe SEO VTE al Begg 8 Nia 2 | Wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis) — 1
Poke berries (Phytolacca decandra) ~~ 6 | Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida)__ 32
Miner’s lettuce (Montia perfoliata) ___ 1 | Rough-leaved dogwood (Cornus asperi-
Sassafras berries (Sassafras varifo- (OUG) 28 A 2
TAAL TN) ales eee Sats Se 2 | Black gum (Nyssa sylvatica) —___---__ 2
Spice berries (Benzoin estivale) ------ 1 | Checkerberry (Gaultheria procumbens) — 1
Currants (Ribes Fe Of 22 ie A 3 | Huckleberries (Gaylussacia sp.) ~----- 1
Sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) — 2 | Blueberries (Vaccinium sp.) ~~~ === — 12
Chokeberries (Pyrus arbutifolia) ______ 1 | Black nightshade (Solanum nigrum) —_ -f
Service berries (Amelanchier canaden- Bittersweet (Solanum sp,)---~-----__ 4
SES) IG 5) ad SAVIN NIIP | LIN fg 9 | Goose grass (Galiuwm aparine) —~—~-—--~ 1
Hawthorn (Crategussspyis=—= =. —_-— 1 | Honeysuckle (Lonicera sp.) 2-22 --—_ == 2
Strawberries (fragaria sp.) ___-_--_--- 1 | Indian currant (Symphoricarpos orbi-
Blackberries or raspberries (Rubus sp.) — 5 culatus) 2. was soe ee eee 1
Rosexhaws (Rosa sp )easee aes se De 1 | Downy arrowwood (Viburnum pubes-
Wild black cherries (Prunus scrotina) — 3 Coens) i245 2 si ke oe ee ee 1
Three-seeded mercury (Acalypha vir- Nanny berries (Viburnum lentago) ~~~ 2
GUNA CO,) pera aoe Sete sh 1 | Black elderberries (Sambucus cana-
Staghorn sumach (Rhus typhina) ~~~ 5 densis) 22 ee eee eee 4
Smooth sumach (Rhus glabra) _-~_-___ 5 | Red elderberries (Sambucus pubens) ——- 3
Dwarf sumach (Rhus copallina)______ 7 | Fruit not further identified___._______ 60
In looking over this list one is impressed with the fact that the
taste of human beings for fruit differs markedly from that of birds.
For example, hus seeds are hard and have little pulp to render them
palatable or nutritious. They are usually passed through the alimen-
tary canal of birds or regurgitated unharmed, and the slight outer
coating alone is digested. In the case of the poisonous species, this
outer coating is a white wax or tallow which appears to be very
nutritious, for these species are eaten much more extensively than
FOOD HABITS OF THRUSHES. 23
the nonpoisonous ones. The seed itself is rarely broken in the
stomach to get any nutriment it may contain. But in spite of these
facts Rhus seeds were found in 49 stomachs, while fruits of huckle-
berries and blueberries, which are delicious to the human taste, were
found in only 13 stomachs; and blackberries and raspberries, highly
esteemed by man, were found in only 5 stomachs. Next to Rhus the
fruit most eaten was the dogwood berry, found in 34 stomachs, yet
from a human estimate these berries are distasteful and contain such
large seeds that they afford but very little actual food.
Summary.—The hermit thrush, as it name indicates, is of solitary
habits and neither seeks human companionship nor molests cultivated
products. It destroys nothing indirectly helpful to man, as beneficial
insects, but aids in the destruction of the myriad hosts of insect life
which at all times threaten vegetation. While it is not easy to point
out any especially useful function of the hermit thrush, it fills its
place in the economy of nature, from which it should not be removed.
ADDITIONAL COPIES
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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
- BULLETIN No. 281
Contribution from the States Relations Service
A. C. TRUE, Director
Washington, D. C. v August 12, 1915
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE WITH THE PUBLIC
SCHOOL SUBJECTS IN THE NORTHERN STATES.
By C. H. Lane, Chief Specialist in Agricultural Education, and F. E. HEaup, Assistant
in Agricultural Education.
CONTENTS.
Page. | Page.
iniroductioneeemecsseec ent oak ee ine m ci - = 1 |'@Noviemberssees- hao. sane tosere 12
MO splan cers isn sae Sean os - 2 | MecemPberseaes- aan ssc ses sceeeeae eee 14
How the teacher may organize a club.-....-. 2 | Jianulainy Mares oe ocacs cocisemeee emer sere 16
IPIBVATS Se ucouS cord CORES SEe See sae 4 | Hebruanyerecssca: chee 2oe soeee eee enae 18
How to keep up the club interest......-.-.-- 5 | IMO Diese tsetiars. Lo arate emer erase ter 20
Schoolsexhibitdaysses-0----2-ccc0-------2-- 5 - | gabe eeeepegroee foes eS Vien ce nee area 22
SQUAT Nee +. + acandecose Sen esee SSeS e Cee See eee ileay GhoGl Abn seceaoobeosesasesscosauecasaece 24
Octobera:2--- 32, sé San Seed e ees anee ee eee 9 | Correlation supplements. -.-.......-..-------.- 25
INTRODUCTION.
Home projects! as a part of the regular instruction in elementary
agriculture promise to afford the teacher a most potent means of
making the subject sufficiently concrete and practical. Too often
the teaching begins and ends with the assignment and recitation of
lessons from the pages of a textbook. By projecting the work of the
school into the home in the vital way in which home projects do, it
enlists the interest of parents and becomes the means of their edu-
cation in this subject, thus affecting quickly the work on the farms
of the community.
The purpose of this bulletin is to suggest some ways and means
by which the public-school teacher may utilize home projects in
correiating agriculture and farm problems with the regular school
- work.
1 The term ‘‘home project,’’ applied to instruction in elementary and secondary agriculture, includes
each of the following requisites: (1) There must be a plan for work at home covering a season more or less
extended, (2) it must be a part of the instruction in agriculture of the school, (3) there must be a problem
more or less new to the pupil, (4) the parents and pupil should agree with the teacher upon the plan, (5)
some competent person must supervise the home work, (6) detailed records of time, method, cost, and in-
come must be honestly kept, and (7) a written report based on the record must be submitted to the teacher.
This report may be in the form of a booklet.
Notr.—This bulletin is prepared especially for the use of rural school teachers in the Northern States.
98555°—Bull. 281—15——1
2 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
THE PLAN.
The term ‘“‘correlation”’ is here used to mean nothing more nor
less than leading pupils to see the relation between home life and
school life, to point out the utility value of arithmetic, geography,
and physiology, and to supplement reading, history, language, and
spelling. Thus through home projects and correlations there will be
lent to rural school agriculture a realness and concreteness that can
be obtained in no other way.
It will be observed that the material is arranged according to a
monthly sequence plan. Ten months’ work is provided for, but in
case the school term is not so long, as is generally true in rural schools,
the work out of season may be dropped.
As suggested by the title of this publication, the correlationscheme
is intended to be adapted to the northern, central, and western sec-
tions of the United States. Covering as it does a large territory, the
work must of necessity be largely suggestive. The details, such as
the statement of problems, working of subjects in language exercises,
etc., should be left to the teacher. Gathering local data as a basis
for the work should be entrusted in a large measure to the club
members of the school.
HOW THE TEACHER MAY ORGANIZE A CLUB.
Home projects may be carried on without an organization, but if
the teacher desires to form a club he should, as soon as possible after
the school opens in the fall, write to the county superintendent and
State leader in charge of boys’ and girls’ clubs at the State agricul-
tural college for all printed matter available pertaining to club
projects. When the teacher has studied the literature and has become
familiar with the plans, projects, rules, etc., of clubs, a meeting for
organization should be called and should include as many boys and
girls of the school district as can be brought together. It would be
well to invite the patrons of the school to this meeting and have the
extension representative (county agent) for the county give a talk
on the agricultural club requirements and work. If possible, have
the county superintendent of education and the State leader in
charge of club work at this meeting and ask their aid in this organ-
ization work. Near the close of the meeting, which should not be
too long, a simple form of constitution and set of by-laws may be
adopted, and the regular officers of the club elected at this time may
include a supervisor, president, vice president, secretary, treasurer,
and program committee.
As a suggestion to teachers who have not thus far taken up club
work, the following general form of organization has been found
satisfactory:
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 3
SUGGESTED CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS.!
CONSTITUTION.
Articte I. Name of club.—This organization shall be known as’............-----
School Boys’ and Girls’ Agricultural Club.
Arr. II. Objects of club.—The objects of the club shall be to make farm life more
attractive and farming more profitable.
Arr. III. Membership.—Boys and girls from 10 to 18 years of age, inclusive, shall
be eligible.
Arr. IV. Officers —The officers of this club shall be a supervisor, president, vice
president, secretary, and treasurer.
Arr. V. Duties cf members.—Prescribed in the rules for club work, such as follow
instructions, attend club meetings, make exhibits at the school and county fair, and
keep a report of expenses, income, observations, and work.
Arr. VI. Duties of officers —The president shall preside at all meetings; the secre-
tary shall keep the minutes and records of all such meetings; the treasurer must care
for all funds collected and shall pay out the same only upon the written order of the
president, and the vice president may act as president in the absence or disability of
that officer. The teacher shall be the local leader, having the general supervision of
all local club work and power of exercising authority in proper management of the
club.
Src. 1. An advisory committee shall arrange for all public contests and exhibits,
the procuring and awarding of prizes, and the reporting of statistics and other infor-
mation to the State organizer.
BY-LAWS.
1. The members of the club shall agree to read all reference literature bearing upon
the home project. This may include literature dealing with the growing of corn,
potatoes, tomatoes, chickens, pigs, etc.
2. A written plan of the work of each boy and girl must be prepared for the teacher.
They must do all the work connected with the particular contest or project entered
upon.
3. The amount of yield by weight and measurement of land and other results of
the spring and summer work must be certified to by the contestant and attested by at
least two disinterested competent witnesses preferably members of the local school
board who are not relatives.
4. Every member of the club must make an exhibit at the annual school fair.
5. In estimating profits the recommendations of the State agent in charge of boys’
and girls’ club work will be observed. Rent of land $.---, work of club members --- -
cents per hour, work of horses .... cents per hour each, manure $.... per two-horse
wagon load.
6. No club member should be allowed to receive more than ---- prizes.
1 The teacher should write the State agent in charge of club work at the State agricultural-college for
suggestions concerning the organization and conducting of a boys’ and girls’ agricultural club, or, in the
absence of such State agent, he may write directly to the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington,
D. C., for such assistance. The office for extension work of the U. S. Department of Agriculture in the
Northern and Western States maintains a section with a leader and assistants who give their entire time
to the organization and supervision of boys’ and girls’ club work in cooperation with the extension divi-
sions of the agricultural colleges in practically all of the States. The State leader in club work at the agri-
cultural college is usually, therefore, the joint employee of the U. S. Department of Agriculture and the
State agricultural college and represents both institutions alike in club work. In organizing a club,
therefore, through the assistance of this State leader the boys and girls are brought into and become a part
of the State organization as well as of the national organization for club work and receive systematic recog-
nition and assistanee from both the State and the Nation.
4 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
7. The committee of judges for the annual school fair shall be selected by the local
leader.
8. Exhibits winning prizes at the school fair should be sent to the annual county
contest and even to the State contest.
9. The percentage score for a, b, c, and d is subject to change irom time to time in
the different States. The recommendations oi the State club leaders for the Northern
and Western States for 1914-15 were as follows:
Per cent
(a) Greatest yield per acre.-__£_._-._..-. “See: 2 eis eee 30
(b) Best exhibit. ..-2. 22.22.2226: 5-22 Se ee eee 20
(c) Eesay and report - 22-2222. 23052522 oo eee ee 20
(d) Best showing of profit on imvestment. 25> _---.-=_...-:---._=5- 5 = ee 30
Totals 02-2. ee eee 100
The matter of prizes is of considerable importance. While the
various contests of the club members have for their primary object
the assistance of the teacher and the public schools to find an easy
approach, educationally, to all the interests of rural and village life
and to form a connecting link between parent and teacher, farm and
school, it is found that prizes can be used to advantage. An attempt
should be made to offer a large number of prizes. Many small
prizes are better than a few large ones. Among the prizes suggested
as suitable awards in club contests for first place the following may
be mentioned:
(1) Free trips and expenses paid to district and State fairs, educational institu-
tions, summer Chautauquas, etc.
(2) Top buggy, saddle, gold watch, automobile, etc.
(3) Clear title to one or more acres of land (to encourage land ownership).
(4) Farm implements, tools, equipment, etc.
(5) Thoroughbred pigs, cattle, horses, mules, pen of chickens.
(6) Club emblems, banners, and pennants.
(7) Manual-training workbench, set of tools, camera, trunk, leather handbag,
writing desk, etc.
(8) Poultry equipment, such as incubators, watering and feeding troughs, brooders,
fencing, and gates.
(9) Free tuition to short courses in agricultural and mechanical colleges and regu-
lar courses in colleges.
(10) Canvas tent, camp outfit, canoe, hunting equipment, baseball suit, and suit of
clothes.
(11) Dictionary, encyclopedia, set of agricultural books, special club library, series
of books of standard literature. .
(12) Subscriptions to farm journals, magazines, and special periodicals for boys.
School credit should be given to every member of the club who
carries to completion some one club project. Every boy and girl
should be taught the real meaning and value of a prize and that a
realization of work well done is the true reward of effort.
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 5
HOW TO KEEP UP THE CLUB INTEREST.
The success of the rural school club depends largely upon the
cooperation of the rural school teacher, county superintendent of edu-
cation, extension representative (county agent), and the club leader
of the State college of agriculture. Shortly after the club is organ-
ized in any rural school the teacher should submit the names of the
members to the county superintendent of education, who will assist
in furnishing the club with literature directing them in the work.
The teacher will find it advantageous to have the extension repre-
sentative (county agent) make talks before the school, as well as
visit the contestants’ home projects as he makes his rounds from
time to time. The teacher should visit the homes of all club mem-
bers and, together with the boys and girls and any other members
of their families, go to the prize acres, etc., and have the owners tell
the methods of preparing the soil, fertilizmg, and cultivating the
crop. The results of such a trip will present much material for dis-
cussion at club meetings and regular class instruction in agriculture.
For every school club there should be a local committee of three men
and three women who will encourage the children, interest influential
members of the community in the club, and inspect from time to
time the work of the club.
SCHOOL-EXHIBIT DAY.
In order to bring to a close the contest work of the boys and girls,
one day of the school year should be set apart for the display of the
club projects and of their other efforts. The small exhibit in the local
school is of most value, and often it is possible for two or more
schools to combine in having their school exhibit.
To make the school exhibit a success, not only the children but
the parents must be enlisted. The social element in it is very impor-
tant. Every parent must be so interested that he will feel he must
be present. Plan for an entire day given to the special occasion. If
there is one in the vicmity who can give anything valuable to agri-
culture, secure him as aspeaker. If this is done, have two programs,
one in the forenoon for the speaker and one in the afternoon when
the children shall take the prominent place.
Have the children’s program plan to show the results of the club-
project work and other home efforts. Let it include the best com-
positions written on the more interesting phases of the work. The
history of corn, the importance of corn in America, the development
of breakfast foods, my experience in growing corn, my success with
poultry, games that I like on the farm, why farmers should spray,
value of birds to the farmer, and number of days of work needed for
one man and a team to raise and harvest an acre of corn are sug-
gested as additional subjects.
6 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The history and work of the farmers’ institute should be reported
by one of the older pupils; another should give an account of what
the agricultural college is doing for the State.
If sufficient interest has been aroused, contests in judging corn,
breadmaking, rope tying, and seed-corn stringing might be held. For
judging the exhibits prepared by the pupils secure some one who has
studied corn judging, poultry judging, etc. Be sure to make this a
feature of the day, making the announcement of the results a part
of the program.
Music should not be omitted from the program. Some patriotic
music should be included, as should the State song.
Plan to have dinner at the school and use every device possible to
utilize products grown by the children. If the number of people is
not too large, a splendid lesson in art would be the making of place
cards and decorating them with some corn design. If these are not
made, souvenirs of the day should be made by the pupils, carrying
out some particular club-project idea. This is one real way to teach
decorative art.
For a language lesson prepare written invitations to the patrons
of the school. Perhaps the form side of notes of invitation will be
more vividly taught then. Be sure to include the local editor in the
list of invitations. Have a report of School Exhibit Day written by
some of the pupils for the local papers:
The decoration of the schoolroom should not be neglected. Black-
board drawings, booklets, corn products, and other work of the
pupils should be utilized. Use some fine specimens of corn in com-
pleting the decorations. The room should be decorated so as to
give joy and impress the thought that the man who tills the soil is
engaged in an exalted work.
SEPTEMBER.
Practical and field exercises.—Select seed corn in the field and have
a schoolroom demonstration of methods of curing. (See Correlation
Supplements II and III on pp. 26, 27.) Cooperate in the canning of
surplus tomatoes. Arrange that each pupil shall report on the local
or county fair visited, and it is well for the teacher to attend with
the pupils. Take a field trip to collect seeds, weeds, insects, and
other illustrative material. (See Farmers’ Buls. 586 and 606.)
Observe the condition of fields; recognize and destroy weeds. Visit
the project fields of pupils when possible on these excursions. (See
score card on corn in Supplement XIV.) Prepare to hold a school
exhibit or fair. (Refer to Supplement I.) Have pupils exhibit some
of their produce at the county fair. (Fig. 1.)
Language lessons.—Have all pupils use notebooks when doing field
work. Utilize the club-work material for both oral and written -
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 7
descriptions. Have the summer experiences written up fully for
each club project, not as a language lesson first, but for its content,
and then revise. Have the pupils write and mail requests for bulle-
tins needed, also for periodicals and catalogues. Have written such
parts of the report on project work as are due at this time. Do a
part of the work on the booklet to correspond with the field progress.
(See Supplement on Booklets, No. VIII.)
Reading and spelling.—Use those selections in the supplementary
reading books which are rural in their bearing and which are seasonal.
Utilize also the best selections available in other books. The teacher
may well read some of these for the entire school. Among those
possible for September will be found Maize—Fosdick; The Legend of
8a," €
uy 'y
1! OT? b. BOGBADIO Wa emi ws
re DEORDEGD | a8 Yonge yrsnonnniieo Oo,
Si) De a banat ate 2G Us i Gr
Fig. 1.—Desirable ear of corn. Selected by the Division of Corn Investigations, Bureau of Plant
Industry.
Maize (in Hiawatha)—Lonegfellow; Eyes and No Kyes—Kingsley;
Happy the Man—Pope; To a Waterfowl—Bryant; Evening at the
Farm—Trowbridge; Bobwhite—Cooper. Memorize the Country
Boy’s Creed, by E. O. Grover.
Of a more strictly agricultural nature select those periodicals and
bulletins which deal with the local conditions and the club activities
of the pupils. Farmers’ Bulletins which may be needed include Nos.
229, The Production of Good Seed Corn; 415, Seed Corn; 537, How
to Grow an Acre of Corn; 578, The Making and Feeding of eS
617, School Lessons on Com
Add to the regular spelling lists all the new words which appear in
the agricultural reading and especially those which are misspelled in
3 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the written exercises. Make sure that the terms are all pronounced
correctly. Mispronunciation makes misspelling almost imevitable,
and the pupils should use the proper term in each case.
Arithmetic.—The summer records of the projects ought to furnish
the figures for problems of all sorts. Areas of fields, stand of corn,
averages of yields, rate per acre, cost per acre, increase of yield over
seed, gain over cost in amount and rate, interest rate on investment,
rate of yield in relation to average for State, cost per egg of producing
egos, tomato Incomes and net profit, probable per cent profit from
the canned tomatoes, are some of the possible problems. The capacity
of silos is a problem suited to some districts. Have the problem relate
to the class work of the month or to review work in arithmetic as
well as to agriculture. The correlation should work both ways or it
is unfair. Remember other phases of community and home life de-
serve correlation. (See problems in Supplement XIII.)
Geography.—Have pupils make several copies of maps of the dis-
trict and the township. Get original maps from county or township
surveys or make from observations of district. On one locate the win-
ners of prizes on different exhibits at the fairs. This will help in find-
ing suitable material on field trips. Have pupils obtain data as to
earliest severe frosts for the section and compare with other sec-
tions. On the State map locate the chief crops of various sections,
also make note of particularly successful boys’ and girls’ clubs.
Note what crops are yielding well in the different States and discuss
climatic factors. (See the latest issue of The Monthly Crop Report.)
Apply the same method to international crops, commerce, ete., mak-
ing use not only of census and other statistics but also the current
information gained from magazines and farm papers. Make com-
ment on the crop per acre at home and abroad and seek explanations.
History.—Consider the agricultural, mdustrial, and social facts
connected with the period in history which a class is studying. Look
up in various history texts the story of corn in the United States,
also have pupils inquire into the farm history of your section. (See
Bowman and Crosley’s ‘‘Corn,’’ Ch. I, and Montgomery’s ‘‘The Corn
Crops,” Chs. I and II.) Trace the history of the potato in reference
books and readers. Do not destroy the plan for history lessons but
adapt topics to this plan. Where local histories are not printed, both
tradition and scrap files of old newspapers will be helpful.
The suggestions under both history and geography are intended for
the reading and inquiry by the pupils, to be followed by classroom
discussion. ‘These topics may be divided among the members of the
class. Many school-history texts have separate chapters on agricul-
1 The Monthly Crop Report is issued at monthly intervals by the United States Department of Agriculture
and gives surveys of agricultural conditions in the country and other timely information which should help
any rural-school teacher.
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 9
tural, industrial, and social development, and others take up these
matters as a part of each epoch. Nearly every modern geography
devotes much space to soils, crops, animals, the food supply, and
farming as an industry. The public library usually has many help-
ful reference books on travel, invention, industries, as well as histo-
ries and geographies. The supplementary geographical readers and
texts in history, physical geography, ete., loaned by the nearby high
school will give ample reference texts. Sample copies of textbooks
are usually found at the school. Personal inquiry will discover other
sources of information.
Drawing.—Sketching, design, and color work may include corn
subjects, weeds, fruit, and insects. Working drawings of any appa-
ratus used in school or at home in connection with the month’s lesson
may be needed.
Physiology.—F ood values of crops raised locally is a timely topic.
See Farmers’ Bul. 121, legumes; 142, general; 295, potatoes; 298,
corn; 359 and 521, on canning; 375, care in home; 565, corn meal.
Plant food and animal food as related to current physiology lessons
should be considered. (See Brewer’s Rural Hygiene, especially on
local problems of fall sanitation.)
Manual training—Make corn-drying racks, exhibit shelves and
window boxes. Can tomatoes and other vegetables and fruit. Braid
husk mats and baskets. Take up tender plants into pots and boxes.
OCTOBER.
Practical exercises and field trips.—Visit a contest area, measure the
plat, weigh and judge the crop. Keep data for future problems.
Visit flocks of high-grade poultry, especially flocks with good records
for laying. Gather soils and store away in boxes or pails for future
lessons on soils and for germination plats or shallow boxes in early
spring. Help club members close up their projects ready for a report.
Examine modern harvesting machinery while on trips. Have mem-
bers store garden produce, take up tender bulbs and roots, destroy
weeds and rubbish which may harbor insects or disease. Select lay-
ing flock of poultry and begin fattening for market the fow's which
are not desired for laying. Club members who now plan to raise
crops next year will do well to plow land this month. (Fig. 2.)
Hold the school fair this month if it was not held i September.
(See Supplement I.) Much of the practical work of this month will
be done by the pupils at home. Teachers should consult Farmers’
Bul. 562, The Organization of Boys’ and Girls’ Poultry Clubs.
Language lessons.—Write out with care the reports on the club
contests or project work just completed. Complete the booklet for
corn, potatoes, tomatoes, and other projects. Make out new appli-
cations for club projects soon to begin. Write a description of the
98555°—Bull. 281—15——2
10 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
school fair for the local newspapers. Conversations in which pupils
tell without interruption about some process, trip, or other experience
should alternate with written exercises.
Have members of the class write formal invitations to adults
requesting them to attend the school fair. Send requests for bulle-
tins, score cards, and other material needed soon.
Reading and spelling—Read inspirational and seasonal supple-
mentary selections, as: The Farmers Gold—Edward Everett; Black
Beauty—Sewall; The Corn Song—Whittier; The Apple—Burroughs;
The Horse Fair—Baldwin; Hiawatha’s Brothers—Longfellow.
Readings in practical agriculture may be found in Farmers’ Buls.
51, Standard Varieties of Chickens; 287, Poultry Management; 313,
Harvesting and Stormg Corn; 574, Poultry House Construction.
Fic. 2.—Evidences of strong and weak constitutions. Selected by Animal Husbandry Division,
Bureau of Animal Industry.
Also use State bulletins and periodicals on suitable topics. Drill on
words misspelled in written exercises and on new words in reading.
Arithmetic—Make out with accuracy and neatness statements of
cost and income to accompany the report on the club work. Rule
columns with care and make figures plain. Compute and order bill
of lumber needed for new poultry house or for remodeling, for nests
or other equipment. From the figures obtained from various crops
assign problems adapted to the advancement of the pupils.
Geography.—Complete a local survey of the crops and the poultry
flocks of the district. Record this both on maps and on tabular
charts. Have pupils look up the extent of the trade in farm produce
for the State, at what points sold eventually, Find also the origin
of grain and other farm produce imported from without the State.
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 11
Refer to such texts as Hunt’s ‘‘Cereals in America.” Have pupils
make an outline map of the county and locate thereon the chief
crops either by sketches or by grains, ete., glued on the map. This
map will be useful in teaching younger pupils. Have a large map
of the district made to be duplicated for future surveys. (See
Supplement VII.)
History.—Have pupils inquire into the history of grain and fruit
development in this country, especially the crops now grown in club
work. Note the effect of the crops and the methods of raising
them on the history of this country and the great national issues.
As examples, notice cotton and tobacco in the South, grain and
meat in Central States, dairying and diversified farming in New
England. Trace the effect of the growth of cities on the type of
agriculture in different sections, especially in supplying milk, garden
truck, ete. Show how the free grant of rich lands led to careless
farming because it was supposed their fertility was mexhaustible.
Trace the growth of the work of the National Government and the
State Government in encouraging good farming and in controlling
pests and diseases. It is not to be expected that one class will
develop all these topics. Select those adapted to the section and
to the available reference books. Review the history of the develop-
ment of harvesting machinery in the United States.
Drawing.—Make cover design for booklets. (See Supplement
VIID). Make other drawings or sketches needed to complete the
booklets. Use fruit, grain, and vegetables for studies in sketching,
color work, and designing. Have working drawings made for new
poultry house and equipment, for improved shippimg and storage
apparatus. Make specifications and bill of lumber for each from
these drawings in arithmetic class work.
Physiology.—Take up poultry and eggs as human food. See
Farmers’ Buls. 128, Eggs and Their Uses as Food, and 182, Poultry as
Food. Consider the feeding value and digestibility for farm animals
of the crops harvested and stored from the club acre. Apply the
lessons used in human physiology concerning foods and digestion.
See Farmers’ Buls. 22, The Feeding of Farm Animals, and 142, The
Nutritive Value of Food.
Manual training.
scale. Have as many ail as possible plan to construct poultry
houses for their club flocks. Make full-sized nests and feed boxes.
(See Farmers’ Bul. 638.) Have the girls learn to cook and serve
vegetables and fruits, also to can them and to preserve them in other
ways. (See Farmers’ Buls. 359 and 607.) Have them prepare and
serve.a variety of dishes from some of the produce of the projects
and show these dishes at the exhibit. Have the mechanical work on
the booklet done with care. ;
12 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
NOVEMBER.
Practical and field exercises.—Visit storage plants for farm produce
if there are any in the section. Visit farms where the class may
inspect pure-bred poultry, cows and other animals. Observe also
the best methods of housing. Visit a club member’s poultry house..
If any orchard work is done in the district this month have reports
made on this work. Pruning and scraping must be done before
spraying with lime-sulphur for San José scale. (See Farmers’ Buls.
181 and 492.) This may be done at any time after the trees become
dormant except during freezing weather. Have apple-club members
inspect for the scale, and if present it should be treated at once.
Apple packing for market may be in order in some sections. Have
poultry houses cleaned, repaired, and sprayed this month. Rubbish
must be destroyed and vines and shrubs protected from the cold.
Certain trees and shrubs may be set out now. Cuttings made during
pruning of grape vines and many shrubs may be preserved in sand
until spring. (See Farmers’ Buls. 157 and 471.) The teachers should
advise club members to do these things. Complete the collection of
soils, seeds, etc., for winter use.
Language lessons.—Have reports ov field trips written with care
and when they are on the topic of the projects, incorporate them in
the booklets. Likewise, include descriptions of structures or oper-
ations observed or used. Have oral discussions along the lines
suggested in the practical exercises, trying to obtain from the pupils
clear descriptions in, good English.
Send letters to obtain bulletins, catalogues, tools, etc. Have the
class edit a school newspaper (not printed) dealing with the affairs of
the school and the club work of the district. Have this read in school
and send articles of merit to the local press. Thanksgiving suggests
many seasonal topics and is emphatically a rural festival.
Reading and_ spelling.—tInclude in the supplementary reading
selections like Walden Pond—Thoreau; November Woods—H. H.
Jackson; Farming—Kmerson’s Essays; The Twenty-third Psalm;
Descriptions from Audubon’s Writings; November—Alice Carey.
Look up the story of Johnny Apple-seed in Hillis’ “The Quest of
John Chapman.”’
Continue reading in bulletins suggested for October and add
Farmers’ Buls. 154, The Home Fruit Garden; 491, The Small Apple
Orchard; 492, Enemies of the Apple; 528, Hints to Poultry Raisers;
562, Boys’ and Girls’ Poultry Clubs. Also use State publications
from all sources and farm papers on related topics.
Keep a list of words posted which shall include agricultural terms
used in the reading texts, also words which have been misspelled or
mispronounced. Have spelling exercises, both written and oral, on
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 13
these lists and prepare for a public contest in connection with some
neighborhood event.
Arithmetic.—Problems in corn shrinkage, marketing corn, and the
relative merits of feeding and marketing corn may be made from
figures given in bulletins and textbooks. Select also figures concern-
ing cost of harvesting and marketing apples, potatoes, and other
crops. Compute net profits on club acres. Compute rations and
cost of each for poultry and any other animals which are in home
projects. Consult text and bulletins including Farmers’ Bul. 22.
Continue computations of material and cost of constructing poultry
houses and equipment. Compute cost of feeding club flocks, egg
production per hen and cost per egg or per dozen eggs. Use current
market prices where eggs are used at home. Compute rate of
interest on investment. (See also textbooks on Farm Arithmetic.)
Geography.—Look up climatic factors of different crops; limits in
~ Jatitude, altitude, etc., for different plants. Find where the tender
plants grow native, also the northern limits of the hardy plants.
Find in bulletins and books on, insects the origin of the orchard pests
of the section. On maps and tabular charts indicate the results of the
survey of the poultry of the district. Keep club members’ records
separately. Make a graphic representation to show the relation in
numbers of pure-bred fowls to scrubs by lines with lengths in correct
proportions. Put on map the roads used for market, social, and
civic purposes and indicate parts needing repair.
History—Have pupils find out where the different varieties of
poultry originated and trace their introduction. Numerous poultry
books give this information. Look up stories of fowls in history, as
The Geese that Saved Rome. Inquire into the introduction, of fruits
mto the section and how they have been improved. In like manner
trace the history of methods of marketing the local produce. What
effect have the transportation facilities had on the development of
the county and State? Many texts in geography and history give
this. Find how different European countries have affected American
acriculture by furnishing live stock, plants, methods, and labor.
Trace the history of Thanksgiving celebrations.
Drawing.—Make Thanksgiving sketches and designs. Sketch
typical poultry. Make a series of colored drawings of varieties of
apples. Make working drawings of any equipment needed this
month. Haye members of Good Roads Club make sectional
drawings of good and poor roads in the district. See Farmers’
Buls. 338, 505, and 597. Have pupils make a series of sketches of.
historical modes of transportation for the section, such as ox cart,
prairie schooner, flatboat, not omitting the modern.
Physiology.—The topic of breathing leads to ventilation and
exercise. Correlate the idea of human needs with the plan for making
14 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
poultry pens light, well-ventilated and with ample room for exercise.
The same idea must be applied to stables for dairy cows. How guard
against vermin in the flock? Show how the food demand changes as
winter comes. Suggest ‘succulent winter foods for poultry and
dairy.
Develop the topic of apples and other fruit for human food. Con-
sult Farmers’ Bul. 293, Use of Fruit as Food. Compare eggs and
milk with other animal foods for cost and food value. Demonstrate
the variety in supply of fresh foods on the farm. (See Farmers’ Bul.
635.)
DECEMBER.
Practical and field exercises.—Plan to have pupils visit successful
dairy farms to inspect typical animals and learn of points. Investi-
gate also the management, the feed practice, and marketing.
Begin practice in milk testing at school if possible. Begin practice
in corn judging. Examine soils in school collection and distinguish
by appearance and feeling sand, clay, gravel, and humus.
Make a record of winter birds, when and where seen, what food and
other habits. (See Farmers’ Buls. 54, 456, 497, 506, 609, 621, and
630.) Strive to observe accurately. Use Birds in Their Relation to
Man, by Weed and Dearborn, or similar books.
Language lessons.—Have report of dairy inspection carefully writ-
ten. Require descriptions of an ideal ear of corn or of the best cow
on the home farm. Write with care the plan for selecting a suitable
ration for either the hens or the dairy cow. Write the directions for
testing milk with Babcock tester. Make out with care reports or
records on work done or observations made. Keep these for refer-
ence. Careful figures, plain writing, correct spelling, and clear state-
ments are necessary on all club reports and often win the contest.
Reading and spelling.—Select supplementary readings giving an
appreciation of the freedom, security, and happiness in the country
in winter, such as Snow Bound—Whittier; Our Rural Divinity—
Burroughs; The Winter herd scene in ‘‘Shovelhorns’’—Hawkes;
Wood-craft—Boy Scout’s Manual; and Stories of Luther Burbank’s
work. Memorize The Boys That Rule the World and other poems.
Along the lines of suggested practical exercises read from available
bulletins. Consult poultry bulletins previously mentioned, also
Farmers’ Buls. 413, Care of Milk and Its Use in the Home; 490, Bac-
teria in Milk; 530, Important Poultry Diseases; 602, Production of
Clean Milk. If there is not published in the State a bulletin on the
Babcock test one may be procured from another State or from
manufacturers of testing machines.
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. LS
Pupils should be encouraged to use the scientific terms in many
cases, In which event they should learn to spell them. Use common
terms when accurate, however.
Arithmetic.—Milk records, computing rations, butter-fat computa-
tions, poultry cost and income problems will furnish much of the prac-
tice needed. While judging corn, determine what increase per acre
would result if one more average kernel per row would develop on
each ear. From some of the records of insects and weed seeds eaten
by the winter birds make up problems as to the possible saving to the
farmer. Use also crop statistics in census report or the Yearbook of
the Department of Agriculture, usually to be found in township or
private libraries. Have pupils count the number of average ears in
a bushel of corn raised in the district. Shell and weigh again. Have
problems computed on this basis. Weigh 100 or 1,000 kernels and
estimate number per bushel. Borrow scales or weigh at home.
Geography.—Locate on the township map the industries in the
township and county which may be related to farming, as the grist-
mill, the sawmill, grain elevator, tobacco-sorting shops, broom shops,
tannery, creameries, and cheese factories. Trace also the local and
more distant markets for eggs, butter, milk, cream, fruit, and vege-
tables. How many dealers between the farmer and the consumer.
Look up the range of the birds which are winter residents. Make a
list of important climatic records, such as dates of early snows, high-
est summer temperature, lowest winter record, depth of freezing of
- the ground, etc. Compare with other parts of the State and the
Nation, drawing conclusions as to how the local agriculture is
affected. Make a district survey of dairy cattle, including number on
each farm, breeds, pure bred or scrubs, silos, sanitation, records kept,
testing for butter fat, and feeding methods for each farm. (See Sur-
vey Form in Supplement VII.) Use both map and chart methods.
Keep figures for arithmetic.
History.—Write to a dairy association for information about the
history of dairying for the State, the story of modern scientific dairy-
ing, the Babcock test, the separator and clean milk. Trace the prodi-
gal farming methods of the past and show how these must be modified
in the near future. Find what great Americans have been reared on
the farms. Show how the farmer must have great influence in the
affairs of the Nation, also the necessity of his being well informed and
broadly educated. Find the effect of seed selection and milk testing
in sections which have tried them.
Drawing.—Have careful drawings made of ideal ears and kernels
of corn. Working drawings or sections should be prepared while the
milk tester is being explained and used. Have pupils make a sec-
16 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
tional drawing of the separator in common use in the district show-
ing working parts in place. Sketch the typical dairy cow and enlarge
this to make a chart for class use in studying the points of the dairy
cow. Sketch winter birds and winter scenes on the farm. Make
plans for any constructive work at home. (Fig. 3.)
Physiology.—Apply to the care of hens and cows and other animals
the principles learned in physiology concerning winter exercises,
ventilation, exposure, etc. Show that undue protection renders any
animal less resistant and when ventilation is limited at the same time
colds and germ diseases are more easily contracted. Reasonably low
temperature is to be feared less than poor ventilation. Show the
value of vigorous exercise in the winter sports and work. Compare
the habits formed by boys in doing chores with the training of farm
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animals. Take up now the part of the text on emergencies so far as
they relate to winter conditions.
Manual training.—The practical exercises for this month suggest
all the needed manual training related to agriculture. (See Farmers’
Bul. 638.)
JANUARY.
Practical and field exercises. -work in milk testing and
corn judging until some skill is attained. Those who are to hatch
chickens should now separate with care the breeding fowls and give
them ample room and suitable food. The testing of eggs and care
of the market eggs are important from now on. (See Farmers’ Bul.
562.) Each pupil should decide on what club work or home projects
he is to take up during the coming season.
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 17
If it is advantageous in your district to haul the fertilizer in winter,
take up that matter with each club member. Visit local factories
and warehouses which deal with agricultural material of any sort.
Language lessons.—Stories of winter operations, trips, and pleas-
ures offer much opportunity for oral and written language work.
The snow and ice quicken local industries and provide new sports.
Letters to obtain seed catalogues should be written this month. The
pupils of this group should write about feedmg cows or poultry,
winter birds in the orchard, also reports on trips and observations.
Write for State and Federal publications on the topics related to the
club work of the coming spring.
Reading and_ spelling.—Use supplementary readings which are
seasonal. Selections suggested as samples are Winter Time—Steven-
son; Essay on Roast Pig—Lamb; The Forest Song—Venable; Win-
ter—Lowell; Woodman, Spare That Tree—Morris; The Home Song—
Longfellow.
Also select readings from Farmers’ Buls. 173 and 358, A Primer of
Forestry, in two parts; 363, The Use of Milk as Food; 594, Shipping
Eggs by Parcel Post.
Misspelling, mispronunciation, and misuse of agricultural terms
often arise from the same cause. Teach the spelling, pronunciation,
and proper use of each word used and drill until the pupils acquire
confidence in using them.
Arithmetic.—Use the records from milk testing combined with
records of milk production and compute total yield of butter fat,
money value, and estimated profit. Where feed records are avail-
able, obtain exact profit over cost of feed. Make similar computa-
tions from egg records and poultry feed accounts. Consult census
or Yearbook records for comparison with local productions and also
for further problems. Compute fertilizer needed on club fields and
gardens. Find the volume and capacity in tons of ice houses. Meas-
ure logs, lumber, and woodpiles, and base problems on these figures.
Use Iccal prices and compute value of each. Have each club mem-
ber keep accurate accounts. (See Farmers’ Bul. 572.)
Geography.—Look up the origin and present source of various fer-
tilizer ingredients, and consider which ones might be replaced by
better farm practice. Compare dairy records of the State and various
other States and nations as printed in farm papers. Have maps
made of the home farms, and on them locate the pupils’ own fields
and each of the crops for the coming season as fast as they are de-
cided. Locate by color or shading the different soils. The United
States Department of Agriculture has issued soil surveys of many
counties and some States have issued others. Obtain one for the
county, if possible. Study the lumber industry of the section and
98555°-—Bull. 281—15——3
18 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the State, national forestry work, kinds of native woods, and im-
ported lumber. What part does ice take in modern dairy farming ?
In storing and transporting produce? How does the South get
its ice?
History.—Trace the development of the lumber industry in the
State; the growth of the movement against deforestation and re-
lated conservation movements. The State forester has probably
issued helpful information. Explain why early wasteful methods
were used. Refer to great historical forests. Inquire into the his-
tory of the section regarding fertilizers and concentrated feedstuffs.
What crops are now sold to buy these, and does it pay? Look up in
State and local histories and stories the winter experiences of pioneer
days and find how self-supporting the farm was. What modern
methods are improvements? Are any of them the reverse?
Drawing.—Sketch farm animals which are involved in pupils’
projects? Winter tree forms make good studies and lead to a better
acquaintance with the trees of the district. Arrange these for
future reference. Have some pupils sketch the tools used in some
of the work inspected this month, as lumbering or ice-cutting tools.
Physiology.—Delvelop the following topics: Diseases and emergen-
cies which are more common at this season; tuberculosis as a pre-
ventable disease; milk from tuberculous cows; milk and cream as
absorbents and carriers of disease; prevention of epidemics; the laws
of the State and the local health board rules. See Farmers’ Buls.
363, The Use of Milk as Food; 473, Tuberculosis; 490, Bacteria in
Milk; 602, The Production of Clean Milk.
Manual training.—Make egg testers and corn-testing apparatus
ready for next month. Make models of stables, poultry houses, and
sleeping rooms arranged for proper ventilation. Have girls cook and
serve various apple dishes. Make bird houses. (See Farmers’ Buls.
609 and 621.) ;
FEBRUARY.
Practical and field exercises—Make definite plans for garden and
other projects, taking up details. Order seeds needed in a quantity
sufficient to allow testing. Make tests of corn and other seed at
school, illustrating different methods of testing. (See Farmers’ Buls.
428 and 617.) Have pupils continue this testing at home and ask
them to report on this home testing. Make a study of the seedlings,
referring to textbooks in botany. To obtain very early plants, sow
seeds this month in hotbeds or window boxes. Continue testing eggs
for marketing and ask pupils to practice this at home. It pays.
Visit a creamery or other local establishment where eggs are tested
and shipped. Hold a special public demonstration of the ability of
the class to test milk, judge corn, test seeds for germination, ete.
|
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 19
This is a good time to hold a public spelling contest. Observe the
bird movements which begin soon and keep a bird calendar. (Fig. 4.)
Language lessons.—Supervise the writing and sending of seed orders.
Have the pupils write out their records and reports with care, making
clearness of statement the first aim. Have copies made of some of
the best reports and keep them with the files of agricultural literature.
Have members of the class write invitations to adults requesting them
to attend the contests. Have careful reports made of each new proc-
ess taken up. Write letters to request new bulletins for spring work.
Reading and spelling.—Suggested supplementary readings include
Happy the Man—Pope; The Home Song—Longfellow; The Arab to
His Steed—Caroline Norton; To a Mouse—Burns; Stories of Morrill,
Seaman Knapp, and of other men who have assisted agricultural edu-
cation in the Nation or the State. Read some of the most recent
laws on this subject. Also use in class Farmers’ Buls. 218, The School
Garden; 255, The Home Vegetable Garden; 445, Marketing Eggs
Through the Creamery; 528, Hints to Poultry Raisers. Pay special
Fig. 4.—Germinating devices for garden seeds.
attention to the spelling of words used in the correspondence and
reports sent out. Hold spelling contest and use all the farm words
possible.
_ Arithmetic.—Practice making invoices, checks, receipts, and other
commercial forms involved in farm business. Compute garden areas
and lay out to scale the space for each variety of vegetable. Use
problems based on egg sales, cost of marketing, and net income. Use
the figures obtained in milk testing, compute value of butter fat per
hundredweight of milk and total value of milk if 30 cents per hun-
dredweight is allowed for skimmed milk. Get the milk records of
some of these cows and compute total income. If possible, get feed
records and combine these with the other problems.
Geography.—Add a district survey map covering the practice in seed
testing, also in raising good seed. Have pupils look up the origin of
the various seeds used in the district for garden and field crops.
Should more seed be raised at home? Which of these crops grow wild
in milder climates? Which garden crops would it pay to raise for
near-by markets? Investigate the demand and the supply of these
things which the club members of the class plan to raise. Carry this
investigation to cities as far distant as shipment could be made.
20 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
What unfavorable conditions of soil or climate may prevent the suc-
cess of some club projects ?
History—Have pupils look up (in reference books at home or in
the library) the original home and the historical place of each of the
crops to be raised in club or project work, recording the native land
and the date when each became available for human food. Trace
also the modern improvement. How are new vegetables brought into
use? How many have been domesticated during the last century ?
What vegetables popular elsewhere are never raised here? Why ?
Drawing.—A series of drawings to show the development of the
germinating bean (or other seed) may be carried up to the opening
of the true leaves. Make working drawings and bill for material for
seed testers and seeding flats or shallow boxes. Make plan and pat-
tern for an egg tester, also plans for suitable shipping cases for eggs.
Draw school and home gardens to scale.
Physiology.—Study the State and local laws covering all matters
of sanitation and discover what needs are not covered by legislation.
Water supply, sewage, infectious diseases, clean milk, and other laws
are included. Is the rural section-as well protected by legislation as
the city? What laws are there for the protection of the people from
injury? Compare the different methods of heating homes in the sec-
tion as regards effectiveness of heating and opportunity for ventila-
tion. Criticise the school heating and ventilation. Use manuals
issued by the State department of public instruction, also bulletins
of the board of health.
Manual traaning.—Make seed testers and egg testers. Make win-
dow boxes and seed ‘‘ flats,’ which is the common name for shallow
boxes for starting seeds. Make model of hotbed or cold frames.
MARCH.
Practical and field exercises.—Prepare for incubation. Pupils
should consider local climate, also their own facilities for indoor
brooding before deciding on date for setting. Visit successful poultry
plant to observe incubator practice. (See Farmers’ Buls. 585 and
624.) Have a demonstration of how to preserve eggs. (See Farmers’
Bul. 128.) Cold frames, if not already in use, must be prepared for
seeds. Consult gardener’s planting table. (See Farmers’ Bul. 255,
p. 46.) Start early plants of lettuce, tomatoes, asters, pansies, etc.,
under glass or in shallow boxes to be placed in windows. Haye field
demonstrations of grafting, pruning, and spraying as soon as the work
can be done comfortably. Request the county extension represent-
ative of the State college to assist you in this. Set out fruit trees as
early as the ground can be fitted. (For apple-club members.)
Language lessons.—lave prepared and mailed any necessary letters
concerning club membership, seeds, fertilizers, or tools. Have pupils
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 21
write a full report when they set a hen or start the incubator. Write
and preserve reports of each field trip or demonstration, with full
description of processes. Have either written or oral descriptions of
work planned for the immediate future.
Reading and spelling.—Read some rural life selections like the fol-
lowing: The Homes of the People—Grady; The Plowman—Holmes ;
The Meadow Lark—Hamlin; Bluebird—Aldrich; Tubal Caimn—
Mackay; Out at Old Aunt Mary’s—Riley; The Parable of the
Sower—Bible. Use also bulletins and periodicals on the topics of
current interest. Some Farmers’ Bulletins of seasonal use (besides
those previously referred to) are Nos. 516, The Production of Maple
Sirup and Sugar; 585, Incubation of Hen’s Eggs. Also consult the
list of bulletins for those which concern special garden vegetables.
Arithmetic.—Material for problems will be found in poultry records,
bills for seed, fertilizer and tools, cold-frame construction, orchard
work, and dairy projects. The maple-sugar section has problems
peculiar to that work. Develop the topic of taxation in the section,
the method of assessing and its bearing on farm management. Find
what correction of figures submitted with club projects might be
needed to apply them to farm accounts in view of taxes, interest, and
other fixed charges in the district and to show exact profit.
Geography.—Study the advantages and disadvantages of local
climate in relation to early spring work on the farm. Ona map draw
lines to show the market radius for different local products. Use ink
of another color and indicate sources of local purchases for farm sup-
plies, especially those which might be produced locally. On the State
map locate cooperative associations of farmers as creameries, breeders’
associations, etc. Obtain information as to late spring frosts, safe
dates for planting, transplanting, ete.
HMistory.—Discuss the following topics in class after pupils have used
reference books, local histories, and other texts: (1) Food supply
and progress. The influence of transportation facilities. Such books
as Brigham’s From Trail to Railway Through the Appalachians, are
helpful. (2) Local food supply and markets during early history.
(3) The crops and industries as influencing the attitude of different
States on great national issues. (4) Americans have invented and
developed much machinery for raising and utilizing farm crops.
Why? What machines? There are numerous books on inventions
including such as Forman’s Stories of Useful Inventions. Observe
how man power is giving way to machine power in America faster
than in Europe.
Drawing.—Use such sketching material as seedlings, bursting buds,
a sugar camp, or some utensils. Draw tools used in grafting and
pruning. Make diagrams for cold frame, trap nest, brood nest, or
22 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
incubator. Have pupils draw those things they are about to use in
club work or prepare careful drawings for booklet.
Physiology.—in connection with the plans for gardens and other
projects take up the subject of foods and#the desirability of variety
of vegetable and fruit foods. Show how the action of digestive fer-
ments renders available the starch in a germinating seed just as diges-
tive fluids act in animals. Chapters on ‘‘germination” in botany
explain this.
Start spring sanitary campaign to clean out cellars, dispose of rub-
bish, clean up and drain breeding places for flies and mosquitoes.
See Farmers’ Buls. 444, Remedies and Preventives Against Mos-
quitoes, p. 9; 459, House Flies; 535, Sugar and its Use as Food.
Manual training.—Make brood nests, ‘‘broody”’ coops, transplant-
ing boxes, wooden garden labels. Repair cold frames and other
equipment. Make suitable sample crates for shipping eggs sold by
club members of the class.
APRIL.
Practical and field exercises.—Have suitable trips or demonstrations
to illustrate methods of hatching and early brooding of chickens, also
how to ‘“‘break up” broody hens. Demonstrate transplanting of
tomatoes and other plants started in the coldframes. Have the plow-
ing and harrowing done for the club fields, except for late crops.
Have a garden and crops survey of the district. Keep record of the
returning birds, their habits and food. Plan and begin work on the
improvement of the school grounds. Have pupils prepare bird houses.
Plant out fruit trees, also shade trees around the home or the school-
house. Plan for next fall’s exhibit before crops are planted.
Language lessons.—Continue written reports. Make records of all
processes on the club work and any other projects. Such topics as
the early care of chickens, starting my tomato plants, the birds about
my home, are good topics. A tree-planting exercise gives rise to suit-
able language work. Have pupils write about the needs of the dis-
trict and the possible remedies in view of the studies made. Strive
for good conversational as well as written English.
Reading and spelling.—Select suitable readings, as That Calf—Alice
Carey; The Barefoot Boy—Whittier; South Wind and Sun—Riley;
The Song of the Sower—Bryant; Aprii—H. H. Jackson; In the Heart
of a Seed—Brown; The Bluebird—Emily Miller; Solomon and the
Bees—Saxe.
Farmers’ Buls. 154, The Home Fruit Garden; 195, Annual Flower-
ing Plants; 287, Poultry Management; 537, Growing an Acre of Corn;
585, Incubation; 594, Shipping Eggs by Parcel Post; 597, The Road
Drag and How It is Used; 609, Bird Houses and How to Make Them;
617, School Lessons on Corn; 624, Natural and Artificial Brooding of
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 23
Chickens; State bulletins and current articles should be used. Expect
the most advanced pupils to be able to spell all the words appearmg
in the agricultural reading.
Arithmetic.—Have computations made in reference to the survey
of the district, total areas for each crop, fertilizer used, expected crop
at average yield, etc. Problems may be made based on observation
of the birds and estimate of insect damage prevented by them. Use
statistics for the State for crops in which the class is interested and
arrange problems suited to the advancement of the pupils. Continue
to use poultry, feed, and milk records, and especially the actual expe-
riences on the home farms of the pupils.
Geography.—Have pupils search in newspapers and by personal
inquiry locate the supply of eggs and poultry for the nearest large
market. Determine the market radius of the local surplus. Locate
on the map the chief producing areas and the large markets for tomato
plants, ripe tomatoes, canned tomatoes, and other produce in which
the class is interested. (See the latest Monthly Crop Report.) What
sections market superior produce in these ines? What would be nec-
essary to make the local produce as good? Would it pay to attempt
to compete with the best on the market? Locate on district map
each club member, using colored seals for different clubs.
History.—Develop the history of legislation intended to assist and
encourage agricultural education, beginning with the Morrill Act in
national legislation. (See the Circular on Federal Legislation relat-
ing to these topics, from the Office of Experiment Stations, United
States Department of Agriculture.) Bring this study down to the
present and show how State and Nation attempt to instruct in agri-
culture in schools and colleges and also on the farms. Show all the
forces which are cooperating to help educate the young farmer and to
assist him in other ways. Compare the history of the diminishing
number of birds with that of increased loss from insect pests. Look
up statistics on this topic.
Drawing.—Illustrate methods of transplanting small plants and
fruit trees. Make working drawings of bird houses, garden markers,
and other equipment to be constructed now or soon. Use actual
club-work material.
Physiology.—Start a sanitary survey of the district. Include water
supply, sewage disposal, fly and mosquito control, and other points
in home sanitation. Include also the care of milk and food supply,
the condition of the dairy, tuberculin testing, ete.
Have one lesson on the interrelation of plants and animals as regards
oxygen and carbon dioxid, also in the utilizing of foods. Continue
fly and mosquito topics.
Manual training.—Make bird houses, garden markers, and trans-
planting trays. Repair tools, trellises, and other things at the school.
24 BULLETIN 281, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Set out a tree on Arbor Day and construct a trellis to protect it.
Make broody coop. Members of the Good Roads Club may make a
road drag and begin to use it this month. (See Farmers’ Buls. 597
and 638.)
MAY AND JUNE.
Practical and field exercises.—In apple-blossom time visit orchards
to observe spraying for the codling moth. Complete planting and
transplanting of all club crops and school gardens. Have practical
demonstrations of methods of cultivating crops and of insect control.
Arrange these with practical farmers. Continue the observation of
birds in their relation to farm crops. Have demonstration of early
feeding and summer care of chicks.
Language lessons.—Have pupils write reports on the planting and
other early work on their projects. Write out also the reports on
field trips and observations. Write a statement of things to be done
during the summer, especially those processes which are new to the
pupil. Have oral discussion of similar topics.
Reading and spelling.—Selections from good literature concerning
rural life in summer are numerous. Only a few are here mentioned:
The Farmer’s Creed—Mann; The Pea Blossom—<Anderson; A Song
of Clover—Saxe Holm; Song of the Oriole—Howells; Blessing the
Cornfield—Longfellow (Hiawatha); The Birds of Killingworth—
Longfellow; A Day in June—Lowell.
Read also from suitable bulletins such as the following: Farmers’
Buls. 113, The Apple and How to Grow It; 414, Corn Cultivation;
459, House Flies; 492, Insect Enemies of the Apple; 537, How to Grow
an Acre of Corn.
The spelling lists for this season should cover the topics for summer
work. The more advanced pupils should now spell correctly all ordi-
nary agricultural terms.
Arithmetic.—Take up problems of plowing, harrowing, and planting.
Find the cost of the crop up to this time including rent of land, ferti-
lizer, seed, and labor. Numerous problems will arise in connection
with the school and home gardens. The new flock of chickens will
provide other problems. Make sure that each club member is keep-
ing accurate accounts on each project and that each account is copied
neatly for the report and booklet. In the apple club make accounts
of the labor and material involved in pruning, spraying, cultivating,
etc.
Geography.—Kefer to bulletins and texts to find the origin of each
of the common insect pests. How did they reach us? Notice how
few appear to be native. Read in texts like Sanderson’s Insect Pests
of Farm, Orchard, and Garden. Do the same thing with weeds.
Collect pictures of farm operations in foreign lands. Look up the
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 25
location of canning factories for fruits and vegetables as sold in the
local market. Locate these places on the map and consider the pos-
sibility of supplying the local market through the work of club mem-
bers. Can these crops be raised and canned at a cost which will meet
the competition of the factories? How about quality ?
History.—Develop the history of methods of plowing, cultivating,
and harvesting; the improvement of hand tools, followed by the sub-
stitution of machines. Refer to books on inventions and those on the
industries. Show how much this development has meant to the
country and how it has modified not only the method of work but
also the distribution of crop acreage and the types of farming used.
The story of the domestication of animals is a topic of interest. Day-
enport’s Domesticated Animals and Plants will help.
Drawing.—Sketch apple blossoms in different stages, indicating at
what stage to spray effectively. Sketch a codling moth. Draw parts
of improved machinery and apparatus used. Complete the details
in maps of gardens or farms as now being cultivated.
Physiology.—Take up the first aid in summer emergencies on the
farm. Toach how to deal with ivy poison and other similar troubles
the pupils may encounter. Use Farmers’ Buls. 375, 459, and 540.
Make a study of stable practice to control flies. Study the sum-
mer care of foods to prevent contamination and bacterial growth.
(See Brewer’s Rural Hygiene.)
Manual training—Most of the manual work at this season should
be done on the fields and gardens. If time permits it would also be
well to make a fireless cooker and demonstrate its use. The girls
should also have enough practice in the technique of canning to make
sure they can do that part of the summer club work successfully.
Complete all booklets as far as the progress of the club work will per-
mit. Those which are complete may be bound with ribbon, cord, or
metal fasteners.
CORRELATION SUPPLEMENTS.
I. THE SCHOOL EXHIBIT.
School exhibits or fairs of various kinds prove an incentive to
pupils and compel the attention of the patrons of the school. The
exhibit may not be an index of the quality of the school work, but
an occasional exhibit of merit wins the recognition of the public and
consequently at least a temporary interest in the work of the school.
Of the possible exhibits related to agriculture the following may be
mentioned:
(a) The school-garden fair. Produce of the school garden is suitably arranged for
inspection and perhaps in competition. (6) Vegetables and flowers raised by pupils
at home entered for school competition only. This may be at any convenient date.
(c) A preliminary exhibit of pupils’ produce when a part at least is to be exhibited in a
26 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
county or other fair. This exhibit must necessarily be held early and extreme care
must be used not to damage the specimens. (d) An exhibit where the pupils select
the best they can find on the home farm and exhibit for the sake of illustrating the best.
This is of value in communities where there is no regular agricultural fair. (e) Con-
tests involving skill and judgment, such as corn judging, corn racking, etc. See Circ.
104 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture,
Special Contests for Corn-club Work. (Fig. 5.)
In each exhibit or contest it is essential to have competent and impartial judges.
The use of prizes should be judicious. Prizes of an agricultural nature are better than
money, and in most cases ribbons or badges will serve as well. The cooking, canning,
and sewing exhibits of the girls should be held at the same time, unless there is good
reason for holding a separate exhibit. Have a poultry show in the early winter.
The exhibit and contest may be used to raise funds for some school improvement,
and an auction sale of exhibits may be favored. In any case these events should make
Fic. 5.—Pupils may make exhibit stands for a rural school.
the school a real community center. The initiative and artistic taste of the pupils
may be used in such a way as to minimize the work for the teacher.
The local or county superintendent of schools and the county extension representa- _
tive of the college of agriculture usually stand ready to assist a teacher in all such mat-
ters. This cooperation will also give sanction to the affair and modify the attitude of
some parents.
Il. SEED SELECTING.
Corn taken as a sample will illustrate method for other plants. Plants that are
nearly ideal in form, size, and vigor which yield abundantly are liable to produce
seeds which will reproduce these qualities. Selection of seeds from such plants in the
field will, if persisted in for several years, improve the quality of the variety. Those
qualities most desired may be increased by this means, while careless seed selection
may have the opposite result. Crops are often doubled merely by careful selecting,
curing, and testing of seeds.
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES, Pull
(a) Select and mark before maturity more plants than is thought necessary. (b)
Select from early maturing plants more seed than is needed. (c) Cure thoroughly,
store safely in a dry place. (d) Test before planting season and discard ears or
plants having low percentage germination. Refer to the instructions forwarded from
United States Department of Agriculture through club leader in the State, also Farm-
ers’ Buls. 537, How to Grow an Acre of Corn, and 617, School Lessons on Corn.
I. SEED CURING AND STORING.
The importance of this is not generally appreciated in the North. In New England
and northern New York to North Dakota not.only do killing frosts come early in
September in some years, but a freeze heavy enough to destroy the vitality of poorly
dried seed is almost sure to come early in October. Seed corn at harvest time con-
tains from 20 to 50 per cent water, and in case of freezing this water expands and
destroys germination cells. The same water might, under other conditions, favor the
heating or molding of the seed. For these and other reasons early selection and
Fia. 6.—Sand tray for testing seed corn.
careful curing are very advisable.! (See Farmers’ Bul. 537 and Bureau of Plant
Industry Cire. 104.)
In storing remember (a) to keep seeds safe from mice and insects; (b) to keep dry,
lest moisture absorbed cause premature sprouting or molding; and (c) to keep from
excessive cold, as the moisture is never entirely dried out the first season.
Have drying and storing contrivances shown and their use demonstrated at school.
Refer to Farmers’ Buls. 229, 253, 313, 537, and 617.
IV. SEED TESTING.
In nearly all texts, manuals, and bulletins dealing with seeds the methods of testing
seeds are explained and illustrated. This should come in late winter or early spring.
Make it clear to pupils that two ears of corn may look equally good, and while one
proves perfect in germinating power the other may show but a small percentage.
Illustrate also the waste from low vitality in seeds which germinate but start too
slowly. (Fig. 6.)
Illustrate different methods in school and use the sprouted seeds for related nature
study. Continue some seedlings for further observation of cotyledons, leaves, etc.
1 Jn 1914 a frost occurred as far south as Maryland, on September 14, which was severe enough in some
places to damage. immature seeds. Hence the same practice is advisable throughout the whole section
and is imperative with late varieties.
28 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Use corn, grain, and garden seeds. Rectangular box tester has its advantages, while
the cloth roll is easily carried. Illustrate both. Detect weed seeds in small seeds.
References—Bureau of Plant Industry Doc. 803 and Circ. 104; Farmers’ Bul. 428.
VY. PERMANENT EXHIBITS.
The limit to the extent of these exhibits lies in the space and protection possible.
Insects, dust, mice, and careless children should be provided against at the outset
lest discouragements follow. See Farmers’ Buls. 586, plant-material exhibits; 606,
insects, rocks, soils, etc.; 617, School Lessons on Corn.
Charts may be made of surveys of the district covering club interests, animals, crops,
birds, etc. Charts in the form of maps of the district make graphic exhibits of local
conditions. Colored seals may be used as indicators.
Pictures of famous or ideal animals, of typical plants and fruit, of model structures
and equipment may be procured from periodicals. If they are mounted and filed
away from the dust and sunlight, they will prove valuable in teaching.
VI. GARDEN PLANS.
The home or the school garden needs careful planning during the latter part of the
winter. The success of the garden as well as its attractiveness may be insured by
careful planning at an early date. What to plant must be first decided and then a
chart arranged to scale having in mind area, sunlight, buildings, varieties, successions,
and the possibility of horse cultivation. Beauty is possible even in the vegetable
garden.
Tn the school garden make individual plats run so that summer cultivation may
run through the whole area. If any demonstration is attempted, get the cooperation
of some farmers. (See Farmers’ Buls. 154, 220, 254, and 255.)
Vil. A DISTRICT SURVEY.
A district survey may be similar to a census, but the aim should be to learn more
about the community and to obtain interesting material for school work. Eventually
the district will profit by these surveys. Take up but few points for one inyestiga-
tion, ask the pupils to cover definite portions of the district faithfully, and after the
data are collected tabulate and compute interesting results. Whenever this material
can well be shown on the map make such a survey map of the district to file with the
tabulated chart. Where any valuable conclusions can be drawn allow them to be
made public unless ill feeling may be caused. Keep charts covering the club work
constantly up to date. These charts will vary much in character in different localities,
but the samples here given will illustrate the idea. Along some lines a township,
county, or State survey chart may be of value. Obtain heavy paper for survey,
similar to manila paper used to wrap tobacco or heavy merchandise. The size should
be 18 by 24 inches or larger. Make maps of district this size also for survey work.
Sample survey forms are here given.
DISTRICT CORN SURVEY FOR SEPTEMBER.
Year. eee eae.
(Other crop surveys may be made with modifications of this form.)
DAStIG TE en he Po te eee ES Teacher: ... 8). 4/4 eee
SE OW AISLAITS ee soe ke RITES TE Pupils’ survey committee. ........-.--
County and States 22 see SS Eee EE. Soe Cer ee eee
No | farmer, | Location.) “pm” | “com. | Yield. | “Soret | Variety. | “Stiare. | lection:
|
|
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 29
DAIRY COW SURVEY OF DISTRICT.
Datei ce rcs
(Other animal surveys may be made with modifications of this form.)
IDCs so babe socncsogas Gun SCee nee ANSBYO) GTS cos SOR Cet OEE See ee
WTONMISINTD 6 SOBs A eee Been Sees ae Pupils’ survey committee. ........-.-.
(COW, QC SED ae Scone Fee See © coo a oo SOS e Ea ee SEE ee es aaa arta
Num- Average .
Loca- Pure or | Average - 4 | Disposal} Test | Balanced
No Farmer. tion pero Breed. grade. value. preert of milk. | milk. | rations.
Lecspoadélbootoe ceed eeteecetsd ae ee ae rinan (AMMAMEmE |. J || a ee eR Te a Ie
Be onenace|ossuocca cele Ceee te Cee ane] ee een mame > 7 2 teaser ee Steel LA | (ARC
B ccovacdlécaen oc Sel SECrOSEe BOSE EEae NEeE eee MMeMPINMEe | cS cicero SO ee Shel agua Sees bese aia) ae lee
WikOsececlsquss odode Nes See sa| AeCOOCee CAA ReEe BeeReMnE ss So occoatc 4 Sse Coseees GoCRMSSese | SSesorre Same ree mer
A DISTRICT ORCHARD SURVEY.
Da tema tis | oa re
IDI 4.6 Gadde Se COSee sae e eee eee ANSRVG NE SERIE aR ee © Oe Serna fae
TOMEI <A eee Pupils’ survey committee...-........-
COUMINY. o.oo oS Sea oA Oe eee | cece aeu se Le Ser Bee enon ae ae eee
F Area of pee Age of | Condi-| Last Pric Value | Actual) Spray- | Labor, | Net in-.
armer. | orchard. ee trees. | tion. crop. ean crop.| sales. ing. etc. come.
Vill. THE BOOKLET.
Each contest or project in the club work calls for a booklet which shall include a
description of every phase of the work, a plan of the field or diagrams of equipment,
drawings which illustrate material, process or products, and everything of interest
relating to the project.
The paper should preferably be suited to ink and drawings may be inserted on
drawing paper. The size of the sheet should not be so small as to cramp the writing
and drawings. The covers may be of bristol board or other types of board used for
mounts. If the surface is reasonably smooth cover drawings may be made directly
on it; in other cases a drawing or photograph may be mounted as a part of the cover
design. These drawings often furnish the best type of work for the drawing class, and
the work of mounting pictures, binding with ribbon, cord, or metal fasteners gives
- opportunity to develop artistic taste. The booklet may be easily correlated with
language, arithmetic, geography, and history.
The literature furnished by the State leader of club work or county superintendent
may suggest various booklets.
Ix. THE SCHOOL LIBRARY.
At little or no expense much valuable agricultural literature may be added to the
school library.
From the United States Government:
1. The list of available Farmers’ Bulletins will be sent as often as issued to the
school address. Apply to the Editor and Chief, Division of Publications, United
States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. He will also send regularly
iP
30 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the Monthly List of Publications if requested. This gives information as to new pub-
lications.
2. So long as the supply lasts, Farmers’ Bulletins may be had free from any Con-
gressman or from the United States Department of Agriculture direct.
3. The Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington,
D. ©., will furnish free the price lists for Government publications on various topics,
including agriculture. Many of these are sold at a purely nominal price, but it rarely
ever pays to purchase those of a technical nature.
The State agricultural college and experiment station should furnish you free—
4, A list of available publications.
5. Copies of popular and extension bulletins dealing with subjects of local and State
interest.
6. The State club leader or county superintendent should furnish copies of printed
and multigraphed information sent out through the extension service of the college of
agriculture.
7. Cattle registry associations publish bulletins or booklets on particular breeds,
Manufacturers of farm machinery and fertilizer companies often issue valuable booklets,
and these are usually free on request.
8. Farm papers and magazines often give special inducements to schools. In
other cases these may be brought from homes after they have been read there.
9. The teacher should seek competent advice before purchasing books, as the
limited funds should be made to cover the most valuable books first.
10. Filing boxes for bulletins may be made by remodeling pasteboard boxes and
reinforcing the corners and backs. Arrange either by subjects or numerically in sets,
using an index. Arrange photographs or other illustrations in a similar way.
Have the pupils individually write requests for such material as is needed in dupli-
cate for class use. For library purposes use the name of the school or office rather
than a person’s name for the mailing list.
X. AVERAGE FOOD COMPOSITION OF SOME CLUB PRODUCE.1
Digestible nutrients.
Total
indi- oe Buel |) Nutri
Kind of food materials. Refuse.; Water. | gestible : NEUE) tive
Aes Pro- Fat ay Ash Soul ratio.
trients.| tein. acates
Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. |Calories.| 1:
Poultrystowlseeses sass ee 25.9 47.1 a?) ley AL cit [etree 0.5 765 2
Eggs, uncooked--.--..----5.- 11.2 65. 5 11 12.7 85,83 |S Se ai 635 1.7
Wihtoletmillcshsys os co ee MS ||s 0 se ee 87.0 15 3.2 3.8 5.0 15 310 4.3
IBUGbOGet sane te eeicte etek cies le ctometiee 11.0 4.9 1.0 80585 2uoeaee PEG) 3) 410 seeeeee =
Cormnsmeall 34s eee 2-8 -teecises|Sene eres 12.5 3.3 7.8 1.7 73.9 8 1,640 10.0
White wheat bread... -..-2.2)-...-.'.- 35.3 2.9 7.8 1.2 52.0 -8 | 1,200 7.0
Beans ~wihite dried: 2-2. elke cia. 12.6 7.9 17.5 1.6 57.8 2.6] 1,520 3.5
RO LATOCS eee mae cere ene eae 20.0 62.6 Vs? 1.5 ou 14.0 6 295 9.5
MoOMaAlOesse eee nscale sesame ese 94.3 als otf .4 Sond 4 95 6.6
PAO LOS eretasreieicimticte) talcte este <Teks 25. 0 63.3 1.2 -3 3 9.7 v2 190 34.7
ie Based upon Farmers’ Bul. 142. Consult also Farmers’ Buls. 22, 121, 182, 183, 249, 293, 295, 359, 363,
3, 535, 565.
XI. SPELLING SUPPLEMENT.
A county superintendent found that none of the textbooks in spelling used in his
county contained any of the following list of words used in the rural school agriculture.
Each teacher should compile his own list.
Elementary agriculture: Rootstock, fertilizer, nitrogen, tillage, fungous, fungicide,
insect, ration, scion, osmosis, bacteria, silage, environment, grasshopper, onion, para-
site, vegetable, tubercles, propagation, codling moth, weevil, alfalfa, legumes, bien-
nials, pollination, hybrids, cankerworm, girdler, irrigation, horticulture, stigma,
pigweed, perennials, Bordeaux, shredder, bulletin, Clydesdale, Guernsey, aphis,
formalin, maize, nutritious, experiment, Aberdeen, bacillus, bindweed, dandelion,
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. ol
cockroach, burdock, laurel, sumac, hackney, Wyandotte, gallfly, cocklebur, ladybird,
purslane, Percheron, Galloway, Plymouth Rock.
Home economics: Materials, basting, napery, overseaming, percales, muslin,
stitching, overcasting, embroidery, dimities, cashmere, taffeta, digestible, table-
spoonful, recipes, serviceable, fabrics, cupfuls, croquettes, proteids, albumin, gela-
tinous, pasteurize, utensils, preservative, ingredients, chocolate, sterilize, putre-
faction, cinnamon, chemistry, economy, rhubarb, carbohydrates, ginghams, beverages,
coagulation, braising, nitrogenous, cheviot.
XII. ADDRESS LIST OF STATE INSTITUTIONS AND OFFICERS IN CHARGE OF AGRICUL-
TURAL EXTENSION WORK UNDER THE SMITH-LEVER ACT.
Northern and Western States, 1915.
Institution. , Officer.
Colrofestor Unive on Ariz. Ducson, Ariz. ..5-..-..---S5aes see S. F.AMforse, Supt. of Ext.
Colfoi-AensUniv-ofCal:. Berkeley, Cal..->.......... 2235253 Warren T. Clarke, Prof. Agr. Ext.
State Agr. College onColo: sHontiCollins, Colo. 3... .. 2288S eee C. A. Lory, Act. Dir. Ext. Serv.
Connecticut Agr. College, Storrs, Conn...................-------- H.J. Baker, Dir. Ext. Serv.
DelawareiCollege Newark, Del j.2:-2:2--is2-.------.- -epeeeeeeee H. Hayward, Dir. Ext. Serv.
Col. of Agr. Univ..of Idaho, Boise, Idaho........-....242.---.--- O. D. Center, Dir. Ext. Work.
Colores Umiv onl Urbana yllys: os) 2c_. -... eee W. F. Handschin, V. Dir. Agr. Ext.
Purdue Umiversity,ba Hayette, Ind..........--.-.--paeeseee ace G.I. Christie, Supt. Agr. Ext.
fowarstsueCollesesAmes, Towas-.) 222-22. .\.5.---/ 12 eee eee ee R. K. Bliss, Dir. Ext.
Kansas State Agr. Col., Manhattan, IKians ...502 .s 2 eee J. H. Miller, Dean Div. Col. Ext.
Col. of Agr., Univ. of Maine, Orono, Me............-..----- aS cae L.S. Merrill, Dir. Agr. Ext.
Massachusetts Agr. College, Amherst, Mass.........-..--..-...-- W.D. Hurd, Dir. of Ext. Serv.
Michigan Agr. College, Hast Lansing, Mich..............---.---- R. J. Baldwin, Supt. of Ext.
Col. of Agr., Univ. of Minn., Univ. Farm, St. Paul, Minn.....-.- A.D. Wilson, Dir. Ext. and F. 1.
Col. of Agr., Univ. of Missouri, Columbia, Mo.............-..-..- A.J. Meyer, Sec’y of Agr. Ext.
Montana State College, Bozeman, Mont.........:.--.-.--.-.----- F.S. Cooley, Dir. Ext. Serv.
ColkoteAers UimivofNebr-, Lincoln, Nebr... -...-.--csseeeeee=s C. W. Pugsley, Dir. Agr. Ext. Serv.
Col..of Agr., Univ. of Nevada, Reno, Nev......-.-.-------s----:- C.S. Knight, Dir. Agr. Ext.
Neve ColmoteAsand = MetArts “Durham. NH o..2...-- seen eee J.C. Kendall, Dir. Ext. Work.
Rutgers Scientific School, New Brunswick, N. J........---.----- Alva Agee, Dir. Div. of Ext.
N. Mex. Col. of A.and M. Arts, State College, N. Mex........... A.C. Cooley, Dir. Ext. Work.
INERYestateCollereortAor, Tthaca SNijvY.25... 5. |) peers B. T. Galloway, Dir. Div. Ext.
N. Dak. Agr. College, Agricultural College, N. Dak......-.-...-- T. P. Cooper, Dir. Ext. Work.
Col. of Agr., Ohio State Univ., Columbus, Ohio -....-........-.- H.C. Price, Dir. Agr. Ext. Work.
Oregon State Agr. College, Corvallis, Oreg....--..---------.------ R. D. Hetzel, Dir. Ext. Work.
Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa............-..--.-- M.S. McDowell, Dir. Agr. Ext. Work.
Rhode Island State College, Kingston, R.J.......--------------- A. E. Stene, Dir. Ext. Serv.
S. Dak. State College, Brookings, S. Dak........--.------.---..- E.C. Perisho, Act. Dir. Ext.
Nor CollescormUitahs| Wogan. Witahe. 22-2... ..- 2. 7a E.G. Peterson, Dir. Agr. Ext. Div.
Col..of Agr., Univ. of Vermont, Burlington, Vt..-.--.-.--..-.-.- ‘Thos. Bradlee, Dir. Ext. Serv.
State College of Washington, Pullman, Wash.-.-..---.---.-....--- J. A. Tormey, Dir. Ext. Div.
ColfoimAer sy Umiv.ofawas:, Madison} Was: =... :-.-2seeee-eese a K. L. Hatch, Asst. Dir. Agr. Ext.
ColsofeNon Univ. of Wiy0.,sluaramie; Wiy0.......~--/- -seeeeeees = A. E. Bowman, Dir. Ext. Work.
XI. SUGGESTIVE PROBLEMS IN ARITHMETIC.
The teacher should adapt the problems to the advancement and current topics in
arithmetic for the ciass in question. On the other hand, the numbers to be used as
well as the subject matter may be found in the projects of the pupils or in the reference
readings on these projects.
New textbooks are constantly appearing which contain agricultural problems,
and among those now in print are Burkett and Swartzel’s Farm Arithmetic, Calfee’s
Rural Arithmetic, and Nolan’s One Hundred Lessons in Agriculture.
SEPTEMBER.
1. Have the pupils prepare a few poles or other measures a rod long and mark off
yards and feet on each. Measure the school garden and the school yard and compute
the area of each.
2. Use these poles or lines to measure the fields of club members, computing the
area of each.
3. On a field of corn used for seed selection, measure off two average yield areas
exactly a rod square. Count the stalks on these areas and compute the stand per
acre. Also count ears of corn.
Se
ae BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
4, On a plat of tomatoes (one-tenth of an acre) the rental was $2, labor $4.50, staking
and pruning $2, fertilizer $2.50, harvesting $2. One hundred dozen cans at 36 cents
a dozen were used. The canner cost $5 and the cost of labor for canning was $10.
The output of 1,200 cans sold at 8 cents a can. Find cost of production, total cost in
cans, profit, percentage of profit based on investment, and profit per can.
5. A round silo has an inside diameter of 14 feet and is filled to the height of 32
feet. Find volume in cubic feet and weight of silage in tons if each cubic foot weighs
38 pounds. How many days’ feed will it hold at 35 pounds a day for each cow, and
how many cows will it feed for 180 days?
OCTOBER.
1. The floor plan of a club member’s poultry house measures 20 feet long by 14
feet wide. Deduct 112 square feet for equipment and find the floor space per hen
for a flock of 32.
2. This same house has a shed roof and stands 8 feet high in front and 5 feet at the
rear. Compute the area of each side and end, also of the roof, allowing an extension
of 1 foot on front and back over the walls. Compute boards for sides, roof, and floor,
add one-half to cover the frame timber, and then make out a bill at the local prices.
3. Similar problems may be arranged concerning a hog house whenever pig-club
members are in the class. 5
4. Ona club acre 6,125 pounds of ear corn is harvested which has 18 per cent to be
deducted. Compute bushels of ear corn, 70 pounds a bushel. When shelled each
bushel weighs 56 pounds, what percentage of the ear corn is cob? Find value of this
yield at 68 cents a bushel.
5. Farmers’ Bul. 409, page 11, states that when $10 worth of corn is sold off the
farm $3.78 worth of fertilizer is sold, but in selling $10 worth of beef cattle only $1.18
worth of fertilizer is sold. Compute the saving by turning the corn crop of problem
4 into beef, allowing for no other change of values.
6. In one feeding experiment it took 6 pounds of corn to produce 1 pound gain of
pork. At the present market prices would this pay? What percentage of gain or
loss if the corn were bought?
NOVEMBER.
1. A pen of 25 hens costing 55 cents each lay an average of 117 eggs a year, valued at
19 cents a dozen. Care and feed costs 21 cents per month each hen. Find net profit
for the flock, allowing 50 cents for meat value of each hen at the end of the year.
2. By substituting pure-bred hens at $1 each and increasing the feed cost 6 cents each
per month, 186 eggs per hen were obtained, averaging 28 cents a dozen. Find the
total gain and the percentage profit on added investment over problem 1.
3. A pupil sets an orchard of apple trees on a square acre, trees to be set 2 rods apart
each way and none to be nearer than 1 rod to either boundary. Find cost if trees sell
at $22 a hundred and labor is 9 cents a tree.
4. An older orchard of the same area is sprayed with lime-sulphur in November for
San José scale at a cost of 28 cents a tree. The apparent gain next fall is an increase
of 45 bushels of marketable fruit at $4.50 a barrel. Find net gain due to spraying.
5. A mixture of 200 pounds of cracked corn, 360 pounds of wheat, 130 pounds of oats,
is fed to a flock of 35 hens at the rate of 4 poundsa day. At local prices compute cost
per hen per day for this scratch feed.
DECEMBER.
1. While judging corn count the kernels on each row of the best ear found. If by
improvement one kernel could be added to each row, what percentage of increase
would this give?
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 83
2. If but 80 per cent of the seed of this best ear would germinate, what loss would
result, supposing each kernel should yield an ear and 85 ears to make a bushel, corn
selling at 72 cents a bushel?
3. What loss at this rate on an acre which would have produced 95 bushels from
good seed?
4. A cow produced in one year 8,465 pounds of milk containing 421 pounds of butter
fat. Find the percentage of butter fat.
5. In the stomach of one woodpecker 28 white grubs were found. If the bird had
continued to eat this number each day for the month of October, compute the value
of the bird in a potato field, assuming that each grub would have ruined one 4-ounce
potato. Call potatoes 50 cents a bushel.
6. A quail in December was known to consume for one day over 2,000 May weed
seeds. Estimate that each 10 weed seeds might have cost one ear of corn the next
year and that 85 ears make a bushel. Compute the loss prevented by 10 quails at this
rate during the entire month of December.
JANUARY.
1. A club member reports the average daily milk production of his father’s cows as
11, 13, 17, 20, 26, and 30 pounds. What is the total for each cow for 300 days? At $2.10
per hundredweight compare the best cow with the poorest.
2. The milk for the same cows as tested for butter fat by the boy shows 4.9, 4.1, 5.1,
3.8, 3.4, and 3.6 per cent, respectively. Find total butter fat for each cow and value
at an average of 27 cents a pound for the year.
3. Because of these tests, cows Nos. 1, 2, and 4 are sold and new cows bought pro-
ducing 24, 29, and 344 pounds of milk, testing 5.2, 4.7, and 3.5 per cent butter fat,
respectively. Find apparent yearly gain due to this exchange, butter fat being worth
27 cents a pound.
4. By using more care in feeding the same herd a ration costing but two cents a day
more per cow results in an average increase of 4 pounds of milk a day. What profit
results during a year?
5. During a State test for one year the Holsteins averaged 14,688.8 pounds testing
3.42 per cent, the Guernseys 8,465.4 pounds testing 4.98, and the Jerseys 7,046.7 pounds
testing 5.16. Find annual value for each breed of market milk at $1.40 per hundred-
weight, also of butter fat at_25 cents a pound.
6. At what price per hundredweight must milk testing 4.9 per cent be sold to equal
27 cents for butter fat, allowing 30 cents per hundredweight for skim milk?
FEBRUARY.
1. Find the percentage of loss occasioned by putting one poor egg in a 5-dozen case
and having them rated as seconds at 29 cents instead of firsts at 35 cents a dozen.
2. By testing a 30-dozen case of eggs and discarding six eggs a boy received 5 cents
a dozen more on what remained. This was a 20 per cent gain on those sold. Find
total receipts.
3. About 15,000,000 bushels of seed corn are used in this country, of which 86.3 per
cent is good. How many bushels should be rejected for better?
4, It has been estimated that the rejection of the poor seed would have increased
the average yield 298,140,695 bushels, or 13.7 per cent. Find the average yield.
5. A girl is to raise one-eighth of an acre of tomatoes and will use a part of a field
which is 15 feet wide. How long a strip will she use? How many plants can she set 3
feet apart each way?
6. Refer to Farmers’ Bul. 22 and compute from the local feeds available a good
ration for a 1,000-pound cow producing 22 pounds of milk. At the current prices
_ compute the cost of this ration.
34 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
MARCH,
1. A farm of 125 acres is valued at $16,000 in a township where taxes are $1.50 on
$100 and interest on good security is 5 per cent. What minimum rent on a club acre
would be necessary to cover interest and taxes?
2. Compute the number of hills in an acre of corn planted according to club direc-
tions. If there are 1,400 kernels of corn in a pound, how many pounds will be needed
to plant the club acre, if it is tested well?
3. An average of twoand one-half hoursa tree, at 25 cents an hour, is spent in pruning
37 trees. How many more apples at $3.50 a barrel will be needed to pay for this work?
4, If it costs 9 cents extra per dozen to trap-nest eggs for setting, what percentage of
extra profit is there in selling setting eggs at $2 per 15 eggs instead of at 30 cents a
dozen for market?
5. Make out a bill of lumber for a cold frame to be covered by two 3-foot by 6-foot
sash, the walls to be boarded 24 feet on the north side and 2 feet on the south. Add
20 per cent for waste; bill lumber at $30 per M, and allow 12 cents for nails and $1.90
each for sash. Receipt the bill properly.
6. How many tomato plants may be started in the cold frame in problem 5, allowing
24 inches each way for each plant?
APRIL,
1. A club member pays $7.20 for seed potatoes for his half-acre, $18 for fertilizer, 54
cents for plowing, $2.16 for planting, $1.44 for cultivating, $5.76 for spraying, $3.60
for harvesting and sacking. The yield is 91 bushels. It cost 7 cents a bushel to get
them to market and the commission man returned to him 59 cents a bushel. Find
the net profit. :
2. How much would this boy have gained by selling direct to the retailer and
dividing the middleman’s profit? The retailer paid $1.25 a bushel.
3. Compare results on a half acre for early potatoes yielding 120 bushels an acre to
sell at 31.30 as compared with late potatoes producing 185 bushels and selling at 55
cents. Are there other advantages in either plan?
4, A fertilizer formula, as 2: 8 : 2 indicates the percentages of the entire weight avail-
able for plant use as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash, respectively. Find how many
pounds of each in | ton (2,000 pounds) of fertilizer with the above formula.
5. When nitrogen is worth 15 cents a pound, phosphorus 4 cents, and potash 7 cents,
find the fertilizing value of 1 ton of 2:8: 4.
6. Much of the nitrogen can be provided by crops like clover and alfalfa. What
is the money saving per ton on each per cent of nitrogen thus saved? What gain when
2 per cent extra nitrogen on | ton fertilizer increases the yield of timothy hay one-half
ton? Use local prices. (Use Farmers’ Bul. 44.)
: MAY AND JUNE.
1. Arsenate of lead costing 17 cents a pound is suspended in water, about 5 pounds
in 50 gallons of water. If a 50-gallon tank full will spray 9 trees at a cost of 40 cents
for labor, how much will it cost to spray three times an orchard of 25 trees?
2. Bordeaux mixture consisting of 6 pounds of copper sulphate at 8 cents a pound
and 4 pounds of lime at 1 cent a pound in each 50 gallons of water is used to spray
potatoes three times. If it takes 30 gallons for once over the field and the labor is 75
cents each time, find the cost of spraying.
3. The crop in the field in problem 2 was increased 63 bushels apparently because
of spraying. What was net gain if potatoes sell at 55 cents a bushel?
4, One ton of clover contains 40.16 pounds of nitrogen, 11.2 pounds of phosphorus,
and 36.6 pounds of potash, Find the fertilizing value of one-half ton plowed down
onanacre. Use process given before.
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES.
35
5. A field drained at a cost of $150 gives an increased yield of 4 tons of hay, valued
at $16.50 a ton, the first year.
XIV. SCORE CARDS TO ASSIST TEACHERS.
How many years at this rate will be needed to pay back
the investment, paying 6 per cent interest at the same time?
Many of the State colleges of agriculture through their extension service furnish to
teachers a limited supply of score cards.
the blanks adapted to their States.
In such cases the teachers should procure
The following scores were selected from those
used in the Northern and Western States, and so far as possible the most common type
was chosen.
In case of diversity the card chosen was the most teachable form found.
The teachers should use these more for standards of excellence in club work, but a
limited number of judging exercises may be held on the crops or animals of local
importance.
SCORE CARD FOR POTATOES.
WEI? MAING 3 3 Sau Ge ls eee nS = oe ls See 13p.d oul gi HUNCH oe
Points. Perfect. | Scorer’s. |Correeted.
lWinnfonmityxotexiibitecr se. ac2-'--.2 2-502 -<- 2+. <)< < -- REE Oreo eon: 205 ets be See ua oe cee
eT TIESSRUORUY DOR me setae nie essen ae cca alone = =n «2.2 ROE eee neon LOW aSae ene (ee eiertats
MO ADOIO MUU Clears iets fag Ge cts ee nice ayn iSse.e a: [a n= «i-. <1 SOE 133 Bac obosad | oeweacecae
SIZETOMUUMDED ANCOLS OUNCES Sessa e ewes ec ce. 5-5 eee eee eee ene Eh eagigecance| EaSeesamee
EHYeSMasTateChIMPADATIN Gee) art = <ce-jaeia- ~~ ie + ~ - owe Pee De Eee ee ai By Se ee soe sre mete
kines @ olonsbnicknessy toughness... 2. --s2-----2--- 2 - epee eee eee eeee ee Ou emcteieeiee aetna
UNERA UHR OF [Ul DES Goceceenae Coo seee eee eee eEEEErc cas cacassesdcaeere Ov |b eis cies stele le rseseieee
SODUNGIIERE Scckod canesocoeOcte CGE TS CSE Cea EEEErcs boocacloooceseess LO Besodanced Space secre
HITEC COMBE OTIPDILCIUISES sre teraloletsiar=saisic = )ay-y-\-'<12 = 2+ = - == = 2 = EE eee ‘ 15) | eres cia tacrerserycee
INOE) coe aceo othe beeSBEtE Hes Se Coe Se eae eEEEEeS Ss Ccosbrcacodcosaae KOE RSaneaeonn oscoucoue
IRGHOAINK 4 Sas 5 ScC cS Cee Cote eae eRe cs oso pee REI Nco coca cots c coe oe
NGO®) Cl SCORES a0 ESE Ress ease ae om eee Date... 45 ayes eee
SCORE CARD FOR CORN.
Weil once) de Rae ee eee. oc aso depeene ExhibityNoyeessoe
Points Perfect. | Scorer’s. |Corrected.
IMatunityandisced! cond itionsae ssl sss isis<1-2 = - «1s «<3 eee ee eee | Ds eat tin ements fel g
To be of value for grain, corn must mature and produce good, hard seed.)
OOM ees eye rise esos coe sins alatNcic(e <<< = =. nc. « 5 <a ei: aeeineioies TGS Ae es a SSeaese Sind
Ears should be alike in shape, size, color, indentation, and size of kernel.
PCO ETO Sepereptepe eee ete fal eS Sea eee icles ocikin oo nti ESE Ee NA eee eset creel ee eae
Flat side, slightly wedge-shaped with large,smooth germ. Edge, with
parallel sides and of medium thickness. Not chaffy.
\WOIRIOE ONG. Ue obo ASO CORE OSCE CNS ae EOE E EEE UEENnE Hoc so ancosusecosacoS 18 BHA alee eee ees
Dent varieties, as usually planted, produce only one ear per stalk,
hence yield per acre depends largely upon weight of shelled corn per
ear.
Wenz rhandip ro pOnMOM emer eeee ease -n cm <--> 2 ee eee eee eee ee ON eh erase mete ens tas
Varies withlocality and variety. Experiments show that a continued
selection of short, thick ears reduces the yield.
BUT RS cen gH Gs Sea e Eee ARE ae ES ae ee MEE SS ot dee soeyce 306 OY | Biscrerere cine cane stoves
The base of the ear should be covered with even-sized kernels in
straight rows which are a continuation of those at the center of the
cal The shank should be large enough to support the ear and no
arger.
UM TOS) ascents ocHSees ated Gee RC Oe tee Tee Sao ee tees S02 Occ susaaceaseose ON eee see Ese sree
Should be covered with kernels of the same depth as and in rows which
are a continuation of those at the center of the ear.
SpacelbeuWweeniTOWS err seca seca c ce See ovo cle CeCe EE EEE ere Eee Sy ae ha sesael |S See meee a
Should be very slight and in straight lines.
Color....- BS ICES oO AEE Re Ok Se ESS 5 poe Saco ee Eee £3) | Seether Rrmeer eet
The color of both grainand cobs should be uniform,showing trueness to
type or strain.
ANOIE) eed pare CORE ES SoC SEER Oe ee cio 5 dno ssedsoosanseee NOOO) || Sovean sea Sevan poss
IR STU ETA ES) eis Oe ae Se ee Os 5 Gy TC NE eee eh ie oa ha eeeiemreee Ree
Nam Cro hSCOrens ese seer ee coos. - +. eee I DENIES 2 ds ae ls Sie ee Peres
36 . BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
SCORE CARD FOR VEGETABLES.
Vegetables wi 222 ssc cr. = fe ee ee ee ee Variety = eee:
Glass 2 24 loinc See ee ee oo ee eee te Exhibit Nossa
Points Perfect. | Scorer’s. |Corrected.
Uniformity. o. 42 ieee seen acs 5s > See aoa as ee oars ee a ke 20. |o 20 as ona Seems
SYIMMESUY sa. be Se Sheets leer eee = cts ale oape oho ote Seco oe oe te 15. |e ee ea | ceemeeeestet
Quality seteic ass eat ste se oth owing cis cic te Se See ee ee oo oes iaewte Se 15 228i ea Sees
MOx GUL she oo atic soe ase ee Cele Saas nis Baie a rs Hee ORs ae ornare 10) | 35 ee
Mreedom*rom: blemishes= se ees eacc cess os ase see sae Peele oe. oe aoe | 18 |o2o bee
Commerciaior table values s-2- eee nc =e ese Sooo ne. eee 25), 355 sydney |e ee
POGATE saci «<2 sia ce trot eecineee Soca Sok ae cis Oe oie: sine cece 100: | 4 eee eee
Remarks... . 2500-955 ac5 vai. 2 a\deee 5:0 0! dpe ewe vie sda Sin eee
IName’or SCOLeR= =: 222252 Succes nee ee Date 2.223532 eee
SCORE CARD FOR HOME GARDEN.
Garden! NOmes2 see See Loeation:2 0202.0... 0.0... 2. SIS
Points Perfect. | Scorer’s. |Corrected.
ocation‘and soil? = oc 28. eee ee eee aC eRe eee = cement Bl Pees kn Aes 5
Number of varieties: 0852-25 22.<5 e.g tole oe a eee os occ anes 10
Reasonable range: 5.25.22. s occ sec esee se Senec les Seo sacel ses -cscc|f, aoe ene | eer
Gardensplanestssee. feos 2 eo ae eee see ele See ie I he eee cans Sete 10 +) 2-22eetee| eee
VAG en GeolCultivatlomee shana ete eka ose ee eon soe as «cece = 20 i) 5: oes 38 ene
Tillage O.bOOIS Lins Seo ee ea ota eA tereie Sas yo orate. Sw Sa 2 Wl Peemeria cade se
Breed omsiiT OM WeedStea. See sea ose ek ere acs oe RE oeimc nese 10) |. 22. 2th eee
lealth Ofveretablesis ccc ccetais 2 case ec widens Seen e icine soon cae 15: |: cots eee
Yield, computed from fixed scale of values. ....../.-.--------------------- 25):| 2.578 Eee eee
TROGAD = ay. o se aes poisiaeioiae © ofosic Sela oe he oor ee Se ee eee ace sean 100"). Sac Sees | eee
1 With adults or older pupils having a choice in location and tools, these items are of more relative
importance.
Remarks sus: su oe uo che ee ete oe ee oe ci ee nS oe Ee ee
INATINGH OLSCOLET fy5 See eo echt ois ee D:
.
SCORE CARD FOR TOMATO PLANT.
Perfect.
Product (quantity and quality)
Disease (plantiand<product) sae ccr ace sane sec coerce. scares |
INAIMIGTOTSCOrer shih Niet epee pee 239-0 £1 aN: Date
Scorer’s.
Exhibit No.=...
Corrected.
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 37
SCORE CARD FOR TOMATOES—PLATE.
WEIN GLIA =, ccna eS ey. Exhibit No. ....
Points. Perfect. | Scorer’s. |Corrected.
Shaper(shouldiberidealtforsvaniety)= 2452 522... 22-.. Se aeeeeeeeee nee: SM cereus Lan ie rata
Blow or blossom end (small scar and smooth)............-...------------ LON SaeSree re Nh ees eb
Stemendi(smailleslishtidepression) = .222-------.2.... Jace eeeeeeee ees 1K) y| aaa Yaka ete
Colon(uniformbandiideallforivariety):---2-2---.... —-... .seeseeeenee eee Us| ese aan b Gea ee
lesb (Golidiiyy eeeeeee eae eeence soos cisisn-\ac +--+. - eee Re EEE ener: 10) SSE ae Rocce eet
Hleshyqumifonmycolon) saaseeec=c- 2 cece ce ce oc... 2. eee reece (Ol hs Seeiere Setar paceman
Hvyeninipenineyonimdivadualtriitsas2 2-2-2. 5... +... See eee eee Ty pesasase isd PEReOoeeEe
UinitonmityzotiSamiple wer ntsc circles cioielcinisic eee wis eo oe + += ce ee eee eee ese 154 | So eeeeecea| aeaeceecee
PRO tall eee eee eamince cmcinaise ace cie tee cnet cE eRe RP RSE ee Eee en aicee LOOR Se serero cel ssenccecee
IRGMAIAKS. sos S02 CoS ROR Se oe eee se es ees ee
INQUNG GH KCORGRS SS SSR Seas oe eS oe Se Dater vex peso oe eee se
VWAIORY 22 oo: ASS oe eS ae ee Exhibit No. 22622.
Points. Perfect. | Scorer’s. |Corrected.
Fruit, 65 points:
Mexican del avon sesh ie ccc ls na oe ain oe ie es oe Se ee ee 1 Pes ie pa tua
Walki® OF VERO SBA sates oe eee SS ie 1) eee aac Memon Sates
SWE ic 3 ace Gaede SMe eee OEE See ee ea 8s le a LOS | Ere paceets | eeeeracere
COM? = 5 cad cbponcaSeSeeUe tee HSS OCH ee mene Si So ie era LOGE ema ccrecisellee etna
Wiramiomaathin7s 3 cosa U Ane ue Cone CSTE eeeee Seelse Be AGy Sale meae LO} acres meeelliatis se amine
Hneedomprormylolemishes!ct yo cli note. 3-2 - ne ete een ne alia he Bee Die A ME cee
Package, 5 points:
INDIO: StosQcoen tae CESS Cee CoGe ie aoe eee. . Sose Ssacenddese Bh Seeerderae Haeeeereos
ENT ATTA Cee eateries Scie arches aie ieseseseie © selon 2 on) Ee a eae TO Sie eee ie nls reece,
Soliditynailing cleats) ete--..--2..----------- RP Saat oodeenaenoe Da | eer reese |e aiepeere cites
Packing, 30 points:
BMS erOnSWwellemertes f= aac le 3-0 PERE se sedebosuedsee il lee ocessecelWasenaeees
AMIR NAGI) = 5 «Sodus coUesue Se Sus aH Coe RBeRREEEeC ©. = = odocscsgensosce Lal Meenas th Soe Le aes oh
ETeTe MG ATEN Sat ee see somicc so - PPP a =~ Sa coécanuasages By At esees Sa bee acamaee
@ompacinessmierretesccecsen: seee cnc... -- ++ te eee ee eee eiciose Silla a leecbac eens
PA IAC tIVeNeSS OL: SUyle Of PACK S26 4... <2. «eee eee scoededace CSSA See eee Ee See
TOWN eo séSecGae acenos op Case eee EEE cc5e ssc asceauceseass LOO} eet ccrsee|eaacasesice
IRemieHs). /2 2 Se ae nS =". col bois Ses Bis G be ncledic oscars SoD eS eB
INamevonsconrer= ss 02-25 ols. -. 2. ee Datensee ahi 8a aaciselhed
SCORE CARD FOR APPLES—PLATE.
VEICY 5 SQ QR ee te I! a oS oreo Exhibit No. ...-.--
Point. Perfect. | Scorer’s. |Corrected.
Size (Normal: Neither too large nor too small)......-.....-...-...-...-.-. LO} PR Se See
Golorgiyplcalheeenasson nen eteceetae ss sece s+. t.. 2. ee it SR OE Pi eC ae Meese
reed omminonyibleMish =o sees se eee nes oo - ls -. 2 or eee Sate 9) Sots esae ea aeeeerse rs
aa MexabiR® CHaGlaENyOlte Goods AGseSMeB OSE OA OUREEEEMEBED SS tose ssuceusesadese 7X0) | esos satoa aac Senna
Unifonmityzand triieness tOtype': pene ss 2-2. - = - eee ee eee OASYS ses os Ee (eee
; ADORE res A ea aa ee ES Od odio e a ebere 1110) aerated Hee emeeae
é. IECETINATG Eve ee WE... SRR ls 0a i pment SAR
INBIMETOHSCOReI ys Ss as5- = alee eo. - +. 5 eee IDE ie asia ia SH oar
38 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
SCORE CARD FOR ALFALFA HAY.
Clases Safes oe Go cet ane ee ee ore Se ee ees Saker ree Exhibit No@eease.
Points. TS Perfect. | Scorer’s. Corrected,
Color: Bright green preferred; brown, in sweated sample not objected to-.- 16 tes eee eee
Smell: Fresh, sweet, appetizing; free from mustiness 20 A ees eee
ineness of. stems. 222 see case soe se eee ee ees eee 8) bee el eee
Softness of stem: Pliant, not harsh or brittle..........- 84). cee ec eee eee
Percentage and couditaoniof lediso =]. = 2-2 eee eee es eee ae 14 fo eee
Purity: Proportion of alfalfa as compared with grasses, etc.-..:.-.--.----- 8 | ov 2c2 ee eee
Cleanness: Freedom from dust, molds, objectionable weeds, etc.......--. 18 2022 ai eee
Weight.and general’makenpifor market. <. 252-22. eemeesenee es. cc. see PS ees ee Be te SP
TD Ota oo ye eae ee De eee ee oe ee 100 |2-Seons. sep
Remarks)... s.2s.25s2e252ce06 Sas oock eee ee abe oes be des oe
Name of storer... 2: 02 -s2:.6.5--2222-4 eee ee eee ee scene cceo cede eee
SCORE CARD FOR DAIRY CATTLE.
rcod ane aciete coca yeas NWanies - seme asco acs Register No. ....-.-
General appearance.—A dairy cow should weigh not less than 800 pounds, have large
capacity for feed, a dairy temperament, well developed milk organs, fine quality and
perfect health, and be capable of a large production of milk and butter fat.
Points. Perfect. | Seorer’s. (Corrected,
Indication of capacity for feed, 25 points: :
Face, broad between the eyes and long; muzzle clean-cut; mouth large;
lipsistrone; lower jaws lean‘and Sinewy--.--222s2e2225--22---------- } FY Pee erga tse 2,S ., Bee a
Body, wedge shape as viewed from front, side, and top; ribs long, far
apart and well sprung; breast full and wide; flanks, deep and full... 10 Loe ee
Back, straight; chine, broad and open; loin, broad and roomy....-... | He Remeber is Ss ee
Hipsiand:thurlsswideapartiand Nigh: 23. ss eee ose. a oon cn 5 | Sie er
Indication of dairy temperament, 25 points:
Head, clean-cut and fine in contour; eyes, prominent, full, and bright. 3 |... tS. 3s eee
Neck, thin, long, neatly joined to head and shoulders, and free from
throatmess- and dewlap-=2-- sccceae-2.-2e- ss see AOC SES Eee 9 eae Se ie = oe aes
iBrisket;dean and light. 222 SNe piece cone one cere eee eee see Pt EERE SEAES aia StS
Shoulders, lean, sloping, nicely laid up to body; points prominent;
WAthers GHATpsscssaees ate cease sae Sa ae eee ees aeesace 4S So ee eee
Back, strong, prominent to tail head and open jointed-.............-. 3: 53) eee
Hips, prominent, sharp and level with back........-.-------.-------. Bil eee jo 2 oo 30S
Thighs, thin and incurving Beene ssd bases scdcs
Palsfinejiand tapering: sss. se.e-.- 1 ||) 20S eee
Legs, straight; shank fine.........-.- | 1) | See
Indication of well-developed milk organs, 25 points:
Rump, long, wide, and level; pelvis roomy ---.---.-<..--......------- Be eee |e
Thighs, wide apart; twist, high and open --..-.-.----.-..---.-+.------ 3.) ic eae ee
Udder, large, pliable, extending well forward and high up behind;
quarters, full, symmetrical, evenly joined, and well held up to body. 18.) 2 eee
Teats, plumb, good size, symmetrical, and well piaced....-.-.-...---- 422 2s ees
Tndicauons of strong circulatory system, health, vigor, and milk flow,
25 points:
Myesnbriehtiand placides. san. ce asncnes a= ose ee eee ee sess = 2 cae oe Oe
Nostrils: Hlaree/and OpeMlss sean lew else ncn noe eee een nal = sa ners 3) | 5 Ce eR eee
CHESESLOOMIY Ses. Se eee ee eee oie eee ecece acne I be Pee aim [te = sia
Skin, pliable; hair, fine and straight; secretions abundant in ear, on
bodgys.and! at éndiofitails: Jo esse al. Se eeeea si nines = Paes (fe Peeeeee tee Sie 5 ee
Veins, prominent on face and udder; mammary veins, large, long
crooked, and branching; milk wells large and numerous...........-- 1) aoe ee Baers
Escutcheon, wide and extending high up.....-........-.-.----------- Wr Reese Pret 2 fo es
lal cco Pe pe eee ay |S 100 | Me
Remarkes os. joc ie oat ee as had et 6 oe
Nam eroliscorer sabe See Se es eee Date: .-\.... 2... «See
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN: NORTHERN STATES. 39
SCORE CARD FOR SWINE.
IBrascl. 5. 2.5 doe ae Name. 2 ieee iia i Register No. .-----
Points. Perfect. | Scorer’s. |Corrected.
General appearance, 25 points:
Nieichtwememeestimatens.. actual pounds... .:-Jseeeessecaesisecsess- CABS o cecal Geena cre
Mont, deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical, compact, standing squarely
onlegs.-._.-.- SRO CIR SE Sen ESO ORGS Bee EE EEES cogs cobocesaccueSaEeE SP | Ra re SU EE
Quality, bone clean; hair, silky; skin, soft; head and ears, refined,
evenlyacoveredswaithtirm fleshes 7. 252... 52. ceeseeeeeneisiee eee | Si RS EN RE Te
ADISPOSUPOMMEUIet TG OC Ones nae e css annem so = = Sere ees = sae Bin See Seas nee ene 2
Head and neck, 10 points:
Snoutimediomilength, not coarse. .=.-.....-.-.:2sseeeeesessee sss o=- dl Cao Karten] Saha
ACOMSMOR LACH eC Sitter cioe cts cris winle = mi~ = nie - - -ie SRR eee eee =r eb enoescallssesscnose
Forehead, broad......------------ ScpSade ABE Bae ES 200 soos sacecodnads I eeecoesoc||coseeceaec
Eyes, large, mild, full, bright, wide apart..--- i eeacceacs| |aeemmerccs
Ears, medium size, fine, soft || ciemteiernice o|seiecs sees
Owls home em Cat OT OAM step \ojcicle = ain <I> + - oe o> wine eee eerie 2
Neck ai hick MM eciUumMslen ehh ca. ac eo neo os eee eee an ciae 3
Fore quarters, 13 points:
Shoulder, symmetrical, broad, deep, full, compact on top.-.--.------- Chlbeeseesoed Coa seaeean
Breast, wide, prominent, well let down.........-...-.-.-------------- Dl eeeeate | cnessaeset
Legs, straight, short; feet and pasterns strong......-.-..-.----.--.--- dpe cBeSneee GaSe eee
Body, 32 points:
(Chestmdeepebroadsjeirth, large... <2. 22.2 oe =o epeeeresee eee = ee (a lbaoEceeaee st aeeee ae
pidesideepwlenethysand full oe 6... eeeeeeeeeeee en = Ae 8h) | eee eae een
Back, broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed.......-.-.--------- 70 Rear eee Geos
HeOIN THICK Wide sand StrOnge . 2-5-1. oo06 2+ «nec eee eee == ere iy | BeEScioeacs |sasaareace
Belly, straight, even, and firmly fleshed .........------.-.------------ Silico ecteoos lee msn
Flank, low and well fleshed; girth large..........--.-.-.-------------- De ape ares 5| (Reta e ee
Hind quarters, 20 points:
lip stan dela part. SMOOtM 2)< care =) 1-12 ae 0\= == ~~ -!o etapa eels a = <i“ Oi Etsbeseec elas eee acter
Rump, long, wide, evenly fleshed, smooth.........-.--------------- Cl eG ee ae eee oes
Hams, firm, heavily fleshed, deep and widc..........--.--.----------- SUE eae Saal ed ee
Legs, straight, short; feet and pasterns strong....-..-.-.--.----------- Bees sa| atea eee
SIQIE 6 donsbaceoue pedee Se SeeE areas 53 Soe carb bUreresore LOO) asses eee
TRCUMTARE Yn os ces See ES 6305.0 oS Ae aa SA om an aes wOaG
Nem CIOMSCOnei = sare eee athe. ee ate ve eee ie meee eee roel eae
SCORE CARD FOR UTILITY POULTRY.
Wailer. Lo. Se eS - Sco con tASHane. Exhibition eeese
Points. Perfect. | Scorer’s. |Corrected.
General appearance, 30 points:
Viele ACCOLRGIMPUCOLAG Cee ere ra/-tesetelsininie <1 1 « o/=)-1a elefafeteetatetetee tiie 27 Se mae eee | kee eae
Form Jong, moderately deep, broad, low set, conforming to breed
type, toplineand underlinestraight --.- . 2 -eeeseeeeeeere cee ence ESSE Tg eee ae | eee
Condition, face and head appurtenances bright red, eye bright and
full, feathers glossy, uniformly well fleshed throughout. -..........-- Gm | Bese ers allies ees
Style, active and vigorous, not restless, showing strong character... .-- Ui Naseoseesee Hace ses
Quality, bone moderately fine, feathers soft, skin and scales mellow,
flesh fine texture, evenly distributed... ..- 5. o2peeeeeee see eee Ue laete oes saoue ioe ae
Head and neck, 20 points:
Head short, road between the eyes, neither coarse nor snaky in
AD DCALAN COM ee cna eensise se cien cies c- cescee es = 2c eee Eee ee eee eens Bi Neeser Arctic lincrerteeca Sito
Comb medium in size, bright in color, fine texture,and well attached. - Seb eae RIS Seer coe
Beak short, stout, broad at the base, well curved...........---..----- Salinsememske etaesecice
BAy® Clear chavo lil pee c ee eace eens Se seaceBeeebapeoccecsc cSt ossendedsenes Os |e ws abe | Bae seep
Face short, full, with a clean-cut appearance......-..........------.-- ERM Po) Feet ae meena
Wattles and lobes medium in size, fine in texture and smooth.....-.-- TG aye Sek ceased aera Sop
.. Neck moderate in length, well joined to head and shoulders..........- ZANE Ses Auer Weossase cee
Body and legs, 50 points:
i Shoulders broad and rather flat on POD HSS 2 ee eee Gite teers a ace ae aed ARS BS eae eae pe | Eb fk Te
Back broad, fair length, width well carried back.....-.........-.--.-- SROR ere merce: Ewerecacas
Breast moderately deep and wide, full and round..................... 10) eee ae Rees an p ese:
Heel well forward, long and straight, well covered with flesh through-
OUT reaee st crcnien eine SO CAREC SAO SE EERE Coos ce Gkb6cdbmaecnatesnas 1A GaSe ienniesl ees ai Ses
Tail well spread and full, no pinched effect.....---.-.---.---.--------- Ae eee ale ono
Hinichshnediumelensthe plump ee fe- 2... -..-- eee ener eee Galera er ails en ian
Legs straight, fairly short, set well apart, strong but not coarse........ RS) asa a are rs we eae
ANG ENS So SenecRee Ee G nese ese See oaeEPEERBEIS 2553255 ccesehecasaae 1) 0) sea cat ee
TRG MMS eterna ES So co.cc ReIR OY aa os Cereal aie
40 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
SCORE CARD FOR MARKET EGGS.
Olas: 22.52.55 See ena atk I ey EE ep PE rae Exhibit: Noses:
aie
Points Perfect. | Scorer’s. |Corrected.
Shape: Uniformlyioval momidgess.c =<. --. = 22. <tefeeenee ee a ee 10:)..5- dsc see | Seeeeeees
Color: Uniform over entire shell and throughout the dozen. Rich dark
brown for brown, clear white for whites. ....:-..csseesceeep-----------4 10 on coe | seeaeceeee
Weight: For each ounce short of the grade standard cut one-half point-.-- 1S Eee eee es san -bodes
Shell: Strong, not porous. Spotlessly clean and unsmeared or glossy by
Washing - 25-0 ch Stns fos tee cee et ene Soc ee es S ee ec see snc dene 152)5 222 eqsee | Gaeeeeeces
Quality: Fresh and sweet, full, clean viscous white, rich golden yolk that
Stands Ups. coos sac wetee mie teerie cites see ees eee eee ise aoe sce as 50 |----------]----------
otal. 2cslcs edie eRe 2s ae ae I, oe beer a | 100 |. oe ee ee
Remarks. 22.02.22 205. cke noe tr ee oot. ne ee ho oo oo ee
IName.or sc0rer. -.2 2222286 5 och oe en eee oe Date... s.. See eee
BUTTER SCORE CARD.
iBreedsof animal 22.2..52255 52.26. INSDIGameee ates. cee Register No......
{ |
Points Perfect. | Scorer’s. | Corrected. Defects.
| | (Metallic.
Curdy.
| Fishy
Feverish
TIEN ORS Go se oareemece bua needa aaodes eorcnesessaceecs Cl ee [Soya Wesay
| Stable
Unclean
| High acid
Low acid.
Poor grain.
Weak body.
'|Cloudy brine.
POR EUITO es cee een ee ies Subnet wie wie 21 ene ea eo Bae? |} Too much brine.
| Cheesy.
Greasy. .
Tallowy.
| | Mottles.
| White specks.
COOTER aie ara See ie arate re see ee ene 1G} | SoS aR eRe Bere reese 5c Too high.
Too light.
| Streaky.
toe mae salt.
- oor salt.
Salt ae ao eae aoe e annonces Je on sane ates case la IA | Poel beara oo Lacks salt.
| Gritty.
| | Dirty.
Condition\ofpackagoy nes seers one seas ae | Baleares sol ue ee Foon paced:
| Poorly lined.
Total sees ce eee a) ape me ipine ea gam ees hoon | T1010) 1 ieee eR a ae os |
\
RCT AT KS aR Me hs AS a8 oa ARR nh dens <n Ls a eee Sone Ee Soe ors Se
Niameiob SCOLer Ae eed ee ors ree ee Se reel: Date.:.\os 232 SS eee
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE IN NORTHERN STATES. 41
SCORE CARD FOR WHITE BREAD.
ClaissrotremmMoitee 2 e2e cielo. lt... i gee Exdnr ity INO! aa wate Oe
fe : : )
Points. Perfect. | Scorer’s. igommeztad
Generalappearance (20 points): |
Sted So Gnc shoe See ASR ee BUS eae eee a mma no ear ee Dall ec Se ee ae neers
SUC Oss 5 ooo noemsels Sesto eo ode EER ee ee ss ee aod Soe Bore Opi eee tral ses eae erere
Color |
@ruists Character peers At yo) .a\22 (= sletelai eka 2 s+. 2 eee ele SLO Sete aah ee |p eae
Depth |
LAV OG SOG OL AM GuLASLOMysecc meee -\- 2222 /os2- 5 3s. oe eee ee = Boye ene NAG See sss
LMS IDES... cc ojenos 500s OoSe REE S See Sees ee Spe eeEMEeEe Sho 55eaabcadar D5] ea tae ee eteta | Behind. 2
Crumb (30 points):
Fine—coarse |
Tender—tough ?
Texture Moisiedryiai (sos st Jones 2 eer 20 [--2 see ec) acer en eee
Elastic or not
CO 3 cab bsosdss be SSt CS SBR ee See aie ae 8 i ae Dhl ey hewn as ak a a eA i
Graim-eDisccibUbioniOlieas sess. sse..2.—....--..-.. Serene eee HS are pall ea ae ae Sta
SOY oo Hose p ee oa Be a Re ae oe oy de 100 a sf NRK ye re PS nce Sect
[ROTATES , ons sq RUSS oe a ee a te err ol ae a
IN(aIM CLOIgSCORCIMAHENeE en ee... eee Daf Gre cee ee Sree ee
The above score is explained by Miss Isabel Bevier in University of Illinois Bulletin
25, Vol. X.
Ten points are awarded at the New York State College of Agriculture for a written
report which must accompany the loaf telling (a) brand of flour and kind of yeast used,
(b) how mixed and set to rise; number of times set to rise, (c) time of baking and about
what temperature, (d) care after baking, (e) number and value of hours of labor con-
sumed, total cost of loaf, and the approximate number of loaves that could be made
in the time taken in making one.
The 10 points for report may be taken by omitting size and counting lightness as
10 only.
SCORE CARD FOR CANNED FRUIT OR VEGETABLES.
[Snag Se Se Variety .----- 3 Sele ae ae
Exhibit No-._---
- Points. | Perfect.
Flavor: The flavor should be agreeable and as nearly as possible that of |
;
| Seorer’s. Corrected.
| {
thereshyperiectiruitor vegetable. - 922. --.2.....-..--- peepee eee eeeoee CY sek ieee ae ane) eee
Texture: Well cooked—so that it is tender, yet not overcooked..........--- PAR WY Elite so tna aftr at
Condition: Liquid clear. No sign of decomposition. Product ehodiac| |
be uniform in size, wellarranged in can, and of good color................- A Nseries saves et cs
Purity: Free from foreign material, preservatives, or artificialcolor_......- | IUD ee et Oe ee mares aco
Package: Cans should be uniform and of quality, shape, and size prac-
ticable to the averagehome. The labels should be suitable, uniform, and |
TENS 06 SSGSAb SS 5 ce UB Se eae BSS seo ee en eee S555 Sut Snewenes EQ eke b yer eM es teria age
PRO tall eee ee ees (eer sy MOM. 2 rr ree ae! TOO Sere Sisley re
TR GUUNAN EIS £1 oe A Oe Ne eal MMM lw Ta eG 2 a eT Ua miro
INEIMCTONSCOEh 4s anieee ns hee)! 1D) BiG ets ae ene ah Fa A
—
42 BULLETIN 281, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
SCORE CARD FOR JELLY.
and 2.5.2.2 be St Aa ARE ee 5 2lpsce) e eee e e Exhibit No. ...--
Points. | Perfect. | Scorer’s. (Corrected.
COlOR..,. estes ace se fasts Sue cece sees dete S Sin A os Ee wins taro a tee ee 10) 23352 [ee erie 3
TransparenCyiccs <p sve sees ao eee = oo ee he Se noe em soe cee 20) S2hoce eee | eee = =
Taste; Mavor, acidity. ClCsses2 20) sce cer cece 2 Ce = Gin cys ae 20) | Say eee fpeeceeeee
Consistency :
Holdsishaperwell jmotfowe ses: 55. o-oo Se aa se ee 15 ||. 32 tess eee
Monder; wall. cut easily ae eo eer 2b ok ao Asc cite a een Ses ieee toe 1 eerie) be cootesne
irmansles: retain Shape@s a... os 6c ane os oe oe ence ene = 5:| LL eee
Hreedom fromcrystallization:. ... -2.- 2.2.22. pomeeeees- 222-2 a-- see ee 10)|22 43 eae
Totals. osk cnsseeeet cases eee shes as oe 2 See Eee nae = eee tte 100%\'= 282 532 eee
Remarks... ..<sdscc'se2 e040 ote eee pee cc eet eee
Nameof SCOTer.- 2222.90.55 4-4: 25s eee Date... 252 eee
C
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT GF AGRICULTURE
N; BULLETIN No. 282 ¢
M ee Contribution from the Eureau of Plant Industry
Soe WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER August 11, 1915
A STUDY OF THE SOFT RESINS IN SULPHURED AND UNSUL-
PHURED HOPS IN COLD AND IN OPEN STORAGE.
By G. A. RUSSELL,
Expert, Drug-Plant and Poisonous-Plant Investigations.
CONTENTS.
Page. | Page.
Imtroductionses see ce) ja-scec faeces. 55+ cies 1 | Changes in the composition of the soft resins. . 10
Preparation of the hops studied........-- 2 | Chemical values of the soft resins. ........... 15
Changes in physical appearance. ...........-- 3 | (Summanyeg piss = secs eetelg~ cece tens ee ceeene 18
Moisture content and changes in the propor-
tion of soft and hard resins........-.-.-.---- 4 |
INTRODUCTION.
During the past decade the soft ‘resis of hops have been the sub-
ject of numerous investigations which have dealt almost exclu-
sively with the percentage of yield and the methods of extraction.
With the exception of the work of Fischer,’ no statements have been
found in the literature to show that recognized chemical methods
have been used to determine the changes which occur in the soft
resins of hops subsequent to harvesting. The effect of refrigeration
on the physical condition and on certain chemical constituents of sul-
phured and unsulphured hops has been studied by Stockberger and
Rabak,? who gave special consideration to the changes which occur
in the volatile oil. Aside from the changes noted by these authors,
extensive modifications also occur in the soft resins of hops, the
character of which may be determined through the use of reliable
analytical methods.
1 Fischer, Alfred. Analysis of hops as a basis for their valuation. Jn Pure Products, v. 8, no. 10,
p. 536-538. 1912.
2 Stockberger, W. W., and Rabak, Frank. Some effects of refrigeration on sulphured and unsulphured
hops. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 271, 21p. 1912.
Note.—This bulletin presents the results obtained from experiments conducted to determine the extent
and character of the changes in the soft resins in hops under varying conditions of curing and storage. The
soft resins, or so-called bitter acids, are a principal factor in determining the commercial value of hops.
98657°—Bull. 282—15——1
2 BULLETIN 282, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
In order to obtain additional data regarding the effect of various
storage conditions upon the soft resins of sulphured and unsulphured
hops, a quantity of material was prepared and held under observa-
tion for several years. The data secured indicate that there is a
marked chemical rearrangement or balancing of at least a part of the
components of these resins during the first year after the hops are
harvested. This rearrangement is most marked in hops kept in cold
storage, and of these it is most evident in the unsulphured hops.
It is generally conceded that the commercial value of hops is almost
entirely contingent upon two considerations, namely, the character
of the aroma and the nature and quantity of the soft resins. At the .
last International Hop and Barley Exhibit, held in Chicago in 1911,
the score card gave an equal rating to aroma and to the soft resins, or,
as they are sometimes termed, the hop bitter acids.
Although sulphuring and cold storage are efficient factors in retard-
ing the diminution of the quantity of soft resins in hops, they do not
prevent chemical changes from taking place therein. Nevertheless,
the data obtained by the study of these changes indicate that they
are influenced to a considerable degree by both sulphuring and cold
storage. The experiments detailed in the following pages were made
with a view to determining the extent and character of these changes.
PREPARATION OF THE HOPS STUDIED.
Since soil and climate, as well as other factors, are undoubtedly
responsible for the varying quantity of soft resins found in hops of
different geographical origin, all the samples of hops used in this
investigation were secured from a common source, in order to elimi-
nate variation so far as possible. Accordingly, two lots of hops
harvested from the same field at Perkins, Cal., in September, 1911,
were dried in ordinary hop kilns, one portion without being sulphured,
the other receiving the customary sulphuring in the early stages of
drying. Duplicate samples of each lot were then placed in hermeti-
cally sealed tin cans and shipped to Washington, D. C. About the
Ist of December one sample each of the sulphured and unsulphured
hops was subjected to analysis, and the remaining samples, each
weighing 2 kilograms, were then removed from the tins, compressed
to about the same degree as the hops in a commercial bale, and com-
pletely inclosed in a cover of ordinary hop sacking. Three each of
these sulphured and unsulphured samples were then placed in cold
storage in the hop storeroom of a local brewery, and a similar set of
samples was placed in the attic of a frame building at the Arlington
Experiment Farm, Virginia. On December 1 of each of the three fol-
lowing years one sample each of the sulphured and the unsulphured
hops was withdrawn from cold and open storage, respectively, and
subjected to analysis.
SOFT RESINS IN SULPHURED AND UNSULPHURED HOPS. 3
CHANGES IN PHYSICAL APPEARANCE.
On receipt of the various samples of hops from Perkins, Cal., in
1911, they were examined and the following notes taken respecting
their physical characteristics:
Sulphured hops in the original lot.—Fine fresh hop flavor; oily feeling; lupulin
sticky; aroma excellent; color bright, characteristic of new fresh hops; color of
lupulin bright.
Unsulphured hops in the original lot.—Fine fresh hop flavor; oily feeling; Ivpulin
sticky; aroma excellent; color bright, characteristic of new fresh hops, thor gh some-
what greener in appearance than the corresponding sulphured sample; color of k:pvlin
bright.
On December 1 of the three following years, two samples each
from cold and from open storage were examined and the following
notes were taken on their physical characteristics:
Sulphured hops in cold storage one year.—Fresh hop flavor; oily feeling; lupulin
sticky; aroma good; color darker than the original sample, not so bright and charac-
teristic; color of lupulin bright.
Unsulphured hops in cold storage one year.—Fresh hop flavor; oily feeling; lupulin
sticky; aroma good; color much darker than the original sample, not so bright and
characteristic; color of lupulin bright.
Sulphured hops in open storage one year.—Strawlike flavor; oily feeling; lupulin
less sticky; aroma disagreeable; color dull, bright color having disappeared; color of
lupulin dull.
Unsulphured hops in open storage one year.—Strawlike flavor; oily feeling less notice-
‘able; lupulin less sticky; aroma disagreeable; color very dull; color of lupulin dull.
Sulphured hops in cold storage two years.—Decided strawlike flavor; oily feeling v ery
slight; lupulin slightly sticky; aroma slightly hoplike; color dark “alll brightness
having disappeared; color of lupulin dull.
Unsulphured hops in cold storage two years.—Most decided strawlike odor, somewhat
musty; oily feeling practically gone; lupulin not sticky; aroma like musty straw; color
dark brownish yellow; color of lupulin very dull.
Sulphured hops in open storage two years.—Decided strawlike flavor; oily feeling
practically gone; lupulin slightly sticky; aroma that of musty straw; color dark brown-
ish yellow; color of lupulin very dull. ;
Unsulphured hops in open storage two years.—Very decided musty flavor; oily feeling
gone; lupulin very slightly sticky; aroma that of musty straw; color dark brownish
yellow; color of lupulin very dark and dull.
Sulphured hops in cold storage three years.—Most decided strawlike flavor, somewhat
musty; oily feeling gone; lupulin very slightly sticky; aroma that of old musty straw;
color dark brownish yellow; color of lupulin very dark and dull; hop: cones falling
apart.
Unsulphured hops in cold storage three years.—Very decided musty, strawlike flavor;
oily feeling entirely gone; lupulin not sticky; aroma that of old musty straw; color very
dark, dirty brownish allen color of lupulin very dark and dull; Be cones falling
apart.
Sulphured hops in open storage three years.—Very decided musty, strawlike flavor;
oily feeling entirely gone; lupulin not sticky; aroma that of old musty straw; color Gone
brownish yellow; color of lupulin very dark and dull; hop cones fallen apart.
Unsulphured hops in open storage three years.—Most decided musty, strawlike flavor;
oily feeling entirely gone; lupulin not sticky; aroma that of old musty straw; color very
dark brownish yellow; color of lupulin very dark and dull; hop cones fallen apart.
4 BULLETIN 282, U. S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
As far as physical valuation indicates, the sulphured hops in cold
storage deteriorated at a slower rate than the unsulphured hops, and
the same is true for the samples placed in open storage. At the end
of one year of storage very little physical difference could be noticed
in the cold-storage hops other than that the color had darkened in
both the sulphured and unsulphured samples, more especially in the
latter. The samples in open storage at the end of one year had each
developed a strawlike odor and had become dull.in color, The
lupulin of both the sulphured and unsulphured hops had begun to
lose its brightness and its sticky feeling.
At the end of the second year of storage a most decided change had
taken place in all the samples. The sulphured hops in cold storage
had developed a strawlike flavor and a dry feeling and the bright
color had disappeared. The unsulphured samples had developed a
musty odor and an extremely dry feeling, and the characteristic
greenish yellow color had disappeared. The unsulphured hops had
deteriorated more rapidly than the corresponding sulphured hops.
So far as the physical valuation indicated, the hops in open storage
had deteriorated to a much greater degree than the hops in cold
storage. The unsulphured samples in open storage had become very
musty in odor and very dark in color, in addition to losing their
crisp and sticky feeling.
At the close of three years of storage the samples had lost all traces
of hop flavor and had developed a musty, strawlike odor. A slight
stickiness could still be detected in the sulphured hops in cold storage.
The hop cones in the cold-storage samples had fallen apart to some
extent, whereas those in the open storage samples had completely
fallen apart. The lupulin in all the samples was much discolored.
MOISTURE CONTENT AND CHANGES IN THE PROPORTION OF SOFT
AND HARD RESINS.
At the time the hops were received in Washington a sample each of
the sulphured and unsulphured hops was analyzed and the results
thus obtained were used as the basis for comparing the analyses which
were made of the various samples during each year of storage.
MOISTURE CONTENT.
For the determination of the moisture content 12 grams of hops
were taken from each of the samples under investigation, dried over
sulphuric acid until of constant weight, and the loss in weight
returned as moisture. The moisture content of the original hops and
of the hops in both cold and open storage for the several years is
given in Table I.
SOFT RESINS IN SULPHURED AND UNSULPHURED HOPS. 5
Taste I.— Moisture in the original samples of sulphured and unsulphured hops and in
samples kept in cold and in open storage.
Cold storage. Open storage.
Original old totes P ‘
Treatment at the kiln. sample, ]
€
iL 1912 1913 1914 1912 | 1913 1914
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
DUlphunedsaasse seers =) <== 6. 18 11.04 11.04 9.83 5.81 6.37 6. 40
Unsullphuned sss! 0-2-6 -r)-2 2 = 5. 23 10. 80 10.79 10. 90 6.14 5.90 | 5.50
From Table I it is evident that the moisture content of the hops
kept in cold storage was greater than of those in open storage. In
the samples kept in cold storage the moisture content was very
uniform for the three years in both the sulphured and the unsul-
phured hops, indicating that the cold-storage room was kept at a
uniform temperature throughout this period. In the open-storage
samples a slight fluctuation in the moisture content was evident, due
apparently to differences in the atmospheric conditions at the time
the samples were removed for analysis. Since moisture is an impor-
tant adjunct to a great many chemical changes, it is probable that
the greater quantity found in the samples kept in cold storage had a
direct bearing on the chemical changes that took place in the soft
resins.
SOFT RESINS.
In determining the quantity of soft resins in the hop samples, a
departure was made from the method usually employed. <A kilo-
gram of hops was extracted by maceration and percolation with
petroleum ether (B. P. 35° C. to 70° C.). Two macerations were
necessary to complete the extraction. The mixed percolates were
then heated on a water bath at 70° C. and the major portion of the
petroleum ether recovered. The remainder of the petroleum ether
was allowed to evaporate spontaneously and the weight of the residue
returned as soft resins. The residues each contained a small fraction
of approximately 0.4 per cent of wax, which for purposes of com-
parison may be disregarded. The percentage of soft resins in the
original sulphured and unsulphured samples and in the corresponding
samples in cold and in open storage is shown Jn Table IT.
TaBLE II.—Sojt resins in the original samples of sulphured and unsulphured hops and
in samples kept in cold and in open storage.
BS Cold storage. Open storage.
Original ;
Treatment at the kiln. sample, j l
ES 1912 1913 1914 ia | ge 1914
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Siouloyngbae ase ee eee ee 12. 32 11.91 11. 46 4.98 11.32 9.03 3. 20
Unsulphured es ok a ek anes OM 11.17 9.72 8. 66 3.81 8.73 | 7.43 2.32
6 BULLETIN 282, U..S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Regarding, first, the sulphured hops, the data in Table II show
that the percentage of soft resins decreased somewhat during the
first and second years of storage and very rapidly during the third
year. The decrease was less, however, in the cold-storage samples
than in those kept in open storage. The unsulphured hops show a
marked decrease from year to year, the decrease being most pro-
nounced in the third year of storage. The unsulphured samples in
open storage show a greater loss than the corresponding samples
kept in cold storage.
During the first year
of cpen storage the
soft-resin content in
the sulphured hops
decreased less rap-
idly than in the un-
sulphured hops, but
more rapidly in the
following two years.
It will be observed
from figure 1 that
‘. \\| the quantity of soft
x \\Y resins present in the
<| sulphured hops in
2 [a both cold and open
aa er Te eR
10
©
®
ic)
0)
x
7
rae
Ai
: |
4
A
PER CLIVT OF SOFT RESINS
N
tH
during each year and
3 thatthe decrease was
especially marked
during the third year
of storage. Figure 1
also shows that the unsulphured hops in cold storage decreased in
soft-resin content more rapidly than the sulphured hops and that
this decrease was rapid during the first year, less pronounced during
the second year, and at the end of the third year gradually ap-
proached the same point of value as in the sulphured hops in cold
storage. The soft-resin content of the unsulphured hops in open
storage decreased at about the same rate as that of the sulphured
hops in open storage.
The percentage of decrease in soft resins during the three years,
as compared with the original samples, is given in Table III.
7 2
YEARS /V STORAGE
Fria. 1.—Curves of the percentage of soft resins in sulphured and un-
sulphured hops in cold and in open storage.
SOFT RESINS IN SULPHURED AND UNSULPHURED HOPS. 7
Taste II1.—Decrease in the soft resins of sulphured and unsulphured hops in cold and
in open storage compared with the soft-resin content of the original samples.
| (6 e. Open storage.
Original | old storag' p g
Treatment at the kiln. sample, ]
wees 1912 | 1913 1914 1912 1913 1914
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
SUI DATHEC Kc desoseanescesebae 100 3. 32 6.98 59. 57 8.11 26. 71 74. 02
Unsilphunedeestane ee. 22. 4-,-/ 100 | 12. 98 22. 47 65. 89 21. 84 33. 48 79. 23.
From Table III, in which the soft-resin content in the original
samples is considered as 100 per cent, it is evident that the decrease
in the sulphured hops during the first two years in cold storage was
not great, but it was rapid during the third year. In open storage
the decrease was very pronounced during each year. The unsul-
phured hops in cold storage show a marked decrease, which was
greatest in the third year, and in open storage the decrease was even
more pronounced year by year.
HARD RESINS.
The hard resins in the various samples of hops used in this study
were also determined. A portion of the hops after being extracted
with petroleum ether was again extracted with ether, the ether
recovered, and the weight of the residue returned as hard resin.
By this method an extra calculation is necessary, but in using large
quantities of hops the time consumed is more than compensated for
in the accuracy obtained.
The hard-resin content of the various samples is shown in Table IV.
Tasie IV.—Hard resins in the original samples of sulphured and unsulphured hops
and in samples kept in cold and in open storage.
Cold storage. O t 5
Orginal g | pen storage
Treatment at the kiln. Sample —— eran can
1911. 1912 1913 1914 1912 1913 1914
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
be 8.97 9. 90 8.32 9
Sul pounce a eee ee Oak 5, 26 6. 53 . L b 10. 10
Wmrsilphured esas ses lessee! 6. 43 8.35 10. 08 10. 05 9. 53 10. 45 10. 46
The figures in Table IV give an index of the change in the quantity
of hard resins that took place in the various hop samples. The
greatest change occurred in the unsulphured hops in open storage
and the least change in the unsulphured hops during the first two
years in cold storage. The difference in the content of hard resins
of both sulphured and unsulphured hops in cold and in open storage,
respectively, became materially less in the third year of storage and
probably indicates that the changes which took place in the hops
8 BULLETIN 282, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
tended to reach a state of equilibrium irrespective of the treatment
of the sample.
Figure 2 gives a graphic representation of the increase in the hard-
resin content of sulphured and unsulphured hops in cold and in open
storage.
During the first year the increase in the hard-resin content in
the sulphured hops was greater in open storage than in cold storage.
At the end of the second year the sulphured hops in both cold and
open storage con-
bus ot taimed?«aib orntthethe
4/
/0 same percentage of
29 hard resins. The
oe unsulphured hops
Q followed the same
<7 lines, but did not
pe present quite so
N marked a difference
ae during the first year
Noy of storage. At the
> end of the third
year the hard-resin
content in all the
samples had become
uniform and astate
was reached where
3
4 2
YEARS 1" STORAGE
Vig. 2.—Curves of the percentage of hard resins in sulphured andun- +he increase, if any
sulphured hops in cold and in open storage. 4 “
was very slow.
Table V gives the percentage of increase in the hard-resin content
of the various samples as compared with the original, the hard-resin
content of the latter being considered as 100 per cent.
TaBLE V.—Increase in the hard resins of sulphured and unsulphured hops in cold and
in open storage, compared with the hard-resin content of the original samples.
=, Cold storage. Open storage.
Original
Treatment at the kiln. sample,
1911. 1912 1913 1914 1912 1913 1914
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Sulphured ste saa: tease aos 100 24. 14 70. 53 88, 21 58. 17 72. 81 92. 01
Wnsulphuredasasaasen sate 100 29. 85 52. 75 56. 29 48. 21 62. 51 62. 67
The sulphured hops appeared to react less readily to changes that
bring about an increase in the hard resins. From this it is inferred
that sulphuring is a factor that retards the changing of soft resins
to hard resins. This is shown most emphatically in Table V by the
fact that the percentage of increase in the unsulphured hops was much
less in both cold and open storage than in the corrésponding sulphured
SOFT RESINS IN SULPHURED AND UNSULPHURED HOPS. 9
hops. A further study of Table V indicates that a combination of
sulphurmg and cold storage was most effective in retarding the
changes that produce hard resins.
TOTAL RESINS.
The total resin content of the various hop samples, found by adding
the soft resins and the hard resins together, is shown in Table VI.
Taste VI.—Total resins in the original samples of sulphured and unsulphured hops
and in samples kept in cold and in open storage.
plane Cold storage. Open storage.
Original Ss ects x
Treatment at the kiln. sample, =
0
elle 1912 1913 1914 1912 1913 1914
|
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Sualphunedteeeeeses ese cacce ccc 17. 58 18. 44 20. 43 14. 88 19. 64 18, 12 13. 30
Wnsniphtiredsees sts ese is. 17. 60 18. 07 18. 74 13. 86 | 18. 26 17. 88 12. 78
From the figures in Table VI it appears that some. discrepancies
exist, since the total resins in some years ran higher than those of
the origmal sample. Experiments in this laboratory have shown that
two samples are rarely ever the same in total yield of resms; hence, no
weight need be attached to the apparent discrepancies.
The sudden decrease: in the total resins in all the samples in the
year 1914 is of special interest. Up to this point the hops in storage
had retamed approximately their origmal content of soft resms. <A
marked diminution now occurred in the content of soft resins, which
is not compensated by a corresponding increase in the content of
hard resms. It appears from the data at hand that a portion of
the soft resins had been transformed into a compound or compounds
insoluble in ether or in petroleum ether, since the marked loss in
percentage of soft resins does not appear in the ether extract. The
extent of the change was greatest in the unsulphured hops in open
storage and least in the sulphured hops in cold storage, but in all
samples, irrespective of treatment either at the kiln or during storage,
the decrease was rapid. Table IV shows that at the end of the second
year of storage a point was reached by all the samples beyond which
the hard resins did not materially increase. Nevertheless, at this
poimt the soft resins began to decrease most rapidly. Although pre-
vious investigators have stated that the soft resins change entirely
to hard resins, it is probable that only a small portion of the soft.
resins undergoes such a change, and the remainder is changed into a
compound or compounds insoluble in the solvents used m extraction
and for that reason is lost sight of in the analysis.
98657°—Bull. 282—15 2
10 BULLETIN 282, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TasLte VII.—Soft resins in the original samples of sulphured and unsulphured hops
and in samples kept in cold and in open storage, calculated with reference to the total
resins.
se Cold storage. Open storage.
Original
Treatment at the kiln. sample, _——————————___— )
tai. 1912 1913 1914 1912 1913 | 1914
|
Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Bulphuredise asset cee cne acces oe 70. 13 64. 59 56. 08 33. 47 By AGS) 49, 83 24. 06
UmsulphuredSscs oo seeaeceeteaee 63. 46 53. 79 46, 21 27. 49 47. 80 41.55 18.15
|
The data in Table VIT show that the sulphured cold-storage hops
retained a greater percentage of soft resins each year than did any of
the other samples. The unsulphured hops in cold storage and the
sulphured hops in open storage contained year by year practically the
same percentage of soft resins, as calculated with reference to the
total resins. The greatest decrease is noted in the soft resins from
the unsulphured hops in open storage.
-
CHANGES IN THE COMPOSITION OF THE SOFT RESINS.
That chemical changes take place in the soft resins of hops is a
foregone conclusion. In order to study these changes, methods in
general use in chemistry, with some modifications, were applied to
the soft resins with satisfactory results. The physical properties of
color and odor presented in Table VIII were observed from year to
year.
TaBLe VIII.—Physical properties of the soft resins in the original samples of sulphured
and unsulphured hops and in samples kept in cold and in open storage.
Cold storage.
Treatment at the kiln. CReweT sample:
1912 1913 1914
Color:
Sulphured = eee eee se Greenish brown.| Dark brown.....| Greenish brown.| Greenish black.
Unsulphured 2-2 )/25-2i4--£ Dark brown.....| Very dark )}..... dos. sess Do.
brown.
Odor: :
SUlphuredtecace caries <icteee Aromatic, pleas- | Aromatic, pleas- | Aromatic, pleas- | Aromatic, un-
ant. ant. — ant. pleasant.
Unsulphuredesce2 ec ecercis laseer GOressasnecce Aromatic, pun- pereeaple, hop- Do.
gent. ike.
Open storage.
Treatment at the kiln. Cheney ample)
1912 1913 1914"
Color: ;
Sulphiinedi@in aa seen eee Greenish brown.| Dark brown ....| Greenish brown.| Greenish black.
Unsulphuredis2- 52.5 22)..22 5 Dark brown ....|.---- Glo) = - Saaosa-| SSSee dojsssse=s oe Do.
Odor:
Sulphuredtecccs-sseseeeeee Aromatic, pleas- | Aromatic, pleas- | Aromatic, pleas- | Disagreeable,
ant. ant. ant. somewhat aro-
matic.
Wnsulphured®-22ce-eaee ceeleen ae (c (see ee Aromatic, pun- | Aromatic, pun- Do.
gent. gent.
SOFT RESINS IN SULPHURED AND UNSULPHURED HOPS. 11
All the samples had an extremely bitter taste, manifested strongly
at the base of the tongue when a minute particle of the soft resin was
held in the mouth for a few seconds.
The color, odor, and taste, which appeal solely to the senses, are of
relatively small importance in this investigation. As shown in Table
VIII, the color of the soft resins in all cases became darker with the
age of the sample examined; the odor became very disagreeable with
the decrease of the soft resins and the taste at all times remained very
bitter.
The soft resins are fluid in nature, and during the first two years of
storage all were of the same consistency. Those extracted in 1914
were more solid and had the consistency of a thick sirup. Owing to
their nature, the specific gravity of these resins could not be deter-
mined with accuracy.
ACID AND ESTER VALUES.
The determination of the free acidity or acid value of the soft
resins was carried out as follows: A small quantity of weighed soft
resin was taken up in 2 c. ¢. of standardized alcoholic potassium
hydroxid and the excess potassium hydroxid titrated back with N/10
hydrochloric acid. The acid value represents the number of milli-
grams of potassium hydroxid necessary to completely neutralize the
free acids in 1 gram of the soft resins.
In determining the ester value of the soft resins a weighed portion
was taken up in standardized alcoholic potassium hydroxid and
allowed to stand 24 hours in the cold. Complete saponification took
place in that length of time. The excess alkali was titrated back
with N/10 hydrochloric acid and the saponification value calculated.
This value, minus the acid value, gives the ester value of the soft
resins and represents the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxid
necessary to completely saponify all the combined acids in 1 gram
of the soft resins. The changes observed in the acid and ester values
~ are shown in Table IX.
Taste [X.—Acid and ester values of the soft resins in the original samples of sulphured
and unsulphured hops and in samples kept in cold and in open storage.
ine Cold storage. Open storage.
Original
Treatment at the kiln, sample;)|—— 7 i ae
19H. 1912 1913 1914 1912 1913 1914
Aeid value:
Sulphureds 2 ee sess eeeee es 71.80 97.00 87.50 80.7 2EO 61.50 47.0
Unsulphured.......-...--.. 60. 87 67.00 76. 50 76. 2 52.0 70.00 | 77.6
Ester value:
Sulphureds 22-32 42452" 97.7 169.5 191.1 226.3 122.5 202.5 271.0
Unsulphured..........-.-.- 121.78 71.5 87.0 207.8 123.5 158.0 158. 4
12 BULLETIN 282, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
A graphic representation of the acid values is given in figure 3.
From this figure it will be seen that after the first year of storage the
acid value of the soft resins diminished in the sulphured hops and
gradually increased in the unsulphured hops. The rise in acid value
of the soft resins of the sulphured hops during the first year in cold
storage was probably due to the rearrangement that was taking place
in these resins; although esters were formed during this period the
esterification did not proceed as rapidly as in the following years,
with a consequent rise in free-acid value. During the first year of
open storage the acid value of the soft resins of the sulphured hops
remained about the same and then gradually decreased at a rate
proportionate to that of the sulphured hops in cold storage. The
formation of esters was slow during the first year of storage and rapid
during the next two
years, reaching a
slightly higher value
at the end of the
third year than in the
corresponding sam-
ple in cold storage.
The unsulphured
hops in cold storage
yielded soft resins
whose acid value
constantly imereased
throughout the pe-
7 j : 2 :
YEARS IN STORAGE riod of storage. The
Fiq. 3.—Acid-value curves of the soft resins in sulphured ana unsul- ester value for these
phured hops in cold and in open storage.
ACID K4LUE
soft resins decreased
during the first year, then gradually increased during the second
year, and very rapidly during the third year of storage. In open
storage the acid value in the unsulphured hops was slightly less at the
end of the first year than in the corresponding original sample. The
ester value (fig. 4) remained almost constant, indicating that there
was little change in these values during the first year of storage.
From this point the acid values from the unsulphured hops increased
gradually, until at the end of the third year of storage about the
same degree of acidity was reached.
The increase in acidity was, however, most marked in the unsul-
phured hops in open storage. The ester values for the soft resins of
the unsulphured hops increased after the first year of storage and
was most rapid in the cold-storage samples.
The acid value of the soft resins from sulphured hops in both cold
and open storage gradually diminished at approximately the same
rate after one year of storage. The corresponding ester values in-
@
SOFT RESINS IN SULPHURED AND UNSULPHURED HOPS. 1a}
creased in approximately the same proportion as the acid values
diminished. This
decrease in the acid a ar a
value and increase 260 :
in ester value would Ze
mdicate that ester- Ye
ification took place *” waa |
faster than freeacids 220 j 7
meremiormed, the ._, Ee /
original quantity of S ts hl /
free acids being prac- =~" es hl Ap meng
tically used up. In ices et y if Mee z Fe
other words, the sul- 6 jie = Ber ee we
phuring of hops ap- Bez y
pears to hasten the
formation of esters
in the soft resins but
retards the forma-
tion of free acids.
The acid value of
the soft resins from - 5
the sulphured hops ee AE Ae OE
in both cold and Open Fic. 4.—Ester-value curves of the soft resins in sulphured and unsul-
a torage era dually Ga phured hops in cold and in open storage.
creased during the period of storage, and the corresponding ester value
likewise gradually
increased, indicating
that in the unsul-
ee oy | phured hops the for-
| mation of free acids
and of the corre-
sponding esters goes
on with regularity.
3
SAPONIFICATION VALUE.
SAPONIFICATION VALU
The saponification
value, shown in Ta-
ble X and indicated
graphically in figure
5, was in this study
determined before
the ester value, al-
Fig. 5.—Saponification-value curves of the soft resins in sulphured and though it is usually
unsulphured hops in cold and in open storage. . e
a : obtained by adding
the acid and ester values of the product under investigation. From
7 2
YEARS Ht STORAGE
14 BULLETIN 282, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
a study of the ester and acid values, a gradual increase in the saponi-
fication valuewould beexpected. Thisincrease wasmost marked after
the first year of storage, and all the samples gradually approached a
uniform value. The saponification value of the soft resins from the
sulphured hops was shghtly higher than the same value in the un-
sulphured hops. The increase in the saponification value was most
uniform in the hops held in open storage and was most rapid during
the third year in the unsulphured hops in cold storage.
TaBLe X.—Saponification value of the soft resins in the original samples of sulphured
and unsulphured hops and in samples kept in cold and in open storage.
Cold storage. | Open sti :
Original e Dery Sees
Treatment at the kiln. awe, -_-— a
g
1911. 1912 1913 1914 1912 1913 1914
Sulphured. =). 25 ci.oa-. 320k joes 169. 5 266. 5 278. 5 317 | 195 264 324
Unsulphured......-..--.ss0s-- 182. 65 138.5 163.5 284 | 175.5 928. 5 BE
IODIN VALUE.
In determining the iodin-absorption value of the soft resins, the
method employed was that commonly used in determining this value
in fats. The results obtamed are shown in Table XI.
TasLe XI.—lIodin value of the soft resins in the original samples of sulphured and
unsulphured hops and in samples kept in cold and in open storage.
ae Cold storage. Open storage.
Original
Treatment at the kiln. 90. -—————S eS
19M. al 1912 1913 1914 1912 1913 1914
Sulphured=222 fn cen sees ew 95 76 144 156 123 132 156
Unsulphuredts252242). sh eth 100 72 140 141 89 143 153
The iodin values, as shown in Table XI and in figure 6, became
less divergent in the third year of storage. In the soft resins from
the sulphured hops in open storage the iodin value gradually increased
for each year of storage. In all the other samples it diminished
during the first year, rose rapidly during the second year, and in the
third year was uniform with that from the sulphured hops in open
storage. This indicates a diminution in the unsaturated compounds
in the soft resins from the sulphured hops in cold storage and from
the unsulphured hops in both cold and open storage and an increase
in the unsaturated compounds in sulphured hops in open storage
during the first year. It will be noted, however, that after the com-
pletion of the marked readjustment that took place during the first
year of storage, the iodin value of all the samples tended to become
uniform, thus indicating that the unsaturated compounds were present
in approximately thesame proportion in all the soft resins of all the hop
samples at some point between the first and the second year of storage.
SOFT RESINS IN SULPHURED AND UNSULPHURED HOPS. 15
CHEMICAL VALUES OF THE SOFT RESINS.
In order to make more apparent the correlation between the various
chemical values found in the soft resins from year to year, these values
have been brought
together and are rep-
resented graphically
in figures 7, 8, 9, ee
and 10.
Figure 7 shows
the various values
as found in the sul-
phured hops in cold
storage. The acid
value, which in- 20)
creased during the
first year of storage,
gradually decreased
during the second
and third years. The ester value, which increased very rapidly
during the first year of storage, diminished somewhat during the
next two years. Figure 7 shows also that although esterification
took place rapidly during the first year of storage it could not keep
pace with the forma-
tion of free acids;
thus the latter in-
creased. During
the remainder of the
time the hops were
in storage esterifica-
tion continued, but
the quantity of free
acids formed was not
so great, with the re-
sult that there was
a decrease in free
acidity.
The saponification
z value gradually in-
creased throughout
the storage period.
The iodin value at
the end of the first year of storage was less than that of the original
sample, indicating that the formation of unsaturated compounds in
the soft resins had been retarded in the sample held in storage. The
iodin value increased during the second year, indicating a greater
production of unsaturated compounds in the soft resins.
160
8
JOOINE VALUE
8
/ 5,
YEARS 1 STORAGE
Fra. 6.—lodin-value curves of the soft resins in sulphured and un-
sulphured hops in cold and in open storage.
FIO
/ 2
YEARS 1 STORAGE
Fie. 7.—Curves showing the correlation of chemical values of the
soft resins in sulphured hops in cold storage.
16 BULLETIN 282, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Figure 8 shows the various values as found in the sulphured hops
in open storage. The acid value, which remained almost constant
AC/O KALUE
/ 2 3
Meqars (N STORAGE
Fic. 8.—Curves showing the correlation of chemical values of the soft
resins in sulphured hops in open storage.
during the first year
of storage, gradually ©
diminished during
the next two years.
The ester value,
which increased
somewhat during the
first year, increased
rapidly during the
second and third
years, indicating that
the esterification was
shehtlyin advance of
the formation of free
acids at all periods of
storage and became
more pronounced at
the close of the third
year. The iodin
value gradually increased, indicating the continuous formation of
unsaturated compounds in the soft resins throughout the entire period
of storage. The
saponification value
gradually increased
throughout the
period of storage.
Figure 9 gives a
graphic illustration
of the various values
as found in the un-
sulphured hops in
cold storage. The
acid value gradually
increased throughout
the period of stor-
age. The ester value
diminished during
the first year of stor-
/ ve!
YEARS (MV STORAGE
age, increased some-_ F!6- 9-—Curves showing the correlation of chemical values of the soft
what during the sec-
resins in unsulphured hops in cold storage.
ond year, and in the third year the increase was rapid. Figure 9
shows also that esterification did not keep pace with the formation of
free acids during the first year of storage. However, during the next
SOFT RESINS IN SULPHURED AND UNSULPHURED HOPS. aly
two years it was more rapid, with a consequent increase in the ester
value.
The saponification value gradually increased after the first year of
storage. The iodin value likewise increased after the first year,
although during that year it diminished somewhat, but during the
second year it increased rapidly, indicating thereby that the unsatu-
rated compounds formed in the soft resins also increased rapidly, and
they remained fairly constant after this point was reached until the
close of the third year.
Figure 10 shows the various values as found in the unsulphured
hops in open storage. The acid value diminished slightly during the
first year and in-
creased each year ~~ te
thereafter. Thees- %7
ter value inereased Bois 2 «es a
slightly durmg the __
first year, quite rap- SS ae
idly during the sec- 9-7? eee
ond year, and re- pao SELLA CATION Lacy
mained constant Suis
duminepamihel) third’) -<)(, . aR alee a |
year, esterification rer mo aT
in this sample prac- 90} :
tically keeping pace ee
with the formation
of free acids through- 7?
out the storage
period. Thesaponi-
fication value, which
decreased slightly
during the first year of storage, increased during the second and third
years. The iodin value decreased slightly during the first year, in-
creased rapidly during the second year, and slightly during the third
year, indicating thereby that the unsaturated compounds in the soft
resins remained fairly constant during the first year, increased rapidly
during the second year, and were fairly constant during the third
year of storage.
The relations of these various values may be briefly summarized as
follows:
3
7 2
YEARS 1 STORAGE
Fie. 10.—Curves showing the correlation of chemical values of the soft
resins in unsu!phured hops in open storage.
(1) A change took place in some of the components of the soft resins of the hops,
indicative of a marked rearrangement in these compounds during the period that
elapsed between picking the hops and the end of one year of storage.
(2) This change was most pronounced in the hops-in cold storage, irrespective of
treatment at the dry kiln. However, on comparison, the unsulphured hops showed
the greatest change.
18 BULLETIN 282, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
(3) This change was not so pronounced in the hops kept in open storage, irrespective
of treatment at the dry kiln. On comparison, however, the unsulphured hops showed
the greatest change.
(4) The most decided change occurred in the unsulphured hops in cold storage and
the least marked change in the sulphured hops in open storage.
(5) After the first year the degree of change in all the samples fluctuated with regu-
larity from year to year. Taken in the aggregate, the values as determined from year
to year indicate most strongly that an extensive rearrangement took place in the soft
resins of the hops from the time they were picked until some point was reached between
the first and second year of storage. When this point was reached and the rearrange-
ment had practically terminated, a gradual increase or decrease could be traced in all
the values taken.
SUMMARY.
In 1911, material for a comparative study of the soft resins of
sulphured and unsulphured hops in both cold and open storage was
secured from a hop ranch at Perkins, Cal. The green hops were
divided into two lots, one of which was sulphured during the process
of drying. The dry sulphured and unsulphured hops were again
divided into lots, sealed in tin cans, and shipped to Washington,
D.C. On arrival the cans were opened and an analysis made of one
lot each of the sulphured and unsulphured hops. The remaining
samples were baled in burlap and three samples each of the sulphured
and unsulphured hops were placed in both cold and open storage.
At the end of the first, second, and third years of storage one
sample each of the sulphured and unsulphured hops was withdrawn
from both cold and open storage and an analysis made of each. The
hops analyzed in 1911 are designated as ‘‘original hops,”’ since they
approximate more nearly the condition of the samples at the time of
drying.
A physical valuation was placed on the original samples and also
on the hops as they were withdrawn from storage from time to time.
From these valuations the conclusions are drawn that both sulphuring
and cold storage retard changes in the physical characteristics of hops.
A combination of the two factors is more effective in retarding these
changes than either factor alone.
Determinations were made of the moisture, the percentage of soft
resins, hard resins, and total resins, of the color, odor, and taste of the
soft resins, and of the acid, ester, saponification, and iodin values of
the soft resins.
The moisture content in the sulphured and unsulphured hops held
in cold storage increased durmg the first year and then remained
practically constant in all the samples throughout the period of
storage. The moisture content of the sulphured and unsulphured
hops in open storage varied from year to year, according to existing
weather conditions.
SOFT RESINS IN SULPHURED AND UNSULPHURED HOPS. 19
The percentage of soft resins in all the samples decreased with each
year of storage, becoming very pronounced in the third year. The
percentage of hard resins in all the samples increased with each year
of storage, approaching a uniform figure at the close of the third year.
Both sulphuring and cold storage retarded the decrease in the per-
centage of soft resins and increased the percentage of hard resins. A
combination of the two factors was more effective in retarding these
changes than either factor alone.
The percentage of total resins in all the samples varied from year to
year, and in the third year it became materially less than that of the
original sample. The low total is probably due to the formation of
products insoluble in the solvents used.
The color, odor, and taste of the soft resins are of very little value
in determining quality and are not indicative of any changes that may
have taken place therein.
The acid value in general decreased in the sulphured hops in cold
and in open storage and increased in the unsulphured hops in cold
and in open storage. Sulphuring apparently retards the formation
of free acids, and a combination of sulphuring and cold storage is
most effective in retarding changes in free acidity.
The ester value in general increased in all the samples of hops.
Sulphuring apparently favors the formation of esters, and this factor
in combination with open storage appears to be the least effective in
retarding the formation of esters. Nonsulphuring and open storage
appear to be the most effective in retarding the formation of esters.
The saponification value in general increased in all the samples of
hops. The unsulphured hops showed the least change, and of these
the ones held in open storage were the least affected.
The iodin value in general increased in all the samples. It was
most pronounced in the second year of storage and in the third year
was uniform in all the samples. Sulphurmg in combination with
open storage appears to cause a uniform rate of increase in the iodin
value from year to year. The sulphured hops in open storage showed
the least variation in changes in the chemical values of the soft resins.
During the period of storage, at least some of the components of
the soft resins underwent rearrangement. This rearrangement was
most marked during the first year, after which it decreased to such
an extent that thereafter comparable values for the chemical constants
were readily obtained.
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=~ ey STATES DEPARTMENT OF Sgn RE
_ BULLETIN No. 283
Contribution from the Bureau of Soils
MILTON WHITNEY, Chief
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 28, 1915
CONTENTS.
Page. | Page.
MratrO dir Ghio Myepeterses l-)-rle-eissei= ila = a's =i = 1 | New modification of the chamber process .. - 9
Methods of manufacture ..........---...--.- 2 | Mactonynconsiderations i.e eee eens 13
Measurement of a plant’s efficiency ........- EM aN aFOST NB es 5 Ses eh a ee NN cl al by 15
THE PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID AND A PROPOSED
NEW METHOD OF MANUFACTURE.
By Wititram H. Waacaman, Scientist in Fertilizer Investigations.
INTRODUCTION.
The importance of sulphuric acid in science, arts, and manufacture
has been increasing steadily for many years. Although scarcely any
industry exists which does not employ this ‘acid either directly or
indirectly in the manufacture of its product,! the bulk of the sul-—
phuric acid produced, both in this country and abroad, is used in the
manufacture of fertilizer materials.
Since Liebig first proposed the treatment of bones or phosphate
rock with sul ana acid in order to render the phosphoric acid pres-
ent water soluble, superphosphate has been the basis of the fertilizer
industry, and the economic production of sulphuric acid has been
the aim of numerous investigators and chemical engineers. The pro-
duction of sulphuric acid of various strengths in the United States for
the past three years, according to the figures of the United States Geo-
logical Survey, is given in Table I.
Because of the difficulty in shipping such a commodity all of the
sulphuric acid produced is consumed in this country. Some of the
products manufactured therefrom are shipped abroad but the quantity
of acid entering into them is but a small percentage of the total
production.
In 1913 the United States consumed 1,931,468 short tons of phos-
phate rock. Since practically all of this was made into acid phos-
1Phalen, W.C. Mineral Resources (1913).
527°—Bull. 283 —15——1
2 BULLETIN 283, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
phate, at least 2,000,000 tons or over 56 per cent of the total sulphuric
acid produced was thus consumed. A large tonnage of acid is also
consumed annually in the manufacture of ammonium sulphate, a
by-product of the coking and gas industries, and also in the produc-
tion of what are known to the fertilizer trade as ‘‘base goods,” con-
sisting of acidulated hair, wool, tankage, or other nitrogenous refuse
of the packing industry.
TaBLe I.—Production of sulphuric acid in the United States for the years 1911, 1912,
19138, by grades.
Year and grades. | Quantity. | Value. | Exceiper
| |
1911: Tons. Dollars. Dollars.
SOS BAUM... Soc sccc ccc oecene a Sola: cate ee os os aka 1, 026, 896 5, 447, 958 5.31
602 BanMG eae s och secionss nie sine s as 2 o's86 2.2: Seer a ciae nai 421,165 2, 624, 042 6.23
G6CUBaUMG = ere Soe Ee ee soe so heed ee eee sees 751, 541 9,176, 297 12.21
Otheripradesins seo cc chanced aches oct ae ok 8 Oe ee een nee 10, 728 121,575 11.33
Total and average. sscc sce ccsensek lee ee eee cee cone 2, 210, 330 17, 369, 872 7.86
Total reauced:t0,/50° Baume: 2. 0-2. .-. 25.56 Sees cee oe 12,688,456 | 117,313,822 6.44
1912: ’ Tuy fe ee
SOS Baume os sheers. ccehaceehese cls sence ica eed a eras 1, 047, 483 5,378,411 5.13
602 Baume we.5 viececaicssemetclcioe:s ales ic. 4 clea See acne acne 451,172 2, 727, 764 6.05
669 Ratimé 35222 tac cana ae oS cc a I ee ha 774, 772 9, 360, 630 12.08
Othererades aa. eeic was toetee ciate oe sccreso eee eee Sclececioees 66, 166 ! 871, 214 13.17
Totaliand average <.. = 2. ses tisse cf thos eee eee cn seees 2, 339, 593 18, 338, 019 7. 84
Totalreduced toi50° Baumé)-).......... 22. aeeeeeo<accsn-2<- = 2 2,876,000 | 217,572,837 | 6.11
1913: a
502 Baume 22 2. caicigaeealsetthetiawinae slere sia's 1a aichoepattatettiaw cietsicleie Se .= 1, 643,318 9,212,917 5.61
G0°RANIMAM he toes eee een ee ake, OL 5 amp er Se Se 509, 929 3, 202, 528 6.28
G624BanmMGs 22 22a some gases sire soe bln area a aoe epee epee -ceceae 797, 104 9, 282, 422 11.65
Oshererades eo. cc onices ca se wielsceecie ccs ces ne ceiieeeie «ess cise 63, 158 986, 659 15. 62
Total and average...........--- IU ee eae 3,013,509 | 22,684,526] ° 7.53
Totalireduced toi50* BaumGse-c--c----.-. so capper ei < 3 3, 538, 980 | 3 22, 366, 482 6.32
1 Exclusive of acids of strength greater than 66° Baumé.
2 Exclusive of electrolyte and acids of strength greater than 65° Baumé.
3 Exclusive of 22,947 short tons of fuming acid, not convertible, valued at $318,044.
METHODS OF MANUFACTURE.
There are two general methods employed in the manufacture of
sulphuric acid, namely the ‘‘contact process”? and the “‘lead-cham-
ber method.” It is not within the scope of this paper to discuss
in detail the numerous modifications of these two methods, but
classified lists of the patents on the subject, together with short
abstracts thereof, are given at the end of this paper.
THE CONTACT PROCESS.
Briefly the contact process consists In passing a purified mixture
of air and sulphur dioxide derived either from sulphur or burning
pyrites over some catalytic agent heated to dull redness, thereby
effecting the further oxidation of the sulphur dioxide. The result-
ing sulphur trioxide is then usually absorbed in sulphuric acid, pro-
ducing a very concentrated product.
PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID, 3
Theoretically this should prove the simplest, cheapest, and most
efficient method of making sulphuric acid, but in actual practice
there are several details encountered both in the construction and
running of a plant which unless given careful consideration will
seriously affect the yield of acid and the cost of production.
Many different catalytic agents have been tried (notably platinum,
palladium, iridium, the oxides or sulphates of iron, copper, chromium
manganese, and silver, as well as the oxides of some of the rarer
elements) in effecting the oxidation of sulphur dioxide, but no matter
what catalyzer is used its efficiency is seriously impaired and often
destroyed unless very elaborate systems are employed for purifying
the gases before admitting them into the oxidation chamber. For
instance, finely divided platinum (platinum black) has proved the
most efficient catalyzer so far discovered, but the catalytic power
of this body in bringing about the union of sulphur dioxide and air
is seriously affected by the smallest traces of arsenic in the gaseous
mixture. When pyrites are used as a source of sulphur dioxide,
the arsenic which this mineral nearly always contains, passes over
with the furnace gases and it is only by repeated washing and filter-
ing that the last traces of this element can be removed.
Contrary to general opinion, therefore, a contact plant is both
elaborate and costly and strict supervision by a competent chemical
engineer is necessary to insure the best results.
The contact process has distinct advantages over the lead-chamber
method where a pure concentrated acid is required, but in the manu-
facture of ordinary sulphuric acid (50° to 60° B.) for the fertilizer
industry or for other purposes where the purity of the product is
not essential, the latter method still holds first place (at least in this
country) for efficiency and low cost of production.
THE LEAD-CHAMBER PROCESS.
The lead-chamber process with its various modifications has been
fully treated by Lunge.t. This author, as well as numerous other
investigators, notably Weber, Winkler, Rascheg, Meyer, Pratt, Gil-
christ, Falding, and Wedge, has described details of construction,
methods of accelerating the chamber reactions, and proposed and
discussed schemes for increasing the efficiency and lowering the cost
of acid systems. It is thought, however, that a brief general descrip-
tion of the chamber process will help toward a better understanding
of the modification of the process proposed in this paper.
In this country nearly all of the sulphuric acid is made from
pyrites. The lump ore is imported chiefly from Spain, while the
“fines”? are a domestic product mined in Virginia, Georgia, Ten-
nessee, and California. If the lump ore is used it is burned in brick
1 Treatise on the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid and Alkali, vol. 1.
4 BULLETIN 283, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
furnaces having grates composed of single square bars which can be
turned on their Jongitudinal axes to let the cinders down into the
_ash pits. Such furnaces hold from 8 to 5 tons each and are arranged
in batteries of 20 to 25 for each set of lead chambers. The daily
charge for each furnace when the system is in operation is from
750 to 1,000 pounds of pyrites. The burners for the pyrites ‘‘fines”’
consist of cylindrical furnaces having a series cf shelves so arranged
that the burning material can be mechanically raked from shelf to
shelf until the fully burned cinder is discharged at the bottom of
the furnace. The rakes are attached to a central air or water cooled
shaft. In one type of furnace the shaft revolves; in another the
shaft is rigid while the furnace itself revolves.
The gases from the pyrites burners are forced into a dust chamber
fitted with baffle plates where the oxides of iron, arsenic, lead, zinc,
ete., are in a laree measure removed. From the dust chamber the
gases enter the Glover tower, which consists of a lead tower (usually
from 20 to 30 feet high and 6 to 8 feet across) lined with acid-resisting
brick and partly filled with quartz or other acid-proof material so
arranged that the dilute nitrous vitriol which is distributed from an
apparatus at the top of the tower will trickle down through the
interstices. The heat of the burner gases which enter the Glover
tower at a temperature of from 300° to 400° C. drives off water and
the oxides of nitrogen from the nitrous vitriol, restorig them to the
system. The uses of the Glover tower therefore are threefold: first,
to cool the furnace gases before allowing them to enter the lead chamb-
ers; second, to restore water and the oxides of nitrogen to the system;
and third, to produce an acid more concentrated than that formed
in the lead chambers.
From the Glover tower tle gases enter the first of the lead chambers
where most of the sulphuric acidis made. The lead chambers usually
consist of large square or oblong boxes * made of sheet lead (weighing
from 6 to 8 pounds per square foot) and having a capacity of from
25,000 to 75,000 cubic feet. Water in the form of fine spray or
steam is introduced into the chambers at various points. This
decomposes the nitrosulphuric acid formed into sulphuric acid and
returns the oxides of nitrogen to the system to be again acted upon
by the furnace gases. The number and size of the chambers used
vary from 2 to 10 or more, depending on the number and size of the
pyrites burners. Where the quantity of sulphur burned daily is
large the acid plant is often divided into separate units, each battery
of burners furnishing gases to its own set of lead chambers. The
gases pass from the first to the second chamber and so on through
1Jn the Meyer Tangent system the lead chambers are cylindrical in form, while in the Falding system
their height is several times their length and width.
PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID. 5
the system, sulphuric acid being formed till the sulphur dioxide is
practically exhausted.
The residual gases, consisting of nitrogen, oxides of nitrogen, some
oxygen, and a small percentage of sulphur dioxide, then enter the
lower part of the Gay-Lussac or recovery tower, which is similar in
construction to the Glover tower, except that it is usually taller and
wider (from 40 to 50 feet high and 8 to 15 feet across) and filled with
coke instead of quartz. Strong sulphuric acid (1.5 to 1.7 specific
gravity) trickles down the tower, absorbing the oxides of nitrogen
from the residual gases which ascend through the coke column, and
are finally discharged through a stack. The nitrous vitriol formed is
then pumped to the Glover tower, diluted with water, and distributed
as previously described.
MEASUREMENT GF A PLANT’S EFFICIENCY.
The efficiency of a lead-chamber plant is measured, first, by the
amount of chamber space required for each pound of sulphur burned
in 24 hours and the amount of acid (50° or 60° B.) made therefrom,
and, second, by the amount of niter consumed or lost in the production
of this acid.
Practically all sulpnuric acid authorities agree that, provided the
gases are present in the proper proportions, the two most important
conditions necessary for efficient production are a thorough mixing
of the gases and the control of their temperature.
The importance of the first of these conditions is self-evident,
since in order to bring about complete chemical reaction the reacting
substances must be in intimate contact with one another. The
second condition is important because too low a temperature lessens
the chemical activity of the gases, while a temperature above 100° C.
prevents the condensation of water which it is claimed is necessary
to bring about the decomposition of nitrosulphuric acid, an interme-
diate compound formed from the oxides of nitrogen in the system.
Numerous schemes to control these conditions have been devised,
some of which have features of considerable interest and practical
importance. While it is impracticable in a paper of this length to
discuss in detail all of these processes, several that have been tried,
apparently with some success, are described below.
METHODS FOR ACCELERATING THE CHAMBER REACTIONS.
Walter and Boeing! advocate the use of several hollow acid-proof
partitions built across the chambers and so arranged that the gases
enter the compartments through large holes near the bottom and are
discharged from holes near the top. Numerous other small holes
1 German patent No. 71908.
6 BULLETIN 283, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
allow the admission and exit of the gases, thereby causing them to
mix intimately without seriously interfering with the draft.
Because of the doubtful stability of these inner walls and the
serious damage caused on their collapse this method is no longer used.
Gossage ! as well as several other investigators proposed filling the
chambers with coke so that the gases would be obliged to work their
way through the interstices and thereby become thoroughly mixed.
This scheme, however, has been abandoned because of the impurities
introduced into the acid by the coke and the tendency of the coke
columns to press against the lead walls, causmg them to bulge and
even break. The lack of any cooling device in this process also
caused excessively high temperatures in the chambers.
Verstrart’s? plan is similar to the above, except that stacks of
bottomless stoneware jars filled with coke are used. The oxides of
nitrogen are supplied to the system by allowing nitric acid to trickle
down one of the stacks.
In Pratt’s * process, which is much used in the Southern States, the
gases are drawn through the first chamber by means of a fan, then
through a tower packed with quartz down which flows dilute sul-
phuric acid, and finally they are reinjected into the front of the first
chamber by means of the same fan. This circulatory system seems
quite efficient and a number of plants where the process is employed
are operating on less than 9 cubic feet_of chamber space per pound of
sulphur burned in 24 hours.
Meyer’s* tangental chambers are designed both to mix and to cool
the reacting gases at the same time.
The chambers are cylindrical in form, the first having water-
cooled lead pipes suspended around the circuinference. The gases
are admitted .at a tangent near the upper part of the chamber walls
and are discharged from outlets in the centers of the chambers’
bottoms. The gases are thus given a spiral motion which tends to
mix them thoroughly while the water-cooled lead pipes reduce their
temperature.
There are three installations of this type of plant in the United
States. One at least is reported to have given great satisfaction.
Hartmann * obtained an increased yield of acid in the lead-cham-
ber process by placing vertical, air-cooled lead pipes in the chambers.
The chamber bottom is turned up around the lower ends of these
pipes, forming hydraulic seals, and thus obviating the necessity of
joints in the bottom of the chamber.
1 Lunge, Treatise on Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, 1 Pt. T, p. 475.
2 Bull. Soc. encour. ind. nat., 1865, p. 531.
3U.S. patents Nos. 546, 596, 652, 687.
4 English patent No. 18376: Zeit. fiir ang. Chem. (1900), p. 742.
6 Chem. Zeit., 1897, p. 877.
PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID. 7
Blau + proposed to cool the gases in the first chamber by injecting a
spray of cold sulphuric acid, and in order to obtain the optimum
yield of acid from the gases in the subsequent chamber their tempera-
ture is raised by injecting sprays of warm sulphuric acid. :
Falding’s process” has for its object the segregating of the active
gases in a system. ‘To accomplish this he employs a chamber the
height of which is approximately one and one-half times greater
than its horizontal dimensions. The burned gases after passing
through the Glover tower in the usual way are introduced either
near the top or lower down on the chamber’s side. Since the fresh
gases are hot, not only because they have recently issued from the
pyrites burners but because of the reactions taking place between
some of the constituents, they collect in the upper part of the chamber
in a relatively active layer.
As the reactions subside the spent gases gradually cool and settle
to the bottom of the chamber, where they are withdrawn. Falding
claims that by using the high chamber a zone of great chemical
activity is always maintained in the upper part of the chamber,
and that the spent or inactive gases, which in ordinary chamber
systems act as diluents, are continually bemg removed from the
active zone. It is also claimed that much less chamber space is
required to complete the reactions by this process, so that even
where large volumes of gases are handled each chamber is a unit in
itself, being connected directly with the Glover tower instead of in
series as in ordinary chamber systems.
A number of plants in this country are equipped with chambers
of this type and it is reported that the process is commercially suc-
cessful.
The main objections to the Falding system, in the opinion of the
writer, are, first, that no provision is made for obtaining an intimate
mixture of the gases other than the preliminary mixing brought
about in the Glover tower, and, second, that no adequate means is
provided, for the condensation of. the acid mist formed by the re-
actions.
The most widely used method of mixing and cooling the reacting
gases is by means of intermediate towers containing plates, tubes, or
baffles of some acid-resisting material cooled either by water, air,
or dilute sulphuric acid. A. number of different types of towers
have been designed, but mention is here made of only a few of the
better-known designs.
Lunge’s plate tower? consists of a shell of lead either cylindrical
or angular in form and filled with a series of perforated plates laid
1 German patent No. 95083.
2U.S. patent 932771 (1909). :
3 Treatise on Sulphuric Acid, vol. 1, Pt.I, pp. 478-498.
|
A nA me =
8 BULLETIN 283, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
horizontally. Each layer of plates is supported at some distance
above the other by bearers in such a way that every plate is inde-
pendent of the others. The pilates are so constructed and placed
that the holes in those of one layer do not come directly above the
holes in the next layer below.
Dilute sulphuric acid is allowed to trickle down the tower, splash-
ing from one layer of plates to another and meeting the hot-chamber
gases as they wind upward through the tower. The film of dilute
acid over the plates presents an immense cooling surface to the
gases and at the same time furnishes the water necessary for the
decomposition of the nitresulphuric acid. The formation of this
latter compound is, according to Lunge, a necessary link in the
chamber process.
Gilchrist’s pipe-column system! consists of lead towers (3 or 4
feet across and 15 feet high) having corrugated lead tubes, open at
both ends, running through them horizontally like a steam boiler.
The sides of the towers are boxed in with boards so as to form an air
shaft which terminates in a flue at the top.
The chamber gases, together with water vapor, enter the pipe
columns at the sides near the bottom and work their way upward
through the towers. Contact with the air-cooled corrugated tubes
condenses the sulphuric acid, which then drips in showers from one
series of pipes to another and frees the oxides of nitrogen, restoring
them to the system. The gases issue from the top of the towers
and enter the next chamber, from which they are drawn into another
Series of pipe columns, and so on through the system till their oxida-
tion is practically complete.
While some of the methods just described are designed to cut
down the amount of chamber space required, none of them, with
the exception of Falding’s process, reduces the initial cost of erecting
an. acid plant; for, while less lead may be employed in constructing
the chambers, the expense of the cooling and mixing towers more
than offsets the saving in chamber material.
Another objection to most of the accelerating devices discussed
above is that in order to mix the gases thoroughly they must be
drawn or forced through small openings or made to pursue a mean-
dering course by means of baffles or some acid-proof packing material
in the towers. Under such conditions dust or impurities may clog
the apparatus, choking off the draft and making it necessary to
clean out the tower or chamber before operations can be resumed.
Moreover, the collapse or disarrangement of the packmg material
within the tower may cause even more serious trouble.
Nearly all modifications of the chamber process complicate some-
what the running of an acid plant, and should therefore be constantly
under the supervision of a competent chemical engineer.
1 Jour. Soc. Chem. Ind., 18, 459-462 (1899).
2
PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID. 9
In the new modification of the chamber method described in this
publication a complete mixture of the gases and the control of their
temperature is brought about without the use of expensive or com-
plicated: apparatus and with practically no danger of clogging the
system. While this method has been tried out only in the laboratory,
and some of the analytical data are not altogether satisfactory, the
results obtained prove that the principle is good and that the proc-
ess, if worked on a factory scale, would probably be commercially
successful.
In a review of the patent literature on the subject an apparatus
was found which is somewhat similar to the one herein described.
This United States patent (No. 446060) was taken out by E. and J.
Delplace in 1891 and consists of a lead chamber having the shape of a
ring with a sector cut out. The chamber is provided with two gas
inlets at unequal distances from the center and contains at intervals
distributing pipes leading from the upper part to the lower part of
the chamber, so that the hot gases can be more thoroughly mixed
with the cooler. The inventors state that in such:a chamber the
constant change in the direction of the gases and their impinging on
the sides of the chamber cause a thorough mixture and a condensa-
tion of the acid formed. In this patent the right is reserved to vary
the shape of the chamber provided the gases are led through a circu-
lar route.
The main objections to the above apparatus, in the opinion of the
writer, are, first, that the chamber as described is of such a size that
there must be spaces therein where the gases. are relatively inactive;
second, the pipes for conveying the hotter gases from the upper to
the lower part of the chamber would hardly accomplish this unless
they were the only route provided for the passage of the gases, and
this according to the specifications is not the case; third, the use
of pipes within the lead chamber unless they are cooled is always
objectionable because of their excessive corrosion and the serious
consequences resulting therefrom; fourth, a chamber of the shape
described occupies an enormous amount of ground space. Where
land values are high, this entails a large outlay for a factory site, as
well as an expensive building to house the chamber.
NEW MODIFICATION OF THE CHAMBER PROCESS.!
This method is based on the fact that if a mixture of warm gases
is drawn downward through a special flue their resistance to the
downward pull, together with the constant change of their course,
will tend to mix them very intimately, and unless the internal diam-
eter of the flue is too great there will be practically no zones of inac-
1 Work carried on under the direction of Dr. F. K. Cameron, to whom the author is indebted for much
valuable assistance.
527°—Bull. 283—15——2
10 BULLETIN 283, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
tivity in the apparatus. Moreover, the constant impinging of the
gases on the walls of the spiral flue, which can be cooled either by
air or water, makes‘it practicable to maintain the gases at a temper-
ature most favorable for the efficient yield of sulphuric acid.
In the followimg laboratory experiments, however, the sulphur
dioxide (SO,) used was not directly derived from burning pyrites or
sulphur, so it was necessary to heat the system artificially to at-
tain a temperature as high as that obtained under factory conditions.
The sulphur dioxide was obtaimed from a small cylinder of the
liquefied gas, which was weighed both before and after each experi-
ment, and the SO, used thus determimed. The oxides of nitrogen
(chiefly N,O, and N,O,) were produced by the action of dilute nitric
acid on copper, and the rate at which they were used was roughly
Fic. 1.—Apparatus used in proposed new method for manufacture of sulphuric acid.
determined by allowing the gases to bubble through dilute sulphuric
acid saturated with these gases. A mixture of air and water vapor
was obtained by drawing air through a flask of water heated to the
boiling point.
The apparatus employed (fig. 1) consisted, first, of a large test
tube (A), having a capacity of 200 ¢.c., and containing a little water
heated to boiling. The oxides‘of nitrogen, sulphur dioxide, air, and
water vapor were led to the bottom of this vessel by separate tubes
and given a preliminary mixing. From the test tube the gases were
drawn into the lead or glass spiral (B), which was heated to about
90° C. in order to facilitate the reactions. In winding downward
through this spiral the warm gases were thoroughly mixed, with the
result that most of the sulphurie acid produced in the system was
formed in this coil. The residual gases were then passed through
"idk ed ee
alae
PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID. . 11
the absorption bulbs (D, D’, D’’) containing strong nitric acid,
which absorbed the sulphur dioxide escaping oxidation in the spiral.
The quantities of sulphur dioxide converted into sulphuric acid in
the tube (A) and the spiral (B), as well as that which escaped oxida-
tion and was subsequently absorbed in the bulbs (D, D’, D’’), were
determined by analyses. The results of these analyses are given in
Tables IT and III.
When the lead spiral was used (Table II), the amount of sulphuric
acid formed therein had to be determined by difference because of
the formation of lead sulphate, which could not be entirely removed
from the tube by washing.
On account of the many joints and rubber connections necessary
in the apparatus there was some loss of sulphur dioxide in the sys-
tem. When the lead spiral was used, the amount of this loss could
not be determined, so all the errors occurrmg in Table II are thrown
into column 5, making the figures for the sulphur dioxide oxidized
in the lead spiral larger than they actually should be.
TasiE Il.—Sulphur dioxide oxidized to sulphuric acid in apparatus shown in figure 1.
Lead spiral used and steady stream of oxides of nitrogen furnished throughout experiments.
SO: oxidized in
system, 2
F Rate per SOz2 lost :
Number of run. pine of eS in ated Poa
S02. | th vessel] In lead | S¥St™-"| of spiral.
A. spiral B.
Hours. Grams. | Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent.
OE yeti rcte oe S Seis clan ctge’s be 2 6. 2017 2.07 675925) |Saeeeeeone )
(Pe EEE pet won scinctidesecbicces 2 6. 4887 26. 61 (Exe bdesaseane Trace.
se cates ne uSeeS Seer Sate aaa ee leanne 2 7. 6569 23.00 LOSOOM Sete or -01
1 Could not be determined. Included in the figures in column 5.
An inspection of Table II shows that by passing sulphur dioxide,
air, and water vapor through a lead spiral in the presence of an
adequate supply of the oxides of nitrogen, the formation of sulphuric
acid is practically complete, even when the gases are run at quite a
rapid rate.
In ordinary chamber plants it is considered very good practice if
only 10 feet of chamber space is required for every pound of sulphur
burned in 24 hours. Figuring the chamber space required in run
No. 8, it is seen that for every pound of sulphur burned in 24 hours
only 0.139 foot of chamber space was required.
While it is hardly fair to compare the results obtained in the
laboratory with those obtained on a factory scale, still the efficiency
of the apparatus can be more readily judged by expressing the results
in the conventional way.
The’ well-known characteristic of some metals, as well as metallic
oxides and salts, of acting as catalytic agents made it seem possible
12 BULLETIN 283, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
that the lead, lead oxide, or lead sulphate had something to do with
the very efficient yield of acid obtamed when using the lead spiral.
Accordingly, a glass coil of the same length and internal diameter was
substituted in the experiments shown in Table III.
TaBLe III.—Sulphur dioxide oxidized to sulphuric acid in apparatus shown in figure 1.
Glass spiral used and steady stream of oxides of nitrogen furnished.
SO: oxidized in ‘
system. so
. Rate per SOz2 lost B
Number of run, Time efigioucof |<———=-_ page SEIDEN
run, so svstom™= |Onmena
2 | In vessel} In glass | °9°'""* | of spiral.
A. spirala3:
Hours. | Grams. | Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent.
Ue sis arr Ao Oe Bees bee een CAR EEE eee a 3 14 3. 8311 14.17 75.14 3.15 7.34
0 ee ee os HE Sere ania ete ee 5 4, 6404 43.09 59.18 3.20 2.63
DEAS SE aes Toa es Pa a ee 2 5. 7888 20.18 71. 66 1.26 6. 28
}
Table III shows that the yield of acid was not so great with a glass
as it was with a lead spiral. In no instance was the gas run through |
the apparatus so fast as in the experiments in Table II, yet even
though the oxides of nitrogen were present in large quantities in the
gaseous mixture there was a loss of sulphur dioxide from the end of
the spiral.
In order to try out the catalytic action of the lead coil, several runs
were made with both the glass and lead spirals, but using no oxides of
nitrogen. The results of these experiments are shown in Tables IV
and V.
TaBLE IV.—Sulphur dioxide oxidized to sulphuric acid in apparatus shown in figure 1.
Lead spiral used, but no oxides of nitrogen employed.
SO: oxidized in
system. SO.
: F Rate per 7 SO: lost =
Number of run. que om cree! |——_——_ | ana fromend
802 |tn vossel In spiral system." | of spiral.
; Fours. Grams. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Dhtecg ins Mire SR a hiya h Sie pace ene ae 1 3. 2642 0. 40 61.52
1 eo a a8 Gene Be None Seo ae ces nee onUaaaac 1 3. 8459 | 41 58. 81
1 Could not‘be determined. Included in figures in column 5.
Taste V.—Sulphur dioxide oxidized to sulphuric qcid in apparatus shown in figure1.
Glass spiral used, but.no oxides of nitrogen employed. ,
. SOve oxidized in
system.
*| mimo of | Bate per ue SOz lost ES
Number of run, rin, | nounet "| —— in |tromend
: SOnv. system. | of spiral.
In vessel | In spiral
B.
Hours. | Grams. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
SSE ee en cn ore eis ciate n amon ra eee eee cienins 10 2. 6713 @) 0. 75 210.02 89, 23
nhs Seed Coe at ee ee ee Re Rie ee ee 10 2. 8393 0. 40 0. 68 212.36 86. 56
1 Included in next column. ‘
2 The large loss of sulphur dioxide in the system was due in part to the renewal of the sulphuric acid in
the wash. bottle throuch which the gas was allowed to bubble before entering the system. This acid was
not entirely saturated with SOz before these experiments were undertaken.
PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID, 13
In comparing the results obtained in Tables IV and V it is evident
. that the lead spiral had some influence in the oxidization of the sul-
phur dioxide to sulphuric acid. The figures in column 5, Table IV,
are obviously too high since all the errors due to the loss of gas in
the system are thrown into this column. But while the sulphur
dioxide and air was in each instance run through the lead spiral at
greater speed than through the glass coil, the quantity escapimg
oxidation was much less in the former than in the latter case.
In order to determine if the catalytic action observed in the lead
coil was due to lead or lead sulphate, two experiments were con-
ducted using the glass spiral but no oxides of nitrogen. The con-
ditions in these experiments were approximately the same as in
those recorded in Table V except that in the first run the interior
of the glass coil was coated with precipitated lead sulphate and in
the second a lead chain was introduced into the glass spiral. The
results are shown in Table VI.
Taste VI.—Sulphur dioxide oxidized to sulphuric acid in glass spiral coated with lead
sulphate and in the same spiral afier the introduction of a lead chain.
SOp2 oxidized in
system. so
F Lae Rate per 2
: Time of Coil SOz lost | escaping
Number of run. run, used. po of in from end
ot In vessel | In spiral] system. | of spiral.
A. Be
Hours. Grams. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
Pip) A= Sie) | ee AE be Oe eee ae 1.0 (4) 2. 6594 0. 25 9. 80 (2) 89.95
DEN eee cede SCOR eee 1.0 (8) 1. 7523 0. 09 53. 60 (2) 46.31
Pail See Be AR bc Ue ek ann eg Be 1135) (4) 2.5299 0.05 17. 85 (2) 82.10
1 Glass coil coated with lead sulphate. 2 Not determined. 3 Glass coil containing lead chain.
Here again, as in Tables II and IV, the amount of sulphur dioxide
lost in the system could not be determined, but the results shown in
Table VI indicate that while lead sulphate has some influence on the
oxidation of sulphur dioxide, lead or lead oxide is a much more
energetic catalytic agent. The presence of the oxides of nitrogen in
the system, however, is necessary for the complete oxidation of sul-
phur dioxide to sulphuric acid.
FACTORY CONSIDERATIONS.
Tn the construction of a sulphuric acid plant along the lines of the
apparatus described in this paper, it is proposed to dispense with the
lead chambers and intermediate towers only. The lead spiral is not
intended to replace the Glover. tower, which is so important in the
preliminary mixing and cooling of the furnace gases and in restoring
the oxides of nitrogen to the system, nor is it intended to do away
with the Gay-Lussac tower, which is essential for the recovery of
these same oxides of nitrogen from the residual gases.
14 BULLETIN 283, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The amount of lead required per cubic foot of chamber space is
considerably greater for a long spiral tube as herein suggested than
for a cylindrical chamber in which the height and diameter are more
nearly equal, but the great reduction in the chamber space required
to produce sulphuric acid in the spiral should make it possible to
build: a plant with considerably less lead than is required in an ordi-
nary chamber system. Moreover, the facts that the new type of
plant requires no other device to accelerate the reactions and occu-
pies much less ground space than the present type of factory, and
therefore would not need large buildings, should decrease the initial
cost of construction.
The cooling of the lead spiral would be accomplished largely by
the air, but if necessary in hot weather streams of water could be
played upon its upper portion. The water thus warmed by the heat
of the reaction of the upper part of the spiral would tend to raise the
temperature of the lower portion of the spiral where the reactions are
not so vigorous. ‘The immense amount of cooling surface contained
in such a spiral, together with the constant movement of the acting
gases, should also prevent excessive corrosion of the lead walls.
While it is not fair, and hardly practicable, to predict how efficient
a plant built along the lines of the apparatus just described would
prove, all the indications are that such a scheme, worked on a fac-
tory scale, would be economically successful. .
In the following tables the author has attempted to classify all the
American patents on the manufacture of sulphuric acid, both by the
contact and chamber processes. While these classifications are by
no means drawn along sharp and distinct lines, still they should be
of considerable assistance in enabling one to pick out the particular
phase of acid manufacture which interests him most.
In tabulating and abstracting these patents it is probable that
numerous important points have been omitted, but in many cases
this was unavoidable because of the limited space available in tables
of this character. It is thought, however, that the information given
will enable those interested in the subject to judge fairly well whether
or not any particular patent is of sufficient value to him to warrant
further investigation.
Nore,—Application has been made for a patent covering the process here
described; if patent is allowed, it will be donated to the people of the United States.
15
PRODUCTION OF ‘SULPHURIC ACID.
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20
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BULLETIN 283, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
22
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pUB OTUOSIG JSP JO [BAOTHOYT
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: *Sose.
IOUING WOT} [[O BUTAOMIAL
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ony oy} YSnory Surssed ur sesvd oy, | (SuOMRYSNTE 9) snyereddy | ~~ -eoroy pesnyrayUe ‘Ire %Oosg | pue “A ‘ULITMOOY | 606T | 9T¢ ‘776
“OUUTT JO [TUL
UUM poy A9M07 B YSnNoIyY dn ueyy
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s19M0} YSno1yy pessed ore sosed ey | “opti "|--- -e Bog ‘euezmeqropyorqE |---- = op--*~*| S061 | ezZ‘T68
‘Opli
-O[YORIJO] OUITAJOOV YILM Poy S1VMO0F “1e OS
YsHoryy possed oie sasvs soumnq ey, |’ °°’ (SUOTyVAISNTTT OW) SSed01{ | ‘PprIOpoVrjyo} ‘OWOTAPOOV fo © ‘seuog | S061 | g0Z‘T6S
“prov oranda UIA poyeu
-Sa1dwWr oyood JAO Surssed Aq perp
A][VUy puew ‘poysBM PUB pefOod UOT} “BurArp pue ‘suryseat
‘UWUBOIS TIM pa}Vor} SI 018 Sases oy, |” (SUOTeYSNITE g) sseoorg | ‘Surjooo ‘urweys ‘We “OS | -- vccsay SGosjormpy | G06T | Sze ‘es
“O 00% 97 0S OF porvor
SOT[VY[S OY} JO soyvorpis puv ‘soyeyd
-soyd ‘Sus oovumy ‘oxoo ‘Avlo Jo
SULSISUOD SOTPOG AVNUBIS OTqIsNyur ‘sorpoq rBpn
Ysnomyp} possed St onyXTUL Snoesvs oy, | “peickes OP sit -UvIS BTQIsNquTooUT {MB ‘BOG po ‘ODS COBT | ZOE S6L
“SOPIXO OSOU} JO SEINYXTUL
Io ‘oprxorp esouesuUvUL ; |
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JO @1OU IO GUO IBAO POT O1B SasvS oY, | °° (SMOTPBAYSNITE OW) Ssod01q_ | toddood ‘oprxo WoT ‘18 og | pue “fw ‘yreyog | SO6T | 9TZ‘86L
“qUOUI} VOLT, ‘podordmo snyeivddy “posn sjuesRe yy “90]U0}eq “1woX | “ON JueJEg
oN ee ee eee ree era,
“u0j—ssa00ud yon}UW09 ay? Ag prop aunydyns fo aanjoofnunu ay? ur pasn sasob ayz fo uoynoyiand ay) Lof paubsap sassav0ud pun srynunddpy— XJ ATAVY,
ay
23
PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID,
*soses Alp 04
Aiesseoou plow ut AMLOUOOW
*prloe olanydjns
JO OSM OAISSAOXO INOYITAr
OINJSIOUW SUTAOWMAL JO SUBOTT
*goses JO No soryraind
-W puB JSNp jo uoreIdLoed
*OS*H pure “sy “OH “10
SULAOUIOL JO POYJOUL JUOTOUT A
‘oIN{SIoUuL oY} JO YonuL
suryeydroeid snyy ‘if .00T 04 004
UOJ pefood oie ‘(*g OF) prow oranyd
-[NS YIM poyses SUT, Joy]e ‘soses OUT,
*OS°H
suols Yysnory} surssed Aq woyy
pue Ssurjooo Aq poel.ip jsay oie soses ou,
*SosrVyo oL1yo0To Aq
poyeqrdroord st Gory potsoy sny} st
{stu ple Uy “FOS*H SUTUINY YALA
puooes oY} PUB FOS*H NIIP WIA
poy SE aed Yove yo Woolds 4s ou,
*sta10S Jo Sired JO JoquINU B SUITE
-009 ONY] @ YSNoIy) peor ore sosvsoyyL
*(QBQ) eu] JoAO passed AT[euy pus
‘parip weyy ‘pofood 4s1y ore Sases OUT,
soba (SUOI{BIISNII[] G) Ssa001g
Feviefele (UoT}eIYSNIII T) ssevo1g
*-***(SmOryeIqSny{]I Z) Ssse001g
"7" 7 (WOT}BIYSNIII T) Sse001g
“-=-ToOTjoB Surpooo ‘ue @Og |---" aa Lf ‘Bousoley | FL6T
*ploe® orinydyns 3u013s
pus ‘uorerestiyer ‘ape Og |--- 7 e H ‘pieMoyH | ZI6T
“aory
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088 ‘820 ‘T
9LF ‘910 ‘T
108 ‘686
BULLETIN 283, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
24
‘sny
-viedde uondiosqe yeu oT
Od
VOS*H Jo uorjeyrdro
-aid pue &Og Jo uormdaosqy
“UOIL THOIY
aalf FOS*H Jo Uolonpoig
“UOIT W110 901
FOS*H suTUTeqo Jo poy
“seses TOJ}
£Og§ ey squosqe FOStH
oy} YA yoRyUOD eyVUTTUT
‘od
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*ssoo0.1d
io snjeiedde jo qoolqo
‘pepooo oe sreqtmiero
ou? JO STV OU, “pribyy surqaos
*poulloy SUrIEq
FO StH Jo soporyaed pmbyy ‘toyvar YyTA
podvads sr loeqmieya yoeyuoo WO £09
“UOIL OVI}
4OU S8Op PLOVSIYL FOS*E 7u00 z09d
66 01 L6 WI SUTUTRIUOD FOS*H O7FUL
pessed st laquieyo yoR}u0d WOT 8OS
“UOT 3/0044
jou seop prov SIL “OR oaly 7UeD
Jod 1Z 4SBO] YB SUTUTIMOD FOS*FT O4UL
poessed st Jaquieyo jovjuod TOI £O9
*SMOT FOS?
ONTIp YIM JaAO Suryord joor
-plo® SUTUTeIUOD JaM07 B YSnory dn
passed st Jequivuo jovjzu0d THO &O9
ops:
‘sosodind aatydiosqe 10} paioqser
puv peynp ATTVoryvwMoyne tepureUt
-d1 OY} PUB PIAOTUOI SI plow ot} Jo
qaed JaquUIByD 10V}UOD BY WOT Suns
-SI Soses 0} WOIT OS SUIqAOSqR 101; V
*19]VM JO UOT}Ippe Aq 44300.14S
qyueystoo «= 4YBesspouTeyUreT = (JUD
Jed 06) prov olrmydns ojur pessed
SI dequieyo 4ovjzU0d UT peonpord Og
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YOM UMOP 9qN} pefood oy} Ysno1yy
dn pe sf Jequieys jowyuo0d WOI §£OS
‘SsMOT prnbiy Zarq.1038
“(6 UB OIA JO ST]BM oy
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Regs (SUOT}CIYSNIIE Z) SS900.1g
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pa (WOT}BIYSNIIE T) SSooOIg
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UTVIUOD SoqNy, ‘SMOTP
FOStH 9INIIp TOM UAOp
seqn} po]000 Jo surystsuod
(suoTyeIysny[t 7) snyereddy
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pue puts ysnorm} sur
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25
PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID,
amy
-eladule} Iteqy} JO oI U0d
pus sases oy} Jo SUrxTur
query oy} 10y snyeredde uy
‘amnyered
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jo Surxtut ‘fany ur AWLOUOdTT
“soses
jo oimjereduis, sury[ory
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ue Ssurmreyqo 10; snyvreddy
“seses JO OIN} XIU YUOTONy
pues omyeieduis, Jo jo1ju0p
“platA quetoyye *
al0ur sdnpoid pue seses
XIUL 0} Spe} UWoTsseidu109
*SUT[OOD 10 Survey OAIS
-s9oxe sjuaAoId J10);e[NSe1 oinyesed
-Uld} WY “paWlioy OY oy} Wor yvoy
ey} peqiosqe sey YOumA WMIpeul
oy} Aq polvel{ ov Sesvs SUTULODUI OY,L,
*soqny et) 3ut
-19}09 gases at} Vea] 01 pasn St u0TZ0e
-a1 oy} JO yeay oy, “paxtur Ayysn0
-10Y1 snqyy pue Apoq 40¥%,000 oT}
Surureyuoo sedid [jeurs Jo Jequmu
®@ YSNOM} Pe St oiN}XTU snoossed oy,
‘sodid [[eurs Jo 1aquinu &
Yysnoiyy possed St oinyX Tul snoeses oq L,
“IoquIeYp 4oe1109 ey} WT syutod
SNON’A 4B poyjIUpe alezQg pue ITY
‘tanunryd po}vey 1aA0 possed pus
pesseiduio0d si¢QOg puv Ire jo aingxtTat Vv |
“Tonipeut
Surjooo jo 9imjeieduiey
Sut[[oryu09 Joy 107e[Nse1
os[e ‘reqmeya 1081009 07
yueoelpe WMIpet SsuT[OO)
IO} BINSOTIUT pus TezATe1Vd
10} epoe}dede1 JO SUTASISMOD
(suonensnit z) snyerddy
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SUTUIODUT oT} YBa 07 posn
ST WOTOBEL JO YVoT] OU} SUT
-(10sqe Jo1je PNY Surjooo
aL 4mpuood prny surjooo
pue Apoq yore} u00 SUTUIvY
-1109 dINSOPOUTIO SUMSTSUOD
(suoeusn{[t Z) snjyereddy
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OAM} 18 SSAISUT SBS YIM Iq
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(aoNeysn[t 1) snyerddy
aap eslastesctre weeeetopr irs e|ictcrsr eerste ope
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pue ‘sosev3 suT1e} U9 jo
survey pues Surxtum ‘are “Og
“SUT[000 pue surxtm ‘are Og
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ye payyturpe %Og pue ty
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sone eee YW ‘YOsjouyy,
an tee OBAA ZY SsnvIST
--Japoolypog zy Yosuaey,
*ssoooid
to snyeredde jo yo0fqo
“JUST VOL,
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g
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*8O Jo uoT}di0sqe
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BULLETIN 283, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
26
“WOTVRZTIyN YWonbos
-(NS S}I pue soses Jo} [OUS
wWoly %Og Jo wUoyditosqy
*SoSes Id}]O WIS
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puv vingvisdue, yueysuco
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10 sseoo.d Jo yoolqo
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(uoTyeIysny[E T) sujgereddy
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*SOOTA
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pue Jequieyo Jo woryeUrqMIo0D
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‘ssa~o0id yonjuos ay? fig 'Og*y 40 *og fo uoyonpoud ay? 1of sassaooid pun snjyoivddn snoaunjjaasipy — TTX TAY,
27
PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID,
*peurdoy
FOStH =s«JO-—s:«WOTYVSMpUOD
pues seses JO SuIxXIm pure
BuTooD ey}. Loy snyvieddy
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-yed UI poqtiosep sseo01d
qno Surkieo Joy snyeisddy
OSH
Suronpod jo poyyeul yet
-ye pue jong ur Automoon,
‘SHO WIVYO SUTULIOJ-prow
pue slesuepuod peg mo;
‘eoeds
Joqtueyo sseT WIM *FOS*H
suionpoid jo poyjoul oy,
FOS*H Suppeur jo suveyy
*ssonoid
zo snjgeivdde jo yoolqo
“1907 OY} WMOP
Surddrip FOS? OP ey} SUTeeTI
pue uumyoo ojejd 043 surpusdse
Aq pdjo0d pu PeXTUI OB Sess JOY OY,
“A[YSN0IOY} WoT} XU 0} Spue} YOITAM
‘MOMOUL uJ@jJOl B UAATS O1B SaSBs OT],
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pus 1oj8M SUTUTeITOD ony & Ysno.1yy
pe, Wey}? St 9injyxXtul snoeses ey,
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jo Avids B Yoo Seses DVN] YOY SU,
*poulIoy FOS*H OY} OSUBPUOD 04
pue} $19B1U0D SHOIOTUNU OT, “yuet
-Md UIBI1S B BSUTJOOTIE ‘SIOMO YY JO
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“TOMO
\SeT OY} Ul PeAoMeal o1e FOS*H JO
sabi} 4ST oY AT[euYy pure ‘oquieyo
JO [BUS 9Y} OUT W9Yy ‘Loquivyo poe
oy} OUT Uy} ‘JeMOJ SUI[OOD Oy
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dn osinood Suflepuvet & onsind weyy
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wo soyselds pre ey,
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uo Sursurdur ATyenuryu09
ale soses oy} Vey pesuel
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(SHOMBvYSNIE g) snyereddy
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Jeddn oy) WO. soses JOU
oy AVAUOD 07 STVAIOJUT 1B
seqny SUrNIYstp SUurUTe,
-10d puUB ‘SJe[UL SVs OY
UJIM pepraoid: Jaqureyo
peel Je~nuue jo surystsuoo
(SUOTYBASNT F) snyereddy
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jo womyonpoid 107
-WIBYO pus ‘Je}VA SUTUTR}
-u0d ony &@ JO suTAsTsSuOD
(smOTyVSNIIL ¢) snyeieddy
lenteone (MOIIV.4SN][I 1) Ssed01g
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pov S100} JO SUTISISUOD
(suolye.ysnyit Z) snyeieddy
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pure ‘yueuryedu0d Joy[eUuls
e ‘ieqmieyd 8 ‘laM0}
suljooo & JO SuUT\SISuOd
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-posojdmo snyvivddy
“re %OS
‘yeyea ‘TMOTJOR SUT[OOD pus
SUIXTUL ‘Hed0.1NTU JO SOPIXO |-""7°° "°°" °° ‘oSTNT
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saprxo ‘Aeads 1078.4 ‘are “Og |--7~° sipleioaeies Pe SOU a LEI
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jo event ‘uiveys ‘are “Og Jo-0 7775 e-¢ ‘ssAQyy
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°
BULLETIN 283, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
28
2
‘a.myeiodu04 [0.4u09
pue soses JO o1NyxXTUL Ysno
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‘od
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OY} SUTYVIVTOONe OJ OdTAOCT
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oy} JO JOpUIVUeI OY, ‘lequreyo
OY} JO UO OY OJUL PsdNpoOUTL
pue UMBIPYITA yAvd ur ore “equieyo
4sIG OY} BUISIOAVTY J99j;B ‘Soses OTL,
*sseooid
io snjvivdde jo yoolqg
“‘{UeTI} ROLY,
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JO Jeju90 4@ 40[jno0 pues
[18M oprs jo doy oy} xeou
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eno = JO BUTYSTSOD
(SuOT}VIYSNI IE Z) snywasddy
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soses YSo.l OY} UITM PoxtuL
ole Yoram ‘seses yuods
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SUIMBIPYJIM OJ PoprA
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29
PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID,
*4S00
sso] 18 FOS*H Jo uoryonpoid
quoeloyge o10ud 10oy snyeieddy
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jo worjeitdrocid pue soeses
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pue suryesmuep peulquop
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IO} [el10} eu SuTyoVd yUSLOYyy
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oy} pus ‘poxtur ‘pajooo oie sosvd
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pues UMBIPYIIM Jed UT oIe IOMOZ
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ayisoddo 4% peonposjyUl ore Seses OUT,
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4sIy 9} OUI Seses YSolJ [JIM poonp
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[BOI}I9A JO SelIOS SUTUIR?
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(suolyBaysny ¢) snyereddy
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BULLETIN 283, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, *
“srequreyo sorytjuenb payepnser Yous UTA “a101 “u19jSAS 0JUT STBAIO}
ol} Ul SuUOTJOBeI Bure, dur09 -sks oy} YySnory) Surssed ur ‘porary -UI 78 posdNnpolyuUL 1B pue
pue sUTyVIe[oI0B JO ssod0Id | civ WUReJS PUB OINIXIUT SNOVSes OAL |-*~ 77 (SUOT}BIYSNITII Z) SSoo0Ig | ‘1eyVM ‘MOSO0IJTU JO SOPIXO |-- 7-7-7777 77 T°N ‘zuloH | SI6I | 6FI‘LZSO‘T
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JO S}UeIINO oy OJUL pus JOquILTD
oY} JO SOprs oY} JSUIVSe UMOIY} 1 ee LOT : “MOTOR
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SUTJOVOI SULXTUL PUB BUT[OOD -U00 BY} SUTYIIS puv Joquivyo pee, —_|-uod sIequIvYp) Jo SUTYSISUOD pue orsserduroo ‘107RA\
Ayysnor0yy soy snyvieddy | repnsuvjoo1 v 1ojUe Sosvs Ioung oy, | (suoreaysnTp Z) snjereddy | ‘uoZosyru yo seprxo ‘are %Qg |--77 77777 “"9 ‘¢Q ‘s8rey, | ZI6L | S6F‘ZZ0ST
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-op snyeredde jo suvour “ABM TeNSN OY} Ul JOMO} JOAOTH oY -WIBYD [BIDAVS JO SUTYSISUOD -0@ SuljoooO pue 3UTXIUL
Aq Soses JO OINJXTUT JUOTOYF | WO LOQ(UIeYO ISIY 9} 109 soses oT, | (SuoTPVIjsNT ¢) snyereddy | ‘ueso0.1y1u Jo seprxo ‘ate “%Qg |--*- 7-77 “H’‘O ‘SUM | 2o6T | 896 ‘098
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31
PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID,
*IO4IIL
Jo Suravs yuenbesuoo pus
‘sIaM0} ovss/T-ABH pue
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puv JOMO} JOAOTH JO UO0Ty
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\
“sortyuenb
qoedoid Ut wes01j1u JO Sept
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10 snjeredde jo yoolqo
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oY} 0} prov oy Seynqriystp ATUIO;IUN
SUIA[OAGI UL Jes A AIVUOIJOVEL OU\L,
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OY} OJUL SUNI SSuTA OY} WOIZ MOT.
-I0A0 OU, [BES o1[NVIpAY oy WLIO;
SSUII OSey} UL pooeid pue poejIeAut
SIETqUINY Ssvjs oy, ‘“S}o9]]oo p1owe
0G} oImM Ul SUL B SUTUIAOF sNyy
‘JOULIOF 9y} JO seq oy} vAoge qooloid.
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“IJ9MO} OVSSI’T-ABY YY
Ul peqarosqe A[Ipvet sured punodu09
19448] Ott ‘FON 01 FOFN OYJ Soonp
-al YOM WOR YIM poxtUl o1e S19eq
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‘seses Jeumnq-joy ey} Aq
90IF 19S U9SOIIIU JO SOPIXO oY} G.A0Sqe
pues 4oo]joo ued plo’ JafooOd Yor
Ul Sofoyuoesid OU O1IB O10} 4VUY
posuviie os suryoed pus i9M0} OTT,
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JO SOprxo Jo vars Apveis B FEQONCN
puv prov jo serjddns ey} suepnser Ag
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(SuOTYeI}SNTTT g) snyereddy }-----7 7777 o te PO SOROD SEIQUO NG | Baur sess Sn OD meas
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(uoT}eAYsHYTE T) snyereddy |--FOs*H “ON®BN Jo uOHNOS
AE EES VW ‘USTREA
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BULLETIN 283, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
32
“ues01rU
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JO WIOy MOU JO SUTYSTSUOD
(suOIyBIysnyE -) snyereddy
oily ge (SUOTIVAISNIE €) SS900.A¢T
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33
PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID.
“prov olmmydyns pure ues
-O.J JO SOprXO JO sedV.1}
ysep Jo AIOAODGI IOJ SSvd0Ig
*m9d01}1U JO SOprxXO
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pokvids wey} St suty[nsel *ON®N
eu ‘“pedvads st &€QOO%N JO WOTNpOsS
@ YOM OJUL SOMO} OA} Yonormyy
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{UU} VEL,
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oasis (suorjerysnqft ¢) sseoorg | snoaytm jo seyddns omy, | ~~" ‘tles190}0 qd
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fig pran ounydjns fo aunponfnunw ayy ur pasn sayu fo woydwnsuod ayy un fiauowora yoaf/a 07 Kipunuasd poubisap sassao0ud puv sryounddy—' AX BIAV I,
BULLETIN 283, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
34
“MOTJON.SUOD JO 4SOd PUB
gourds Joquivyo ur AWOUOdTT
“SoC TUBILO
peo, SurAojdwe ynoyyrn
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UM FOS*H dann ene
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va} “ON pus %Og pmbry
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fig pwn anrinydyns fo aunpofnunu, ay) wu. painbas sonds waquoya fo yunown ay? aonpat 07 hprsnunud paubrsap sassavold puv sryninddy— TAX IAI,
35
PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID.
“ONH *s19M0} Sutztprxo jo Aqrpemyd
JO SSOT JHOYIIA pues (Areurp ® wMop surssed “£q poyedoueser
-10) slequieya pee, Jo esn m0} SEEQNH poonpeleyy, “ONH
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JO H[Nq oY} YoryM YSn01q} s.tesv07
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Ul SUIZIUIOTIODD SNyy ‘seq plo’ oy Woy prow ormmydinsonra
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NOI FOS*H JO UOToNpoIg | YIM 1039304 ‘seses JoeuIN 04} JO jeg |- ~~~ “(SUOTJeIYSNIII Zz) sssooig | “OS “prow ormyYydpnsoyin |---- 7-777 9 ‘Ido | Wet | 1zF‘zt0‘T
“Serles UL pejoevu
‘TAMBIPYIIM ole pus -109 40U 918 PUB SUOISUOUL
110310 OY} 07 9[}I0S AT[VNpe.is seses -Ip [ejuozIoy Tou} ureyy
yueds ey ‘sieqmeyo oy jo doy JOYSIY Sour} J[Vey-euo pue
‘sosv3 queds OY} JB petdofZ SNY} SI seses Suryovel ou 918 SlequIeyo oy} Vey
04} WOT soses SUT}OReL OY eq} JO ouoz you Wy “doy oy} Jvou ydeoxe + ‘quejd Jequieyo
jO UOTVse1ses ey} 0} ONp SIOQ(TUIVYD PLO] OY} OFUT 19A\0 JBAOTS) jensn 0} jo Surjsrsuo0o *IOJEM
FOS*H JO UOTJonpold yuoloyZy | OY WJ Pe] ST Sesvs Jo ox oY, | (SUOTBIYSNTT 9) snyvreddy | ‘uoeSorru yo seprxo ‘are ZOg |----- >> 7 fw ‘SUIpled | 6061 LL*CE6
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10 snyeiedde Jo yoolqo } peal], podaoy y V Pest S} tae PUOLC I A N Jue
,
‘ponulu0j—ssav0ud waquinya ay?
fig pwn nuinydjns fo aingonfnunw ayy ur pasnbas aands waqunya fo yunowD ay) aonpas 07 fijiunwaisd paubisap sassavoud pun snyounddy— TAX @IAV,
BULLETIN 283, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
36
—__--———————————— eee SO ee Eee es
70S
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37
SULPHURIC ACID.
PRODUCTION OF
70S
ET pus POST WOT *O%
Suryeur JO poyJeU JUSTOUs Ty
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ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
10 CENTS PER COPY
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Contribution from the Office of Public Roads and Rural
Engineering, LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director
Washington, D.C. ; Vv September 17, 1915
CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE OF ROADS AND
BRIDGES FROM JULY 1, 1913, to DECEMBER 31, 1914.
CONTENTS.
Page. Page
IMtrodtGhlonpes =e ae 1 Work of the Division of National
Work of the Division of Construc- Parks and Forest Roads_____--_~ 53
TAKON) 2 ee 2 Work done in National Forests_ 54
Object-lesson roads__--~~_ = aes 2 Survey: WiOl ke eee eee 54
Superintendence of county roads. 23 ConstructionmwoOlke eee 5D
Hxperimental road work —~---_-_ 50 Work done in National Parks__ 57
IROSt-LoOadeawiOnkw=——=— = 52 Work of the Division of Mainte-
Bride emwObke = — eee 53 NAN Ch ee ee 58
INTRODUCTION.
Owing to the fact that the active field work of the office accords
better with the calendar year than with the fiscal year, it has been
thought best to report herein the work of the Divisions of Construc-
tion, Maintenance, and National Park and Forest Roads for the past
18 months, and in the future to have the reports cover the calendar
years. This bulletin takes up the field work of the above three
divisions where Department Bulletin No. 53 (Object Lesson and Ex-
perimental Roads, and Bridge Construction, 1912-18) left off. These
three divisions have been formed from the one division of engineer-
ing since Bulletin 53 was issued, and the records of work divided
accordingly.
As mentioned in Bulletin No. 53, the Office of Public Roads and
Rural Engineering is empowered by a provision of the agricultural
act to expend a portion of its appropriation “ for investigations of the
best methods of road making and the best kinds of road-making mate-
rials, and for furnishing expert advice on road building and mainte-
nance.”! In the interpretation of this clause the desire of the office
has been to demonstrate in a practical way the need for good roads,
as well as the benefits derived from them, and at the same time to
1 Agricultural act, 1914, Public No. 430, 62d Cong., 3d sess., approyed Mar. 4, 1913,
38°—Bull, 284—15. 1
2 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
show to the various communities the best and most economical meth-
ods of road and bridge construction and maintenance.
The work consists in furnishing upon the request of the local
officials the services of one or more engineers to make surveys, esti-
mates, and specifications for road improvements, and to supervise the
construction, in addition to giving practical advice to the local
authorities, who must furnish all machinery, materials, and labor.
WORK OF THE DIVISION OF CONSTRUCTION.
The work of the Division of Construction, of which Vernon M.
Peirce is chief, comprises the following projects: Construction of
object-lesson roads, construction of experimental roads, construction
of post roads, superintendence of county roads, design and inspec-
tion of bridges and culverts.
OBJECT-LESSON ROADS.
Short stretches of various kinds of roads in different communities
have been constructed, upon application from local road authorities,
as object lessons, for the purpose of demonstrating the proper ma-
terials and methods of construction in the respective communities.
Forty object-lesson roads have been built during the period from
July 1, 1913, to December 31, 1914. A detailed account of each one
follows, given in order of the type of construction, the more ex-
pensive forms first. Under these types the roads are given alphabeti-
cally by States, counties, and towns.
CEMENT-CONCRETE ROAD.
PRINCE EDWARD CouUNTY, FARMVILLE, VA.—Work was begun on a cement-con-
crete road extending from Farmville toward Hampden Sidney on September 25,
1913, and completed October 18, 1918, with a loss of one day on account of rain.
The surrounding land is rolling and the soil a red clay. The road was graded
24 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 1,450 feet. The earth was
loosened with plows and hauled with slip scrapers, wheel scrapers, and wagons.
A steam roller was used on the subgrade. The road was surfaced with con-
crete 16 feet wide for a distance of 515 feet, making an area of 916 square
yards. The thickness is 7 inches at the middle and 5 inches at the sides. The
mixture used was 1 part cement, 2 sand, and 4 gravel. Expansion joints of two
strips of two-ply tar paper were placed every 25 feet.
One 18-inch 28-foot corrugated-iron pipe culvert was placed at a cost of $32.
The total cost of the work, excluding the pipe culvert, was $1,413.18, or $1.137
per square yard. Labor was $1.50 per day and teams $4 per day of 10 hours.
‘he principal items of cost were: Excavation and embankment, $5387.40; rent
of roller, five days, at $5 per day, $25; 8 tons of coal, at $4.85 per ton, $18.05;
cement, 170 barrels, at $1.88 per barrel, $811.10; sand, 50 cubie yards, at $0.10
per cubie yard, $5; loading and hauling sand to road, $0.66 per cubie yard, $33;
gravel, f. o. b. cars at siding, 125 tons, at $1.60 per ton, $200; loading and haul-
ing gravel, 14 miles, $0.3879 per ton, $47.88; rent of concrete mixer, six days, at
$4 per day, $24; coal for mixer, 2 tons, at $4.85 per ton, $8.70; mixing and plac-
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 3
ing concrete, at $0.199 per square yard, $182.87; setting forms, $15.63; and mis-
cellaneous labor, $10.50.
BITUMINOUS-MACADAM ROADS.
DADE County, LEMoN City, Fta.—Work was conducted on an experimental
object-lesson road beginning about one-fourth mile north of Lemon City, on the
Biscayne Drive, during January and February, 1914. The work consisted of
the construction of five sections of bituminous-macadam road; the stone was a
local coralline rock, with various bituminous materials for the top coat. The
surfaced width was 18 feet and the length 334.4 feet, making a total area of
668.8 square yards.
The total cost of the work was $420.77, or $0.629 per square yard.
Detailed description will be found in Progress Report of Dust Prevention and
Road Preservation for 1914."
PautmM BeacuH County, Wrest PALM BEACH, FLA.—Work was conducted on an
experimental object-lesson road beginning at a point about 2 miles south of
West Palm Beach, on the Miami-Quebec Highway, during April, 1914. The
work consisted of the construction of seven sections of bituminous-macadam
road. The stone was a local coralline rock, with various bituminous materials
for the top coat. The surfaced width was 15 feet and the length 860 feet,
making a total area of 1,483 square yards.
The total cost of the work was $808.17, or $0.564 per square yard.
A detailed description will be found in Progress Report of Dust Prevention
and Road Preservation, 1914.*
Avuagusta CouNTY, STAUNTON, VA.—Work was begun on a road leading from
Staunton toward Middlebrook on September 16, 1913. This office furnished a
representative for the purpose of instructing the local authorities in applying
the bituminous surface. He superintended the laying of one kind of bitumin-
- ous material and turned this one section over to the local authorities on Sep-
tember 29, 1913, with 24 days lost due to bad weather.
When the office representative arrived this road had been graded 21 feet
wide in both cuts and fills for a length of 1,700 feet. The subgrade, 15 feet
wide, had been prepared, the shaping was practically done, and most of the
first course of rock had been placed.
The adjacent land is rolling and the natural svil is clay and rock. The
crushed rock was a limestone with good binding qualities and a fair wearing
quality. It was loaded into wagons by gravity from the bins, hauled about
three-quarters of a mile, and dumped on the road in piles and spread with
rakes and shovels.
On the prepared subgrade the No. 1 stone, ranging from 2 to 34 inches in
size, had been spread to a depth of 5 inches and rolled until compacted to 34
inches. On this course was spread 3 inches of loose No. 2 stone, ranging from
three-fourths inch to 2 inches in size, and rolled until compacted to 2 inches.
The bituminous binder was spread on this course at the rate of 14 gallons tuo
the square yard. This was covered with screenings varying from one-fourth
to three-fourths inch in size. The road was then rolled, and a seal coat of
about one-half gallon of bituminous binder applied. The binder was delivered
in a tank car and heated by steam from a pump station of the Chesapeake &
Ohio Railroad. At the time of the departure of the office representative 2,106
1 Bulletin No. 257, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
4 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
square yards of bituminous surfacing was entirely completed, 270 tons of No.
2 stone and 63.83 tons of screenings had been spread, and 5,338 gallons of
bitumen used.
The equipment consisted of a 10-ton roller, a 700-gallon distributor wagon,
rattan brooms, ete. State convicts were employed as laborers. Their laboz
was valued at $1 per day of 10 hours. The teams were hired at $3 per day;
roller at $5 per day; roller man at $2 per day; night watchman and subfore-
man at $2 per day.
The cost of the bituminous surface, including No. 2 stone and screenings,
was $1,069.44, or at the rate of $0.507 per square yard. The principal items of
cost were as follows: Trimming shoulders, $0.80; stone in the bins at $1 per
cubie yard, $333.83; hauling stone to road at $0.178 per cubic yard, $59.40;
spreading No. 2 stone at $0.075 per cubic yard, $20.40; spreading screenings at
$0.218 per cubic yard, $18.90; rolling, including labor, rent, and fuel, at $0.007
per square yard, $22.05; general expenses, $7.50; demurrage on tank ear, $11;
bituminous material at $0.09 per gallon, $480.42; unloading and hauling sams
at $0.0025, $13.40; heating bitumen, including depreciation of equipment,
$62.04; spreading bitumen, $27.50; sweeping surface, $3.60; patching, $0.60;
cost of steam, $13.
BITUMINOUS RESURFACING.
LEE County, Fort Myers, FtA.—Work was begun resurfacing the McGregor
Boulevard leading from Fort Myers toward Punta Rassa on April 29, 1914, and
completed May 7, 1914. The road was built with shell and given a bituminous
surface treatment in the fall of 1912 under the supervision of this office.
From the time of the construction in 1912 to the resurfacing in May, 1914, the
road was practically without maintenance or repair.
The surface was prepared by sweeping it clean with a street sweeper and
hand brooms, and the grass was scraped from the roadsides with a grader.
The oil was hauled an average of 24 miles and applied from a 500-gallon
gravity distributor to the hard, dry, clean surface. It was allowed to stand
until absorbed, and then covered with a thin coat of sand. One-half of the
road was treated at a time in order to allow traffic the uninterrupted use of
the road. The average rate of application was 0.246 gallon per square yard.
The sand, obtained from the roadside, was screened, and spread to a depth of
about three-sixteenths of an inch.
The road was treated for a width of 16 feet and a length of 8,950 feet, or an
area of 15,911 square yards. Labor was $1.80 per day, and teams $5 per day
of nine hours. Oil cost $0.0575 per gallon f. o. b. tank cars at Fort Myers.
The total cost of the work was $478.51, which is at the rate of $282 per mile,
or $0.0301 per square yard. The principal items of cost were preparing sur-
face, $0.0029 per square yard; cost of oil, $0.0142 per square yard; hauling and
applying, $0.0018 per square yard; brooming, $0.0018 per square yard; excayat-
ing and screening sand, $0.0088 per square yard; and spreading sand, $0.0011
per square yard.
MACADAM ROADS.
FAuQuieR Country, REcTORTOWN, VA.—Work was begun July 7, 1913, on a
macadam road extending from the depot at Rectortown north to Marshall
Road, and completed November 1, 1913, with a loss of 41 days on account of bad
weather. The adjacent land is rolling and the natural soil is clay from station
1 Described in Bul. No. 53, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, ‘‘ Object-lesson and Experi-
mental Roads and Bridge Construction, 1912-13,”
Oe
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 5
0+00 to 27+00 and solid rock from station 27+00 to 28+00. The road was
graded 26 feet wide in cuts and 20 feet wide in fills for 2,800 feet. The maxi-
mum cut was 1.7 feet, the maximum fill 2.6 feet. The total amount of excava-
tion was 1,356 cubic yards, of which 131 cubic yards was rock excavation. The
maximum grade of 8 per cent was reduced to 5.8 per cent.
Harth was loosened with plows and picks, loaded with shovels, hauled with
wagons and wheelbarrows, and spread with shovels. A surface of macadam
was laid for 2,800 feet, 14 feet wide, making 4,355 square yards. The macadam
was applied in two courses, the first-course stones ranging in size from 14 to 3
inches and applied 53 inches deep; the second course ranging in size from three-
fourths inch to 14 inches and applied 24 inches deep. On this course the screen-
ings were applied, ranging in size from dust to one-half inch. When compacted the
surfacing was 6 inches in depth. The material used for surfacing was a diabase,
locally known as ‘ironstone.’ It has fair binding qualities and good wearing
qualities. The crusher was set up at station 10+50 and the hanl from the
quarry was about 50 feet; the haul of water for the crusher engine was 2,600
feet and the average haul of water for the sprinkler was 3,000 feet. Stone was
brought to the crusher in wagons and wheelbarrows, crushed, stored in bins,
and loaded from the bins directly into the wagons by means of a chute.
Drainage structures were constructed as follows: At 0+12 a 15-inch corru-
gated-iron pipe; at 9+S80 a 12-inch corrugated-iron pipe; at 12+20 a 12-inch
corrugated-iron pipe; at 19+00 a 3 by 6 foot concrete culvert; at 23-++50 a
12-inch corrugated-iron pipe; and at 25+80 a 12-inch corrugated-iron pipe.
Concrete head walls were built at all pipe ends.
The equipment consisted of a 10-ton roller, a 12- Noreecower engine, and a
No. 4 rock crusher.
Labor cost from $1.25 to $2.25 per day of 10 hours, and teams cost from $3 to
$5. The total cost of the road was $4,215.69, which is at the rate ef $0.968 per
square yard. The principal items of cost were as follows: Clearing and grub-
bing, $23.73; excavation at $0.623 per cubic yard, $833.88; shaping at $0.02 per
square yard, $90.48; culvert pipe, $103.45; labor on same, $47.30; concrete
culvert, $31.55; labor on same, $76; end walls, $5.50; side walls, $208.55; exea-
vation for culvert, $22.77; forms, $39.28; quarrying at $0.934 per cubic yard,
$600.47 ; hauling to crusher at $0.837 per cubic yard, $347.60; crushing at $0.495
per cubic yard, $524.86; hauling, crusher to road, at $0.203 per cubic yard,
$212.60; spreading at $0.106 per cubic yard, $111.51; sprinkling at $0.0066 per
square yard, $32.50; rolling at $0.055 per square yard, $242.80; general expense,
$162.30; trimming shoulders, $5.87; explosives, $106.67; blacksmithing, $68.11;
reinforcing steel, $34.21; lumber, $25; cement, $65.50; extras, $16.61; fuel.
$176.64.
CHERT MACADAM ROAD.
NEWTON County, NrosHo, Mo.—Work on a road extending from Neosho south-
ward toward Pineville was begun November 28, 1913, and completed December
19, 1918, with a loss of 44 days on account of bad weather. The adjacent land
is hilly and the natural soil is chert and clay. For a distance of 2,000 feet the
' road was graded to a width of 26 feet in cuts and to a width of 22 feet in fills,
for which 2,270 cubic yards cf material was moved. The maximum grade was
reduced from 9 per cent to 6 per cent. The material was loosened with plows
and a heavy harrow, hauled in wheel scrapers, and spread with shovels. The
average haul was 300 feet, with a maximum haul of 500 feet.
The surface material was a chert varying in size from dust to 23 inches.
The run of the crusher was used without screening and the material was
~
6 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
spread in one course to a depth of 6 inches for a width of 8 feet and a length of
933 feet, making 829 square yards. About 1388 cubie yards of material were
used with an average haul from the crusher to the road of 630 feet. Planks
2 by 6 inches were used at the sides to secure a uniform depth of 6 inches, and
against these planks shoulders were built. The surfacing material was loaded
into wagons direct from the elevator, hauled in farm wagons and spread with
shovels, and the surface given a crown of three-fourths inch to the foot.
The equipment consisted of fourteen wheel scrapers, four drag scrapers,
two heavy grading plows, one heavy harrow, one rooter, one road grader, one
6-ton horse roller, one crusher, one 25-horsepower traction engine.
Labor cost, $1.80, and teams, $3.60 per 9-hour day. The contract for the
engine at $10 per day included fuel. The total cost of the road was $1,190.43,
which is at the rate of $0.222 per square yard of graded area. The principal
items of cost were as follows: Plowing, at $0.14 per cubic yard, $315.02;
scraping, at $0.2685 per cubic yard, $609.60; trimming banks, at $0.0322 per
square yard, $38.70; blasting, at $0.6867 per cubic yard, $20.60, including $8
for dynamite; hand-breaking stone, at $1.282 per cubic yard, $42.30; trimming
shoulders, at $0.028 per linear foot, $26.48; spreading stone. at $0.0587 per
cubic yard, $8.10; crushing, at $0.5155 per cubic yard, $54.13; rolling, at
$0.0052 per square yard, $20.80; hauling stone to crusher, varying from $0.25
to $0.30 per cubic yard, $33.85; hauling crushed stone to road, at $0.2038 per
cubic yard, $21.40.
GRAVEL ROADS.
CoAHOMA COUNTY, CLARKSDALE, Miss. (SECTION 1).—A gravel road leading
from Clarksdale northwesterly toward Friar Point was begun on January 5,
1914, and completed January 19, 1914, with a loss of four days waiting for
materials. The adjacent land is level and the natural soil a buckshot clay. A
section 1,060 feet long was graded with 580 feet surfaced 20 feet wide, and
480 feet surfaced 16 feet wide, making the surfaced area 2,142 square yards.
The grade of the road was not. materially changed, and the average cut was
but 0.5 foot with a maximum of 1 foot. The material was loosened with
plows, loaded by hand into slat-bottom wagons, and hauled away. The sur-
facing material, which was Tishomingo gravel and novaculite, was shipped in on
the cars. The gravel weighed 3,000 pounds to the cubic yard, and the novaculite
weighed 2,400 to the cubic yard. The novaculite seemed to have better
wearing and binding qualities than the gravel. The material was spread to
a loose depth of 12 inches by means of rakes, shovels, and the drag. It was
afterwards rolled with a 5-ton horse roller until the material was compacted
to 8 inches. The average haul from the cars to the road was one-fourth mile.
The material contained particles of stone from the size of peastone to that of
cobblestone. The road was given a crown of 6 inches on the surfaced portion.
The equipment consisted of a road grader, a 5-ton horse roller, wagons, and
small tools. Labor cost $1.50 and teams $4.50 per 10-hour day.
The cost of the novaculite on the cars was $1.63 per 2,000 pounds, or $1.96
per cubic yard, and the gravel $1.474 per 2,500 pounds, or $1.77 per cubie yard.
The total cost of the road to the community was $1,722.72, which is at the
rate of $0.804 per square yard for the surfacing. ‘The principal items of cost
were as follows: Excavation, $71; shaping, at $0.0217 per square yard, $46.50;
surfacing material, $1,191.22; loading wagons from car at $0.126 per cubic
yard, $94.50; hauling from cars to road, at $0.815 per cubic yard, $236.25;
spreading material, at $0.058 per ecubie yard, $438.50; trimming shoulders,
$16.50; rolling, at $0.011 per square yard, $23.25.
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. (
CoAHoMA COUNTY, CLARKSDALE, Miss. (Section 2).—A second section of
gravel road leading from Clarksdale northwesterly toward Friar Point was
begun November 17, 1913, and completed January 29, 1914, with a loss of one
day, due to bad weather. The adjacent land is slightly rolling and the soil
a sandy loam throughout the entire length. A section 2,640 feet long was
graded for a width of 26 feet in both cuts and fills. The gravel surface is
2,640 feet long for a width of 10 feet, making a surfaced area of 2,983 square
yards. The maximum cut was 2 feet and the maximum fill 3 feet, and the
material was moved with slip scrapers after being loosened with plows. The
average haul was 100 feet, with a maximum haul of 600 feet. The surfacing
material was Tishomingo gravel, shipped on the cars. The baul from the
ears to the road was approximately 34 miles. The material was spread by
hand, using rakes and shovels. The material wears well under moderate
traffic, but tends to lose its binding quality in dry weather.
The gravel-was spread in one course to a depth of 9 inches and compacted
to 6 inches by aid of a roller. The gravel ranged in size from that of cobble-
stone to peastone. It is estimated that 867 cubic yards of gravel were used.
As completed, the road has a 4-foot shoulder of earth on one side and a 12-
foot earth roadway on the other, with the finished surface having a crown of
1 inch to 1 foot. One cross drain, 25 feet long, of 12-inch clay pipe was laid
at station 52-+00.
The equipment consisted of a road grader, a 5-ton horse roller, slat-bottom
wagons, and small tools. Labor cost $1.50, and teams $4, including driver
per 10-hour day. The total cost of the road to the community was $2,862.38,
which is at the rate of $0.976 per square yard. The principal items of cost
were as follows: Excavation, $197.98; shaping, at $0.02 per square yard, $59.60;
12-inch clay pipe, at $0.45 per linear foot, $11.25; labor on same, $3.25; foreman,
$48.50; gravel, at $1.475 per cubie yard, $1,278.88; hauling from ears to road
per contract, at $1.25 per cubie yard, $1,083.75; spreading gravel, at $0.12 per
cubie yard, $88.35; rolling per square yard, at $0.015, $44.12; trimming shoulders
and ditches, $51.75.
SUNFLOWER CouNTy, INDIANOLA, Miss.—A gravel road leading from Indianola
northerly toward Faisonia was begun on October 14, 1913, and completed
November 19, 1913, with a loss of nine days on account of bad weather and one
day due to other causes. The adjacent land is level, with a buckshot soil the
entire length of the road. A section 1,790 feet long was graded for a width
of 24 feet. The gravel surface is 16 feet in width for the entire length, giving
an area of 3,182 square yards. The grade of the road was not materially
changed, the average fill was but 0.8 foot, and the maximum 1.83 feet. It is
estimated that 1,837 cubic yards of material were used in the embankment.
The maximum haul was 40 feet. The material was loosened by plows and
moved with drag scrapers. c
The surfacing material was shipped in by rail a distance of 243 miles, and
was the pit-run of gravel with good wearing qualities, but with varying bind-
ing qualities, and the gravel required careful spreading. It was applied in
one course for a depth of 104 inches at the center and 8 inches at the sides
before compacting. The crown of the road was five-eighths inch to the foot.
The equipment consisted of a 10-ton tractor roller and drag scrapers. The
surfacing’ material, of which 997 cubic yards were used, was delivered on the
ears at the contract price of $1.46 per cubic yard, making it cost $1,452.60 at
the siding. Labor cost $1.50 per day, and teams, including driver, $3.50 per
day, based on a 10-hour day. The total cost of the road to the community
was $2,218, which is at the rate of $0.697 per square yard. The principal
8 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
items of cost were as follows: Embankment, at $0.181 per cubic. yard, $175.20;
shaping the subgrade, at $0.005 per square yard, $19.50; gravel on siding, at
$1.46 per cubic yard, $1,452.60; hauling and loading gravel, at $0.832 per cubic
yard, $381; spreading gravel, at $0.085 per cubic yard, $34.95; rolling gravel,
at $0.0026 per square yard, $8.25; rolling subgrade, $3.60; building shoulders,
$14.25; equipping wagons, $1.05; general expenses, $111; rehandling gravel
to save demurrage, $66.60.
RANDOLPH CouNTy, ASHEBORO, N. C.—A gravel road leading from Asheboro
north toward Randleman was begun November 14, 1913, and entirely com-
pleted December 19, 1918, with two days lost on account of bad weather and
one day from other causes. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil
yellow clay from station 0+00 to 14+00; rock and yellow clay from station
14+00 to 17+00; yellow clay and some rock from station 174-00 to 24+00. A
section 2,400 feet long was graded 25 feet wide in cuts and 22 feet in fills.
The gravel surface is 2,400 feet long and 10 feet in width, making an area
of 2,667 square yards. Three wooden box culverts were constructed, each 1
by 1.5 feet by 24 feet long. One 4-inch tile was used for road drainage be-
tween stations 1+75 and 2+50.
The maximum grade was reduced from 8 per cent to 5 per cent. The
maximum cut was 4.8 feet, and the maximum fill was 2 feet. Nine hundred
and seventy-six cubic yards of earth were excavated, with an average haul
of 150 feet and a maximum haul of 400 feet. In addition, about 47 cubic yards
of rock were removed. This material was loosened with picks, plows, and
dynamite, hauled in wagons and slip scrapers, and spread with shovels and
road grader. :
The surfacing material was gravel containing about 6O per cent quartzite
with top soil and clay. It was hauled about 1,000 feet and spread with stone
forks. The gravel appears to have good binding and wearing qualities. The
gravel was applied in one course to a depth of 6 inches before compacting, and
the size of the particles ranged from dust to 3 inches. Four hundred and
forty-four cubic yards of grave! were used, of which 290 cubic yards were
purchased. The crown of the road, as finished, was three-fourths inch to the
foot.
The equipment consisted of a road grader and drag scrapers.
Labor cost $1.25 to $1.50, and teams $2.50, based on a 10-hour day. The total
cost of the road to the community was $520.15, which is at the rate of $0.195
per square yard. The principal items of cost were as follows: Excavation, at
$0.258 per cubic yard, $264.24; shaping, at $0.0056 per square yard, $15; culvert
materials, $5.50; labor on Same, $3.12; clearing and grubbing, $11.44; gravel,
at $0.1034 per cubic yard, $30; loosening and loading, at $0.188 per cubie yard,
$61.25; hauling from pit to road, at $0.1267 per cubie yard, $56.25; spreading
gravel, at $0.0801 per cubic yard,. $13.88; shaping same, at $0.0075 per cubic
yard, $20; trimming shoulders, $0.0062 per linear foot, $15; general expenses,
$16.25; explosives, $8.72.
KINNEY CoUNTY, BRACKETTVILLE, Trex.—Work was begun surfacing with
gravel the Spofford road, extending south from Brackettville toward Spofford,
on April 23, 1914, and completed May 6, 1914, with no time lost from any cause.
The adjacent land is rolling and the soil is black lime, with a small amount of
chalk throughout. The road was graded 36 feet wide in both cuts and fills and
was 1,500 feet in length. There was practically no excavation or fill, the earth
was loosened by plows drawn by tractor and hauled and spread by two graders
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 9
drawn by tractor. The maximum fill was 0.5 foot and the total excavation did
not exceed 500 cubic yards. The maximum grade was 2 per cent.
A surface of gravel was laid for 1,500 feet, 16 feet wide, making 2,667 square
yards. The gravel was applied in one course with a loose thickness of 8 inches
at the center and 4 inches at the sides, with a crown of 6 inches. The material
was dumped between 2 by 4 inch planks on edge at sides and the shoulders
were built up against the edge of gravel. All the gravel used for surfacing
passed a 3-inch ring, had fair binding and wearing qualities, and was obtained
from a pit at an average haul to the road of three-fourths of a mile. No water
was used on the road during the rolling, which was done with a 6-ton horse
roller. The gravel was hauled by farm wagons of 1 cubic yard capacity and
Troy dump wagons of 34 cubic yards capacity hauled by a tractor.
The equipment consisted of one 20-horsepower gasoline tractor, two extra
heavy graders, slx 33-yard wagons, a 6-ton horse roller, two rooters, two road
plows, four drag scrapers, and one steel road drag. Labor cost $1.20 per day
of eight hours and teams $3 per day. The total cost of the road was $460.60,
which is at the rate of $0.1727 per square yard, or $1,621.31 per mile.
The principal items of cost were as follows: Plowing and grading, $0.328 per
square yard of finished surface; rolling subgrade, $0.0017 per square yard; _
loosening and loading gravel, $0.3447 per cubic yard; hauling gravel, $0.8981
per cubic yard; spreading gravel, $0.0584 per cubic yard; rolling gravel, $0.0014
per square yard; trimming shoulders and ditches, $0.0056 per linear foot.
CALDWELL CouNTY, LOCKHART, TEx. (No. 1).—Work was begun on a gravel
road extending south from Lockhart toward Seawillow on the Gonzales road
May 28, 1914, and completed on August 7, 1914, with a loss of four days on ac-
count of bad weather. The adjacent land is rolling and the natural soil was as
follows: Section 1—Station 0+00 to 7+00, black waxy; station 7+00 to 28-++00,
gray adobe; station 28+00 to 40+00, clay gravel; station 40+00 to 49-++00,
limestone, gravel, and black dirt. Section 2—Station 0+00 to 32+00, white
adobe. The road was graded 36 feet wide in cuts and 20 feet wide in fills. The
maximum cut was 1.5 feet and the maximum fill 2.5 feet. No change was made
in maximum grades. Earth was loosened with plows, hauled by Fresno serapers,
and shaped with a blade grader.
A surface of gravel 14 feet wide was laid for 8,975 feet, making 13,961 square
yards. The gravel was applied in two courses, the first course from 13 to 38
inches in size and applied 6 inches loose depth; the second course from sand
to 14 inches, applied 34 inches loose depth. When completed the surfacing was
7% inches deep. The material used for surfacing was a pit sand-clay gravel
with good binding and wearing qualities. The average haul for both gravel
and water for sprinkling was 2,000 feet. The gravel was loaded with slip
serapers through a loading trap into slat-bottom wagons and was spread with a
grader.
Drainage structures were built as follows: One 18-inch by 22-foot corrugated
pipe culvert; six 24-inch by 22-foot corrugated pipe culverts; three 30-inch by
22-foot corrugated pipe culverts; and one 36-inch by 8-foot culvert. Twenty-
nine barrels of cement and 31 cubic yards of gravel were used in head walls.
The road equipment consisted of Fresno scrapers, road grader, slip scrapers,
and slat-bottom wagons.
Labor cost $2 per day and teams $4 per day of 8 hours. The total cost of
the road was $2,676.69, or $0.1770 per square yard, and at the rate of $1,453.70
per mile. The principal items of cost were as follows: Culverts complete,
$667.37; clearing and grubbing, $4.80 per acre; excavation, $0.1959 per square
yard; shaping subgrade, $0.0027 per square yard; conerete end walls, $5.10
38°—Bull, 284d—15—2
10 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
per cubic yard; surfacing material in pit, $0.07 per cubic yard; loading gravel
with slip scrapers through trap, $0.1571 per cubic yard; hauling gravel 2,000
feet and dumping, $0.2021 per cubic yard; spreading gravel with grader,
$0.0181 per cubic yard; finishing, $0.0005 per square yard; general expenses,
including superintendent, $108.
CALDWELL County, LOCKHART, Tex. (No. 2).—A second gravel object-lesson
road was built at Lockhart, Tex., on the League Line Road, extending southwest
from Burdett Wells*’Road toward Luling. Work was begun on March 5, 1914,
and completed July 7, 1914, with a loss of 46 days on account of bad weather
and 9 days for other causes. The adjacent land is rolling, and the soil from
station 0 to 56-+50 is “ black waxy ”’; station 56-+-50 to 65+00, chocolate loam;
and from station 65+00 to 82++00, “ black waxy.’ The road was graded to a
width of 36 feet in cuts and 20 feet in fills for a length of 9,680 feet. The
maximum cut was 1.5 feet and the maximum fill was 7 feet. The maximum
grade of 4 per cent was reduced to 3 per cent. Earth was loosened with plows,
handled with Fresno scrapers, and shaped with a road machine.
The sand-gravel surfacing was loaded into slat-bottom wagons through a
loading trap and hauled an average distance of 3,000 feet to the road, where it
was spread to a width of 14 feet, making a surfaced area of 15,058 square yards.
Two courses were laid, as on the Gonzales Road previously described.
Drainage structures were built as follows: Five 30-inch corrugated-iron pipe
culverts 22 feet long, and two 86-inch corrugated-iron pipe culverts 22 feet long,
all with concrete head walls containing a total of 26 barrels of cement and 26
cubic yards of pit-run gravel.
The road equipment used consisted of a road grader, three Fresno scrapers,
six slip scrapers, and slat-bottom wagons.
Labor cost $2 per day and teams $4 per day. The total cost of the road was
$3,426.52, or $0.2275 per square yard, which is at the rate of $1,868.46 per mile.
The principal items of cost were: Clearing and grubbing, $16.72 per acre; ex-
cavation, $0.2625 per square yard; shaping subgrade, $0.0035 per square yard;
culverts, including material and labor, $452.87; surfacing material in pits,
$0.05 per cubic yard; loading, $0.1573 per cubic yard; hauling, $0.2582 per cubie
yard; spreading gravel, $9.0098 per cubic yard; shaping gravel, $0.0007; right
of way, $117, which is at the rate of $125 per acre; general expenses, $91.50.
CoMAL CouNtTy, NEw BRAUNFELS, TrEx.—Work was begun on a gravel road
extending southeast from New Braunfels toward Seguin on March 138, 1914,
and completed May 28, 1914, with a loss of 25 days on account of bad weather.
The adjacent land is rolling, and the nature of the soil is “black waxy.” The
road was graded 30 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 4,600 feet.
A road machine was used to do all the grading, as it was light work. The
maximum grade of 2.3 per cent was reduced to 1.275 per cent.
The gravel surfacing was obtained from pits, hauled an average of three-
fourths of a mile, and spread to a width of 16 feet, making a surfaced area of
8,177 square yards.
One 12-inch and one 24-inch corrugated-metal pipe culvert 22 feet long were
laid.
The total cost of the work was $1,786.36, or $0.218 per square yard. The
principal items of cost were clearing and grubbing, $3; grading, $226.75; gravel
ready for use, including stripping pits and drilling, 2,272 cubie yards, at $0.179
per cubie yard, $752.15; explosives, caps, ete., $101.40; loading and hauling
2,272 cubic yards of gravel, at $0.247 per cubic yard, $562.50; spreading gravel,
at $0.033 per cubic yard, $75.06; rolling, $5; shaping, $45; and culverts, $15.50.
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 11
UvALDE County, Uvarpr, Trx.—A gravel road leading from Uvalde eastward
toward Sabinal was begun January 24, 1914, and abandoned February 6, 1914,
for lack of funds. The adjacent land is rolling, with brown clay from station
0+00 to station 22+00; soft rock from station 22+00 to station 35+00; black
clay loam from station 35+00 to station 57+00. A section 4,300 feet long was
graded for a width of 32 feet in both cuts and fills. The gravel surface is
2,200 feet long and 16 feet wide, making «a surfaced area of 3,911 square yards.
One timber bridge haying a 15-foot span was constructed at station 42-00.
The maximum grade was reduced from 6.4 per cent to 4.2 per cent, the maxi-
mum cut was 2.8 feet, and the maximum fill 2.9 feet. Approximately 652 cubic
yards of gravel were used, spread 10 inches deep at the center, and feathered
to 0 at the edges. The gravel was spread 16 feet wide and finished with a crown
of 1 inch to the foot.
Labor cost $1.50 and county teams $1 per 8-hour day. The total cost of the
road to the community was $622.18, which is at the rate of $0.159 per square
yard for the surfacing. The principal items of cost were as follows: Excava-
tion, $94.25; loosening and loading gravel, $8.50; hauling gravel, $305.60;
spreading gravel, $36; finishing, $16.25; bridge excavation, $33.75; lumber,
$86.78; labor on bridges, $41.
SAND-CLAY ROADS.
DuxKeEs County, Tispury, MArtHAS VINEYARD, Mass.—During the month of
August, 19138, a section of the Makonikey Road in the town of Tisbury, origi-
nally very sandy, was surfaced 16 feet wide with natural sand clay or top soil
to a uniform loose depth of 9 inches. This was compacted partly by the traffic
and partly by means of a light stone roller and the drag. The length of the
section was 320 feet, making 569 square yards, and the total cost was $75.38,
which is at the rate of $0.132 per square yard.
Two-wheeled dump wagons were used for hauling the top soil, and the
average load was 24 cubic feet. The average haul was 2,850 feet.
Another section of object-lesson road was constructed on the crossroad from
Chilmark Post Office to Menemsha Creek by surfacing with a sand-clay mix-
ture. After shaping the subgrade clay was hauled and spread to a width of
16 feet and a uniform loose depth of 8 inches, then covered with sand to a
depth of 4 or 5 inches. The material was thoroughly cut up by plowing and
disk harrowing, then by a spiked-tooth harrow followed by disking and shaping
with a plank drag. The road was at this time in a loose and powdery con-
dition, but mechanically well mixed. It rained shortly after the completion of
this part of the work, and the section was then rolled and dragged, with
excellent results.
The total length of this section was 180 feet, making 320 square yards, and
the total cost $89.75, which is at the rate of $0.280 per square yard. The price
could be reduced one-third if a greater length were built, with a better organ-
ized working force. ;
DuxKES CouNtTy, GAy HEAD, Mass.—The improvement of the State Road, ex-
tending west from Chilmark toward Gay Head Light, was begun on December
3, 1913, and completed on June 8, 1914, after a loss of 124 days on account of
bad weather and 101 days, from January 11 to April 21, 1914, when work was
discontinued during the winter. The adjacent land is rolling and composed of
successive stretches of sandy loam, fine sand, clay, and a natural sand-clay
mixture.
12 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
A section 11,600 feet in length was graded 22 feet wide in both cuts and fills.
The maximum cut was 8 feet and the maximum fill 4 feet. The road was sur-
faced 16 feet wide with a sand-clay mixture, making 20,622 square yards.
Where the subgrade was sand, clay was added, and vice versa. The surfacing
was laid about 6 inches in depth. For several short stretches the natural soil
was a sand-clay mixture and required no other surfacing material.
The drainage structures were: Twelve vitrified-clay pipes, ranging in size
from 8 to 15 inches in diameter and totaling 342 feet in length, and 1 blind
stone drain 2 feet wide, 2 feet deep, and 100 feet in length.
The total cost of the work was $3,506. Labor cost $2 per day and teams
$5 per day of 9 hours. The principal items of cost were: Excavation (earth),
2,651 cubic yards at $0.45 per cubic yard, $1,193.28; excavation (rock), 22
cubic yards at $1.25 per cubic yard, $27.55; trimming shoulders and ditches,
$69.23; and superintendence, $90—making a total cost of grading of $1,380.06.
Stripping for sand, $9.22; stripping for clay, $31.64; loading and hauling sand,
1,700 cubic yards at $0.223 per cubic yard, $378.89; loading and hauling clay,
2,300 cubic yards at $0.844 per cubic yard, $791.76; spreading sand and clay,
24,3850 square yards at $0.003 per square yard, $73.70; mixing 20,622 square
yards of sand and clay at $0.010 per square yard, $199.52; shaping and crown-
ing 20,622 square yards at $0.004 per square yard, $90.57; superintendence,
$118.46; and 1,050 cubic yards of clay at $0.08 per cubic yard, $84—making a
total cost of surfacing $1,777.26, or $0.090 per square yard. Miscellaneous labor
cost $83.46; excavation for pipe culverts, $34.72; hauling materials, $5.08;
placing pipe and backfilling, $24.02; 32 linear feet of 15-inch vitrified-clay pipe
at $1 per foot, $32; 234 linear feet of 12-inch vitrified-clay pipe at $0.60 per
foot, $140.40; 28 linear feet of 10-inch vitrified-clay pipe at $0.40 per foot,
$11.20; and 48 linear feet of S-inch vitrified-clay pipe at $0.80 per foot, $14.40;
cement, $340—making a total of $265.22 for 342 linear feet of vitrified-clay
pipe in place, or $0.775 per linear foot.
NoRTHAMPTON COUNTY, JACKSON, N. C.—Work was started on the Church
Street Extension Road, which leads north from Jackson toward Seaboard, on
September 4, 1913, and was completed on November 3, 1918. Seven days were
lost on account of bad weather and one day from other causes. The weather
and labor conditions added materially to the cost of the work. The land ad-
jacent to the road is comparatively level and the soil is yellow clay mixed with
fine sand.
The improvement consisted in grading and shaping the existing road and
surfacing it with a sand-clay mixture that contained about 25 per cent of
gravel. The soil was loosened with plows and picks, hauled in drag scrapers,
and spread by the scrapers and grader. The maximum cut was 1.1 feet and
the maximum fill 1.8 feet. The maximum grade was reduced from 3.3 to 1.7
per cent.
One corrugated-iron pipe, 24 inches in diameter and 26 feet long, was laid,
and two corrugated-iron pipes were laid at driveways, both 20 feet long and 12
and 15 inches,- respectively, in diameter. Head walls of concrete were placed
at the ends of the largest pipe.
Surfacing material was hauled about 1 mile and consisted of about 50 per
cent sand, 25 per cent clay, and 25 per cent gravel. It was hauled in dump
wagons and spread by hand labor and by the road drag. When compacted the
material was 7 inches at the center and 4 inches at the sides, with a width of
14 feet surfaced. The crown of the road was four-sevenths inch to the foot.
The road was graded to a length of 2,500 feet, with a width of 30 feet in both
euts and fills, and surfaced for 2,400 feet to an average width of 14 feet, mak-
i <0
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 13
ing the surfaced area 3,733 square yards. Harth to the amount of 680 cubic
yards was moved in excavation and 890 cubic yards of surfacing material was
used.
The equipment consisted of one reversible road grader, three Twentieth
Century road drags, one dump wagon, seven drag scrapers, one turning plow,
one hardpan plow, one 34-ton horse roller. Labor cost $1.25 per 10-hour day.
The total cost of the road to the community was $1,193.22, which is at the
rate of $0.82 per square yard. The principal items of cost were: Excavation,
680 cubic yards, at $0.80 per cubic yard, $205.18; shaping subgrade, at $0.002
per square yard, $10; culvert pipe delivered, at $1.69 per linear foot, $44; labor
on the same, $0.44 per linear foot, $9.10; drain pipe at driveways, $0.94 per
linear foot, $37.75; labor on the same, $0.20 per linear foot, $8.10; labor on end
walls, $1.71; excavation on end walls, $10.80; surfacing material, 890 cubic
yards, at $0.005 per cubic yard, $4.45; loading the same, $0.26 per cubic yard,
$235.25; hauling the same, $0.58 per cubic yard, $517.64; spreading the same,
$0.077 per cubie yard, $68.25; rolling the same, $1.97; dragging road, $0.002
per square yard, $6.33; stripping pit, $25.90; cement, $3.09 per barrel, $4.63;
sand for concrete, $1.67 per cubic: yard, $0.72; gravel for concrete, $1.67 per
cubie yard, $1.44.
BuRKE CouNty, Moreanton, N. C.—Work was begun on a sand-clay road
leading from Morganton to Lenoir on May 19, 1918, and completed on July 26,
1918, with a loss of one day on account of bad weather and one day from other
causes. The adjacent land is hilly and the soil is red clay from station 0+00
to 5+50; a red micaceous clay from station 5+50 to 15+50; a red clay from
station 15-+50 to 22+00; a micaceous clay from station 22+00 to 26+00; a
gray top soil over red clay from station 26+00 to 42+00; and micaceous clay
from station 42+00 to 57+00. A total length of 5,700 feet was graded 25 feet
wide in cuts and 22.5 feet wide in fills.
Earth was excavated to the amount of 8,960 cubic yards, with an average
haul of 100 feet and a maximum haul of 700 feet. In addition, about 15 cubic
yards of rock were removed. The road was surfaced 20 feet wide for 1,400
feet, making 3,111 square yards. On the graded road was placed 9 inches of
sand at the center and 6 inches at the sides, and over this a course of clay
3 inches thick at the center and 2 inches thick at the sides was spread. The
two materials were then mixed by means of a disk harrow.
Sixteen pipe culverts, varying in size from 12 to 24 inches, were constructed,
and the ends protected with masonry head walls.
The equipment consisted of a road grader, four wheel scrapers, seven slip .
scrapers, one rooter plow, one road plow, and one disk harrow. The total cost
of the road was $1,555.95, including culverts, or at the rate of $0.0991 per square
yard. The principal items of cost were as follows: Excavation, at $0.0879 per
cubie yard, $787.90; shaping, at $0.0069 per square yard, $87; culvert pipes,
$2238.25; labor on the same, $73.80; loading sand, $0.021 per eubic yard, $13.80;
hauling sand, $0.084 per cubic yard, $54.37; loading clay, $0.021 per cubic yard,
$4.50; hauling clay, $0.121 per cubic yard, $26.12; spreading, mixing, and
finishing, $28.01; clearing and grubbing, $96.80; moving fence, $15.90; sidehill
ditches, $9.50; general expenses, $135. Labor cost is based on $1, and teams
at $2.50 per day of 10 hours. A bond issue of $50,000 is available to continue
this work.
EDGECOMBE CouNTY, TaRBoro, N. C.—Work was begun on a sand-clay road
extending from Tarboro southward toward Conetoe on October 21, 1913, and
completed December 20, 1913. The adjacent land is level, and the natural
14 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
soil from station 24+54 to 50+00, sandy with a clay subsoil; 50+00 to 66+00,
black sand; 66-++00 to 156+54, sand. <A length of 13,200 feet was graded 22
feet wide in both cuts and fills. Earth was excavated to the amount of 4,236
cubic yards, and the average haul was 325 feet, with a maximum haul of
1,800 feet.
Throughout its entire length the road was surfaced to a width of 18 feet,
making 26,400 square yards. Clay was spread to a uniform depth of 6 inches,
and 2,815 cubic yards of clay were hauled on the road. The material is in-
ferior, but is an improvement over the previous sandy condition. A tem-
porary wooden bridge was built at station 50+22, to be replaced later with a
concrete bridge if present plans are carried out.
The equipment consisted of two graders, two plows, three harrows, wheel
scraper, horse roller, and wagons. The total cost of the road was $1,867.55,
which is at the rate of $0.0578 per square yard. The principal items of cost
were as follows: Clearing and grubbing at $0.0217 per square yard, $167.90;
excavation at $0.1174 per cubic yard, $497.40; shaping at $0.0018 per square
yard, $48.30; loading and hauling clay at $0.2548 per cubic yard, $717.35;
spreading clay at $0.0178 per cubic yard, $50.10; rolling at $0.00099 per square
yard, $26.35; trimming shoulders and ditches, $88.90; stripping for clay at
$0.012 per square yard, $6.60; mixing at $0.0024 per square yard, $63.90; fin-
ishing surface at $0.00215 per square yard, $57.60; general expenses, $19.75;
temporary bridge, $10.40; livery, $78; survey, $35. The above costs are based
upon a cost of $0.80 for labor and $0.80 per mule for an eight-hour day.
JONES CouNTY, TRENTON, N. C.—Work was begun on Main Street extending
west from Trenton on September 6, 1913, and operations continued to October
38, 1913, when scarcity of labor prevented further progress. One day was lost
on account of bad weather, and the inadequate force and bad weather also
involved many delays and were largely responsible for the high cost of the
work. The adjacent land is level and the soil sandy loam throughout.
The improvement consisted in grading and shaping the existing road and
surfacing it with a sand-clay mixture. The road was entirely graded to a
length of 3,600 feet, with a width varying from 40 to 46 feet in both cuts and
fills. A portion of the road was partly graded for 7,200 feet. Part of the
subgrade was prepared 15 feet in width and part 30 feet in width. This was
surfaced to the extent of 3,680 square yards when the work was shut down.
The soil was loosened with plows and mattock, hauled with drag scoops, and
spread with shovels and rakes. Clay to the amount of 409 cubic yards and
511 cubic yards of sand were hauled for surfacing. As the near-by material
was unfit for use the clay was hauled a distance of 5,750 feet. It was spread
to a depth of 4 inches on the road, and then covered with the sand, which
was obtained from Trent River. The two materials were mixed by means
of a plow and harrow. The road was shaped so that the crown of the finished
surface was 1 inch to 1 foot.
Cross drains 30 feet long were constructed of 24-inch corrugated-iron pipe
at stations 34+50 and 46+60.
The equipment consisted of plows, harrows, drags, scoops, and plank drag.
Labor cost $1 to $1.25 and teams $2 per 10-hour day.
The total cost of the road to the community was $795.11, and the cost of the
completed section was $465.48, which is at the rate of $0.1265 per square yard
for the finished surface. The principal items of cost were: Rough grading, at
$0.009 per square yard, $80.50; stripping clay pit, at $0.077 per cubic yard,
$31.50; loosening and loading clay, at $0.119 per cubic yard, $49; hauling, at
$0.387 per cubie yard, $158.45; spreading, at $0.023 per cubic yard, $9.50; load-
a
ing sand, at $0.084 per cubic yard, $17.50; hauling, at $0.155 per cubic yard,
$79.48; spreading, at $0.015 per cubic yard, $7.25; mixing and dragging, at
$0.009 per square yard, $32.30.
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1918—DEC. 31, 1914. 15
DuPLIN County, Wattacre, N. C. (Section 1).—Two sections of sand-clay
road were constructed in the vicinity of Wallace. Work was begun on the first
section, extending northeasterly from Wallace toward Chinquapin, on September
4, 19138, and completed on September 12, 1918, with a loss of one day on account
of bad weather. The adjacent land is slightly rolling, with a sandy soil over a
clay strata. The total length of 2,000 feet was graded 22 feet wide in both cuts
and fills, but the grade of the road was not materially changed. The average
haul was 50 feet, and the hauling was done chiefly with drag scrapers.
The road was plowed to bring the clay up into the sand, and the two materials
were then thoroughly mixed by means of harrows and scrapers. The finishing
was done with the split-log drag. The entire length of 2,000 feet was thus
treated for the full width of 22 feet.
The equipment consisted of a road scraper, a disk harrow, tooth harrow,
scoops, turning plow, rooter plow, horse roller, and split-log drags.
The total cost of the road was $140.25, which is at the rate of $0.029 per
square yard. The principal items of cost were as follows: Clearing and grub-
bing, $50.66; excavation, $22.54; mixing, $22.75; shaping, $23.60; trimming the
shoulders, $15.10; explosives, $5.60. The above costs are based on a labor cost
of $1.25 per day of 10 hours and a cost of $0.50 per day for each mule, not
including the driver.
DUPLIN CoUNTY, WALLACE, N. C. (SEcTION 2).—Work was begun on the sec-
ond section, extending from Island Creek Bridge toward Chinquapin, on Sep-
tember 12, 1918, and completed on October 4, 1918, with a loss of two days on
account of bad weather. The adjacent land is slightly rolling and the natural
soil is mostly sand. A total length of 3,100 feet was graded 22 feet wide in
both cuts and fills. The excavation amounted to 850 cubic yards and the
average haul was less than 100 feet. Drag scrapers were used.
Throughout its entire length the road was surfaced to a width of 15 feet,
making 5,167 square yards. ‘The sand-clay surface was constructed by spread-
ing the clay on the sand surface to a depth of 8 inches at the center and 6
inches at the sides. Sand was added from the slopes and gutters, and in addi-
tion to the daily use of the harrow the heavy teaming assisted in mixing the
materials. The surface was finished with the split-log drag. It is estimated
that about 717 cubic yards of clay were hauled to the road from the two clay
pits. The binding qualities of the clay and the wearing qualities of the clay
and sand appear to be very good. WFive vitrified-pipe culverts were constructed,
ranging in size from 10 inches to 24 inches.
The equipment consisted of a road scraper, disk and tooth harrows, log
drag, plows, ete. The total cost of the road was $452.76, which is at the rate
of $0.081 per square yard, exclusive of drainage structures. The principal
items of cost were as follows: Grading, $182.08; explosives, $4.80; culvert mate-
rials, $27.26; labor on the same, $8.97; surfacing, $210.98; general expenses,
$18.67. The above costs are based on a labor cost of $1.25 per 10-hour day: and
a cost of $0.50 per mule each day.
OKMULGEE CouNTY, OKMULGEE, OKLA.—Work was begun on a stretch of the
road leading south from Okmulgee toward Henryetta on June 26, 19138, and
completed in about 30 days. The adjacent land is slightly rolling. The soil is
generally either sand or clay, with a small amount of prairie soil. The sand
occurs for the most part in the depressions, while the clay occurs on the hills,
16 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The road was graded and surfaced 20 feet wide for a distance of 5,600 feet, or
an area of 12,444 square yards. The total amount of excavation was 2,990 cubic
yards and the average haul was 700 feet. The sand and clay taken from the
cuts was distributed so as to obtain the correct proportion for the surfacing.
Equipment used consisted of plows for loosening the earth, Fresnos for short
haul, dnd wheeled scrapers for long haul.
The grading and surfacing was done by a railroad contractor on a labor con-
tract. The agreed scale of wages was: Foreman, $3; timekeeper, $1; men, $2;
and teams with drivers, $5 per day. The total cost was $2,045.75, or $0.164 per
square yard.
BECKHAM COUNTY, SAYRE, OKLA.—Work was started on the Sayre-Delhi road,
which leads south from Sayre toward Delhi, on January 28, 1914, and com-
pleted February 11, 1914, with a loss of one day due to bad weather. The land
adjacent to the road is rolling and the natural soil a deep sand. No material
change was made in the grade. In constructing the road deep plowing was
employed to loosen the roots of the dwarf oaks and a harrow was used to col-
lect the roots, which were thrown out by hand. The sand was then graded,
and on the sand bed 1,883 cubie yards of clay were spread to a depth of 8 inches
before compacting. The average haul for the clay was 7,500 feet. The clay
was dumped from wagons and spread by hand. It was smoothed by the use of a
drag and appears to have good wearing and binding qualities. Due to the
weather and high winds, the sand and clay were not mixed, but instructions
were left with the local officials as to the proper manner of mixing during wet
weather. :
The total length graded was 4,000 feet for a width of 28 feet in both cuts and
fills. The surfaced portion was 4,000 feet in length for a width of 14 feet,
making 6,222 square yards surfaced. Two inches of sand were spread over-the
clay in order to retain the moisture.
The cost of the road to the community was $1,262.60, which is at the rate of
$0.203 per square yard. The principal items of cost were as follows: Clearing
and grubbing at $0.0077 per square yard, $95.80; shaping subgrade at $0.0096
per square yard, $59.50; plowing clay at $0.017 per cubic yard, $18; loading
clay at $0.087 per cubic yard, $119.80; hauling clay at $0.48 per cubie yard,
$663; dumping and spreading clay at $0.072 per cubic yard, $99.25; co¥ering
clay with sand at $0,007 per square yard, $45.20; preparing pit and roadway for
hauling clay, $162.05. Labor cost $1.60 and teams $3 per S-hour day.
ANDERSON CouNTYy, ANDERSON, S. C.—Work was begun on a sand-clay road
extending from Anderson City line westward on September 10, 1913, and com-
pleted November 14, 1918, with a loss of 10 days on account of bad weather.
The adjacent land is hilly, and the natural soil a clay containing some sand.
A total length of 2,300 feet was graded 32 feet wide in both cuts and fills.
Harth was excavated to the amount of 2,446 cubie yards, and the average haul
was 500 feet, with a maximum haul of 1,800 feet. From station 1-+50 to sta-
tion 4+00 a course of cinders 12 inches deep and 16 feet wide was laid as a
foundation. Throughout its entire length the road was surfaced to a width of
16 feet, making 4,089 square yards. Six hundred and eighty-one cubie yards of
surfacing material were used.
Cross drains were constructed as follows: From 0+-50 to 1++05 a 15-inch clay
pipe was laid parallel to the road, and at 21+25 the existing 15-inch clay pipe
was extended 174 feet.
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 17
The equipment consisted of a rooter plow, horse roller, grader, and wagon.
The total cost of the road was $913, which is $0.1116 per square yard. The
principal items of cost were as follows: Hxecavation at $0.23 per cubic yard,
$562.86; shaping at 0.0044 per square yard, $18; labor on culverts, $11.50;
end walls, $2.75; loading and hauling sand at $0.2469 per cubic yard, $169.10;
spreading sand at $0.0284 per cubic yard, $19.32; rolling at $0.0007 per square
yard, $2.75; loading, hauling, and spreading cinders at $0.5908 per cubic yard,
$87.48; loading and hauling stone, $4.80; ditching, $14.69; mixing sand and
clay, $9.90; general expenses, $6.30; cement, $3.60. The above costs are based
upon a labor cost of $1 and a cost for teams of $3 per day of 10 hours.
Bre County, BEEVILLE, TeEx.—Work was begun on an adobe and sand-clay
road extending west from Beeville toward Oakville on March 17, 1914, and
completed on April 20, 1914, with a loss of one day on account of rain. The
surrounding country is rolling and hilly. The nature of the soil is as follows:
Station 0+00 to station 4+00, sandy; 4+00 to 6+00, adobe rock; 6+00 to
17-+50, sandy loam; 17+50 to 20+00, adobe rock; 20+00 to 22+00, sandy;
22++00 to 27+00, adobe; 27-++00 to 40+-00, sandy loam underlaid with red sand-
clay; 40+00 to 52-++S0, adobe rock. The road was graded 22 feet wide in cuts
and fills for a distance of 5,280 feet. The maximum grade on the old road
of 5.5 per cent was reduced to 4.5 per cent. For 4,280 feet the road was sur-
faced for the full width of 22 feet with either sand-clay or adobe obtained
from the right of way, and on two sections totaling 1,000 feet it was surfaced
for a width of 15 feet, making a total surfaced area of 12,017 square yards.
One 6 by 2 foot reinforced-concrete slab culvert 20 feet long was built.
A 38-inch plain concrete floor was laid between footings to prevent scour. The
end and abutment walls were also plain conerete. The total cost of the culvert
was $254.53. The principal items of cost are: Excavation and backfill, 20 cubic
yards at $0.525 per cubic yard, $10.50; hauling materials an average of 3 miles,
$72.60; building forms, $5; mixing and placing 16.4 cubic yards of concrete at
52.48 per cubic yard, $40.75; cutting and placing 320 feet of steel at $0.026 per
linear foot, $8.30; cement, 16 barrels at $2.85 per barrel, $37.60; creek sand
ready for use, not including .hauling, 2 cubic yards at $1.65 per cubic yard,
$3.30; gravel ready for use, 12 cubic yards at $1.85 per cubic yard, $22.20;
crushed stone, 2 cubic yards at $2.75 per cubic yard, $5.50; lumber for forms,
914 feet b. m. at $0.033 per foot, $29.82; steel reinforcing rods, 523 pounds at
$0.035 per pound, $18.31; nails, $0.40; wire, $0.25; making a total of $137.15
for labor and $117.38 for material.
The equipment used was 2 grading plows, 2 rooter plows, 8 No. 2 wheel
scrapers, 5 slip scrapers, 1 road machine, 1 road drag, and necessary picks,
shovels, ete. The total cost of the work, excluding the concrete culvert, was
$1,056.70, or $0.088 per square yard. Labor was $1.50 per day and teams $4.50
per day.
FREESTONE County, TEAGUE, TEx.—The work of constructing a sand-clay road
east from Teague toward Dew was begun on April 2, 1914, and completed
April 18, 1914. No time was lost on account of bad weather or other causes.
The surrounding country is rolling. The top soil is sand. From 6 to 60 inches
below the surface clay is found.
The road was graded 24 feet wide for a distance of 5,330 feet. The maximum
grade of 3.3 per cent was changed to 2.9 per cent. The maximum cut was 6
inches and the maximum fill 7 inches. About 3,755 feet of the road had previ-
ously been surfaced with clay, and on this portion the work consisted in mixing
sand in with the clay surface and reshaping the road. It was necessary to build
38°—Bull. 284—15 3
18 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
a complete surface on the remaining 1,575 feet, which was through sand. After
this old sand road was shaped up it was surfaced to a width of 15 feet with
new clay obtained from the roadside or near-by pits, making an area of 2,625
square yards. This surfacing was broken up and mixed with the sand under-
neath by the use of a plow and harrow. Water was used to aid in the mixing.
The surface was then shaped with a grader, rolled, and dragged. The equip-
ment consisted of three Fresno scrapers, plow, sprinkling wagon, disk harrow,
grading machine, drag, and a horse roller.
A 20-inch corrugated-iron culvert, 28 feet long, with concrete end walls, was
taken up and relaid at a cost of $20.
The cost of excavation with Fresno scrapers was $89.75; trimming shoulders,
ditches, and cleaning out culvert channels, $9.56; dragging, $38.40; shaping with
grader, $35.50; general expenses, including foreman, $62.15. The cost of surfac-
ing was: Placing clay on subgrade, $43.87; plowing and harrowing, $103.44;
shaping, $14; sprinkling, $24.38; rolling, $23; making a total cost for the work,
exclusive of drainage structures, of $415.05, which includes $6 for surveying.
Teams were $2.50 per day without drivers, and laborers $1.50 per day of eight
hours.
TOPSOIL ROADS.
APACHE County, St. JoHNsS, Ariz.—Construction work was begun in Apache
County, Ariz., on the Big Hollow Road, which extends west from St. Johns
toward Holbrook, on August 28, 1918, and completed January 15, 1914. Two
days were lost on account of bad weather. The grading work was suspended
from October 8, 1918, to January 7, 1914, while the culverts and bridges were
being built. The surrounding country is very hilly. From station 6+00 to
53+00 the soil is an adobe, very muddy and sticky in wet weather; from sta-
tion 53-++00 to 61+15 the soil is gravelly, providing a fair natural road surface.
The road was graded for a length of 5,515 feet, 20 feet wide in cuts and 16
feet wide in fills, a total of 9,210 square yards. The volume of earth moved was
6,280 cubic yards. The maximum cut was 3.2 feet and the maximum fill was
4.4 feet. The maximum grade was reduced from 10.7 per cent to 6.5 per cent.
The earth was taken from borrow ditches along the side of the road with plows,
Fresnos, slips, and grader.
The road was surfaced from station 7+00 to station 538+-00. From stations
7 to 33 a subgrade was prepared, and the material, a natural sand-clay mixture,
combined with a small amount of soft limestone, was spread to a depth of 8
inches. From stations 33 to 58 the material, which is similar to a loam, was
spread to a depth of 10 inches at the center and tapered to zero at the edges.
The width of surfacing material throughout was 8 feet and the crown three-
fourths inch to the foot. The total area surfaced was 4,090 square yards.
There were 495 cubic yards of gravel hauled an average of three-fourths mile,
and the remaining 885 cubic yards were hauled an average of one-fourth mile.
The gravel was loosened with a rooter plow and loaded by hand into 1-yard
dump wagons. It was dumped from these wagons onto the subgrade and
spread with a hoe.
Four drainage structures were built. At station 34+-50 a 60-inch corrugated
iron culvert was placed, 24 feet long, with concrete end walls and wings. ‘Tha
60-inch corrugated pipe cost $6.15 per linear foot delivered at St. Johns, and
the 48.5 cubie yards of concrete cost $14.78 per cubic yard. The total cost of
the structure was $864.40.
At station 40-++-50 a semicircular corrugated-iron arch bridge, 14-foot span,
with concrete abutments, parapets, and wings, was erected. The cost of con-
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 19
crete work was $15.45 per cubic yard for 132 cubic yards, and the reinforcement
cost $34, making the total cost, exclusive of the 14-foot semicircular section of
corrugated iron, $2,073.40.
At station 45-+-50 a concrete arch bridge was built of three 14-foot spans of
semicircular corrugated-iron sections, with concrete abutments, piers, parapets,
ete. The cost for the concrete work was $19.13 per cubic yard for the 195
cubie yards. The reinforcement cost $42.50, and the removal of an old standing
wall was $50, making the total cost for the structure, excluding the cost of the
three 14-foot span corrugated-iron sections, amount to $3,822.85.
At station 51+00 a 30-inch corrugated-iron culvert was built, 20 feet long,
with concrete end walls. The cost of the 30-inch pipe delivered at St. Johns
was $2.94 per linear foot. The cost of the concrete was $33.61 per cubic yard
for the 4.5 cubic yards, making a total cost for the culvert of $210.05.
The total cost for culverts and bridges was $6,970.70. Cement was $1.54
per bag delivered at St. Johns. The contract price for excavation was $0.25
per cubic yard for 6,280 cubic yards, or $1,570, and for surfacing it was $1.10
per cubic yard for 880 cubic yards, or $968, which is $0.287 per square yard.
Yhe total cost of the road, including excavation, surfacing, and drainage
structures, was $9,508.70, or $9,102.72 per mile.
GATES County, SunBuRY, N. C. (Section 1).—Two sections of object-lesson
road were constructed at Sunbury during the fiscal year, and will be described
separately. Work was started on the first section, extending from Sunbury
northward toward Suffolk, on October 29, 1913, and completed December 2,
1913, with a loss of two days on account of bad weather. The adjacent land
is level and the natural soil is a sandy loam from the beginning to station
5+75; clay from 5+75 to 15+00; sandy loam from 15+00 to 20+00. A total
length of 2,800 feet was graded 30 feet wide in cuts and 25 feet wide in fills.
Earth was excavated to the amount of 450 cubic yards, and the average haul
was 150 feet, with a maximum haul of 200 feet.
The road was surfaced for 850 feet to a width of 15 feet, making 1,416
square yards. A topsoil type of construction was used, and the surfacing ma-
terial was hauled an average distance of 1,700 feet from a pit and spread in
one course to a depth varying from 10 to 12 inches before compacting. Ap-
proximately 800 cubic yards of topsoil were placed, after which the entire
width of the road was harrowed, dragged, and finished with a crown of three-
fourths inch to the foot. The binding qualities of the material are good, but
the wearing qualities are only fair.
Cross drains of wood were built at stations 5-+75 and 10+00.
The equipment consisted of a disk harrow, tooth harrow, plank drag, steel
drag, drag scraper, two road graders, two plows, and a few carts. The total
cost of the road was $382.09, and the principal items of cost were as follows:
Clearing and grubbing, $35.18; rough grading, 6,980 square yards at $0.0092
per square yard, $63.99; fine grading, 6,980 square yards at $0.00087 per square
yard, $6.04; culvert excavation, 10 cubic yards at $0.495 per cubic yard, $4.95;
cutting poles for culverts, 10 poles at $0.06 per pole, $0.60; building wooden
culvert, $1.35; loosening and loading top soil, 300 cubic yards at $0.0491 per
cubic yard, $14.75; hauling top soil, 300 cubic yards at $0.2047 per cubic yard.
$61.42; spreading top soil, 3800 cubic yards at $0.0172 per cubic yard, $5.16;
excavating and spreading clay, 450 cubic yards at $0.2056 per cubic yard,
$92.55; mixing topsoil, 2,390 square yards at $0.00202 per square yard, $4.83;
compacting with tooth harrow, 4,400 square yards at $0.0006 per square yard,
$2.64; trimming shoulders and ditches, $3.52; general expenses, $46.09; hauling
20 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
culvert material, $2.68; topsoil purchased, $20; explosives, $5.68; other mate-
rials, $10.71. The above costs were based upon a labor cost of $1.35, and a
cost for mules of $1 per day of nine hours.
GATES COUNTY, SuNBURY, N. C. (SEcTION 2).—Work was begun on the second
section, extending from Sunbury southward toward Milldam, on December 2,
1915, and continued to January 14, 1914, with a loss of one day on account of
bad weather and a loss of 12 days due to other causes. The adjacent land is
level, and the natural soil is a clay from station 0--00 to 1+70; sandy soil from
1++70 to 3; clay from 3 to 8; sandy soil from 8 to 17+50. A total length of 1,750
feet was graded 30 and 40 feet wide in cuts and 25 feet wide in fils. TEarth
was excavated to the amount of 550 cubic yards, 800 cubic yards of which were
excavated from ditches and used on the roed. Approximately 2,468 square
yards of rona were surfaced with 486 cubie yards of topsoil.
At station 15 a 16-inch corrugated metal culvert 38 feet long was placed and
at station J5+75 a blind drain 20 feet long was constructed.
The total cost of the road was $354.19, which is at the rate of $0.144 per
square yard, exclusive of drainage structures. The principal items of cost
were as follows: Grading: Clearing and grubbing, $24.89; plowing $6.98; work
done with drag scrapers, $21.16; dump carts, $23.55; handwork, $3.80; grader
work, $4.28; digging ditches, $66.20; trimming shoulders, $28.77; superintend-
ence, $82. Surfacing: Preparing subgrade, $13.56; stripping, $3.52; loading
and hauling, $60.94; spreading, $8.45; mixing, $1.67; shaping, $3.76; compacting,
$3.17; superintendence, $15.50; surfacing materials, $16.60; general expenses,
€12.05. Drainage structures: Excavation, $1.20; hauling, $1.97; building wall,
$1.20; placing pipe, $1.17. ‘The above costs were based on I:ibor at $1.25 and
$1.50, and teams including driver at $3, per day of 10 hours.
Davipson County, THOMASVILLE, N. C.—Work was begun on a topsoil road
leading from Thomasville toward Randolph County on July 31, 19138, and com-
pleted on September 20, 1913, with a loss of eight days on account of bad
weather. The adjacent land is rolling, and the natural soil is a yellow clay
from station 0 to 20, except for rock ledges between station 4+00 and
4-+50; station 10-+50 and 11-++25; station 14+75 and 15+25. From station 20
to 23 is gray topsoil, and from station 28 to 25 is a red clay. Scarcity of sand
was the reason for using topsoil in the road surface instead of following the
regular method of sand-clay construction. <A total length of 8,500 feet was
graded 30 feet wide in cuts and 25 feet wide in fills.
Earth was excavated to the amount of 3,859 cubic yards, and the rock exea-
vation amounted to 311 cubic yards. The average haul for all excavation was
375 feet, and the maximum haul 725 feet. The road was surfaced with topsoil
15 feet wide for a distance of 1,200 feet, making 2,000 square yards. This re-
quired 444 cubic yards of material, which was hauled an average distance of
1,000 feet. The topsoil was spread by hand and with a grader.
Two concrete culverts were replaced and one new concrete culvert was con-
structed, all of which were provided with stone head walls.
The equipment consisted of 1 road grader, 4 wheeled scrapers, 8 pan scrapers,
and 2 road plows. The total cost of the road was $1,199.19, including culverts,
which is at the rate of $0.60 per square yard. The principal items of cost
were as follows: Excavation at $0.24 per cubic yard, $882.49; shaping at $0.0444
per square yard, $185.25; culvert pipe at $0.75 per linear foot, $22.50; labor
on same, $7.75; loading topsoil at $0.1568 per cubie yard, $18.50; hauling same
to road at $0.1525 per cubic yard, $18; spreading topsoil at $0.0818 per cubie
yard, $3.75; trimming shoulders, $8.25; shaping topsoil, $4.50; explosives, $32.20;
general expenses, $16. Labor was paid $1.25 and teams $3 for 10-hour day.
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 21
APPOMATTOX COUNTY, APPOMATTOX, VA.—The construction work was begun
on the Oakville road extending northwest from Appomattox toward Oakville
on May 15, 1918, and supervision by the office representative ended May 14,
1914. During that period 86 days were lost on account of bad weather and
8 days from other causes. The surrounding country is hilly. The character
of the soil from station 0 to 116 and from 162 to 178 was Cecil red clay, and
from station 116 to 140 and from 145 to 162 was Iredell clay loam.
The road was graded to a width of 28 feet in cuts and 20 feet in fills for a
distance of 18,100 feet. The volume of earth excavation was 24,000 cubie
yards and of rock 290 cubic yards. The maximum cut was 7.3 feet and the
maximum fill 14.7 feet. The maximum grade was reduced from 15 to 5 per
cent. The surfacing was a gray topsoil, found in layers of from 4 inches to 8
inches in near-by blackjack oak woods. It was hauled in slat-bottom wagons
an average distance of 4,700 feet and spread with rakes to a width of 16 feet
and a compacted depth of 10 inches for a_ distance of 12,700 feet, or an area of
22,600 square yards.
It was found necessary to use a 44-inch foundation of broken field stone in
two level bottoms, totaling 3,900 feet in length.
Sixteen corrugated-iron culverts, totaling 574 linear feet, and three vitrified-
clay pipe culverts, totaling 186 linear feet, were built. The sizes varied from
12 to 36 inches. Head walls are of field stone laid in cement mortar.
The equipment used consisted of plows, slip scrapers, wheelbarrows, picks,
‘shovels, and rakes.
The work was done with a State convict gang averaging 32 men. They were
furnished free to the county. The county provided foremen and all necessary
equipment and running expenses. The convict labor was rated at $1 per day
and teams $8 per day, including convict drivers. The total cost of the work
was $14,736.92, of which the county paid 45 per cent and the State furnished
55 per cent in convict labor. The principal items of cost were: Clearing and
grubbing 4.6 acres at $93.90 per acre; moving 1,800 feet of fence at $0.028 per
foot; moving 24 telephone poles at $2.94 each; excavation of earth, 24,000
eubie yards at $0.239 per cubic yard, and of rock, 290 cubic yards at $0.629 per
cubic yard; excavation and placing culverts, 710 feet at $0.18 per foot; pre-
paring subgrade for rock, 38,700 square yards at $0.0127 per square yard;
loosening and loading soil, 4,900 cubic yards at $0.256 per cubic yard; hauling
4,900 cubie yards of soil an average distance of 4,700 feet at $0.50 per cubic
yard mile; spreading 4,900 cubic yards of soil at $0.061 per cubie yard; excava-
tion and spreading soil from side of road, 500 cubic yards at $0.252 per cubic
yard; loading 1,100 cubic yards of foundation stone at $0.218 per cubic yard, and
hauling the same an average of 6,800 feet at $0.878 per cubic yard mile; spread-
ing and breaking 1,100 cubic yards of foundation stone at $0.829 per cubic yard;
trimming 9,800 feet of shoulders and ditches at $0.015 per foot; maintaining
2 miles of soil road for three months at $15.91 per mile; culvert pipe, $830.06 ;
engineering and traffic census, $149.30; and superintendence, 11.1 per cent, or
$1,472.24.
EARTH ROADS.
Topp County, ELKTON, Ky.—Work was begun on an earth road north from
Elkton toward Claymour on October 16, 1914, and completed to station 19 on
December 5, 1914, with a loss of 11 days on account of rain and other causes.
The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is clay with a large percentage
of sand. The road was graded 26 feet wide in cuts and 20 feet wide in fills for
1,900 feet. The maximum cut was 2.7 feet, the maximum fill 3.5 feet, and the
eee rr
22 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
total amount of excavation 1,693 cubic yards. The maximum grade of 3.69
per cent was reduced to 8.52 per cent. The grubbing and clearing was so heavy
the grading could not be economically done with blade graders. Earth was
loosened with plow, moved by drag and wheeled scrapers, and spread by drags
and by hand. No rolling was done.
Drainage structures were constructed as follows: At 4+60 a 20-inch corru-
gated-iron pipe, 24 feet long, costing $28.87; at 7+24 a 24-inch corrugated-iron
pipe, 24 feet long, costing $35.88; at 18+21 a reinforced-concrete box culvert,
4 by 2.5 feet and 21 feet 8 inches long, containing 9.21 cubic yards, costing
$107.86, or 11.71 per cubic yard. No head walls on pipe culverts.
The equipment consisted of a road plow, drag scrapers, and four-wheeled
scrapers. Labor cost $1.25 per day, foreman $2 per day, and man and team
$3 per day of 10 hours. The total cost of the road, exclusive of drainage struc-
tures, was $559.92, which is at the rate of $0.1225 per square yard. The prin-
cipal items of cost were: Clearing and grubbing, $102.56; excavation, at $0.232
per cubie yard; shaping, $0.00072 per square yard; and superintendence, $61.30.
CHICKASAW CoUNTY, WOODLAND, Miss.—Work was begun on the Pontitock
Ridge road leading from Woodland toward Pontitock Ridge on July 9, 1913, but
the representative from this office remained until July 18, 1913, just long
enough to get the work well under way. The road was graded 1,200 feet in
length for a width of 24 feet at the time of his departure. The adjacent land
is roling and the natural soil is clay. The road was built by subscription
and donated labor and teams, and the estimated cost is based on $1 per 10
hours for labor and $3 per 10 hours for teams. On the above basis the cost
to the community was $72.66, or at the rate of $0.022 per square yard.
OKMULGEE COUNTY, OKMULGEE, OKLA.—A stretch 4,820 feet long and 20
feet wide on the road leading south from Okmulgee toward Henryetta was
graded in August, 1913. The area graded was 10,711 square yards. The.
volume of earthwork was 3.497 cubie yards and the cost $1,365, or $0.127 per
square yard, or $0.390 per cubic yard.
Five culverts were built of good hard sandstone: One 2 by 2 by 20 feet,
rubble masonry, with stone slab top; two 2 by 4 by 20 feet, rubble masonry,
with reinforced concrete slab; one 3 by 4 by 20 feet, rubble masonry, with
reinforced concrete slab; one 8 by 5 by 20 feet, rubble masonry, with reinforced
concrete slab. Two existing rubble culverts were repaired, one of which was
lengthened to 20 feet. The culvert work aggregated 69.86 cubic yards ard was
performed under a verbal contract for $350, or $5.05 per cubie yard.
See Okmulgee, Okla., under ‘‘sand-clay road,’ for further information of
work done on an adjoining section of road at this place.
GIBSON CouNTY, CADES, TENN.—Work was begun on an earth road extending
west from Cades toward Trenton on August 3, 1914, and completed August 21,
1914. The adjacent land is quite hilly and the soil is clay with considerable
sand. This road was graded with plow, scrapers, and grader to a width of
26 feet in cuts and 20 feet in fills for a length of 4,200 feet. The maximum cut
was 2.5 feet and the maximum fill 2 feet. The maximum grade of 4 per cent
was not changed.
The total cost of the work was $664.79, or $0.0656 per square yard. The
principal items of cost were: Clearing and grubbing 2,444 square yards at
$0.0089 per square yard, $21.87; excavation and embankment at $0.059 per
square yard, $594.80; trimming slopes and ditches, $6.87; and superintendence,
$41.25.
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 23
Gipson County, MiLan, TENN.—Work was begun on an earth road extending
north from Milan toward Cades on June 15, 1914, and completed August 18,
1914, with a loss of one day on account of bad weather and one day due to a
public holiday. The adjacent land is rolling and the soil consists of clay with
considerable sand. The road was graded with plow, scrapers, and grader to
a width of 386 feet in cuts and 32 feet in fills for a distance of 17,600 feet.
The maximum cut was 3.7 feet and the maximum fill 2.5 feet. The maximum
grade of 5 per cent was not changed. Considerable grubbing was necessary.
The total cost of the work was $1,570.55, or $0.024 per square yard. The
principal items of cost were: Clearing and grubbing 5,555 square yards at
$0.0175 per square yard, $97.19; excavation and embankment at $0.020 per
square yard, $1,319.11; trimming slopes and ditches, $8.75; and superintend-
ence, $145.50. Labor was $1.25 and teams $3 per day of 10 hours.
EratH County, Dupsiin, TeEx.—Work was begun on a gravel-macadam road
extending north from Dublin toward Stephenville on October 29, 1913, and
continued until December 21, 1918, with a loss of 26 days on account of bad
weather. All work was stopped on December 21, 1913, on account of a con-
tinuous season of heavy rain. The nature of the soil and the excessive rains
(2.61 inches in 5 days) made work impossible. The adjacent land is rolling
with low hills, and the natural soil is black, sticky clay throughout. The road
was graded 380 feet wide in cuts and 21 to 24 feet in fills for a total distance
of 2,600 feet; of this distance only 4,000 square yards were completely graded.
The maximum cut was 1.5 feet, the maximum fill 3.8 feet, and the maximum
grade on the old road of 38 per cent Was reduced to 14 per cent on the new road.
At station 2+11 a culvert of two 30-inch corrugated-iron pipes 24 feet long
was built with stone masonry end walls, at a total cost for labor and material
of $180.40. At station 25+90 masonry abutments were built for a 16-foot
span bridge at a total cost of $250.69.
In clearing, grubbing, excavation, and embankments, and fine grading,
$403.67 was expended, and on various work in preparation for surfacing with
gravel, $79.39. Free labor cost $1.25 per day of eight hours, hired teams, $2.50
per day, and county teams $2.40 per day.
SUPERINTENDENCE OF COUNTY ROADS.
CALCASIEU PARISH, La.
BRICK, GRAVEL, AND EARTH ROADS.
A model highway system was reported upon in October, 1913, involving the
improvement of 142 miles of road, and a bond issue amounting to $900,000 was
raised to complete the work. A department was organized by a representative
of the Office of Public Roads to make surveys, prepare plans, etc., and to super-
vise the work of construction. On January 1, 1915, about 80 miles of road had
been contracted for and nearly 60 miles completed. The contracts let also
include 24 reinforced concrete culverts, 41 reinforced concrete bridges, 2 steel
swing-bridges, 1 combination bridge, 14 timber culverts, 17 timber bridges, 1,540
linear feet of 12-inch concrete or tile-pipe culverts, 2,603 linear feet of 18-inch
eonerete or tile-pipe culverts. The material for the bridges and culverts in-
eludes 2,547 cubie yards of concrete, 185,917 pounds of reinforcing steel, and
163,000 feet b. m. of timber. The work was planned in 16 divisions, which
are referred to herein as highways Nos. 1, 2, 3, ete. The total aggregate of
24 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the contracts let amounts to $597,458.79. Highways Nos. 5, 6, 7, 8, 14, and 16,
totaling 62 miles, still remain to be contracted for under the $900,000 bond
issue. The work done has proved so successful that steps have been taken to
raise $300,000 additional for the construction of a bridge over the Calcasieu
River, and to extend the highway system now being constructed.
Considerable work was done by convicts in the manufacture of concrete pipe
and concrete piles. The following were the unit costs for this work:
12-inch concrete pipe at 12 cents per foot;
18-inch concrete pipe at 18 cents per foot;
15-foot concrete piles at $11.60 each;
25-foot concrete piles at $14.80 each.
A list and descripticn of the roads on which contracts have been awarded to
date follows:
Highway No. 1 consists of 9 miles of 15-foot gravel road, 6 inches thick, with
earth shoulders; and 54 miles of 9-foot brick road on a 5-inch gravel base, part
with earth shoulders and part with 6-inch gravel shoulders. ‘The shoulders are
8 feet wide. All bridges and culverts are of reinforced concrete, and the pipe
culverts are provided with concrete head walls. The following unit prices
obtained :
Clearing ‘and “grubbing, completes — 25 ee a i eee $300. 00
Hxcavation;( per cubic: yards Saket) oe i i . 195
Hmbankmenit per. Cubic: yar ae he eee ef ne
Vitrified pipe; 12-inch; per footrcompletekst =. | aaa eee ee . 70
Vitrified: pipe, i:8-inch; per foot, completese. 2233) eee se 1. 00
Concrete pipe, 12-inch, per foot, hauling and placing only me oe ee . 40
Concrete pipe, 18-inch, per foot, hauling and placing only_____-_-____- . 50
Gravel-rords Peresquane! yer dae wile = ete he aio
Vertical fiber brick on gravel base, per square yard_______-______-_-- 1. 85
Concrete piles, hauling and driving, per linear foot_______-___________ 1. 00
Concrete sai 2is4. per’ Cubie? yards 28 fein © ky eee 9. 00
@onceretesa 7346. per! Cubicxyard. 260) 2e2 20s he ee 7.50
ReEiMFOTCINGStEeles Per: WOU ae SE peewee . 038
Highway No. 2 consists of 12 miles of brick road 9 feet wide, on a 5-inch
gravel base; 9 miles of 15-foot gravel road, 6 inches thick; and considerable
bridge work. This work was let in three contracts.
Contract No. 1, for sections 1 and 3, was let at the following unit prices:
Cleaninoxand scrubbing complete. _ 2 2. ee 8 8 ee Om)
HX CavatlOne Der CUDLCS wel eCesee = — tsa he fi LSE pe BE See . 24
Bmp smMilenventeeay ek» CU 1G sya ees TS =e ee 0 eae pa 2 . 24
Vaitrinedepipe, 12-inch) perstoot, completes 2 eae aes eee eas . 60
Vitrified pipe, 18-inch, per foot, complete________--__-_____- ee .95
Concrete pipe, 12-inch, per foot, hauling and placing only_----------~ . 40
Concrete pipe, 18-inch, per foot, hauling and placing only_---_--_--__- 250
Gravel eroad ae perrsquarelsyardeta: =e oer ae eee eee eee 25.
Vertical fiber brick on gravel base, per square yard-—-------_________ 1. 67
>
Contract No. 2, for bridges and culverts on sections 1 and 8, was let at the
following unit prices:
Gonerete; alee. per TCU VAL = oe ee pee eee CEA
Concreter lis OF Per <CUDLG yen se ee eee eee 7.10
Reinforcing steel? sper. pound sess Se ee eee ee . 0575
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 25
Contract No. 3, for section 2, was let at the following unit prices:
(Clean omm MC RACTOS . _ Sammars ic. Noob 2 ac eee eee Samer Eee $7.50
CEU DINO T Sta1 ON. cammemmncenoece cst Was | Aiea cere aA SRD 6. 00
EPXCAVACLO Meme TCU LC yeanecleemenreee tes x Ce UIC OU a oe) as A . 20
FM aM eM ent CI CU DIC yet Cleese oe sea ee ee eee Ne . 22
Vibrinedmpipes:2-inch, perstoot completes = 2 ree en. eae oe . 60
VilEinecdspipesiS=inch, persioot completes. aa Sawa ees . 90
(Concrelemss2;;4enMer Cull Cayenne x Ne eS a eC 12. 00
TRG Ha RO ECO ab aNkes” Sheree LS sea OY ey emmy YO) 0100 = eI a te ee ee . 04
Gran elenoad mpeGesgUare yanmar s See nei le 2 AR ee eg eae . 23
Highway No. 3 is an 18-foot earth road 18 miles long; also 1,800 feet of
timber trestle. Contract was let at the following unit prices:
(Clean Tenayse OVEN AES Ch C= Mmm 2 a pe Ta ya $75. 00
(GHEDYOY ONES, OST RAAS eV EV KO) Pam 2 SS a 8 ee 5. 00
IDC VAENOM,| OER? Onl owen g2 0 i ee . 26
HinhaMikmentapere CUDIC yar eta Ate. eae eee . 26
WiirRinedm pipes d2-inch, per foot completes 222-- . eee ee a (i
Witrinedapipe. '8-inch, per foo complete=__2- > =. ae 1.16
Concrete pipe, 12-inch, per foot, hauling and placing only__-___---_~_ 5a)
Concrete pipe, 18-inch, per foot, hauling and placing only_____-_______ eeeeAOD)
Woods pilevdriven below cut-off, per foot=2—2_-___ ==. see 70
VNOOdeMMilerdrventabove cut-ot aper Toot=2=2 =) ae eee oe)
Concretewliy2 42 per cubic yarde! 2s. ee ee eee 13. 00
Rciniorcingmsteel, per Pound Soest. eee Eee . 05
iimibersperthnousand feet board medsureles=. >) Eee 40. 00
LrOMMMMStRUChIGES, Per DOUnds= sta 205
Highways Nos. 4 and 10 consist of 24 miles of 15-foot gravel road 6 inches
thick; 74 miles of 18-foot, surfaced with 9 feet of gravel 6 inches thick, with
a maximum haul of 9 miles; and 6 miles of 18-foot road with 9-foot shell, 6
inches thick in the center. The bridges and culverts on this road are all concrete.
The following unit prices obtained:
@learincvand erubbinge, completes. ee $50. 00
MEKCAvaAblOn per CUbIC yard. es ee ee eee , 22,
LH mibini<ment sper cubic yard == SS eee .35
Vilirinedi pipes i2-inch, per foot; completes Se ° (hi
Watrineds pipe) ls-imch,, per. toot, (completes = seas hs Se 95
Concrete pipe, 12-inch, per foot, hauling and ptacing only____________ . 40
Conerete pipe, 18-inch, per foot, hauling and placing only_-__________ . 50
Gonerete piles, hauling and driving, per limear foot--2=_2222"*22-=== . 85
Conereteusk 2514 sner Cubic! yaTda = eS eee ees 13. 00
Comeinawey alesse Gy aeyPeCulonon ygehxol 12. 00
Reinftorcinewsteelwsper pound =_ = eee . 0225
Gravel) roadseper square: yard= ee eS eae . 44
Shell@roads perusquare tyard:=--2= see ae Se eee . 40
Two bridges for the Intercoastal Canal, for highways Nos. 6 and 8, respec-
tively, were contracted for at the following unit prices:
Wood pilevdrivenibelow Cul-oll, Perso == a ane as ee $0. 80
WVOOdn piles disiventa bOve) GUL; Ollie igh 00 teen eee es oe ee . 80
@oneretesi: 245 per cubic: yard: sea ee a eee 13. 85
Goneretey L546 per CUbLC) yee Cae eee eee 13. 10
Supply and erection of steel work and turning machinery and the
COMICON Ge Woy OOO = 6, 580. 00
38°—Bull. 284—15——_4
26 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Highway No. 9 consists of 10 miles of earth road with timber bridges. Con-
crete pipe culverts were used. Drainage was difficult, as the road runs through
low marshes and swamps. The following unit prices obtained :
Glearing "per -acre_J- 2-22 + __ hee eee ee eee $75. 00
Grubbing;per’ station. +__ 5 ee ee ee 5. 00
Excavation, per cubie yard, complete... 92 28
Hmbankment, per cubie yard, complete-2_2) 2 _ aaa ee . 28
Mitrified pipe, 12-inch, per foots22_ 22 se ee ee Sif(at
Vitrified "pipe, 18-inch, per foottie = 6 eee es co ea ee 1.16
Concrete pipe, 12-inch, per foot, hauling and placing only_____-__-_----~- 53)
Concrete pipe, 18-inch, per foot, hauling and placing only___-__--______ . 65
Wood “pile ‘driven ‘below cut-off .per foot. 22222. _. =) Sai WK)
Wood ' pile driven above cut-off, pet foots: --*-—_ aaa _ m5 5)
Concrete; 13224, per cubic -yardi= = ee ee ee 3. 90
Reinforcing steel; per pounds). 2s) Se eee ee O05
Timber, per thousand feet board measure_.__~___ ern 40. 00
Tron ‘im structures, pér DPoun G2 =. Ss See = ee ee 05
Highways Nos. 12 and 138 consist of 4 miles of earth road and 14 miles of
gravel road 15 feet wide and 6 inches thick. The following unit prices
obtained :
No. 12. No. 13.
Clearing and grubbing, complete_________ A | ere ee $560. 00 $360. 00
Hxcavation,. per cubic yardwees = 2 we, WS ae . 22 ee,
Vitrified pipe, 12-inch, per foot, complete_________________ . 70 lo
Vitrified pipe, 18-inch, per foot, complete______________>__ 1. 00 1. 00
Concrete pipe, 12-inch, per foot, hauling and placing only__ 155) Oba
Concrete pipe, 18-inch, per foot, hauling and placing only__ a (05) 115
C@oncretesh 22:4; per cubie yard22- {2 tees eee es 11. 00 41. 50
Reinforcing Steels: per Mo wmdass shee ces) TN ee ee ee . 04 . 04
Gravel road pers square yard ees ts Sees ht ea DD
BENNINGTON COUNTY, VT.
BITUMINOUS CONCRETE.
BENNINGTON, Vt.—Work was begun on a bituminous concrete road extending
east from Opera Hall toward Woodford on the main street on August 18, 1913,
and completed on September 1, 1913. One day was lost on account of bad
weather. The adjacent land is level.
The surfacing was placed on an old macadam road, which was torn up,
reshaped, and rolled. The average haul from the siding to the road was 1
mile. The bituminous concrete was spread cold by stone hooks and rakes over
an area of 4,851 square yards. This was laid in two courses, respectively 34
inches and one-half inch in depth.
The total cost of the work was $3,786.90, which is at the rate of $0.78 per
square yard.
MACADAM WITH BITUMINOUS SURFACE TREATMENT.
BENNINGTON, Vr.—Work was begun en bituminous surface treatment of
macadam road extending south from Bennington Center toward Pownal, on the
Everett Road, on May 5, 1913, and completed on September 20, 1913, with a loss
of 45 days from various causes. ‘The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soi!
is clay with one section of ledge.
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 27
The road was graded 19 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,980 feet through the entire length for a width of 14 feet, or an area of 3,080
square yards. This was surfaced as follows: Hight inches of crusher-run field
stone was laid in one course and rolled. Owing to a deficiency of binder in the
erusher-run stone, sand was added; this was coated by hand sprinkler with
about one-third gallon to the square yard of bituminous material and again
covered with sand.
One 4 by 3 foot stone culvert 22 feet long was laid.
The funds were raised one-half by private subscription and one-half by the
State. The total cost of the work was $2,551.45, or $0.829 per square yard.
MACADAM ROAD.
ARLINGTON, Vt.—Work was begun on a macadam road extending west from
Hast Arlington toward the Arlington Depot on the Hast Road on August
4, 1918, and completed on October 29, 1918. Fifteen days were lost from
various causes. The adjacent land is Swampy on the south and hilly on the
north, with a natural soil of clay and loam.
The road was graded 22 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
2,004 feet. The maximum cut was 0.75 foot, the maximum fill 2 feet, and the
Maximum grade on the old road of 4 per cent was reduced to 3 per cent on the
new road. A macadam surface 18 feet wide, making an area of 4,008 square
yards, was laid with a first course of 9 inches of crushed local stone and a
depth of 3 inches loose gravel surface. No roller was used.
One thousand six hundred feet of side drain, an equal amount on either side,
was constructed, using screened gravel and tailings from the crusher.
The total cost of the work was $2,608.01, or $0.650 per square yard.
STamMForD, VT.—Work was begun on a macadam section of the Village Road
extending east from Stamford toward Readsboro on June 9, 1913, and com-
pleted on October 25, 19138, with 72 days’ loss of time from yarious causes.
The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil sandy. The road was graded 21
feet wide in both cuts and fills for 1,500 feet. The maximum cut was 1 foot
and the maximum fill 2 feet. The maximum grade of 8 per cent was reduced
to 2 per cent.
A surface of unrolled macadam was laid for 1,500 feet, 14 feet wide, making
2,838 square yards. Crushed field stone was used as a surfacing material,
and this was laid loose 6 inches thick and then covered with a coating of pit
gravel. Three 12-inch and one 14-inch metal pipe culverts were placed at a
eost of $113.94. :
The total cost of the road, exclusive of drainage structures, was $801.98,
which is at the rate of $0.344 per square yard, or $2,822.97 per mile.
GRAVEL ROADS.
ARLINGTON, VT. (No. 1).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending south
from Arlington toward Shaftsbury on the south road on July 7, 1913, and com-
pleted on September 20, 1913, with 24 days lost from various causes. The
adjacent land is swampy on the east, mountainous on the west, and the natural
soil is sandy and saturated by underground springs feeding into the lowlands.
This ground is unstable and subject to frost action.
The road was graded 21 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
4,150 feet. This was then surfaced 16 feet wide, making an area of 7,378
- Square yards, with 8 inches of gravel of good quality hauled 1,000 feet.
28 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The total cost of the work was $728.71, or $0.099 per square yard. The
principal items of cost were: Hxcavation, 1,000 cubic yards of earth and 10
yards of rock, $307.90; surfacing, $385.98; miscellaneous, $34.83.
ARLINGTON, Vt. (No. 2).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending north
from West Arlington toward Sandgate on September 24, 1913, and completed
on November 1, 1918, with 10 days lost from various causes. The adjacent
land is swampy on the east, mountainous on the west, and the natural soil is
saturated clay with some disintegrated rock. :
The road was graded 18 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,039 feet. This was surfaced 14 feet wide for a distance of 742 feet, making
an area of 1,154 square yards. The gravel, which was laid 8 inches in depth,
was hauled 1,000 feet. :
One 18-inch concrete pipe culvert was laid and one 8 by 4 foot stone culvert
extended.
The total cost of the work was $410.77.
ARLINGTON, VT. (No. 38).—Work was begun on a gravel section extending west
from West Village toward New York on the west road on November 1, 1913,
and completed on November 26, 1918. Nine days were lost from various causes.
The adjacent land is swampy on the south, mountainous on the north, and the
natural soil is clay.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 495
feet. A width of 20 feet, or a total area of 1,100 square yards, was surfaced
with 8 inches of gravel, hauled 1,000 feet.
One 14 by 13 foot culvert 24 feet long was rebuilt.
The total cost of the work was $289.31, or $0.263 per square yard.
ARLINGTON, VT. (No. 4).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending north
from Arlington toward Sunderland on October 30, 1918, and completed on
November 12, 1918, with a loss of five days for various causes. The adjacent
land is low and the natural soil is loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in fills for a distance of 495 feet, with a
maximum fill of 3 feet. This was surfaced 22 feet wide the whole length,
making an area of 1,210 square yards. The gravel was hauled an average dis-
tance of 400 feet and laid to a depth of 8 inches. The bowlders and cobble-
stones from the pit were used for foundation.
The total cost of the work was $201.95, or $0.167 per square yard.
BENNINGTON, Vr. (No. 1).—Work was begun on a gravel section extending
north from Bennington Village toward North Bennington on the Robinson Road
on April 28, 1918, and completed November 29, 19138, with 118 days lost from
various causes. The adjacent land is low and level andthe natural soil is
clay and loam.
The road was graded 22 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,318 feet. The entire length for a width of 14 feet, or an area of 2,050 square
yards, was surfaced with pit gravel 8 inches thick, hauled 14 miles. This
work was entirely in fill with a maximum of 2.5 feet, and most of the material
was taken from a choked channel. Bowlders and cobbles were used for a
foundation. The material was all hauled in slat-bottom wagons.
One 16-inch metal culvert was built, at a cost of $24.
The total cost of the work was $2,648.17, or $1.29 per square yard.
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 29
BENNINGTON, VT. (No. 2).—Work was begun on a gravel section extending
north from Bennington toward Shaftsbury on the Harwood Hill Road on Sep-
tember 16, 1912, and completed on October 1, 1918, with a loss of 40 days
because of bad weather. In addition work was shut down for the winter,
from December 14, 1912, to April 10, 19138. The adjacent land is hilly and the
natural soil is clay and rock.
The road was graded 22 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
3,680 feet. The maximum cut was 6 feet, the maximum fill 6 feet, and the
maximum grade of 15 per cent was reduced to a maximum of 8 per cent. This
work was done by contract under specifications prepared by the Office of
Public Roads and approved by the State highway department. The road was
surfaced 8 inches deep and 14 feet wide throughout its entire length, making
an area of 5,724 square yards. The gravel was hauled 2 miles. <A horse roller
was used for the gravel surface.
Four 12-inch metal pipe culverts 30 feet long, with concrete head walls, and
one 3 by 8 foot concrete culvert were built; and 566 feet of standard Massachu-
setts V-drain, 758 feet of 6-inch standard side drain, and one catch basin were
constructed.
The total cost of the work was $8,948, or $1.561 per square yard. The main
items of expense were: 2,530 cubic yards of earth excavation at $0.50 per cubic
yard, $1,265; 1,788 cubic yards of rock excavation at $3 per cubic yard, $5,349 ;
surfacing at $0.244 per square yard, $1,394.50; V-drain at $0.50 per foot, $283;
side drain at $0.40 per foot, $303.20; 12-inch culvert pipe at $1.20 per foot, $144;
concrete work, $145; and miscellaneous work, $64.30.
BENNINGTON CENTER, VT.—Work was begun on a gravel section extending
west toward Bennington Center on the west main road September 2, 1913, and
completed November 1, 1918. Twelve days were lost on account of bad weather.
The adjacent land is hilly, and the natural soil is saturated clay.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,300 feet. An area of 2,600 square yards. or the entire length 18 feet wide,
was surfaced with pit gravel 8 inches deep, hauled 2 miles. The maximum cut
was 1 foot, the maximum fill 1.5 feet, and the maximum grade of 13 per cent
was reduced to 9 per cent.
The drainage structures were: Five 6-inch cross drains and one 18-inch metal
pipe culvert; seven brick catch basins; and 1,472 feet of standard Massachu-
setts 6-inch tile side drain covered with crushed stone 3 inches in size.
~The work was done by contract. The principal items of cost were: Barth
excavation, $141; shaping subgrade, $93; culvert pipe and labor, $100; side
drains and labor, $883.20; surfacing, $450.75; rock excavation, $6; catch basins,
$217.31; making a total cost of $1,891.26, or $0.729 per square yard.
Dorset, VT. (No. 1).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending north
from Dorset toward Rupert on the west road on June 25, 1913, and completed
on August 80, 1918. Twenty-eight days were lost from various causes. The
adjacent land is hilly, and the natural soil gravel and sand.
The road was graded 18 feet wide in both cuts and fills for 1,452 feet. The
surface, 16 feet wide, making an area of 2,581 square yards, was laid 8 inches
thick with gravel from alongside the road. The maximum cut was 4 feet, the
maximum fill 4 feet, and the maximum grade of 12 per cent was reduced to a
maximum of 6 per cent.
The total cost of the work was $286.79, or $0.111 per square yard.
30 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Dorset, Vr. (No. 2).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending north from
North Dorset toward Mount Tabor on September 15, 1913, and completed on
November 1, 1918. Ten days were lost on account of bad weather. The adja-
cent land is hilly, and the natural soil is sandy.
The road was graded 21 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,200 feet. The gravel was hauled from a point a half mile distant and placed
to a depth of 8 inches and a width of 14 feet, making a surfaced area of 1,867
square yards. The maximum cut was 8 feet, the maximum fill 3 feet, and the
maximum grade of 7 per cent on the old road was reduced to 4 per cent on the
new road.
Three 12-inch metal culverts were built with concrete head walls.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $754.41, or $0.404 per
square yard.
Dorset, Vt. (No. 3).—Work was begun on a gravel section extending north
from East Dorset toward North Dorset, on Hairpin Curve Road, on July 28,
1913, and completed on September 18, 1918, with four days lost on account of
bad weather. The road, as relocated, eliminates the Hairpin Curve. The adja-
cent land is hilly and the natural soil is gravel and bowlders.
The road was graded 21 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,033 feet. This was surfaced the whole length and width, or 2,410 square
yards, with gravel obtained from alongside the road and placed to a depth of 8
inches. The maximum cut was 17 feet, the maximum fill 22 feet, and the maxi-
mum grade of 10 per cent was reduced to 5 per cent. Work was done with road
graders, harrow, New York hone, and split-log drag. A crib of large trees and
stumps was built at one point to prevent sliding of the embankment, and a
guard rail was also built.
The total cost of the work was $718.70, or $0.296 per square yard.
Dorset, Vt. (No. 4).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending south from
East Dorset toward Manchester on the Cemetery Road June 17, 1913, and com-
pleted July 12, 1915, with a loss of two days because of bad weather. The
adjacent land is rolling and the natural soil is gravel and loam.
The road was graded 21 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 630
feet. The full length and width, or 1,470 square yards, was surfaced 8 inches
thick with gravel, hauled one-half mile. The maximum cut was 2 feet, the
maximum fill 4 feet, and the maximum grade of 8 per cent on the old road was
reduced to 6 per cent on the new road.
The total cost of the work was $346.19, or $0.235 per square yard.
Dorset, Vr. (No. 5).—Work was begun on a grayel section extensling north
from the cemetery toward the hotel on the village road June 16, 19138, and com-
pleted on October 11, 1918, with a loss of 81 days for various causes. The
adjacent Jand is rolling and the natural soil is clay.
The road was graded 27 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 627
feet. The maximum fill was 1 foot and the maximum grade on the old road of
2 per cent was reduced to 0.8 per cent on the new road. The gravel, which was
hauled 1 mile, was laid 8 inches thick and 23 feet wide, making an area of 1,603
square yards. Transverse leeches of screened gravel were placed frequently.
One 3 by 8 foot dry masonry culvert was built.
The total cost of the work was $3892.59, or $0.244 per square yard.
GLASTONBURY, Vr.—Work was begun on a gravel road extending south from
Glastonbury toward South Shaftsbury June 2, 1918, and completed August 30,
ry
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1918—DEC. 31, 1914. 31
1913. Fifty-eight days were lost from various causes. The adjacent land is
mountainous and the natural soil is gravel.
The road was graded 18 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 600
feet. An area of 1,066 square yards was surfaced 16 feet in width and 6 inches
thick with gravel, hauled one-half mile in stone boats. The maximum cut was
4 feet, the maximum fill 2 feet, and the maximum grade of 8 per cent was
reduced to 5 per cent.
Three 20-foot stone culverts were built, 10, 12, and 24 inches, respectively, in
diameter.
The total cost of the work was $289, or $0.271 per square yard.
LANDGROVE, VT.—Work was begun on a gravel section on the Ideal Tour
Road east from Landgrove Hollow toward Londonderry June 10, 1913, and
completed August 30, 1913, with 39 days lost from various causes. The adjacent
land is mountainous and the soil rocky throughout.
The road was graded to a width of 21 feet in both cuts and fills for a distance
of 650 feet. The maximum cut was 2 feet and the maximum fill 5 feet. The
maximum grade on the old road was 14 per cent, which was reduced to 8 per
cent on the new road. <A surface of pit gravel was laid to a width of 14 feet,
8 inches thick, making a surfaced area of 1,011 square yards.
Two metal culverts, 24 feet long and 16 and 24 inches in diameter, were
placed at a cost of $48. The total cost of the road, exclusive of culverts, was
$472.48, which is at the rate of $0.4673 per square yard.
The equipment consisted of plows, shovels, slat-bottom wagons, rakes, har-
rows, and a split-log drag. Labor cost $1.75 per day, foreman $2.25 per day,
and teams $4 per day of 9 hours.
MANCHESTER, VT.—Work was begun on a hardpan gravel road extending
north from Manchester toward Peru August 18, 1918, and completed October 18,
1913. Seven days were lost on account of bad weather. The adjacent land is
rolling and the natural soil sand and stone.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
2,310 feet. The maximum cut was 38 feet, the maximum fill 2 feet, and the
maximum grade of 7 per cent was reduced to 4 per cent. A natural surfacing
of hardpan 22 feet wide, making an area of 5,646 square yards, was laid after
being hauled 1 mile.
Two 2 by 2 foot concrete culverts were built and two 12-inch metal-pipe
culverts were laid.
The total cost of the work was $1,427.58, or $0.253 per square yard.
Peru, VT. (No. 1).—Work was begun on a hardpan gravel section extending
east from Peru toward Landgrove on the Ideal Tour Road June 1, 1913, and
completed October 25, 1913, with a loss of 98 days for various causes. The
adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is clay gravel.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
644 feet. The maximum cut was 1 foot, the maximum fill 4 feet, and the
maximum grade of 6 per cent was not changed. ‘The road was surfaced 22
feet wide, making an area of 1,574 square yards, with a natural clay-gravel
“hardpan.”
One 34 by 4 foot dry-stone culvert was built.
The total cost of the work was $287.48, or $0.150 per square yard, of which
$39.25 was expended for the culvert.
Peru, Vt. (No. 2).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending east from
Peru toward Landgrove on the Ideal Tour Road May 19, 19138, and com-
32 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
pleted November 22, 1913. The time lost from various causes was 73 days.
The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is loam and gravel.
The road was graded 21 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 5,313
feet. The maximum cut was 6 feet, the maximum fill 4 feet, and the maximum
grade of 11 per cent on the old road was reduced to 8 per cent.
The road was surfaced full width, or an area of 12,397 square yards, with
gravel from within the road limits and from pits alongside the road.
Three 24-foot stone culverts were built of the following dimensions: 4 by 2.5
feet, 2 by 2.5 feet, and 2 by 2 feet.
The total cost of the work was $2,001.89, or $0.161 per square yard.
PowNnaL, VT.—Work was begun on a road extending north from Pownal
toward North Pownal on September 8, 1913, and completed on October 18, 1913,
with five days lost from various causes. The adjacent land is hilly and the
natural soil is gravel and clay.
The road was graded 24 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,500 feet. The maximum cut was 2 feet, the maximum fill 2 feet, and the
maximum grade of 6 per cent on the old road was reduced to 4 per cent on the
new road. A natural gravel was obtained from a near-by source and the road
surfaced 22 feet wide, or an area of 8,666 square yards. Telford foundation
12 feet wide and 2 feet thick was placed on 800 feet of this road.
The total cost of the work was $839.56, or $0.228 per square yard.
READSBORO, VT.—Work was begun on a “hardpan” gravel road extending
east from Heartwellville toward Readsboro on August 25, 1913, and completed
on September 13, 1918. The time lost on account of bad weather was two aays.
The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is “ hardpan.”
The road was graded 19 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,000 feet. The maximum fill was 3 feet and the maximum grade of 3 per cent
on the old road was reduced to 1 per cent. The road was surfaced by hauling
in hardpan and leveling it with a split-log drag.
The total cost of the work was $400, or $0.150 per square yard.
Rupert, Vr. (No. 1).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending east from
Rupert toward Dorset on May 19, 1913, and completed on August 22, 1913, with
10 days lost on account of bad weather. The adjacent land is hilly and the
natural soil is a slate gravel.
The road was graded 24 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 4,050
feet. The maximum cut was 2 feet, the maximum fill 6 feet, and the maximum
grade of 6 per cent on the old road was reduced to 4 per cent on the new road.
Gravel from a near-by pit was laid for a width of 18 feet, or-an area of 8,100
square yards.
One 12-inch and one 24-inch corrugated-iron pipe culverts were laid; also one
3 by 2 foot concrete box culvert.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $2,099.78, or $0.259 per
square yard.
Rourert, Vr. (No. 2).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending north
from Rupert toward Pawlet on September 1, 1918, and completed on September
16, 1913, with one day lost on account of bad weather. The adjacent land is
level and swampy and the natural soil is gravel and loam.
The road was graded 18 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 495
feet. The maximum fill was 5 feet and the maximum grade of 2 per cent on the
old road was reduced to 1 per cent on the new road. A gravel surface obtained
from the river bed was laid the full width, a total area of 990 square yards.
The total cost of the work was $704.28, or $0.71 per square yard.
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 33
SANDGATE, Vr.—Work was begun on a gravel section on the Bear Mountain
Toad north from Sandgate toward Bear Mountain on August 18, 1913, and was
entirely completed October 15, 19138, with seven days’ loss of time on account
of bad weather. The adjacent land is mountainous and the soil is a clay.
The road was graded 18 feet wide in cuts and fills for a distance of 1,171
feet. The maximum cut was 4 feet, the maximum fill 2 feet, and the original
maximum grade, which was 9 per cent, was reduced to 6 per cent. A surface
of unrolled gravel was laid for 1,171 feet, 14 feet wide, making 1,821 square
yards. The gravel used was obtained from the side of the road.
Two stone culverts 2 by 2 by 20 feet were placed.
The total cost of. the completed road was $514.51, which is at the rate of
$0.2825 per square yard, including drainage structures. Labor cost $1.75 per
day, foreman $2 per day, and teams $4 per day of 9 hours.
SEARSBURG, VT.—Work was begun on June 2, 1913, surfacing with hardpan
the road extending east from Searsburg toward Wilmington, and was entirely
completed on October 25, 1918, with a loss of 31 days from various causes. The
adjacent land is mountainous and the soil is clay. The road was graded 20
feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 1,006 feet. The maximum cut
was 2 feet and the maximum fill 4 feet. The maximum grade of 10 per cent
was reduced to 8 per cent. A surface of hardpan was laid 12 feet wide for
1,006 feet, making 1,341 square yards. This hardpan was obtained from a pit
at the roadside. :
Six 20-foot metal culvert pipes 20 inches in diameter were placed at a cost
of $141.
The principal items of cost were as follows: Labor, $1,213.58; dynamite, $41;
and road drag, $2.50; making a total of $1,257.08, which is at the rate of $0.9374
per square yard, or $6,594.72 per mile, exclusive of drainage structures.
Labor was paid $1.75 per day, foreman $2.25 per day, teams $4 per day of
9 hours.
SwHarrspury, VT. (No. 1).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending west
from Sodom toward New York on May 26, 1918, and completed September 20,
1913. Sixty-one days were lost for various causes. The adjacent land is hilly
and the natural soil is clay.
The road was graded 22 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,000 feet. The maximum cut was 4 feet, the maximum fill 2 feet, and the
maximum grade of 9 per cent was reduced to 4 per cent. A surface of gravel
from near-by pits was laid 14 feet wide, making an area of 1,555 square yards.
Two 24-inch metal culverts were laid and 750 feet of underdrain was con-
structed.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $872.35, or $0.560 per
_ square yard.
SuHarrspury, Vt. (No. 2).—Work was begun on a gravel road running south
from West Shaftsbury toward New York on August 18, 1913, and finished on
September 19, 1913. Three days were lost on account of bad weather. The
adjacent land is hilly and wet and the natural soil is clay.
“The road was graded 22 feet wide for a distance of 1,060 feet. The maximum
eut was 2 feet, the maximum fill 5 feet, and the maximum grade of 9 per cent
on the old road was reduced to 4 per cent on the new road. A surface of river
gravel from New York was laid 12 feet wide, making an area of 1,413 square
yards.
34 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
One 24-inch and two 12-inch metal culverts with concrete head walls were
built, and a berm ditch of the flare type was used.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $936.40, or $0.661 per
square yard.
STamMrorD, Vr.—Work was begun on a “hardpan” grayel road extending
northeast from Stamford toward Heartwellville on August 4, 1913, and com-
pleted on August 80, 1918, with two days lost on account of rain. The adjacent
land is hilly and the natural soil is loam.
The road was graded 21 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,419 feet. The maximum cut was 8 feet, the maximum fill 1 foot. A surface
of hardpan from a near-by pit was laid 14 feet wide, making a surfaced area of
2,207 square yards.
Four hundred feet of blind drain was built.
The total cost of the work was $409.50, or $0.186 per square yard.
WINHALL, VT.—Work was begun on a “‘ hardpan” gravel road extending east
from Bondyille toward Manchester on August 4, 1918, and completed on Sep-
tember 27, 1913. Six days were lost on account of bad weather. The adjacent
land was hilly and the natural soil is hardpan and bowlder ledges.
The road was graded 21 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
2,450 feet. The maximum cut was 20 feet, the maximum fill 6 feet, and the
maximum grade of 14 per cent on the old road was reduced to 8 per cent. The
road was surfaced with hardpan and gravel, obtained along the roadside.
Two 12-inch and two 18-inch metal culverts, 22 feet long, were laid.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $1,075.53,
EARTH ROAD.
PownNatL, VT. (No. 1).—Work was begun October 20, 1913, on an earth -road
extending south from Bennington to Pownal and was completed November 29,
1913, with a loss of nine days on account of rain. The adjacent land is hilly
and swampy and the soil a loam.
The road was graded 20 feet wide in cuts and fills for a distance of 1,450 feet.
The maximum cut was 2 feet, the maximum fill 3 feet, and the grade was not
changed. Material for a telford foundation was obtained from old stone walls
along the roadside and laid 12 feet wide for 1,200 feet. After grading, the
earth was then leveled over the rock. It was intended to surface this road
with gravel later.
The total cost of the work was $816.21, which is at the rate of $0,253 per
square yard, or $2,942.50 per mile. Labor cost $1.75 per day; foreman, $2.50
per day; and teams, $4.50 per day of nine hours.
PowNnat, Vr. (No. 2).—Work was begun on an earth road extending north
from Pownal Center toward Bennington on May 5, 1915, and completed on
September 6, 1913, with 15 days lost on account of rain and bad weather, The
adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is loam, bowlders, and gravel.
The road was graded 22 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
8,600 feet. The maximum cut was 24 feet, the maximum fill 3 feet, and the
maximum grade of 8 per cent on the old road was reduced to 6 per cent.
One 2 by 14 foot stone culvert was built at a cost of $14.
The total cost of the work was $1,815.77, or $0.206 per square yard.
ReEADsBoRO, Vr. (No. 1).—Work was begun on an earth road extending east
from Falls toward Readsboro on May 21, 1918, and completed on October 11,
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 35
1913. Thirty days were lost from various causes. The adjacent land is
mountainous and the natural soil is hardpan.
The road was graded 18 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
4,046 feet. The maximum cut was 30 feet, the maximum fill 9 feet, and the
maximum grade of 11 per cent on the old road was reduced to 7 per cent.
Seven stone culverts 2 by 2 by 20 feet were built; also two 18-inch metal
culverts. Leeches were placed every 200 feet. Much heavy stumping was done
and a bowlder ledge was removed. i
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $2,526.58, or $0.312 per
square yard.
READSBORO, VT. (No. 2).—Work was begun on an earth road extending east
from Readsboro toward Whitingham on July 28, 1918, and completed on Octo-
ber 11, 1913. Forty-five days were lost on account of yarious causes. The
adjacent Jand is mountainous and the natural soil is hardpan, which was used
for surfacing the road.
The road was graded 18 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
850 feet. The maximum cut was 10 feet, the maximum fill 1 foot. A guard
rail was built the full length of the road on one side.
The total cost of the work was $3890.78, or $0.230 per square yard.
SHAFTSBURY, VT. (No. 1).—Work was begun on an earth road extending
north from Shaftsbury Depot toward Arlington on October 18, 1918, and com-
pleted on November 19, 1918. Bad weather caused a delay of 10 days.- The
adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is hardpan, which was used in the
surfacing.
The road was graded 22 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,056 feet. The maximum cut was 19 feet, the maximum fill 2 feet, and the
maximum grade was reduced from 8 per cent to 6 per cent.
One double 24-inch metal culvert was laid.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $778.02, or $0.301 per
square yard.
SHAFTSBURY, VT. (No. 2).—Work was begun on a section of the Coal Hill
Road south from South Shaftsbury toward Bennington November 20 and was
completed on November 27, 1913. The adjacent land is hilly, and the natural
soil is clay.
The road was graded 22 feet wide in cuts and fills for a distance of 528 feet.
The maximum cut was 9 feet and the maximum fill 2 feet.
One 24-inch metal culvert 26 feet long was placed at a cost of $46.86.
The total cost of the completed road, exclusive of drainage structures, was
$89.74, which is at the rate of $0.070 per square yard, or $897.40 per mile.
SUNDERLAND, Vr.—Work was begun on an earth road east from Sunderland
toward Arlington June 23, 1915, and the road was completed on September 27,
1913, with a loss of nine days on account of bad weather. The adjacent land is
hilly and the natural soil loam and sand.
The road was graded 21 feet wide in cuts and fills for a distance of 4,356 feet.
The maximum cut was 10 feet and the maximum fill 3 feet. The maximum
grade of 10 per cent on the old road was reduced to a maximum of 7 per cent
on the new road. The improvement consisted .essentially in widening a 6-foot
road to 21 feet and in placing gravel, obtained from the roadside, over the sandy
portions.
36 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
One 12-inch metal-pipe culvert 24 feet long was placed at a cost of $22.70.
The total cost of the road, exclusive of drainage structures, was $713.46,
which is at the rate of $0.070 per square yard, or $864.82 per mile. Labor costs
$1.75 per day, foreman $2.50 per day, and teams $4 per day of nine hours.
Wooprorp, Vt.—Work was begun on an earth road running east from the city
of Woodford toward Bennington on August 380, 19138, and completed on October
25,1913. The time lost from various causes was 20 days. The adjacent land is
mountainous, and the natural soil is clay, which was used for surfacing.
The road was graded 22 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 1,396
feet. The maximum cut was 6 feet, the maximum fill 5 feet, and the maximum
grade was reduced from 17 per cent to 8 per cent.
Nine 12-inch and one 24-inch metal culverts and 396 feet of side drain were
constructed.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $686.24, or $0.201 per
square yard.
RUTLAND County, VT.
BITUMINOUS MACADAM.
PirrsrorD, Vt.—Work was begun on a bituminous macadam road on the
main line from Pittsford to Rutland July 14, 1918, and completed November 1,
1918, with a delay of 14 days for various causes. The adjacent land is hilly on
the east and rolling on the west. The natural soil is sandy loam.
The road was graded 380 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 1,544
feet. The maximum cut was 1.2 feet, the maximum fill 3 feet, and the maxi-
mum grade of 1.3 per cent on the old road was reduced to 0.8 per cent. A sur-
face of bituminous macadam was laid 16 feet wide, or for 2,745 square yards, in
the following manner: Local crushed stone was placed in two 38-inch compacted
courses. A bituminous material was then applied as a binder by the penetration
method, ‘using 14 gallons per square yard. A one-half gallon flush coat was
finally applied.
Three 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe culverts were laid. Two masonry culverts
were repaired and lengthened, and a telford base was laid from station 4 to sta-
tion 8+25.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $3,420.99, which is at the
rate of $11,698.87 per mile, or $1.246 per square yard.
GRAVEL ROADS,
Benson, Vr. (No. 1).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending east
from Benson, toward Hortonville, on September 2, 1918, and completed on
September 20, 1918. Two days were lost on account of bad weather. The
adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is clay.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 462
feet. The maximum cut was 1 foot; the maximum fill, 1.5 feet; the old maxi-
mum grade, 8 per cent; and the new maximum grade, 1.8 per cent. A surface of
gravel 21 feet in width, making 1,078 square yards, was placed. The gravel was
obtained from pits alongside the road.
One corrugated-iron pipe culvert 18 inches in diameter was placed.
The total cost for the work was $184.88, or at the rate of $0.171 per square
yard.
(. ocumees
~
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 37
BENSON, VT. (No. 2).—Work was begun on a gravel section, starting at a
point 3 miles east of Benson on the main road toward Hortonville, on August 1,
1918. It was completed on August 30, 1913, with a loss of five days from
various causes. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil brown, stiff
clay.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
2,657 feet. The maximum cut was 3 feet; the maximum fill, 3.5 feet. The
maximum grade on the old road was 10 per cent and on the new road 7 per
cent. Bank gravel for surfacing was obtained from pits along the roadside
and placed 21 feet wide for the entire graded length, or a total area of 6,200
square yards.
Three corrugated-iron pipe culverts were placed.
The total cost of the work was $339.55, or $0.055 per square yard.
BENSON, Vt. (No. 3).—Work was begun graveling a section of the turnpike
extending from the north town line toward Fairhaven on May 15, 1913, and
completed on June 1, 1913. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil
seems to be about half sandy loam and half brown stiff clay.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
891 feet. The maximum fill was 2.5 feet and the maximum grade was reduced
from 1 per cent to 0.7 per cent. The graded earth was covered with waste
from a Slate quarry for its entire length. Gravel was then placed 21 feet wide,
making an area of 2,079 square yards.
One 4 by 8 foot culvert was repaired by placing a new floor.
The total cost of the work was $482.83, or $0.208 per square yard.
BENson, Vr. (No. 4).—Work was begun on a gravel section extending north
from the south town line on the stage road toward Benson April 80, 19138, and
completed May 12, 1913, with a loss of two days, due to bad weather. The
adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is a brown clay.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,584 feet. The maximum cut was 1 foot and the maximum fill 1.2 feet. The
maximum grade of 2.5 per cent on the old road was reduced to 1.5 per cent on
the new road. Gravel was obtained from banks near by and laid 21 feet in
width, making an area of 3,696 square yards.
One 15-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert was replaced and one 2 by 2 foot
masonry culvert was lengthened.
The total cost of the work was $198.45, or $0.054 per square yard.
BrRanpon, Vr.—Work was begun on a gravel road extending north from
Brandon toward Salisbury on August 2, 1918, and completed on August 30,
1913. The adjacent land is rolling, and the natural oil is sand and a sandy
loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,188 feet. The old road was very sandy, and after it had been widened and
straightened a 83-inch layer of clay was applied on the subgrade before putting
on the gravel. A surface of gravel was then placed 21 feet in width, making
2.772 square yards. This was compacted with a 3-ton horse roller.
Two small conerete culverts and one 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert
were placed.
The total cost was $635.40, or $0.229 per square yard.
CASTLETON, Vr.—Work was begun on a gravel road extending south from Cas-
tleton toward Poultney on September 20, 1913, and completed October 20, 1913.
Three days were lost on account of rain. The adjacent land is rolling, and
the natural soil is sand.
38 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,287 feet. The new road was widened and, where necessary, raised, making
the fill of rocks and old brick. The voids were well filled with chips before
surfacing. The maximum fill was 2.5 feet. A surface of gravel was laid 21
feet wide, making an area of 3,003 square yards.
Two small corrugated-iron pipe culverts were laid.
The total cost of the work was $480.88, or $0.148 per square yard.
CASTLETON Four Corners, VT.—Work was begun October 23, 1913, and com-
pleted November 7, 1918, resurfacing the old State road, extending west from
Castleton Four Corners toward Hydeville, with gravel.
No grading was done, simply a surface of bank gravel was placed 21 feet
wide for a total distance of 2,558 feet, or a total surface area of 5,969 feet.
The total cost was $522.80, or $0.054 per square yard.
CENTER RuTLAND, VT.—Work was begun September 1, 1913, on a gravel road
starting at a point 14 miles north of Center Rutland and extending toward
Proctor. It was completed on October 1, 1913, and only two days were lost
on account of bad weather. The adjacent land is rolling and the natural soil
is clay.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,188 feet. The maximum cut was 2.5 feet, the maximum fill 1.9 feet, and the
maximum grade was reduced from 3.9 per cent to 2.5 per cent. The road was
surfaced with bank gravel for a width of 21 feet, or a total area of 2,772 square
yards.
One 5 by 3 foot and one 2 by 3 foot masonry culvert and one 18-inch corru-
gated-iron pipe culvert were placed.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $596.75, or $0.215 per
square yard.
CHITTENDEN, Vt. (No. 1).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending east
from Chittenden toward North Sherburne on August 15, 1913, and completed
on August 80, 1913. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is loam.
This strip of road is paralleled by a mountain stream, and it was necessary
to build a retaining y-all to protect the road. A 2-foot fill was made with bor-
rowed material. The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for
a distance of 350 feet. The maximum cut was 1 foot; the maximum fill, 2
feet. The maximum grade of 4 per cent was reduced to 2.8 per cent. A sur-
face of bank gravel was laid, 21 feet in width, making an area of 817 square
yards.
One 15-inch corrugated-iron culvert was placed.
The total cost of the work was $344.66, or $0.422 per square yard.
CHITTENDEN, Vr. (No. 2).—Work was begun September 10, 1918, on a gravel
road extending from 38 miles east of Chittenden toward North Sherburne. It
was completed on September 380, 1913, with two days lost on account of rain.
The adjacent land is hilly, and the natural soil is clay loam. The old road
was very Swampy, poorly drained, and low.
The maximum cut was 0.8 foot and the maximum fill was 1 foot. The road
was graded 26 feet wide in cuts and fills for a distance of 500 feet. A surface
of bank gravel was laid 21 feet wide, making an area of 1,166 square yards.
One 2 by 2 foot masonry culvert was lengthened and one 18-inch corrugated-
iron pipe culvert placed.
The total cost of the work was $3386.69, or $0,288 per square yard.
At:
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 39
CLARENDON, VT.—Work was begun September 1, 1913, on a gravel section ex-
tending south on the Creek Road from Rutland to Wallingford. It was com-
pleted on December 14, 19138, with five days lost on account of bad weather.
The adjacent land is level on the east end of the road and hilly on the west.
The natural soil is clay and sandy loam, equally divided, with rock outcrops in
places.
The road was graded to a width of 26 feet in both cuts and fills for a distance
of 7,499 feet. More than $1,500 of the amount expended was used in rock-
work to widen the road for a distance of 550 feet. In some places the ledge
was 18 feet high. Before this was removed the road was only 12 feet wide.
At station 40 a bad curve was eliminated by cutting through a hill and con-
structing a retaining wall 12 feet high. Smaller retaining walls were built at
various other places and guard rails placed where necessary. The maxi-
mum cut was 4 feet and the maximum fill 3.5 feet. The maximum
grade on the old road was 6 per cent, which was reduced to a maximum of 38
per cent on the new road. The surfacing material used was an excellent
quality of bank gravel. It was laid 21 feet wide, a total area of 17,497
square , ards.
Ten small culverts were built.
Labor cost $1.75 and $2 per day, foreman $4 per day, and teams $4.50 per
9-hour day. The total cost of the work was $6,387.90, or $0.865 per square
yard.
CUTTINGSVILLE, VT.—Work was begun on a gravel loam road beginning 2 miles
north of Cuttingsville and extending northwest toward Hast Clarendon on
August 2, 1918, and completed on September 38, 1913. Three days were lost on
account of rain. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is loam.
The road was graded 26 feet in width in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,023 feet. Considerable clearing and grubbing was necessary, and a section
of retaining wall was built. The maximum cut was 0.5 foot, the maximum fill
3 feet, and the maximum grade was reduced from 4 per cent to 2.5 per cent. A
surface of gravel loam from the excavated material was laid 20 feet wide, mak-
ing an area of 2,387 square yards.
One 12-inch and one 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert were laid.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $480.77, or $0.201 per
square yard.
Dansy Four Corners, VT.—Work was begun on a gravel road extending west
from Danby Four Corners toward Pawlet on August 1, 1918, and completed on
August 10, 1918. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is a sandy
loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in cuts and fills for 350 feet. A surface of
bank gravel was laid 21 feet wide, making an area of 817 square yards.
One 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert was placed.
The total cost of the work was $161, or $0.197 per square yard.
Dansy, VT. (No. 1).—Work was begun August 10, 1918, on a gravel road
beginning at a point 3 miles south of Danby and extending south toward the
Bennington County line. It was completed November 15, 1918, with a loss of
12 days on account of various causes. The adjacent land is hilly on the west
and level on the east side. The natural soil is sand and sandy loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 2,360
feet. Considerable rock excavation was done and 900 linear feet of retaining
_ wall was built from 2 to 8 feet high. The maximum cut was 2 feet, the maxi-
40 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
mum fill 2 feet, and the maximum grade was reduced from 3 to 1.5 per cent.
A surface of gravel was laid 21 feet wide, making an area of 5,507 square
yards. The average haul of surfacing was 1 mile.
Six corrugated-iron pipe culverts were laid.
The total cost of the work was $1,882.28, or $0.333 per square yard.
DansBy, Vt. (No. 2.)—Work was begun on a gravel road extending from a
point 14 miles east of Danby toward Danby Four Corners on August 15, 1913,
and completed September 1, 1918. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural
soil is clay.
The maximum cut was 8 feet, the maximum fill 24 feet, and the maximum
grade of 11 per cent was reduced to 9 per cent on the new road. The road was
graded 26 feet wide in cuts and fills for a distance of 545 feet. A retaining
wall averaging 7 feet in height for 100 feet in length was built and considerable
rock was removed during the grading. A bank gravel surface was laid for a
width of 21 feet, making an area of 1,272 square yards.
One 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert was placed and one 3 by 8 foot
masonry culvert lengthened.
The total cost of the work was $412.03, or $0.824 per square yard.
Dansy,. VT. (No. 3).—Work was begun September 15, 1913, on a gravel road
extending from a point 2 miles north of Danby Post Office on the Creek Road
toward Wallingford and completed on October 80, 1913. Five days were lost
from various causes. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is clay
and sand rock. :
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 1,452
feet. The maximum cut was 8 feet; the maximum fill, 4.2 feet. The maximum
grade of the old road was 10.5 per cent, which was reduced to 7 per cent on the
new road. <A surface of bank gravel 21 feet wide was laid, making an area
of 3,388 square yards.
Two masonry culverts were repaired and two 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe
culverts placed. 3 ;
The total cost of the work was $1,528.69, or $0.451 per square yard.
EAst WALLINGFORD, VT. (No. 1).—Work was begun on a gravel road starting
2% miles east of Hast Wallingford and extending toward Mount Holly on
August 12, 1918, and completed September 30, 1913, with three days lost on
account of rain. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil clay loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 1,700
feet. The maximum cut was 3.5 feet, the maximum fill 3 feet, and the maximum
grade of 8 per cent was reduced to 5 per cent on the new road.
Three hundred feet of telford foundation was placed, and the whole road
was surfaced for a width of 21 feet with bank gravel. The surfaced area was
5.967 square yards.
Four corrugated-iron pipe culverts and one 2 by 2 foot concrete box culvert
were laid.
The total cost of the work was $861.70, or $0.217 per square yard.
East WALLINGForD, Vt. (No. 2).—Work was begun October 2, 1913, on a
gravel section 4 miles southeast from East Wallingford and extending toward
Weston, on the road locally known as the ‘Clay Hole.” It was completed
November 1, 1913, and two days were lost on account of rain. The adjacent
land is hilly and the natural soil clay.
The road was graded 26 feet in width in both cuts and fills for a distance of
578 feet. The maximum fill was 2 feet and the maximum grade was reduced
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1918—DEC. 31, 1914. 41
from 3 to 1.5 per cent. The V foundation was covered with bank gravel to a
width of 21 feet, giving a surfaced area of 1,849 square yards.
One stone masonry culvert was lengthened, and regulation stone and tile
eross drains were put in every 20 feet to drain the V foundation, which was
laid of fence stone.
The total cost of the work was $303.26, or $0.225 per square yard.
Farr Haven, Vt. (No. 1).—Work was begun August 1, 1913, on a gravel road
beginning at the line between the townships of Fair Haven and Castleton and
extending west toward the village of Fair Haven, and completed on August 10,
1913. ‘The adjacent land is rolling and the soil is sandy loam.
The road was shaped 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 743
feet. A surface of bank gravel was placed 21 feet wide, making an area of
1,734 square yards.
One 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert was placed.
The total cost of the work was $165.20, or $0.095 per square yard.
Fair Haven, Vt. (No. 2).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending west
from Fair Haven toward Whitehall, N. Y., on August 12, 1913, and completed on
September 3, 1913, with one day lost on account of rain. The adjacent land is
1olling and the natural soil very sandy.
The old road was lightly shaped and a 38-inch layer of clay applied on the
sand subgrade before putting on the gravel surface. The road was graded 26
feet wide in both cuts and fills for a total length of 2,970 feet. A gravel surface
21 feet wide, making an area of 6,930 square yards, was placed.
One 15-inch and one 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert were placed.
The total cost of the work was $687.54, or, $0.099 per square yard.
Farr Haven, Vt. (No. 8).—Work was begun September 15, 1913, on a gravel
read extending north from Fair Haven toward West Castleton at the point
known as Scotch Hill. It was completed on October 15, 1918, with three days
lost on account of bad weather. The adjacent land is hilly, and the natural
soil is clay from station 0 to 6 and sandy loam from station 6 to 12+20.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,220 feet. The maximum grade was reduced from 7 to 5 per cent. The maxi-
mum eut was 2 feet and the maximum fill was 1.8 feet. The material for the
telford foundation, which extended for 400 feet of the clay portion, was ob-
tained from stone walls. The gravel surfacing came from banks along the road
and was laid 21 feet in width, a total area of 2,847 square yards.
One 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert was laid.
The total cost of the work was $420.88, or $0.148 per square yard.
Warr Haven, Vr. (No. 4).—Work was begun October 18, 1913, on a gravel road
extending northwest from Fair Haven toward Benson, beginning at a 12-foot
iron bridge 3 miles north of Fair Haven. It was completed on November 7,
1913, with one day lost on account of rain. The adjacent land is hilly and the
natural soil is clay.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 578
feet. The maximum cut was 1 foot and the maximum fill was 1 foot. The
maximum grade of 5 per cent on the old road was reduced to 4 per cent on the
new road. A surface of bank gravel was laid 21 feet in width, making an
area of 1,849 square yards.
The total cost of the work was $368.66, or $0.273 per square yard.
42 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
HoLpen, Vt. (No. 1).—Work was begun August 10, 1913, on a gravel section
extending west from Holden on the Saw Mill Hill Road toward Grangerville.
It was completed on September 15, 1913, with four days lost from various
causes. The adjacent land is very hilly and the natural soil is clay and
hardpan,
The road was graded 25 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 751
feet. The maximum cut was 2 feet and the maximum fill was 3.7 feet. The
maximum grade of 138.5 per cent was reduced to 8.5 per cent. This was side-
hill work, necessitating the construction of a retaining wall the entire length.
The gutters were paved and guard rail erected. The road was surfaced 20 feet
wide with bank gravel, making an area of 1,669 square yards.
One 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert was placed and one 5 by 4 foot
masonry culvert lengthened.
The total cost of the work was $641.80, or $0.384 per square yard.
HompeN, Vt. (No. 2).—Work of improving the road extending northeast
from Grangerville toward Holden was begun on September 20, 1913, and com-
pleted September 25, 1913. The adjacent land is hilly.
The work consisted in resurfacing with bank gravel 330 feet of old road to a
width of 20 feet, making 733 square yards.
The cost of the work was $41.75, or $0.057 per square yard.
HUBBARDTON, Vt.—Work was begun August 20, 1918, on a gravel road start-
ing 3 miles north of Hubbardton Post Office at Beebe Pond and extending
toward Sudbury. It was completed on October 31, 1918, with five days lost on
account of various causes. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is
clay loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a total distance
of 759 feet. The maximum cut was 4 feet, the maximum fill 3 feet. and the
grade of 9 per cent was reduced to 6 per cent. Considerable rock excavation
Was necessary and steam drills were employed. A heavy riprap wall was
built almost the entire length and a guard rail erected.
Two 12-inch corrugated-iron pipe culverts were placed.
A surface of gravel was laid 21 feet in width, making an area of 1,771
square yards.
The total cost of the work was $1,189.55, or $0.643 per square yard.
HiYDEVILLE, VT.—Work was begun on a gravel road extending west from
Hydeville toward Fair Haven on August 10, 1918, and completed on September
11, 1918. Three days were lost on account of rain.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a total distance
of 1,634 feet. The maximum cut was 1 foot and the maximum fill 2.5 feet.
Retaining walls were built to hold the fill and probably half of the excavation
was rock. The maximum grade was reduced from 4 to 2.5 per cent. Gravel
was obtained from banks nearby, and surfaced 21 feet in width, making 3.812
square yards.
Two 18-inch iron pipe culverts were laid, and 510 feet of 4-inch tile drain
was placed under the north ditch line for subdrainage.
The total cost of the work was $1,039.77, or $0.27Z2 per square yard.
Ira, Vr.—Work was begun August 18, 1918, on a road extending northeast
from Ira toward West Rutland, starting 3 miles northeast of Ira Church.
It was completed on October 30, 1918, with a loss of five days from yarious
causes.
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1918—DEC. 31, 1914. 43
This road parallels a stream which formerly washed out the road every
spring. The channel of the stream was cleared of large bowlders and trees
and a retaining wall was constzucted. <A 2 foot fill running the entire length
of the work was then made of stone from old walls. This rock was carefully
chinked with small stone and covered with gravel.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
660 feet. The maximum fill was 8 feet and the maximum grade of 2 per cent
was reduced to i per cent. A bank gravel surfacing was laid 21 feet wide,
making an area of 1,540 square yards.
Two 2 by 8 foot masonry culverts with concrete tops were laid; also one 18-
inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert.
The total cost of the work was $1,406.85, or $0.918 per square yard.
LAKE ST. CATHERINE, Vt. (No. 1).—Work was begun August 1, 1918, on a
gravel road starting at the iron bridge at the south end of Lake St. Catherine
and extending north and then east toward Wells. It was completed on October
1, 1913, with a delay of four days on account of bad weather. The adjacent
land is hilly and the natural soil from station 0 to 35 is sandy loam. The bal-
ance of the way is gravel.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
4,673 feet. The maximum cut was 4.2 feet, the maximum fill 3.8 feet, and the
maximum grade was reduced from 7 to 5.2 per cent.
A gravel surface 21 feet wide, making an area of 10,903 square yards, was
laid, with a maximum haul of 1,500 feet for half the road. The gravel for the
other half was obtained from banks alongside the road.
Three hundred feet of tile drain was constructed, two masonry culverts
lengthened, one masonry culvert built, and five cast-iron pipe culverts laid.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $950.70, or $0.087 per
square yard.
LAKE ST. CATHERINE, VT. (No. 2).—Work was begun June 1, 1913, on a gravel
road beginning at the north line of the town of Wells and extending south
toward Poultney, paralleling the lake. It was completed on September 10, 1913,
with a delay of 10 days from various causes. The adjacent land is very hilly
on the east, with the lake on the west. The natural soil is soft shale and clay.
The road was graded 24 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
3,364 feet. The maximum cut was 5.7 feet, the maximum fill 6 feet, and the
maximum grade was reduced from 10 to 4 per cent on the new road. The
shale rock was practically all picked by hand, being too soft to blast. Bank
gravel, which was hauled about 1 mile, was laid for a width of 18 feet on the
road, making an area of 6,728 square yards.
Stone retaining walls were built; also one 4 by 4 foot concrete box culvert.
Three 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe culverts were placed. “7
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $2,720.46, or $0.404 per
square yard.
Menpon, Vt. (No. 1).—Work was begun on a gravel section extending east
from Mendon toward Sherburne on Mountain Road on August 20, 1913, and
completed September 25, 1913. Five days were lost from various causes. The
‘adjacent land is hilly and the soil a sandy loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 446
feet. The maximum cut was 0.5 foot and the maximum fill 1 foot. A surface
of gravel was laid 21 feet wide, making an area of 1,041 square yards. The
gravel was hauled about 23 miles.
One 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert was built.
The total cost of the work was $414.12, or $0.398 per square yard.
44 BULLETIN 284; U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Menpon, Vr. (No. 2).—Work was begun on a gravel section extending from
a point one-half mile east of Mendon Post Oflice toward Sherburne on the
Mountain Road on October 1, 1913, and completed October 31, 1913. The ad-
jacent land is hilly and the natural soil is sandy loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 1,071
feet. The maximum cut was 1 foot, the maximum fill 0.5 foot, and the grade
of 4 per cent on the old road was reduced on the new road to 3 per cent. The
gravel was hauled from a point 2 miles distant and laid on the road 21 feet
wide, a total area of 2,499 square yards.
One 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert was laid.
The total cost of the work was $389.57, or $0.156 per square yard.
MIDDLETOWN Sprines, Vt. (No. 1).—Work was begun August 15, 1918, on a
gravel road extending west from Middletown Springs toward Poultney. It
was completed on September 8, 1913, with three days lost on account of bad
weather. The adjacent land is rolling and the natural soil is a sandy loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a length of 627
feet. Gravel was hauled 3 miles for the surfacing and placed on the road to
a width of 21 feet, or a total area of 1,463 square yards.
Two corrugated-iron pipe culverts were placed and one masonry culvert was
lengthened.
The total cost of the work was $5438.85, or $0.871 per square yard.
MIDDLETOWN Sprines, Vr. (No. 2).—Work was begun September 10, 1913, on
a gravel road 2% miles from Middletown Springs and extending west toward
Poultney. It was completed October 4, 1918, with a delay of two days on ac-
count of bad weather. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is sandy
loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 396
feet. Gravel, which was hauled 3% miles, was laid on the road 21 feet wide,
or a total of 924 square yards.
One masonry culvert was lengthened and one 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe
culvert laid.
The total cost of the work was $132.68, or $0.143 per square yard.
NortH PAWLET, VT.—Work was begun on a gravel road extending northwest
from Spanktown toward Pawlet on October 1, 1918, and completed October 18,
1913, with a loss of one day on account of bad weather. The adjacent land is
hilly.
The grade of the old road was not changed. The work consisted of blasting
out shale rock to form the ditches and widening the road to 26 feet in both euts
and fills for a distance of 495 feet. It was then surfaced with bank gravel 21
feet wide, making an area of 1,155 square yards.
The total cost of the work was $134.80, or $0.116 per square yard.
PirrsrizLp, Vt.—Work was begun September 1, 1915, on a gravel road north
of Pittsfield extending from the Stockbridge town line toward Stony Brook
Station. It was completed on October 15, 1913, with two days lost on account
of rain. The adjacent iand is hilly and the natural soil on the first half of the
road is sand, while the last half of the road is elay.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 594
feet. The maximum cut was 4 feet and the maximum fill 4 feet. The maxi-
mum grade of 11 per cent was reduced to § per cent. <A telford base was laid
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 45
for 60 feet. A surface of bank gravel 21 feet wide was laid, making an area
of 1,386 square yards.
One 16-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert was laid, and 320 feet of 6-inch tile
drain was placed unde the east ditch line through the cut.
The total cost of the work was $765.34, or $0.552 per square yard.
PouLtNEY, VT.—Work was begun August 10, 1913, on a gravel road parallel-
ing Lake St. Catherine and extending south from Poultney toward Wells. It
was completed October 8, 1913, with three days lost on account of rain. The
adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is gravelly loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
2,393 feet. The maximum cut was 3.5 feet, the maximum fill was 2.8 feet,
and the maximum grade was reduced from 4 to 2 per cent. Considerable
grubbing and clearing was necessary in widening the road, and the excavated
material was used for surfacing 21 feet in width, making an area of 5,583
square yards. The road was newly located for a distance of 400 feet.
Five corrugated-iron pipe culverts, ranging in size from 12 to 24 inches, were
placed.
The total cost of the work, including drainage structures, was $1,427.36, or
$0.255 per square yard.
Proctor, Vt. (No. 1).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending north
from Proctor toward Pittsford on June 1, 1915, and completed on August 1, 1913.
Three days were lost on account of bad weather. The adjacent land is hilly
and the natural soil is a sandy loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 3,201
feet. The maximum cut was 3.7 feet, the maximum fill was 2.9 feet, and the old
maximum grade of 8 per cent was reduced to 6 per cent. <A gravel surface was
laid 21 feet wide, making a total of 7,469 square yards,
Three 18-inch and two 24-inch corrugated-iron pipe culverts were placed and
approximately 275 linear feet of telford base was laid.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $2,035.88, or $0.272 per
square yard.
Proctor, Vt. (No. 2).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending east from
Proctor toward Pittsford Mills on August 4, 1918, and completed on September
1, 1913. Rain delayed the work for two days. The adjacent land is hilly and
the natural soil a sandy loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a-distance of 710
feet. The maximum cut was 1.8 feet, the maximum fill was 1.2 feet, and the
old maximum grade of 3 per cent was reduced to 2 per cent. Gravel was ob-
tained close at hand and laid on the road 21 feet wide, or a total area of 1,656
square yards.
Two 18-inch and one 12-inch corrugated-iron pipe culverts were placed.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $221.21, or $0.133 per
square yard. a
RurLanpD City, Vr.—Work was begun August 20, 1918, on a gravel road ex-
tending north from the south city line of Rutland toward Dorris Bridge. The
road was entirely within the city limits and was completed on October 30, 1913,
with a loss of three days on account of bad weather. The adjacent land is
rolling on the west and level on the east side. The natural soil is sandy loam.
The road was shaped by a road machine 30 feet wide in both cuts and fills
for a distance of 5,199 feet. Practically no grading was necessary. The road
46 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
was surfaced with gravel 24 feet wide, making an area of 13,864 square yards.
This gravel, which was hauled 8 miles, was compacted with a 10-ton roller.
Three 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe culverts were laid.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $3,874.47, or $0.279 per
square yard.
RUTLAND, VT. (No. 1).—Work was begun August 1, 1913, on resurfacing with
gravel a road extending north from the city line of Rutland toward Mill Vil-
lage. It was completed August 10, 19138.
The road was surfaced with bank gravel for a width of 21 feet and a dis-
tance of 825 feet, making an area of 1,925 square yards.
The total cost of the work was $292.54, or $0.152 per square yard.
RUTLAND, VT. (No. 2).—Work was begun August 15, 1918, on a gravel sec-
tion beginning at the south city line of Rutland on the Creek Road and
extending south through Rutland Township to the Clarendon town line. Four
days were lost on account of bad weather and it was completed on October
18, 1913. The adjacent land is rolling and the natural soil a sandy loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
3,399 feet. The maximum cut was 1.8 feet, the maximum fill 3 feet, and the
maximum grade was reduced from 8 to 1.5 per cent. The road was surfaced
with bank gravel 21 feet in width, making an area of 7,931 square yards. A
guard rail was erected along all the embank eee :
One 6 by 4 foot, one 5 by 4 foot, and one 2 by 8 foot culvert were built of
masonry and concrete, and one 18-inch and one 12-inch corrugated-iron pipe
culvert were laid. :
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $2,796.42, or $0.852 per
square yard.
SHERBURNE, VT.—Work was begun August 20, 1913, on a gravel section ex-
tending east of Mendon toward Sherburne, at practically the highest point on
the Mountain Road. It was completed on October 21, 1915, with three days.
lost on account of rain. The adjacent land is very hilly and the natural soil
is clay loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 850
feet. The maximum cut was 4 feet, the maximum fill 3.4 feet, and the
maximum grade of 15 per cent was reduced to 11 per cent. Gravel obtained
during the grading was placed on the road to a width of 21 feet, or a total
area of 1.983 square yards. Stone retaining walls were built at several places.
One 18-inch and one 24-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert were laid.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $8138.92, or $0.411 per
square yard.
SHrewspury, VT. (No. 1).—Work was begun on a gravel road about midway
between Shrewsbury and North Shrewsbury on June 6, 1913, and completed
July 3, 1918. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is clay and rock.
The road was graded 25 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
495 feet. The maximum cut was 3 feet, the maximum fill 3.9 feet, and the
maximum grade of 12.8 per cent was reduced to 7 per cent. A surface of
bank gravel was laid 20 feet in width, making an area of 1,100 square yards.
One 24-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert was laid.
The total cost of the work, including culvert, was $272.34, or $0.248 per
square yard.
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 47
SHREwsBurY, VT. (No. 2).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending west
from Shrewsbury toward East Clarendon on September 15, 1915, and com-
pleted October 28, 1913. Three days were lost on account of bad weather. The
adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is clay.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both euts and fills for a distance of
1,028 feet. The maximum cut was 2 feet, the maximum fill 4.1 feet, and the
maximum grade was reduced from 8 to 6 per cent on the new road. The road
was surfaced with bank gravel 21 feet wide, making an area of 2,387 square
yards.
One 12-inch and one 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert were laid and one 2
by 2 foot masonry culvert was lengthened.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $394.80, or $0.165 per
square yard.
SPANKIOWN, VT.—Work was begun on a gravel road extending from Spank-
town northwest toward North Pawlet on August 12, 1918, and completed on
September 28, 1913. Two days were lost on account of rain. The adjacent
land is rolling and the natural soil is clay loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,650 feet. The maximum fill was 0.8 foot.
Telford foundation was laid for 1,000 feet. A surface of gravel 21 feet wide,
making an area of 38,850 square yards, was laid in two courses. The bottom
layer was obtained from a creek bed nearby and the top coat was of bank
gravel.
One 15-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert was laid; also, one 2 by 2 foot and
one 2 by 3 foot masonry culvert.
The total cost of the work was $694.25, or $0.180 per square yard.
Suppury, Vt.—Work was begun August 8, 1918, on a gravel section running
west from Brandon toward Jones’s store on Cooks Hill Road and completed on
October 15, 1918. Four: days were lost on account of rainy weather. The ad-
jacent land is hilly and the natural soil is loam, running to gravel loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 850
feet. The maximum cut was 3.8 feet, the maximum fill 2.6 feet. The grading
work was rather heavy and the maximum grade was reduced from 12 per cent
to 8 per cent. The road was surfaced with gravel obtained from the cuts and
laid to a width of 21 feet, or a total area of 1,983 square yards.
Two 12-inch and one 18-inch corrugated-iron pip2 culverts were laid and one
2 by 2 foot masonry culvert lengthened.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $888.10, or $0.447 per
square yard.
TINMOUTH, VT. (No. 1).—Work was begun October 15, 1913, resurfacing
with gravel the road beginning 1,500 feet east of Tinmouth church and extending
east toward Wallingford. It was completed October 30, 1913, with one day
lost on account of bad weather.
The road was surfaced 18 feet wide for a distance of 825 feet, making a total
surfaced area of 1,650 square yards. The bank grave! used was hauled one-
half mile.
The total cost of the work was $86.60, or $0.052 per square yard.
TinmMoutH, Vr. (No. 2).—Weork was begun August 1, 1913, on a gravel road
beginning at the creamery in Tinmouth village and extending east toward Wal-
lingford. It was completed on September 20, 1915, with a delay of two days on
account of bad weather. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil a sandy
loam. .
48 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 1,155
feet. The maximum cut was 3.8 feet, the maximum fill 2 feet, and the maximum
grade was reduced from 11.5 to 7.5 per cent. Bank gravel surfacing 21 feet in
width was laid, making a total surfaced area of 2,695 square yards.
One 8 by 4 foot masonry culvert was lengthened and one 24-inch corrugated-
iron pipe culvert laid. ;
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $962.59, or $0.357 per
scare yard.
WALLINGFORD, Vt. (No. 1).—Work was begun on a gravel road in the village
of Wallingford, extending north towerd Rutland, on July 5, 1913. It was com-
pleted on July 31, 1918, with one day lost on account of bad weather. The
adjacent land is rolling and the natural soil is loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 1,122
feet. The maximum fill was 3 feet and the maximum grade was reduced from
2 to 0.S per cent on the new road. The road was surfaced 21 feet wide with
bevk gravel, making an area of 2,618 square yards.
One 12-inch and one 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert were placed.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $365.40, or $0.139 per
square yard. ‘
WALLINGTORD, Vr. (No. 2>.—Work was begun August 3, 1918, on a gravel road
hecinning one-half mile north of Wallingford in Marsh Woods and extending
north toward Rutland. {ft was completed on August 20, 1918. The adjacent
land is rolling and the soil is clay loam.
The road was graded £26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 549
fect. The maximum fill was 2 feet and the maximum ¢e-7de of 2 per cent on
the old road was reduced to 1 per cent oa the new road. A telford base was
laid of stone, which was hauled 2 miles, and this was surfaced with bank gravel
which was hauled 24 miles. The width of surfacing was 21 feet, making an
area of 1,281 square yards. ;
One 3 by 38 foot masonry culvert was built and one 2 by 8 foot culvert was
iengthened. :
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $741.80, or §$0.5S80 per
square yard.
WALLINGFORD, VT. (No. 3).—Work was begun August 28, 1918, on a gravel sec-
tion 1 mile north of South Wallingford on the Creek Road. It was completed
on September 20, 1913, with a delay of two dsys because of rain. The adjacent
Jand is hill) and the natural soil is partly sand and partly clay leam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 1,500
feet. The maximum cut was 2.8 feet, the maximum fill 2.5 feet, and the maxi-
mum grade of 8 per cent ov the old road was reduced to 6 per cent on the new
road. This work was all rather heavy. The road was surfaced 21 feet wide,
mining an area of 3,500 square yards. ]
One 18-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert was laid.
The total cost of the work, iucluding culvert, was $855.05, or $0.244 per
square yard.
WALLINGFORD, Vr. (No. 4).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending
west from Wallingford toward Tinmouth on September 22, 1913. It was com-
pleted on October 25, 19138, with a loss of two days on account of bad weather.
The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is sand and loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for 1,0S9 feet. The
maximum cut was 3 feet, the maximum fill 3 feet, and the maximum grade of
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1918—DEC. 31, 1914. 49
9 per cent was reduced to 6 per cent A short section of hemlock crib was
built to hold the embankment. Bank gravel was used for surfacing and was
placed 21 feet wide, or a total of 2,541 square yards.
One 24-inch corrugated-iron pipe culvert was laid.
The total cost of the work, including culvert, was $591.85, or $0.233 per
square yard.
WALLINGFORD, VT. (No. 5).—Work was begun on a gravel road extending
west from Wallingford toward Tinmouth on October 26, 1918, and completed
on November 5, 1913. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is clay.
The road was graded 25 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 660
feet. The maximum cut was 1 foot, the maximum fill 1.8 feet, and the maxi-
mum grade was reduced from 3 to 2 per cent. <A gravel surface 20 feet wide,
making an area of 1,466 square yards, was laid. The average haul was 200
feet.
The total cost of the work was $79.35, or $0.054 per square yard.
West Pawtetr, Vr.—Work was begun October 25, 1918, on a gravel road be-
ginning at the Bennington County line south of West Pawlet and extending
north toward Rupert. It was completed November 12, 1913, with a delay of
four days on account of rain. The adjacent land is rolling and the natural
soil clay Ioam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a length of 1,320
feet. The maximum cut was 0.5 foot, the maximum fill 0.8 foot. The maxi-
mum grade of 2 per cent on the old road was reduced to 1.5 per cent on the
new road. A bank gravel surface was laid 21 feet wide, making an area of
3,080 square yards.
The total cost of the work was $370.52, or $0.120 per square yard.
WESTHAVEN, VT. (No. 1).—Work was begun August 15, 1918, at a point 6
miles northwest of Fair Haven, on a gravel road extending northwest toward
Benson. It was completed on September 10, 19138, with one day lost on ac-
count of rain. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is sandy loam
from station 0 to 2 and clay from station 2 to 12+71.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
1,271 feet. Only the road machine was used, since very little grading was
necessary. A surface of gravel 21 feet wide was laid, making an area of 2,956
square yards.
The total cost of the work was $279.10, or $0.094 per square yard.
WESTHAVEN, VT. (No. 2).—Work was begun August 12, 1913, at a point 8
miles west of Westhaven, on a gravel section extending on the West Road
toward Lake Champlain. It was completed on September 6, 1918, with a loss
of two days on account of rain. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural
soil is clay.
The road was graded 24 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of
743 feet. The maximum cut was 1 foot, the maximum fill 1.5 feet, and the
maximum grade on the old road was reduced from 3 to 2 per cent. A telford
foundation was laid for a distance of 200 feet. Bank gravel was used for
surfacing and placed 20 feet wide, or a total of 1,651 square yards.
One 2 by 2 foot masonry culvert was lengthened and one 12-inch corrugated-
iron pipe culvert laid.
The total cost of the work, including culverts, was $276.46, or $0.176 per
Square yard.
fh
50 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
West RutTLaNp, Vt.—Work was begun September 20, 1913, on a gravel road
starting 34 miles west of West Rutland and extending toward Castleton. It
was completed October 8, 1918, with a loss of two days on account of rain.
The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is sandy loam.
The road was graded 26 feet wide in both cuts and fills for a distance of 528
feet. The maximum cut was 2 feet, the maximum fill 1.8 feet, and the maxi-
mum grade of 4 per cent on the old road was reduced to 3 per cent on the
new road. A surface of bank gravel 21 feet wide was laid, making a sur-
faced area of 1,252 square yards.
One 3 by 38 foot masonry culvert was lengthened.
The total cost of the work, including culvert, was $265.83, or $0.215 per
square yard.
EXPERIMENTAL ROAD WORK.
A portion of the special appropriation for experimental road im-
provement was used to resurface with limestone macadam the road
known as the Rockville Pike, in Montgomery County, Md., and to
then treat the surface with various bituminous materials in con-
junction with gravel, trap-rock screenings, and limestone screenings.
The resurfacing was begun March 15, 1913, and the surface treat-
ment started on September 5, 19138. The work was completed and
the road opened to the public on December 17, 1913. In addition to
the Rockville Pike, a 1,500-foot section on Bradley Lane, east from
the pike, was resurfaced with limestone. The land adjacent to the
road is rolling and the natural soil is for the most part a mica clay.
The reports following describe the resurfacing as done under the
four contracts into which the work was divided. For a detailed
description of the bituminous surface treatments, which were car-
ried out in seven distinct sections, see Department Bulletin No. 105,
“Progress Report of Experiments in Dust Prevention and Road
Preservation, 1913.”
LIMESTONE MACADAM RESURFACING.
Contract No. 1, RockviILLE PikrE, Mp.—Work was begun March 15, 1913, on
the road from station 61-++20 to station 210 and was completed August 8, 1913,
with a loss of eight days on account of bad weather. The old roadbed was
loosened by spikes in the roller wheels and a 3-ton scarifier.
The old macadam was reshaped and a surface of macadam was laid for
14,460 feet, 15 feet wide, making 24,100 square yards. About 248.22 tons of
No. 1 stone were used to fill depressions, after which 2-911.75 tons of No. 2
stone were spread 3 inches deep before compacted, and 1,164.31 tons of stone
screenings used for a binder course. The stone was shipped on the cars and
the haul from the cars to the road was 14 miles.
Ditches were dug to the extent of 20,923 linear feet.
The equipment consisted of three 10-ton steam rollers, one sprinkler wagon,
grading machine, dump wagons, gasoline pumps, tanks, small tools, ete.
The road was built by contract for $11,638.14, which is at the rate of $0.483
per square yard. Labor cost $1.70 and teams $4.50 per day of eight hours.
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—-DEC. 31, 1914. 51
ContTRACT No. 2, ROCKVILLE PIKE, Mp.—Work was begun April 25, 1913, on the
road from station 0+15 to 61+20, and completed June 17, 1913, with a loss of
three days on account of bad weather. A surface of macadam was laid for
6,105 feet, 15 feet wide, making 10,175 square yards. The old macadam road
was loosened with spikes in the roller wheels, and a 3-ton scarifier was then
used to tear the surface apart.
About 58.85 tons of No. 1 stone were used to level depressions and reshape the
old surface, after which No. 2 stone was spread 3 inches deep to the amount
of 1,102.8 tons. This layer was then rolled, and about 1 inch of screenings, or
440.7 tons, was spread, watered, and rolled until the surface was completed
with a crown of one-half inch to the foot. The crushed rock was hauled from
the cars to the road, with an average haul of three-fourths of a mile.
Drainage structures were as follows: Sixteen feet of 8-inch clay pipe; 14 feet
of 12-inch clay pipe; 76 feet of 10-inch corrugated pipe. Thirty-three feet of
pipe were relaid.
The equipment consisted of two steam rollers, sprinkler wagon, 3-ton scarifier,
road machine, gasoline pump, portable tank, and small tools. Labor cost $1.70
and teams $4.50 per S8-hour day. The total cost of the road was $5,753.36,
which is at the rate of $0.565 per square yard for surfacing, or $0.339 per square
yard for the full width.
The principal items of cost were as follows at contract prices: Completed
shoulders, 1,000 linear feet, at $0.15 per linear foot, $150; ditches, 6,000 linear
feet, at $0.04 per linear foot, $240; scarifying and shaping subgrade, 10,000
square yards, at $0.06 per square yard, $600; stone in place, No. 1 stone, 58.35
tons, at $2.90 per ton, $169.21; No. 2 stone, 1,102.8 tons, at $2.90 per ton,
$3,198.12; No. 3 stone, 440.7 tons, at $2.90 per ton, $1,278.03; 12-inch clay pipe,
14 linear feet, at $0.75 per linear foot, $10.50; 8-inch clay pipe, 16 linear feet,
at $0.50 per linear foot, $8; 10-inch corrugated-iron pipe, 76 linear feet, at $0.85
per linear foot, $64.60; drop inlets, at $15 each, $15; lowering drain 33 linear
feet, at $0.80 per linear foot, $9.90; inlets into culverts, $10.
Contract No. 3, RocKVILLE PIKE, Mp.—Work was begun June 30, 1913, on the
road from station 210 to station 477+89 and completed October 16, 1913, with
a loss of four days on account of bad weather. It is estimated about 2,779.1
cubie yards of material were moved in grading the road. The old surface was
loosened with spikes in the roller wheels, and a 3-ton scarifier was then used.
A surface of macadam was laid for 26,814 feet, 15 feet wide, making 44,690
square yards. After about 146.95 tons of No. 1 stone were used to level de-
pressions, about 6,377.45 tons of No. 2 stone were spread to a depth of 34 inches
before compacted. This surface was rolled, and 1,651.85 tons of screenings
were applied to a depth of 1 inch before compacted, and the surface sprinkled
and rolled to a finished surface having a crown of five-eighths inch to the foot.
The stone used was a limestone whose binding and wearing qualities are con-
sidered good. The material was dumped in long piles from wagons and spread
to proper-thickness by means of shovels and rakes. It was shipped in on the
cars, and the average haul from the cars to the road was 13 miles,
Drainage structures were constructed as follows: Station 211+00, 28 linear
feet 15-inch corrugated-iron pipe eulvert; station 246+00, 26 linéar feet 10-inch
clay pipe and side drain; station 323-+-00, 28 linear feet 10-inch corrugated-iron
pipe and side drain; station 328--00, 28 linear feet 10-inch corrugated-iron pipe
and side drain. End walls were constructed at all pipe ends to fit local condi-
tions.
52 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The equipment consisted of four steam rollers, sprinkler wagons, 3-ton scari-
fier, road grader, small tools, etc. Labor cost $1.60 and teams $4.80 per 8-hour
day. The road was built by contract for $23,704.71, which is at the rate of
$0.53 per square yard.
Contract No. 4, BrapLey LANE, Mp.—Work was begun August 4, 1913,
on the section of road extending from Wisconsin Avenue toward Connecticut
Avenue on Bradley Lane. It was completed September 380, 1913. The road
was graded 16 feet in both cuts and fills for 1,580 feet. A surface of macadam
was laid for 1,530 feet, 10 feet wide, making 1,700 square yards. The crushed
rock was delivered on the cars and hauled to the road, with an average haul
of three-eighths mile. The surface of the old macadam road was loosened
with spikes in the roller wheels, and torn apart with a 8-ton scarifier. This
surface was then reshaped and leveled with No. 1 stone, and rolled, after
which 8 inches of No. 2 stone were spread and rolled. About 1 inch of binder
course was then spread, watered, and rolled, and the road finished with a crown
of one-half inch to the foot.
The road was built by contract for $1,285.72, which is at the rate of $0.756
per square yard. Labor cost $1.70 and teams $4.50 per day of eight hours.
POST-ROAD WORK.
Under the act of Congress of August 24, 1912, making appropria-
tion for the Post Office Department for the fiscal year 1913, there
was appropriated $500,000 for the improvement of roads used in
rural delivery, in order to ascertain how such improvement would
affect the amount of territory served by rural carriers, the increase
in number of delivery days, etc. In short, the improvements were
to be carried out in such manner as to indicate the relative saving to
the Government in the operation of the Rural Delivery Service, and.
to the local inhabitants in the transportation of their products.
The Secretary of Agriculture was appointed to cooperate with the
Postmaster General and to furnish the supervision for the construe-
tion work, which is being done through the Office of Public Roads.
Under the act the local authorities pay not less than two-thirds of
the cost of the improvement, and the Federal Government the re-
maining one-third. A detailed report, containing description and
cost data of the work, will be published in a joint report made to
Congress by the Secretary of Agriculture and the Postmaster Gen-
eral upon the completion of the work, which comprises the following
17 projects:
Lauderdale County, Ala., 30 miles of earth road;
Boone and Story Counties, Iowa, 51 miles of earth road;
Dubuque County, Iowa, 20 miles of gravel road;
Bath and Montgomery Counties, Ky., 11 miles of macadam
road; .
Montgomery County, Md., 5.4 miles of macadam road;
Cumberland County, Me., 21 miles of bituminous macadam
road;
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 53
@
Leflore County, Miss., 24 miles of gravel road;
McDowell County, N. C., 16 miles of earth road;
Davie, Forsyth, and Iredell Counties, N. C., 48 miles of sand-
clay and topsoil road ;
Licking and Muskingum Counties, Ohio, 24 miles of concrets
road ;
Jackson County, Oreg., 51.4 miles of earth road;
Aiken County, 8S. C., 27.8 miles of sand-clay and topsoil road;
Loudon County, Tenn., 6.4 miles of macadam road;
Montgomery County, Tenn., 7.6 miles of macadam road;
Bexar, Comal, Travis, Hays, and Guadalupe Counties, Tex.,
71.6 miles of gravel road;
Fairfax County, Va., 12.3 miles of gravel road;
Spotsylvania, Caroline, and Hanover Counties, Va., 38.2 miles
of sand-clay and topsoil road.
BRIDGE WORK.
BRIDGES AND CULVERTS ON POST ROADS.
On the post roads typical designs of culverts and bridges prepared
by the office were built wherever suitable for the location, and they
are described in the reports of the post roads. In cases where
typical designs did not fit the locations, special designs were made
in accordance with surveys of the sites, as follows: Alabama, 2;
Towa, 2; Mississippi, 5; Tennessee, 3; Texas, 1; Virginia, 3.
PREPARATION: OF PLANS, BRIDGE INSPECTIONS, ETC.
Typical designs were prepared for I-beam bridges with wooden
floors for spans from 12 feet to 40 feet, varying in length by 2 feet.
Bridge sites were inspected and special designs prepared, as follows:
California, 2; Indiana, 2; New Hampshire, 1; North Carolina, 12;
South Carolina, 6; Tennessee, 1; Virginia, 1. Final inspections of
the bridges referred to above were made in a number of cases for the
benefit of local officials. In several cases designs prepared by State
highway departments and bridge companies were examined and re-
ports made. Concrete abutments for a steel bridge at Stanley, N. C.,
were erected under supervision of an office engineer.
WORK OF THE DIVISION OF NATIONAL PARK AND FOREST ROADS.
The Division of National Park and Forest Roads was formed on
February 16, 1914, with T. Warren Allen as chief. Arrangements
were made early in 1914 for cooperation between the Department
of the Interior and the Department of Agriculture, also between the
Forest Service and the Office of Public Roads, for the purpose of
bringing about the wisest possible expenditure of available funds
54 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
for road building and maintenance in certain of the National Parks.
and Forests.
These arrangements provide that when the assistance of a high-
way engineer for any of the National Parks or Forests is desired,
the assignment of such an engineer will be requested of the Office
of Public Roads, and such engineer will be assigned by said office
whenever it is practicable to do so. The salaries of such engineers
are paid from funds of the Office of Public Roads, and their ex-
penses from funds of the Department of the Interior when the
cooperative work is within National Parks, and from funds of the
Forest Service when the work is within National Forests. All work
of construction is paid for from funds of the Department of the
Interior or the Forest Service.
WORK DONE IN NATIONAL FORESTS.
In conformity with the agreements made, representatives of the
office were placed in five of the Forest Service Districts and in three
of the National Parks about the 1st of June, 1914. The men who
were placed in the Forest Service Districts spent the first few months
in learning conditions and particularly in getting acquainted with
the road projects by making field inspections. In some cases, where
the importance of the project warranted it, reconnaissance surveys
were made. With the information thus obtained, together with data
assembled from reports of forest supervisors, lists were made of the
most important of the projects in each State, and these lists, show-
ing the projects in the order of their importance, were transmitted
through the district foresters to the Forester for his approval. As
soon as possible after the approval of the lists, surveys were begun
and carried to completion. In practically all of the districts surveys
have been made of the projects which will be put under construction
during 1915, and plans, estimates, and specifications are being pre-
pared. A small amount of earth road construction was done up to
January 1, 1915, but in most cases attention was confined to prepara-
tory work to insure that an orderly progress of the work would be
followed out.
SURVEY WORK.
In preparation for construction work, which is described later, the
following survey work was done:
CocHEToPA Forest, CoLo.—Cochetopa Pass Road.—Nine and one-half miles of
location survey was made and stakes driven for the construction work at a
cost of $682.21.
Routt Forrest, CoLto.—Rabbit Har Road.—Hleven and one-half miles of loca-
tion survey was made, plans prepared, and estimates begun at a cost of $786.76.
— en
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 50
UNCOMPAHGRE Forest, CoLto.—Alpine Road.—Four miles of location survey
was made at a cost of $328.82.
Big Horn Forrest, Wryo.—Big Horn to Hazleton. Road.—Fifteen and three-
tenths miles of location survey was made and work on plans begun at a cost
of $816.86.
PALISADE AND TETON Forests, Wyo.—Teton Pass Road.—Eleven and one-
tenth miles of location survey was made at a total cost of $531.75.
PALISADE F'oREST, IpAHo—T'eton Pass Road.—Two and three-tenths miles of
location survey was made at a total cost of $67.30.
PALISADE FoREsT, IDAHO—Victor Irwin Pine Creek Road.—HEleven and four-
tenths miles of location survey was made at a total cost of $294.48.
Rusy Forrest, NeEv.—Secret Pass Road.—Four and six-tenths miles of location
survey was made at a total cost of $265.45.
Dixir Forest, Utan.—Modena to St. George Road.—Fifteen and three-tenths
miles of location survey was made at a total cost of $615.92.
Sevier Forest, UTAH.—Panguitch to Tropic Road.—Nine and five-tenths miles
of preliminary survey was made at a total cost of $353.68.
Tonto Forest, Ariz.—Salt River to Pleasant Valley Road.—Twenty-four and
eight-tenths miles of location survey was made and preparation of plans started,
at a total cost of $2,044.17.
SITGREAVES Forest, ARiz.—Snow/flake to Pinetop Road.—Twenty miles of loca-
tion survey was made at a total cost of $772.75.
DATIL AND GILA Forests, N. Mex.—Reserve to Alma Road.—Yorty-four and
nine-tenths miles of location survey was made and preparation of plans started,
at a total cost of $1,646.43.
JEMEZ AND Pecos Forests, N. Mex.—Hspanola to Cuba Road.—Twelve and
four-tenths miles of location survey was made and preparation of plans begun
at a total cost of $950.45.
Carson Forrest, N. Mrex.—Questa to Hlizabethtown Road.—Six and three-
tenths miles of location survey was made at a total cost of $410.35.
CALIFORNIA.—Reconnaissance surveys covering a total distance of 209 miles
were made in 12 of the forests, at a total cost of $2,216.21.
CONSTRUCTION WORK.
A résumé of the construction work done follows, all of which was
done by force account under supervision of this office.
Harney Forest, S. DaAak.—Two miles of the Sylvan Lake section of the Dead-
wood-Hot Springs Road were built at a cost of $4,790.10. This is an earth-
surface road, on which was done 10,330 linear feet of clearing and grubbing,
mostly 50 feet wide, 5,630 cubic yards of earth excavation, and 634 cubic yards
of rock excavation. Nineteen culverts were put in. There is also included in
the above expenditure $1,747.45 to complete an adjoining section 1,510 feet in
length, work on which was begun in 1913.
CocHETOPA ForEst, Coto.—Nine and one-half miles of the Cochetopa Pass
Road were built at a cost of $12,339.69. This is an earth-surface road, on which
was done 21,157 linear feet of clearing and grubbing, 66 feet wide, 38,270 cubic
yards of earth excavation, and 1,800 cubic yards of rock excavation. Fifty-two
culverts were put in.
San ISABEL Forest, Coto.—EHleven hundred and thirty-five linear feet of the
North Hardscrabble Road were built at a cost of $1,824.59. It is an earth
56 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
road with excayation all in solid rock. The work done was in completion of a
section begun in 1918.
Rourr Forest, CoLto.—Three miles of the Rabbit Ear Road were built at a
cost of $6,893.11. This is an earth-surface road, and the above work completes
the project begun in 19138.
MontezuMA Forest, CoLto.—One mile of the Dolores River Road was built
at a cost of $887.92. This is an earth road on which there was done 38,700
linear feet of clearing and grubbing, 2,560 cubic yards of earth excavation, 371
cubic yards of rock excavation, and 80 linear feet of corduroy. One log bridge
and six log culverts were put in. This work is in extension of a 3-mile section
built last year.
Bripcer Forest, Wro.—A log truss bridge of three 35-foot spans was built
across the Green River at a cost of $60.85. Piers and abutments were of logs
with filling of stone.
PAYETTE Forest, IpDAHO.—Payette River, South Fork Road.—TIwo and four-
tenths miles of road were built at a total cost of $6,230.74. The road is of
earth on which was done 3,294 cubie yards of earth excavation, 6,202 cubic
yards of rock excavation, and 42 cubic yards of loose rock excavation. To
facilitate rock excavation, there was used on this road an air compressor and
a plug drill, driven by a gasoline engine.
IpAHO Forest, IDAHO.—Warren State Road.—This is an earth-surface road
on which for 2.1 miles general repair work was done, costing $856.98.
Uinta (NeEso) Forest, Utan.—Santaquin Road—tThis is an earth-surface
road on which for 3 miles general repair work was done, costing $545.64. There
were 3 miles of clearing and grubbing, 1,050 cubic yards of earth excavation,
and 128 cubic yards of rock excavation. Three log culverts were built.
WASATCH Forest, UtanH.—Kamas to Stockmore Road.—This road is of earth
and was constructed for a length of 1.7 miles at a total cost of $1,772.86. There
were done 1.7 miles of clearing and grubbing and 4,092 cubic yards of earth
excavation. Three log bridges were built.
PowrLL Forest, Utrau.—Lscalante to Winder Road.—An earth-surface road
was constructed for a length of 4 miles at a total cost of $4,845.15.
KarBas Forest, Ariz.—Grand Canyon Highway.—aAn earth-surface road was
constructed for a length of 1.9 miles at a total cost of $1,829.14.
Rusy Forest, Nev.—Zoyn Canyon Road.—The work on this road consisted
in making the existing road from 2 to 4 feet wider at a total cost of $524.49.
Rupy Forrest, Nev.—Harrison Canyon Road.—An earth-surface road was
constructed for a distance of three-tenths of a mile at a total cost of $380.85.
There was done 0.3 mile of clearing and grubbing for a width of 24 feet, 2,300
cubic yards of earth excavation, 78 cubic yards of rock excavation, and 200
linear feet of ditching.
Humeorpt Forrest, Nev.—Gold Creek to McDonald Road.—General repair
work was done on 6 miles of existing earth road at a-total cost of $391. In
addition to the grading done six log culverts and one log bridge were built.
Humeoipr Forest, Ney.—Gold Creek to Jarbidge Road.—General’ repair work
was done on 1 mile of existing earth road at a total cost of $54.
HumeBoipr Forest, Nev.—Mountain City to Aura Road.—General repair work
was done on one-quarter mile of earth-surface road at a total cost of $201.
KLAMATH Forest, Cart.—Seiad Trail.—Three miles of trail were built up
Seiad Creek to connect with a trail built in the Crater Forest in Oregon. The
total cost was $801.
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913-DEC. 31, 1914. 57
TRINITY Forest, Cau.—Trinity River Road—A contract was made for $410
to clear off approximately 1,500 cubic yards of earth from slides on the portion
of the road built last year.
Work was also done in the States of Oregon and Washington.
In addition to the above minor repair work was done as follows:
CocHETOPA Forrest, Coto.—Cochetopa Pass Road, $112.87.
Big Horn Forest, Wyo.—Buffalo to Hazleton Road, $25.22.
Routt Forest, Coto.—Rabbitt Ear Road, $56.63.
WORK DONE IN NATIONAL PARKS.
Representatives of the office were placed in Sequoia, Yosemite,
and Glacier National Parks, and survey work was carried on in each
one of these with the idea of continuing the work until surveys have
been made and plans and estimates prepared for a complete road
system for each of these parks.
In the Yosemite survey work has been completed on a road from the westerly
boundary of the park near the railroad terminal at El] Portal easterly up the
valley of the Merced River, through the village of Yosemite to the top of the
Nevada Falls, a distance of about 21 miles. Plans and estimates for this road
are being prepared in 5-mile sections, and they have been completed for section
No. 1, which begins at the aforesaid westerly boundary line. The cost of this
work to December 31, 1914, was $3,131.23, or $149.10 per mile.
A topographical survey was made of the floor of the valley to show contours
at intervals of 2 feet. This survey was made for the purpose of establishing
a new village site and working up a development scheme for this portion. The
area covered is about 3 square miles, and the cost $332.60, or $110.87 per
square mile.
In the Sequoia Park a survey was made from the Giant Forest by way of
Wolverton Creek, the Marble Fork of the Kaweah River, and Willow and
Cahoon meadows to the north boundary of the park near J. O. Pass, a distance
of about 10 miles. The plans and estimates for this road. are being prepared
in sections. Section No. 1 extends from the Giant Forest to the crossing of the
Marble Fork. In addition to this 13.5 miles of level line were run over the
park entrance road. The total cost of the work done in Sequoia Park is
$2,233.60.
In Glacier Park a survey was made for a road from the mouth of Fish
Creek at Lake McDonald northwesterly to McGee’s meadow on the road along
the easterly side of the North Fork of the Flathead River, a distance of about
5 miles. Plans and estimates are being prepared for this road. A survey was
also begun for a road from the mouth of Fish Creek northerly along the west-
erly side of Lake McDonald, but the work was interrupted by winter weather
when about 4 miles of the survey had been completed. This survey along the
lake will be extended northerly to the head of the lake and from there
northerly to Waterton Lake and along it to the northerly boundary of the park,
which is also the boundary line between the United States and Canada. The
total cost of the work done in Glacier Park to January 1, 1915, is $1,700.99.
58 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
WORK OF DIVISION OF MAINTENANCE.
The maintenance work of the office was separated and a division
formed on February 16, 1914, with E. W. James as chief. At that
time some experimental maintenance for purposes of securing cost
data was being conducted on 8 miles of road in Alexandria County,
Va., under a memorandum of agreement with the county authorities,
and plans were being considered for maintaining the experimental
roads built by the office in Montgomery County, Md.
On the organization of the division the following lines of work
were planned. They are all continuous projects within the limits
noted.
I. STUDY OF THE DETAILS OF ROAD MAINTENANCE AS CARRIED OUT BY STATE
AUTHORITIES IN REPRESENTATIVE STATES.
The work under this head will enable the office to draw from the
experience of the most advanced and efficient highway organizations
in the country the results of their experiments and endeavors, and to
extend this information by correspondence and actual demonstration
to those communities where improved roads have been built at large
cost and are deteriorating more or less rapidly, because of lack of
organization, information, and skilled supervision in matters per-
taining to road maintenance. The studies are being made in a
rumber of States having well-organized highway departments, such
as M.ssachusetts, New Hampshire, Connecticut, New York. This
work has so far been limited to short studies in the first and third
divisions of Massachusetts, the first division of New York, the ninth
and part of the sixth division of New Hampshire.
Preliminary inspections were made covering general organization
of maintenance force and the system of roads under maintenance.
Some general details of average costs and general resurfacing
methods were included. The smaller and more intimate details of
the work will require personal studies in the field with construction
gangs for a considerable period of time.
Il. STUDY OF THE DETAILS OF COUNTY MAINTENANCE IN SELECTED COUNTIES.
To extend maintenance investigations into regions which have no
State organization but still depend entirely on the county system
of road administration certain counties are to be studied which have
constructed improved roads on a large scale. No work has yet been
done in this line, but plans are being made to do work in Allegheny
County, Pa.; Montgomery County, Ala.; Hines County, Miss.; Hills-
boro and Duval Counties, Fla. The Division of Road Economies
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 59
will cover details of organization in county road maintenance and
to that extent cooperate with this division.
Il. INAUGURATION OF MAINTENANCE ON POST ROADS CONSTRUCTED UNDER
ACT OF CONGRESS OF AUGUST 24, 1912.
On the maintenance of all post roads constructed under the act
of August 24, 1912, the office furnishes advice and where possible
exercises supervision.
Maintenance under a county engineer is now systematic on the
Virginia post road in Spotsylvania County and on the completed
part of the Ohio post road. This work involves the keeping of
accurate costs to determine the annual cost of maintenance per
mile. Plans are being made to extend this maintenance to post
roads in Maine, Tennessee, Texas, and Alabama.
IV. SUPERVISION OF MAINTENANCE ON A ROAD FROM WASHINGTON, D. C., TO
ATLANTA, GA.
Demonstration road maintenance is being conducted on the
Washington-Atlanta Highway from Petersburg, Va., southward.
The purpose of this work is principally to demonstrate maintenance
methods and the value of road maintenance in increasing not only
the number of days in the year that an earth or sand-clay road can
be kept in good condition, but the extent to which the wear of
gravel, macadam, and other types may be counteracted by ordinary
methods of maintenance. As the work continues, the demonstra-
tion is developing the following facts, which are here enumerated
without comment. It is expected that further work will provide
more corroborative data for very valuable observations with refer-
ence to local road administration.
1. County boards, although having full administrative authority,
appear not to attach to their official action in road matters the
importance or legal effect which it should have.
2. County boards do not generally have sufficient accounting con-
trol of road funds to know what is available for any particular proj-
ect—where funds have been, or where existing balances are to be,
expended.
3. Lack of any systematic practice in handling road funds among
most counties makes it very difficult to carry out over even a single
year any persistent maintenance policy, because funds officially obli-
gated for maintenance purposes are not protected against sporadic
and irregular draughts for miscellaneous purposes. The greatest
likelihood consequently exists every-vhere that there will be no bal-
ance in the maintenance fund in the last half or third of the year,
although only a part of the fund allotted may have been spent.
60 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
4. Local labor available for maintenance work is made dissatisfied
by the constant, unintelligent, and unfavorable criticism of those
using the road.
5. Maintenance continuing over a period of years—the ultimate
indispensable condition of effective maintenance—is jeopardized by
the lack of accounti1.~ control that prevents spending next year’s cur-
rent income in this year.
6. The lack of skilled supervision in construction and the effect of
this in increasing the cost or in making effective maintenance impos-
sibly expensive are everywhere seen.
7. The county authorities are commonly opposed to following sug-
gestions for maintenance that involve tying up road funds in any
way, such as purchasing materials in advance to store along the road
for making repairs or maintaining the road surface.
All of the above matters are quite apart from the customary ex-
pected difficulties encountered in practical details of maintenance,
and the elimination of many of these perplexing matters can appar-
ently only follow some educational propaganda and a general en-
lightenment of county voters and officials. These troubles are not all
found in any one county, but no county is entirely free from all.
These matters will be made the basis for special study, with a view
to suggesting detailed, effective remedies so far as they can be apphed
under existing conditions and to promoting a better understanding
of the imperative needs of maintenance to conserve the huge invest-
ment of public funds being made annually in county road construc-
tion.
A total of 681.8 miles is now under the supervision of this office.
This is about 81.2 per cent of the distance from Petersburg to
Atlanta and 69.1 per cent of the total distance from Washington to
Atlanta on the selected route. A large number of companion photo-
eraphs have been taken showing the condition of this road at the
time the Government supervision commenced, and again after im-
provement.
Table I shows the distribution of mileage in the several counties,
the mileage under patrol squads or gangs, and the amounts expended
for maintenance and construction. All the work is cooperative and
the counties which are participating in the plan first signified their
concurrence in the project by adopting and recording a resolution
establishing the legal status of supervision by the Government. The
counties then made application on a form provided by the office.
When these were properly executed they were then filed in the Wash-
ington office.
a i
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914.
61
TABLE I.—Maintenance and construction funds expended, mileage, etc., Wash-
No.
OOM OR Whe
County.
Dinwiddie. --...
Brunswick... .-
Mecklenburg...
Granville. .....
Dunhameees ss
Montgomery - .-
Richmond.....
Richland. .....
Lexington. ....
iWallkkeseea=recne
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North Carolina. -| 35.0 | 35.0 | 8,368.58 | 2,100.00 975. 88 AMOR SOS OP Naeasteeee
Soe do..........| 23.0 | 23.0 | 7,398.19 | 2,000.00 900.57 TOM 2350))|Baseeeee
pas). = do...:......| 41.0 | 41.0 | 5,457.57 | 3,000.00 844.37 GSOR 413 Ol | eee eee
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ee DOC na2 ~ =~. Pel] RB RBH EE ree pe reyes | ieien eee | BNR gegen | estate eON | apres
sashes GO sess s-eis| PL GN45 | GHA RR 20875 95000} Ree eee ON Syl lien aeete emer ere
5 COB BRE AO BOGE ODE OE 840.5 |681.8 |75, 785.95 |36,075.00 10,042.17 |153.7 |262.9 139.5
1 Both patrol and squads.
2 As needed.
The work of maintenance is being done by patrolmen and gangs.
Patrolmen have sections that vary in length from 6 to 29 miles.
The
average in the northern section is 12.9 miles, and in the central sec-
tion 10.8 miles.
funds were not available to provide any more men.
The usual maintenance work on earth and sand-clay roads includes:
(a) Dragging persistently at every available opportunity ;
(6) Using the grading machine when necessary 5
(c) Filling depressions;
(d) Adding sand or clay as required ;
(¢) Removing all trash, tin cans, nails, old iron, bottles, etc.,
that accumulate in somewhat astonishing quantities;
(7) Replacing broken floor boards in culverts and bridges;
(7g) Keeping culverts open;
(A) Clearing ditches and shoulders;
Some of these patrol sections are too long, but
ee
62 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
(2) Cutting grass and weeds;
(7) Trimming brush and trees at curves;
(4) Harrowing and dragging rough or irregular sections;
(4) Painting guard rails and culvert heads; and
(m) Posting roads.
Records are being kept of locality of expenditures, so far as pos-
sible, by using the county financial records supplemented by private
notes and the report cards of the patrolmen. A statement of the
cost per mile of work on each patrol section will be possible in a later
report, but at the present time only one or two counties have spent
more than 55 per cent of the allotted funds.
The condition of the road under maintenance has been good dur-
ing the entire period up to December 23. At about that time the
range of temperature in North Carolina and Virginia became such
as to cause alternate freezing and thawing, and heavy rains caused
swollen streams throughout the entire territory. These conditions
at once showed the weak places in the roads. Drainage is prevalently
insufficient. This is, of course, largely a structural defect that
ordinary maintenance can not cure. Especially has the need of
subdrainage been demonstrated. This is almost invariably neglected
in the region traversed by this road.
In many sections it has become apparent that the common earth
road is not adequate to accommodate the prevailing traffic. During
the best weather and during ordinary summer rains no trouble de-
velops, but average protracted rains cause the roads to break up
faster and deeper than maintenance can repair them under the con-
tinuous stream of traffic.
Since many of the roads along the route were subjects, not for
maintenance, but for actual construction, it was necessary, in the
preliminary estimates, to include the cost of minimum improve-
ments in all cases where such work was necessary in order to get
the roads ready for maintenance. This has led to a great deal of
new construction and much reconstruction and repair in each State
along the line. The nature of this work has ranged all the way
from minor bridge and culvert repairs to the expenditure of bond
issues on systematic new construction. The table shows the amounts
expended in the various counties in construction under the general
supervision of the Government engineers detailed to the project.
One assistant has been almost constantly in the northern section giv-
ing undivided attention to this work. It is not necessary to itemize
the various improvements made, further than that they include all
lines of highway work except hard surfacing. Bridges have been
relocated and rebuilt or renewed; new roads laid out and graded;
earth roads have been surfaced with sand-clay or topsoil; grade
crossings have been eliminated by overpasses, underpasses, or re-
ROADS AND BRIDGES, JULY 1, 1913—DEC. 31, 1914. 63°
Jocations; roads have been straightened and widened; culverts have
been located, built, and enlarged. The total amount expended in
such work up to December, 1914, was $75,785.95, and about $125,000
was available in the fall for continued work. The local financial
conditions resulting from the state of the cotton market during the
autumn may considerably reduce this figure before it is spent.
V. SUPERVISION OF MAINTENANCE IN ALEXANDRIA COUNTY, VA., UNDER EXIST-
ING AGREEMENT, AND ON THE UNITED STATES EXPERIMENTAL ROADS IN
MONTGOMERY COUNTY, MD.
The maintenance of the experimental roads in Montgomery
County, Md., is reported in detail in Department Bulletin No. 257.
A system of columnar accounts was devised and used to control
costs on each of the several experimental sections. The purpose of
this work is to demonstrate comparative costs of maintenance on a
large variety of surface treatments.
The maintenance of earth roads in Alexandria County, Va., for
the purpose of obtaining cost data was started under the Division
of Construction on December 30, 1911, and was transferred to this
division in February, 1914. Under the present memorandum of
agreement it will be continued until June 30, 1915. There have been
some changes in the route, and for purposes of better distributing
the costs and disclosing any differences that might exist in the gen-
eral demands of traffic on the different parts of the road it was
divided into the following sections:
Miles.
1. Mount Vernon Road from Hume Station, on the Washington-Virginia
Railway, to Nauck over the Old Factory Road___----______________ 1,7
2. Seminary road from county line to Columbia Pike over the Glebe Road_ 3.15
§. Hatfield or Fort Myers Road from Hatfield Station, on the Falls Church
electric line, to Arlington post office, on the Columbia Turnpike______ yal
4. Balston Road from Columbia Turnpike northward___________________ ~ iL
PT) eeAN ae eee ha SA eS NN 2 a gE 6. 47
Table II shows the entire cost of the work up to January 1, 1915.
TABLE II.—Cost of maintenance work on 6.5 miles of earth and gravel road in
Alexandria County, Va.
Wolk Gal awerten wore onl necreallltracct
: ork on| Work on| Work on| neous rave
Sections. surface. | slopes. | ditches. and used. Total
general.
Cu. yd.
Loe Se SoC Ce RES SAS ERIE Cente ete 2 uaa $76. 91 $34. 25 $39. 25 $90.07 19.5 $240. 48
re ee noe eed eee Soke iawiee we 192. 04 74. 25 219. 75 256. 26 45.75 742.30
Bie = - en DO SIGs SEES Se a a een ee ae 55.00 21.75 16. 25 53.51 12.00 146.51
Oh dis dlsie SS eee a EES ot ep See an 66.05 14. 25 26.75 67.16 oto) 174. 21
Total for July 1, 1913, to Dec. 31, 1914. 390.00| 144.50 302.00] 467.00|.......... 1,303.50
Fiscal Wieiie I) PS eae ates oeSanesasccsercerts 153. 44 61.78 169. 88 49. SOR S8- 55. 434.99
mAScaleyear 1O13 sae Ne eR NEES eee ee ec 283. 68 89. 28 198.00 W850 4a eee eee 756. 00
Motalitoidatese: peesececee cee ease: 827.12 295. 56 669. 88 UUIGE |sotacesese 2, 494. 49
64 BULLETIN 284, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
A total of 922.66 miles has been dragged once at a total cost, in-
cluded in the surfacing charges, of $180.01, which is at the rate of
19.5 cents per mile dragged. In dragging, the average operation has
been three and one-half trips over the section.
The cost of maintenance per mile has been $141.46 on section 1;
$235.33 on section 2; $131.99 on section 3; $341.59 on section 4, or a
weighted average of $201.47 per mile for the whole road.
During the entire year 1914 these roads continued to improve in
cross section and condition. Section 2 was ditched over nearly its
entire length and much ditching was done along parts of other sec-
tions. The county grading machine was borrowed and operated at
Government expense for four days in the early fall. Up to Decem-
ber 23, 1914, the time of last inspection, the roads remained in ex-
cellent condition and at that time were much better than in May and
June.
This experimental work serves to secure cost of dragging, to deter-
mine the cost of maintenance that fully meets the wear of traffic on
earth and cheap gravel roads, and to demonstrate that earth roads
can actually be improved by a regular system of maintenance.
VI. SUPERVISION OF MAINTENANCE ON SOME TYPICAL ROAD IN COUNTIES THAT
; HAVE RECENTLY CONSTRUCTED A SYSTEM OF HIGHWAYS.
This project is to encourage and promote systematic, intelligent,
effective maintenance methods and to assist in devising a scheme for
maintenance administration in the county. Owing to the wide dis-
tribution of the available roads, this project can not be advanced
until a larger organization is developed.
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
10 CENTS PER COPY
Vv
Contribution from the Forest Service
HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. October 22, 1915
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST: ITS COM-
POSITION, GROWTH, AND MANAGEMENT.
By E. H. Froruinenam, Forest Examiner.
CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
NemnGrO eT CHIOT ebsites clarence se core » Series aele ata 1 | Economic importance—Continued.
The northern hardwood forest..............--- 2 Abra ral CUG Eee cava eee ee ee eae EN 28
Topography and climate................-- 3 IPTeSeNLSUpD Ly ape ee eee eee Cae eee 3l
COmpOSIPlONbee ss \ = croc aos a eens es 6 Value of standing-timber......-.....----.- 31
IOS Soe eS OSHS Oe OAS eee eee aU 162), SMiamaie em emit. Cae See a eee OEE ase eh ene 33
Grobler ek ata nic Sc Se tiome Se siete emmeidls 17 Place of northern hardwoods in forest man-
Deconmeoronit ieee. weil) at ok 20 AG OMeN bse ees Rae lara Aa ae 33
HICOHOMICHMPOrtATlCOs Aes ee). sce acs eee coe 27 | Species mentioned in this bulletin.........._.. 45
Gomer alr itilitiygyes ois). cals cic: ses deeteyas e P(e e's OOS 0 KO b-catnay, s cer nsoaa a Merl eee ec ee ee OOD 47
INTRODUCTION.
The great hardwood forests of eastern North America separate
naturally into two divisions—northern and southern—the one rela-
tively simple, the other varied and rich i composition. What dis-
tinguishes the northern from the southern hardwood forest is the
presence of yellow birch, white pine, and hemlock and the absence of
yellow poplar, red gum, sycamore, and many other southern species.
The geographical extent of the northern hardwood forest, in fact,
practically coincides with the range of yellow birch (fig. 1, p. 2). It
centers about the region in which the white pine lumbering industry
was developed.
Early logging in the northern hardwood forests took chiefly the
white pine, little hardwood timber being felled except in clearing for
settlement. As time went on and demands increased, the cullings
extended to spruce, hemlock, and even the more valuable hardwoods.
The poorest of the species are now so valuable that stands are often
cut clean, and even the tops, branches, and larger undergrowth
utilized. There are many reasons why the consumption of hardwoods
may be expected to decrease, yet the qualities of these slow-growing
trees are so obvious and their woods are so admirably adapted to
such a variety of uses that the problem of perpetuating at least a
reasonable supply is one of public concern.
637°—Bull. 285—15—1
2 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
It is the aim of this bulletin to outline the extent, general charac-
teristics, and economic importance of the northern hardwood forest;
to describe briefly the silvicultural features of the prmcipalspecies; and
to point out the methods of managing hardwood stands which appear —
best calculated to furnish a continuous supply of these useful woods.
There are also given, in the Appendix, a series of volume tables for
northern hardwoods for use in estimating the quantity of standing
timber.
la
4
SOUTH DAka
Ink a
LEGEND
LWHITE PINE
2YELLOW BIRCH
3BEECH
4.BASSWOOD
SSUGAR MAPLE
6WHITE ELM
7ZYELLOW POPLAR
8.CUCUMBER
Fic. 1.—Distribution of the northern hardwoods. (The heavy shading represents the region in which
the northern hardwoods characterize large areas of forest. The light shading indicates the region of
transition from the typical northern to the southern hardwood forest. _The numbered lines are the
ranges of the species named in the legend. The broken lines are the range limits of two southern
hardwoods whose presence largely determines the southward extension of the northern forest. Pre-
pared by Wm. H. Lamb.)
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST.
The hardwood forest which is considered in this bulletin occupies
the fresh, well-drained, fertile soils of the northern pine region. Its
more characteristic hardwoods are sugar maple! and yellow birch.
1 The closely related black maple is not distinguished from sugar maple in this bulletin. Both are
commonly referred to as “hard” or “rock” maple.
ae
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 3)
The term ‘‘northern hardwoods” will be used for all stands in this
region in which one (or more) of the characteristic species listed on
page 7 predominates; for though the type possesses a general uni-
formity of composition sufficient to distinguish it from other impor-
tant northern forest types, it varies greatly in different regions.
There are two hardwood forest types that are not considered in
the bulletin, although the species which belong to them are often
found scattered through the northern hardwood forests. These are
the type of the dry sandy plains, in which the chief hardwoods are
oaks of various kinds, mixed with hickories and in the east with
chestnut, and the type of the swampy places, mm which the charac-
teristic hardwoods are black ash, red and silver maples, willows, and
alders. The swamp type is not of great extent or importance, and
the other type is so much more characteristic of the South that it
might be considered only a northern extension of a southern type.
GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT.
The northern hardwood forest (fig. 1) is found in greater or less
abundance within the drainage systems of the St. Lawrence, the
Great Lakes, and the upper Mississippi, as far south as southern
Minnesota; throughout northern New England, and southward along
the northern and southern Appalachian Mountain ranges to extreme
northern Georgia. In the North it merges into the spruce and fir and
the aspen and birch forests of Canada. Along its southern and lower
altitudinal borders it shades into the great “central hardwoods”’
forest of the Ohio and Mississippi Valleys. In the West it gradually
gives place to the prairie of the Great Plains region. On the uplands
the ‘“‘oak openings” supplant it in large measure, until these, too, give
way to the prairie. Just how large an area is occupied by northern
hardwoods is difficult to estimate. It probably amounts to over
50,000,000 acres, nearly half of which is in the Lake States. The
decrease in the total forest area of the Lake States and the north-
east—once practically equal to the entire land area—to 60 per cent
in New England, 43 per cent in Michigan and Wisconsin, and 35 per
cent in New York and Pennsylvania,’ has undoubtedly been greatest
in the softwood forest.
TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE.
Topographically the northern hardwood region separates into two
very distinct parts—the eastern mountain ranges and the rolling,
glaciated land about the Great Lakes.
The eastern mountain ranges extend from southern Canada south-
west to northern Alabama and Georgia. The climatic conditions
suitable for the best growth of the northern hardwoods prevail at
minimum elevations of from 500 feet in northern New England to
1,000 feet in southern New England and the Adirondacks and 3,500
1 Forest Service Circular 166, “ Timber Supply of the United States,” by R.S. Kellogg.
4 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
feet in the southern ranges. Above these altitudes the hardwoods
give place in large measure to spruce and fir. On northerly slopes
the climate suitable for northern hardwoods is often at several
hundred feet lower altitude than on southerly exposures.
The soils in the northern hardwood zone are, as a rule, loamy
sands, the result of the decay of granite, quartzites, and siliceous
gneisses. In the eastern mountains they are partly glacial and
partly residual in origin, thin, and of low agricultural value. In
the Lake States and through much of the northeast they were depos-
ited by the glaciers in moraines and glacial hills or laid down in beds
of varying thickness by glacial streams. Here the hardwoods occupy,
for the most part, the water-assorted loams and clays or the unas-
sorted morainal tills, rich in clay, but also thrive on light, sandy
soils in localities subject to prevailmg moist winds, as in western
lower Michigan. In the Appalachians, south of the limit to which
the glaciers extended, the souls result entirely from the decomposi-
tion of the native rocks. Where schists prevail, fertile loams are the
products of decomposition, and these may reach some depth in the
coves and broader valleys.
The climatic factors which determine the distribution of forests
are moisture and temperature. These differ in relative importance
according to the nature of the region. In temperate semiarid regions
the determining factor is moisture; m temperate humid regions it is
temperature. The northern forest region is distinctly humid, and
the composition of the forests is therefore influenced chiefly by tem-
perature. Its western limits, however, are fixed chiefly by molsture
factors.
The growing season is senate aks five months, from Moy to
September, inclusive.t The duration of the season varies within
the region, and is shortest in the north and at high altitudes. This
factor has undoubtedly a large influence upon the composition of
the northern hardwood forests, which is not so much a matter of
the sensitiveness of the species to extremes of temperature as it is
of optimum temperature.
How moisture and temperature affect the different species in the
complexity of the forest environment is still so little known that no
positive information can be given. The best that can be done is to
compare the available climatic data from observation stations within
the northern forest region with corresponding data from stations
just outside. Table 1 accordingly gives the average monthly tem-
perature and precipitation during the growing season for adjacent
parts of the northern and southern hardwood regions. Similar
data for April and October are also given, together with the annual
precipitation and depth of snow.
Forestry,’ Dept. of Agriculture Monthly Weather Review, vol. 42, No. 4, April, 1914; map shows division
of the United States on basis of periods of vegetative growth and rest.
Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
‘pIOAOMOI WI9q VAVT YSIYISBOIG I9AO PUB SOTOUT OT Sd0I1 9ONIdg
SMOWONOHIGY S3HL NI MOOIWSH GNV ‘d3ONYdS ‘SGOOMGHVH NYSHLYON JO LSayO4 aa71nN9O
Se
ies
Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il.
Lumbermen called this a ‘‘ clean cutting.”
op LAND IN NORTHERN WISCONSIN LOGGED DurRING AN “OFF YEAR” FOR MAPLE LUMBER.
The best maple was taken but much good material was left standing.
CuT-OveR HARDWO
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 5
TaBLE 1.—Temperature and precipitation 1 within the northern hardwoods and the north-
ern edge of the southern hardwood regions. Based on data from United States Weather
Bureau Bulletin Q (1906); observations extending over period of from 5 to 50 years:
| Average monthly temperature. Average
: Mara tempera-
Signal aes and forest Growing season. ee Pe
Apr. Oct. | growing
May. |} June. | July. | Aug. | Sept. season.
New England and the Adirondacks:| ° F. oie OO%5 Ie 2 PIs al oR Owe
Northern hardwood............ | 41 54 62 66 | 64 57 46 61
Southern hardwood............ | 44 56 65 70 67 60 48 64
Alleghenies and Southern Appala-
ehians:
Northern hardwood............ 46 59 66 69 67 62 50 65
Southern hardwood............ 50 62] 68 72 71 64 54 67
Lake States:
Northern hardwood............ 41 53 63 68 | 64 57 45 61
Southern hardwood............ 47 58 67 72 70 62 50 66
General average:
Northern hardwood............ 42 54 63 67 65 58 46 61
Southern hardwood............ AT 59 67 71 69 62 | Oley 66
nage Average total
Average precipitation. pr Seaitati Me Aver-
Geographical division and forest eee
region. Growing season. Grow- es
1 An-. | snow
Apr. 5; Oct. ing VEE fall
May. |June. | July.| Aug. | Sept. season 2
New England and the Adiron-
dacks: In. | In. | In. | In. | In. | In. | In. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches.
Northern hardwood.........-- BAN (Sed) |) -9) |) 4.40 Aa Saal ise 19.4 42.8 96.1
Southern hardwood..........- 2h V2) | 3-8. | 4) |e son|eaaaon ital 18.7 44.8 78.1
Alleghenies and Southern Appa-
lachians:
Northern hardwood........... 3.4 4.1 5.6 AAG | AN elo sOn oS 22.9 49.2 58.5
Southern hardwood..........- SB BOR ee BO eo7e ll eG. |) Beil |] Zee) 19.8 41.8 32.4
Lake States:
Northern hardwood..........- Pie} Bia) 3.8 Gete) || Biter ||) Beek Bisa 18.1 aaleal 64.0
Southern hardwood..........- Ph REI iba! |pesse) |) BH) B60 | eect 16.6 29.9 40.1
General average: p
Northern hardwood..........- 250 e350) |) 422) || akacul es Onlomom toes 19.0 38.4 15.5
Southern hardwood..........- DME Ron tne SI lee Rael RBI) PAE 18.5 39.2 48.4
1 Monthly averages for the growing season—May to September, inclusive—and for April and October,
with average annual precipitation and snowfall.
The stations and altitudes at which the observations were taken
are as follows:
Northern hardwoods: Northern hardwoods—Continued.
New England— Feet. Lake States—Continued. Feet
Mayfield, Me.........--- 1, 000 Koepenick, Wis..-.--...- 1, 675
Bethlehem, N. H.......-. 1,470 Medford, Wis.-......---- 1, 420
Simerni@ncls Ng Shes ee 950 Grantsburg, Wis.........- 1, 095
re WemVites ee Yo oe 1, 000 Mount Iron, Minn........ 1, 510
dacksonvalle; Vt..-- 2.022. 1, 000 Sandy Lake Dam, Minn.. 1, 229°
Saranac Lake, N. Y.-...-- 1, 620 Park Rapids, Minn....... 1, 300
Number Four, N. Y...--- 1,571 | Southern hardwoods:
Alleghenies and Southern Ap- Wewastony Mele A rssicee tse 210
palachians— Woncord 3 IN; Ee 3 0 eas oe 280
henovrba iss ar. eee: 1, 400 EVO MLC ss NYS Yamin es. | fae ek Ss 450
State College, Pa........- noe avtsbunghis Parties cus ae Se 757
MRemaeAdtar: Wis Vides 06s 3, 207 SERrilcanira SAN feria tas Ree ee 1, 920
imevaill es GNC gis ce Sea 3, 800 Moti Springs,) Nia ye as se 2,195
Lake States— Asheville N7 Cee ee. oa 2, 255
Cabinet, Mich 222.5 24.422 1, 246 IDE wavsiayecsya Weel ava, See pak Son oie Meat 881
Escanaba, Mich.........- 594 Madison, Wisi cae oi aie: 974
Grayling, Mich. 222.0522: 1, 147 Ste aul Minne se eee ee 758
Ivan, Mich.
6 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
COMPOSITION.
° THE FOREST AS A WHOLE.
The species commonly found in the northern hardwood forest are
separated in Table 2 according to their abundance and distribution;
only approximately, however, because there are many subordinate
variations which can not be shown. The list does not include several
dwarf maples, thorn apples, mountain ash, etc., which are of little
or no economic importance.
TaBLe 2.—Hardwoods and conifers grouped according to their prevalence in the northern
hardwood forests.!
Region. Characteristic. Locally characteristic. | Occasional.
INorbheasteml States woe. a! ose he cere seeeere Yellow birch. Paper birch. Black ash.
Sugar maple. Aspen. Slippery elm.
Beech. Large tooth aspen. Gray birch.
Red maple. Fire cherry. Black cherry.
Ironwood. Black birch. Balm of Gilead. -
Hemlock. Basswood. Norway pine.
White pine. White elm. Black spruce.
Red spruce. White ash. Tamarack.
Balsam fir. Silver maple. Arborvite.
Red oak.
White spruce.
Make Statesse cats oaicveceise ced passetae ewes Sugar maple. Paper birch. Black ash.
Yellow birch. Aspen. Slippery elm.
Basswood. Large tooth aspen. Balm of Gilead.
White elm. Fire cherry. Black cherry.
Beech.2 Cork elm. Black birch.
Ironwood. White ash. Silver maple.
Hemlock. Red maple. White spruce.
White pine. Red oak. Black spruce.
Balsam fir.
Tamarack.
Arborvite.
Norway pine.
Jack pine.
1 In the transition zone between the northern and southern hardwood forest—especially in Pennsylvania
and the southern Appalachians—yellow poplar, magnolia, sycamore, black and red gums, and other
Ou Rera Hardy ods not shown in the above list often appear in some abundance among the northern
2 Beech is not found in Minnesota and only in extreme eastern Wisconsin.
Under the heading ‘‘Occasional”’ are included a number of species
which are characteristic either of swamp or of dry-soil types, but
are often found among the northern hardwoods as strays. Besides
these there are a number of oaks, hickories, walnuts, pines, and birches
which occasionally intrude, but being characteristic of other site
conditions, can not be considered regular members of the northern
hardwood forest. The great bulk of the forest consists of the species
listed as ‘“‘characteristic.’’ The proportions of the species, as will
be brought out more fully, vary greatly in different parts of the region.
The “locally characteristic”? species are found here and there, some
rare or of small value, others abundant locally and of considerable
importance. Some of these species, especially paper birch and the
aspens, form distinct but transitory types on burned-over lands
(Pl. VIIT), but occur only as widely scattered individuals in old
“THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 7
growth stands. They are light-foliaged trees, intolerant of shade,
which shelter beneath their crowns the reproduction of maple,
beech, hemlock, and other shade-tolerant and heavy-foliaged species.
One generation of the intolerant trees is all that is possible under
these conditions, for their seedlings can not live in the dense shade of
the other undergrowth already started. Survivors of the original
temporary stands, however, are often found in the hardwood forest,
as well as isolated individuals which have sprung up among old
timber where there are accidental openings in the crown cover.
Most of the conifers, notably white pine and red spruce, also grow
in well-marked types of their own, often in pure stands. Basswood
and elm, on the other hand, rarely grow otherwise than as scattered
individuals, except in Michigan and Wisconsin, where they some-
times form fully a third of the total stand.
About 15 species of hardwoods are common to the northern and
southern forests, and 8 (birches, aspens, fire cherry, and black ash)
are found only in the northern. Grouped according to geographical
range, north and south, the trees of the northern hardwood forest, ©
excluding a few of the less important, are as follows:
Range northern. Range northern and southern.
Hardwoods: Hardwoods:
Yellow birch. Sugar (and black) maple.
Paper birch. Red maple.
Gray birch. Silver maple.
Aspen. Black birch.
Large tooth aspen. Beech.
Balm of Gilead. Basswood.
Black ash. White elm.
Fire cherry. ; Slippery elm.
Conifers: Cork elm.
Red spruce. Tronwood.
White spruce. White ash,
Black spruce. Black cherry.
Balsam fir. Red oak.
Hemlock.
White pine.
Norway pine.
Jack pine.
Tamarack.
Arborvitee.
The northern forest with about 21 hardwoods is much simpler in
composition than the southern, which contains fully 95 of local or
general commercial value. It has been still further simplified by
selective lumbering. Not only the white pine, spruce, and hemlock,
but in many places the better hardwoods also, have been heavily
cut, thus increasing the proportion of the less valuable kinds in the
culled forests.
8 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
REGIONAL VARIATIONS.
The eastern part of the northern hardwood forest is characterized
by the abundance and importance of red spruce and balsam fir.
These extend south from Canada along the mountains of New
England, the Adirondacks, and the southern Appalachians, at
increasing elevations. The relatively pure spruce and fir forests
occupy higher altitudes than the hardwood forest, but the two are
freely intermixed through a broad but not definitely marked altitudinal
zone. Though red spruce is the most common spruce associate of
the hardwoods, white spruce is sometimes the more abundant
locally. The spruce is largely replaced in the Alleghenies by hemlock;
and here cucumber (Magnolia acuminata Linn.) and yellow poplar,
prominent members of the southern hardwood forest, appear in
small quantities among the northern hardwoods.
Like the spruce type, the transitory burned-land type of aspen and
paper birch is more abundant and of greater perfection m northern
_ New England than in the Lake States. Farther south it becomes
less important; paper birch drops out in northern Pennsylvania, and
the type loses its identity more and more through the inclusion of
other species.
Of the characteristic northern hardwoods, sugar maple is probably
the most abundant in the northeastern States at large. Yellow birch,
however, is the most abundant in northern New England. It grows
in forests of widely different composition, and shares to some extent
the habits of paper birch, appearimg on burns in small, pure, even-
aged stands (PI. X, fig. 1, and Pl. VII, fig. 2) or in mixed stands with
paper birch and aspen, to which it adds an element of permanence.
Spruce, maple, and beech, which thrive in the light shade cast by
such stands, outlive the paper birch and aspen, and will eventually
gain the ascendancy. In the old-growth forests, therefore, yellow
birch is found in a great variety of mixtures with spruce, fir, beech,
sugar and red maples, white pine, and hemlock, with scattered indi-
viduals or groups of other species, notably paper birch and aspen.
The old-growth hardwoods in this region are usually very defective,
the beech especially. The red maple is usually abundant only as a
subordinate growth of little value.
Ash occurs sparsely in New England at low to moderate elevations.
Black birch and black cherry become locally abundant in the moun- -
tains of southern Vermont and New Hampshire, the Adirondacks,
Catskills, and farther south. The northern hardwood forest con-
tinues south at gradually increasing altitudes along the southern
Appalachian Mountains, becoming more and more restricted to
northerly slopes and cool valleys. This region properly belongs to
the transition zone between the northern and southern hardwood
Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III.
Fic. 3.—SuGAR MAPLE.
Fic. 2.—WHiITE ELM.
TREE FORMS OF NORTHERN HARDWOODS IN THE FOREST.
Fia. 1.—BEECH.
Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
PLATE IV.
Fic. 4.—BASSWOOD.
Fic. 3.—LONG-BODIED YELLOW BIRCH.
Fic. 2.—SHORT-BODIED YELLOW BIRCH.
Fic. 1.—WHITE ELM.
IN THE FOREST.
TREE FORMS OF NORTHERN HARDWOODS
,
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 9
regions. In the higher mountains spruce covers the peaks and
ridges, especially on northerly slopes, and associates freely with the
northern hardwoods along the lower edges of the spruce belt. White
pine and: hemlock also continue south along the Appalachians, and
by mixing with the hardwoods help to maintain the characteristic
structure of the northern forest.
Extensive pure stands of beech are found on ridges in southern
North Carolina and farther north along the Blue Ridge. The com-
mercial importance of the northern hardwoods is minimized, how-
ever, by the abundance of valuable southern timber trees like white
oak and yellow poplar.
Elm and basswood as forest trees are more abundant in southern
New England than in Maine and northern New Hampshire. These
species appear at low altitudes and increase in quantity toward the
west and south, their scarcity throughout the east being in marked
contrast to the abundance in which they are found in the west. The
great abundance of basswood and elm is perhaps the most striking
characteristic of the northern hardwood forest in the Lake States.
According to estimates compiled by the Bureau of Corporations,'
basswood forms 12 per cent and elm 9 per cent of all the hardwoods
in these States. Maple leads in amount with 35 per cent, birch com-
prises 24 per cent, beech 4 per cent, and ash 2 per cent of the total
hardwood stand. Together these six species make up more than a
third of the total stand, hardwoods and softwoods, in the Lake States.
Table 3, arranged from a similar table in the Bureau of Corporations
report, illustrates the relative importance of the northern hardwoods,
individually and collectively, in the Lake States forests during 1910
(the year in which the data were gathered). The estimates do not in-
clude publicly owned timber, which, however, does not amount to a
large proportion of the merchantable stand.
TABLE 3.—Privaiely owned standing timber in the Lake States, by species.”
Species. Total. Michigan. Wisconsin. Minnesota.
Board feet. Board feet. Board feet. Board feet.
Potala emerson: once aoe c ke aoe 100, 000, 000, 000 | 47,600,000, 000 | 29,200, 000,000 | 23, 200, 000, 000
(Cavaliiciase SERN Ee Re a 58, 100, 000, 000 | 22, 200,000,000 | 17, 100,000,000 | 18,800, 000, 000
iPad wOOdSEe echt le 41,900, 000, 000 | 25,400,000, 000 | 12, 100, 000, 000 4, 400, 000, 000
Manos sie sesame ae sae 14,500, 000,000 | 12, 200,000,000 | 2,300,000,000 |-..--.--.-------
SSE age a I apy ee Bee ae 10,100, 000,000 | 5,100,000,000 | 4,300,000, 000 700, 000, 000
IBASSWOOGs susan ene ser 5, 100,000,000 | 2,200,000,000 | 2,500, 000, 000 400, 000, 000
YO Uae es Ee poe RO er ree Ue oe me 3,700, 000,060 | 2,100,000,000 | 1,500,000, 000 100, 000, 000
TE fea ad ROS NE aR ae PEDO 0002 000) | er 6009 OOM O00: | mas eemnnae Gee Feats eben sates
ANS Sakae See ay Sry hs ties 1, 000, 000, 000 600, 000, 000 300, 000, 000 100, 000, 000
Poplar (and balm of gilead).- PAIGOFOOO OOM mere eey aces es a once meee 2,000, 000, 000
One a Ne Ore Bee go 700, 000, 000 200, 000, 000 300, 000, 000 200, 000, 000
Miscellaneous..........-..--- 3, 200,000,000 | 1, 400; 000; 000 900, 000, 000” 900, 000, 000
1 Report on the lumber industry, Pt. I, Standing timber.
2 From Bureau of Corporations, Report on the lumber industry—Standing timber, 1913, p. 78.
a
.
10 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Table 3 shows that in the Lake States, as in the Hast, yellow
birch and sugar maple are the most abundant generally, the chief
characteristics that distinguish this part of the northern hardwood
forest from the northeastern part being the abundance and importance
of basswood, elm, hemlock, and white pine, and the absence of red
spruce. Here also, however, some spruce extends down from
Canada, in this case white spruce being the more important, espe-
cially in Minnesota, and black spruce occurring seldom except in
the swamps or ‘‘muskegs.”’
In Michigan the stand of sugar maple alone exceeds that of all
the other northern hardwoods combined, and amounts to more
than a quarter of the total hardwood and softwood stand. The
maple in Michigan is of better quality than in many parts of New
England, but in Wisconsin much of the maple is very defective
(Pl. Il). Maple is not abundant in Minnesota, and is as yet of
small commercial value; in fact, the hardwoods as a whole are of
relatively small importance in this State. Beech is found in Wis-
consin only for a short distance inland from Lake Michigan. Yellow
birch is especially abundant and important in Wisconsin, and in
Minnesota it is the most abundant of the characteristic northern
hardwoods. Black birch is found, but much less abundantly than
in southern New England. There is more basswood than elm in
Michigan; in Wisconsin they are nearly equal in quantity. ‘‘ Poplar”
(aspens) occupies considerable area in all three States, but by far
the largest amount is found in Minnesota. In Michigan and Wis-
consin the stands are for the most part too young to be of any com-
mercial value.
FOREST RELATIONSHIPS AND THEIR EFFECT ON COMPOSITION.
There are two sets of factors which influence the success of trees
in the natural forest, and which must be regarded in silviculture:
Physical, including soil and climate, and physiological, including
aggressiveness in reproduction, tolerance of shade, rate of growth,
form, size, longevity, and resistance to injury and disease. To
some extent these factors are interactive, and a deficiency in one
or several may be offset by a marked superiority in some other.
For instance, rapid growth may compensate for intolerance of shade,
air moisture for soil poverty, abundance of seed for low fertility,
and longevity and resistance to injury for intolerance and ineffective
reproduction. It is therefore profitable to consider the factors more
or less in combination. Those of tolerance and reproduction are
generally the most important in determining the local distribution
and abundance of the species.
Tolerance and reproduction.—Table 4 lists the important species
in the northern hardwood forest in the approximate order of their
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 11
shade tolerance, beginning with the least tolerant, and gives the
characteristics of each which influence its reproduction inside and
outside of the forest.
These characteristics are subject. to variation. Tolerance, for
example, is greater in seedlings than in old trees, in the south than
in the north, and in fertile than in dry situations. The frequency
of seed years and the fertility of the seed produced depend to a
large extent on climatic factors, and the amount is influenced by
these and by the light supply; even the annual seed bearers do not
produce the same amount each year. The extent of seed distribu-
tion depends on the height and exposure of the crown, the buoyancy
of the seed, and the strength and steadiness of the winds at seed
time. Growth of both seedlings and sprouts is influenced by the
length of the growing season, the fertility of the soil, and the humidity
of the air. All of these variations, by affecting the aggressiveness
of particular species in competition with others, modify the compo-
sition of the stand. The variations caused by physical factors (soil,
precipitation, temperature, etc.), though they do have an influence
during the youth of the stand, are active especially in determining
the character of the old-growth forest, and are chiefly responsible
for differences in its composition at different latitudes, longitudes,
altitudes, and exposures. Those caused by physiological factors
are especially active in the establishment and subsequent history of
temporary stands.
The temporary stands formed by species aggressive outside the
forest give way, after they have developed, to species which are
ageressive inside the forest. A convenient classification might be
based upon this difference in aggressiveness, the trees being called,
respectively, extensive or intensive reproducers, according to whether
; they are more aggressive outside or inside the forest. The separation
F of the species into these classes would then be made on the basis
) of the last two columns of Table 4. Extensive reproducers are
intolerant of shade, and are generally small, rapid-growing, short-
lived, and light-foliaged, and have a tendency to form even-aged
h stands (Pl. VI). Intensive reproducers are tolerant in tendency,
. of slow growth and long life, and form uneven-aged stands with
dense crown cover (Pl. V). To be sure, these characteristics exist
among the different species in all degrees between the extremes,
so that a hard and fast line can not be drawn between the extensive
and intensive reproducers. Some species even are extensive under
certain conditions and imtenstve under others. Nevertheless the
divergent tendencies are perfectly evident and a scale can be drawn
the extremes of which are almost exclusively extensive and intensive.
BS ical
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Winks
85,
BULLETIN 2
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Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.
“INTENSIVE? ALL-AGED REPRODUCTION IN A VIRGIN FOREST OF SUGAR MAPLE, BEECH, |
BASSWOOD, AND HEMLOCK. ROSCOMMON COUNTY, MICH. |
|
Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI.
é es
SNe
a
3
“ EXTENSIVE”? EVEN-AGED REPRODUCTION OF ASPEN AND FIRE CHERRY ON CUT AND
BURNED OVER WHITE-PINE LAND IN WISCONSIN.
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 13
‘For the species in Table 4 such a scale is approximately as follows:
Most extensive: Most extensive—Continued.
1. Aspens. 10. White elm.
2. Gray birch. 11. Red spruce.
3. Paper birch. 12. Basswood.
4. Fire cherry. 13. Sugar maple.
5. Black cherry. 14. Red maple.
6. White pine. 15. Ironwood.
7. Yellow birch. 16. Hemlock.
8. Black birch. Most intensive:
9. White ash. 17. Beech.
Red spruce and yellow birch are examples of species which though
in most respects intensive, are also extensive, under favorable con-
ditions. Both often reproduce in even-aged second-growth stands
on clearings, while the spruce, and to a less extent the birch, are
able to start seedlings within the forest.
The extensive species are obvioulsy well adpated for quickly
reclaiming burned or otherwise cleared land, and not for competition
with intensive species. (Pl. VI.) Aspen and paper birch are rapidly
displaced by maple, beech, or hemlock, or, in fact, any others of the
“characteristic” species of the northern forest whose reproduction
may happen to start beneath them.
The intensive reproducers hold their ground when once they have
gained it; but they differ among themselves in aggressiveness and
persistance. Sugar maple is the most generally aggressive repro-
ducer throughout the characteristic beech-birch-maple type.
This is undoubtedly due to its combined tolerance and seeding
qualities. Beech, which is probably more tolerant, does not bear
large seed crops annually, and much of the seed produced is destroyed
by animals. Yellow birch, which does bear each year, is less tolerant
than maple. Its light-winged seed are so widely dispersed, however,
that many fall where the crown shade is light enough to permit the
development of seedlings. These are adaptable to a great variety
of seed-bed conditions, from sandy soils burned free of humus to
duff-covered clay loams, and even moss-covered bowlders, decayed
stumps, and logs. Yellow birch thus accomplishes through its
reproductive aggressiveness often more than beech can accomplish
through its extreme shade endurance. White elm and basswood
both require much light for growth and especially for seed production.
The elm seeds, with their surrounding wings, are light, thin disks,
fitted to be distributed quite widely by the wmd; the tree bears
annually and abundantly. Basswood seeds are produced in less
abundance, and at first glance seem poorly adapted for wind dis-
persal. They are suspended im clusters of as many as six large
spherical fruits beneath a single bract, apparently insufficient in
size for a long flight; but when the seed clusters fall the bract becomes
i
14 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
an efficient helicopter, which, in a light breeze, may bear its load of
seed a hundred yards or more. The seedlings of basswood and elm
are able to endure moderate shade for 5 or 6 years, but seedlings of
greater age are rare in the virgin forest except where the crown
cover is broken.
Forest-grown beech, birch, and maple seedlings which receive but
little light develop into extremely slender, whip-like saplings, able
to stand erect only through the protection of surrounding trees. If
very gradually exposed by frequent, light thinnings these may
eventually reach dominant positions; but in silviculture it is prob-
ably best in most cases to sacrifice these and secure fresh reproduc-
tion under greater light. (Pl. VII, fig. 1, and Pl. XIV, fig. 1.)
Within the ranges of red spruce, fir, and hemlock, the culling of
these species from the mixed hardwood and softwood stand reduces
the seed supply and thereby the proportion of softwoods in the
young growth. Although extremely tolerant, hemlock and spruce
seedlings are dwarfed, if not killed, by the heavy shade from an
unbroken cover of maple and beech crowns, and can succeed only
where the shade is lighter, as may be the case under yellow birch
crowns. (Pl. VIII.) This is also true of more or less clear cuttings in
these woods, for the softwood seedlings are handicapped by their very
slow growth in competition with hardwood sprouts and seedlings
and with shade-producing underbrush. In spite of this, the soft-
wood reproduction will usually find enough light here and there to
persist and in the course of time reappear in the crown cover. In
the mountains, the hardwoods and hemlocks are favored by the
relatively warm climate and deep, fertile soils of moderate altitude;
at higher altitudes the stands are less dense and reproduction less
aggressive, so that spruce and fir assume predominance without
much difficulty.
Size, rate of growth, and longevity.—The “intensive reproducers”
are, as a rule, larger and longer-lived than the “ extensive,’ and
the less tolerant of them owe their presence among shade enduring
species in virgin stands largely to these two attributes. They must
have started before or at the same time as their tolerant neighbors,
and kept a dominant position by faster growth and larger size; or
have taken advantage of accidents to trees in the stand and sprung
up under the increased light thus admitted. Long-lived trees
naturally have more chances to establish reproduction under such
conditions than short-lived. White pine, white elm, white ash, and
basswood owe their presence among heavy-foliaged species largely
to these qualities. In the virgin forest they are almost always taller
than the surrounding hardwoods, and this affords them plenty of
light for seed bearing. The elm is especially favored by its wide-
spreading crown. (PI. III, fig. 2.) Yellow birch, though of less
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 15
height, secures crown space and light through the aggressive spread
of its slender, flexible twigs and small branches. (PI. IV, figs. 2 and 3.)
Resistance to various kinds of injury contributes to length of life,
and since it varies more or less with climate and soil, it is doubtless
at least partly responsible for some regional variations in the compo-
sition of the forest. Thus, sugar maple in northern Wisconsin is
apt to be inferior to yellow birch in soundness, and is not so abundant.
(Pl. IT.) Unsoundness does not always influence the forest composi-
tion, however. Basswood is extremely unsound, even in the region
of its greatest abundance. Its soft wood falls an easy prey to
wood-destroying fungi and insects which eat out the hearts of the
trees, so that nearly all large basswoods in the old-growth forests
are hollow. In spite of this the trees attain great age and size. The
reproductive power of large basswoods is apt to be considerably
reduced by the breakage of branches in the top, due to snow and
wind.
Climate and soil..—Climate has an undoubted selective influence
on the composition of these forests, but its precise effect can not easily
be disassociated from the other elements determining the composi-
tion. In general, however, it appears to restrict the growth of yel-
low and paper birch and the aspens to the cold, humid air and soil
of the north and of fairly high altitudes; the paper birch and aspen
extend beyond the Arctic Circle. The wide north and south ranges
of most of the hardwoods show that they are less influenced by
climate. Some, however, are influenced more than others; for ex-
ample, in the mountain regions white elm, ash, and basswood are
practically confined to warm, lower slopes and sheltered valleys, but
beech and sugar maple grow at altitudes as high as those reached by
yellow birch. The white elm, ash, and basswood are at their best in
the continental climate of the Lake States and southeastern Canada,
where they hold their own against the more tolerant beech, maple,
and yellow birch. Black birch, though essentially a northern hard-
wood, is scarce in New England, and its range indicates less hardi-
ness than that of yellow birch. Beech apparently endures greater
air dryness than the other northern hardwoods. South of the north-
ern hardwood region it is often a prominent associate of white oak
and hickory in relatively dry situations.
As compared with the pines and the hardwoods of the oak-
hickory-chestnut types, the northern hardwoods are exacting in their
soil requirements. In common with most tree growth they are best ©
suited by deep, fresh, well-drained, fertile loams, mixed with sand or
with clay, and kept porous and moist by abundant, well-decomposed
humus. It is probable that mycorrhiza and nitrifying soil bacteria
1 The general climatic conditions within which the northern hardwoods forests grow have been outlined
on pp. 3 and 4.
16. BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
are an important element of fertility in these soils. The northern
hardwoods are not confined to rich soils, however. They often
thrive on dry or on very shallow soils, but in each case there must
be some compensating factor. A shallow soil must be moist, for
example, and a dry one deep. In the lower peninsula of Michigan
maple, beech, elm, and basswood grow well near the shore of Lake
Michigan on deep, dry, fine sand of low agricultural value, while in
the eastern part of the State, adjacent to Lake Huron, they are
largely replaced on sandy soils by pines or by dry-land hardwoods,
principally oaks. The compensating factor here is probably air
humidity due to the prevalence of moist winds from Lake Michigan.
Under these conditions the growth is more rapid than on heavier,
more fertile soil, no farther north, in Wisconsin. Beech is the least
exacting species with reference to soil moisture and quality. In
Ohio ! it grows well in limestone soils in mixture with white oak, red
oak, hickory, and white ash, and also on well-drained sandy clay
moraines with white oak and hickory. It is rather sensitive to
changes in the ground-water level through draining, however, as well
as by the opening up of the forest crown cover. White elm, bass-
wood, sugar maple, and ash, though apparently less sensitive to such
changes, are somewhat more exacting, and in dry climates require a
larger amount of soil moisture for their best growth.
The species differ in the ability of their root systems to adapt them-
selves to soils of different depths and moisture content, but as yet
little is known of their capacities in this respect. The soil conditions
in which they are found indicate that probably the root systems of
sugar maple and yellow birch are the least and those of beech, bass-
wood, and elm the best adapted to draw moisture from a deep but
only slightly moist soil. Where the soil and air humidity are ample,
the tendency of all the species is in the direction of shallow-rootedness,
and vice versa.
FORM.
Tables 50 to 53 (Appendix) show the taper of trees of different
species and size, and Tables 5 and 6 give the éomparative lengths
and breadths of crown of beech, sugar maple, yellow birch, and bass-
wood trees. These figures are average measurements of the crowns
of forest trees felled to obtain the growth measurements given
Tables 7 to 9, together with the measurements of the sample trees
from the second-growth plots described on pages 21 to 27. No regu-
lar variation between crown classes was distinguishable, but prac-
tically all the trees measured belonged to the upper crown classes.
Both the length and the breadth of the crowns are greatest in the
most tolerant and smallest in the least tolerant species, though this
10. E. Baker, in “The forest problem in arich agricultural county of Ohio,” Forestry Quarterly, vol. 1,
No. 2, pp. 1388-150 (1908).
"SLSSYOS HLMOYS-GNOO3SS GNV HLMOYS-d10 NI HOYId MOTISA
‘T ony ‘ATX 011d
aeQ “dQ UIT} OSIV] OY} JO [VAOUAL OY} OATAINS Jou ATqeqord p[NOA\ osoyy,
"N3dQ 3HL NI LYVLS SHL WOYS Maud
HOIHM ‘HOIH 1334 GZ “ONVLS G1O-YvSA-0L V—"S “Old "193404 G10 NV NI SaauL ONNOA—"} “Oly
PLATE VIle-
Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
PLATE VIII.
Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
RED SPRUCE REPRODUCTION FILLING AN OPENING IN A SECOND-GROWTH STAND OF
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Su@aR MAPLE AND YELLOW BIRCH
generalization can not be applied to all species.
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST.
iy
White elm, for
example, may have a wider crown than beech, which is much more
tolerant.
TABLE 5.—Comparative crown widths of northern hardwoods based on diameter breast high.
Diameter
breast high.
Average width of crown.
Diameter.
breast high.
Average width of crown.
Sugar | Yellow] Bass-
Beech. maple. | birch. | wood
Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet.
3 3 3 3
5 5 5 5
8 8 7 8
10 10 9 10
13 13 11 ip
15 14 12 14
18 16 14 15
20 18 15 16
22 19 16 17
24 21 18 18
26 22 19 18
28 23 20 19
29 25 21 19
30 26 22 19
Sugar | Yellow] Bass-
Beech. maple.| birch. | wood.
Feet. Feet Feet. Feet.
31 27 23 20
32 28 25 20
33 29 26 20
34 30 27 21
34 31 28 21
35 32 29 22
36 34 30 22
36 35 31 23
37 36 33 24
37 37 34 24
38 38 35 25
39 39 36 26
82 67 42 195
TABLE 6.—Comparative crown lengths of northern hardwoods based on total height of tree.
Average length of crown. Average length of crown.
Total height of Total height of
tree. Beech Sugar | Yellow] Bass- tree. Beech Sugar | Yellow} Bass-
*|maple.| birch. | wood. maple.}| birch. | wood
Feet Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet Feet. Feet Feet. Feet. Feet.
[SYR oy Oe No sean 3 2 2 Ue pe tare arise 42 33 31 27
1OBSSPs een se 6 5 4 Spl le oregree eases ants 45 36 34 28
dialer aa ale 8 G 6 Fle sO ee ese EAS 48 38 37 29
POE eee ees nee 11 9 8 LO Cie eee ae See aeS 51 40 40 31
Disa as eer Matter 14 12 10 TOA ROOE Aaa eats ee 54 43 43 32
es ehcp ter eran cue 17 14 12 OI sy eae CS eee 56 CGY aoenaoer 33
10) aes eee aa 20 16 14 UO eC Ses ce sobece 59 AUN ASE Ses 34
(0) aaa ae ete 230 19 17 DSU LOS Mas Soe ase oo 62 503] 25 sae cee 35
ADE eine ete ere 26 21 19 LOT SULOe See aaa to 65 BY. eReesese Ser 36
SO pers feb srsurss = 29 24 21 GUM NAIG)s aq Bes ee tected) CSEBCeer BAM EE ee eek 37
Sheet esee ee bree 32 26 24 OB G0 ae Saree Soe eee Bieber 39
. GON eae ae hiss 35 28 26 24 —
7 Go Neometiere emis 39 31 29 25 || Basis, trees..--.- 87 72 47 253
hy
:
A
GROWTH.
climate, and especially sunlight.
endurance.
of foliage.
The rate of growth of a given species depends on the soil, the
Theoretically the growth per acre
is the same whether there are few or many trees, provided the supply
of light is completely utilized by a continuous crown cover.
northern hardwood forest in its virgin condition was characterized by
extreme crown density, caused not only by the large number of trees
which the fertile soil produced, but also by the difference in shade
The
Under the light-needing crowns of the tall pines, elms,
or basswoods, the tolerant birch, beech, and maple grew without
much difficulty, providing an efficient, wood-producing “‘lower story”’
The total amount of wood produced was very large.
637° —Bull. 285—15——2
18 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
But, on the other hand, the individual trees grew with extreme slow-
ness, especially the more tolerant. Many of the trees which ulti-
mately became dominant did so only after a long struggle upward
toward the light, during which their growth was suppressed by shade
almost to the point of extinction. Evidence of this struggle is found
when old-growth forest trees are cut, in the great and irregular varia-
tion in the width of the annual rings. These irregularities are not,
it is true, wholly due to variations in the light supply; climatic fluc-
tuations and the drain caused by heavy seed crops undoubtedly have
their effect. But the aggregations of fine rings represent chiefly the
periods of suppression by shade, while the wider rings represent the
more rapid growth under increased light. In dominant trees, there-
fore, the rings are apt to be narrower near the heart than elsewhere,
and in trees which have long been suppressed they may all be very
narrow.
Most of the ‘‘intensive’”’ trees of the northern forest retain to a
great age their power of recovery from moderate suppression, and
this is as true of the less as of the more tolerant. In consequence, a
graphic curve based on the growth of an individual virgin forest tree
is exceedingly irregular, and bears little resemblance to that of an
open-grown tree, in which the growth is at first slow, rapidly reaches
a maximum, and then gradually decreases. An average curve repre-
senting the growth of many forest trees is commonly almost a straight
line.
It is worthy of notice that the fine rings next the bark of large, old
trees may be due not to insufficient light, but to the great cireum-
ference about which the season’s layer of wood must be spread. At
the top of the tree, where the circumference is smaller, the growth of
the same year will show a much wider ring on cross section.
Tables 7, 8, and 9 show the growth of most of the important
‘intensive’ trees of the northern hardwood forest in the Lake
States. They are based on decade measurements of selected, well-
formed, sound trees, and represent a growth slightly greater than the
average rate! The small number of white elm trees measured (14)
was insufficient for thoroughly representative tables; but since the
trees were dominant the figures given show fairly well what may be
expected of vigorous white elm in unmanaged forests. The principal
inference from the table is that the growth rate is more or less in
proportion to the tolerance of the species, and that basswood is con-
siderably more rapid growing than any of the others.
1 The maximum and minimum figures do not indicate extremes, but only averages of maxima and
minima. All the measurements were separated into three equal parts, representing maxima, averages,
and minima, and each part was averaged (graphically) by acurve. The absolute maXima or minima can
be found by halving the difference between the figures given in the ‘“maximum”’ or “minimum”’ columns
and those given in the “average’’ column for any desired year, and then increasing the average maximum
or decreasing the average minimum by this amount.
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST.
TasLe 7.—Growth in diameter, breasthigh, of northern hardwoods and hemlock in the
Lake States.)
Average growth.
Maximum growth.
3 3
Age. a A
s/a/8
ee
Caw lit pa
Years.) In. | In. | In.
20 yes O.Syp OL ral) ralyal
3053-6 TOA a) elas
405 5 9) 2:3) 2.3
OO eacce 2.7} 3.0) 3.0
6022-5 3.5] 3.8! 3.8
10. 2% 4.3) 4.6) 4.6
SOee Ly] Re
90b So. 6.1} 6.3] 6.6
100.. TQ) TEMS “ea
110. 8.0} 8.1) 8.9
120. 9.0} 8.9) 10.1
130... 10.0) 9.8] 11.2
140... 10.9) 10.7} 12.3
150-- 11.9) 11.5} 18.4
160... 12.9} 12.4) 14.5
L7OR- 13. 9|.13. 2} 15.6
180... 14.8) 14.1) 16.7
190....} 15.7) 14.9) 17.8
200. - 16.7) 15.7) 18.8
210. . 17.6) 16.5} 19.8
220._._| 18.5] 17.3] 20.8
230... 19.3) 18.1} 21.8
240... 20. 3} 19.0} 22.7
250. 21.1) 19.9} 23.7
SIRS SYESo ys Aw NPNPos! | Hemlock.
PRWNOS DONINO OWI
Ree ee Bee
wm Orororcr
| White elm.
Fa
SOM NSOTAe WNEOS
OOOO COHHENN RONIOH WHNOSH War)
Bo
=
10t,
no
-
©
| Basswood.
N
ST WNOON S2AWNS
le! COPRORO MORN”
Be eee
> OrSrd1 DAD
> | Sugar maple.
SoU Cees Hen CNS ae
CAN NINT DOO NOWONN ONrAw OMwhy
27
28. 4|
F|
Oo
A= P
ae
H =
g\2]¢
© ic) o)
mo} pe]
In. | In. | In.
Rall Peal PAY)
2.3) 3.3]! 1 359
Bohl Cal GE7
4.4) 5.8] 7.6
5.41 7.1) 9.4
6.5} 8.4) 11.1
7.5| 9.8] 12.8
8.6] 11.2) 14.5
9. 6} 12.5} 16.1
10. 6) 13.9] 17.7
11. 6] 15. 2| 19.4
12. 6} 16.5} 21.0
13. 6] 17.8] 22.6
14, 6) 19.1) 24,2
15.5) 20.3) 25.7
16. 4) 21.6) 27.2
783 |) 2209 | sien
1374 FPA eS
Oe 25s2 |e eee
2050) 2653|4-22
2059s 2785 | eee
21.8) 28. 62-52!
D290 hl eee
2356)" 3088) sees
3 | White elm.
PS 6 ERE)
aed
Ree ee
Sas GoiKo rac DAOC bo
KOA RWWNN HOOOM OURwWN O-~1W0"
1)
OOF
on
Minimum growth.
3 | Basswood.
SURI NI s OST S
77
NOUR W HORMWO BOWMAN WOrW
17.
~“I~s1-~1
Sugar maple.
13.0
Rw OW BAIR OO LOCO Oh
|
5 ce
ost fee (eile
Peal ate wet ices |RaS
5 de See ese)
3 o ® qc a
Ge | sien |e lp Seo)
Ins \ Ine Nis eine | In.
Ocha 0.3] 0.1) 1.3
ali .6 ~A|. 2.2
ikl 4 9 Steele
1.6 sili datS Ole Ae
Peal LAM GS TR
Pte Gy) PAO Pa) 3
3.4) 2.1) 2.4) 1.9) 7.4
LB PHA PATA P28) ete)
ANT rds4| ool) e2eee O85
5.4) 4.2] 3.4! 3.2] 10.7
6:0) --550(2 23: 8) aha lle 7
6.9} 5.8) 4.3) 4.2) 12.8
7.6) 6.7) 4.8] »458) 13.8
8.3) 7.6) 5.3] 5.4) 14.7
9.1) 8.5) 5.9) '6.0) 15.7
9.9} 9.5) 6.6] 6.7] 16.6
LOSG/ OLS ealeo| Leb
11.3] 11.4) 8.0} 8.2) 18.4
12,1] 12.2) 8.7] 9.0) 19.3
UPA ile yi bees 9.8} 20.1
113} ye) dB} IO) eee 10. 7) 21.1
14. 6] 14. 8}..... 11. 6} 22.0
T5eA lel 5s5 | pene 12.5) 22.9
1GS2\S1G93|2enee 13. 5| 23.8
ig
1 Based on the following data: Sugar maple, 80 trees, Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich., Price
and Iron Counties, Wis.; beech, 74 trees, Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich.; yellow birch
Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich., Price and Iron Counties, Wis.; hemlock, 186 trees
L
27 trees,
eelanaw
County, Mich.; white elm, 14 trees, Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich., Price and Iron Counties,
Wis.; basswood, 75 trees, Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich., Price and Iron Counties, Wis.
TaBLE 8.—Growth in height of northern hardwoods and hemlock in the Lake States.
Average growth (total height).
Age.
Sugar maple.
-
ir
>
i
,
height).
Ala pe |e) es 2 | 4
La o o fo) 9 o
ety (OE o| Sie] foo el taeda |e
peal elke ic cioll Gani Seal Slee
> Cy i) S)
ailnx lH /Elalalalsle
Tea Oa ee areas Ue || Satie) Late TOS N Tajr3 Wate
13 | 20 8) 20s 230 RRLSh tO) es0 Nt a8
21) |). 26) 12281) 34) ZO R 28h 39 || SL
28))|| 31.) 16 | 34 | 943) ) 939) 935)!" 48) 42
33 | 37) 20] 40] 52| 48 |) 42) 54] 53
39 | 43] 25} 45] 59] 55] 48) 60] 62
44, 48] 30; 49] 66] 61] 54; 64] 70
48} 53] 35] 53] 71] 67] 59] 68] 76
By arts ZOO yr 76s | 2 GE AL ee)
57 | 62] 44) 61) 78} 75 | 68) 73) 85
62) 66! 49] 64! 81] 78! 72] 75! 88
Go| 69] 53°) 67a) 835) SL) 75 1) 77) |) 90
69 | 71) 57) 71) 85 | 83} 78) 79] 94
72 | 73| 60} 73} 87] 85] 81} 80] 96
75 | 75 | 63] 76} 88] 87] 83] 81] 98
78'| 76] 66] 78} 89] 89} 84] 82} 100
80 | 78) 68} 81] 90] 90) 85] 838] 102
S21 09n 70) SSaleeOle | O2nleeSGale Soule eee=
83 | 80) 72] 85} 92] 93] 87] 84 ]_-.-.
OA S114 SZ eO3e Oa er Szall eso) eee
SO) |e Ole | Senet s O0 5a Pe OOm MESON em Son enters
86 | 82]... 927) .95. 1 OM 89) 86: ae 22
87 | 83 |e 22. * 93 | 96] 98} 90} 87 |....-
Se |) eB). eced 95m | S965 Oe GON Sia teers
SSNS ae ee Pe CO Ts ON Ne nek eee
and minimum curves.
1 Based on same data as Table 7.
Maximum growth (total
Minimum growth (total
height).
s q
[or = , o)
a aq = SS =
3S S) 2 | D
BO) eS e\. a onl
ma)|)oOlp |e )a
THES TA DAL RN 0 We Tah.
oe ges yaaa 6 16
are 13 8 7 23
CA alg ah 8 30
TON 222 ona tO 37
142% | $2005 11 45
UAE 2 |e ea melee 51
21 |} 36} 30) 14 57
20) 40) Bo) 15 62
29; 44] 40] 17 66
34} 48! 45] 18 70
RS Aa BOS) S10 73
43 | 56} 54] 21 76
461 59 | 58] 23 78
50) 63] 61) 25 80
54 | 66] 64] 27 82
57 | 69] 67) 29 84
ik 72 |) 70) |) Ba 85
64} 74] 71) 33 87
66} 77)] 73) 35 88
FED AST 7c ou eee 89
AN Ee Bl eae 90
TERM EN TP os See 91
Moms O48 | pedicel eee 92
Tete) dp Whey Weta e 93
The measurements for white elm were too few to warrant maximum
20 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TasLE 9.—Growth in volume (cubic) of northern hardwoods and hemlock in the Lake
States.1
Average growth. Maximum growth. Minimum growth.
3 q S el dS Ka!
i [S} Land oO = oO
Bs P : ; a Z : : a r= ; ;
ee: a 3 ad = g i ag = g 2 a =
a 2 b 8 o q s 4 o | - > 2 is)
5 é z 2 = S s z iS = B Fn z 4 ES
Sol 8 | So) 2e [oy me ase ei 9B a a, a) ee ee
D [->) 1 oO Oo ~ o Oo
Ba.) 8 | | | melee] So ee cee ae | eo dies
| ser pee
Years. | Cu-fl. Cu.ft.| Cu.ft.| Cu-ft.| Cu.ft.| Cu-ft.| Cuft.| Cu.ft.| Cu.ft.|Cu.ft.| Cuft.|Cu.ft.| Cuft.| Cuft.| Cuft.
LS NS Tag Cs Tee i | a ee
LB fl Spee 2:4 ||: 12. Dil SiG ay | tae] ae a ee
ih eee eee eae ache me wee AS.) 2 Ful iS SiON 6s Gul SIO: | oes eee 5) ape a Peete 0.8
GORE eee esa eye} a b(t] ese Ly 9.2| 5.6) 3.6) 8.1) 12.4 | 22.0).....- | 3S een eee 2.2
mere 155s | SLI DN eae cee W554 6 9.53] 5529 12:1 ||) 20. 001-830 |: 22.5] eae ee eee 45
SO ee: 3.0 128.7 |. 403) 2058) 1.23) 05) 14571 807-1) 1723129) 0.) 4610: | ae |S ee ee 75
One 5.0 | 5.5] 6.8]. 3.6| 32.0 | 21.0 | 12.1 | 24.0 | 39.0 |.59.0 |------ is er Pes ae 11.4
Te oee 7.3 | 7.8 | 10.0 | 5.9 | 41.0 | 29.0 | 16.5 | 31.0 | 50.0 | 73.0 |-....- | tobat (Cuea Meanie 16.3
ORE ces 10:3 | 10/5 |. 13.8 | 9.2 | 51.0 | 37.0 | 21.0 | 40.0 | 64.0 | 87.0]...--- 3785 | iN [eeee 22.0
(owes 14.0 | 13.8 | 18.3 |12.5 | 61.0 | 47.0 | 27.0 | 49.0 | 78.0 |101.0']-..--- 5535) 320) | eeeee 28.0
13011324 18.3 | 17.6 | 24.0 | 17.1 | 72.0'| 58.0 | 34.0 | 60.0 | 94.0 115.0} 1.1] 7.0] 4.8 Jo... 35.0
140..... 23.0 | 22.0 | 30.0 | 22.0 | 82.0 | 69.0.| 40.0 | 71.0 {112.0 1130.0} 2.3! 9.0] 6.81... 42.0
150 .....| 29.0 | 27.0 | 37.0 | 28.0 | 93.0 | 81.0 | 47.0 | 82.0 |131.0 [145.0 | 3.6|11.5| 9.3| 1.0] 49.0
GORE 35.0 | 32.0 | 44.0 | 34.0 [104.0 | 93.0 | 55.0 | 93.0 [152.0 [161.0 | 5.1 | 14.3] 12.3] 1.8] 57.0
WOR eee 42.0 | 38.0 |.53.0 | 40.0 [115.0 {107.0 | 62.0 {106.0 [174.0 |177.0 | 7.0 |18.6]16.0] 2.6] 65.0
ASpEses 49.0 | 44.0 | 61.0 |'47.0 {126.0 |121.0 | 71.0 {119.0 |....-. 193.0'| 9:0°| 21.0 | 20.0 | 3.4} 73.0
190 see 57.0 | 50.0 | 70.0 | 54.0 {138.0 |136.0 | 79.0 [133.0 |....-- 210.0 | 11.3 | 25.0 | 25.0 | 4.6] 81.0
00a 66.0 | 56.0 | 79.0 | 61.0 [151.0 [151.0 | 89.0 {147.0 |...... 228.0 | 14.1 | 30.0 |°30.0 | 5.9 | 90.0
210s 75L OU LOS e 0s ne SaO alae 165.0 |168.0 | 98.0 [161.0 |....-. 247.0°| 17:3°| 36.0 | 35.0 |_.---- 99.0
990 means 84: 0..)-71..0.}:98.02|2e2-%- 178.0 |184.0 [109.0 |176.0 |....-- 267.0 | 21.0. | 42.0.|-40.0 |__---- | 109.0
230. ..-.| 94.0] 79.0. |108.0 |-.-.-- 192.0 |201.0 |120.0 |191.0 |...... 288-0 | 25.0 | 48.0 | 46.0 |_..... | 119.0
DAO ssn 104.0.) 87:0 |118.0.|2..... 207.0 |218.0 132.0 |205.0 |.-.--- 311.0 | 30.0 | 54.0 | 52.0 |...._. 130.0
O50 meae 115.0 | 95.0 |128.0 |...... 221.0 |235.0 (143.0 |220.0 |....-- 335:0 | 35.0 | 61.0 | 58.0 |..-.-- 141.0
1 Based on same data as Table 7.
SECOND GROWTH.
Before lumbering began young growth of the intensive species was
practically confined to individuals and groups of various ages within
the virgin forest. Fires, windfall, and other accidents to the stand
undoubtedly resulted in some even-aged reproduction over small
areas, but only a small amount as compared with the reproduction
of the extensive species. In 1825, for example, fires denuded an area
in New Brunswick and northern Maine estimated at more than
5,000,000 acres, over the greater part of which aspen and paper-
birch thickets sprang up. In the shade of these the more intensive
species came in irregularly, producing relatively uneven-aged stands.
As a result of widespread logging operations and the fires which
have followed them, even-aged second-growth stands of the intensive
species have become fairly numerous, especially in the rough eastern
part of the northern hardwood region, where more of the land has
been allowed to revert to forest. It is common for these stands to
be of mixed species, one or two of which predominate over the others
in number and size. Over small areas a single species may grow in
almost pure stands. Yellow birch is the most frequent example
—THREE MONTHS AFTER A FIRE,
PRACTICALLY THE ONLY LIVING VEGETATION
2
1
: wl Wl 6
x 3 ae
wl Z S53 (5
ul D Oe >)
< [> 2
ai < 25 ©
a QQ (we
= £2 o
f OSs
S| ke
o ox NH
E we
=) Sr fan}
2 BE
qa
5 jo =
ro) -
2 5
(3) fia ee op)
=n Ss a
no” 5
oO Ww n
LZ — kK
m4 2) 5
ss) ORs eee wy fe
Fi eS ai Views o af ce
* i =
Bs ac
<tE O
me)
O
fi Fk
=
4 7
i) Lu
a. Zz
=
=H fay
O fe)
xt O
! D
(op)
<x
ma
Fla.
Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
FIG.
«MOOT AAHL NVHL Ysq10,, “SGQNVLS GOOMGYVH HLMOYD-GNOOSS GADV-N3AZ
"ped ‘6 ‘ON 4old soyBaysnt[T
GZ ‘d ‘
€L ‘ON Jord soqyRaysnyi fT
“VINVATASNN3d
"SAYIHSdWVH MAN NI GNVLS HOSSG G10-YVSA-G6 V—'so “SIA NI HOI MOTISA 4O GNVLS G1O-YvVaSA-08 NY—'| ‘lJ
PLATE X.
Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 21
within its geographical range. Substantially pure, even-aged yellow
birch stands are especially abundant in the eastern mountains from
Maine to Pennsylvania. (Pl. X, fig. 1.) Pure, even-aged stands of
sugar maple or of beech are uncommon (Pl. X, fig. 2), and basswood
and elm hardly ever predominate in the second-growth except in
small groups among other species.
The following measurements of second-growth hardwood stands
made in the course of the study illustrate the growth and composition
of young forests of various ages and species. The measurements were
made in small sample plots, the sizes of which are given; and the vol-
umes and ages were determined by means of sample trees represent-
ing arbitrarily fixed diameter groups.1. The volumes are on an acre
basis. As a matter of fact, the composition represented by a sample
plot was in most cases less than an acre in extent, the plot repre-
senting that portion of the second-growth stand in which the desired
species was most abundant, The stands were selected at random
and show about the average growth, in cubic feet and cords, for the
mountain lands. The volume measurements were of merchantable
fuel wood material in trees 3 inches and over in breast-high diameter
to a minimum diameter limit of about 2 inches. The cubic-foot vol-
umes were reduced to cords by dividing by 85. The crown density
is shown in tenths, perfect density being 1. The crown density of
birch stands, however, is rarely greater than 0.9, which may be con-
sidered perfect.
BIRCH PLOTS.
NEW HAMPSHIRE.
Plot No. 1.—Age, 43 years; yield, 24.2 cords per acre; height of dominant trees, 55 to 60 feet.
Dua oter breast-
Propor- igh. Average
Sapies tion Number Volume | annual
1gLeGEs based on ne ee per acre. | growth
volume. Average. pee per acre.
Per cent. Inches. Inches. | Cubicfeet.| Cubicfcet.
SOON? DUNG tage ednt acRes eaee ee eECE sen see 88.0 496 5.8 2 to 10 1, 806 45.15
IER OGTR (OTC Nu berm eee Sao Sasa ee eee 8.0 40 6.1 3 to 10 166 4.15
Solent winless a 53 aoeee = Se ceeeee Sener 2.2 24 4.2 2 to 5 46 1.15
Hineeherny, (dead oot j-sqeski-- 5 - tls == 1.8 16 4.5 3to 5 38 95
INOAN ke Seed he See epee re ae 100. 0 VAS Neaena tenes Sepennad ce 2,056 51. 40
Benton township, Grafton County, N. H., near Glencliff; western slope of Mount Moosilauke; altitude
1,500 feet; slope 25 per cent west by north; soil rather shallow, loamy sand with 3 inches of humus; plot
one-eighth acre, representing one-fourth acre stand surrounded by uneven-aged growth; density 0.8;
reproduction, sugar and red maple, abundant.
1 This method is described in H. S. Graves’s ‘‘ Forest mensuration,’’ pp. 229-231, 1906.
2The yield of mixed second-growth hardwood stands in Vermont is given in Vermont Agricultural
Experiment Station Bulletin 176, ‘‘The management of second-growth hardwoods in Vermont.’’
22 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Plot No. 2.—Age, 75 to 80 years; yield, 22.9 cords per acre; height of dominant trees, 50 to 55 feet.
Diameter breast-
Propor- | ~umber high. Average
A tion Volume | annual
Species. based on eee per acre. | growth
volume. Average. anne per acre.
Per cent. Inches. | Inches. | Cubic feet.| Cubic feet.
PMeMOWsADIECN S26 5 er sere soe sess cee Sees 78.2 360 6.1 2 to 12 1,519 19.00
lero ties 32 CER Re Oe Seen ae ee ane 4 14.7 328 3.5 1lto 7 286 3.58
HUSALINAD Ose see oes Cowen heat eee 7.1 456 2.2 lto 6 138 1.73
Mg tale perme ea oe de SES i ee 100.0 ITAA E RES IAC AY Ee 1,943 | 24.31
|
Milan Township, Coos County, N. H., 3 miles east of west Milan; altitude 1,300 feet; slope 5 per cent
north; soil fine, fresh, brown loam, very stony, medium depth, humus 2 inches deep; plot one-eighth acre
in strip of second-growth 2 chains wide at south end of an old hardwood stand; density 0.9; reproduction,
beech and sugar maple seedlings quite abundant, no birch; numerous maple seedlings killed by shade.
Plot No. 8.—Age, 88 years; yield, 38.6 cords per acre; height of dominant trees, 60 to 65 feet.
aad breast-
Propor- go. Average
Gncains tion ae Volume aide
Y : based ain | ees l z per acre. | growth
volume. z x- | per acre.
Average.
§ tremes.
Per cent. Inches. | Inches. | Cubic feet. Cubic feet.
-ellow: Ditch! - © 5-)ss-en ee en ieee ee 63.9 368 6.8 2 to 14 2,097 | 23.83
IPADEMDINCN = eo ea eaae Sen ee ees ere 30.6 128 7.6 2 to 13 1,005 11. 42
PS COC H bape tne foxes ee hs SEE re ee OEE 4.5 52 4.9 1 to 10 147 1.67
SUCATIMAPIOD ses me mae eee eee tees -6 4 6.5 2to 9 21 24
INS DON SR ss ae seo os tforwa ree ae eee eae e 4 2 BU Bters oat 13 15
IRGCISDTUCOrse ce jee ee cece eee ae See cise ume asec 416 2.2 1 to 6"). .cesee- 2 Oe
ipalsSamM Hrs see bape oee ose seo pl esate ae 36 2. 2;), «71, t0'. 3;1)_. ses ee
ROLLE Wee oe eee er ene a ne 100.0 0065) 228 eee ea oer ccs 3, 283 37.31
J
Benton Township, Grafton County, N. H., near Glencliff; west slope of Mount Moosilauke; altitude
2,000 feet; slope 17 per cent; exposure northwest; soil fairly deep sandy loam with 3 to 4 inches of humus;
plot one-half acre, in stand running largely to paper birch; density 0.9; reproduction, red spruce, heavy,
of very slow.growth. ’
NEw YORK.
Plot No. 4.—Age, 20 years; yield, 10.8 cords per acre; height of dominant trees, 35 to 40 feet.
Diameter breast-
Propor- high. Average
Speci tion number Volume | annual
peries. based on | yor acre. per acre. | growth
volume Average. pe per acre.
; Per cent: Inches. | Inches. | Cubicfeet.| Cubic feet.
SVCLOW DIC Mase a< = 2 = Sa coset oie eerie 56. 2 2, 288 2.1 lto4 518 25.90
IBTICkapIrCheee: ose ncn sete een eS 15.0 336 2.4 1lto4 138 6.90
Sugarmaplers iss. Ssh eee ee ae 14.2 288 2.4 lto4 131 6.55
Te CHOrGyn== - == esinta 3 ein ce areis 11.1 80 3.4 3 to4 102 5.10
Deeetolreet: | ol eee ee IRE EE Sec Lesgogecoees 3.5 48 2.7 2to3 32 1.60
Beye 6 once See A Soa TORE E DE coc Gaababee HESS Speaee 320 1 EX Vel CRRA Rls dS esr St ae
Service berry..2.:!202..48 PUR Geet ee [SSeeaite 3 | 32 1.6 L:t0:2) | es aeneeel
Mota vax ore, ae Peer eel. wx | 100.0 | 3, 390)) one RRL ag 921 46. 05
Colchester Township, Delaware County, N. Y.; altitude 1,300 feet; slope 10 per cent northwest; soil
very scant; fresh, loamy sand with thin humus layer, over jar e, flat, loose sandstone fragments; plot
one-eighth acre, in stand of 2 or 3 acres, varying in composition; density 0.9; reproduction absent.
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST.
Plot No. 5.—Age, 42 years; yield, 25.8 cords per acre; height of dominant trees, 55 to 60 feet.
IRG(l TBO). anodes SeSeeeseBer sepUEseeees
Species.
P rh id Number
based on | 0% trees
alts 19H YON
Per cent.
54.1 360
26.9 160
17.8 104
a2) 96
SPE ae pis 16
100.0 736
Diameter breast-
high.
Average. hee
Inches. Inches.
522 2 to 8
5.4 3 to9
5.6 4to7
2.4 1to4
PASCO Seen Gie Sle aes
Volume
per acre.
Cubic feet.
Average
annual
growth
per acre.
Cubic feet.
28. 21
Colchester Township, Delaware County, N. Y.; altitude 1,300 feet; slope 5 per cent west; soil very scant
fresh, brown, loamy sand with thin humus layer, over large, flat, loose sandstone fragments; plot one
eighth acre, in 2 or 3 acre stand of second growth with scattered
beech and sugar maple, numerous.
PENNSYLVANIA.
old trees; density, 0.7 to 0.8; reproduction
Plot No. 6.—Age, 25 years; yield, 11.5 cords per acre; average height of dominant trees, 40 feet.
eIneCHenbyARece a caescis ase Sea scien csiscees
Yellow birch
IBN AC kD ING Meas ee ee nse, ~ cin in a Sele win de bios os om
NS CGC Hee epost ialaieinants sie
SUL SEMIN SUT OMeps ee roletefeinicie'ai= aia cle cinisieiwiciel oe ol see ee
Species.
Propor-
tion
based on
volume.
Per cent.
Number
per acre.
of trees |
| Diameter breast-
| high.
Average.
Inches.
Volume
per acre.
Cubic feet.
470
Near Austin, Potter County, Pa.; altitude 1,600 feet; slope 15 per cent north; soil shallow
“loam, over small, flat, shale fragments; humus 3 inches deep; plot one-eighth acre, in similar stand of
60 to 80 acres, following lumbering and fire on hemlock land; density 0.9; reproduction absent; many
dead fire cherries still standing indicate rapid elimination of this species.
itselfrapidly; birch largely sprouts.
Average
annual
growth
per acre.
Cubic feet.
18.
fresh, clay
Stand apparently thinning
Plot No. ?7.—Age, 40 years; yield, 21.1 cords per acre; average height of dominant trees, 55 feet.
Yellow birch
BIACKs INCHES ccrccap cee hea ee See eee eee
vednmamlers nen wees es seems ns bees
SUeammMamles sa acct aes secce = Scelsaee see
Black cherry
Service berry
TOT WOOU ete teens aso sissies cate t ee
BE TTM EMD COC Raa rai ach Se peg nae
Ter GOK aa See We AN Sse erste 33 Seat
Species.
based on
100. 0
1,196
|
Diameter breast-
high. Average
Volume | annual
| per acre. | growth
Average. Pee emo
Inches. Inches. | Cubic feet. Cubic feet.
4.3 2to8 881 22. 02
4.2 2to7 664 16. 60
3.9 1to7 146 3. 65
2.4 1 to6 44 1.10
5.0 5 23 58
3.6 2to6 21 = 08)
2.2 1to5 16 . 40
1.0 ANSE WD) | oo ok ee | ea
1.0 1 i teem aee ce essen a
1.0 1 fd Ape |e eet teas
mS Pacis otal peer esere: 1, 795 44, 88
Near Costello, Potter County, Pa.; altitude 1,600 feet; slope 25 per cent northwest; soil scant, gray
—
loam, dry and crumbly, in interstices of small, fine grained standstone fragments; humus 3 inches thick;
density 0.9; reproduction, beech and sugar maple, numerous; a few hemlock seedlings.
24
BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Plot No. 8.—Age, 50 years; yield, 10.9 cords per acre; average height of dominant trees, 45 feet.
Diameter! breast- |
Propor- | » high. | Average
Soe tion Namper Volume mand
12) . based on Deracre per acre. growth
SS |
volume. Average. puke | per acre.
Per cent Inches. Inches. | Cubic feet.| Cubic feet.
RaCHOWaDIFChes o) vastic Accpebace me neceseeaee 76.4 672 3.4 2tod 709 14.18
Bae kai Gheae ec, sere ok eee ae Sela 21.5 272 2.8 2to5d 200 4.00
DOLWICOWEINV a2 22 cee cee aca coee eee ee 3 8 4.0 4 12 . 24
@uCcnmp ers ess 2c cee wets ast ee temee ee a) 8 3.0 | 3 7 .14
DP Ota! Fan a sa shan ose cee een oe 100. 0 960). ete alesse eee 928 18. 56
Endeavor, Forest County, Pa.; altitude 1,200 feet; slope 5 per cent north; soil, shallow, rich, residual
lay loam, over flat shale fragments; humus heavy, rich, well decomposed; plot one-eighth acre, in second-
growth stand of less than one-fourth acre; density 0.85; reproduction scant; scattered hemlock, white ash,
sugar and red maple, white oak and birch.
Plot No. 9.—Age, 80 years; yield, 42.2 cords per acre; average height of dominant trees, 75 feet.
Deel breast-
Propor- gn. Average
nnried tion pum bee Volume | annual
P 3 based on vp GORE per acre. | growth
volume. | P ii leACrarnte Ex- per acre.
8€-| tremes
: | Per cent. Inches. Inches. | Cubic feet.| Cubic feet.
SYeellowsbirCh = as sie = Miostecoso se ciece 85. 4 324 7.4 5 to 11 3, 062 38. 28
iBlacksbirch ss ssne82. Seo gaen Sens aua ees ae 8,2 32 7.3 5 to 10 296 3. 70
REMI OC ak SAU eS a SSE eevee ease 4.6 68 5.7 1to 9 i64 2.05
IBCCClES Asean someon esas cease ssc ce se .8 84 3.0 lto 6 29 - 36
Sugarnmaples. 22.20 sees sse se ses ase - 6 24 3.1 lto 6 20 ~25
Redimaplorsaie. 2.52 ees oe ees eee .4 20 3 3 16 . 20°
Motaieter. in ime Usk. ad, 100.0 ya pees Pee | 3,587] 44.84
Homer Township, Potter County, Pa.; altitude 1,600 feet; slope 30 per cent west; soil very scant, rich,
fresh, residual clay, over talus of flat shale fragments; humus heavy, moist, well decomposed; plot one-
fourth acre, in similar stand of more than 10 acres; density 0.9; reproduction scant; beech, red maple,
hemlock. (See Pl. X, fig. 1.) ;
MAPLE PLOTS.
NEw YORK.
Plot No. 10.—Age, 39 years; yield, 28 cords per acre; average height of dominant trees, 68 feet.
|
| Diane breast- :
Propor ign. Average
BS apei he Number cad Volume | annual
DECIES: based on nee ee per acre. | growth
volume Average. ae per acre.
Per cent. Inches. | Inches. | Cubic feet.| Cubic feet.
Sugaemapleveses) . sisesekcasceaseeeee- 77.9 712 4.4 1to9 1, 852 47. 49
MeO ws INC uses ero siciattoeecceeicnes 8.3 56 imal 4to6 198 5. 08
WIFE CHELEN MEd. «cc se eee ce soe comet ae 7.6 32 6.3 5to8 181 4. 64
Service*beryissese- sete ee a. ee Rees 2.8 16 5.5 5 to6 66 1.69
TronwoodWestn 5.2 oe. fo ee ees 1.8 32 3.3 3 to4 42 1.08
BASSWOUGH ESS soe cane ene Se setae eaeeen 1.6 8 6.0 6 39 1.00
TNOtRIMES A sic ae Sots ee ee ae 100.0 S56 Boss sees Ease 2,378 60. 98
Cooks Falls, Delaware County, N. Y.; altitude 1,300 feet; slope 15 per cent east by north; soil moist,
sandy loam, relatively deep; humus 1 inch thick; plot one-eighth acre in similar stand of 2 or 3 acres; den-
sity 1; reproduction, sugar maple and beech; maple very abundant but badly suppressed; an ‘‘old field”
stand of seedling origin.
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 25
MICHIGAN.
Plot No. 11.—Age, 42 years; yield, 16.2 cords per acre; height of dominant trees, 45 to 50 feet.
Diameter breast-
Propor- high. Average
Shidnibs tion Namen Volume | annual
2 pases on per acre a per acre. | growth
volume. : X= per acre.
Average tremes.
Per cent. Inches. | Inches. |Cubic fect.| Cubic feet:
Dugan ap leeeatee. fice nso e 2 Saltese 53.2 2, 224 2.2 1to6 731 17. 40
\KU® OS). Jae One ae aoe eee eee 19.5 128 4.5 2to7 267 6. 36
LInCra NWO! oo mote CO BOC EE SEE aCe ee eee 19.3 72 5.8 2to8 265 6.31
Beech Be aif BPRS ocho bite ar aloe ee 5.4 40 4.2 1to7 74 1.76
DC VICONDOLLY Epes inci fo btck ese oboe snr scct 2.6 32 3.5 2to5 36 . 86
UNO GEOR OSOS BORE Soe eee eee 100.0 PD oo oscasoe|loSoeceKo ss 1,373 32. 69
Glen Haven, Leelanau County, Mich., one-half mile from Lake Michigan; altitude 600 feet; slope level:
soil fine, wind transported, lake sand, blackish near surface; humus thin; produces fair corn crops, but
difficult to get a “grass catch,” due to wind; plot one-eighth acre, in similar stand of several hundred acres;
density 0.8. This stand contained from 5 to 20 red oak trees per acre, conspicuously larger than the sur-
rounding trees, and often 10 or 12 inches in diameter. The situation is much better adapted for red oak or
white pine than for northern hardwoods.
BEECH PLOTS.
NEw HAMPSHIRE.
Plot No. 12.—Age, 70 years; yield, 22.9 cords per acre; average height of dominant trees, 55 feet.
Diameter breast-
Propor- high. Average
GE eee tion Namber Volume | annual
P Raced on per acre . per acre. | growth
volume. 3 5 X- per acre.
Average. tremes
Per cent. Inches. | Inches. |Cubicfeet.|Cubic feet.
RGEC N35 -54 bo NGCODCEr DO DU Ob SESE ene: See 58.0 952 3.4 1to8 1,129 16.13
SHIGE? 1112/0) ey eo cot elb enue DOO BEBOS Ben BeseE 3a. 1 208 5.1. 2to9 644 9. 20
IDA Me ir Ine ees a2 as eecie ic os ieiceis ede 5 8.9 32 6.4 4to8 174 2.49
WGIILOT ORG, Bob eee todo San SOR DORE eReE Hal BSSeacaeoc 16 2.0 Ds) | Ses serene Ae os ey eee
Simp EG! MAT GhodepossenpaSatGeee MaSeee| boo se oaeee 8 2.0 Rosen scendlsete © = seni
ETO Ua Mee nee E eas ca )eaesone a wo cts 8 100.0 UE PAN eeooodecs|soGenana5e 1,947 27. 82
Shelburne Township, Coos County, N. H.; altitude 1,400 feet; slope 20 per cent east; soil rather shallow,
‘fresh, sandy loam, from decomposition of granite; humus 3 inches deep, well decomposed; plot one-eighth
acre, a fair sample of at least 5 acres, containing some red oak; density 0.85 to 0.9; reproduction almost
exclusively beech seedlings and root sprouts, slender and suppressed; about 10 spruce seedlings per acre.
This stand evidently sprang up after a fire in a stand containing beech and hemlock, of which a few decayed.
stubs are still standing.
Plot No. 13.—Age, 95 years; yield, 33.1 cords per acre; average height of dominant trees, 55 feet.
Diameter breast-
Propor- high. Average
enacics tion Number Volume | annual
Pp : based OD | yer acre 5 per acre. | growth
yolume. x- per acre.
Average. | tremes,
: Per cent. Inches. | Inches. |Cubicfeet.| Cubic feet.
GGG te. Sastaseaee sees SP EE CBOE SaCaS 5 524 4.4 1to9 2,571 27. 06
Rredamanletas sass 8c SaaS. te clsidenes <t ; 24 4.7 1to6 130 Teo
Paper birch b 4 10.0 10 109 1.15
EFeran OC ke aaa ste Meeps Beene 12 1.0 1 Dv [i i telat guys eZ =r 8
“NOY Fat Lic 1 ePSae f = cn Sk oat Sr ee 100.0 SOBER acs e ale: sepa iee aociae 2,810 29. 58
Near Intervale, N. H.; altitude 1,000 feet; slope 8 per cent, north; soil fresh, sandy loam, gravelly and
rocky, with 13 inches of well-decomposed humus; plot one-eighth acre, in stand of 10 or 15 acres, containing
afew larger red oak and red maple; density 1.0; reproduction principally striped maple and beech, with
clumps of hemlock; some sugar and red mapleé and scattered small white pine seedlings. This is an unusu-
ee pure Bene of ee on soil better fitted for raising red oak, white pine, and other rapid growing species.
ee Pl. X, fig. 2.
26 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
MIXED PLOTS.
NEW YORK.
Plot No. 14.—Age, 18 years; yield, 7.8 cords per acre; average height of dominant trees, 34 feet.
| Diameter breast-
Propor-j |iagairy an high. Average
atanios tion of freee Volume | annual
=A) : based on per nore. | per acre.| growth
volume. Average. Meer, per acre.
Per cent. | Inches. | Inches, | Cubicfeet.| Cubicfeet.
BVGLIOWADINGH SSoce. oot Se cose Po nore PA ae 496 255 1to4 182 10.11
[BASSWWOOG Een ioke ocet e oays da eiStenewinree 25.3 360 2.8 1to5 168 9.33
Sucanmapleinn. cho cece -.n= Somers Ut 936 2.1 1to5 131 7.28
NWI ASTE NS. oa 2S acme n'ai elena elm nical 10.7 80 3.4 1to7 val 3.94
JOD, Q NGA eaemmnees SEE a eeaaeteDcomosonas 9.9 64 3.8 1to6 66 3.67
TOM WOOG ees - 2 2 BE Ho Naar ington wiet eles 3.3 152 2.1 1 to 4 22 1.22
TES COC Heme cio te natin s Henican ctanieien neeteeieee 2.6 144 1.6 1to5 17 .94
ING S53 5 ASa ee B mee se beobe caeHaaacsdooeas TA 8 3.0 3 iii .39
Stripedtma plese 22 Se ise ec ates aieterenis lat eee te 32 1.8 1 tol: | hits 3 Re eee
Motals ies eG sTS 3, Be a eee st 100.0 QyQT2 Roe ek Bis) e oe eee 664 36. 88
Cooks Falls, Delaware County, N. Y.; altitude 1,300 feet; slope 20 per cent, east by south; soil very
shallow, fine, crumbly loam, fresh and rich, very full of flat sandstone fragments; humus 2 inches deep,
well decomposed; plot one-eighth acrein similar stand of 8 or 10 acres, which contains scattered older trees.
The trees are mostly of sprout origin. Basswood and ash, especially, grew in clumps of numerous sprouts,
from small stump. Density 0.9; reproduction, a few unthrifty sugar-maple seedlings.
Plot No. 15.—Age, 32 years; yield, 19.8 cords per acre; average height of dominant trees, 48 feet.
Diameter breast-
Propor- ; high. Average
: tion Number Volume | annual
Species. based on | Cf trees |__| per acre. | growth
volume. | Pe acre. Ex- | per acre.
Average. tremes.
; Per cent. Inches. | Inches. |Cubicfect.| Cubic feet.
edsmaple seek nk nic eae staeis sitio aeleisreiatesare 27.4 632 3.4 1to6 692 21.62
ACT CHELTRy os s iad ener eiatovhe ee helen ni elatojcy= 25.3 176 4.7 2to7 391 12. 22
INGO Ee ee ac eenOResardonABoubdodes cede 19.7 120 4.7 3to7 318 9.
AVVAELITO SASH GoE op /erek Ieee eas acces rece s OM 80 Bil. 1to6 104 se
Ted 0. aku aeposeaseEEcodedenaEGaSneboces 959) 1,624 1.5 1to4 84 a
PYZELIOWADINCUEE na necrsaae ce ae series see 3.3 32 SG 1 tod 41 ite
Omiya CONDONT Yaar o.<:52 55 sie aaisle 21a ye etosarafereroyeraitte 2.6 56 2.8 1to4 41 il
SoraNP WhO oe dsessheeobaosdasduadosseaeee ipa 216 eS 1to3 8 e
EDO Calle SLE OG ESSER NE Nip. GES 100.0 2/9365 eo eeeeales Sees naar 1,679 | 52.46
Cooks Falls, Delaware County, N. Y.; altitude 1,300 feet; slope 10 per cent, south; soil very shallow, fresh,
sandy loam, very full of rock fragments; humus rather dry, 1} inches deep; plot one-eighth acre, represen ta-
tive of more than 10 acres ofsecond growth, containing scattered larger trees; density 1, but south exposure
permits golden rod among the ground cover. The beech are mostly root sprouts 1 and 2inchesin diameter,
and most of these are badly suppressed, many dying, and some dead. The dead and dying were not
counted. Reproduction occasional aspen, red maple, and cherry seedlings; none of beech. This plot is
in the same stand as the thinned plot described last in this list.
Plot No. 16.—Age, 42 years; yield, 30.6 cords per acre; average height of dominant trees, 70 feet.
Er OOoE Diameter breast- Gene
Opor- high. rage
at tion Nv 3 Volume | annual
p b based on per acre ae ae per acre. | growth
volume. D> ei a x- per acre,
Average. tremes.
Per cent. Inches. | Inches. | Cubicfeet.| Cubic feet.
ACO WADING Dee iat) c eh peccicce citrate aeae 50.8 288 5.8 3 to 10 1,323 31.50
Redimmaple ses 355s 0st Rec cc teveew cae ne 30.1 88 7.5 2to12 785 18. 69
BCECh ee neaitece hac nnieebicece ne recente 15.1 136 4.8 1to10 394 9.38
BSUparIAD Oe etre ie bier ere areal terete) taletotar ete 4.0 16 6.5} 2to 9 103 2.45
MOCO eM ae ee nan a in esse ner eisieiaions 100.0 ISAS a Dae pe eee eS SRE 2,605 62. 02
Colchester Township, Delaware County, N. Y.; altitude 1,300 feet; slope 20 per cent, east by south; soil
very scant, fresh, brown, loamy sand with thin humus layer, over large, flat, loose sandstone fragments;
plot one-eighth acre, surrounded by mixed second-growth containing scattered older trees; density 0.9;
reproduction, a few larger seedlings of yellow birch and red and sugar maples.
am. |
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. De
Plot No. 17.—Age, 45 years; yield, 24.9 cords per acre; height of dominant trees, 55 to 60 feet.
Diameter breast-
Propor- high. Average
= tien ee Volume | annual
Species. based on nee Bis per acre. | growth
volume. ; s Ex- per acre.
Average.| tromes. |
Per cent. Inches. | Inches. | Cubic feet.) Cubic feet.
AVEGarba mM lemereer sone cccicess's cise cis oateieele - 40.5 228 5.5 1 to 10 856 19. 02
Wiellowabin chats ass eyo ticioe ens wins aia’ 26.9 348 4.0 lto 9 570 | 12.67
BI aCKaDILC Weerace = cela seetesec se 26.4 124 5.9 2to 9 558 12.40
Cini EBVO on5 cas SOG Ne ROMO Re Eee eee eee 4.1 96 BO) | Wie 7 86 1.91
IBCEC HEPES See ee scciscisscicacec ccs ces ee eit 116 2.1 1lto 4 24 «03
Mineacheunymert Acs ons 2e- se ste st esee et ahi) 8 3.8 lto 5 11 e24
MEMVICeNDELLYete ace Jocs ss ace nets cnctecese 3 20 2.6 lto 4) 7 16
TOM WOO Ue ace cinci-c sis ai(njsieis is cecie oe 2 8 2.3 1lto 3 4 09
DIN Ga pre oat yates yaac teers ees 100.0 QaS Nee snale aes 2,116 47.02
Colchester Township, Delaware County, N. Y.; altitude 1,400 feet; slope 20 per cent, northwest; soil
very scant, fresh, brown, loamy sand in interstices of loose sandstone fragments; humus thin; plot one-
fourth acre, in similar stand covering 1 or 2 acres; density 0.9; reproduction very scanty; a few small sugar
maple and birch seedlings, and an occasional hemlock sapling; most of the red maples and beeches are
sprouts; the birches are mostly seedlings.
THINNED PLOT.
[Originally similar to plot No. 15 in composition and yield.]
Plot No. 18.—Age, 32 years; yield, 9.7 cords per acre; average height of dominant tree, 50 feet.
Diameter breast-
Propor- high. Average
Speci tion Number Volume | annual
peck: based on | 47 acre per acre. | growth
volume. |? is eee Ex- per acre.
Average. ecemies
Per cent. Inches. | Inches. | Cubic feet.) Cubic feet.
AWA CTAB ree he mic ocinciycemcecein sees 44.7 200 4.2 2 to 6 370 11.56
Red maple. . sae 43.8 104 5.8 4to8 262 11.31
TIECIE COO AyE ane secon ane eee EEC ee eEeeEees SIE 16 6.5 6 to 7 74 2.31
BASS WOOUR oe nee Seetne == <a oe cece can se 2.5 8 5.0 5 21 66
Red maple sprout clumps, 3 years old...-|.........- E610) | eer eed alee MR Po we ae
PRO tala se See eo ee 4 100.0 SSSiilice cwtes, oe al| enon erate 827 25. 84
Cooks Falls, Delaware County, N. Y.; altitude 1,300 feet; slope 10 per cent, south; soil very shallow, fresh,
sandy loam, full of rock fragments; humus scanty; plot one-eighth acre, representative of 5 or 6 acres simi-
larly thinned. The stand was heavily thinned 3 years before, when from 10 to 15 cords per acre of 4-foot
wood were removed. The material removed was chiefly yellow and black birch, sugar maple, red maple,
beech, and ironwood. Density 0.7; reproduction, heavy sprout reproduction of red maple, averaging
about 8 feet high. Numerous 1-year-old seedlings of black cherry and red maple, and unthrifty breech
sprouts. (See Pl. XV, fig. 1.) 3
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE.
GENERAL UTILITY.1
In the amount and total value of their products the northern
hardwoods have always been overshadowed by the softwoods, par-
ticularly white pine. They have in the past contributed but little to
the purposes which require wood in large quantities, like general
construction, box making, and paper making, so that the hardwood-
‘lumber cut of the country has been less than a quarter of the total
lumber cut. On the other hand, the average value of hardwood
1An account of the characteristics and uses of the wood of beech and various species of maple and birch
is given in Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 12, ‘Uses of commercial woods of the United States:
Beech, birches, and maples,” 1913. 5
——-”-
28 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
lumber in 1912 exceeded that of softwood by 25 per cent. Hard-
woods are indispensable for hundreds of uses none the less important
because they demand a relatively small supply. Among them are
finishing, floormg, furniture, turnery, ‘novelties,’ woodenware,
handles, shuttles, bobbins, spools, vehicles, veneer boxes and baskets,
and many others, none of which use much, but which m the aggre-
gate consume a great and increasing quantity of hardwood material.
In certain regions hardwoods now compete actively with softwoods
in box making and to some extent in construction. They furnish
the greater part of the wood used for fuel in the hardwood region.
The manufacture of wood alcohol and charcoal is supported by
maple, beech, and birch (Pls. XI and XII), and practically all the
northern hardwoods are now used in paper production (Pl. XIII).
ANNUAL CUT.
The annual cut in 1912 of the principal northern hardwoods is
shown in Table 8, prepared from the census report for that year.'
The proportion of these species, individually and collectively, con-
tained in the total hardwood cut in each of the States and in the
whole northern hardwood region is also given.
TasLE 8.—Annual lumber cut (1912) of the principal hardwoods of the northern hard-
wood forest, with the proportion of each in the total baidioed cut of the 2 STS and the
United States.
[Compiled from data in Census Bureau circular, ‘“ Forest products: Lumber, lath, and shingles, 1912.’’]
Maine. New Hampshire. Vermont. New York.
9 Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent
Species. of all of all of all of all
Quantity.| hard- |Quantity.| hard- |Quantity.| hard- |Quantity.| hard-
woods woods woods woods
cut. cut. cut. cut.
Mft.b.m. Mft.b.m. Mft.b.m. Mft.b.m.
Maple: sacies sere secrets 11, 423 12.5 11, 256 18.3 30,435 31.4 76, S91 30.7
IBinGhipecs vseeae ose 51, 110 55.8 18, 132 29.4 31,551 32.5 31,395 IES
1B CoC he serra kites 7, 264 8.0 8, 986 14.6 13, 144 13.5 40, 761 16.3
BASS WOOGseeeeon Haase 5,499 6.0 1, 493 2.4 7, 957 8.2 28, 513 11.4
[Oba OAD oO SND ORNAE 407 “4 350 -6 1,348 1.4 13, 684 5.5
Motaleseres se 75, 703 82.7 40, 217 65.3 84, 435 87.0 | 191, 244 | 76.4
!
Pennsylvania. Michigan. Wisconsin. Minnesota
- Per cent Per cent Per cent Per cent
Species. of all ofa of all of all
Quantity.| hard- |Quantity.) hard- |Quantity.| hard- j|Quantity.| hard-
woods woods woods woods
cut cut. cut. cut.
Mft.b.m Mft.b.m Mft.b.m Mft.b.m
Maples s5sc68-stas ass 81, 617 16.0 | 453,110 60.7 | 118, 765 27.1 ; 22
Bineh sssees seein soe 17, 666 3.5 55,350 7.4 | 140,071 32.0 6, 452 11.4
Beech. Gee tose cones J 49, 686 9.7 2, 106 12.3 2,913 a/ 117 ~2
Basswoode tees e2 10, 925 2.1 53, 533 ez 79,389 18.1 13,713 24.3
Bin. seek 2,994 -6 | 52, 757 7.1 | 50,608 11.6 | 12,245 2
Totalon 2 aes ees 162, 888 31.9 | 706,856 94.7 | 391,746 89.5 33, 782 59.9
1 Bureau of the Census: Forest products—Lumber, lath, and shingles, 1912.
Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI.
Fic. 1.—A BRANCH WHICH WILL BE TAKEN FOR DISTILLATION.
Such material was formerly left in the woods to rot. |
Fla. 2.—TOPWOOD SKIDDED OUT FOR RAILROAD SHIPMENT TO THE CHEMICAL FACTORY.
UTILIZING CROOKED HARDWOOD TOPS AND BRANCHES FOR
CHEMICAL DISTILLATION. MICHIGAN.
ofl or ey te
| Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XII.
| !
; : . vee “ei x a Soeail & j F : ; i oo
Fi@. 1.—-A Woops CREW SAWING UP AND SPLITTING LARGE BEECH TREES INTO
CHEMICAL Woob.
Filia. 2.—MORE THAN A CorRD OF 4-FooT WOOD FROM A SINGLE SUGAR-MAPLE TREE.
LOG TIMBER TO BE BURNED FOR CHEMICALS AND CHARCOAL.
PENNSYLVANIA.
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 99
TABLE 8.—Annual lumber cut (1912) of the principal hardwoods of the northern hard-
wood forest, with the proportion of each in the total hardwood cut of the States and
the United States—Continued.
Total for the norther n hardwood Total for the United States.
region.
Species. Per cent Per cent Per cent
Per cent of} of total cut in of total
Quantity. | all hard- lumber Quantity. | northern | lumber cut
woods cut. | cut in this hardwoods | (soft and
region. region. hard).
Mft.b.m. Mft.b.m.
IVRa LOM sentence i 784, 752 34.8 10.5 | 1,020, 864 76.9 2.6
SENTRGLNG 0 00 3 2 2 ee te 351, 727 15.6 4.7 388, 272 90.6 1.0
ISGQet no bebe Say ea R eee 214, 977 9.5 2.9 435, 250 49.4 1.1
BASS WOOG maar sega. = ee 201, 022 8.9 207 296, 717 67.7 8
IDiet. . SeQesecRosaaenenaamare 134, 393 6.0 1.8 262, 141 51.3 ays
Mazi eee ee 1, 686, 871 74.9 22.5 2,403, 244 70.2 6.2
In per cent of the total lumber cut (soft and hard) in each State the combined cut of the five hardwoods
was as follows:
WEIN) Soc ea SSBB aR aaa Se OulNG We VOL Kee = acho a. aoe SOmlel VES COUS Le apne ree ae Ose:
New Hampshire...........- 8.4 | Pennsylvania............-- 16.6 | Minnesota... -..- Sinan patel Cia 2.4
WiGiniGnis Spe guesoceneeeasaee Shas Sil] AVE ower nay Sees Se Re ee a a 47.5
The figures given for maple, birch, and elm each cover more than
one species, as no distinction of species is made by the census. Com-
mercial maple is principally ‘“‘hard’’ (sugar) maple, but includes some
‘““soft’’ (red and silver) maple. Commercial birch in the Lake States
is almost entirely yellow birch, but in New England includes also
some ‘‘white’’ (paper) birch, and in New York and Pennsylvania
some ‘‘cherry’’ (sweet) birch; heart lumber is known as ‘‘red”’ birch.
Elm lumber is made, in the north, from three species—white, slip-
pery or ‘“‘red,’”’ and cork or ‘“‘rock”’ elm. Much the greater part is
undoubtedly white elm, which is known on the market as “‘gray”’
or “‘soft’’ elm. Much rock elm has been cut in the past, but the
remaining supply is small. Some slippery or ‘‘red”’ elm is cut in
the Lake States and the northeast, but it is impossible to tell how
much of the total elm cut it forms.
Table 8 does not tell the whole story. An immense amount of
northern hardwood is used for house fuel. According to estimates
for 1908 secured by the Forest Service (Circular 181), the total fuel
wood consumption of the Northeastern and Lake States was 16,400,000
cords, of which probably a third was northern hardwoods. About
1,150,000 cords were consumed in 1909 for wood distillation,! and
as this industry has been extended from New York and Pennsylvania
into the Lake States, the amount now used annually for distillation is
undoubtedly much greater. Paper-pulp manufacture consumed
31,390 cords of beech’alone in 1909 (loc. cit.).
1 Forest products of the United States, 1909. Bureau of the Census. Compiled in cooperation with the
Forest Service.
tal
|
30 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The census figures for 1909 show the following amounts of the
various hardwoods used for making veneers in the northern hardwood
region:
Board feet. Board feet.
Mia lester ene orto e iis oe 29; 2197,000) | “Beech: 2-22 - eee ee = ae 67005000
Biches ee 23, 064, 000 ——
een ee ee ee 12,119, 000 Total..-.-.--..-----.- 83, 053, 000
TDN ins ae elo haere eae 11, 951, 000
The consumption for slack cooperage stave manufacture for the
same year was as follows:
Equivalent in
SESS board feet.
iB CeChesaeseae se 249, 761, 000 83, 253, 667
Hm eases 138, 761, 000 46, 253, 667
Maple! : S22 22525- 107, 969, 000 35, 989, 667
Birch jee ee 78, 224, 000 26, 074, 667
Basswood..-.-.-- 62, 720, 000 20, 906, 666
Potale sss 637, 435, 000 212, 478, 334
In terms of lumber, the aggregate annual consumption for all
purposes of these five hardwoods in the Northeastern and Lake
States alone is probably 5,500,000,000 board feet. Including the
amount not usable, and therefore left in the woods, or burned as
refuse or mill fuel, it undoubtedly exceeds 6,000,000,000 board feet,
or 12,000,000 cords.
The depreciation both in extent and quality of the northern forests
through lumbering, fire, decay, insects, and other causes has already
been mentioned. Concurrent with the decrease in softwood timber
there has occurred a relative increase in hardwood exploitation, and
a similar increase in the cut of inferior hardwoods. From 1899 to
1912 the recorded annual lumber cut of northern hardwoods increased
from less than 10 to more than 22 per cent of the total lumber cut.
The increase in the several States is shown in Table 9:
TaBLe 9.—Increase in proportion of northern hardwoods in the aggregate lumber cut
of all species, from 1899 to 1912.
Proportion of northern Proportion of northern
Datdavepts cut to total hardwoods cut to total
cut. cut.
State. State.
1899 1912 | Increase. 1899 1912 | Increase.
Per ct.| Perct.| Per ct. Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct.
Maines insect nec e 7.3 8.6 DS) MCh paneer eee 19.5 47.5 28.
New Hampshire. .-..... teil 8.4 7d )|} Wwasconsins= -s 2 G25. 10.9 26.1 15.2
Vermontarss eres 1 P4 35.8 24.6 || Minnesota...........-.. 8 2.4 1.6
Newe Y0rkeet i esec ee 15.7 38.1 22.4 —
Pennsylvania.......... 4.9 16.4 11.5 Average !_....... 9.8 22.5 12.7
1 Based on actual lumber cut figures; not on the percentages above listed.
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 81
The amount of increase serves indirectly as an index to the States
in which large supplies of conifers yet remain. Spruce in Maine and
white pine in Minnesota still hold first place. The relatively small
increase in the northern hardwoods cut in Pennsylvania is due partly
to the influence of the large hemlock cut, and partly to that of the
southern hardwoods, especially oak.
PRESENT SUPPLY.
There is little hope of finding out the amount of standing northern
hardwoods except within a very wide “limit of error.’ The estimates
are given in Table 10, therefore, merely as rough approximations.
They are based on estimates of the total forest areas in the different
States, the proportions occupied by northern hardwoods, and the
probable average stand per acre (from 1,000 to 3,000 board feet).
Each of these factors is, of course, subject to wide error, and there is
the further error arising from differences in the closeness of utilization
and in the prevalence of defect.
TABLE 10.—Estimated stand of hardwood timber in the northern hardwood forest.
State. Stand. State. Stand.
|
Board feet. Board feet.
Maing: 1 gece at: 7, 000, 000, 000 to 15,000, 000,000 || Southern Appa-
NewHampshire| 4,000,000,000 to 5,000,000,000 || _Jachian States-| 10,000,000,000 to 15,000,000, 000
Vermont.......- 4,000, 000,000 to 5,000,000, 000 || Lake States... .. 30, 000, 000,000 to 30,000,000, 000
New York.....- 10, 000, 000, 000 to 20, 000, 000, 000 |
Pennsylvania...| 10,000,000, 000 to 20, 000, 000, 000 | Total. .-.-- 75, 000, 000, 000 to 110, 000, 000, 000
1 Acknowledgment is made to State Foresters A. F. Hawes, E. C. Hirst, and C. R. Pettis for assistance
received in the preparation of these estimates. For the Lake States estimates compiled by the Bureau of
Corporations in 1910 and published in its report on standing timber (1913) wereused. These were brought
down to date by deducting an equivalent of five years lumber cut.
VALUE OF STANDING TIMBER.
There is normally a wide range in the stumpage value of any species,
the price depending not only upon the accessibility and quality of the
timber, but also upon the condition of the market, the exigency of the
sale, and other matters common to all property exchange. Since,
however, the remaining virgin timber in the Northeastern and Lake
States is roughly uniform as to accessibility (a result of fairly similar
logging and trade conditions) stumpage values for a given species
tend to approach a standard market value. Statistics of this nature
were obtained by the Forest Service through a canvass of timberland
owners in 1907, and again nn 1912. The averaged results, with refer-
ence only to the principal species of the northern hardwood forest,
are given in Tables 11 and 12.
32
BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE 11.—Comparative stumpage values per 1,000 board feet of the more important
species of the northern hardwood region: 1912.
[From reports of sales collected by the Forest Service, Office of Industrial Investigations.]
| North-
Species. eastern
States.1
|
Maples vesciacee so: | $5.98
prc Hearn ee | 5.61
IBeechee eet asco | 4.38 |
Basswood....-..-=- 8.40
| Lake | Southern a
| States.2 | States.3 Species.
|
| $4.58 goea5ull mies See ee
4.85 33,05) |\t ASO pe ee eee
3. 67 2.86 || White pine....._.
6.30 4.92 || Hemlock.........
North- South-
eastern re ,| _em
States.1 ales.“ | States.3
aa $8. 40 $5. 87 $3.41
Be 9. 03 5. 82 6.16
ae 8.44 » 10.39 3.91
--| 628] 3.78 | 2. 62
1 Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania.
2 Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan.
3 Maryland, Virginia, West V
irginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, and North Carolina.
While the figures in Table 11 are based on many reports of actual
sales of stumpage, they are of practical value only in showing the
general tendency of prices in these regions.
TABLE 12.—Average stumpage values of northern hardwoods for 1907 and 1912.
Northeastern States.
North Central States.
Species and year. Aver- | iS P Aver-
3 age of a = Ver- New enn | age of < Indi-
five Maine. Hane “| mont. | York. ae? two Ohio. ana.
States : * | States.
Maple: .
OO (ae me eto eee eee $4. 37174 | $4. 30% | $4. 46% | $3. 2252 | $4. 8428 | $4. 7464 | $7. 5589 | $7.19 | $7.79
a foe ay Mi car feta 5.3409 | 4.8456 | 5.2153 | 4.289 | 6.00% | 5.371% | 7.68168 | 7.4286 | 7.9483
irch: |
Ty Ae Rees 4.9018 | 4.78: | 4,502 | 3.5231 | 5.6324] 5.709] 6.50! |_....__- 6. 504
ae red Hirai ie aie ine es ae 5.44261 | 4.896 | 5.675 | 4.8127 | 6.148 | 5.388 | 4.054 | 4.705 3.506
Beech:
CN ae os eee Se ee See 3.67147 | 4.381 | 3.39% | 2.722 | 3.025 | 4.2554 | 5.809 | 5.368 6. 1056
TAG) Ip ae ai a aoe ale 4.2876 | 4.3152 | 4.3151 | 3.5029 | 4.5577 | 4.2874 | 6.1018 | 6.1573 | 6.0655
Basswood. |
SISTA ot eR SiR ae oe oe epee 6. 68127 | 5. 8020 | 6.2518 | 4.9627 | 8.3121 | 7.5941 |10. 2154 9. 5927 | 10. 8327
eu Brees ee ak Se 7.682 | 6.0448 | 7.562 | 6.90% | 8.5188 | 8.145 (11.4310 11.5959 | 11.2243
g |
LOO Tease eee ees 4. 7476 3. 007 4.6510 | 4.075 | 5.074 | 5.359 | 7.428 | 7.1137 7. 6452
i eee Ee ets Sse tee ee 5.40153 | 3.7126 | 5.258 | 4.2512 | 6.1755 | 5.93% | 8.5914 | 9.4376 7. 7878
sh: |
NODS ee ES nh Aa oa Ser 7.99154 | 6.3826 | 8.2022 | 6.2928 | 8.9123 | 9.155 (14.1989 | 13.019 | 15.1150
OTD Se ees een 8 ge is Ss 8.35% | 6.6056 | 9.8526 | 7.4823 | 8.9777 | 8.807 115.5419 15.8778 | 15.238
| .
| Southern Appalachian States.
Species and year. : =
E i Average | yfary- Vir- West Ken- | Tennes-| North
of six anal Mears Vir- aa Caro-
States. puna ginia. Fame see. i
Maple:
LOO (RE Sete 2. Sa RSS $2, 87103 $3. 147 $2. 714 $1. 9926 $3. 4129 $3. 0515 $3. 2512
a ae SNe oe: BEE | 3. 68158 5.3116 2.705 2.789 4.017 3.842 3. 0949
irch:
1907. Ae Se oiceta dao aces 2. 4753 3.173 2. 758 2. 4226 2. 254 2. 30° 2. 297
- a Re Ey Sed REP OU 2.8170 4.059 3.007 2.867 3.0015 2.318 2.70%
eech:
1907 fo foo 353 SS PS ORE ceaet 2. 24105 3. 908 2. 619 1. 67% 2. 413 2. 3616 2. 00?
AGT2 252 ee ee eee ae ee 2.72141 3.3813 2.128 1.839 3.3419 2.455 2.27%
Basswood:
LOD Tee Pec se tne Be nice eees 3. 7573 4. 50° 3. 336 3. 9148 4. 468 4, 0412 1. 676
af LOD UNS ane See he ere ey 4.16% 4.504 6.33 4.119 4. 62% 4.2218 8. 308
=Im:
1907 ook eee see eee ees 3. 0453 4. 502 2. 178 2.198 3. 82% 2 O18 || teen e ee
A ae SE pase See Ast Se! 8.517 4.568 2.678 3.001 4.092 2.80% 3. 708
sh:
j A UY aii ries aban SUE Sager 5. 08152 6. 426 4, 5120 5. 059 6. 38% 4, 9127 3. 2322
1h) WAS a eee ete He eS 5. 5018 7.3899 6. 068 8.857 5. 98% 6. 01% 4. 2346
Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIll.
es
a a ey te eS & 7
ND
Fic. 1.—CARLOADS OF SPLIT BoDY WooD AND SMALL ROUND Woob.
Fig. 2.—PEELING STEAMED HARDWOOD BOLTS.
Practically all the species are used except the oaks, hickories, chestnut, and white ash.
NORTHERN HARDWOODS FOR PAPER MANUFACTURE IN
PENNSYLVANIA.
|
|
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 33
TABLE 12.—Average stumpage values of northern hardwoods for 1907 and 1912—Contd.
Lake States.
~ Michigan. Wisconsin.
Species and year. Aver-
age of South- s é
three | State | Upper | Lower] ern State OEE Soul Minne-
States. | aver- | penin- | penin- | tier of | aver- GOuTeUl Cotit: | Pascua:
age. sula. | sula. cour age. ‘eer ies
Maple:
LUG Opec eet ss sik k $3. 63156 | $4. 1792 | $1. 9122 | $4. 5564 | $8. 508 | $2. 716 | $2. 6157 | $4.673 | $5. 134
IQ) ia GOSSESOReon eae bia 3 Ra a yi) Se osc |abesacHellosdosode oe Ae eee iaia'llseicie aiciare §. 8620
Birch:
IG0/-ceEsaeasacee ce Hn eeeee 4, 50167 | 4.9589 | 3.2423 | 5, 4964 UZ 2a |MOggrOOn Vee eo wince sieves 4, 2912
MOTO Re eee 2 Eh oas Gye Sea aby. Wha Bie aoe mache See oNees ASS Gus Pe else eeciseee 5. 8422
Beech:
LOO Ss SOU e URC oH epee | 3. 0282 3.1175 | 1,426 2. 8988 MVE DS 2e ODI, Bhar 2 SA eepee | soe eect
11053 Spaces sees eee eeee Fh 8 | I QTE eae core all sisteiet=oeie| teenie eras aL Ceara setae clase ue cisisieteis lot acionie
Basswood
IG (Sad cas ssed Seeee ee ee 7.42163 | 8.2688 | 5.6123 | 8.9559 | 11.676 | 6.596 |.......-].-..-... 5. 5019
: TESTS ieee ae eee a 8. O22 A: G7 86:31 fA Se Ie ett Col PAE eas ey eto 7.41°9
m:
OO ae reey= ocrartechalje ote 6.10172 | 7.4987 | 4.0319 | 8.3462 OS GON COV PAG ESAs eee seme 4, 229
OIE meee sia oslo ace G2G1 220 8.1082 oss. Sallie ns caioalaeeee ee Ge O12 Regence |o snes 6. 3033
Ash:
QO ee etc fel cle sratelssajale(a 2 oe 6.49156 | 7.2490 | 4.6421 | 7.676 | 11.836 | 5.4359 |......../-...-.-- 5. 797
TG ee ee A cele GISS LS Sag Vas we Heal ee eee Ba teh it Pees alla as ees a 7.362
Notre.—These figures are averages of estimates by timberland owners. The small numerals indicate the
number of reports on which the averages are based. In the case of Michigan and Wisconsin, stumpage
values in different parts of the States are shown for 1907 to indicate the effect of differences in accessibility
upon stumpage values. Similar data were not obtained for 1912. The 1907 data are, of course, obsolete,
and illustrate nothing except tendencies. Averages of pete sales of stumpage in 1912 are shown for these
regions in Bulletin 152, ‘‘The Eastern Hemlock,” Table 1
MANAGEMENT.
THE PLACE OF THE NORTHERN HARDWOODS IN FOREST MANAGEMENT.
The practice of forestry by private owners is practicable in the case
of certain quick-growing, valuable species, or, where wood in small
sizes is in steady demand, for slower-growing species under short
rotations, or on estates maintained for recreation, hunting, or park
purposes, in which the cost of maintenance is not charged against —
the stumpage value. In the case of the northern hardwoods, how-
ever, management is, for the present at least, largely a matter of
Federal, State, or municipal, rather than of private, concern. The
need for such a supply can hardly be questioned. Softwoods will,
of course, always be in greater demand, but for furniture, flooring,
and finish, veneer, distillation, ‘‘novelties,’’ and other uses for
which the various northern hardwoods are peculiarly fitted, there will
undoubtedly always be a market. The use of substitutes for wood
and the importation of foreign hardwoods may retard increase in
value; but in spite of a decrease in per capita consumption, the total
demand may be expected to tax the capacity of a reduced ree
area to supply it.
The agricultural value of much of the land now in hardwoods will
cause it eventually to be cleared and tilled. This is especially true
637°—Bull. 285—15——3
34 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
in the gentle topography of the Lake States. But the progress of
development is a gradual one, and in the meantime the soil might
profitably be kept in timber. Ultimately the forests, especially
those of northern hardwoods, will be rather closely confined to moun-
tain regions. The hardwood forests of the future will probably share
with spruce and fir the narrow mountain valleys and slopes at mod-
erate altitudes, where they will serve at once for steam-flow protec-
tion and timber supply. Ridge tops and higher altitudes in the
mountain and dry, poor, sandy sous elsewhere are better fitted for
softwood than for hardwood management.
Large bodies of old-growth northern hardwoods still remain under
private ownership. From the standpoint of growth these represent
idle capital, since they have long passed the age of rapid volume
increment, and in many cases their growth is offset by decay. The
holding of these for increase in stumpage value is of doubtful wisdom
in view of deterioration, fire risk, insect damage, etc., and espe-
cially the rapidly accumulating interest and tax charges. The owner
has, therefore, every incentive to cut his timber and dispose of the
land. With very little trouble such lands, when not put into farms,
could be protected from fire and allowed to restock with ‘‘active
capital” in the form of vigorous young growth. Under Federal and
State action fire protection is rapidly becoming effective in many parts
of the region and thrifty stands of second-growth now occupy soils
which in earlier years would have been charred and barren.
OBJECTS OF MANAGEMENT.
The northern hardwood forest region includes such a wide variety
of species, markets, climate, and topography that nearly all the rec-
ognized systems of management have their place, and none is gener-
ally applicable. For any particular tract the system used will
depend also upon the object of management. This is often twofold,
as when the forest affords both watershed protection and a timber
supply.
Ideally, forest management aims to secure the heaviest possible
sustained yield of the best species. Practically, it can approach this
ideal only so closely as is warranted by the cost of logging and the
value of the product. The degree of the compromise varies with
these two factors, and the possibilities are therefore greater in some
regions than in others. Just as the rise in stumpage value warrants
the private holding of timber as an investment under certain condi-
tions, it may also, in extreme cases, warrant the public holding of
forests until the time is ripe for more intensive management.
Two considerations, however, point to the general advisability of
the early removal of the old-growth timber. These are (1) the risk
of loss by fire, insects, decay, wind, or other cause, of the stored-up
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 35
erowth of centuries, and (2) the advantage of placing the stand on
an active, producing, instead of an idle, nonproducing basis. The
problem of management then becomes how best to dispose of the old
erowth so as to secure the most desirable composition of the ensuing
stand of young growth. Before making cuttings the species which
are to be favored in securing reproduction must be decided upon.
CHOICE OF SPECIES.
Wherever possible, a mixture of hardwoods and conifers is desirable.
Mixed forests produce heavier yields of better quality, are more
effective for watershed protection, and present less risk of total loss
from various sources than pure forests. From the standpoint of
aggressiveness conifers are not as a rule a menace to the supremacy
of hardwoods on fertile soils. To secure natural softwood growth
among hardwoods is, in fact, usually a difficult matter, requiring
a high degree of technical skill. Red spruce, hemlock, and white
pine are the best species to grow among hardwoods.
Of the hardwoods, white ash, basswood, elms, black birch, yellow
birch, and red oak are to be favored when in mixture with the more
tolerant beech and sugar maple. Beech is usually the least valuable
of the species, commercially, so that where possible it should be
eliminated and its place given to better species. Its silvicultural value
is high, but so closely resembles that of sugar maple that ordinarily no
object is gained in keeping it in stands containing both. Sugar maple
is the easiest of the intensive species to perpetuate in management.
Its reproductive aggressiveness is such that in many regions it will
probably be necessary to discourage it in favor of softwoods and
preferred hardwoods. The birches are of great present and pros-
pective value, commercially, and their forest value is hardly less
than that of beech and maple. Their maintenance in the stand
should, therefore, be one of the objects of silviculture wherever the
climate and soils are favorable. In the Lake States and at lower
altitudes in the mountains the intolerant species—ash, basswood,
elm, and red oak—should be given every advantage. As in the
natural forest, these will require a commanding position in the crown
cover.
The most desirable composition of the stand will be determined
chiefly by the climate and market conditions. In general it will com-
prise a shady, tolerant understory and an intolerant overstory of
the most valuable species, hard and soft. The understory will con-
sist largely of sugar maple, but with as much yellow or black birch
as can be secured, and possibly a subordinate growth of red spruce
.or hemlock. The overstory will be of ash, basswood, white pine, or
elm, or of any combination of these that the climate permits and the
local demand indicates. Where black cherry, red oak, walnut, or
36 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
other valuable intolerant species are available, these should be
favored. Together with ash they are best managed in small, exclusive
groups among the other species.
SILVICULTURAL METHODS.
It is impracticable to discuss in detail all the possible methods of
management. The method to be chosen depends not only upon the
kind of timber present, but also upon the kind of logging, the market
conditions, etc. Any method would probably have to conform to
local logging practice. In every case the management should follow
in general some definite, if elastic, plan prepared in advance. While
every stand presents its own problems, there are certain generally
applicable procedures which are dealt with in the following discussion
from a strictly silvicultural point of view, the many economic factors
being neglected.
The most marked differences in silviculture are in the methods
employed in old-growth and ‘‘second-growth”’ forests.
Old growth.—The aim of silviculture in old-growth stands, as has
already been pointed out, is to replace mature and unproducing with
immature, producing timber in such a way as to maintain a sustained
periodic (though not necessarily annual) yield, and, at the same time,
improve the composition of the stand in the direction indicated under
“Choice of species,” page 35. This implies a more or less gradual
removal of the mature stand. For silvicultural as well as economic
reasons, however, the removal must often be accomplished in a single
cutting. The management will, therefore, approach two extremes:
Clear cutting, after which the management will be that applied to
second-growth stands; and the selection system, which is the nearest
to nature’s method of general replacement in virgin stands. Between
these extremes are the seed tree and the shelterwood systems.
Clear cutting is justified silviculturally when there is good promise
of seedling or sprout reproduction of desired species. The season in
which the cutting is done is, therefore, of importance. Thus by
cutting during a heavy seed year of a preferred and an ‘‘off” year
of an undesirable species it may be possible to control or modify
the character of the reproduction. This may also be done by cutting
early or late in the year, to-avoid or take advantage of the season’s
seed crop of a given species. Clear cutting may extend over a large
area in a single season, the stand supplying its own seed for repro-
duction, or be confined to a strip along the border of the stand,
whence the area is seeded down. In stands containing basswood,
clear cutting is usually followed by a vigorous growth of basswood
sprouts which far outstrip all other vegetation (Pl. LX). Since bass-
wood will sprout, and apparently with success, from very large stumps,
clear cutting seems well adapted to the perpetuation of basswood,
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 37
even in the virgin stands. It is the simplest and easiest method, as
well as the cheapest, from the standpoint of logging; but it converts
the forest immediately from an uneven-aged old growth to an even-
aged young growth form, which may not be desirable if it is planned
to perpetuate the stands on a long rotation basis, and especially if it
is to serve partially for soil or stream-flow protection.
To provide against failure of the reproduction because of fire or
for some other reason, seed trees may be left. The ordinary rules
regarding the selection of seed trees should be observed. These
should be thrifty specimens of the desired species, well rooted to
lessen danger from windthrow. Short trees with full crowns have
correspondingly large root systems, and such should therefore be left
for seed supply. Where more slender trees are chosen, they should
be left in groups for mutual protection. The number left per acre
depends upon the species and the location. To secure an imme-
diate heavy seeding, two or three individuals or small groups of the
light-seeded species (birch, elm, ash, etc.) should be left per acre;
more trees are necessary for basswood, oak, ete.
The plan of management may contemplate either the abandon-
ment of the seed trees, in which case their stumpage value must be
charged against the cost of the natural reproduction established, or
their removal in a subsequent logging operation. It may even be
planned to leave them as ‘‘standards,” until the succeeding crop of
“second growth”’ is logged. The risk from wind, insects, disease,
etc., makes it advisable in any event to charge the value of the seed
trees against the cost of reproduction. The unavoidable damage to
young growth caused by removing the seed trees may be an item of
some importance. Furthermore, the stumpage value of the seed
trees may be close to the cost of planting the area with some desirable
species. The alternative of plantmg should always, therefore, be
considered before deciding to leave seed trees.
The selection method is very well adapted to hardwood forests
from a silvicultural but not from a logging pomt of view. The re-
moval of carefully selected trees uniformly throughout the stand
affords an excellent means of controlling the subsequent composition,
and insures a sustained yield of increasing quality. But the trees
removed will at first be of inferior value, probably too low to pay
logeme costs. Only a small percentage of the total volume of the
stand will be removed at one time, and the trees will be so scattered
that many roads will be necessary and handling charges will be very
heavy. At the same time, this system is a difficult one to operate,
requiring technical attention of a high grade. In its ideal form, there-
fore, the selection system is not yet applicable in this country to large
tracts of hardwood timber, except when the management involves
some other object than money returns.
38 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
A practical modification of the selection system which has been
recommended for northern hardwood management involves a cutting
to a minimum diameter limit, which is not fixed but varies according
to the average size of the timber and is higher for preferred and lower
for inferior species. To make logging financially possible, the cutting
must be rather heavy and at rather long intervals. It is thus im-
possible to control the species in the reproduction by regulating the
light supply. On the other hand, this compromise is about the only
one by which a sustained periodic yield could be at once provided for.
Under many conditions the selection group method is the best that
could be practiced. This is true particularly for stands containing
intolerant species, whose reproduction may be favored by removing
small groups of trees in the vicinity of the seed trees. Groups of in-
tolerant seedlings, already started, may be freed in this way. White
ash is a species well fitted for management by this method.1
Two important considerations in management are the material
which it is aimed to produce and the rotation necessary to produce it.
Under silviculture the volume growth per acre may be expected to be
much greater than the average in the virgin forest, equal at least, to
the maximum shown in Tables 7 to 9. To ascertain what might be
expected of beech under management, the most rapid diameter-
growth rates for each one-half inch in radius of the beech trees on
which the growth values in Tables 7 to 9 are based were selected and
averaged by a curve.? The resulting “‘selective” growth rate, with
the per cent by which it exceeds the maximum, is shown in Table 13.
TABLE 13.—Selective maximum diameter growth of Michigan beech.
Diameter breast-high. Diameter breast-high.
Age. Coumpestte Excess over Age. Composite Excess over
3 maximum z maximum
decrdes, | in Table 7. decades, | im Table 7.
Years. Inches. Per cent. Years. Inches. Per cent.
0 13.1 102
15.2 103
17.3 101
19.1 99
20.8 92
Somewhat similar results are obtainable for other species. Trees
in the open undoubtedly grow even faster than this, but it is at the
expense of the long, clear log lengths of forest-grown trees. This
accelerated growth represents an ideal to be approached under man-
agement in which each tree would receive from youth up just the
1See Department of Agriculture Bulletin 299. ‘The ashes: Their characteristics and management,’
by W. D. Sterrett.
? This process was devised and applied by W. B. Barrows.
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 39
right amount of light for the most rapid growth consistent with good
trunk development and the complete utilization of all sunlight by
the aggregate crown cover. In the selection forest, growth at this
rate can not be expected for all the trees all the time. Thinnings,
heavy enough to permit rapid growth of the younger trees, would
sacrifice a great deal of immediate volume increment per acre of the
larger timber. In fairly even-aged timber managed under the shelter-
wood system, however, the accelerated growth might be more nearly
maintained for all individuals by judicious thinning.
Young growth under virgin stands must usually be sacrificed in
logging. There is little use in attempting to save it, since much of it
has been so suppressed by shade that it is less vigorous than a new
erowth would be. If left exposed by the removal of much of the
large timber, it would probably suffer great damage from wind,
snow, and ice (Pl. XIV, fig. 1). Moreover the logging operations and
the subsequent hauling break down a large proportion of the smaller
trees, either killing them outright or causing them to lead a crippled
existence, occupying valuable space to the exclusion of better trees.
It is therefore advisable, in most virgin stands, to cut as cleanly and
utilize to as small sizes as possible, thus clearing the way for a vigor-
ous reproduction from the seed trees which are left.
Culled forest—By culled forest is here meant a forest which has
been culled of its best trees, but in which, usually, at least half of the
original stand remains (Pl. I). Among the trees commonly culled
from hardwood forests are white pine, red spruce, hemlock, bird’s-eye
maple, curly birch, ‘‘whitewood”’ or yellow poplar, cucumber, cherry,
basswood, etc. Forests are often culled several times, a different
species being removed each time to fill a special demand. This tends
to simplify the composition of the forest, and also to decrease its
value, while the power of the more highly prized species to compete
with the others in the second growth is curtailed by the decrease in
their seed supply.
The openings left by the removal of the scattered trees or groups of
trees admit sunlight to the soil, and the openings soon become filled
with young trees. These patches of young growth, when fairly
abundant, form the basis for the management of the stand. All
logging should be conducted with special reference to. preserving and
extending the stand of young growth. The merchantable timber
should not all be removed at a single cutting, but enough of it should
be left to warrant a second cutting at a later date. The trees left
standing will serve to seed down the soil and fill up most of the gaps
between the already existing groups of reproduction. The increased
light which the remaining large trees receive will not only increase
their seed production, but will accelerate their growth. The second
cutting should be made after from 5 to 10 years, when the ground is
40 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
well stocked with a thrifty reproduction, plentiful enough to be
mutually protective.
Care should be taken to remove at the first cutting: (1) Trees of
species not wanted in the reproduction, such as beech when in mixture
with yellow birch, sugar maple, and other more valuable species;
(2) damaged trees, lable to depreciate before a second cutting, and
(3) heavy-foliaged, limby trees which shade the ground too thor-
oughly for successful reproduction and would be apt to damage
young growth when removed. Where the reproduction groups are
numerous, it will often be necessary to fell trees toward each other so
that the damage from their fall may be reduced to a minimum.
As aresult of the first cutting, there will thus be left a uniform but
rather open stand of sound, well-shaped trees of the best species,
interspersed with groups of well-started young growth. The increased
light and root space stimulate growth in both the old and the young
trees, prepare the soil for seed, and increase the seed supply from the
large timber. Within 5 or at most 10 years the reproduction may be
expected to be complete over all well-lighted spots. The remaining
merchantable trees, now considerably larger owing to their growth
since the first cut, are then felled with the greatest care to minimize
the damage to the reproduction. If the fellmg and removal of the
first crop is carefully done, such gaps as remain in the reproduction
will not be large, and will, in most cases, result in increased growth
of the adjacent stand due to the abundant light thus admitted.
Second-growth..— Under this title are included all young hardwood
stands, whether they result from the removal of older stands, from
fire, or from any other cause. In composition such young stands
vary even more greatly than those which preceded them, for they
contain great quantities of small, weedlike species, like fire cherry,
dwarf maple or ‘“‘moose maple,” aspen, etc., which, on account of
their short lives or intolerance of shade, do not remain long in the
stand.
Sprouts commonly form a large proportion of the second-growth
after logging. They spring abundantly from most hardwood stumps,
large or small, but those from large stumps are rarely thrifty, except
in the case of basswood and chestnut (Pl. [X). Among them appear
various small annual weeds, like ‘‘fireweed”’ (Erechtites hieracifolia
and Eupatorium sp.), blackberry briers, fire cherry and other small
trees, and finally forest-tree seedlings. Though not always the last
in this succession, seedlings of the desired kinds often find difficulty
in growing up through the tangled masses of vegetation which follow
clearing (Pl. VI). Thus yellow birch must come in, if at all, within
a few years after the land is cleared, or other vegetation will be apt
1 The management of second-growth hardwoods is discussed in Bulletin 176 of the Vermont Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, Burlington, Vt.
Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIV.
Fig. 1.—PARTIAL CUTTING IN OLD-GROWTH HARDWOODS. MCKEAN COUNTY, PA.
Too much of the stand was taken, and the slender trees left were bent or uprooted by snow
and ice the following winter. Either more trees should have been left or the stand should
have been clear cut, as in fig. 2.
Fia. 2,—CLEAR CUTTING IN SECOND-GROWTH HARDWOODS. CATSKILL MOUNTAINS, N. Y.
TWO WAYS OF CUTTING NORTHERN HARDWOODS FOR CHEMICAL
DISTILLATION.
PLATE XV.
Bul. 285, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Fic. 1.—HEAVY THINNING IN A 32-YEAR-OLD STAND OF MIXED HARDWOODS.
Slow-growing species were cut and soijd for fuel, leaving cherry, ash, and red maple. Thisis
plot No. 18, p. 27.
Fia. 2.—LIGHTLY THINNED YELLOW BIRCH STAND IN NEW HAMPSHIRE; ABOUT 45
YEARS OLD.
THINNINGS IN SECOND-GROWTH STANDS.
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 41
to forestall it and shade it out; beech and maple, however, are less
exacting. To induce sprout production, the cutting should be done
during the season of vegetative rest, from late fall to early spring,
and the stumps should be cut low.
In respect to the ultimate size and quality which they attain,
seedlings are much superior to sprouts. In beech, as has been seen,
sprouts rarely or never attain merchantable size in the North. Maple
and birch sprouts, however, like most of the other common hardwoods,
often grow rapidly and well to a moderate size, suitable for cordwood.
Only the small stumps, 6 inches or less in diameter, should be chosen
for sprout production, and wherever possible all but one of the many
sprouts which appear on each stump should be removed. Such a
thinning will result in the vigorous and rapid growth of the remaining
sprout. Basswood is second only to chestnut in sprouting capacity,
and sprouts of log size are often found springing from stumps 2 or 3
feet in diameter. (Pl. IX.)
Aside from the cutting of sprouts, the young stand will need little
attention for 5 or 10 years. During this time it will have succeeded
in killing out most of the blackberry and other competing shrubs,
while many of the fire cherry and other short-lived, light-needing
species, and even some of the maple and beech saplings, will have been
choked out. At this period in its life the young growth commonly
forms a dense thicket of slender saplings, 8 or 10 feet high, in which
growth is quite slow, owing to the intense crowding. If from one-
third to one-half of the young trees are now removed, so as to give
more light and growing space to those which remain, the survivors
will at once put on foliage and begin to grow vigorously until their
crowns once more crowd each other. (Pl. XV, figs. 1 and 2.) The
first thinning, which takes out entirely useless material, can be
expected to pay for itself only in the increased growth of the stand,
hastening the time at which it may be properly cut. Subsequent
thinnings, however, besides resultmg in rapid growth, produce a
merchantable yield which may not only pay for the thinning, but
may also give a small profit.
The aim in all thinnings should be to remove enough trees to
prevent danger of crowding for several years to come, and at the same
time to leave enough trees to utilize fully the increased light and to
prevent the growth of grass and weeds on the soil beneath them.
Damaged, poorly formed, and small trees should be removed in pref-
erence to the more vigorous ones, and the quality of the stand should
also be improved by removing the least desirable species.
Wood-distillation factories in the East (notably in the Catskills)
have already taken steps toward the management of second-growth
hardwoods, and have bought mountain lands in quantities sufficient
to supply them perpetually on an estimated yield per acre basis.
42 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The stands are unthinned and are customarily cut clear, the largest
timber being the first cut. (Pl. XIV, fig. 2.) With the introduction
of thinnings and possibly of the shelterwood system of reproduction
cuttings, both the yield and the composition of these stands could
be materially improved. In the case of the thinned stand illustrated
(Pl. XV, fig. 1) as plot No. 18 (p. 27) the owner realized a substantial
profit in addition to a good stumpage value for his thinnings, and at
the same time left the stand in a very much better condition as to
species and growing space. With improving tax laws and increasing
stumpage values, the opportunities for intensive management of
second-growth hardwoods can not fail to extend.
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT IN TIMBER-SALE PRACTICE.
The method of applying the principles governing management in
any particular region is illustrated in the following provisional
schedule of instructions proposed for timber-sale practice on Federal
land in the White Mountains of New Hampshire.
Principles Governing the Marking of Northern Hardwoods in National Forest Timber-
Sale Practice in the White Mountains.
OBJECTS OF MARKING:
In general, the objects of marking will be:
(1) Tosecure a reproduction of desirable species.
(2) To remove a practicable cut for the operator under the actual local conditions
as to marketable products.
(3) To improve existing stands through the removal for utilization of (a) large
mature timber; (b) smaller trees when decayed, insect infested, or otherwise defective;
and (c) trees of the less valuable species; and through thinnings to increase the growth
of preferred species.
The markings will vary in detail according to the composition of the forest type,
the topography, aspect, etc. In general, the following variations in composition may
be distinguished:
OLD-GROWTH YELLOW BIRCH, BEECH, AND HARD MAPLE:
(a) With mixture of spruce, balsam, or hemlock.
(6) With mixture of white pine or tamarack.
(c) With mixture of ash, elm, basswood, or red oak.
(d) With mixture of paper birch or aspen.
(e) With beech predominating.
(f) With yellow or black birch predominating.
(g) With sugar maple predominating.
YOUNG-GROWTH HARDWOODS (EVEN-AGED):
(a) Pure or mixed stands of yellow birch, beech, and maple with and without
mixture of conifers, ash, elm, basswood, and oak.
(b) Pure or mixed stands of paper birch and aspen, with subordinate conifers or
hardwoods.
MARKING IN OLD-GROWTH HARDWOODS:
(a) With mixture of spruce, balsam, or hemlock:
Wherever practicable, conifers should be encouraged among the hardwoods, to
increase the value and size of the future yield and, on watersheds, the protective value
of the forest. With tolerant conifers this should be attempted by selection cuttings
ae ae Fe
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 43
among the hardwoods, aimed to free the crowns of the conifers. On steep slopes and
in exposed situations the cuttings, if done at all, should be very light. Where danger
from windthrow is slight the hardwoods should be marked heavily, but the stand
should be left sufficiently dense to afford reasonable protection from the wind. The
severity of the cutting should be expressed in terms of the crown classes and species
to be removed. If preferred, the approximate percentage of the merchantable timber
corresponding to the species and crown classes designated for removal may be added.
When even-aged groups of small hardwoods or conifers occur among older timber
they will be thinned, provided marketable material can be obtained. In groups of
small yellow birch, for example, considerable hub and bobbin stock may be avail-
able, but care must be taken not to thin too heavily. The same care should be used
in thinning groups of small softwoods for pulpwood, etc. Not more than a third of
the trees comprising the dominant stand should be removed, together with all the
subordinate trees that are merchantable.
Brush should be lopped and scattered.
(6) With mixture of white pine and tamarack:
As a rule, only widely scattered seedlings of pine or tamarack can be expected to
succeed under hardwood shade or in competition with hardwood reproduction.
Mature trees of these species should therefore be removed in the first selection or shel-
terwood cutting. Small or oppressed individuals should be freed and left for incre-
ment and whatever scattered reproduction they may succeed in starting.
Brush should be lopped and scattered.
(c) With maxture of ash, elm, basswood, or red oak:
The light requirements of ash, elm, basswood, and red oak prevent their successful
reproduction under heavy shade. Where these species occur in the stand, however,
their reproduction should be the main object of management. This can best be
accomplished by local shelterwood cuttings. These should remove the stand in two
cuttings separated by a period of 10 or 20 years. The first cutting should be heavy,
reducing the crown cover fully one-half, removing the trees of all the lower crown
classes, and leaving large-crowned trees of the more valuable, less tolerant species to
restock.
Brush should be lopped and scattered.
(d) With mixture of paper birch or aspen: y
Where trees of these species occur individually among old-growth hardwoods, they
should be removed in the selection cutting in favor of the longer lived species, if a
market exists, except where they are not competing strongly, in which case they may,
if thrifty, be left for a subsequent cutting. Where birch and aspen form pure groups
among hardwoods they may be thinned, if practicable, and the most promising indi-
viduals left for a subsequent cutting. If promising reproduction is beneath them,
however, such stands should be cut as clean as the possibilities of utilization will
permit.
Brush should be lopped and scattered.
(e) Old-growth with beech predominating:
The object of management should be eventually to replace the beech with some
species of greater promise, except on steep slopes, where the cuttings necessary to
accomplish this might cause serious erosion. The shelterwood method is best adapted,
approaching the clear-cutting-with-seed-trees method where the stand runs especially
heavy to beech. If it can be done without loss to the operator, all merchantable
beech shall be removed, together with only those trees of other species which are
defective or whose presence is unnecessary to preserve the uniformity of the shelter-
wood, or to serve as seed trees. Where possible, the logging should precede rather
than follow a heavy production of beech seeds.
Brush should be lopped and scattered so as to lie close to the ground.
aa BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
(f) Old-growth with yellow birch predominating:
The shelterwood method is applicable in stands running largely to birch. The
first cutting should remove about 50 per cent of the upper crown cover. The remain-
ing half of the upper crown cover should include the crowns of thrifty yellow birches
and less tolerant species like ash, elm, oak, or bass wood, whose reproduction is
desirable. Where groups of thrifty young growth of mixed species exist these should
be lightly thinned and left for subsequent cutting. The subordinate stand should
be removed if merchantable, except that especially thrifty small and large poles,
well situated as to light and protection from wind, may be left for a later cut, in the
discretion of the marker.
The brush should be lopped and scattered.
(g) Old-growth with sugar maple predominating:
According to the composition of the stand, the management should follow the prin-
ciples laid down in (a), (0), (c), or (d). In general, the management should aim (1)
to eliminate beech and other species of lesser value, (2) to perpetuate sugar maple,
or (3) in the presence of more valuable species, to increase their proportion in the
stand at the expense of the maple. Provisions aiming to secure (1) and (8) are given
above. Maple is the most aggressive reproducer in the forest, of the northern hard-
woods. To perpetuate it either the selection or the shelterwood method may be used.
The severity of the selection cutting should be expressed in terms of the crown classes
and species to be removed. If preferred, the approximate percentage of the mer-
chantable timber corresponding to the species and crown classes to be removed may
beadded. Unless it increases the danger of windthrow or results in loss to the operator,
marking will be lighter in stands containing a large proportion of thrifty young and
middle-aged timber, and heavier in stands containing a large proportion of mature
and overmature timber; except that on steep slopes the cutting should be very
light. When crowded groups of small trees occur among older timber they will be
thinned, provided they contain marketable material.
Brush should be lopped and scattered.
YOUNG-GROWTH HARDWOODS (EVEN-AGED):
In young hardwoods, cuttings should be restricted to (1) improvement and incre-
ment thinnings in stands of the tolerant, longer-lived species, and in immature stands
of intolerant, short-lived species (aspen and paper birch), wherever merchantable
material can be removed practicably; and (2) to clear cuttings of aspen and paper
birch which have reached physical maturity.
(1) The thinnings should remove (a) merchantable defective trees, (6) merchantable
trees of the less valuable species in the stand, (c) not over 50 per cent of the trees
comprising the dominant, codominant, and intermediate crown classes, and (d) all
merchantable trees of the subordinate crown classes. The degree of thinning should
depend upon the stem density of the stand and the consequent degree of windfirm-
ness which the individuals will be likely to possess when the stand is opened up.
This must be judged on the ground by the person conducting the marking.
Brush should be lopped and scattered.
(2) To reproduce these stands in situ early spring clear cutting should be practiced.
Aspen root suckers and birch stump sprouts which result will probably grow rapidly
enough, to take care of themselves if the competing hardwood growth is not too abun-
dant. Where a desirable reproduction of conifers or hardwoods exists, all mer-
chantable birch and aspen should be removed, with care to prevent damage to the
reproduction.
Brush should be lopped and scattered.
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. A5
SPECIES MENTIONED IN THIS BULLETIN.
INGER 5 6 Og eB ROS CAE ae eee ere aera Alnus sp.
/S|DOTNES 5 Soe See OBC eee comes Thuja occidentalis Linn.
ANEIO9 [DIBICIR s CNRS SPR Oe eee ere ene Frazinus nigra Marsh.
ANSIO. SylOUYD 3 oes 8 ee ee Fraxinus americana Linn.
ADCS $15 386 SoCs te Neate ee a Se eae Populus tremuloides Michx.
ING DEMUMATC LOOURE 2 oe cc eee cece cece ee Populus grandidentata Michx.
PS MIMO MCAG sec yaieis Sone ce seeps cece Populus balsamifera Linn.
Balsam fir. (See Fir.)
ASS OOCemem mrs tes fe iScla eines einen te Se Tilia americana Linn.
1B@SCN ») cia Side SHOR eROr es ae ee Fagus atropunicea (Marsh) Sudworth.
Birch, black (‘‘sweet,’’ ‘‘cherry”)........ Betula lenta Linn.
Burehppotay, (fe WHEY) ) ceo). feces = eee Betula populifolia Marsh.
Birch, paper (‘‘white,’’ ‘‘canoe”)........ Betula papyrifera Marsh.
Birch, yellow (‘‘gray,”’ ‘‘red,”’ “‘silver”). Betula lutea Michx. f.
(CLAS, DIE Gk aa aa Prunus serotina Ehrh.
Cherry, fire (‘‘pin,”’ ‘‘wild red”’)........- Prunus pennsylvanica Linn. f.
GINS SHU be 8 eR S OSS ee ee Castanea dentata (Marsh) Borkh.
Cuweumiber tree: sic. Sfens 4-52 S- Se ote. oe Magnolia acuminata Linn.
Hilimpconka(Gerocka” Shard”) 2 cc/ctd...-0. Ulmus racemosa Thomas.
Bima yeluppenya(:red”).........+.-.-...-- Ulmus pubescens Walt.
Bilmmenwnute(eoray,” “soft”... 2. o 2. S. Ulmus americana Linn.
Ife, | QIAN Se Abies balsamea (Linn.) Mill.
Gumesblacks(e- sour’)... 22h setae cee Nyssa sylvatica Marsh.
(CIMISREON(GESWICEL I) he scs pias occ ce okt cece Liquidambar styraciflua Linn.
Hem Okey asc) cote bebe eee ee be Tsuga canadensis (Linn.) Carr.
JEII@IROAY So ASOUE Se tence eee Fficoria sp.
IronwoodkG:Hormbeam” es... 252.28! Ostrya virginiana (Mill.) Koch.
MB oT Oli deem mee re Sot sot ale SS Magnolia sp.
Mierlemilachkeettia cae al Ssi. 5 Ss. ee eee eee Acer saccharum nigrum (Mich. f.) Britton,
Meet Red meneer ssc aea ss kb aed ».... Acer rubrum Linn.
Marple ml eneme seo Slip clsa nese + ~00 bee Acer saccharinum Linn.
Maple, striped (‘‘moosewood”)....-..--.-- Acer pennsylvanicum Linn.
MIAVONG. SIVGRRSs See ee ee er eae Acer saccharum Marsh.
ON, Tel AvSatS Seas ee = Slee sees Quercus rubra Linn.
Wakwayilicerserecs Ae oe EG. ee Quercus alba Linn.
IPTG. GYC) cl Ste Ae ee oe a Sc Pinus divaricata ( Ait.) Du Mont de Cours.
SUMMA OM WAN (g< GEC), ))s ie) =) cc "yoie = ages mene Pinus resinosa Ait.
pines winitences.t220 2042.2. Lo Ge eee Pinus strobus Linn.
Roplanuyellows( tulip”)... 02... aes tec Liriodendron tulipifera Linn.
Poplar. (See Aspensand Balm of Gilead).
SHOUUICS), LOVE Y el et IRs A ee Ser Picea mariana (Mill.) B.S. P.
SiOPRUOSE, TREC Ay ee ee PIR ay <3 Picea rubens Sargent.
Sprlicem whiter seco ek. Ole. ee ieee Picea canadensis (Mill.) B. 8. P.
RNG ARM ONC Ata eros Shor ain toes ee Platanus occidentalis Linn.
Tamarack (‘‘larch”)...... be See Larix laricina (Du Roi) Koch.
WI DGUTE pp Aree ie aie a el eri Sis on Juglans sp.
WWilllionnberet ose sr ae ein See orem Salix sp.
E \ ES nf
r. ") r - | t ’
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; SYA Al oS4,55 La0e-5s: ‘ oy
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st tag ast 7 . i want pl th awl Sn
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5 Ee ann ee By eaNS Oh OR te ee Pe es ae oe
Potent Mui es GRETA =, Eyta tage tlig: dio! dl i ee ie
4 : rete fs ere Vases ovate: Peieeere Wr et a) ke ‘
: ices. Se en be ee wen ih eh eee ofp iz ote eG oe
Nie, Capt: 6 Py ot weet i aneeminta ats evi we iew. ae ea sca
Mie dtuaeenti? thy Jor deep Re AAMT. oo 2. < ds me aaah
piss 38 tat. $14: LU eine banen et Sts
Keven ec ie: Ree peitnah: cpa cs aeaaeeetb DTS APE
2 i DAW RAR Tg cae
eel yf PRORSAL LOE. WED tinis ROlSer ach i ped big Sap Taye 4
Anesy’ Staines 4 Ateanld” vege Tak. qcwadehaaen aac
mich feu teed te NET MATTE. seh aM Rea OA ty wae wiley oe Wi Lad ase eae
Titotiu only be Nipple doer Ria ie a
>
APPENDIX.
VOLUME TABLES.
BOARD-FOOT VOLUMES.
The following tables give the average volumes in board feet of forest-grown beech,
basswood, yellow birch, and sugar maple trees of different sizes, in terms of the number
of possible 16-foot logs and half logs in the tree. Since among trees of the same size
some will be straight and usable to a small diameter at the top, while others break up
into branches at considerably larger diameters, the Lake States measurements were
separated on this basis, and appear in three tables, headed maximum, average, and
minimum utilization. The tables from the other regions represent only the average
utilization.
The tables were prepared by the Scribner Decimal C rule, and show in each
case the stump height, top diameter limit, and number of trees on which they are
based. ‘‘Diameter breast-high” is the diameter at a height of 44 feet. The tables
are based on measurements of sound trees of normal shape only.
TaBLE 14.— Yellow birch in New Hampshire,' volumes in board feet.
Number of 16-foot logs.
Diam-
Diameter eter :
breast+ $ | 1 13 | 2 2k | 3 | 34 | inside ue Basis.
high. bark Ba.
of top.
Volume—board feet in tens.
Inches. Inches. Feet. Trees.
7 1 1 2 3) lesecwalsamasslesees 6 Dell 2,
8 1 2 2 3 Are ee saan 6 2.1 8
9 1 2 3 4 HYMN, Seaaas boceds 7 2.2 24
10 2 3 4 5 Ca3tuth ats a ereee 7 252 43
i 2 4 5 6 ial bapanc Soodee 8 OD) 44
12 3 5 6 8 Om | Psaee eee 8 252 45
13 3 6 8 9 DA eee I Sie ee 9 252 36
14 4 7 9 11 13 TA eee 9 253) 35
15 4 8 11 13 15 Mee paories 10 2.3 47
16 5 10 13 15 17 TS rey | Bese ee 11 2.3 40
17 6 11 15 18 20 Dit | eee 11 2.4 32
18 7 13 17 20 23 PRS Vrcselee 12 2.4 38
19 8 14 20 23 26 DEO s ener 13 2.4 36
20 9 16 22 26 30 33 36 13 205 39
21 30 34 37 41 14 2.5 28
22 33 38 42 47 15 2.6 21
23 36 42 48 53 15 2.6 24
24 40 47 53 59 16 P27 21
25 44 51 58 64 16 PAT 23
26 48 56 63 70 17 2.8 17
27 52 61 69 76 18 2.9 14
28 ig) 66 74 82 18 2.9 17
29 62 71 80 88 19 3.0 7
30 67 77 86 95 20 0) Sl Weaeneae
31 72 82 92 | 101 20 By Il 5
32 78 88 98 | 108 21 Bi i ay
651
1 Grafton County.
pee scaled as cut, 10 to 16 feet long, by Scribner Decimal C rule. Utilization as close as form of tree
allowed.
1 Credit is due to W. B. Barrows, of the Forest Service, for the working up from field data of all the
tables in the Appendix not credited to other sources.
47
48 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE 15.— Yellow birch in the Lake States,! volumes in board feet.
AVERAGE TOP DIAMETERS.
Number of 16-foot logs.
Diameter Dee
preast- | 13 | 2 | 2h | 3 | Bh ial Poses oe | ease
high. top
Volume—board feet
Inches. Inches. Trees.
8 23 Gia (erect ened beer Sa nee 6 11
9 30 CORT | epee ner arieee eene eaee 6 17
10 36 54 72 68 ise nee age hee 6 26
11 43 63 84 100. A)sascEhR! 6 17
12 50 73 97 120) |e Te 27
13 57 |= 2.83 110 140 170 7 20
14 65 94 130 160 190 7 16
15 73 110 140 180 210 8 8
16 82 120 160 200 240 8 16
7, Uses oe ese 140 180 230 270 9 15
1 Fe Fecal [anes ace 160 210 260 300 9 15
AO ee Syorereee- avers 180 230 290 340 10 13
PO ese 200 270 330 380 10 9
VARS e Sepeeeee 230 300 370 430 11 6
D2 leit stem 260 340 410 490, 12 3
Ys eel eer sesoee 290 380 460 550 12 5
DA. | aye ccrsiets 330 430 510 610 13 4
Poa een ee 360 470 570 680 14 4
26) Tare ees 400 520 630 750 15 2
Qi. sees sini 440 570 690 830 16. ssie yee
28.0 | cee ences 480 620 760 900 16 1
ZO Se ea 520 670 830 980 17 2
S0e) [Sze sees 560 720 900 1,050 LT oe
1 Gogebic and Wexford Counties, Mich.; Marinette and Vilas Counties, Wis.
Scaled from taper curves by Scribner Decimal C rule; mostly in 16:3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs
where necessary. Stump height, 1 foot.
TABLE 16.— Yellow birch in the Lake States,’ volumes in board feet.
Diameter,
breast-
high.
Average utilization.
MINIMUM TOP DIAMETERS.
Number of 16-foot logs.
32 43
40 52
49 62
58 73
69 85
81 98
94 110
Boole sald)
eae Wale)
DOKG| 25 seis el sacar ee
Goh tt Bes asocd acoanerc
78 Wey eaSSeacc
90 LO cst ee eteeaia
710 | 820 | 920
780 | 890 | 1,010
Diameter
inside
bark of
top.
Inches.
id
BN HOS ODDANAGAHAARWAWAARWAAOOD
Basis.
1 Gogebic and Wexford Counties, Mich.; Marinette and Vilas Counties, Wis.
Scaled from taper curves by Scribner Decimal C rule; mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs
where necessary.
Stump height 1 foot.
Close utilization.
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST.
TABLE 17.— Yellow birch in the Lake States,! volumes in board feet.
MAXIMUM TOP DIAMETERS.
Diameter,
breast-
high.
Inches.
Number of 16-foot logs.
Dame
1 inside F
1 | 14 | 2 Barker Basis.
top.
Volume—board feet.
Inches. Trees
23) Ware bce yeas Te 11
QR) i alee Pe ee nee uf 17
33 fa) a Rp SS 8 26
39 62) || Asses 8 17
45 75 110 9 27
52 87 120 10 20
60 100 140 10 16
68 120 150 11 8
78 130 170 12 16
88 150 190 12 15
98 170 210 13 15
110 190 240 14 13
120 210 260 14 9
140 240 290 15 6
150 270 320 16 3
170 300 360 17 5
190 330 400 7, 4
210 360 450 18 4
23 400. 500 19 2
260 440 550 al? etl eee ss
280 480 600 20 1
310 520 650. 21 2
340 570 ; 710 DD heel mrseeyere Stay
| | 237
1 Gogebic and Wexford Counties, Mich.; Marinette and Vilas Counties, Wis.
Scaled from taper curves by Scribner Decimal C rule; mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs
where necessary. Stump height 1 foot.
Poor utilization.
Taste 18.—Beech in New Hampshire,: volumes in board feet.
49
Number of 16-foot logs.
: Diameter
Diameter, seks
Beeston yates ols“) 2 vol ines | ieee SES PSTD cist
high. top oe
Volume—board feet in tens.
Inches. Inches. Feet. Trees
7 1 1 Pai Vs teres tl eM A |e Ih oe Ba 6 1.8 1
8 1 2 Bic | ape] Sata | ea ars 6 ef} 3
9 2 3 4 Ratt | eee stl | eri rial tape ee 7 1.9 4
10 2 4 5 Gir 51 2) Fie epee aaa a 8 1.9 11
Tal 3 4 6 8 ee ae evel aes mee 8 2.0 24
12 3 6 8 9 TELA Pie pan TS a 9 2.0 35
3} 4 7 9 11 13 Daal ea 10 2.0 45
14 5 8 11 13 16 UST Pes li Za! 41
15 6 10 13 16 19 21 24 11 Pil 45
We Nees = 11 15 19 22 26 29 12 lt 43
yen eee 13 17 22 26 30 34 13 252 37
TUSta ay ent eee |e Bale eae 20 20 30 35 39 13 262; 28
TI) eee IP es 23 30 35 40 44 14 252, 10
PAD esas | es etree pees 34 39 44 49 15 2.2 18
7A is ests soe | Soe Weis SAC 38 44 49 54 15 ee 11
PD) | AR ae Se ce ee 42 48 4B} 59 16 223 11
EE Mets ese lle cP sell epee 46 52 58 64 17 8) 8
Gon RAR Se BS cre a ea Poe 49 56 62 69 17 2.3 1
376
: 1 Grafton County.
Frees Sealed as cut, 10 to 16 feet long, by the Scribner Decimal C rule. Utilization as close as form of tree
allowed.
637°—Bull. 285—15——4
50 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TasLe 19.—Beech in Pennsylvania,’ volumes in board feet.
Number of 16-foot logs.
Diam- Dent:
ee) 2 3% | 3 33 4 inside | Basi
breast- 4 2 as
high bark of
F top.
Volume—board feet.
Inches Inches Trees.
1 47 67 87 LTO ee Sek ve Sete 14
11 52 77 100 SOM eects 7 6
12 61 91 120 150 170 7 6
13 74 110 140 17 200 7 8
14 92 130 170 200 230 8 11
15 120 160 200 230 270 8 5
16 150 190 230 270 310 9 13
i7 180 220 270 310 360 9 10
18 220 260 310 350 410 10 10
aS eee pears 290 350 400 460 11 il
QOnS Se eas 330 390 450 510 il 5
PAL ee acres 370 430 500 570 12 6
DOA es eceiseis= 400 470 560 640 13 2
QSiralesaicts cee 440 520 610 710 14 5
Oy eos BAe 490 570 670 780 15 2
DONG | eset ae 530 620 740 870 16 1
D6 ial so nastosee Geese 670 810 960 17 1
Dr Bird Bes eae eects 720 890 1, 050 LS se see
QErG Vacs dace sico ssc 780 960 1,150 190 twee
Ped Bea eee eS 830 | 1,040 | 1,260 20 1
SON | ecesseigslesecece 880 1,120 1,370 21
1 McKean County.
Height of stump, 1.5 to 3.3 feet. Scaled by the Scribner Decimal C rule.
TABLE 20.—Beech in Michigan,: volumes in board feet.
AVERAGE TOP DIAMETERS.
Number of 16-foot logs.
Diam- Diet
ee 1 1} 2 24 3 33 4 43 inside | Basis.
reast- bark of
high. top
Volume—board feet.
Inches. Inches. | Trees.
6 16 25 34 43 Bo eikiewel seaeadleemereces 6 2
A Werf A OY En al Pear oH BO EA Gy yl fs me Ba Se (RSL ET 6 13 |
8 18 29 41 55 71 89+ ,).ba xen nite See. S28 6 20
9 20 32 46 63 81 LOO seek eee 6 ll
10 22 37 52 72 93 110 130) eee see 6 23
11 24 42 60 83 110 130 160M eee eee 6 22
12 26 47 69 96 120 150 180 210 7 30
13 28 53 80 110 140 180 210 240 7 19
14 30 60 93 120 160 200 240 280 7 25
15 33 68 110 140 180 230 270 310 8 26
16 36 77 120 160 210 250 300 350 8 28
LZ pi RoR 85 140 190 240 290 340 400 9 14
Si hl Saeeine 95 160 210 270 320 390 450 9 14
LO) GR Ss 110 180 240 310 370 430 500 10 9
AVG | BRASS OREN IG 200 280 350 420 490 560 10 6
DA Gat es Pee iene 220 320 390 470 550 630 il 7
221 E eee ysa\| (cle armearale 250 360 440 530 620 710 12 8
OVAL Meme sia|| ote rey sy ettl| ereratetetace 400 500 600 690 800 12 4
PT Gl oc ea mismo OF 440 560 670 780 890 13 3
DD Lieto ere i Ns: etciaial| Seis etetarsll eters emer 620 740 860 1,000 14 1
DOM tetas wis | eeraters iets lmictaistetcns)l teat 680 8280 960 1,110 NO || ere
285
1 Wexford County.
Scaled from taper curves, by the Scribner Decimal C rule, mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter
logs. Stump height, 1 foot. Average utilization.
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 51
TABLE 21.—Beech in Michigan, volumes in board feet.
MINIMUM TOP DIAMETERS.
Number of 16-foot logs.
Diam- Dian
eee 1 pepe te 2h 3 33 4 4h 5 inside | Basis. |
Teast- bark of li
high. top. H
Volume—hboard feet \
Inches. Inches. | Trees.
6 16 25 Oh Wee oo 8,5 a eased 2| RRS [ae tareal cote eearellaeiereere ee 6 2
7 17 27 es | Re ere eet em ers ee Oh One is caste ee ae 6 13
8 18 29 41 Ch Sa Rete Stor h oo Goo ceclte eco aalceeeenerse 6 20
9 19 31 44 60 Yi ae eae Bocllame pacalteoc asl io Eee as 6 11
10 20 33 48 66 86 TOO) gh ee ee 6 23
11 21 35 54 73 96 120 Teepe sca Peabo see ts 6 22
12 22 38 60 81 110 130 160 DON) ee oes ae 6 30
TGS) fl ea es 40 66 89 120 150 190 230N seuee ob 6 19
Ay || eee 43 73 98 130 170 210 260K Seca ee ce 6 | 25
LN Sete is soaks 81 110 150 190 230 280 330 6 26
1G Ee Ss ee ee 90 120 17 210 260 310 360 6 28
ICG) la) see a a a 130 180 230 290 340 390 6 14
. Se Tea) Sees EE ese eee 140 200 260 320 370 430 6 14
Le ee See Hee tel IIE) lors eset 230 300 360 420 470 6 9
QO Mees -|3 2-6 -|-ccccslaeeeees 250 340 410 470 530 6 6
LI ERS |e Shes |emysh all eter eis | eV Sm ere aie 390 460 530 600 7 7
PPA) HB | eS: el See aS cece ed ee 450 520 600 670 7 8
333}, HIE Soe] CIC aey eine era eel te Lie 520 590 670 750 8 4
PHY UN O33 a ere et SEP TEN |b See an et a 590 670 760 $50 8 3
OAs) OI Sere fears tae Aen! lege Stee gel |b eee a 660 750 850 950 9 1
OTM eet lore | Br cate es, sraresarcis| sinttie cies [let Soe. = 750 850 940 1,040 LOM skeet
285
1 Wexford County.
Scaled from taper curves, by the Scribner Decimal C rule, mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter
logs. Stump height, 1 foot. Close utilization.
TABLE 22.—Beech in Michigan,! volumes in board feet.
MAXIMUM TOP DIAMETERS.
Number of 16-foot logs.
3 SS || _ Diameter
Diameter, mache, ,
breast- 1 | 14 | 2 | 24 | 3 eee Basis.
high. of top.
Volume—board feet.
Inches. Inches. Trees.
6 20 PH feel Eee aoe aaes Hoon besone ce 6 2
7 22 32 DE ene rte el Wee 6 13
8 24 37 52 68s lee Cerys i 20
9 27 44 63 83 110 7 11
10 32 53 75 97 120 8 23
11 36 63 88 110 140 8 22
| 12 42 74 100 130 160 9 30
13 48 87 120 150 190 10 19
14 56 100 140 180 210 10 25
15 65 120 160 200 250 itt 26
16 75 130 180 230 280 12 8
17 87 150 210 270 330 12 14
18 98 170 240 300 370 13 14
19 130 190 270 340 420 14 9
20 140 220 300 380 470 14 6
PATS hes a= 240 340 430 520 15 i
DO || etna Bee! 270 380 480 580 16 8
GBS. fy] heres etal 300 420 530 650 17 4
BY. |e fe a 460 590 730 17 3
DB iar eisai eee 500 660 820 18 1
cM area Napa ia 540 730 920 Tie | ear oc
1 W exford County.
Scaled from taper curves, by the Scribner Decimal C rule, mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter
logs. Stump height, 1 foot. Poor utilization.
52
BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE 23.—Sugar maple in New Hampshire, volumes in board feet.
Diameter,
breast-
high.
Number of 16-foot logs.
3h 4
Volume—board feet in tens.
Inches.
on
ooon
Logs sealed as cut, 8 to 16 feet long, by the Scribner Decimal C rule.
allowed.
OouR ROH
OmIS84 RWW
1 Grafton County.
Diameter,
inside
bark
of top.
Inches.
Bee
RFPOOCOMOMAINIM GD
Heigh
‘of |B
stump.
oN NNN NN NNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN A
STOOD MAMMDUMNIEERWWNNNRR HEE HODOCO
asis.
S
>
.
3
d
is
~
360
Utilization as close as form of tree
TABLE 24.—Sugar maple in Pennsylvania,! volumes in board feet.
Height of stump, 1.8 to 3.2 feet.
1 McKean County.
Logs sealed by the Scribner Decimal C rule.
Number of 16-foot logs.
: Diameter
Diameter snore ?
breast- : 24 | 3 | 33 4 ee Basis.
high. of top.
Volume—board feet.
Inches. Inches. Trees.
10 63 ASO) Ts) Nea ies Se as ee 6 4
11 74 LOO fall = serra ets Se 7 3
12 86 T20 aga. oseasce SE as ae 7 2
IR} 99 IS rt Pega dese Seal et setae oe 8 ?
14 110 150 210) | Sis sae see 8 2
15 130 170 230 Fr Rape aie 8 2
16 150 190 260 320 9 4
/Ee | SE oe 220 290 360 10 7
TS gle hee' als 250 330 410 10 5
aS eS ee oe 280 370 460 | yt 1
20 320 410 510 ll 3
21 360 460 570 12 2
22 400 510 640 ae Yam (eter
23 440 560 710 13; /6:. =e
24 480 620 780 14 1
25 530 680 850 15). jbsoteeee
26 580 740 920 nL ye ee
2H We Sais ratte = 630 810 1, 000 16 2
8) Blestectecocke 680 880. 1,070 16 1
41
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 58
TABLE 25.—Sugar maple in the Lake States,! volumes in board feet.
AVERAGE TOP DIAMETERS.
Number of 16-foot logs.
Diameter, Diameter ,
preast- || 13 | 2 | 2 [ps Bao lh 8g | 4 piside | Basis.
high.
top.
Volume—board feet.
Inches. Inches. Trees.
8 25 31 BSN oe o | Re cer ee|| ees 6 21
9 30 40 D0) Soc e a Ese bees | eres € 35
10 37 47 62 76 Q4 ease 6 23
11 43 59 76 93 1110) Rees 6 26
12 50 79 91 110 140 170 U 25
13 57 82 110 130 160 190 7 20
14 65 95 130 160 190 220 ii 22
15 73 1G 150 180 220 250 8 16
16 83 120 170 210 250 290 8 22
17 93 149 190 240 280 330 9 7
18 100 160 220 270 320 380 9 13
EON Se 180 240 300 370 430 10 6
AO ls a ee 200 270 340 410 490 10 9
PANIES Bee ee 220 300 380 460 550 11 7
29) ets. 250 340 420 520 620 12 U
7B lee Sees 280 370 470 580. 690 12 6
OA Sa: gee 310 410 520 640 770 13 2
Dope Sea 340 460. 570 710 840 14 6
265 fos. ori 370 500 630 780 930 15 1
DTS RSS ells aieee wee 550 690 860 | 1,020 15 2
28i5| yee = aci'= see ASE 600 760 940 | 1,110 T6u| Re asesios
AON SORE. cia] ok SASS 650 820 1,020 1, 210 DTH ree. 5 hs
SO) |Reeee sal scceace 690 890 | 1,110] 1,300 Wi, 2
278
1 Gogebic and Wexford Counties, Mich.; Marinette and Vilas Counties, Wis.
Scaled from taper curves by Scribner Decimal C rule; mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs
where necessary. Stump height, 1 foot. Average utilization.
TABLE 26.—Sugar maple in the Lake States, volumes in board feet.
MINIMUM TOP DIAMETERS.
Number of 16-foot logs.
IDI | EES Py emote,
breast- 2 | 2h | 3 | a | 4 | 43 | 5 ace. |lasese!
high. top.
Volume—board feet.
= Inches. Inches. Trees.
‘ 8 28 38 4B) le severe Iie Sasi es eee ere eet seereis 6 21
; 9 36 49 (O08 Demecanallscacoees acaersen sececeee 6 35
{ 10 44 60 (C8 Beeetos |-saocacd Hesecdas so ceeere 6 23
li 53 73 89s) Se aed lease lescict incall mee eceise 6 26
12 63 86 100 120 SOM | Cae et sceveeiatoe 6 25
13 74 100 120 140 ALO Berean (ose 6 20
14 86 110 140 160 190 220 260 6 22
15 98 130 160 190 210 250 290 6 16
16 110 140 180 210 240 280 330 6 22
17 120 160 206 240 270 320 370 6 “a
18 140 180 220 260 300 360 420 6 13
IG) Serato sl area 240 290 340 400 470 6 6
7AD) HE aye eames 270 320 380 450 520 6 9
AEs Reena RAE ee 290 360 430 500 590 uh 7
OP) ae eos SOAS 320 390 480 560 660 7 7
23 emia ere eters e 360 440 530 630 730 8 6
DAN eter nt were icra aie civ 390 480 590 700 820 8 2
EN Sb ered aa eeotee 430 530 650 770 910 9 6
716) al ein Ae Aes acl 480 590 720 860 | 1,000 10 1
ON falls eae ese al Heese 530 650 800 950 | 1,120 10 2
ABM rceroys eeteel nce ee a 590 720 890 | 1,050 | 1,230 AO eee
DOM eau eee So 650 810 980 | 1,160 | 1,360 Tip) is Os BI
20 een ee ae 720 900 | 1,080 | 1,280} 1,500 13 2
278
1 Gogebic and Wexford Counties, Mich.; Marinette and Vilas Counties, Wis.
Scaled from taper curves by the Scribner Decimal C rule; mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter
logs where necessary. Stump height, 1 foot. Close utilization.
——
54 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TaBLE 27.—Sugar maple in the Lake States,: volumes in board feet.
MAXIMUM TOP DIAMETERS.
Number of 16-foot logs.
Diameter, Diane, ;
breast- 1 14 2 24 DATKOe Basis.
high. top
Volume—board feet.
Inches. | Inches. Trees.
8 18 50) |S aee ea ie ee 7 21
9 24 576 Heo soe I ee Re 7 35
10 30 (say Fe bY Oe 2 LE es as CY 8 23
11 37 (Pid Bate sere a bee Sects Secs 8 26
12 44 84 110 130 9 25
13 51 95 120 150 10 20
14 59 110 140 170 10 22
15 68 120 160 190 11 16
16 77 130 180 220 12 22
17 88 150 210 250 12 7
18 99 170 230 290 13 13
19 110 190 260 320 14 6
20 130 210 290 370 14 9
21 140 230 330 410 15 7
22 160 260 360 460 16 7
23 180 290 410 510 17 §
24 200 320 450 560 17 2
25 220 360 500 620 18 6
26 240 400 540 680 19 1
27 270 440 590 740 19 2
28 300 480 640 800 20.|oc-eee eee
29 330 520 690 850 yA Be aeeeee.s
30 360 570 740 910 22 2
278
1 Gogebic and Wexford Counties, Mich.; Marinette and Vilas Counties, Wis.
Scaled from taper curves by the Scribner Decimal C rule; mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter
logs where necessary. Stump height,1foot. Poor utilization.
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST.
TABLE 28.—Basswood in the Lake States,’ volumes in board feet.
AVERAGE TOP DIAMETERS.
Number of 16-foot logs.
Diameter, Diameter :
breast- 2 24 3 34 4 44 eee Basis.
high.
top.
Volume—hboard feet.
Inches Inches. Trees.
8 30 47 60) fs ccaase SES a eee ess 6 6
9 36 53 i Rese era 6 seree celia fesaee 6 9
10 44 60 79 100 110) lsseb 5566 6 a
11 53 70 90 110 LAO) We ie ee 6 8
12 63 80 100 130 ONE oe Bees 7 iG
13 75 94 120 150 180 220 7 9
14 89 110 140 170 200 240 7 7
15 100 130 160 190 230 270 8 17
16 120 150 180 220 260 300 8 17
7: ee eae 170 210 25) 290 340 9 20
TD a soe 190 240 280 330 380 9 18
OS Se aes 210 270 320 370 430 10 14
20) 2 Ae i 240 300 360 420 480 10 31
OE le ess ees 270 340 400 470 540 11 21
27 RNG asa ote 300 380 450 520 600 12 14
23) | Bed.) 340 420 500 580 670 12 17
24 epee 380 470 560 650 750 13 19
Phy aS ee 410 520 620 720 830 14 14
26 eae =. 450 57 680 790 920 15 17
Di Bao wees 500 620 750 870 | 1,010 15 8
PA ares 540 680. 820 960 1,100 16 9
29) aS 590 740 890 | 1,040] 1,190 ily 6
30) | Seceesee 640 800 970 1,130 1,290 17 4
SL | See 5. 690 870 1,050 1,220 1,400 18 8
SO) | ee eae 750 940 | 1,130] 1,310] 1,500 18 3
83) (AES s< 810 | 1,010} 1,210) 1,410] 1,610 19 3
REO eee 87 1,080} 1,290} 1,500] 1,720 20 4
SD ase eed; 930} 1,150} 1,380} 1,600} 1,830 20 1
aia Res oases 1,010 1,240 1,470 1,700 1,990 PA aeons
Sie | See 1,080 | 1,320} 1,560] 1,800] 2,060 22 1
Siyilkee cee 1,150} 1,410| 1,650] 1900] 2,180 PN te eee
SOE OER A. 1,220 | 1,490] 1,750] 2,000] 2,300 D8 We eisrsete
40) | 2625.0. 1,3C0 1,570 1,850 2,100 | 2,420 DA Nee aaa
319
1 Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich.; Tron and Price Counties, Wis.
5d
Height of stump, 1 foot, scaled from taper curves, by the Scribner Decimal C rule; mostly in 16.3-foot
logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Average utilization.
valerie
56 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE 29.—Basswood in the Lake States,! volumes in board feet.
MINIMUM TOP DIAMETERS.
Number of 16-foot logs.
Diameter,| . | | Diameter
breast- || 13 | Pa Wa Ge ease 4 43 | 5 5 6 | parker | Basis.
high.
top.
Volume—board feet
Inches. Inches. | Trees.
8 16 7T Eee ns Maeno Scencond peepoced poodcocd ddoopnce| Hebsoocd boaacces 6 6
i) 18 28 fe epee erode ee acococd bosdcocd Goptocsd baasanen bacanscc 6 9
10 23 34 52 67 (3 (68) pens ate Pieces bares oe al fo ok eel ees ee 6 7
il 29 42 61 7 97 O40) Bia Ae Aa Oe oe BAe pcel baackoce 6 8
12 38 52 73 91 110 140 170 1h eeeseeee oecnadc 6 7
3 49 66 87 | 110 130 160 190 210 {eet oosse| Se sees 6 9
14 63 82} 100} 120 150 180 210 240 260 )\i ree 6 7
15 80 | 100} 120}; 140 170 200 230 260 290 Noe Skene 6 17
16} 100} 120; 140] 160 190 220 250 290 320 350 6 17
LG) sacl eats 160 | 180 210 250 280 320 350 390 6 20
LSz ak See eee 180 | 200 240 280 310 360 390 440 6 18
BR J Veen esa Fee 230 270 310 350 400 440 490 6 14
20) 2k Sal Resta eae 250 310 350 390 440 490 540 6 31
QA) Le S| Aes ied 2 tse ee 340 390 430 490 550 610 7 21
D2} ete e| Sees | eiseee or | seers 380 430 480 540 610 680 7 14
23 |------|---2--|-<<=--|P5---- 430 480 530 610 680. 760 8 17
DA SS al Ree tors | ereteare | ees 470 530 590 680 760 850 8 19
PAs) eee ees pees |S rome | eee 520 580 660 750 850 950 9 14
640 720 820 940 | 1,050 10 17
700 790 900 | 1,030} 1,160 10 8
760 870 990°) = 1,130 "|. 12270 11 9
830 950 | 1,080} 1,240] 1,390 12 6
900 | 1,030} 1,180] 1,340] 1,510 12 4
970 | 1,120} 1,280} 1,460] 1,640 13 8
1,040 | 1,210] 1,390] 1,580] 1,770 13 3
1,120} 1,300] 1,500} 1,700] 1,900 14 3
1,200} 1,400] 1,610] 1,830] 2,040 14 4
1,290 | 1,500] 1,730] 1,960] 2,190 15 1
1,370 | 1,610| 1,850] 2,090] 2,340 16)| eee
1,460 | 1,710 | 1,980] 2,230] 2,490 16 1
1,560 | 1,830] 2,110] 2,380] 2,640 yi beseone
1,660 | 1,940} 2,230] 2,530] 2,800 17 aeene
1,760 | 2,060] 2,360| 2,680] 2,950 183s
319
1 Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich.; Tron and Price Counties, Wis.
Height of stump, 1 foot, sealed from taper curves, by the Scribner Decimal C rule; mostly in 16.3-foot
logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Close utilization.
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 57
TABLE 30.—Basswood im the Lake States,! volumes in board feet.
MAXIMUM TOP DIAMETERS.
Number of 16-foot logs.
Diameter, Dinmeter
breast- Tages 1 14 2 Warkor Basis.
high. top.
Volume—board feet.
Inches. Inches. Tees.
8 7 1 GR tS aa Eee ca 7 6
9 10 DB} sl sats Ss ere Calg pater pees 7 9
10 14 PA aa eperemns bera DS WEIR hd 8 7
11 17 BD's. Ss | Meee 8 8
12 21 43 74 100 9 7
13 26 51 85 120 10 9
14 3l 61 97 140 10 7
1 S08 | etree sil 73 110 150 il 17
WGN eeceaseats 86 130 170 12 17
eee ete see 100 150 190 12 20
Peabo s. Sas 120 170 220 13 18
Oe |S sre Aer 130 190 240 14 14
XD) oi Fare Lye 3 150 210 270 14 31
OS See ee EER 170 240 300 15 21
ava |e aie aaron 190 260 340 16 14
Qe ow saede 210 290 380 17 17
OA be ees one et 230 330 420 17 19
Pen eee 250 360 470 18 14
Otel esi icetiss 270 390 520 19 17
PY fie eee aeese 290 430 570 19 8
Dee | a ae ee 320 470 620 20 9
PAU) al tes oe eater 340 500 670 21 6
BOM alesis ces 370 540 720 22 4
Obie eesyernteterastele 390 580 770 22 8
SOM ale Seesaw 420 620 830 23 3
BBs eS aage meas 450 660 880 24 3
By aa 480 710 940 24 4
SOR Meee eres 510 750 1,000 25 1
Bia lhe Sane Ses 540 800 1,060 OTD | eeeeerocd
Bile all Seaton 570 840 1,120 26 i
SIS bill ashe aie 600 890 1,180 PY fit sae tae
BOBS GEE Sesion 630 940 1,240 2801 Saea teens
AQia Peach cecine 670 990 1,310 O} Sarl see eee
319
1 Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich.; Iron and Price Counties, Wis.
Height of stump, 1 foot, scaled from taper curves by_the Scribner Decimal C rule; mostly in 16.3-foot
logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Poor utilization.
+58 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
CUBIC-FOOT VOLUMES.
These tables give the average volumes in cubic feet of forest-grown yellow birch,
beech, sugar maple, and basswood trees of different sizes. They are based on stem and
branch taper measurements of the trees from which the preceding board-foot tables
were made. The volumes are shown separately for ‘‘logs’” and ‘‘topwood.”’ The
cubic-foot volume of ‘“‘logs” includes the stem of the tree between the same stump
heights and top diameters as for the board-foot tables, except that for the Lake States
tables only the ‘‘average” top diameters were used. The volume of “‘top”’ is for the
portion of the main stem above the upper diameter given, plus the solid volume of all
branches suitable for cordwood to a minimum diameter of about 2 inches outside
bark at the middle of a 5-foot stick, except for basswood, the branches of which were
measured to a minimum middle diameter of 4 inches.
The tables for the Lake States also give the per cent of bark based on the cubic
volume of the stem with bark. For basswood and beech the per cent of bark varied
consistently with breasthigh diameter; for birch and maple there was no consistent
variation.
Table 37 gives the cubic volume of red maple on the Harvard Forest, Petersham,
Mass.
TABLE 31.— Yellow birch in the Lake States, volumes in cubic feet.
: Total height of tree—feet. is
4 a
| 2
% 40 50 | 60 | 70 80 | 90 = | Basis, trees.
5 Els
2 Volume 2 including bark—cubic feet. Foo
i) 2)
: : E
=| n n n n 8 n n n
& Sl) BS eS ie alee oy SG gtaie lb cotsineer eer as eo 26
> a 4 a 4 a H mal 4 a 4 iS 4 a a A &
In. In
Cy eeeeee OUSs| cronies By Be Ssoeo| Sooo Sscoosd Bodeed Seaced |ssoced paccon Besa |seSee|[sssascieace -
OM eerie TO Bseceso SH stetereiare 1 Ee bndoade soeece rocdad sceded sceeso Soaccd secea-|ls5+05- 6
Oi baaoce GEE eA ea Al ca eat alts} 1674) eS) Bases Hocoed facies] bpaoond Sackee a 4
U llndosne Lot 4c 0) LO ie Ao8. e250 EO 0 RN) RECS ie Kee Bedoee Bases eos - 12| 12
Sil eeraees LON Zeon |e oan aden |) haste 8.5 | 2.6) 9.2] 2.6) 10.1] 2.6 6 IY) 1k
Of ee cyeel ese 9.:9),\, 22545110: 51) 2°6)). 11.6 | 259.) 12089) 2.911453 | 2.9 6 IVA eal
OM erepersters| Sarees 1256) 257 | 18-47)" (3.01) LoD WS. 2 5165 Sera. 28 18S rise 6 26 | 26
IDL aero ABaoss 15.6 | 3.1 | 16.6 } 93.4) 18.9") °3.7 ]-21.0']°3.:7'| 24.0") 3.7 6 Ya a i,
10) | becaoe|asoass 18.6 | 3.6] 20.0] 4.0] 23.0] 4.2] 26.0) 4.2} 29.0] 4.2 7 27) 27
18) |lcseune sooted 22.0] 4.3] 24.0] 4.7] 28.0] 4.9] 31.0] 4.9] 34.0] 4.9 7 20 | 20
Wie Neb Seed Bankes 25.0 { 5.1] 28.07 5.5) 32.0/{ 5.9] 36.0] 5.9] 40.0); 59 7 16) 17
1G) S6Scoen\sosnod| hepeoallascoes 33.0] 6.6] 38.0] 7.1] 42.0] 7.1] 46.0] 7.1 8 8 8
UG) les Scoce||Saqq0s| beoo7s||baco0d 38.0} 8.0} 43.0] 8.4] 48.0] 84] 52.0] 8.4 8 16 }- 14
BTS | einwe| eee ee een a [beeen 44.0] 9.6] 49.0] 9.9] 54.0] 9.9 | 58.0] 9.9 9} 15] 15
(hy Secepd bested) saenbelaoaces 50.0] 11.3; 56.0} 11.5 ; 61.0} 11.5 | 65.0 | 11.5 9 15; 15
10) eebede bacood Mpcasal esooee 56.0 | 13.2 | 62.0] 13.3 | 67.0 | 13.3 | 72.0 | 13.3. 10 13] 12
770i ees5| apoac|boanedoceoc 63.0 | 15.2} 69.0} 15.2 | 74.0 | 15.2 | 79.0 | 15.2 10 9 7
Os ataraqsiain| nicie c\ac-|| ose eral ameristar eee ciel 75.0 | 17.2 | 81.0 | 17.2 | 87.0 | 17.2 11 6 5
DAM eee erersia|| sizfe <= =| \a'u ats sree ssl| Meteierecell cto 82.0 | 19.6 | 88.0 | 19.6 | 95.0 | 19.6 12 3| 2
75) exe aed sseada|saaode| Leseseloosccal mesode 88.0 | 22.0 | 96.0 | 22.0 {103.0 | 22.0 12 5 5
Fe es on) be Baad) |eaeeod| eecacla|esascs\lagontc 95.0 | 25.0 |103..0 | 25.0 [111.0 | 25.0 13 4 4
7A es cenol|Sanod) lagaoe seccculltsocbollSanoe 102.0 | 29.0 |111.0 | 29.0 |120.0 | 29.0 14 on
4 ise sel Beoeae) Posedalocecccl|iouads|b5cacc 109.0 | 32.0 |119.0 | 32.0 |129.0 | 32.0 15 2 2
94 Sc Bbonl anaes pisasoal Gacecd kiscacd tcseae 116.0 | 36.0 /127.0 | 36.0 |138.0 | 36.0 15) peer Ree
' 743) pe cace| bacoas|Keoros| bsescs| aces] ssn¢50 124.0 | 40.0 |135.0 | 40.0 |147.0 | 40.0 16 1
74) Oe Sl eloeco MoEeco toe aoclacoudlbaoeae 131.0 | 44.0 |144.0 | 44.0 156.0 | 44.0 17 Sar
10) ReSSoulE Banocl essen Boocealbcamce||Scocte 138.0 | 48.0 |152.0 | 48.0 |165,0 | 48.0 17 |.-----|------
253 | 253
1 Gogebie and Wexford Counties, Mich.; Marinette and Vilas Counties, Wis.
2 The ‘log’? volume is the solid contents of wood and bark between a stump height of 1 foot and the
“diameter inside bark of top” shown in the 14th column. The volume of ‘‘top”’ is that contained in the ‘
stem above this point, and in addition all branches suitable for cordwood having a diameter, outside bark, ,
of 2inches or more at the middle of a 5-foot stick. The entire volume of trees too small to yield a 6-inch log
is considered topwood. Bark comprises about 13 per cent of the total volume; there was no consistent
variation with the size of the tree.
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 59
TABLE 32.—Beech in Michigan, volumes in cubic feet.
Height of tree—feet. ro :
2) Ea | 50 | 60 70 | 80 90 | 100 Hal's | Basis,
ae | | ~#| 2 | trees.
Pest Volume 2 including bark—cubic feet. pale
oe 3'5| 8
e . . iv} :
beep llpn ed fe eth ep berlin tft Henrie seek eel rood ey
ial () i=) >) ° ° i=) co) i=) ° ° fo) ic} (>) Oo prt o j-) °
A AIA IJH SIA eJAlel]A Je] Asa I]A/aAA Se
In. In.
Blesdall Osean al) WsQesoslisaca Bees Gocalldooe son\lsasoc Sec aletel Becelhes kaye 3
Necosl|, o8fSocal) dldliconn lie esas seal Segoe Seoleicercs Seoa|ladsossoal oll eas 3
6) 1.0) 1.0) 1.3} 1.3) 1.7) 1.6) 2.4) 1.9)/-..-- sosclosaos Bee eee | see O|pde Ol 2l
7| 2.9} 1.3] 3.5) 1.6) 4.7) 1.9) 6.2) 2.2)..... agas|soacc Sho anode Gabelli, MAN Cots ail
8] 4.9] 1.5] 5.9] 1.8) 7.4) 2.2) 9.6] 2.5} 10.4) 2.8) 12.4) 3.1/....).... 6) 7.7] 20] 15
9) 7.1] 1.7] 8.2) 2. 1/10. 0) 2. 4/12. 3) 2. 8] 13.9] 3.2) 16.5] 3.5)....)..-- 6) 7.6) 11) 15
10] 9.4) 1.9/10. 7} 2. 3)12. 7) 2. 7/15. 4) 3.1) 17.8) 3.5) 21.0) 3.9) 24] 4.3) 6) 7.6) 23) 23
11}11. 8} 2. 2/13. 4| 2. 6)15. 3) 3.0/18. 8} 3.5) 22.0) 3.9) 26.0) 4.3) 29) 4.7] 6) 7.5) 22) 29
12/14. 4| 2. 4/16. 3) 2.918. 1) 3. 4/23. 0) 3.8) 27.0] 4.3) 31.0) 4.8) 35) 5.2) 7) 7.4) 30) 25
13}....|--.-|19. 3] 3. 2/21. 0) 3.7/27.0} 4.2] 32.0) 4.8) 36.0) 5.3) 41) 5.8) 7! 7.3) 19) 18
14}. -|22. 0) 3. 5/24. 0) 4. 1/31. 0} 4.7) 37.0) 5.3) 42.0) 5.9) 48) 6.5) 7) 7.2) 25) 25
US ees .-|25. 0) 3. 9)/27.0) 4. 5/35. 0} 5. 2) 48.0} 5.9} 49.0) 6.6) 54) 7.3] 8! 7.1) 26) 23
16)... -.-{27.0} 4. 3/30. 0} 4. 9/40. 0) 5.6} 49. 0} 6.5} 56.0} 7.5) 62) 8.5) 8] 7.0} 28) 21
il7|ae --|----|----|384.0) 5. 4/45. 0) 6.3] 55.0} 7.3) 63.0) 8.5) 70) 9.7] 9] 6.9] 14) 14
1fe]|aee 37.0} 5.9/51. 0) 7.0} 62.0) 8.3) 71.0] 9.6) 7811.0" 9) 6.8) 14) 10
19] - - : -.-|----|56. 0} 8.1} 69.0) 9.6) 79.0]11.1) 87/12.6} 10) 6.7) 9] 6
20)... -|62. 0) 9. 5) 76. O}11. 2} 87.0)13.0) 96/14. 8) 10) 6.6) 6) 5
21|.. - -/69. 0/11. 6] 84. 0/13. 5] 96. 0/15. 4) 105]17.3) 11) 6.5) 7) 8
22). - .-|75. O}14. 8} 92. 0/16. 6/104. 0/18. 3) 115)20.0) 12) 6.4) 8) 4
23). - <-|-- 81. 0/18. 1)100. 0/20. 0/113. 0/21. 7) 125/23.0; 12) 6.3) 4) 1
24)... | seulldacdibsaualboce 123. 0/25. 0} 135/27.0) 13) 6.2) 3)....
Bn o44| aco 4|iccalosolpuoullasatlesoliages| boeeel cose 132. 0/29. 0} 145/31.0) 14) 6.1) Jj...
26 dsallboon|bese 6 »2-[142, 0/33. 0) 156/35. 0) 15) 6.0) “
286/259
1 Wexford County.
2 The ‘‘log’”’ volume is the solid contents of wood and bark between a stump height of 1 foot and the
* diameter inside bark of top”’ shown in the sixteenth column. The volume of ‘‘top”’ is that contained in
the stem above this point, and in addition all branches suitable for cordwood, having a diameter, outside
bark, of 2 inches or more at the middle of a 5-foot stick. The entire volume of trees too small to yield a
6-inch log is considered topwood.
TABLE 33.—Beech in Pennsylvania, volumes in cubic feet.
Total height of tree—feet.
A Diameter
Diameter, Volume] = .- ’
breast- 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | 110 | of top ase Basis.
Q wood.
high Volume 2 of logs including bark—cubic gow top.
feet.
Inches. Cu. ft. | Inches. Trees.
8 8.8 10.1 VDSS AS SRE eee rae cia 2.8 6 2
9 11.4 13.0 LA GPa a ce Re nee ea act 3.3 6 6
10 14.3 16.4 18.4 20 nites (os 4.1 6 8
11 Ue 20.0 23.0 B45) at Se gage 5.0 7 6
HDX 1) PBAIA) 24.0 28.0 31 34 5.9 7 6
13 26.0 29.0 33.0 37 40 7.1 7 8
14 30.0 34.0 39.0 43 47 8.8 8 11
15 35.0 40.0 45.0 50 55 10.9 8 5
16 : ; 57 63 13.4 9 13
17 65 71 16.4 9 10
18 72 80 19.8 10 10
19 80 88 23.5 1) 11
20 88 96 27.3 ii 5
21 95 105 31.1 12 6
22 103 113 35.0 13 2
23 110 122 39.0 14 5
a 24 118 130 43.0 15 2
, 25 125 138 47.0 16 1
26 133 146 51.0 17 1
27 141 155 55.0 Ie ia een ea
28 149 164 59.0 gS ee ae ee
29 157 173 63.0 20 iL
30 164 181 68.0 21 1
120
1 McKean County.
2 The “lez” volume is the solid contents of wood and bark between an average stump height of 2.4 feet
and the ‘‘diameter inside bark of top” shown in the eighth column. The volume of “top” is that con-
tained in thestem above this point, and in addition all branches suitable for cord wood having a diameter,
outside bark, of 2 inches or more at the middle of a 50-inch stick.
60 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TasLe 34.—Sugar maple in Pennsylvania,! volumes in cubic feet.
} Total height of tree—feet.
: ; Diameter
| | Diameter = | Volume F ,
t | 2 5
| breast- in | ey | YY | aes eS ee eae sie Basis.
i wood.
hugh: Volume 2 of logs HEUEMS bark—cubic top.
| ee
Inches. Cu.ft.| Inches. Trees.
10 13.6 15.6 L7E5 i io) Tah ba Ses ee 5.3 6 4
il 16.7 19.1 21.0 PAEOG| 22 Tle S 5.4 i 3
12 20.0 23.0 26.0 29.0 32 5.5 1 2
132 24:0. 27:05] S83 Ts0nleansato 37 6.1 8 2
14 28.0 32.0 36.0 40.0 44 7.2 8 2
15 32.0 37.0 42.0 46.0 51 9.0 8 2
VG |heseece 43.0 48.0 53.0 59 11.8 9 4
shy Pad este teat 49.0 55.0 61.0 67 15.5 10 7
LG: tes sset 55.0 62.0 69.0 76 20.0 10 5
LOF | Aetaee 62.0 70.0 78.0 85 24.7 11 1
7100 Beene 69.0 78.0 87.0 95 29.0 11 3
PA Ni ele tee RE ea 89.0 96.0 106 32.4 12 2
22,.\ 2S uaret S| eee ae 96.0 106.0 LT, 35.3 13°) 2 See
20 | Eee seta cet eeree 104.0 116.0 128 37.6 132|2s Sere
| 24> | des SoU ee eee 113.0 126.0 139 39.6 14 1
| BONS fo asia 2s | Sa serene 122.0 136.0 149 41.1 15-|ssasahe=
| } 26 og te Sie afal| Guia anno s|=nicteee ae 145.0 160 42.5 15) |2Seseee
| . D7 eke See Re EN eet 155.0 171 | 43.9 16 2
un Pista Mipeeeceeme RS EN EAC oi 164.0 181 | 45.1 16 1
|
! 41
1 McKean County.
/ 2 The “‘log’’ volume is the solid contents of wood and bark between an average stump height of 2.4 feet
Hii and the ‘‘diameter inside bark of top’’ shown in the eighth column. The volume of “top” is that con-
tained in the stem above this point, and in addition all branches suitable for cordwood, having a diameter,
outside bark, of 2 inches or more at the middle of a 50-inch stick.
TaBLe 35.—Sugar maple in the Lake States,! volumes in cubic feet.
Hi Total height of tree—feet.
: Diam- i
| Diam-| 59 | 60 70 80 90 100 for | Basis,
} ele trees.
i eter, | inside
HH} breast- Volume 2 including bark—cubic feet. bark
11) high. of top. | —______
i Logs.|Top. | Logs.|Top. | Logs.) Top. | Logs. | Top. | Logs. | Top. Logs.| Top. Logs.|Top.
tH Inches : Inches
6 PORGH 18) One u2 2h ee OS8a e256 LO; 3:02) sees 's | da< ms eoonss|-~ eee eee 9 10
| 7 3.4 | 1.9 4.2 | 2.3 5.0 2. 5.7 Soil waster = aoe tay=l| estore coo otal SSeS | Rees 18 17
| i SOLS AO eA 2458 8.4 2.9 9.4 iO: | PIS Saal oer. Sameera oe ae 6 21 22
' 9 | 9.8 | 2.2 | 10.4 | 2.7 | 11.67) 3.0 shal BA eos Gere =a aaacod dacce 6 35 | 34
il} 10 Sod |e 2s4r 3858") 2595) bs 2 3.3 17.2 Sw A 19.4 Ce al lets ors) eevee 6 23 24
Ail LA GMT] 4286 ol aw Sg LOS a Sub 22e Onllen4s 0) 52040) |i, 40m eceean | hesee 6 26 | 26
i 12 | 21.0 | 2.8 | 21.0] 3.4 | 24.0] 3.8 27.0) 4.4 30.0 | 4.9 34 5.4 7) 25) 25
i | as S52 issn 26.0) | 357-1) 28: Ol), - 4..2") 9 32:00) 4.82) 2186.01) 25.4 41 6.0 7 20 | 20
i 14 |e cee ees 30.0 | 4.1 | 33.0) 4.8] 37.0} 5.4 42.0} 6.0 48 6.7 a 22 |..22
; 1 ssl ee Sal Peta 35.0 | 4.7 1'38.0)| 5.4 43.0} 6.1 49.0] 6.8 55 (6) 8 16 16
152 eee tel irae 40.0 | 5.4 | 48.0} 6.3 50.0 | 7.0 | 56.0 7.8 64 8.5 8 22) 22
49.0} 7.2] 56.0; 80] 64.0] 8.9 72) 9.6 9 7 7
54.0 | 8.4 63.0; 9.4 72.0 | 10.2 81 | 11.0 9 13 13
60.0 | 9.8 70.0 | 11.0 | 80.0) 11.8 89 | 12.6 10 6 5
66.0 | 11:5 | 77.0) 12.7} 88.0) 13.5 99 | 14.4 10 9 8
72.0 | 13.4 85.0 | 14.6 | 97.0 | 15.5 108 | 16.5 11 7 6
79.0 | 15.6 | 92.0} 16.9 | 105.0 | 17.8 118 | 19.0 12 hi 7 .
85.0 | 18.3 | 100.0 | 20.0 | 114.0} 21.0} 128 | 22.0 12 6 6 ‘
92.0 | 21.0 | 108.0 | 23.0 | 124.0 | 25.0] 138 | 26.0 13 2 2 .
SP ING Goat see eos | 116.0 | 27.0 | 133.0 | 30.0 149 | 32.0 14 6 6
RIS |e ee: ee | 125.0 | 33.0 | 142.0 | 36.0 160 | 40.0 15 1 1
eS tee ale eere 134.0 | 38.0 | 152.0 | 42.0) 171 | 47.0 15 re eee
Sees si See ek oo 142.0 | 44.0 | 168.0 | 48.0 182 | 54.0 16 Semone lacane \
| pve nile ee Se] coat 152.0 | 50.0 | 173.0 | 55.0 194 | 61.0 Beil Pee eS | Ss Se ;
AE el SSSA pate (6 aaa lee: aes | 161.0 | 55.0 | 184.0 | 61.0 | 206 | 68.0 17 2 Io -ewe
jes
305 | 299
1 Gogebie and Wexford Counties, Mich.; Marinette and Vilas Counties, Wis.
2 The “log”? volume is the solid contents of wood and bark between a stump height of 1 foot and the
‘diameter inside bark of top”? shown in the fourteenth column. The volume of “top” is that contained
in the stem above this point, and in addition all branches suitable for cordwood having a diameter, outside
bark, of 2 inches or more at the middle of a 5-foot stick. The entire volume of trees too small to yield a
6-inch log is considered topwood.
pouate comprises about 17 per cent of the total volume; there was no consistent variation with the size of
© tree.
bark, of 4 inches or more at the middle of a 5-foot stick.
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST.
61
TABLE 36.—Basswood in the Lake States,} volumes in cubic feet.
Total height of tree—feet. iam-
Diam- ere ey Vol- Diet Per Basis,
eter, ume) |) ae. cent trees
breast- 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 | 110 | 120 of top- inside AY
high. : 5 5 wood. bark: cesreanenan
Volume 2 of logs including bark—cubic feet. of top. Logs.|Top.
Inches Cu.ft. |Inches
3s Co ita CEA NGOs te8a) el eeeencel eee snaralseeoe 2. 2 6 | 22.1 6 6
8) 1 Bo dhactes dl alba Ee else ies aaa Socoaliscons|icoscc 2.4 6 | 21.7 9 7
10 | 7.8 | 10.7 | 13.5 | 16.1 18. 2 LON Sis |S | ee ee 2.6 6 | 21.2 7 6
ibe maeaS ASR O Melee 20308232105 |fe1 25: Oli eee sine | eee 2.8 6 | 20.8 8 7
B34 ence HERON PZT OF ZONONE 280M SONOS sai | eters | eee 3. 2 7 | 20.5 7 5
Tee ea 4 So 2550) 180.0).) 4 °33::0) |. 36:.0)|| 389) Jee. |eeeee By Cf 7 | 20.1 9 | 10
11 fel es es ene 30.0 | 35.0 | 39.0] 43.0] 46] 49 |.---. 4.3 Calais 7 6
GS iS ooes|ites aes 34.0 | 41.0] 46.0] 49.0] 53] 56 |.---- 5. 2 8 | 19.4 17 | 16
13) (ASE eee 40.0 | 47.0) 52.0) 56.0] 60] 64] 68 6. 2 8 | 19.1 Ve Viel)
NU | Peers cremate aya! he atel| hater 3 58.0 | 63.0] 68 | 72] 76 (68) 9 | 18.8 20} 18
8 \scoscllsted=clecseeelsaone 65.0 | 70.0} 75] 80] 85 9.0 9 | 18.6 18 13
19) Nasa Sel oSeHs| haeoee Seeobs 72.0 | 78.0] 83] 89} 94 10.9 10 | 18.3 14 15
20) ee ellnopede|looue sal eaaced 79.0 | 85.0] 91 97 | 103 13.1 10 | 18.0 31 28
Poe eel panos) Mes ae eae 86.0 | 92.0; 99) 106 | 112) 15.6 11 | 17.8 21 20
2h Peter le peiavers [eee sspai| apain lala) 93.0 | 100.0 | 107 | 114 | 121 | 18.6 12 | 17.5 14} 12
28) ts aonie|lseSe soll seeeel Serre 101.0 | 108.0 | 115 | 122 | 131 22.0 12 | 17.3 17 17
PH le gatadllebe be] SASASa| Sesoee 109.0 | 116.0 | 123 | 131 | 140 | 26.0 13 | 17.1 19 17
DOIN erate areerye |e see bil) oot it 116.0 | 124.0 | 132 | 140 | 150 | 30.0 14 | 16.9 14 12
Om Brera tare [ae ania! Mcrae =m 124.0 | 132.0 | 140 | 149 | 159 | 34.0 15 | 16.7 17 15
PFE S| fe apes ie ae (ene ea eR 132.0 | 140.0 | 149 | 159 | 169} 39.0 15 | 16.5 8 10
shi| tse SETSaSaES| DASE Sel Besese 140.0 | 149.0 | 158 | 168 | 180 | 45.0 16 | 16.3 9 9
28) saa el Bocas] Beeesel BOSSE 148.0 | 158.0 | 170 | 179 | 191 52.0 17 | 16.1 6 6
0) ae eae sl ee eee ee 156.0 | 167.0 | 177 | 189 | 202} 59.0 tie Lond) 4 4
Lar | ea | siete | tere seal |eepetevaal| eats =/5/— 176.0 | 187 | 199 | 214 | 67.0 18 | 15.7 8 8
CPA TIE ol ee aaa cae! anaes ae ee 185.0 | 197 | 211 | 226 | 77.0 18 | 15.5 3 1
82) |isdecclledbedal Waseca] Gasace GaBeces 195.0 | 208 | 222 | 238} 88.0 19 } 15.4 3 3
SH alle coed eesbeel boesaa] Sepeser 205.0 | 219 | 234 | 251 | 98.0 20 | 15.2 4 4
Bil Cose Ssesal Ramses socmeel aces 215.0 | 230 | 247 | 265 | 109.0 20 | 15.1 1 il
ae |akooaliecdéassl Neca) Seca sel CE eesel Canaries 242 | 260 | 279 | 121.0 PA ey NE Oa clleacos
Bil aootllesasedlaaeees| WeMaaal Receeee bees sae 255 | 274 | 293 | 131.0 22 | 14.7 1 eer
Sis). pede cledeecal haceosl Esse eee Cee ere 268 | 288 | 308 | 142.0 PPA AE) lenaoeallacene
3h) | cee alc das acl eon or alaeoads besneas eaereer 280 | 302 | 323 | 153.0 230 Ua eee ete
ZNO) Hees lene Ue pear Way ea 294 | 317 | 338 | 163.0 PRM AE eck ealaaces
319 | 291
1 Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich., Iron and Price Counties, Wis.
2 The “log”? volume is the solid contents of wood and bark between a stump
“‘diameter inside bark of top’? shown in the twelfth column. The volume of “t
the stem above this point, and in addition all branches suitable for cordwood having a diameter, outside
height of 1 foot and the
op”’ is that contained in
TaBuE 37.— Volume of red maple in cubic feet,| Harvard Forest, Petersham, Mass., 1910-11.
[Revised and enlarged in 1915.]
ee a a a
Diameter,
breast-
high.
Inches.
Total height
of tree—feet.
20 | 30 | 40 | 50
60 | 70 | 80
Merchantable volume, including bark—cubic feet.
0. 25 0. 35 OSG). ‘lsoo-
- 60 7p 1.00
1.00 1.30 1.65
eee 2.15 2. 40
Sion Tepreigere 3. 45
pie ge acta | Sere or el 4.70
Eten ot | SfSle = acts 6. 05
SSaaes Re acerae 7.65
WWONNRR Re
OT ORIND OO) OUND SES Ore NOE
2
0
0 3.6
3 5. 2 6. 2
9 Toll 8. 4
8 9.4 10.8
1 12.0 13.5
7 15.0 16.7
6 18.5 20.5
9 22.5 24.8
6 26.8 29.7
8 31.6 35. 0
5 37.0 40. 7
6 43. 2 47.0
Basis.
Trees
BS ee of 5 eee 38
Fi cella 42
UPR iets Se 25
11.8 39
14.8 28
18.2 20
22.0 23
26. 4 10
31.4 9
36. 7 8
42.7 3
49.7 4
58. 4 2
| 397
1 See ‘A Volume Table for Red Maple on the Harvard Forest,”’ by E. E.Carter; Bulletin of the Harvard
Forestry Club, Vol. II, 1913, pp. 1-8.
The volumes are for stem and branch wood to a minimum diameter, outside bark, of about 2 inches at
the middle of a 4-foot length. The measurements were taken in a wide variety of types, including bottom
or swale, pine slope, swamp, and birch and maplecoppice. Most of the trees more than 6 inches in diameter _
breast-high were of seedling origin.
|
62 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
CORDWOOD VOLUMES.
So many factors affect the compactness of piled wood that it is impracticable to
include volume tables showing the contents in stacked cords! of northern hardwood
trees of different sizes. Experiments performed in the course of this study showed
that the solid contents per cord varied a great deal more with the amount of branch-
wood and the straightness of the split and round bodywood sections than with the size
of the trees alone. The solid contents per cord averaged about 71 cubic feet, but
ranged from less than 60 cubic feet for large, spiral-grained, branchy trees, to over 90
cubic feet for small, well-formed trees with few branches.
For use in average old-growth stands of northern hardwoods the following converting
factors will give fairly reliable results when applied to the cubic volumes in the pre-
ceding tables: 90 cubic feet per cord for tall, slender, straight trees with few large
branches; 60 cubic feet per cord for large, spiral-grained, branchy trees; and 75 cubic
feet per cord for trees which fall between these extremes. This is for the closeness
of utilization described in the footnotes to Tables 31-37.
Cordwood cut from small trees is apt to lie straighter and pile more compactly than
that from large timber. Consequently, cordwood tables are more practicable for
small than for large trees. Table 38 gives cordwood volumes for red maple on the
Harvard Forest, Petersham Mass.? They are based on the cubic-foot volumes for red
maple given in Table 37 and on the same number of trees, except for those of the
2-inch class, omitted in these tables. Red maples of good height for their diameters
should run about as follows:
Diameter, | Number of | Diameter, | Number of
breast- trees iper breast- trees per
high. cord. high. cord.
Inches. Inches.
50 10 6
6 20 12 4
8 9 14 3
TaBLE 38.— Volume of red maple in standard cords of 128 cubie feet, Harvard Forest
Petersham, Mass., 1910-11.
[Revised and enlarged in 1915.]
Total height of tree—feet.
Diameter,
breast- 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
high.
1 A standard cord is a pile 8 feet long by 4 feet high and 4 feet broad. Contractors usually require about
3 inches additional height to allow for settling. Where wood is intended for distillation a length of 50
inches is commonly specified. This influences the converting factor but little, compared with the other
variables.
* See “ A volume Table for Red Maple on the Harvard Forest,” by E. E. Carter; Bulletin of the Harvard
Forestry Club, Vol. II, 1913, pp. 1-8.
re
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 63
TABLE 39.—Per cent of wood in piles of red maple cordwood, based on 9 piles of from
2 to 4 cord feet each, Harvard Forest, Petersham, Mass., 1910-11.
Diameter, Diameter, Diameter, Diameter,
breast- Per cent breast- Per cent breast- Per cent breast- Per cent
high of of wood high of of wood high of of wood high of of wood
trees cut | in piles. trees cut | in piles. trees cut | in piles. trees cut | in piles.
and piled. and piled. and piled. and piled.
Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches.
3 52.5 7 58.0 11 68.0 15 74.0
4 53.6 8 60. 2 12 70.0 16 74.6
5 54.9 9 62.8 13 T1.5 17 75.0
6 56.2 10 65.5 14 73.0
GRADED-LOG SCALE TABLES.
Tables 40, 41, 42, are taken, with slight modification in arrangement, from ‘‘Graded
volume tables for Vermont hardwoods,’’ by Irving W. Bailey and Philip C. Heald,
Forestry Quarterly, Volume XII, No. 1, pages 5-23. These give the contents in
graded lumber of a large number of logs of yellow birch, hard maple, and beech, from
hardwood stands on lower slopes and foothills of the Green Mountains in southern
Vermont. The logs were run through a single-action band saw cutting a one-eighth
inch kerf, and the lumber from each was graded according to the grading rules of the
Northern Hardwood Lumber Association, the results being averaged by a curve.
The lumber was mostly 1 inch stock, sawed 14 inches thick to allow for shrinkage.
The mill crew were men of average skill, experienced in hardwood mills in other
regions.
The merchantable length of the trees was seldom over 32 feet; practically no logs
were taken above the first branches. The percentage of 1, 2, and 3 log trees was as
follows:
Birch. Maple. Beech.
llogntrecssse-. 222 4. Sse 23 22 37
2-logatrees: aie 5 = sc/ aah sepa 62 60 58
S-lopstreess nese ac ates ei sen eee 15 18 5
Nearly one-half of the logs cut were defective or abnormal in some particular.1_ The
following defects were noted in regard to their influence in decreasing the volumes of
the logs: Butt defects, top defects, crook, sweep, knots, seams, shake, miscellaneous.
For yellow birch a comparison was made of the contents of nondefective butt logs, non-
defective top logs, and the average of all logs. This showed that the difference in
volume due both to defect and position in the tree was negligible for logs under 12
inches in diameter at the small end, while for logs 12 inches and over in diameter it
amounted to about 9 per cent of the volume of the sound butt logs. It was less than
6 per cent for logs from 12 to 16 inches in diameter, and a little less than 11 per cent
for 21 to 24inch logs. The difference due to position in the tree between sound normal
top and butt logs varied from about 3 per cent of the volume of the 12 to 16 inch butt
logs to about 10 per cent of the 21 to 24 inch butt logs.
in the table for yellow birch it will be noted that the 10-foot logs show a greater pro-
portion of the poorer grades than do the longer logs. This is particularly noticeable
in the No. 1 common red and the No. 2 common grades, and is due especially to the
fact that the majority of the 10-foot logs were top logs and hence knotty and of inferior
quality.
While they can be applied with substantial accuracy only to conditions similar to
those under which they were made, these tables may perhaps be used in other regions
1 The percentages of defective logs were: Birch 43 per cent, maple 45 per cent, beech 51 per cent.
64 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
by carefully studying and comparing defects, methods of utilization, etc., and apply-
ing suitable converting factors. With these precautions graded volume tables can be
constructed by combining the graded log tables here given with Tables 43, 44, and 55,
which show the average taper of trees measured in the Lake States.
For graded volume tables actually constructed from these tables and for additional
information relative to the latter the reader is referred to the article by Messrs. Bailey
and Heald.
TaBLE 40.— Yellow birch log scale,| Windham County, Vt.
10-foot logs. 14-foot logs.
Grade of lumber. Grade of lumber.
|
| i | |
Vesper e psi ié |Ists | Diameter dats Ae iets
at small jan : | at sm: an :
end. |2ds ped. jane): 2C.|3C.|Total. ence gdeeicedi ae 1C.|2C.)3C.} Total.
red | : red. ?
Volume—board feet. Volume—board feet.
Inches. Inches.
T | cele ss leat ee 10 | 10 20 1{a\ Ree ee ee Lae 5 lal [Aon sees
Fo Jey Pies Papeete 1 pel ea 10} 10 20 dil PERE eee) Bae aoe 10 | 15 | 15 40
Qs Posse lesec| eet 15 | 15 30 C1 | eee ee) Pes 10. 215215 40
10, | 224 eases 10 | 15 | 15 40 LO eh = 5 | 15} 15 | 15 50
11 5512106) 201) 45 50 3B Til eee \- (22 10 | 20 | 20 | 20 70
12 5 | 15 } 20 |. 20 60 p PA ae ae 5 10 | 25 | 20 | 20 80
13 10 | 20 | 20 | 20 70 13 5 5 20 | 25 | 20 | 25 100
14 5 | 10 | 20 | 20 | 25 80 14 10.}° 5 25 N20 ap 20 sl eee 110
15] 5 5 | 15 | 207 20 | 25 90 15 15 | 5 35 | 30 | 20 | 25 130
16 | 10 | 10 | 20 | 25 | 20 | 25 110 16 15 | 10 40 | 35 | 20 | 30 150
17 | 10 | 15. | 20 | 30_] 20 | 25 120 17 20 | 15 50 | 35 | 20 | 30 170
¥8°}-157| 15°" 25: 19307120") 25 130 18 35 | 15 55 | 35 | 20 | 30 190
19 | 25 | 20 | 30 | 30 | 20 | 25 150 19 45 | 20 70 | 35 | 20 | 30 220
20 ; 30 | 20 } 30 | 30 | 20 | 30 160 | 20 60 | 20 75 | 35 | 20 | 30 | 240
Dig SoU De kon OOF EoomEOO 180 21 re ees) 80 | 35 | 25 | 30 270
22 | 45 | 30 | 40 | 30 | 25 | 30 | 200 22 90 | 25 90 | 30 | 25 | 30} 290
23 | 60 | 30 | 45 | 30 | 25 | 30 220 23 105 | 25 95 | 40 | 25 | 30} 320
24 | 70 | 30 | 55 | 35 | 25 | 35 250 | 24 120 | 25 95 | 40 | 25 | 35 | 340
12-foot logs. 16-foot logs.
7s) 82 sa || 10| 10) 20! Yi Pe teen eee 5 | 15 | 10
ft) sis eee 5 | 10] 15 30 Oil S. ee | aoe sews 10 | 15 | 15
UM baer) Ee 10 | 15 | 15 40 be as ape Leena Meet ae 15 | 20 | 15
LON AE eee tay | fea Lah | lied ys a ba 50 1OS| Se ees eee 5 | 15 | 20 | 20
IGE Beas ees 52/202) 15 1) 205) + 60 28 Be eee eos 10 | 20 | 20 } 20
12 |. SE LOME 2D) elo 20) 7 12 5 5 15 | 25 | 20 |} 20
13 5 5.| 15-| 20.) 15 | 20 80 13 5 5 20 | 30 | 25 | 25
14 5 5 | 20 | 25 | 15 | 30} 100 14 10} 5 35 | 30 | 25 | 25
15 | 10 5 | 25] 25°) 15 130] -110 15 15 | 10 45 | 30 | 25 | 25
16 | 15 | 10 30 | 30 | 15 | 30} 130 16 25 | 10 55 | 35 | 25 | 30
17 | 25 | 10 | 40 | 30 | 15 | 30 150 17 30 | 15 60 | 40 | 25 | 30
18 | 30 | 15 | 45 | 30 | 20 | 30 170 18 40 | 15 70 | 40 | 25 | 30
19 | 40 | 15 | 50} 30 | 15 | 30 180 19 55 | 20 80 | 40 | 25 | 30
20 | 50 | 15 | 55 | 30] 20 | 30 | 200 20 70 | 25 90 | 40 | 25 | 30
21 | 60 | 20 | 60 | 30} 20 | 30 220 21 90 | 25 100 | 40 | 25 | 30
22 | 70 | 25 | 65 | 35 |} 20 | 35 250 22 110 | 25 110 | 40 | 25 | 30
23 | 85 | 30 | 70 | 30 | 20 | 35 270 23 130 | 25 115 | 40 | 25 | 35
24 | 90 | 30 | 70 | 35 | 25 | 40 | 290 24 145 | 25 120 | 40 | 25 | 35
Based on mill tally of lumber from 1,530 logs.
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST.
TABLE 41.—Beech log scale,1 Windham County. Vt.
14-foot logs.
Grade of lumber.
1C.
2 Cro Connotal.
Volume—board feet.
Se 5 25
10 25
10 30
15 35
15 40
20 40
20 40
20 50
25 50
25 55
CURVED.
10-foot logs.
Grade of lumber.
Diameter Diameter
at Ists at 1sts
small and | 1€. |) 2'C; | 3...) Total: small and
end. 2ds. end 2ds.
Volume—board feet.
Inches Inches.
Sais 4 Ae 5 25 30 STF esos
(9). aise el Saeed 10 20 30 Si ees
10) Bosaee 10 10 20 40 Ons |e
Tih See 10 15 25 50 HUG el [ee ree
i ieee | Pee ae 15 15 30 60 12 5
13 5 20 15 30 70 13 15 -
14 10 25 15 30 80 14 20
15 15 25 15 35 90 15 25
16 20 30 20 40 110 16 35
17 30 35 20 45 130 17 45
12-foot logs
Seal ese i. Ne 505 5 25 30 Sin | aee ae
Grol sree 5 10 25 40 Orel eer ee
(Qe os See 10 10 30 50 Onn | Se ecee
Tue eae 15 15 30 60 11 Ut fe sees
12 5 15 15 35 70 12 5
13 10 20 15 35 80 13 15
14 15 25 15 35 90 14 20
15 20 30 20 40 i10 150) 30
16 30 35 20 45 130 16 40
17 40 40 20 50 150 17 55
sal Ake) 30
10 30
15 35
20 40
20 40
20 45
25 50
25 55
25 60
25 65
1 Based on mill tally of lumber from 631 logs.
637°—Bull. 285—15——5
65
66 BULLETIN 285 , U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
TABLE 42.—Sugar maple log scale,| Windham County, Vt.
CURVED.
10-foot logs. 14-foot logs.
Grade of lumber. ; Grade of lumber. °
Diameter Diameter
at 1sts at | 1sts
small and | 1C. | 2G. |-3 C.-) Total. small and | 1C. | 2C<] 3'Co,Total:
end. 2ds. end. 2ds.
| Volume—board feet. ; Volume—hboard feet.
;
Inches | Inches. }
(eek ee 2) ee 5 15 208 np eieelo pees penis 10 20 30
Saat est | See 10 20 30 8 4 4) 10 25 40
O}->|2. 52 eb] ee 10 20 30 9 10 10 20 40
1TH eas 10 10 20 40 LOW 22s eh} 15 10 25 50
7 il 5 15 10 20 50 11 5 20 10 25 60
12 5 20 15 20 60 12 10 25 15 30 80
15. »)|. 10s) 25nelt 410 el 425 70 13s} +15:)) \30'e! Tare] 430 30
14 15 25 15 25 80 14 25) 415935 20:, | 730 110
15, 25 30 15 30 100 15 35..| 40 20 35 130
16 35 30 15 30 110 16 50 40 20 | 40 150
17 50 30 15 35 130 17 60 40 20 40 160
18 60 30 15 35 140 18 80 40 20 40 180
19 75 35 15 35 160 19 100 45 20 45 210
20 90 40 15 35 180 20 120 45 20 45 230
12-foot logs. 16-foot logs.
fe eee pera 5 15 20 eB eocke ste ee 10 20 30
Slite eee ote 5 5 20 30 0317 eer 2 5 10 25 40
Ors [oleae 10 10 20 40 ES eae Sipe 10) 15 25 50
LOA sree 10 10 20 40 It) Wisesa a 15 15 30 60
i Frail bia | 10he |) 820 50 11 Sel 1204, | 6 15nelaeso 70
12 10 20 15 25 70 12 10 30 20 30 90
13 15 25 15 25 80 13 20 35 20 35 110
14 20 30 15 25 90 14. 30 40 20 40 130
15 30 35 15 30 110 15 45 45 20 40 150
16 45 35 15 35 130 16 60 45 20 45 170
17 60 35 15 40 150 17 75 50 20 45 190
18 70 20) 15 40 160 18 90 50 25 45 210
19 85 40 15 40 180 19 100 50 25 45 230
20 100 40 20 40 200 20 140 55 25 50 270
1 Based on mill tally of lumber from 943 logs.
ie
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST.
FORM TABLES.
The following tables give diameters inside bark at different heights
in Bulletin 152, ‘‘The Eastern Hemlock.’’)
TaBLE 43.—Form of yellow birch in the Lake States.
for average
birch, beech, maple, and basswood trees in Michigan and Wisconsin. Above breast-
height, the distance from the ground are in units of 8.15 feet above a 1-
These units represent the half of a 16.3-foot log. The practical use of these tables
is to permit scaling trees of given size in terms of any desired log rule, but they also
serve as a basis for comparing the species with regard to form. (See similar tables
foot stump.
50-FOOT TREES.
Height above ground—feet.
Diameter,
breast- 1 2 | 3] 4.5 | 9.15 | 17.3 |25.45 | 33.6 Ma. 75 | 49.9 | 58.05 | Basis.
high.
Diameter inside bark—inches.
Inches.
4 4.5 4.1 3.9 3.8 3.4 3.0 2.4
5 5.8 52/2 4.9 4.7 4.3 3.7 on
6 el 6.3 6.0 Hy vs 542 4.7 3.9
7 8.6 5) 7.0 6.7 6.1 5.5 4.7
Bale OMe Me Saiik | Sale| Onl Oso Osan lon.
9} 11.7 9.9 9.1 8.6 7.9 7.2 6.2
10 | 13.4 | 11.1 | 10.0 9.6 8.7 8.0 7.0
11
60-FOOT TREES.
Gu EUR CES BEC I eh Ge Shall) We och ales ekg}
5 6:1 Obo) 4.9 4.6 4.2 3.7 3.3 2.6 1.9
6 7.4 6.5 5.9 526 yal 4.6 4.0 3.3 2.3) |e
TEN ASS SMG ON ROBE al peo 2G ofa Bvy) Zsa) CEO) Ne BA) Ile
Bal LOM Serko || Onl. aOble Os Onl Onen Ono eau Oullnurcate
fh Mule 7 9.8 9.0 8.6 7.9 eye 6.3 5.3 3.9
10 | 13.0 | 10.9 9.9 9.5 8.7 7.9 7.0 5.9 4.3
11 | 14.4 | 12.07) 11.0 | 10.5 9.5 8.7 end 6.5 4.9
IZA SSSa SAO}, | LO) hese LON Se maOhse leesean | mea On emoctes
TSS fe ae 2590 L253 let ORO: 9.0 7.6 yO ipa eater nce Sres=)| eet wees & =
TAN SUSY (hella 5S Shales eR ya aly aoe fy TOL 5) |) 2374 I OEB3 ent oeclest bee 1
40
70-FOOT TREES.
BN oss IP OB EEO GeO Gee ZL EYP eb 8y Was |} BAZ) Tle) Pea 1
UW CEI CS) ZEON GON GLO G5) sO) Zoe | Spas Bee ag 4
So LORS 856" SAO N = eb) | eraOn | One eosrdal te On| Can OMe onO nesters 3
) if DEO a EEO Mba Zev Wy. Gol Get Ge ZE@y Bheb = Beal 8
1) | IP2O 4) WOR OBO ea Ra 769 |) Gal | Gil Bee Zh || BS 15
IDV EE De) Oey Chi ee EO EON GEO) | e5i | 2,7 9
TA | Tbs BAC heey | wey Woe! |) GLa | See wey) Ge) KO} BLO 15
13) 1658) |-140 0 |) 1320 |) 1253) | aes eons 9.5 | 8.5 1.2 i) 3.4 11
TAS ASSP | TaSON PS h Ss | eles Se Oe 2 9. 2 7.9 6.1 3.9 5
by jp lees Palas} Se) T4 AS SOF esa L089 9.9 8.5 6.7 4.2 2
iG) |) ZOSO alec) ai eal aa a) eS | ills 7 || OG | bP 768i 1) 4G 5
WS E225 SNL Ss5 | eli euke | LOO | iar 7n eal ese ial so Wed reba Os rere ats 2
USE 2Senle L920. |p L8s On|) LE Oe VonOnimt4 sou mlse On| bel 2s OMe Oxon isa dale ions 3
19 | 25.2 | 20.7 | 18.9 | 17.8 | 16.3 | 14.9 |} 13.8 | 12.6 | 11.2] 8.9] 5.6 2
PVD || 2Os EN) PAS PAO SS 7/4) ee) |) Ts eI as alee By fees) La Gea 1
21 | 28.1 | 23.0 | 20.9 | 19.6 | 18.0 | 16.3 | 15.1 | 13.9 | 12.5] 10.1] 6.5 1
22 | 29.8 | 24.2 | 21.8 | 20.6 | 18.8 | 17.1 | 15.7 | 14.7 | 18.1] 10.7] 6.9 1
PBS | Gillon) || Ppa) 2 srself zane) PI 7 | alo |b GS Waleio8) palate DBE 766s ieee ae 5.
24-3259) | 26:5) 2327) 22%4) 20555] 18550) 1722) | 1620) 1455 | Woe) 728 il
2534.9 |) 27.69) 24.7 1023.1 2A SONS he 8 11625) V5.1 1285. 8i3 1
26 | 36.2 | 29.1 | 25.9 | 24.0 | 22.3 | 20.2 | 18.5 | 17.5 | 15.9 | 13.1 Cet ullae sae as
90
68
BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TasLe 43.—Form of yellow birch in the Lake States—Continued.
80-FOOT TREES.
Height above ground—feet.
Diame-
aed en | 1 2 | 3 | 4.5 | 9.15 | Wee bs 45 | 33.6 i. 75 | 49.9 |58.05 | 66.2 |74.35 | Basis.
high.
Diameter inside bark—inches.
| | |
Inches.
$)|10:3°| -8.7 |-28:0. |. 7762) 7540) 26250) gO 0 2554 ae clea seek cael
93 11.7 | -9.:7. | 9542] <826: |S 8503| et 3r i652 92) 6235s 5545 Aso ul esate os
10; | 12:9) | 10. 8-} 10.0 | “9.5 8x9 Sr 2 | e756 ie Gl OeesGS05 |. 458i eoaoufmee:
11: | 14:3 | 11.9} 1150, | LOs4 e972" 28594) SF SosthiesidheOrs bees One:
12)} 1526 |. 18.2 -}-12.0 |b 32) 21005. 9.6 9.1 8.4 7.4 6.0 4.5 2.
13°) 1720: |-148.) 1350) 1253 We s4aOss 9.7 9.1 8.1 6.6 4.9 3.
14 18242). 15.3 +114. OS S13E2 i) AQ S2e aay AG ase O07 sl Saale 73 a4 alesse
15°} 19:7 |. 16.3 >) 15.2.) 14 DSS jet 28) eg) 105 5 9.4 7.9 5.9 3.
16h 211), 175 | AG eb aS SOF Eo Sel etl Opel sie Ost 8.4 6.3 4,
17 (22.5 | 18:6.) 170 | 1620.) 14-8.) ASs4 e256 | 11-8.) 10.7 8.9 6.8 4,
183) 24! 0, [19581850 16292) 15.6 ila 2 sa su 122 be] 11S |S OlGn ease eas
19 | 25.4 | 20.9 | 19.1 | 17.8 | 16.4 | 14.9 | 13.9 | 13.1 | 11.9 | 10.1 7.8 5:
20) | 27.0 | 22.2 }-20:2: } 1858 | 1753" |=1556 | 1457 | 1357) 1205 4087 [2858 ese
21} 2825 | 23.4 | 2h2°) 1927-1 18:4 e1624.)21523, | 1403.) 380 A113 Sia, 5:
22 | 30:2 |-24:'6.1/22.2-| 20:6: | 19205 (21752: | 1650). 14.9:)01357,)'41..8:) 9:2-)36:
23} S158 -|-2650) 122352 4° 2125 119! 7 Jol 7s 82| 1665) 5855) 1 4e2- | 125301) 87 ee
24-| 33.5 | 27.4 247 4° 22045)" 200 55) 18552) 17.3), ) 1650 | 14-77 | 12-9-|°10.2:) 6:
25 | 35.3 | 28.9 }°25.3 |°23.3 |°21.3 |.19:3-| 18.0.) 16.8] 15.3-] 13.4°| 10.6 | 7.
26 | 37.0 | 30.3 | 26.3 | 24.2 | 22.1 | 20.0 | 18.7 | 17.4 | 15.9 | 13.8] 11.0] 7.
21 \-38:7 | BU987 270.3 125.1] 235062088) 92371 1759) 1644 4 Sia A ze
28 | 40.5 | 33.4 | 28.3 | 26.0 | 23.7 | 21.5 | 20.0 | 18.5 | 17.0 | 14.8] 11.8] 7.
a3 el ees 34.9 | 29.3 | 26.9 | 24.6 | 22.3 | 20.7 | 19.1 | 17.5 | 15.4] 12.3] 8.
30 \essoe 36.6 | 30.3 | 27.8 | 25.3 | 23.0 | 21.3 | 19.7 | 18.0 | 15.9 | 12.7]. 8.
90-FOOT TREES.
|
16 | 20.6 | 17.:7.| 16.4 }.15.1 | 13.9.| 12:9 | 12.1. | 11:3.|.10.3-|. 9.3:|-7.9.| 6.3} 4:3
AT |) 2253) A859 | 74a 6 | 487 40135 510297) 1109) | ADO sts 9383) 8401) G5 Gules
18 | 24.0 | 20.0 | 18.4 |.16.9 | 15.6 | 14.3 | 13.4 | 12.5] 11.6) 10.4] 89] 7.1] 48
195) 25561021263 2)1924411759, 11653211550, al 4. 0 ISS 2a 25 2, | 0150) | 94s e aoe:
20 | 27.3 | 22.6 | 20.5 | 18.8 | 17.2 | 15.7 | 14.7 | 18.8 | 12.8) 11.5] 9.9] 7.8} 5.3
21 | 29.0 | 24.0 | 21.5 | 19.8 | 18.1 | 16.5 | 15.5] 14.6 | 13.5 | 12.1] 10.4] 8.1] 5.5
22 | 30.6 | 25.3 | 22.6 | 20.7 | 18.9 | 17.24 16.1 | 15.2 [14.1 | 12.7] 10.9] 85] 5.7
23 | 32.5 | 26.7 | 23.6 | 21.7 | 19.7 | 17.9 | 16.8 | 15.9 | 14.8 | 13.3] 11.3] 89] 6.0
24 | 3452") 2850 7|5 242 7 1° 22.°7..] 2056) 1857 | 17857) 1685. | 1524 | 1389) | BSS O58 Gas
25 | 36.0 | 29.6 | 25.6 | 23.6 | 21.4-|. 19.5 | 18.2 | 17.2 | 16.1} 14.5] 12.3] 9.6] 6.5
26 | 37.6 | 31.0 | 26.6 | 24.5 | 22.2 | 20.3 | 18.9 | 17.9 | 16.8 | 15.1 | 12.9] 10.1] 6.8
27| 892615 32).60| Dial 25s 4 Loe 212 lek SONG 1866s L724 de da pelowos tel Ono a tameenh
28 | 41.7 | 34.2 | 28.8 | 26.5 | 24.0 | 21.9 | 20.4 | 19.3 | 18.1 16.2} 13.8} 10.9] 7.3
29), | See 35.9 | 29.9 | 27.5 | 24.9 | 22.7 | 21.1 | 19.9 | 18.8 16.9 | 14.3 | 11.2] 7.6
0h aeaeee 37.5 | 30.9 | 28.6 | 25.8 | 23.5 | 21.8 | 20.7 | 19.5 | 17.5_| 14.9 | 11.7] 7.9
69
Trees.
06°) 6 ff) Wj G20
hoget oo eo do
reve tet De a DO
THAN 9 09 SH SH 19 1D
14
pice nde Fite eivurmte ainsi e otevevn alse) ealarep ale!
ANN MOH HINIDOOOOm™ -
LD ra P= OF) O21 4 00 SH
NOD OD SHH 1D CO COE
S019 00 © st 03 ©
OD Of SHLD CO COL 00
MOONOHHAHBDMM- ANOS
ANID SH SHAD COL Le ODO RMODOO rN
aee
4.5 | 9.15 | 17.3 2.45 | 33.6 | 41.75 | Basis.
40-FOOT TREES.
50-FOOT TREES.
Height above ground—feet.
Diameter inside bark—inches.
2
|
Tas Le 44.— Form of beech in Michigan.
1
A oD SHLD CO Ey
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST.
NOD SHAD 6 De 00
high.
breast-
Inches.
Diameter,
LID HOO AHO Oro
COILS ICIS)
Orth O99
MO TID ODDO
a
oF haem orKorie 2)
TOM DODO
re
To OD SH 1 CO P= CO >
MIN OI OHAHOMN
ae
WOMDANO OW HD ODO
60-FOOT TREES.
MAOWO MOL HOM O1D St
So oo hs Dh
KOM MHOrtANOnmManon
OS te COCO Sion Eom MO So TG 2G
Se
OO OH 019 19.10 HH HOD
AIS SrMOHBSANGS ISOM
Se Oe Do Be
ANKARAHROOCHONRNAANN
Se Oe OB eB
IDO OOO OADONC) HID
Se Oe Oe Bs Oe
1 Wexford County,
Basis.
LAAUIDAGDOOOMOAA |
IMOONDKMAARMAMH |
' =) ae ‘i
; ;
; ‘
‘
O < TRAC TMSCORT i sOnet\ 1” Ga reo
rote tH AIIM OMON
TAN AA 09 09 09 SH SH HID LS OO
SMA NN OD OO SH tH tH 1
49.9 )»505) 66.2
SMNOCOA-MAHWMOOMIr-N
OD SH HID ID OOM OBDOOOr
Son oon Bo |
D1) D2 SH OID OD cH OO Hl 0 OH
Mackie sis Hic B iro W nt ae Keer IS)
mS HOWM MOM HOM HY HO
Hd SSM ASDASHHAG
Soe Oh oe Oh oe os |
33.6 js.
25.45
17.3
DAM MRBAHOOHAr-MNOONY
eset St st
Ch HHOIDHAONDAr OOM
IN GSrKASBSASHHAAGHH
Se A oe Oe he Oh oe ee |
NOMODHHROMOM AHH
Se rn Oe Oe
ADMORNADUIAMDMOAD IN OD
Sen oe Oe Oe oe Be |
MA~HODMNOCHr1INMODO
70-FOOT TREES.
Height above ground—feet.
WSK HHBASHADADTISSr
Seas
80-FOOT TREES.
Diameter, inside bark—inches.
COOKE OOOMAH HH tt
SOM HASBSHAGASSrAS
Soe ore on Oe De
LD HM ANAANAAAN AD oo tH
SHABSHAGASSrASS
Se es Boe ih Oe Boe he Oh oe
DOHAHDMRBOOCHAMAHOWSO
Me ABSHAMOABSR ASSN
BAA HNN
LDA Dl HH OO MHI INDO
OM DBDOOCTHN OD OD HIN 19 O
Sn Oo en OO On
DOMARMNINCOWOHAGE
82
MAOCMM-OAMAOMOOCMHN
Se es Oe ee Oe
PH ODOOIDMAHMOMMANN
NASDSHAGHISSRASSH
AAA AAA TNN
COMANANANA A 09 69 HID OO
Tasie 44.—Form of beech in Michigan—Continued.
BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
MASHAM SN SHSHAM ISR SHAotidr ASH A WSR AG
AAA AHR HNNNANNN SAA AA ANANNNANAANN
OMDRDONRNANMANIDOM ODO DRHOAAMHAWOM-DWDRBONnN
os MANA HN SAAR RAR TNAN
i)
=
Ss
i
I
70
71
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST.
TaBLe 44.—Form of beech in Michigan—Continued.
90-FOOT TREES.
eS z 7 . Tin ia
1 ‘ 1
A g tTHHONMOHDOKNMMAN tH + , OTH. Ho Rod disciGaGa ete las
Be = . — ‘ 0p 8.0 000 GeTHE Olan ce dh =
' :
faa) & ‘ ; rate Oyo > Deol 0
' 0 6.0=.0 Odo f
7 ote 0 Gan
Lee | eh te | ee eset n se ea net ons, G20 < Oth Geont Oo - f.0- 0 of MHOMODANMADHAMONMON GME
Cet |e Weta | eee eoeeoscte sO ancien jaw on ‘ Betty al ica ll] he oueatarrs bee Peart ara a ead Ue cca methane aL NS
ba C0 Che Oa etecd tr ets teste cer ae oO ‘ 5 ANKMwiowmttinmsSoorKrnrnr
Oct Od SUD ECO Vis aCe br Gain oer eO 20
nS MOM AOADOADOMm™ AO OMOOD NOMI AIMAMON~-NOO1NS
<i HANNS OH idiniGDSOr Kr HHS HIM iAG GH SSN rocgsassd
™ rm
nN DAHON AMDIIDOON~ DOHOONMr De 09) 00 HOD 19 = 09 DLN HE 09 C10 ©
; Aosttis is Sr Kr add acdind Hig scssranagonnaanas
ro . Seana HOO) Sanaa
ee) DAHOONDNAHAr-MDOSCAGOANADO Rs DHHA-=MOOMOOMOOMA-N
o Stig isSSrAdaSSHAAN MO sis WOK KAGASHAAKH AA HidS
09 | ee |
o rOMAMDADNOHOHHDNOnHOHAE DiIDNAADONDOMOMtTOMMHCO
a SHH SSOKAADBSOSHAANHADSO SrKODASSHAN HHA in inoKr
<4 ee enn Sea AeA
ay 19 3 OMAODOANDOM OM HHO INHMOMNA OMOMAHOOMOMINN DO Ore
S a a WON CKASBABSHAANAN HHI SCOKN A KODODBORRADTMHAOOKADS
= a 5 Sea AAAs : See AAAS
| A=) wa
‘g (Yo) | AO Hr DO 09 O00 0) OP HH O19 OD oat ADOMHARDOAHAO- HNO ANA
3 os ra SSKABBSOHAANAKH HIN SON AD ie BASSHHAANHAHISSOKRKADS
5 a a SAAN AANA fac} Se AeA AN
ivy ES! a ; =
> 1 oe SCrAKDSBSHHAAH HS GOK KAaS re) DASSSHAGHA DORK ASSS
© ne a SAA ARAN = AeA AAR IN
3 = =
3 oO B CHOAHASCHONANOWOMAAM IN Fa SCMiNUNHOM-MMARAMMONSDHO
a NC > LNKASBSHAAGD HOS SK AOKBSSH = BSSHAAHAHINSOSCHOGBSSH
OO | | SAA AAA AAR AN = RANA RAH AAN
Oo =
8
jan) 19 A HMHOANONDWOMOAMNNOMHrOIOMON HAOMDr~ CIM HOD OH 6 19 Hh XH OD
inf NASBSSHAHHAIOSKE ASD SHAG SSHHAGA SOK KASD SHAG
oa SRA AAAS ANAANA SHARAN AN
10 COCO OOIMIDHHMMMOAANE AS CORP OriMiH HAM OANANNANANANNA
: NABSHADANHOSOKADSHAN GHD SSnAGHISDSOKADSHAS IS
s BASRA ANNANANN SAAR NNAANAN
OD OD OD CN OD CVD YD OD CD CD “SH CD OD SH CD cH CD SH OD OD cH CD SH OD SH OD 09 OD SH SH 19 CO P00 OO
oc) DHBSHAGDHAGDSKADSHAANG tics SAAGBADSRADSHAD TOR
RAH ANNANNNANN ARRAN NANNANN
OD DOONMMINS OMDOMN O HID PH ORDOHMAMMOEM-WOONMOORMH
N SH SHH ADSKRADSH MMOS SAAAHSK ABSA SHOD
OO SSR AR AAaAAN SARA AANANANAAN
MOLD DA HODANIOM AAW O19 OGNAMMWDON AHEM Orato Dri to
|| a | REDS eseorom arn mati ie ecmon On fhe Se ee) MTS ee memeber Jepepae eteie nee stint rey Way eprom bars
AO 119 00 DONO HINO ODONO + IN OM WOOAN DM HIDDORDON Gs
ess NNNNNN NN OD 09 0 OD RAR NANNANANNN OD 00 09 OD
1 1 .
SANMHDOrDAHOnAN GD t1I9NS SANMAHNOPDDOWN GM Hid
4 ad Bo A AANA SAHA ANAANANAAN
Le}
32 @ 00 ‘3
AP eg
Q N
'
‘
’
‘
Distal oe Ose,
‘
’
’
TA NN OD) tH 19 19 6
AOOIMMNOOM
AN OD SH 1d 6 ff 00
OO P19 09 HOD COD H
NOD SHI OO LOCO
15
Pt NN OD SH tH 1 19 OO I~ OO
DODOMMDHOMNHO- tH
HA GHA ISSSNMKABASHN
ree
HADONOMANOHDOAHNOHID
Aosta isSr dadacdiada
rea
ArOMMHOrOTHOM ING
AstiGgcorrdagssniiads
be Oe Oo oe Oe
50-FOOT TREES.
HOODOO 1N MS
GO. AF 109 6S = COC
~ONMNODWOO
COSC e900 COC
60-FOOT TREES.
Height above ground—feet.
Diameter inside bark—inches.
DOM™OMMOMHO
OD HID Oh ODO
ae
CONAOOO rh 19
Tigo rr ODOr
ae
WATDOMrOMMAAr~OMN
SG SMAI A Srl os widis
9 SMe) ms brs Pe oe es Fe
WOM OM AMMO MDWOOIDH
Suen. sake een eMniei ote Ba CRO ORO GS
ANAOMDO Wr O19 HOOD
TABLE 45.—Form of sugar maple in the Lake States.
1
>|
BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
breast-
high.
Inches.
Diameter, |
ARBWOM~M~ OID
Tig Srdaagaoina
aeeire
HMIDOM™-DWHMOnN
rit
72
1 Gogebic and Wexford Counties, Mich.; Marinette and Vilas Counties, Wis.
73
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST..
Tase 45.—Form of sugar maple in the Lake States—Continued.
70-FOOT TREES.
94
az 8 DOONAN TINIAN IAA: ira) MFINOMRAHOMIMAMAH Tol 0
n o aan ' ' 00 aoAnN os oo. '
a = . oo '
a 5 ee
' ‘ ‘
a Det r Pel aps OmOt Ss bO=0mD2Oe Di peo 3u oO MOAHOHHNOHNOMNOMODOMKAME
3S ASHE UE MiPDan org apenebe Tepes yon: Hen HHididicicdcdoivit aid SSS NG
3 ANIANOCOSMWDMOOMORANO OA MAOOW AOR ORO REAR NEN OMIM
oO SHHAHANKH MMH HidiWinidcOorE Aso ti dtig SSSrrndadsaaosnninane
Ye) AAAs
a WOMAN MRDNOONPRH ANH OoOrs ODOM DMDIONAN DOA O19 OO NI OD C00
a FANG OHH GSO HHDSBBSSH MAGGS SSrMAHDSBSSHHAANH ATH AD iSSS
“ i Se ae eh he aed
he DWAONHDOA-APDAHOM TAO MAMA DINDBIONDOAY MOM Aro
= AGTH SHS eK AADHBSSHHAAG WIHSSKHABSSHAAG HAO HSKK DS
m ae aed Se ee ae he hee |
3 ——— | eel)
a oO q OLN N WD1ID A DW AO OIDAI~- NODS LID AHOOMO-MAAM- OAS HOW-MNDO nto
oP oo S| OHS GSM DAABSSHAANG OS Id WSSKHBSBSBSHAANHH A OSSHAHHAS
| or) 7 Sessa a BRA AeA
ue)
+
= ie) a MAAOMARDONDONDMO Ar Har a SHIM ODIO NN Dl HOMmMDAON O19 SI oD
> ~ 18 gece ais Seats an Ge ED [cone Meer tts ee Sa Gn rao OD feo 20
2 1S 2 PID IDO DAHRAHOSHANMHHINSO SSr~HDABHBSOHRHAAGDHTHMOMONERWDDSBSOS
bb a Sanaa eRe a Se RAR NNN ANN
——_ oO
Oo
va ag OiwMmq dat ODO MAO MAM INNHDON a 1D OD OD P= 19 09 © 019 0) OP HS 19 HOO HN 1D
3 X 4 TiSSrOASSHAA GH SOON A ro) ECrOHDSBSHAAG HIS SSRN ASBSSHHAA
3 inl 4 Sees AAAS 5 FAA ASA SRA RANANN
fe
os) )
a Yen) > COO OCMIHNAOrO HAO O1INM OO Fe SOP 19 HA HOM 19 1 HOO 1D MN OOOH 10 OD
One eS ee eS PIE ORT BORO yO Ot <1 het el keh Pee el et Ie pal Ped ope) (OR a RRO aay ag ALS OY OOO OO
. Q 19 © © P= OO SORA NA OD tH 19 19 CO P= COD ~~ 0 mAN = OOMmMODOnARNM MIO
3 for) 8 RS Pi OS POETS aE REISS ir SS SHH ~ PN SS SS SAAS RARNANaaAR
SSS. ere
ae WSN ABAHSHAAGHAOSKRADBASH MOBSHHAAGH SSK ASBSHAG HIS SN ow
AeA ARR NN SSSR NNANNNNANNN
MmIHANAN RAAB AHDOAARWODO CO UD 1D SH OD HOD 0D 09 09 0 OD SH SH HIND CO P= ODOTN
Go) IWSrDHSBSHAGH id ioe Kr dHodds MOBSHAGDHMDSORASDSHAGDHSSHSDS
MAAR HNNN RNS HNNNNNNNAN SS
AOD D DH OMI OrADDROnS SADDOOS O 9 HOD 09 19 OE SD) 4 09 19. CO OD OD 1
N SCrKADHSHAGHIOSRAASAGH BHGBSAGHSSKASDSHADHSKHSBAIN
AAs AAA AANAN AAA NNANNNNANNANN NOD OD
~~ OODAMOMOMONWDAHRDOMOO DAH AIAN OGAMOWMHAMDOMWOWMAONDS
ra SrOGBHANHONADSHAHSWSH DHSHAMSSHAS HASH SHAH SESS
AAA NNNNNN OOD SSR NNNN ANN OD 09 69 09 0 OD OD
1 OM™DHOHAANAMHINOMORDOnAND DHOANMDAHiQO LD OHOMANANDMHNIDOh WORDS
S| a Sees ARR RNNNNN RASS SSSA NNNANNANNNANANNN SD
we 2 vo
s —
Asa iS
74 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TapBie 45.—Form of sugar maple in the Lake States—Continued.
90-FOOT TREES.
—_
Height above ground—feet.
Diam-
5 cher 1 2 3 | 4.5 | 9.15 | 17.3 | 25.45 | 33.6 | 41.75 | 49.9 | 58. 05 66.2 | 74.35 | 82.5 | Basis.
high.
Diameter inside bark—inches.
Inches. Trees.
10 | 11.6 | 10.0 9.5 9.3 8.8 8.3 160 eek 6/55] 25.8 4.7 3.0 gt sas if
VA | 13405) 11305) 10158) 51082, 9.6 9.0 8.5 7.9 (ee 6.5 5.3 3.7 Di2el 2 soon Soe
122) W435. | 12405 (0h 4s) Di ae ONS: 9.8.) > 9.2 8.7 8.1 (B73 5.8 | 4.1 2.5
13 |) 15.9 | 13.'2-) 12.4 |.11.9:) 41.25) 10::6-) -10.'0 9.4 8.8 7.9 6.4 4.6 2.8
14;) 1754. | 14)3°) 138.40) T2785) Love ai 4 10.18) 4 1072 9.6 8.6 7.0 Sal 3.1
157) 1858°) 15585 | 14032) 138 7a 1239 1252 wT ea) 10395 | LOvS 9.2 7.6 DID 3.4
165)°20.3°| 16i55| ASI4 5) 1457s) Ba 29M 2S) L725) SL ek 9.9 8.2 6.0 3.7
17) 2197) | L785s | 16540-15050) 4 364) 13 7521 12 Out 2 iba) ell Sel L016 8.8 6.4 4.0
18%). 2351-) 18272) 17/55 | 6356154215 1453.) ebos6y los La) boon lebih 9.4 6.9 4.3
19 | 24.5 | 19.7 | 18.5 | 17.4 | 16.3 | 15.2 | 14.5 | 13.8 /.138.2 | 11.9 9.9 1533 4.6
20 | 25.9 | 20.9 | .19.5:|.18.3 | 17.1} 16.0 | 15.2.) 14.6 | 13.9.| 12.5.} 10.5 7.8 4.9
21 | 27.3 | 22.0)) 20.5-)19.2, | 17.9.) 16.7 | 1559.) 15.2) | 14.5 1°13/1,) 111 8.3 552
22.) 28.7 | 2351.) -21 252) 22082:,| P8582) ves oa! 6. Se |ulos9e| Lo I2,| 1318.) 2b1 16. Sli Dao)
23°) 30.17 | 24525) 922255) 52152-11945.) L825) ck7sda (LG 5b 58) | l474-) 221 9.1 5.8
24 | 31.5 | 25.4 | 23.6 | 22.1 | 20.4 | 19.0 | 18.0 | 17.2 | 16.4 | 15.0 | 12.7 9.5 6.1
25 | 82:8: | 26255) 224252 | e235 1521 Suet fel 8 A7e | oki. (a)| <bean lo.tGil slide Lgl el OS0 6.4
26 | 34.2 | 27.6 | 25.6 | 24.1 | 22.1 | 20.5 | 19.3 | 18.4 726) 116.2.) 1357, | 10.4 6.7
27,| 35.5 | 2828)) 26.7 | 25.1 |<22..9) | /2152-(-20. 1. | 19..1.).185 1-16.18") 14.:3-| 1028 ht OF Byers | Sree
28 || 37105) 2989) (27278) 26s 0a) 2307212250520 7ePo19: 7. | SKSel 7S) elas Or | ass he Seal Basoase
29 \2 38534) Slash 1 2847 2720s 24072287 (e205) 02055. L9sSs au 1ShOs| Loss, |) LL ad TET rok eel Senos
302) 395.7 423253 12928 ||) 2852) 2525212385 * 22257) | 2730.) 2020 11826 -|) 1529) |) Laat S20 Sess seeeee
45
100-FOOT TREES.
|
12>) L558) el 255) t/a Tse | LOSS 9.9 9.5 9.1 8.5 lanl 6.7 by 5) 420 2nlalaeeeees
T3y| L720) 138855) 2s 7 | 11S Oe | el S35) 10562) 1ON2F| & Gy 8n le 983, 8.4 7.4 6.0 4x5 Soa0l| seeeee=
14 | 18.3 | 14.5 | 13.8 | 12.9 | 12.2 | 11.5 | 11.0 | 10.6 | 10.0 9.1} 8.0 6.5 AAO? isaa: loemeat
15 | 19.6 | 15.7 | 14.8 | 18.8 | 13.0 | 12.3 | 11.9 | 11.4 | 10.8 9.9 8.7 teal 5.3 | 3.6 1
16 | 21.0.):1628 [215.7% | 4.7.) 1329-) 1321 |-4226-| 12/2) | 1155") 10.6 9.3 Cela Os Ontos U eee
17 | 22.1 | 17.9 | 16.8 | 15.6 | 14.7 | 13.9.| 13.5 | 13.0 | 12.3 | 11.4 | 10.0 8.2 (S34 CSET Ise Se
18 | 23.5 | 19.0 | 17.8 | 16.5 | 15.6 | 14.8 | 14.3 | 18.7 | 18.0 | 12.1 | 10.6] 8&8] 67] 4.4 2
19 | 24:7 | 20.1 |.18.8 | 17.5 | 16.4] 15.5 | 15.0 | 14.5 | 13.8 | 12.8 | 11.3 9.3 ToL ae Sulece cece
20 | 26; 1°] 2151.) 19.7. | 1824 | 1773: |, 16:3.) 15:7 | 15.1.) 14.5, |-13.5.) 11.9) |) 959 VEG el aya! 3
ZA 272 4a 221 P20 N 7a LOS Ss al Se le lok 7o Ls | 1625) L5sOul plows | 14s le Oty on One (AG Os 4a = arene
22. | 2828: (2352) [p20 Tal 20832] 1920s [072.94] 1752-16255) 1527 12142 7 138 OF LOL St ar Sacnlnoet 3
23) | 302 0) 224531 p2256i e203: (LON Sr | 18) 7) o0789) Vet 6S) los hosed | mule 8.7 | 6.0 3
24 | 312525545 192306: [222027 | 205 TLE Sy el Sh%, [ek ZS9) [LT 1S | TGS ae See Or Os 2alGs an eeeeeee
25 | 32.8 | 26.4 | 24.5 | 23:1 | 21.5 | 20:3 | 19:4 |-18.5 | 17.7 | 16.7} 14.8] 12.5) 9.7 | 65 2
26 .| 34..2,)-27) 5) 1-25) 5) [2421 1-22! 4) 1, 2100) 1-200) [195 L 1823 17.3) 05) oO) TOSOn Gar i eenee ae
27 | 35.5 | 28.6 | 26.5 | 25.1 | 23.2 | 21.8 | 20.8 | 19.8 | 19.0 | 17.9 | 16.1 | 13.3 | 10.3 | 7.1 1
28 | 36.9 | 29:7 | 27.4] 26.0 | 24.0 | 22.5 | 21.5 | 20.5 | 19:6 | 18.5 | 16.6 | 13.9 | 10.8] 7.3 te=-----
29) | 38.2 13027 | 2823) S27 0N)e2458 [C2303 2252) 212 ft 2002) 19) Te L753 Se be ee eon | eee
30 | 39.6:|-31.8 | 29.3 | 27.9 | 25.7 | 24.1 | 22.9 | 21.7 | 20.7 | 19.6.| 17.9 | 15.1 |. 11.5] 7.7 2
17
75
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST.
TABLE 46.—Form of basswood in the Lake States.
30-FOOT TREES.
Trees.
Height above ground—feet.
i, Linn) nen
f20 0 Wet yg
Ot Oe iti 20 i050
Goo ou uN OG
0 Sn SO <0 Seo
bab a0 a0 0 0
Chri De Osh eo
i 0" a0) Cet wo
G0. ow Or
0. SAG OF 10
Poop a on
Qe heel Oe Oot
CAE te oe Dy athe O
CA 0 th th a0
TANI NI 0 HAD >
row snore
MN OD HID Ol
?
Diameter
breast-
high
Diameter inside bark—inches.
SOADAAD OH
NOD OD SHLD COL
MAN 19
N69 SHLD CO r= 00
NOD tH 1 tO P= 00
Inches.
40-FOOT. TREES.
tt NOD OD SH HD CO
1D OD ADE 19 Nr
opel ie pomueSietueniatia
rN OD OF) SHAD CO PP
~rOMUAHMOARHOO
THN OD SHAD COI CO OD
DH DO CO O14 <H <H H
HAO ISSO AS
SODAAMWMWAADAD
NOD OD SHLD COLD= 00 OD
MAAN ODO OD
ONGOING SICA CDi
CNIGE NJROTC IES:
50-FOOT TREES.
a -o oa 0
HOHOMHE MOON
HAAS sido
HH OM NO oO oD H100190
fo) PYa;) Se) a) ie elie Sip ve ieee
THN OD SH SH LOD CO P= 00 00
~OiDsHMAROOCOD
MAND AHIDOM ODO
a4
SOMAMWAAAWRWO4
NOD OF HID COM ODN
nore
AAANDNIOAMEA
AgswssraAaciari
aS
NAO HIDtOMmOADOnN
ae
1 Charlevoix and Kalkaska Counties, Mich.; Iron and Price Counties, Wis.
CLC cA en ele ret Aly SO SOL GS lat Leo
TAN AN 09 OD SHH HID 1D CO CO COP I COS
ON MONHOAOCOHEMAHOOND
Aso didids srr sadagasaiad
reese
OD C2 UD rat B= 6) OD 1D 01) 00 HO P= 09 2 tO 0 ID
Dernier ace alr) a OO hy st Ere To SOO oO
TH OVA 09 OD Or) SH HAD 1D CO CO
MAHOUWNDOIORII~ MOD
AN 6D HHI ID OM OAD
ROSAS Mc PI 00 > 6 eat ao ah AS)
Ss a he he ae es ee
MADIDNROMOK MHL HORMOM
eve) fie) “efile velive! sauiro tue) | le, ete mie eaehcemke mle
MHOOWHAODONMNOON SY
bo Os oe eB ee |
LTO OOP OO loo alltel Cy
erie eset casera Wie, We, cue ie ehteg es =e be emilieollerale ser vel ere ey anne ula artip rye mien unas rere nee ene ney,
aed
AAMDONNANODOIMO
e) ho ke see Rie vie lle eva iawn le ieee GL (PNP an |u .pehtnemels wie dep wemibieienpe lena repre nnueamen ne,
rebel Sn On On es Oe ee ee
60-FOOT TREES.
Diameter inside bark—inches.
Height above ground—feet.
70-FOOT TREES.
Galette biarlghail paren ee.
lNWMAMARHOCORHONE
SA isSradasssinds xi
Sn oon on Boe A tn on en BO ee he De | ag
COD <H SH HH HH 19 19 191919 19.1919 1 tO
6. a Wie; sie ghicetonars diUefete et cp apne eiirepuel ee,
CO 8 80.10 HH cH SH cH cH 10 1 1D
AARARAAROHNHOHO
COIS SMASH Ad Hid cS
Sees
‘elterdte)ve ete: Mepce, letverse, seimareamenr em et renee,
1 tO i DANMWHINDOWDRON Hid
wees SAAR RRA NANNANNN
TAN IDLO DOE NO tH 4100
Side Wapre lle nethonne doi wmemmanmeyse Wiel Heb etme: te.
BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Tasie 46.—Form of basswood in the Lake States—Continued.
Diameter,
breast-
|
|
|
|
|
|
76
Md cGétaanast I~ BS BOMWHBDAANMSTBOATOE BONG
pe Ih Te rhenoS Pai ac SE SSAA ARRAS
AOMm™ODnD re (a a ~ rN MWOM™ODOnNAD st
nay Soe Ne SS Oe a eet AOA ACl
Inches.
fen ‘
ASH OHO Pe Pr 2
we ' Peete hneny
14 ‘ Leche 6
en ‘ estes eat
DWAIOA AM OOHOHIDO HOM NON
Ke
~é
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST.
TABLE 46.—Form of basswood in the Lake States—Continued.
80-FOOT TREES.
Trees.
THR MANOR DOORN MOMMA |
Height above ground—feet.
Oo Oe po ae ao
4.5 | 9.15 | 17.3 2545] 33.6 175) 49.9 58.05 66.2 | 74.35 | Basis.
Diameter, |
breast-
nigh
Diameter inside bark—inches.
OS LO Ue] aL aL) Oe nC AO) Pe ae ap RCD J CREO sa AO: IM Os
oO HL
ANN
78 BULLETIN 285, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE 46.—Form of basswood in the Lake States—Continued.
90-FOOT TREES.
Height above ground—feet. |
Diameter
preast- | 1 | 2 | 3 | 45 9.15 | 17.3 | 25.45 | 33.6 | 41.75 | 49.9 | 58.05 | 66.2 74.35) 82.5 Basis.
high ai SE Ara pvt leesan |e |e bse ea)
Diameter inside bark—inches.
Inches. Trees
10|11.3| 9.9| 94] 90] 85] 80| 751 7.11 66| 5.9] 5.2144) 3.2147 (|...)
11 | 12.7 | 11.0 | 10.4 | 10.0) 954.088 |8i3:|77 17.2 |. 6.6| 5.7] 4.8 | 3-6) mon leememe
12 | 14.2 | 12.1 | 11.4.|10.9]103] 95| 89| 84] 728] 7.1] 6215.3/391/20|. 2
13 | 15.8 | 13.2 | 12.4 | 11.8 | 11.1] 102| 9:6] 9.:1| 85) 7.71 -6815.8|43|22| 3
14| 17.4 | 14.4 | 13.5] 12.8 | 12.0] 11.0| 103] 98] 91) 83] 741621451231. 2
15 | 19.1 | 15.6-| 14.5 | 13.7 | 12.8 11.8 | 11.0] 10.4] 9.8] 9.0] 7.9167\491|25) 2
16 | 20.8] 16.8 | 15.5 | 14:7 | 13.6] 1251]11.7]111]104| 96| 85|7.215.2\/26| 7
© 17/22.6| 181 | 16.5-| 15.6 | 14.4 | 13.2 | 12.4 | 11.7|11.0|10.2| 9.017.6!5.6|28| 5
18 | 24.3 | 19.4 | 17.5 | 16.6 | 15.2 | 13.9 ; 13.0 | 12.3 | 11.6| 10.8] 96|80)5.9|3.0| 4
19 | 26.0 | 20.8 | 18.5 | 17.5 | 16.0 | 14.6 | 13.7 | 12.9 | 12.2] 11.31101|85/6.3/31] 4
20 | 27.6 | 22.0] 19.5] 18.5 | 16.8) 15.3 | 14.3 | 13.6 | 12.8) 11.9] 106/91)/66)13.2| 20
21 | 29.1 | 23.3 | 20.5] 19.4} 17.6 | 16.0] 15.0] 142] 13.4 |124/111/95) 70/34] 12
22 | 30.6 | 24.5 | 21.6 | 20.3 | 182 | 16.7 | 15.7 | 14.8 | 14.0] 13.0] 11.7/9.9|7.2136| 6
23 | 32.1 | 25.7 | 22.6 | 21.2] 19.2) 17.4) 16.3] 154] 145]13.6) 122 104) 76/37) 7
24 | 33.4 | 26.8 | 23.6 | 22.2 | 19.9 | 18.1 | 17.0 | 16.0 | 15.2 | 14.2 | 12.8 110.917.9]3.9| 8
95 | 34.8 | 28.0 | 24.7 | 23.1 | 20.7] 18.8117.6| 16.6 | 15.8 | 14.9 | 13.3 11.4183) 40] 4
26 | 36.1 | 29.2 | 25.8 | 24.1 | 21.5 | 19.5 | 18.3 | 17.2 | 16.4 | 15.4 | 14.0 111.9|/87143| 6
97 | 37.4 | 30.3 | 26.8 | 25.0. | 22.2 | 20.2] 18.9] 17.9 | 16.9 | 15.9 | 14.4 1123/91/46] 3
28 | 38.7 | 31.5 | 27.9 | 26.0 | 23.0 | 20.8 | 19.6 | 18.5 | 17.5 | 16.5 | 15.0 [12:8|9.6| 4.9] 2
29 | 40.0 | 32.6 | 29.0 | 26.9 | 23.8 | 21.6 | 20.2 | 19:1 | 181 |17.1|155133|99|5.2| 3
30 | 41.2 | 33.8 | 30.0 | 27.9 | 24.5 | 22.4 | 20.9] 19.7 | 18.7 | 17.7 | 16.0 113.7 10,.4|5.5] 1
31 | 42.6 | 34.9 | 31.1 | 28.8 | 25.4 | 23.0 | 21.5 | 20.2 | 19.3 | 183 | 16.6 14.2 l10.8|5.7| 3
32 | 43.8 | 36.0 | 32.1 | 29.8 | 26.1 | 23.7 | 22.1 | 20.9] 19.9 | 18.8 | 17.1 |14.7 }11.2| 6.0 |....--
33 | 45.2 | 37.2 | 33.2 | 30.7 | 27.0 | 24.4 | 22.8 | 21.4 | 20.5 | 19.3 | 17.6 |15.1 [11.6162] 2
34 | 46.5 | 38.4 | 34.2 | 31.7 | 27.7 | 25.2 | 23.5 | 22.1 | 21.1 | 20.0 | 18.2 |15.7 2.0164] 2
35 | 47.9 | 39.5-| 35.2 | 32.6 | 28.6 | 25.9 | 24.1 | 22.7 | 21.7 | 20.5 | 18.7 |16.2 |12.4'| 6.6 |...---
36 | 49.3 | 40.6 | 36.3 | 33.6 | 29.4 | 26.7 | 24.8 | 23.3 | 22.3 | 21.1 | 19.2 |16.7 [12.8 | 6.9 |._....
37 | 50.7 | 41.8 | 37.3 | 34.5 | 30.2 | 27.4 | 25.4 | 23.8 | 22.9 | 21.7 | 19.7 |17.2 113.3 | 7.4 |___...
38 | 52,0 | 43.0 | 38.4 | 35.4 | 30.9 | 28.1 | 26.1 | 24.5 | 23.5 | 22.2 | 20.3 |17.7 113.7 | 7.5 |___..-
39 | 53.4 | 44.1 | 39.5 | 36.4 | 31.8 | 28.8 | 26.7 | 25.1 | 24.0 | 22.7 | 20.7 18.2 14.11 7.7|_.....
40 | 54.7 | 45.3 | 40.5 | 37.3 | 32.6 | 29.5 | 27.4 | 25.8 | 24.7 | 23:3 | 21.3 |18.6 [14.6 | 8.0 |_-...-
[OER 1 sik? AEP MeL alist plac t-aleets cloe Petaet glen belie balay te i | 108
(22 i Bae b Sule ee ce) oo OOm TREES ic | ned ae | aut ne eee
ap Height above ground—feet.
#e| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4.5 [9.25 | 17.3 |25,45/ 33.6 |41.75| 49.9 |58.05| 66.2 |74.35|82.5|90.65) 4.
aa rt
Az Diameter inside bark—inches. 5
In. Trees
12 | 14.2 | 12.1] 11.4 | 10.9/10.4] 9.7] 9.1] 85] 8.0] 74] 67] 59/48/3.5]/191 1
13 | 15.8 | 13.2 | 12.4 | 11.8 | 11.2|10.4| 9.8| 92] 8.7] 81] 7.3] 64/5.313.8|20
14 | 17.4] 14:4 | 13.5 | 12.8 | 12:0 | 11.1 | 10.4| 9.8] 9.2] 8.6] 7.8] 69|5.7| 4.1123
15 | 19.1 | 15.6 | 14.5 | 13.7 | 12.9 | 11.9 | 11.2|10.5| 9.9| 9.3] 84] 7.3|61145| 2.4
16 | 20.8 | 16.8 | 15.5 | 14.7 | 13.7 | 12.6 | 11.9 | 11.2| 10.5| 9.9| 9.0] 7.9|6.5|4.8|27
17 | 22.6 | 18.1 | 16.5 | 15.6 | 14.5 | 13.4 | 12.6 | 11.8] 11.2| 10.5] 9.6| 8.4/6.9] 5.1 | 2.9
18 | 24.3 | 19.4] 17.5 | 16.6 | 15.3 | 14.0 | 13.3 | 12.51 11.8 | 11.1] 10.2] 9.0| 7.4 | 5.5 | 3.1
19 | 26.0 | 20.8 | 18.5 | 17.5 | 16.1 | 14.8 | 14.0 | 13.2 | 12.4 | 11.7|10.8| 9.6] 7.8] 5.7) 3.2
20 | 27.6 | 22.0 | 19.5 | 18.5 | 16.9 | 15.6 | 14.6 | 13.9 | 13.1 | 12.3 | 11.3 | 10.0] 8.2|6.0| 3.3
21 | 29.1 | 23.3 | 20.5 | 19.4 | 17.8 | 16.3 | 15.3 | 14.5 | 13.7 | 12.9 | 11.8 | 10.5 | 8.7] 6.3 | 3.5
22 | 30.6 | 24.5 | 21.6 | 20.3 | 18.5 | 17.0 | 15.9 | 15.1 | 14.3 | 13.5 | 12.4] 11.0] 9.1] 6.6 | 3.6
23 | 32.1 | 25.7 | 22.6 | 21.2 | 19.3 | 17.7 | 16.6 | 15.7 | 14.9 | 14.1 | 12.9 | 11.5 | 9.5]6.9 | 3.8
24 | 33.4 | 26.8 | 23.6 | 22.2 | 20.1 | 18.5 | 17.3 | 16.4 | 15.5 | 14.6 | 13.4 | 12.0| 9.9] 7.2] 4.0
25 | 34.8 | 28.0 | 24.7 | 23.1 | 20.9 | 19.0 | 17.9 | 16.9 | 16.1 | 15.3 | 14.0 | 12.5 |10.4 | 7.5 | 4.1
26 | 36.1 | 29.2 | 25.8 | 24.1 | 21.7] 19.8 | 18.5 | 17.5 | 16.7 | 15.8 | 14.6 | 13.0 {10.8 | 7.7 | 4.2
27 | 37.4 | 30.3 | 26.8 | 25.0 | 22.6 | 20.4 | 19.2 | 18.1 | 17.4 | 16.5 | 15.2 | 13.5 |11.2| 8.0 | 4.3
28 | 38.7 | 31.5 | 27.9 | 26.0 | 23.2 | 21.2] 19.8 | 18.8 | 18.0 | 17.0 | 15.7 | 14.1 {11.6 | 8.2] 4.5
29 | 40.0 | 32.6 | 29.0 | 26.9 | 24.0 | 21.9 | 20.5 | 19.4 | 18.5 | 17.6 | 16.2 | 14.5 |12.1| 8.6 | 4.6
30 | 41.2 | 33.8 | 30.0 | 27.9 | 24:7 | 22.7 | 21.1 | 20.0 | 19.2 | 18.1 | 16.8 | 15.0 |12.4] 8.9 | 4.8
31 | 42.6 | 34.9 | 31.1 | 28.8 | 25.5 | 23.3 | 21.8 | 20.6 | 19.8 | 18.8 | 17.4 | 15.6 12.9 | 9.1 | 4.9
32 | 43.8 | 36.0 | 32.1 | 29.8 | 26.2 | 24:1 | 22.4 | 21.2 | 20.4 | 19.3 | 17.9 | 16.1 [13.4] 9.5 | 5.2
33 | 45.2 | 37.2 | 33.2 | 30.7 | 27.0 | 24.7 | 23.1 | 21.9 | 21.0 | 20.0 | 18.6 | 16.6 |13.8| 9.9 | 5.4
34 | 46.5 | 38.4 | 34.2 | 31.7 | 27.8 | 25.5 | 23.7 | 22.4 | 21.6 | 20.5 | 19.0 | 17.1 [14.3 (10.3 | 5.7
35 | 47.9 | 39.5 | 35.2 | 32.6 | 28.6 | 26.1 | 24.4 | 23.1 | 22.2 | 21.2 | 19.6 | 17.6 |14.8 |10.7 | 5.9
36 | 49.3 | 40.6 | 36.3 | 33.6 | 29.3 | 26.9 | 25.0 | 23.7 | 22.7 | 21.6 | 20.1 | 18.1 [15.2 |11.1 | 6.2
37 | 50.7 | 41.8 | 37.3 | 34.5 | 30.1 | 27.5 | 25.7 | 24.4 | 23.5 | 22.4 | 20.7] 18.7 [15.7 |11.4 | 6.4
38 | 52.0 | 43.0 | 38.4 | 35.4 | 30.9 | 28.3 | 26.4 | 25.0 | 24.1 | 22,9 | 21.3 | 19.2 16.2 |11.9 | 6.6
39 | 53.4 | 44.1 | 39.5 | 36.4 | 31.6 | 28.9 | 27.0 | 25.6 | 24.7 | 23.6 | 21.9 | 19.7 [16.6 12.1 | 6.7 |.
40 | 54.7 | 45.3 | 40.5 | 37.3 | 32.4 | 29.7 | 27.7 | 26.2 | 25.3 | 24.1 | 22.5 | 20.3 [17.1 [12.5 | 6.9
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST. 719
TABLE 46.—Form of basswood in the Lake States—Continued.
110-FOOT TREES.
fe) Height above ground—feet.
ie
Se |i | 2 | 3 | 4.5 |9.15]17.3 25.45] 33.6 [41.75 49.9 |58. 05| 66. 2 74, 35] 82. 5 |90. 65] 98. 9
oO
a5 ie
5 Diameter inside bark—inches. a
a 4
Inches Trees.
14| 17.4] 14.4] 13.5] 12.8] 12.1) 11.3] 10.7] 10.2 9.6] 8.9] 8.1) 7.3] 6.4| 5.2] 3.8] 22)..._..
15| 19.1] 15.6] 14.5] 13.7] 12.9) 12.0| 11.5] 10.9] 10.3] 9.5] 87 7.9| 6.9] 5.7] 4.0] 2.3)......
16| 20.8] 16.8| 15.5] 14. 7| 13. 7| 12. 7| 12.0] 11.5] 10.9] 10.1] 9.3) 8.4] 7.4] 6.0] 4.2] 24] 1 .:
17| 22. 6| 18.1| 16. 5| 15.6] 14.6) 13.5] 12.8] 12.2] 11.5] 10.8] 9.9] 9.0] 7.9| 6.5| 4.4 261 1
18| 24.3] 19.4] 17.5| 16.6] 15.4| 14.2) 13.4] 12.8| 12.1) 11.4| 10.6] 9.6] 8.4] 6.8) 4:7| 27] 1
19| 26.0] 20.8] 18.5] 17.5| 16.3) 14.9) 14.1] 13.5] 12.8] 12/0) 11.2] 10.1] 8.9] 7.2] 4:9] 2.8)......
20| 27.6| 22. 0| 19.5] 18.5] 17.0) 15.6| 14.8] 14.1] 13.4| 12.6] 11.7| 10.7] 9.3] 7.5| 5.2] 2.9|......
21) 29. 1| 23.3) 20.5] 19.4] 17.9] 16.4] 15.5] 14. 7| 14.0] 13.2] 1213 11.21 9.8] 7.9] 5.5] 3.11.0...
22) 30.6) 24.5] 21.61 20.3] 18.7) 17.1| 16.1, 15.3] 14.6) 13.8] 13.0) 11.8] 10.3) 8.2] 5.8| 3.3| 1
23| 32. 1| 25.7| 22. 6| 21.2] 19.5] 17.8] 16.9| 16.1] 15.2| 14.5] 13.5] 12.3] 10.7| 8.6| 6.1| 3.5\......
24| 33. 4| 26. 8| 23. 6| 22.2] 20.3] 18.5] 17.5] 16.6) 15.9] 15.1] 14.1| 12.9] 11.2| 9.0) 6.4] 3.6, i
25| 34.8] 28.0| 24.7| 23.1] 21.0] 19.2| 18.1] 17.2] 16. 5| 15.7| 14.7| 13.4| 11.6] 9.3] 6.6] 3.9|......
26| 36. 1| 29.2) 25.8| 24.1] 21.8] 19.9] 18.8] 17.9] 17.1) 16.3] 15.3] 14.0] 12.1| 9.7| 7.0] 4.1) i
27| 37. 4| 30.3] 26.8| 25.0] 22.6| 20.6] 19.5] 18.5] 17. 7| 17.0] 15.8| 14.5] 12.6] 10.0| 7.1] 4.2| 4
28| 38. 7| 31.5] 27.9] 26.0) 23.4| 21.3| 20.1] 19.1] 18.3] 17.5] 16.4] 15.0] 13.0] 10.3| 7.5| 4231 3
29| 40. 0| 32. 6| 29.0] 26.9] 24.1! 29.0) 20.8] 19.7] 18.9] 18.2] 17.0] 15.5] 13.5| 10.7| 7.7] 4.4|......
30| 41. 2| 33. 8| 30. 0| 27.9] 24. 9| 22. 7| 21.4] 20.3] 19. 6| 18.8] 17.6] 16.0] 13.9] 11.1] 8.0] 4.7|......
31| 42. 6| 34.9] 31.1| 28. 8] 25.7| 23. 4| 22. 1] 21.0] 20, 2| 19. 4] 18.1] 16.6] 14.3] 11.4] 8.2] 4.8 2
39| 43.8] 36. 0] 32. 1| 29.8] 26.3) 24.2| 22. 7] 21. 6| 20.8] 19.9] 18.7] 17.1] 14.8] 11.7] 85] 4.9] 1
331 45,2) 37.2; 33.2) 30.7] 27.3| 24.8) 23. 4| 22.3! 21.4] 20.5) 19.3] 17.7; 15.3| 12.11 8.7] 5.0l......
34| 46.5] 38.4] 34. 2| 31.7| 27.9| 25.6] 24.0] 22. 9| 22/0) 21.1) 19.9] 18.3] 15.8] 12.5] 9.0| 5.2| 1
35| 47. 9| 39. 5] 35.2| 32.6] 28.7| 26.3] 24.8] 23. 6| 22. 7| 21.8] 20.5] 18.8] 16.3|.12,9| 9.2] 5.4|......
36| 49.3] 40. 6| 36.3] 33. 6| 29. 4| 27.1] 25.3] 24. 2| 23. 4] 22. 5] 21.9] 19.4] 16.9] 13.3] 9.5] 5.6\......
37| 50. 7| 41.8] 37. 3| 34. 5| 30.3) 27.7| 26.1) 24.9] 24.0] 23.0] 21.7| 20.0] 17.3) 13.7| 9.8] 5.7] 1
38| 52. 0} 43.0) 38.4) 35.4) 31. 1) 28.5) 26.7] 25. 5] 24.7] 23.7] 22.3) 20.5] 17.9) 14.1] 10.0] 5.9)......
39| 53.4] 44. 1| 39.5] 36. 4| 32.0) 29.2] 27.5] 26.3| 25.3] 24.2] 22. 8| 21.1] 18.4] 14.6] 10.4] 5.9|.._...
40| 54.7| 45.3] 40.5) 37.3] 32.7| 30.0) 28.1| 26.9] 26.0) 24.9] 23.5] 21.7 15.0| 10.6] 6.1|......
17
120-FOOT TREES.
& Height above ground—feet.
gol||_ So spa Se 1 7 9 lg a eae aon aC ets as
82/1 | 2 | 3 | 4.5 [9.15 |17.3|25. 45| 33.6 |41. 75] 49. 9 [66. 2|58, 05]74. 35|82. 5 |90. 65] 98. 8 |106. 95
BE iia <<...) ness a
5 Diameter inside bark—inches. : ag
Aa. a
In Trees
16| 20.8] 16.8] 15.5] 14.7] 13. 7| 13.0] 12.4] 11.7] 11.1] 10.4] 9.7] 8.9] 8.0] 6.9] 5.5| 4.0] 2.5/......
17| 22. 6| 18. 1] 16.5] 15.6] 14.6| 13.6] 13.0) 12.4] 11.8) 11.1| 10.3] 9.4| 8.5] 7.3] 5.8| 4:2] 9/6l......
18| 24.3] 19. 4] 17. 5| 16.6) 15. 4| 14.5] 13. 7| 13. 0| 12. 4| 11.7| 10.9] 10.0] 9.0] 7.7| 6.1| 4.4) 207/.2....
19] 26.0] 20.8] 18.5] 17.5] 16.3] 15.1] 14-3] 13.7] 13.1] 12.3] 11.5] 10.5] 9.5] 8.1] 6.3| 4.6] 2.8|......
20| 27. 6| 22. 0} 19. 5] 18. 5| 17.1) 15.9] 15.0| 14.3] 13.6] 12.9| 12.1] 11.1] 9.9] 8.5| 6.5] 4.7| 2.9)......
21| 29. 1] 23.3] 20. 5] 19.4] 18. 0] 16.5] 15.6| 14.9] 14.3] 13.6] 12.7] 11.7| 10.5] 8.9 6.8] 4.9] 3.0l......
22| 30. 6| 24.5] 21.6] 20.3] 18.8] 17.3] 16.2| 15.6] 15.0] 14.3) 13.3] 12.3 10.9] 9.2) 7.1] 5.1) 3.2\_.....
23| 32. 1] 25. 7| 22. 6] 21.2] 19.6] 18.0) 17.0| 16.2 15.6| 14.8) 13.9 12.8] 11.5] 9.7| 7.3] 5.3| 3.3/......
24| 33. 4] 26. 8| 23. 6] 22. 2| 20. 4| 18. 7| 17.6| 16.9] 16.2] 15.4) 14.5] 13.4] 12.0| 10.1] 7.6] 5.5| 3.4|......
25| 34.8] 28.0] 24. 7] 23. 1| 21.2| 19.4] 18.3] 17.5] 16.9] 16.0) 15.1) 14.1] 12.6| 10.5} 8.0] 5.8) 3.5|......
26| 36.1] 29. 2| 25.8] 24.1) 21.9] 20. 2| 18.9] 18. 2| 17.5] 16. 7| 15.7| 14.6] 13.0| 10.8] 8.4] 6.1| 3.7) 1
27| 37. 4| 30.3} 26.8] 25.0] 22. 7| 20.8] 19. 7| 18. 8] 18.1] 17.3) 16.3) 15.2| 13.6| 11.3] 8.7| 6.3] 3.8/......
28] 38.7] 31. 5| 27.9| 26.0) 23.5] 21.5| 20.3] 19. 5| 18.7| 17.9] 16.9| 15.8] 14.1| 11.6] 9.0] 6.6| 4.0|......
29) 40. 0] 32.6] 29.0] 26.9] 24. 4] 22.2] 21.0) 20.1] 19.3] 18.6] 17.5] 16.3) 14.6 12.1] 9.4] 6.8| 4.2/......
30| 41. 2| 33.8] 30. 0| 27.9] 25.1] 23. 0| 21.6] 20.8] 20.0| 19.1] 18.1] 16.9] 15.1] 12.4] 9.8] 7.1] 4.3/......
31| 42.6) 34.9| 31.1| 28.8] 25.9] 23.6] 22. 4) 21. 4| 20. 7| 19.8] 18. 7| 17.5] 15.6] 12.9] 10.0] 7.3] 4.5|......
32| 43. 8| 36. 0| 32. 1| 29.8] 26.6] 24.3] 23.0] 22.1) 21.3) 20. 4| 19.3] 18.0] 16.1) 13.2) 10.4] 7.5] 4.6|......
“3 33| 45,21 37. 2| 33.21 30. 7| 27. 4| 25. 0| 23. 7| 22. 8| 21.9] 21.0) 19.9] 18.6] 16.6| 13.7|10.7| 7.7| 4.8|......
34| 46, 5| 38.4] 34.2] 31. 7] 28. 1| 25.8) 24.3] 23.3] 22. 5] 21.6] 20.5] 19.2] 17.1] 14.1] 11.0| 8.0] 4.9]......
35! 47.9] 39.5] 35. 2] 32.6) 29.0] 26.5] 25. 1| 24.1] 23.3] 22.3) 21.1] 19.7] 17.6| 14.5] 11.3] 8.1] 5.0! 1
36| 49.3) 40. 6] 36.3) 33.6] 29. 7| 27.3] 25.8] 24.8] 23.8) 29.8] 21.7] 20.3] 18.1] 14.9] 11.7| 8.5] 5.2]......
37| 50. 7| 41.8] 37.3| 34.5] 30. 5| 27.9) 26.5] 25.4] 24.5] 23.5] 22.3] 20.9| 18.6| 15.4] 12.0] 8.7] 5.3].....-
38| 52.0) 43. 0| 38.4] 35.4] 31. 1| 28. 8| 27.2] 26.1] 25.2) 24.1) 29.9] 21.5) 19.2] 15.8] 12.3] 9.0] 5.5|......
39| 53.4| 44. 1| 39.5| 36.4] 32.0] 29. 4] 28.0] 26.9] 25.9] 24.8] 23. 5| 22.1] 19. 7| 16.2| 12.6] 9.2] 5.6|.....-
40| 54.7| 45.3] 40. 5| 37.3] 32. 7| 30.3| 28. 7| 27.5] 26.5| 25.4| 24.2] 29. 7| 20.2] 16.6] 12.9] 9.4] 5. 7/--.-.-
2
neg
PUBLICATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO
THE PRACTICE OF FORESTRY. ;
AVAILABLE FOR: FREE DISTRIBUTION.
Second-growth Hardwoods in Connecticut. By Earl H. Frothingham. Pp. 70, pls. 6,
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Paper Birch in the Northwest. By S. T. Dana. Pp. 37, figs. 2, tables 9. 1909.
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Norway Pinein the Lake States. By Theodore 8. Woolsey, jr., and Herman H. Chap-
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The Eastern Hemlock. By E. H. Frothingham. Pp. 43, pls. 5, figs. 3, tables 22.
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Forest Planting in the Eastern United States. By C. R. Tillotson. Pp. 38, pls. 7,
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Light in Relation to Tree Growth. By Raphael Zon and Henry S. Graves. Pp. 59,
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ham. Pp. 35, tables 8. 1911: (Forest Service Bulletin 93.) Price 5 cents.
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AT
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Vv
80
i;
‘e
Fy
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF daa can ae ace
Contribution from the Forest Service
HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 27, 1915
STRENGTH TESTS OF STRUCTURAL TIMBERS TREATED BY
COMMERCIAL WOOD-PRESERVING PROCESSES.
By H. 8. Berrs and J. A. Newiin, Engineers in Forest Products, Forest Products
Laboratory.
CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
Objectiofvtihetests)= eens e see 2 -a=r ae 1 | Results/of tests... -22----- Pee eeSOroE pbocSS 6
Miarberialtbes ted) =<1 2:22 <jm1-.\-'=~ salelsisicie\sinini=/sieie= 2.) Dedtictionss esses aet ccneecece reece teeeee 14
Methodsiof treatment. .......------222-22--- 3 | Publications relating to strength tests of
Methodlothestin etme sec. --- en eeeeee es 4 TUAW OS 5 comaacanacocgtodsescasueecs 15
OBJECT OF THE TESTS.
This bulletin presents the results of tests made by the Forest
Service, in cooperation with the Illinois Central Railway and one
eastern and two western wood-preserving companies, to determine
how the strength of bridge stringers is affected by commercial creo-
sote treatments. To do this, comparison was made between the
strength of treated and untreated stringers of the same size and
quality. The test timbers were selected by representatives of the
Forest Service from stock furnished by the cooperators. The For-
est Service requested that the treatments given the timbers by each
of the cooperators be that used in its regular commercial practice.
A Forest Service representative was present during the treatments
and kept a record of the various conditions to which the material
was subjected. The woods used were loblolly pine, longleaf pine,
and Douglas fir. After treatment the loblolly and longleaf pine were
shipped to the Forest Service timber-testing laboratory at Lafayette,
Ind.,* and the Douglas fir to the Forest Service timber-testing sta-
“on. Seattle, Wash.’
1 Formerly conducted in cooperation with Purdue University.
2 Conducted in cooperation with the University of Washington.
Notr.—This report is of interest to users of timber where strength is an imaportant consideration.
1035°—Bull. 256—15
2 BULLETIN 286, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
MATERIAL TESTED.
The material for test was selected from regular stock, in the form
of sticks 8 inches by 16 inches in section and from 28 to 32 feet in
length. The sticks were sorted in pairs, with the object of having
those in each pair as alike as possible. At the time of treatment
each stick was cut into two stringers of equal length, making four
test stringers in each group, two butt cuts and two second or top
cuts. The groups were handled as shown in figure 1, the butt ends in
one group being treated and the top ends in the next.
LONGLEAF AND LOBLOLLY PINE.
The longleaf and loblolly pine timber were cut in southern Missis-
sippi and Louisiana. About five months elapsed between the time
oP
BUTT Qa Ti
Treated as received and :
/ tested immediately Jested as received 2
Grouse I . 4
Freated as received ard ,
Fo sonsaee) Deroreesti 9 Seasovred berore resting “a
BUTT Ter
Treated as rece/ved and
4 Tested as received tested immediately 6
Group ne ie
2 Treated as received and
G Seasoned before testing Seasorred betore testing 8
ab— Lisk./’ Huck, cut tran center to derermine moisture
Fia. 1.—Method of cutting and marking test material.
the logs were sawed and the time of treatment, during four months
of which the pieces were seasoned in an open pile. The treated
stringers were en route to Lafayette, Ind., for over a month. Upon
arrival they were close piled under shelter until the tests were started
-about a month later. The pieces as selected were 8 inches by 16
inches in section by 28 feet long. The material classed as ‘long-
leaf”? was high-grade timber, considered as first-class structural
material by the railway officials, and that classed as “loblolly” as
less valuable. The longleaf had only a small per cent of sap and
was of comparatively slow growth, while the loblolly averaged over
30 per cent sapwood, was of more rapid growth, and contained more
knots. The number of test stringers 14 feet long was as follows:
STRENGTH TESTS OF STRUCTURAL TIMBERS, 3
Longleaf:
5 treated partially air dry and tested.
5 tested partially air dry.
5 treated partially air dry, seasoned, and tested.
5 seasoned and tested.
Loblolly:
5 treated partially air dry and tested.
5 tested partially air dry.
5 treated partially air dry, seasoned, and tested.
5 seasoned and tested.
DOUGLAS FIR.
The material was selected at two western mills. In both cases
the test timbers were shipped to the creosoting companies within a
few days after they were sawed from logs at the mill, and were treated
within a few days after arrival at the creosoting plants. The pieces
as selected were 8 inches by 16 inches in section and 32 feet long,
and included three grades of material—select, merchantable, and
common, as classified by the grading rules of the West Coast Lum-
ber Manufacturers’ Association. It is customary to use only select
and merchantable timbers in permanent structures. These pieces
were cut in two just before treatment, so that the test stringers
measured 16 feet. Two processes of treatment were used, the “‘boil-
ing’’ process and the “‘steaming”’ process. The material which was
seasoned before testing was piled in a shed with open sides. The
number of 16-foot test strmgers used in studyimg the effect of the
two processes, and their condition when treated and tested, was as
follows:
Boiling process:
20 treated green and tested.
20 tested green.
19 treated green, seasoned, and tested.
19 seasoned and tested.
Steaming process:
15 treated green and tested.
15 tested green.
treated green, air seasoned, and tested.
seasoned and tested.
METHODS OF TREATMENT.
The preservative treatments to which the three species of struc-
tural timber were subjected were briefly as follows:
LOBLOLLY PINE.!
Steamed for 4 hours under 29 pounds pressure; vacuum of 26 inches applied for 1
hour; cylinder filled with creosote and pressure of 125 pounds applied for 44 hours at
a temperature of 140° F.; vacuum of 234 inches applied for + hour. Absorption of oil,
134 pounds per cubic foot of wood.
1 Run made Mar. 4, 1908.
4 BULLETIN 286, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
LONGLEAF PINE.!
Steamed for 6 hours at 30 pounds pressure; vacuum of 26 inches applied for 1 hour;
cylinder filled with creosote and pressure of 128 pounds applied for 54 hours at a
temperature of 140° F. Absorption, 12? pounds per cubic foot of wood.
DOUGLAS FIR.
Boiling process.—Boiled in creosote for 213 hours at temperature of 215° F.;? loss of
moisture during boiling, 1.2 pounds per cubic foot of wood; pressure raised from 0 to
145 pounds per square inch in 5? hours; temperature about 190° F. Absorption of
oil, 11.2 pounds per cubic foot of wood, as determined by measuring tank readings.
Steaming process—Steamed at 90 pounds pressure per square inch for 44 hours;
temperature about 325° F.; vacuum of 20 inches applied for 184 hours; temperature
220° F. at end of period; cylinder filled with oil and pressure raised from 0 to maximum
pressure of 140 pounds per square inch; pressure period, 2} hours; temperature of the
oil, about 208° F. Absorption, 3.1 pounds per cubic foot of wood, as figured from
increase in original weight of stringers. The stringers were not weighed after steam-
ing, so that the probable loss can not be taken into account in computing the absorption.
METHOD OF TESTING.
The stringers were tested in bending by supporting them at the
ends and applying the load at two points located one-third of the
span from each of the end supports. This system corresponds
closely to conditions of practice. In testing the beams the load was
applied gradually and a record kept of the deflections corresponding
to regular load increments. Four factors were calculated from the
data derived from each bending test, all in terms of pounds per
square inch:
FIBER STRESS AT ELASTIC LIMIT.
This is the greatest stress that can occur in a beam loaded with
an external load from which it will recover without permanent
deflection.
MODULUS OF RUPTURE.
This is the greatest computed stress in a beam under a breaking
load.
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY.
This is a factor computed from the relation between load and
deflection within the elastic limit, and represents the stiffness of the
wood.
LONGITUDINAL SHEAR. .~
This is the stress tending to split the beam lengthwise along its
neutral plane * when under maximum load.
1 Run made Mar. 5, 1908.
2 Some time after the treatments were made it was reported by the treating-plant officials that the ther-
mometer giving this reading registered 40° I. too low.
8 Plane between upper and lower halves when beam is horizontal.
STRENGTH TESTS OF STRUCTURAL TIMBERS, 5
MOISTURE DETERMINATIONS.
Moisture determinations on the untreated wood were made by
taking either borings or disks from the tested pieces, weighing them,
and then drying them to constant weight. The difference between
the original weight and the dry weight divided by the dry weight
times 100 is taken as the per cent of moisture at the time of test.
Disks taken from the untreated stringers were cut into a number of
pieces and the moisture separately determined for each in order to
find the distribution of moisture throughout the cross section. The
method of dividing the disks is shown in figure 2. The moisture
determinations made on treated specimens were handled by dis-
tilling the treated shavings cut from the test pieces with water-
saturated xylol. For such determinations
a definite quantity of treated borings was
taken. In all cases a corresponding volume
of untreated shavings was obtained, and
the dry weight of this sample determined
as a basis for computing the moisture con-
tent of the treated sample. All test pieces
were weighed and measured, the number
of rmgs counted on a radial line, and the
per cent of summerwood and sap deter-
mined.t Sketches were made and_ photo-
graphs taken, showing the size and loca-
tion of knots, checks, and shakes.
TESTS ON SMALL STICKS.
After failure occurred in the stringers,
small pieces 2 inches by 2 inches in section
and 3 feet long were cut from the unbroken 6. 2-Moisture distribution ‘disk
3 ; for 8-inch by 16-inch stringer.
portions. These small pieces were selected
so as to be free from defects and with straight gram. Their location
in a cross section of the stringer was noted, so that data could be
secured on the relative strength of the inner and outer portions. The
tests of small pieces included bending tests on specimens 2 by 2 by 30
inches, compression tests in which specimens 2 by 2 by 8 inches were
crushed endwise parallel with the grain, compression tests at right
angles to the grain, and shearing tests in which a projecting portion
of a small block was sheared off parallel to the grain while the main
portion of the block was held firm.
1 Determinations of summerwood and sap were omitted for some of the Douglas fir.
6 BULLETIN 286, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
RESULTS OF TESTS.
The results of the bending tests on the natural and treated stringers
are shown in figures 3 to 7.
The diagrams were made by first plotting the values for modulus of
rupture of the natural beams (solid lines) arranged from the highest
to lowest, beginning with the highest value on the left at the top of
the figure. The modulus of rupture of the treated half (dotted
lines) of the test pieces was then plotted in the same vertical line as
the untreated pieces. The two values are marked to distinguish
butts (B) from corresponding tops (7). The other values (fiber
stress at elastic limit and modulus of elasticity) for the same beams
are plotted in the same vertical lines.
Conclusions should not be drawn regarding the comparative effect
of creosoting on the strength of the different woods, since they were
not treated under similar conditions. It should also be kept in mind
that the test material was not selected for the purpose of comparing
the various species.
LOBLOLLY PINE.
Figure 3 gives a comparison of the strength and stiffness of natural
and treated loblolly pine stringers for partially air-dry and seasoned
material. In drawing conclusions from the diagrams it should be
kept in mind that butt stringers are naturally stronger than second-
cut or top stringers. This point was considered when the method of
selecting the test material was determined upon and butts and tops
were arranged to alternate in serving as treated and untreated
material. It will be noted from figure 3 that when the butts were
treated the breaking strength of the butts and tops fell rather close
together, while when the tops were treated the breakimg strength
values were much farther apart. This shows an evident weakening
due to the treatment, even when the lower breaking strength of the
top stringers is taken into account. The tests are too few to make
a definite statement as to the amount of weakening for the specific
treatment under consideration. It is probably not more than 17
per cent. The fiber strength at elastic limit and the stiffness both
show a greater weakening due to treatment than does the breaking
strength. The weakening is more marked in both strength and
stiffness in the air dry than in the partially air-dry stringers. Both
the treated and untreated stringers showed a strength about 30 per
cent greater in the seasoned material than in the partially air-dry
material.
LONGLEAF PINE,
In figure 4 the strength of treated and untreated longleaf pine
stringers is compared for both partially air-dry and seasoned material.
It does not appear that the breaking strength was affected by the
treatment used with these stringers. There is aslight reduction in the
——e ae
STRENGTH TESTS OF STRUCTURAL TIMBERS. ii
average strength at elastic limit and stiffness. In the air-seasoned
beams the untreated butt cuts were higher in strength and stiffness
than the treated top cuts, but, on the other hand, the untreated top
cuts fell below the treated butts in strength and stiffness in nearly
every case. In the partially seasoned stringers the treated and
untreated material falls together somewhat more closely.
me Jested Directly atrer Treatment Alr Dried and Tested
4
_ 7000
; x
2 6000 5000
: %
Ss, 000 Wee
& VODULUS q
Q +4000 . LA puPruRe C4000
% S
Y 3000 7000;
FIBER STRESS
x 2000 SALISTICLIMIT 2000
_ 2900 2000
SS x
APIO We
ee s
eco 5 4800
g JODULUS
g % OF
S00 8400 ASTICITY
S
MobuULuS
core OF © 200
ASTIITY 8S
\N
(COMES MET TET PLE Loe “yoee
O TIO J/ 23 TS 6
=z 38 SO 22 25 G9 “Seam Wumsers—>z5 3 24 Se BEF
O—9 V47URAL O----O 7#EATED
2 = Butts 7 = Tops
Fig. 3.—Effect of preservative treatment on the strength and stiffness of loblolly-pine stringers treated
partially air dry.
DOUGLAS FIR.
Figures 5 and 6 show the strength and stiffness of treated and
untreated stringers of green and seasoned Douglas fir, respectively,
treated by the so-called “boiling” process as used in this case. There
appears to be a marked weakening of the breaking strength with the
particular treatment used. The average breaking strength of the
stringers tested green and after seasoning is 33 per cent and 39 per
cent, respectively, less than the average strength of the natural
stringers. The fiber stress at elastic limit also appears to be reduced,
although to a somewhat less extent. In the green material no
weakening is apparent in the stiffness. The seasoned stringers,
however, show a falling off in stiffness in the treated material.
Figure 7 shows the strength and stiffness of green + Douglas fir
treated by the so-called ‘‘steaming”’ process. The breaking strength
1 The air-seasoned material is not yet tested, July, 1915.
8 BULLETIN 286, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
Rested Directly after Treatment x Aur Lried and Jésted
. IN.
ae
Su. Sas
are AER
Ss
8
ZA
N
8
es
Q
8
SY
1000 OUNDS PER SG.
a
BS
Ss
7900 4000 :
N-/F 2 478 10 T<—- 15 7 ar 2 20-N.
TMEV DT ATU RO NES SEAN WUIBER 776 el “lng hi baa
@—® WVATURAL O---O TREATED
B= LO775 7 = fos
Fic. 4.—Effect of preservative treatment on the strength and stiffness of longleaf-pine stringers treated
partially dry.
mint
ELT
2000
: Killen haa ah lpdlaulsrgliacs tinea
is Ss lta algae 20 glam
5 | ~@
@ 4600 R
Eade ee
3 1400 SN A CE — DOM S
ie a A ae
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a a ee ne Se
Beam NUMBER
O—® NATURAL O---O 7#EATED (eouie PROCESS )
G- Burrs 7 ~ Tops
\l 7 iD
EE
/ é J a Sees) 7 5
Fig. 5.—Eflect of “boiling process” of preservative treatment on the strength and stiffness of Douglas-fir
stringers treated green and tested without seasoning.
:
STRENGTH TESTS OF STRUCTURAL TIMBERS. 9
| se SE Se
eee pee
eee aera anaes
St mapas
| WARY LTO
Say ee De
Bese aes
Pane Gey ese se
et ORR era
JU ea aie Se IS
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BEAT Nuasep
@—98 VMATUPAL Q---O 7PEATEO (20116 PROCESS )
_8 = Butts T = Tops
Fig. 6.—Effect of ‘‘boiling process”’ of preservative treatment on the strength and stiffness of Douglas-fir
stringers treated green, air seasoned and tested.
sss oe aes
Ss /T0DULUS
) sooo faa OF
WE =-)9 SOG8ERess22 vue
Wb a tee yaa Ee ee,
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@—S NATURAL .O----O ZREATED (sare PROCESS )
G& =: Burts 7 = Tops
Fie. 7.—Effect of ‘steaming process”’ of preservative treatment on the strength and stiffness of Douglas-fir
i stringers treated green and tested without seasoning.
BULLETIN 286, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
10
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STRENGTH TESTS OF STRUCTURAL TIMBERS. bt
and fiber stress at the elastic limit was considerably less in the treated
material (35 and 36 per cent, respectively), and the stiffness was
slightly less.
Table 1 gives the average values of the strength functions shown in
the diagrams, together with the highest and lowest values and some
additional data.
SMALL PIECES CUT FROM STRINGERS.
Table 2 gives the average strength and stiffness of the small pieces
cut from the main beams for both treated and natural material of the
three species under test. The average values of the small pieces cut
from the outside portions of the main beams and the average values
of the small pieces cut from the interior portions are also given. No
moisture determinations were made on the small pieces cut from the
treated longleaf and loblolly pine timbers. The determinations for
moisture in various parts of the cross sections of the treated timbers
of these two species indicate that in general they contained slightly
more moisture than the natural pieces. The treated sticks are in
general weaker than the natural sticks, but the difference is slight
except for partially air-dry loblolly pine. Part of the apparent loss
in strength of the treated material may be ascribed to its higher
moisture content.
In the Douglas fir treated by the boiling process and tested green,
the average for the outside sticks shows a decrease in strength over
the natural, with but little difference in stiffness. As compared with
the natural sticks the treated sticks cut from the interior of the main
beams showed a more marked drop in strength and stiffness. The
air-dry material in all cases showed a decided decrease in the strength
of the treated sticks. The decrease in stiffness was less marked.
Part of this decrease may be accounted for by the higher moisture
content of the treated pieces.
12
BULLETIN 286, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
Tasie 2.—Sirength and stiffness of small pieces—natural and treated—cut trom the inside
and outside portions of longleaf pine, loblolly pine, and Douglas fir stringers.
Number) Moisture Rings per
. ve oftests.| (per cent). inch.
Species, condition, and
locality.
NovL. | aN Us N abe
Longleaf pine:
Partially air dry—
oH Lee el Mees mae 285 29 eDu om eae as 19.2 | 18.3
Outside s-eis-.-- 24 24/2103) 2. ane 19.6 | 19.3
INSId6-- <sic.--s/<4 4 De | 624.160 | eee 14.6 | 14.4
Air dry—
INV eee eae Soces 238 (23 | MIZE SC ieee 19.9 | 19.6
Outside. 222. - LS ETS EON hace 20.2! 18.1
Inside vsssesese= Dy erOn lee Onlemimeme 18.5 | 14.2
Loblolly pine:
Partially air dry—
ATTSso 225355082 | 300028 | 2023265255 6.4 6.4
Otrtsidess22.=.- 24.622") 19.8. 3.2 6.9} 6.9
Inside: $2622 2- Gh FG) | T2220 Seer oe 4.6 | 5.5
Air dry—
Ul Reese eee ee SON R26. (0122.0) | Peis - 7.2) 7.4
Outsidez22--2e- e225) | [eA bl ft OY] ec 7.6 7.6
Inside: sis Gs |) ou Ss ees 5.7} 5.8
Douglas fir:
Boiling process—
Green—
AUIS eee ee 48 | 38 | 30.1 | 27.5 | 10.7 | 12.6
Outside 24119") 2956 | ees 2) LET | 1339
Inside...... [IQA ELOS BOL EMS Fase. 9.6 | 11.4
Air dry—
WANT Race poeta 665540 tb s6) | nen ee 13.2 } 13.1
Outside 3 Pap ale eyes se 14.1 } 13.6
jimside #22: £s B3H275] (16/4 ese: 122 | 12.16
Steaming process—
ireen—
HAUT ase
Outside
Imsidecseses ays
Air dry—
AN ey sciseae eee eee :
Outside: = 722A ee Eee | Oe by. Pee mpetelers
Tnside=22e seme |eaee a
Modulus
of rupture
(pounds per
square inch).
7,923 | 6,216
8,041 | 6,862
7,805 | 5,571
10,608 | 6,598
10,929 |. 6,721
10,287 | 6,475
Fiber stress
of elastic
limit
(pounds per
squareinch).
4,450 |3, 434
4,407 |3,897
4,493 |2, 971
6, 546 |4, 003
6,953 |4, 021
6,138 |3, 985
Modulus
of elasticity
(1,000
pounds per .
squareinch),
Oe ee ea
STRENGTH TESTS
SPECIAL TESTS
OF STRUCTURAL TIMBERS.
ON SMALL PIECES.
13
Table 3 gives a condensed summary of the results of a special series
of tests on small clear speciments (2 by 2 inches in section) of Douglas
The tests were made at
the Forest Products Laboratory to study the effect of the various
fir, longleaf pine, and shortleaf pine.
steps used in the treatment of the full-sized stringers.
were subjected to each of the processes shown in Table 3.
of the sticks were tested shortly after treatment and one-half after
they had been piled in the laboratory long enough (5 months) to reach
a practically constant weight.
Eight sticks
One-half
All the processes caused a reduction in the strength values of the
unseasoned material of the three species with, in most cases, a recov-
ery after seasoning, except in the tension tests.
In these the weaken-
mg in the unseasoned material remained after seasoning in all processes
but the creosote bath.
TaBLE 3.—Lffect of various treatments on small clear sticks (results expressed! in per cent
of strength of untreated material).
Steamed at
20 pounds
Steamed st 5h ours;
. 20 pounds 26-ine
Eteamied at _| 5 hours; vacuum
i Syaieiaa 26-inch 1 hour;
‘ vacuum creosote,
1 hour. 120 pounds
pressure,
44 hours.
Nl
Unsea-| Air |Unsea-| Air |Unsea-| Air
soned.| dry. | soned.| dry. | soned:| dry.
|
Bending: |
Modulus of rupture— |
IDOE ibe Be) SESE eee 74 96 78 93 83 86
Longleaf pine.........---- 83 TOO RP eee a osaee 80 85
Shortleaf pine............. 73 107 72 98 84 104
Modulus of elasticity—
Mouglasirs eee. es cae 87 100 84 100 95 98
Longleaf pine........----- 94 106. F~1| om eccr eet te 91 99
Shortleaf pine..--...---.-. 84 104 92 |103 96 105
Compression:
Maximum crushing
strength—
Douslassfin meee cciicieis- 68 102 76 88 80 97
Woneleah pines sess = 79 DA Heep dalicenende 82 76
Shortleaf pine...........-- 70 101 71 101 82 104
Shear with grain—
IDOQUMR IS Tite Soo Gaouddacseee 72 93 74 96 74 100
Longleaf pine. .......----- 77 Ae heated esa ace ack 73
Shortleaf pine...........-.- 71 107 74 105 80 108
Tension perpendicular to
grain—
WOUSIAS HTS eee see 57 69 54 64 48 57
Longleaf pine.....-.....-- 42 AY. alee, | eee 60
Shortleaf pine.......------ 70 81 71 73 71 64
Shrinkage! in cross section
during treatment— —
Mouslasiines cee ee A ea ooooee 2 83)t |e Bau | ease
= Longleaf pine: -...-/----=- Bal ae noneel mn soaerl ace m ceo 08
Shortleafipinebes-—-s-es4-— 688) lonoonse 60) lsseoace BCP IN aaa,
During treatment and sea-
soning—
DouPglaSHine s95s5)5. lao os Geer CSUs) Ne Soccoc Che}! Ilneasees 7.39
Monesleal. pines 2s. 22 5-4 |ee eee DO 2G so are 8 eR alee a 6.18
Shortleatipiness-e essa eee el teeee LOS4.7, eee (8) |eeesace 5. 94
—
Creosote bath
a atmos-
Creosote at, | Paette pres:
atmospheric oe hee 2 i
pressure, 8;
200° F. creosote at
97 hours 145 pounds
s pressure,
180° F.,
1¢ hours.
Unsea-| Air |Unsea-| Air
soned.| dry. |soned.| dry.
92 89 86 98
certs Si! emai ye 81 93
96 108 89 106
97 105 93 99
eeoddddllensccos 92 108
112 102 96 100
83 102 90 112
Enea ieeecses 80 87
89 103 89 109
91 118 86 125
seas 74 115
88 114 90 115
AT 116 63 117
Sosa 61 67
95 130 79 88
ofelGosacce O5eB) Nonscecs
BORAT RAG hocllaanacee NGGy eens
Oda ears Li onPetee ee
Be dotac Foe |Weosooee|) Ileal
Era eh pee LN | ee eer 7.90
Bonet ToD Nsscoeca! |) B57
1 Shrinkage given in per cents of areas when first measured. Corresponding shrinkage of untreated mate-
rial: Douglas fir, 6.40; longleaf pine, 8.48; shortleaf pine, 7.29.
2 Increase in volume.
14 BULLETIN 286, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The shrinkage measurements on the steamed material with and
without vacuum showed less than 1 per cent decrease in volume dur-
ing treatment for all the species. After seasoning a shrinkage of from
8.4 per cent for Douglas fir to 10.6 per cent for longleaf pine was re-
corded. Steaming and vacuum followed by creosote showed a some-
what higher shrinkage for Douglas fir than for the pies, both in the
unseasoned and air-dry pieces. The creasote bath had little influ-
ence on the shrinkage, the reduction after seasoning corresponding
closely to the shrinkage of untreated pieces. The pressure treatment
following the creosote bath showed a somewhat higher shrinkage for
Douglas fir than for longleaf or shortleaf.
While the weakening in the Douglas fir stringers is not explained
by the series of special tests, they indicate that the trouble has to do
with stresses in the full-sized stringers, probably caused by rapid and
unequal shrinkage during the process. A further series of tests is
now under way on 8-foot stringers 8 by 16 inches in section treated at
the Forest Products Laboratory, from which results that bear more
directly on the problem are expected.
DEDUCTIONS.
(1) Timber may be very materially weakened by preservative
processes.
(2) Creosote in itself aoes not appear to weaken timber.
(3) A preservative process which will seriously injure one timber
may have little or no effect on the strength of another.
(4) A comparison of the effect of a preservative process on the
strength of different species should not be made, unless it is the com-
mon or best adapted process for all the species compared.
(5) The same treatment given to a timber of a particular species
may have a different effect upon different pieces of that species,
depending upon the form of the timber used, its size, and its condition
when treated.
oe ——
SERENGTE GH STS iOGiry cs 2. oo ETM BERS. 5
PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO STRENGTH TESTS OF VARIOUS WOODS.
PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION.
Fire-killed Douglas Fir: A Study of Its Rate of Deterioration, Usability, and Strength.
- By Joseph Burke Knapp. Pp. 18, figs.5. 1912. (Forest Service Bulletin 112.)
Mechanical Properties of Western Larch. By O. P.M. Goss. Pp. 45, Pls. IV, figs 14.
1913. (Forest Service Bulletin 122.)
Experiments on the Strength of Treated Timber. By W. Kendrick Hatt, Ph.D. Pp.
31, figs. 2, tables 12. 1906: (Forest Service Circular 39.)
Tests of Rocky Mountain Wood for Telephone Poles. By Norman de W. Betts and
A. L. Heim. Pp. 28, figs. 6, tables 7. 1914. (Department Bulletin 67.)
Rocky Mountain Mine Timbers. By Norman de W. Betts. Pp. 34, figs. 7, tables 16.
1914. (Department Bulletin 77.)
Tests of Wooden Barrels. By J. A. Newlin. Pp. 12, figs. 1, Pls. V, tables 6. 1914.
(Department Bulletin 86.)
PUBLICATIONS FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS.
Timber: An Elementary Discussion of the Characteristics and Properties of Wood.
By Filbert Roth and B. E. Fernow. Pp. 88, figs. 49. 1895. -(Forest Service
Bulletin 10.) Price, 10 cents.
Effect of Moisture upon the Strength and Stiffness of Wood. By Harry Donald
Tiemann, M. E.M.F. Pp. 144, figs. 25, Pls. TV. 1906. (Forest Service Bulletin
70.) Price 15 cents.
Properties and Uses of Douglas Fir: Part I, Mechanical Properties. Part II, Com-
mercial Uses. By McGarvey Cline and J. B. Knapp. Pp. 75, Pls. III, diagrams
15. 1911. (Forest Service Bulletin 88.) Price 15 cents.
Tests of Structural Timbers. By McGarvey Cline and A. L. Heim. Pp. 123, Pls.
VII, text figures 29. 1912. (Forest Service Bulletin 108.) Price 20 cents.
Mechanical Properties of Western Hemlock. By O. P. M. Goss. Pp. 45, figs. 13, Pls.
VI. 1918. (Forest Service Bulletin 115.) Price 15 cents.
Holding Force of Railroad Spikes in Wooden Ties. By W. Kendrick Hatt, Ph. D.
Pp. 5, figs. 4. 1906. (Forest Service Circular 46.) Price 5 cents.
Tests of Vehicle and Implement Woods. By H. B. Holroyd and H. 8. Betts. Pp.
29, tables 8. 1908. (Forest Service Circular 142.) Price 5 cents.
Properties and Uses of the Southern Pines. By-H.S, Betts. Pp. 30, figs. 6, 1909.
(Forest Service Circular 164.) Price 5 cents.
Utilization of California Eucalypts. By H. 8. Betts and C. Stowell Smith. Pp. 30,
figs. 7. 1910. (Forest Service Circular 179.) Price 5 cents.
Strength Values for Structural Timbers. By McGarvey Cline. Pp. 8, tables 4.
1912. (Forest Service Circular 189.) Price 5 cents.
Mechanical Properties of Redwood. By A.L. Heim. Pp. 32, figs. 8, tables7. 1912.
(Forest Service Circular 193.) Price 5 cents.
Mechanical Properties of Woods Grown in the United States. Pp. 4, table 1. 1913.
(Forest Service Circular 213.) Price 5 cents.
Tests of Packing Boxes of Various Forms. By John A. Newlin. Pp. 23, figs. 4,
tables 6. 1913. (Forest Service Circular 214.) Price 5 cents.
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C,
AT
5 CENTS PER COPY
V
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_—_ be att aie hye ytte Hobe i hn goes” Hagin! i peta ivece iy
eto 2, . aloes Soar. (RT ao Bape E iabsc
te golitad (2 at ae, VrviEpoL re nore Sausioine “tH
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a miee , 7.y voli .6 ale, a -us geri Eek A aL 5, owe to eatha
3 | thee @ oak Ctieeashunt? 25mm
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{, BULLETIN No. 287 &&
= Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
See Fu WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER SEPTEMBER 14, 1915
A DEVICE FOR SAMPLING GRAIN, SEEDS, AND OTHER
MATERIAL.
By E.G. Boerner, Assistant in Grain Standardization.
INTRODUCTION.
The device described in this bulletin was developed primarily to
meet the demands of grain and seed dealers and laboratory workers
for securing a reliable sample of grain or seed from a larger portion of
the material to be examined, graded, or analyzed. It can also be used
- for sampling flour, meal, feeds, coal, ore, or any other material of like
kind for examination or analysis and to mix or blend and divide two
or more streams of unlike material of the kind specified, so that the
two resulting streams will be a thorough mixture of the original two
or more kinds of material.
Another application of the device which should be of special interest
to the grain trade is that a sample can be divided so that one half
can be used for testing and grading and the duplicate half either
turned over to the seller or to the buyer of the grain or retained for
future reference.
Both the construction and the process have been made simple, so
that rehable samples can be obtained by any careful worker.
The operation of the device does not require power of any kind,
gravity being all that is necessary tomake the material pass through it.
DESCRIPTION OF THE SAMPLING DEVICE.
As is shown in figure 1, the device consists of a hopper (A), held in
position over a cone (J), which is provided at its base (@) with a
series of separated ducts (/’) having uniform distances or spaces
between them (/). These ducts are so constructed that they are
equal to the width of the spaces between the ducts, as shown in figures
2 and 3. The ducts may be so constructed as to form an integral
part of the cone or they may be adjusted to the cone by clamps, rivets,
or other satisfactory means. Adjusted to the bottom of the ducts, at
ma is a funnel (/) having a spout (4) at its bottom part, as seen in
gure 1.
The ducts constitute a passageway from the exterior of the cone to
the interior of the funnel, as is shown by the arrows (M, M) pointing
downward in figure 1. Inclosing this inner funnel is another or out-
side funnel (J), also having a spout (Z) at its base. The upper
portion of the outside funnel extends over the ducts and the base of
the cone, so that the enlarged opening of this outside funnel partly
Notse.—This bulletin is of interest ‘to all who have occasion to get samples of grain and seeds.
1931°—15
2 BULLETIN 287,,U.,S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
circumscribes the cone. As is seen in figure 4, the outside funnel is pro-
vided with an aperture (() near its fower end, through which the spout
(K) from the interior funnel passes. The space between the two fun-
nels directly over the spout from
the inside funnel is bridged with
in order to prevent the lodging
of material as it passes through
the apparatus.
The outside funnel may be se-
cured to the upper and outside
part of the ducts by soldering or
riveting, or by any other suitable
or convenient means. The out-
side funnel is a sufficient distance
from the inside funnel to allow
the material to be sampled to
pass freely through the space be-
tween the two funnels. The
spaces £ between the ducts at
the base of the cone constitute
unobstructed passageways from
the surface of the cone to the in-
terior of the outside funnel, as is
shown by the arrow NV pointing
downward in figure 1. The
spaces between the ducts below
: the base of the cone are closed, so
Fic. 1—A vertical cross section of the sampling :
device, showing the paths taken by the materialin @S to prevent any of the material
rer i the hopper (A) to the receptacles which passes between the two
, ducts from bounding into the
inner funnel as it passes through the device. This is shown by V
in figures 1 and 2.
As seen in figure 4, the device
is held in a fixed operative posi-
tion by means of three supports
or legs Q, which may rest upon
any solid base. The supports
are fastened to the outside funnel
Ducts mnich! ©
at two points. They should be \\ ZZ. Fe
so placed that one of them will Sy Se:
. J Seances yeh <i
rest on the floor at a pomt half- . 7 4\ 2302 Poownel 1
way between the two recepta-
cles, as is shown in figure 5.
The hopper at the top of the
device is held in position by three
supports &, which are soldered or
riveted to the hopper and bolted
to the inside rim of the outside
funnel along itsupper edge, each: | : Ms 2-— Cros section of the Shree ae
support being fastened at a point
S opposite to the upper part of the three lower supports orlegs. The
hopper is so placed that the peak of the cone is directly under the center
of the opening at the bottom part of the hopper, so that the material
in passing through the device will spread evenly on all sides of the cone.
Jf
an inverted V-shaped bridge (P)_
fit
DEVICE FOR SAMPLING, GRAIN, AND OTHER MATERIAT.. 3
In the opening at the bottom of the hopper the diameter of the short
spout directly under the valve (B, fig. 1) is slightly larger than the
diameter just above
the valve, so as to pre-
vent small seeds, dirt,
etc., from being forced
into the slot in which
the valve fits when it
is closed. Fastened
to the short spout at
the lower part of the
hopper is a shield (C,
fig. 1), which extends
part ‘way down over
thecone. Thisshield
prevents the material
from bounding out of
the apparatus as it
falls on the cone from
the hopper.
The apparatus de- Fig. 3.—Top view of the sampling device with the hopper removed,
scribed may be con- showing the upper part of the ducts around the base of the cone.
structed from any material which is sufficiently strong and durable
to withstand the strain of the operation to which it may be subjected
in effecting the sampling, mixing, or
blending of the material specified.
When used for grain, seeds, or ground
material, it can be made of brass or a
good grade of zine, bothof which metals
are fairly rust resistant.
OPERATION OF THE SAMPLING DEVICE.
Place the material to be separated
in the hopper and open the valve or
gate, which allows the material to fall
on the peak of the cone in the form of a
circular column. The material then
spreads on the cone into a line the
length of the circumference of the cone
at its base, where it is divided into
sections by the ducts and the spaces.
The material entering the ducts passes
through them and falls into the inner
funnel and finds an exit through the
spout at its bottom, falling into the re-
ceptacle (7, fig. 1), which is placed
underneath the spout for receiving the
Fig. 4.—Diagrammatic view of the sam- material. : :
Piece WanGwitie Low thet spout G12) All of the material which enters the
Gon the inside tunnel passes througtnthe spaces between the ducts at) the base
of the cone falls into the outer funnel
and isspouted into the second container (U), which is placed below
the spout for that purpose. A top-surface view of the receptacles is
shown in figure 6.
4 BULLETIN 287, ,,5.,DEPAREMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
As the widths of the ducts are equal to the widths of the spaces
between the ducts, it follows that the material falling on the cone is
separated into approximately equal parts, one-half passing through
the spaces and the other half passing through the ducts. All of the
material which falls into the spaces is spouted into one of the recep-
tacles, while all of the material
which falls into the ducts is spouted
into the second receptacle.
Tf it is desired to obtain a smaller
part of the original amount of ma-
terial than one-half, it is only neces-
sary to return to the hopper the
material which falls into either of
the receptacles and run such ma-
terial through the device again, re-
peating such action as often as it
may be necessary to procure asam-
ple sufficiently small for the purpose
desired; or the same result may be
obtained by building up a series of
superimposed devices of the kind
described, so that the lower device
will receive only the material which
is spouted from one of the funnels.
If it is desired to obtain a small
sample from a very large quantity
of material, as, for instance, from
either a carload or cargo of grain,
as the grain is being loaded into
or discharged from a car or vessel,
then the construction of the device
Fic. 5.—Side view of the sampling device, show- 5 5
ing one leg placed on the left side halfway be. can bealtered by widening the space
Fe ene eae ca between the ducts so that any frac-
tion of the material entering the hopper can be made to pass into
the ducts and inner funnel, and by superimposing two or more de-
vices, one above the other, the portion taken out ne the ducts in each
device will reduce the original material very rapidly
to a sample of any size required.
The device can also be used for blending two or
more streams of wheat or other grain going to the
rolls of a mill or mills. If it is used to blend two or © sss
more streams of (say) wheat of different varieties or
grades, it is only necessary to spout each stream into
the hopper and to bring the two resultmg streams
together again before the mixture enters the rolls of
the mill. To supply two sets of rolls with the same Fic. 6—Top view of
blend, each stream as it leaves the device should be one fede the
run to aseparatesetof rolls. Ifitisdesiredtorun the material to be sam-
blend to four sets of rolls, then it would be necessary =?" °°"
to place another device under each spout of the upper device and run the
grain from each of the four resulting streams to a separate set of rolls.
Norr.—Application has been made for a patent coyering this device; if patent is
allowed it will be donated to the people of the United States.
WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1915
ae a
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief
Washington, D. C. WV September 7, 1915
CUSTOM GINNING AS A FACTOR IN COTTON-
SEED DETERIORATION.
By D. A. Saunpers, Plant Breeder, and P. V. Carpvon, Assistant Agronomist, Office
of Crop Acclimatization.
INTRODUCTION.
The admixture of cotton seed is largely responsible for the rapid
deterioration of cotton varieties which is so apparent throughout the
cotton belt, and which, to a large extent, is directly traceable to the
planting of seed which has been mixed at the custom gins. When
plants of different varieties of cotton grow in close proximity, cross-
fertilization takes place through the aid of insects and other pollen-
bearing agencies, with the result that varieties become interbred and
deterioration follows. Hitherto, however, nothing has been pub-
lished which fully emphasizes the extent of the mixing which occurs
during the ginning process, and consequently the seriousness of the
evil is not generally appreciated.
The lack of definite information on this pomt is due, no doubt,
to the difficulty in making accurate determinations of the actual
amounts of seed of different varieties present in the admixture under
observation. This difficulty arises from the fact that the seeds of
most of the more common varieties are so similar in appearance
that it is almost impossible to distinguish between them. To
overcome this difficulty and to measure the degree of mixture with
reasonable accuracy a method was devised by one of the writers,
Mr. Saunders, at Greenville, Tex., in 1914. The results obtained
from an application of this method show that mixing occurs to a far
greater extent than is commonly supposed, and emphasize the ne-
cessity of materially modifying common ginning methods if supplies
of pure seed are to be maintained. Full appreciation of these facts
NotEe.—This bulletin should be of service to all who are interested in the production and maintenance
of pure cotton seed.
2781°—15
2 BULLETIN 288, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
should prompt individuals and communities interested in keeping
their cotton seed pure to bring about some form of cooperation
with ginners to effectively provide against the admixture of varieties
at the gin.
THE POSSIBILITY OF MIXING SEED.
The matter of preserving the purity of cotton varieties has not
been given attention in the designing of ginning machinery, and the
different machines and their accessories are installed without refer-
ence to the amount of seed mixing likely to occur. Since either
the quantity of seed cotton ginned or the output of baled lint governs
the profits of the ginner, he usually operates his’ plant from the
standpoint of output alone, the seed question being purely secondary
with him. Consequently there are several stages in the ginning
process where mixing occurs unless certain precautions are exercised.
The methods generally employed in the operation of custom gins
are about as follows:
A patron’s seed cotton is taken up from his wagon by suction and is conveyed by
the same force through flues to the battery of gins. The manner in which the seed
cotton is distributed to the different gins, usually two to four in number, and the
condition in which it enters them vary somewhat with the type of ginning outfit
used. Usually, however, the distribution is preceded by a certain amount of mechani-
cal beating and pulling, the purpose of which is to clean the seed cotton as much as
possible and properly condition it for the actual ginning operation.
The seed cotton enters each gin througha kind of box called the feed box, or feeder.
The space between the feeder and the saws, where the actual separation of lint and
seeds takes place, is inclosed by a concave metal surface, and this inclosure is called
the roll box.
Upon entering the roll box the seed cotton falls upon the ribs of the gin breast.
Here the saws, one of which protrudes between each pair of ribs, catch the lint in their
rapid, revolving motion, pull it from the seeds, and carry it on their teeth to the
brushes, which in turn take it off the saws and pass it into the lint flues, through which
it is conveyed by suction to the press. The seeds, being unable to pass between the
ribs with the lint, fall back and are diverted by means of an inclosed metal apron into
the seed conveyor. This conveyor, which usually consists of a screw or a belt in a
groove or trough arranged directly under the gins, takes the seed either to hoppers,
from which it may be dumped into the patron’s wagon, or to the seed house, from which
it will later be shipped to the oil mill.
As the saws tear through the seed cotton first fed into the roll box they give to the
mass a rotary motion. This revolving mass soon assumes the shape of a roll, which
gives rise to the name ‘‘roll box.”
Gradually most of the lint in the roll is removed, and it becomes more truly a roll of
seed. The regulated supply of seed cotton subsequently fed into the roll box revolves
upon the roll, the lint is caught by the saws and carried away, and the seeds remain
as part of the roll or drop out into the conveyor. Thus, there is a constant exchange of
seed in the roll.
Once formed, the roll is seldom removed, but usually is allowed to remain through
long periods of ginning. The ginner ordinarily tries to avoid having the roll run out or
dropped, which would necessitate the formation of a new one when the next lot of cot-
tonisfed tothe gin. Sometimes the gins are stopped just before the last seed cotton
of a patron passes out of the feeders, and the amount remaining is ginned as the first
part of the next patron’s cotton. Usually, however, the gin is run several minutes
CUSTOM GINNING IN COTTON-SEED DETERIORATION. 3
after the last of a patron’s cotton leaves his wagon, in order to empty the feed boxes
and practically free all of the seed in the roll box from lint before the next lot of cotton
enters.
This brief description is sufficient to make clear the fact that where
different varieties are ginned consecutively in the same gins mixing is
inevitable unless precaution is exercised. Though the flues which
convey the seed cotton are constructed with a view to facilitating the
free and rapid movement of the mass, there are usually a few places
where a small quantity of seed cotton may catch and remain to be
collected by the passing bulk of the next lot. The amount of mixing
at this juncture, however, is very slight. Mixing occurs also in the
distributing, cleaning, and feeding devices, though this, too, is com-
paratively unimportant. The first place at which extensive mixing
occurs) (the place, in fact, where most of the mixing takes place) is in
the roll box. Though further mixing occurs in the seed conveyor,
mixing in the roll box calls for first consideration.
MIXING SEED IN THE ROLL BOX.
Seeds in the roll remaining in each roll box after the ginning of one
variety gradually are replaced by seeds of the next variety as it passes
through the gins. The replaced seeds are mixed with seeds of the
variety being ginned, and together they drop into the conveyor and
thence into the patron’s wagon. The amount of mixing which occurs
in the roll box clearly depends upon the rapidity with which the ex-
change of seeds takes place. Asa means of determining the rapidity
of exchange and the consequent amount of mixing, the method here
described was employed: !
The seed roll was removed from a 70-saw gin and the seeds were stained red with
ordinary dye in order to mark them distinctively. Then they were thoroughly sun-
dried and finally returned to the roll box. The roll was packed as near as possible to
the density it had before being removed. When the next bale was ginned, samples of
the seed were taken every five minutes from the gin containing the colored roll as the
seed dropped into the conveyor. The proportion of red seeds in each sample was then
determined. The results of these determinations are given in Table I. (See also
figs. 1 to 5.)
TaBLE I.—Extent of mixture in samples of cotton seed taken from the roll of a single
gin stand in a battery of three stands at intervals of 5 minutes, as determined at G'reen-
ville, Tex., Sept. 7, 1914.
Number and character of seeds in
each sample.
Time of sampling after ginning had begun. Red seed.
Total. White. Red.
Per cent.
(5) TEATS oS Seg SC Eg Re URE Keema ete oo Sek Medel 521 250 271 52.0
478 396 82 17.1
527 488 39 7.4
835 812 23 2.8
25 minutes 603 600 3 a)
30 minutes 801 800 1 gal
1 The writers wish to acknowledge the assistance rendered in this experiment by Mr. George Chandler,
whose gin was used in securing the results presented herein.
4 BULLETIN 288, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
For several minutes only stained seed appeared. After the gin had been running
5 minutes the sample taken showed 52 per cent of colored seed. At the end of the
first 10 minutes the sample showed 17.1 per cent of stained seed and after 15 minutes
7.4 per cent, while at the end of 20 minutes 2.8 per cent of stained seed appeared
Fic. 1.—Sample of cotton seed taken 5 minutes after the ginning of the second bale had begun, showing 52
per cent of red seed from the stained roll of the first bale.
in the sample. The sample taken at the end of 25 minutes showed 0.5 per cent of
stained seed, and the one taken at the 30-minute period showed 0.1 per cent, or 1
seed in a sample of 801 seeds. j
When the bale was ginned, the roll was carefully examined and 32 stained seeds
were found. Not until 10 minutes after the second bale had been started did these
Tia. 2.—Sample of cotton seed taken 10 minutes after the ginning of the second bale had begun, showing
17.1 per cent of red seed from the stained roll of the first bale.
pass out of the gin. No stained seeds were found in the roll box after the ginning
of the second bale.
These results indicate that the exchange of seeds in the roll takes
place very rapidly, practically the entire roll being replaced during
CUSTOM GINNING IN COTTON-SEED DETERIORATION. 5
the ginning of a single bale. Most of the red seeds passed out of
the roll box during the first few minutes the gin was in operation.
It is possible that if it had not been necessary to remove the roll
Fic. 3.—Sample of cotton seed taken 15 minutes after the ginning of the second bale had begun, showing
7.4 per cent of red seed from the stained roll of the first bale.
to stain it (that is, if a stained roll could have been formed in the
normal way) mixing might have been apparent through a longer
period of time; but it is reasonable to believe that the results obtained.
would not have been modified materially.
Fic. 4.—Sample of cotton seed taken 20 minutes after the ginning of the second bale had begun, ee
2.8 per cent of red seed from the stained roll of the first bale.
These results were obtained from only one gin. It is evident
that in a battery of four or more gins the chance of mixing seed
is greatly increased. However, taking these results as a basis,
rather dependable calculations can be made for the purpose of
6 BULLETIN 288, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
showing in round numbers about how much mixing may occur.
Each roll contains from 35 to 40 pounds of seed, or slightly more
than a bushel. The four rolls in a 4-gin battery therefore would
contain from 140 to 160 pounds, or from 4 to 5 bushels of seed.
If most of these passed out of the roll boxes during the ginning
of a bale of cotton, as is indicated by the results at hand, they would
comprise from 14 to 16 per cent by weight of the total quantity
(about 1,000 pounds) of seed usually obtained by the patron from
the seed cotton necessary to make a bale of lint.
While such an admixture in itself is sufficient to justify a demand
for more care than is ordinarily exercised at custom gins, it must
be remembered that the roll box is not the only source of mixture
at the gin.
Fic. 5.—Sample of cotton seed taken 25 minutes after the ginning of the second bale had begun, showing
0.5 per cent of red seed from the stained roll of the first bale.
OTHER SOURCES OF MIXTURE.
It has already been pointed out that some mixing may occur before
the seed cotton reaches the roll box, and also that further mixing
6ccurs in the seed conveyor. While it is impossible to determine the
amount of mixing which may occur in the flues, it may be measured
in the seed conveyor by a continuation of the method employed in
making determinations in the roll box.
Such determinations were not made at Greenville, but it was ob-
served that even after the second bale was ginned red seeds were
found scattered along the conveyor from the gin to the seed house.
Thus, while the seed was badly mixed before it was delivered into the
conveyor, it was mixed moré and more thoroughly as it was stirred and
crowded forward by the conveyor screw. For this reason it is appar-
ent that the amount of mixture in the seed delivered to the patron is
even greater than is indicated by the determinations made at the gin.
CUSTOM GINNING IN COTTON-SEED DETERIORATION. 7
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESULTS OBTAINED.
Previous publications ' of the Department of Agriculture have de-
scribed methods of selecting cotton and ways of maintaiming through
community action the supply of pure seed. While there are already
many individuals who recognize the value of pure seed and are much
concerned about maintaining a permanent supply, it is likely that
the movement for better cotton will develop very rapidly in the next
few years. That careful methods of selection must be supplemented
by careful ginning methods if the movement is to succeed is made
clear by the results here discussed. Farmers must take steps to
minimize mixing at custom gins if they are to maintain the purity of
their improved varieties and in this way prevent deterioration.
It has been shown that no less than 14 to 16 per cent, and probably
much more, of the seed delivered to a patron at custom gins as ordi-
narily operated is seed of the variety ginned just previous to the
arrival of his cotton. The results at Greenville indicate also that
some seeds from the second bale preceding are likely to appear in the
seed delivered to the patron. This means that if different varieties
are being ginned consecutively a patron will receive in the seed de-
livered to him at the gin an admixture of at least three varieties,
It is apparent that if such seed is planted opportunity is afforded for
a vast amount of cross-fertilization in the field, and deterioration
begins. During the next ginning process one or more other varieties
may be added to the mixture and still further opportunity for crossing
is afforded. Thus, a farmer may start out with an improved variety
and in a few years find that his crop ceases to show marks of improve-
ment and more nearly represents a composite stock of many varieties.
Deterioration has developed so far that the bolls are small, the yield
is light, the plants are not storm-proof, and the fiber produced is of
poor quality and brings only low prices.
WAYS OF MINIMIZING THE AMOUNT OF MIXING.
It should be possible for interested patrons to establish some
understanding with the ginner whereby he will cooperate in taking
precautions aimed at minimizing the amount of mixing likely to
occur. The precautions which appear most practicable and which
even now are exercised in some localities involve the following steps:
The patron should accompany to the gin the lot of seed cotton from which he expects
to save seed for planting, and he should aid the ginner in seeing that everything pos-
sible is done to prevent mixing.
He should see that the flues, feeders, and cleaners are cleaned as thoroughly as their
construction will permit before he allows his seed cotton to enter them.
The roll should be dropped from the roil box and the box should be thoroughly
cleaned. The dropping of the roll is an operation with which all ginners are familiar.
4Cook, O. F. Cotton selection on the farm by the characters of the stalks, leaves, and bolls. U.S.
_ Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cire. 66, 23 p., 1910.
Cotton improvement on a community basis. U.S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1911, p. 397-410. 1911.
8 BULLETIN 283, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The construction of the gins is such that the roll can be dropped and the box cleaned
in a very few minutes. Some improved gins are arranged so that the roll box may be
emptied without stopping the gin, thereby further simplifying the operation.
Having cleaned the machinery up to and including the roll box, the next step is to
prevent the seed of the variety to be ginned from falling into the conveyor. It is
impracticable to clean the conveyor satisfactorily, and therefore it should not be used
when planting seed is to be obtained. By adjusting the position of the apron of each
gin the seed can be made to fall upon the floor in front of the gin instead of into the
conveyor. From here it can be sacked easily.
The floors about the gins should be cleaned to the extent that no seeds are left lying
around to cause mixing. Canvas spread upon the floor to receive the seed from the
gins is often used.
Such precautions require time in which to carry them out effec-
tively, and time spent in this manner naturally reduces somewhat
the amount of ginning that otherwise could be done in a day. On
this point the ginner may find cause to base objection to such proce-
dure, but it should be possible to meet the objection by fully com-
pensating him for the extra time consumed. The expense of special
ginning in some sections may be reduced by arranging to have it done
on specified days or at the close of the season, when more time is
available. In any event, the amount of money that may be required
to secure the ginner’s cooperation in the maintenance of pure seed is
almost negligible in view of the favorable effect such precautions will
have upon the farmer’s crops in succeeding years.
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
5 CENTS PER COPY
V
WASHINGTON ? GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1916
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 289
Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 21, 1915
RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION: POLLINATION
STUDIES.
By J. M. Wesreate, Agronomist, and H. 8. Cor, Scientific Assistant, Office of Forage-
Crop Investigations
Tn collaboration with A. T. Wrancxo and I. E. Rossins, of the Indiana Agricultural
Experiment Station, and H. D. Hucues, L. H. Pammet, and J. N. Martin, of the
Jowa Agricultural Experiment Station.
CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
NT ROGUC HO Wersetecteticiscle siaisis cine oa wsioiercle’~ielnini- <1 1 | Cross-pollination and self-pollination of red
Previous investigations on the pollination of Clover: Sa eee ee 11
TECKIG OCT RP oases ose winches 2. | Artificial manipulation of clover heads........ 12
Outline of pollinating experiments. ..-.-------- 5 | Bumblebees as cross-pollinators ofredclover.... 17
Structure of the red-clover flower. .---..-------- 5 | Honeybees as cross-pollinators of red clover....- 18
Length of the corolla tube of red-clover flowers. 7 Mechanical cross-pollinators ofred clover...._-. 20
Development of the flowers of red clover.-.--- (Ue Summ ary... 2s cseaesyscnene veces eee eee 26
Fertilization of red-clover flowers. ...-.--------- LOS literal ure\cited pees ss sea nee aes er eee 29
Potency of pollen in self-pollination........----- 10
INTRODUCTION.
For a number of years the quantity ef seed of red clover (Trifolium
pratense) produced in this country has been insufficient to supply the
demand for reseeding purposes in the clover-belt States. This not
only has caused the seed to be high im price, but has resulted in the
importation of large quantities of foreign seed, some of which, on
account of the impurities present and its low vitality, has boca
considerably less desirable than the ordinary home-grown strains. _
The prime importance of clover in the ordinary farm rotations in
the corn and clover belt States makes the continued maintenance of
the clover acreage of great moment to the agricultural prosperity of
the country. This problem has been approached from four different
angles. First, to determine the minimum amount of seed necessary
to obtain a stand, so that much less than the quantity of seed ordi-
narily sown will be sufficient to produce a satisfactory yield, for any
2990°—Bull. 28915 —1
}
tI
;
2 BULLETIN 289, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
reduction in the quantity of seed required to sow an acre will propor-
tionately increase the acreage throughout the country which can be
sown with the available supply of seed. The second line of attack
has been to determine the environmental conditions necessary to
the maintenance of a satisfactory stand of clover. That these con-
ditions are less favorable than they have been in the past is
indicated by the increasing difficulty experienced by many farmers
in maintaining clover in the ordinary rotations. A third line of
attack has been the possibility of developmg a heavy-seeding,
hardy strain of clover with good forage and hay producing qualities.
The fourth line of attack, the one with which the present publication is
concerned, has been a study of various means of affecting the yield of
clover seed under field conditions as they exist throughout the
clover-growing sections of the country. One phase of this work has
been to determine the effect of the time of cutting or clippimg the
first growth on the seed production of the subsequent crop. The
second phase, that with which this bulletin is primarily concerned,
has been the effect of various mechanical forms of pollination upon
the quantity of seed produced. |
PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS ON THE POLLINATION OF RED CLOVER.
Since the time of the publication of the statement by Darwin (6,
p. 361; 7, p. 90)! that 100 heads of red clover on plants protected
from insects during the blooming period did not produce a single seed
while a similar number of heads exposed to insects produced an
average of 27 seeds per head, many scientists have investigated this
subject. Knuth (22, v. 1,.p. 36-37; v. 2, p. 289) accepts Darwin’s
experimental results and states that red clover, crimson clover, and
white clover are among the best examples of self-sterility in plants.
Stebler and Schréter (39, p. 123) in discussing the pollination of red
clover say that there is no experimental evidence to show that pollen
from a flower can not, when applied to its own stigma, fertilize the
ovules, but they also state that pollen which is effective in producing
fertilization has in all probability come from some other flower. The
same authors (40, p. 14, 122) in a later edition state that red clover
is self-sterile. Frandsen, according to Lindhard (23), found red
clover to be practically self-sterile. From 1,235 flowers in 1910 and
1,305 flowers in 1911, which were self-pollinated by Frandsen, 0.07
per cent set seed. In 1910 Frandsen pollinated 1,488 flowers and in
1911, 1,455 flowers with pollen from other heads on the same plants;
0.8 per cent of the flowers set seed in 1910 and 0.4 per cent in 1911.
Wallace (43, p. 121) states that insects must perform the indispen-
sable work of cross-pollinating red clover, but later says (44) that he
has been inclined to think that climatic conditions rather than the
1 Reference is made by number to “ Literature cited,”’ p. 29.
RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. 3
presence or absence of insects influence seed production. The work
of Sirrine (37, p. 89-90), as well as that of Witte (46), showed red clover
to be self-sterile. In the experiments of Cook (5), Shamel (36), and
Kirchner (21) no seed was produced when heads were covered before
blooming and not pollinated. Fruwirth (11; 12, p. 163-166) did not
obtain a single seed when heads under cover were left undisturbed
or when they were pollinated with pollen from another head on the
same plant, while heads pollinated with pollen from another plant
produced seed. Bolley (4) obtained but two seeds from one head
of a large area which was placed under a fine screen before any of the
flowers came into bloom. He states that insects other than bumble-
bees must pollinate the flowers, since the bumblebees were scarce
and the clover set well. Genevier (13) states that the fertilization
of clover does not depend on the presence of bumblebees. Pammel
and King (32) report but two seeds from 643 heads which were
allowed to mature under a screen cover, while Washburn (45) says
that only by the aid of bumblebees was he able to obtain seed.
Armstrong (1), in writing about New Zealand, says there is every
reason to believe that numerous individuals belonging to Trifoliwm
pratense are self-fertile and that they produce self-fertile progeny.
According to him the American strain is usually, if not always, self-
fertile. McAlpine (24) discusses Garton’s experiments, which show
that the self-fertilizing property is as common with red clover as it is
with the bean. The following is quoted from Kerner (20, p. 407):
‘*Pisum and Ervum, Lotus and Melilotus, the various species of Tri-
folium, almost all of them, when unvisited by insects, ripen seed,
only a few species here and there being infertile when dependent
upon their own resources.”’ Nothing definite can be taken from
Kerner’s statement, since he does not quote any species or give defi-
nite exceptions to his statement. Hopkins (14) says he is not ready
to admit that self-fertilization does not take place and that he is
inclined to believe a crop of seed can be grown without the aid of
bumblebees. The same author (15, p. 73) states that honeybees
serve the same purpose as bumblebees in cross-fertilizing red clover.
The work of Beal (2, p. 325-328) shows that bumblebees increased
the seed production about four times, since in a check cage he received
25 seeds from 50 heads, while in the cage where bumblebees were
placed 94 seeds from 50 heads were obtained. Martinet (27) found
red clover to be self-fertile, stating that cross-pollination might
have been brought about by very small insects (undoubtedly mean-
ing thrips). Fruwirth (12, p. 163-166), however, showed that
thrips transferred from other clover fields in large numbers produced
no seed in his experiments. Meehan (28) states that a careful exami-
nation of the clover flower in all its stages convinced him that from
its structure and behavior it was self-fertile. It is still an open
- BULLETIN 289, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
question whether or not red clover is self-fertile, according to Smith
(38, p. 236).
Garton, according to Wallace (44), claims that red-clover flowers
are cleistogamous, but Martin (26) in his work on the cytology of
red-clover flowers disproved this theory. Garton attempts to prove
that the flowers are cleistogamous by saying that the ovules are
well formed by the time the flowers open. The ovary is quite large
at this time, and it was undoubtedly taken to be a developing ovule.
Pammel and King (32) record that self-fertilization was accomplished
in some experiments at Ames, Lowa, by irritating the stigmas. Hunt
(19) speaks as follows: ‘It has long been recognized that red-clover
and other leguminous flowers may be self-pollinated, although it
has never been determined whether self-pollination or cross-pollina-
tion most commonly occurs.”
According to Dunning (8), after the introduction and establish-
ment of bumblebees in New Zealand red clover seeded abundantly,
but previous to this time he says it seeded very little. The Agri-
cultural Gazette of New South Wales (9, 16) maintains that bumble-
bees were introduced into New South Wales from New Zealand so
that they would be able to produce clover seed for home use, which
up to this time was largely imported. At Failford, New South
Wales, red clover seeded abundantly (35), although no bumblebees
had been noticed in that vicinity. The pollinating was thought to
have been done by several native insects. This was several years
after the introduction of bumblebees. Later (17) it was stated that
bumblebees had become well established.
Waldron (41, 42) found in his experiments that bumblebees were
responsible for about 95 per cent of red-clover seed and that a small
quantity may be produced by natural self-pollination.
Miller (29, p. 184-186) states that when a bee draws its proboscis
out of a clover flower cross-pollination is assured and self-pollination
may also take place, but that the self-pollination is probably neutral-
ized and superseded by the immediately preceding cross-pollination.
Folsom (10, p. 116) considers the Italian race of honeybees as
important as the bumblebees in clover-seed production, while Arm-
strong (1) claims that honeybees are able to extract nectar from
red-clover flowers in New Zealand. Pammel (31, p. 172) shows that
honeybees are able to collect pollen from red-clover flowers and
thereby cross-pollinate them. Robertson (83, p. 177) states as
follows: ‘But while butterflies may sometimes effect cross-fertili-
zation of the red clover, they are of doubtful value, if not injurious.
* * * But butterflies can insert their thin tongues without
depressing the keel, and, even if they get a little pollen on their
thin proboscides, it is apt to be wiped off by the closely approxi-
mated tips of the petals, which close the mouths of the flowers,”’
RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. 5
OUTLINE OF POLLINATING EXPERIMENTS.
It is a well-known fact that the yield of clover seed varies greatly
from year to year, and no distinct correlation with any marked
climatic factors has been determined. It was thought that
possibly the absence of suitable pollinating insects, such as bumble-
bees, might in some seasons be responsible*for the reduced yields
of seeds. This is especially true when conditions were such that
there was no other apparent reason for the failure of the crop to
set seed. In order to obtain light on this point, a series of experi-
ments was outlined to determine (1) whether clover flowers were
able to set seed without the assistance of outside agencies; (2)
whether clover flowers were able to set seed when their own pollen
was transferred to their stigmas by outside agencies; and (3) the
relative efficiency of the honeybee and the bumblebee as _ cross-
pollinators of red clover.
In order to overcome any local environmental factors, the experi-
ments were conducted at Ames, Iowa, and La Fayette, Ind., and were
repeated to some extent at the Arlington Experiment Farm, Va.
The work on individual clover heads was performed on heads pro-
tected from the action of insects by tarlatan cloth. This cloth has
about twice as many meshes to the linear inch as ordinary mosquito
netting. Where numerous plants were to be protected from all
outside agencies, cages of wire screen having 14 meshes to the
linear inch were used. In some instances, where it was desired to
permit the entrance of all insects smaller than bumblebees, cages
made of galvanized-wire screen having four meshes to the linear inch
were employed.
All work was done on second-crop red clover unless otherwise spe-
cifically stated.
STRUCTURE OF THE RED-CLOVER FLOWER.
The heads of red clover contain from 35 to 150 flowers each, and
according to Pammel and Clark (30) the average number per head
for black loam soil at Ames, Iowa, is 71.1 for the first crop and 98.1
for the second crop
The flowers of red clover consist of a green pubescent calyx with
five pointed lobes and an irregular magenta or purple corolla of five
petals (Fig 1.) The claws of the petals are more or less united to
the staminal tube | This staminal tube is formed by the union of the
filaments of the nine inferior stamens To the greater portion of the
anterior end of this common. tube, formed by the uniting of the claws
of the petals with the staminal tube, is attached the broad base of
the vexillum. The carina, which is composed of two petals united
at one edge, is attached to the inferior part of the edge of the tube
6 BULLETIN 289, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
not occupied by the vexillum. Even though the base of the carina
is narrow it is able to return to its normal position shortly after bemg
bent downward. The al are attached by their flexible claws to the
common tube. Before a flower opens the ale are pressed closely to
the carina, although as the flower matures they spread apart. The
staminal tube splits superiorly to admit the tenth free stamen. The
filament of this superior stamen lies along the side of the staminal
tube and therefore does not interfere with the proboscis of a bee
which is inserted to collect nectar. Nectar is secreted at the bases
of the stamens and accumulates in the staminal tube around the base
Fia. 1.—Different parts of a red-clover flower: 1, Anterior view of flower; 2, posterior view of flower after
the vexillum has been removed; 3, posterior view of flower, showing the carina, which has been forced
apart (twice the magnification of the other drawings); 4, right ala, from within; 5, right half of carina,
from without, the claws of 4 and 5 having been partly broken off; 6, the essential organs emerging from
the depressed carina; 7, longitudinal section of a flower. @,Calyx; b, tube formed by the partial union
of 9 filaments with the claws of the vexillum, alz, and carina; c, vexillum; d, concave part of the inner
side of ala; e, lower border of ala, bent outward; f, outward surface of ala; g, pouched swelling on the
base ofanala; h, carina; i, style; k, superior free stamen; 7, stigma; m,anthers; 7, point of union between
alee and carina; o, point of flexure of the carina; p, part of the upper border of ala, bent outward; gq
downward extension of the vexillum; 7, staminal tube; s, style; ¢, ovary. (After Muller in part.)
of the ovary. The filaments which compose the staminal tube sepa-
rate in the hollow of the carina. Each filament bears a fertile anther.
The pistil is inclosed within the staminal tube, the upper part of the
style and stigma of which are inclosed with the anthers in the carina.
The stigma is situated slightly above the stamens in most flowers,
although in some the anther of the longest stamen is as high as the
stigma.
When a bee inserts its proboscis into the staminal tube, it is Inserted
between the vexillum and the carina. In doing this the carina and
RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. We
alee are pressed downward and the stigma and anthers are thrust up
against the bee’s head. Since the carina and stamens are elastic, the
pollen is thrown with considerable force against the head of the bee.
When the bee releases the pressure on the carina and ale, the parts
return to their normal position on account of the elasticity of the
base of the carina and a small dilated vesicular process at the base
of each ala. , (Fig. 1.)
LENGTH OF THE COROLLA TUBE OF RED-CLOVER FLOWERS.
The corolla tube of red clover is stated by Knuth (22, v. 2, p. 289)
and Miller (29, pp. 184-186) to be from 9 to 10 millimeters in length.
Pammel and King (32) report an average length of 9.4 millimeters
for 450 flowers. Schachinger, according to Fruwirth (12, pp. 163-
166), says the corolla tubes are shorter in the second crop than in
the first crop, and for this reason smaller bees are able to work on the
second crop than on the first.
Fifteen corolla tubes from each of 28 heads of first-crop red clover
were measured at Ames, Iowa. The greatest variation found in
different flowers of the same head was 2 millimeters. The 420
corolla tubes varied from 8.5 millimeters to 11.5 millimeters, with
an average length of 9.6 millimeters.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FLOWERS OF RED CLOVER.
The stamens of red clover develop much more rapidly than the pistil,
and the length of the longer set exceeds that of the pistil until near
the time the flower opens. The pollen is formed in the longer stamens
through the division of the mother cells when the pistil is about 0.25
millimeter in length. The division in the pollen mother cells of the
shorter stamens closely follows that in the longer stamens. When
the pistil is about 1 millimeter in length, only about one-twelfth of
its length at maturity (fig. 2, A), the pollen grains are apparently
mature so far as their size, their shape, and the thickness of their
walls are concerned. At this stage the two ovules are well formed,
but the ege and endosperm cells are not developed till later and are
not ready for fertilization until just previous to the opening of the
corolla. The later development of the pollen consists in protoplasmic
changes. After the pollen grains have reached their mature size and
their walls have become mature the protoplasm shows very little or
no granular nature. Just before the flowers open the protoplasm
becomes very dense. At this stage the protoplasm contains much
oil in the form of an emulsion. The pollen will now germinate.
The pistil has a stylar canal reaching from the ovary almost to
the stigma. Just previous to and during the opening of the corolla
the pistil elongates more rapidly than the stamens, and as a result
the stigma is usually pushed beyond the anthers in the open flower
8 BULLETIN 289, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
(fig. 2, B). The stigmatic surface is papillate and has a fringed
appearance in the mature flower. The papillae contain much oil and
have rather heavy walls, which react to the test for cutin.
Both ovules develop embryo sacs (fig. 2, C). Fertilization usually
takes place in each ovule; but only one, so far as observed, matures
into a seed. Should plants occur that mature both ovules, there
would be an opportunity to produce strains with twice the seed-
yielding capacity of those now grown.
Fic. 2.—Red-clover flowers, showing different stages of development. A.—Lengihwise section of a red-
clover flower at an early stage (50): a, Calyx tube; b, staminal tube; c, standard; d, one of the long
stamens; e, anthers of two long stamens; f, free stamen; g, stigma; h, the two ovules; 7, anther of a short
stamen; j, stylar canal. B.—Lengthwise section of an open flower, showing the character of the stigma
and its position relative to the anthers (25): a, Stigma; b, anthers of two long stamens; c, anthers of
two short stamens. C.—Lengthwise section through the base of a flower, open and ready for fertilization
(40): a, Egg; b, endosperm cell; c, calyx; d, staminal tube; e, nectar glands; /, free stamen. D.—A
median, longitudinal section through the nucellus of a sterile ovule which should have been ready for
fertilization, the flower being open; all cells remained vegetative and no reproductive cells were produced
(18). E.—Pollen grain (325): g, Germ pore; n, nucleus; w, wall.
INFERTILE OVULES OF RED CLOVER.
Infertile ovules are a common occurrence in red clover and occur to
a considerable extent throughout the season. A section through the
nucellus of an infertile ovule is shown in figure 2, ). In the infertile
ovules all colls remain vegetative and no embryo sac is formed. The
largest percentage of infertility has been found to occur in first-crop
red clover, and this infertility appears to accompany moist soil and
atmospheric conditions. During the first crop many plants produce
RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. 9
100 per cent of infertile ovules. With such plants the presence of
bees is not a matter of importance, for the ovules have no reproduc-
tive cells; hence there can be no fertilization and no production of
seed. During the second crop, when the season is generally dry and
favorable for seed setting, there is some infertility, ranging from a
low percentage or none in some plants to a high percentage in others.
It is very probable that this infertility of ovules is to a greater or less
degree a hereditary character and that the production of a high-
yielding strain will consist, among other features, in selecting those
plants with the least tendency toward infertility.
POLLEN OF RED CLOVER.
The pollen grains of red clover are almost globular when turgid,
with a little flattening at the germ pores. When measured in a
25 per cent cane-sugar solution the pollen grains have an average
size of 44.5 by 43 u (fig. 2, #). The grains are not fully turgid when
shed from the anthers and one diameter in each is shortened and
the other diameter lengthened by an infolding of the wall. In this
condition Martin (25) found the average dimensions of 100 pollen
orains to be 26 by 48 uw, while Miss Clark (30) found the average size
of 1,024 pollen grains to be 31.7 by 56.29 p.
When dropped in water the pollen grains take it up very rapidly
and burst almost instantly. On account of this feature of the pollen
there can be little effective pollination when the flowers are wet.
Pollination at night or in the morning when the flowers are wet
with dew is not likely to be effective.
Germination of the pollen of red clover was found by Martin (25)
to depend upon a proper water supply. Good artificial germination
can be secured on parchment paper or animal membranes which are
just moist enough to permit the pollen to absorb the requisite amount
of water for germination. Germination takes place within a limited
range of variation. in the water supply, and it is only by trials of
wetting and drying that the proper moisture content of the mem-
branes may be secured. Under proper conditions of moisture and
temperature, germination takes place usually in 8 to 10 minutes.
FUNCTION OF THE STIGMAS OF RED-CLOVER FLOWERS.
Microchemical tests of the stigmas of red-clover flowers show
no sugars or starches present. An oily emulsion, however, does
occur in the papillae. Crushed stigmas placed on animal membranes
had no apparent effect on the germination of the pollen or on the
directions of the tubes. |
When pollen is deposited on the stigmas it lodges between the
papille, takes up water, and soon becomes turgid, but the water
supply is so regulated by the stigmas that no bursting occurs. It
2990°—Bull. 289—15——2
10 BULLETIN 289, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
is probable that the only function of the stigmas in the germination
of the pollen is that of supplying the requisite amount of moisture
to the pollen. If such is the function of the stigmas, a wet soil or
humid atmosphere, both of which tend to increase the water content
of the stigmas, may allow the pollen to absorb too much water and
thus prevent fertilization. Martin (25) found pollen lying dormant
on stigmas 18 hours after pollination during cool, moist weather.
This dormancy might have been due to the effect of low temperature
upon the pollen alone, but could have been due to an interference
with the moisture adjustment.
FERTILIZATION OF RED-CLOVER FLOWERS.
TIME REQUIRED BETWEEN POLLINATION AND FERTILIZATION.
The time between the pollination and the fertilization of red-clover
flowers varies. Flowers pollinated in July, when the temperature
was high and killed 18 hours after pollination, showed that in most
cases fertilization had taken place. In October, when the tempera-
ture was much lower, the time between pollination and fertilization
ranged from 35 to 50 hours.
NECESSITY OF FERTILIZATION OF RED-CLOVER FLOWERS.
It has been reported that red clover is able to develop seed without
fertilization; but field experiments, as well as laboratory tests, have
disproved this statement. One of the most noticeable features of
this work was the fact that all the flowers of heads which were
covered with tarlatan before they came into bloom and left in this
condition until they withered remained in full bloom from 9 to 10
days. Flowers of red clover wither shortly after fertilization takes
place. This is why red clover heads usually contain flowers in bud,
in bloom, and withered at the same time.
In order to further test the necessity of fertilization, a large number
of heads were covered with tarlatan before any flowers came into
bloom. An examination of more than 500 flowers at various times
after they began to wilt showed no embryos. The ovules were
disintegrating.
POTENCY OF POLLEN IN SELF-POLLINATION.
In order to determine the potency of pollen in self-pollinated
flowers of red clover, a number of heads were covered with tarlatan
two or three days previous to the opening of the flowers. Some of
these covered flowers were self-pollinated by springing the carinas,
while the rest were cross-pollinated by springing the carinas and
applying pollen from flowers on other plants to their stigmas. By
mounting the pistils of these flowers in a 30 per cent sucrose solution
RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. 11
and flattening them with a little pressure on the cover glass, the
pollen tubes could be traced through the stylar canals, as pollen tubes
have a denser and more granular content than the cells of the style.
An examination of 30 flowers which had been self-pollinated for 55
hours showed good germination on the stigmas but no fertilization.
The number of pollen grains germinating on the stigmas ranged
from 3 to 25 in each of the 30 flowers. The tubes had made a slow
growth and none exceeded 4 millimeters in length. An examination
of 20 flowers which had been self-pollinated for 90 hours showed that
one pollen tube had attained a length of 7.5 millimeters, while the
others were 5 millimeters or less in length. At this rate of growth
the longest tube would have required about 48 hours more to reach
the ovules, or about six days to traverse the entire distance from
stigma to ovule. Flowers examined four days after springing the
carinas showed the eggs in a disintegrated condition. It is therefore
probable that in case of self-pollination the pollen tubes do not reach
the ovules in time to effect fertilization.
An examination of the 30 flowers which had been cross-pollinated
for 55 hours showed that fertilization had taken place in all of them.
CROSS-POLLINATION AND SELF-POLLINATION OF RED CLOVER.
The results published by previous investigators on the cross-
pollination and the self-pollination of red clover do not agree. These
investigators appear to be about equally divided as to whether red-
clover flowers are self-fertile or not. The experiments of Frandsen,
according to Lindhard (23), Fruwirth (12, p. 163-166), and others
show that red-clover heads which were covered during their blooming
period and not pollinated failed to set seed Frandsen and Fruwirth
also show that pollen must come from an entirely separate plant
in order to fertilize the ovules of red-clover flowers. On the other
hand, Garton, according to McAlpine (24) states that self-pollination
is as common with red clover as it is with the bean.
The relative efficiency of the bumblebee and honeybee as cross-
pollmators of red clover has also been discussed by scientific investi-
_ gators, as well as by agricultural papers and bee keepers. Bee men
generally agree that the Italian race of honeybees can extract nectar
from red-clover flowers. Little has been said, however, about the
ability of the honeybee to collect pollen from red clover.
In view of the above diverse opinions in regard to the self-pollination
and the cross-pollination of red clover, a number of experiments were
outlined in order to determine (1) whether red-clover flowers were
self-fertile; (2) if self-fertile, whether any effective method of self-
pollination could be found which would be applicable for use on a field
scale; and (3) the relative efficiency of the bumblebee and honeybee
as cross-pollinators of red clover,
iby BULLETIN 289, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ARTIFICIAL MANIPULATION OF CLOVER HEADS.
Experiments were conducted to determine, if possible, the effect
on seed production of various types of artificial manipulation of the
clover heads while the flowers were in bloom (fig. 3). <A sufficient
number of heads were selected on each plant so that the work could
be conducted on heads covered with tarlatan (fig. 4) and on heads
exposed to the action of insects. The experiments on the heads
exposed to the action of insects were to determine whether the
artificial manipulation of the flowers would have any harmful effect
on seed production. The different treatments given the heads
covered with tarlatan were to determine whether fertilization could be
Fic. 3.—A screen cage (in the background) in which bumblebees were confined. Hand-pollination work
is in progress in the foreground.
produced by any method of artificially manipulating clover flowers
from which insects were excluded. For this work, plants were
selected bearing at least eight heads which would come into bloom
at approximately the same time. These plants were taken at random
and each marked with a stake, as shown in figure 5. The heads on
each plant were labeled from A to H, inclusive, and treated as shown
bs La il if
in Table I.
These experiments were conducted in Iowa, in 1911 on 50 plants
at Ames, and 25 at Altoona, and in 1912 on 70 plants at Ames.
Table II gives the results obtained on 25 representative plants
oD ?
selected from the entire number, and also the average seed yield per
head of the entire 145 plants experimented with in 1911 and 1912.
RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. 13
Taste 1.—Treatment of clover blossoms in the artificial manipulation experiments.
Heads covered with
Head. Heads not covered with tarlatan. tanita
EN o2:\) COOK. co 5 sh eee eA See ei sa 5 5 sor ee ec Bab ce 2 i CA
B_.--| Entire head rolled between thumb and finger................--.--.....--
C22 Keel of each flower sprung with a toothpick, care being taken to rub the
pollen on each stigma. (A separate toothpick was used for each head.)
D....| Tapped several times with coarse toothbrush...............-...-..------
IDs 2: ||paeo cose Cees Eso Se SCOR IORE a ORRARS a GS oo oc Ge MEE OOb os sacadanse Check.
ee See ee ene sce coees oe ELS RS 2. Jo SEER Ee ae Worked same as B.
(CPR | NES oi icin Shu nie ysinin win io wine lejieepaein ae > = cis eee ee rnesee Worked same as C.
18 loc llecisna a y)bi 2 cee sSreMee a tease eee ge mn a ee ee Stl Sx ioe ae Worked sameas D.
.
TasLeE Il.—E fect of different types of artificial manipulation upon the seed production
of red-clover plants treated in 1911 and 1912.
25 SELECTED REPRESENTATIVE PLANTS.
Number of seeds produced per head.
Location, Sa designation of Heads not covered with tarlatan. | Heads covered with tarlatan.
A B C D i F G Il
Ames, 1911:
INI, Ieee sboouseee eae es 33 26 30 47 0 0 0 0
IN@, Bi cae sles a eee eS n ee 40 46 39 26 0 0 0 0)
INOS OL Gane SOC COs e Soe eee 46 0 31 35 0 0 (0) i)
IN@e Zinc ne sos eae ene eae ee eae 40 69 20 36 0 0 0 1
INO) De ceeisnh COcS Se eS eoee eae 52 47 13 68 0 0 0 0 |
INOS Cu. Sos ac doeneo tne eee 54 18 52 56 2 0 0 1 !
ING: Teen ses boc Soe ae 90 33 43 69 1 0 0 0
IN@s Qeecscs toe see esos see Eee 44 57 62 40 0 1 0 i) |
INO) Qesse dc eter ees eeee eae 47 26 16 28 0 0 0 0
INGO Np O Meese ace Sioa te 3 82 55 59 65 0 0 3 0
ANSKORDINO .cciac GRR RRR EEE eee 52.8 BYP! 36.5 47.0 0.3 1 3 2
Altoona, 1911:
No. 26 13 24 5 0 1 0 0
10 16 12 38 0 0 0 1 |
29 12 4 i 0 0 1 0
9 6 11 14 0 0 0 0
22 16 28 0 (0) 0 (0) 0
UNA VELK 2 ls Sele ee eee 19. 2 12.6 15.8 12.8 0 2 2 2
Ames, 1912: |
INTO SHIGE eS iar ee scence Sooo 20 3 25 15 0 0 0 0
ING ABe ck doesede see Ree eae 33 31 24 36 0 0 0 0
ING Oe eet oe ese te ae 39 45 24 43 0 2 0 0
INO SPIO ee eS Soe on aes tsa 20 40 28 21 0 0 (0) 0
INO 2 0 SR Pee Se Ee Sh: 44 40 24 28 0 0 0 ()
IN@s DiIliee 42S 8 SRee Ree Ee BeBe eee 52 61 51 52 0 0 1 0
INO mo 2 ee et. etek ee SA Teh EN 37 28 33 35 0 0 0 0
TSO PE os aie Ie SRN ee rae 40 35 40 21 0 0 0 0)
INO) Oe A Be SH OOA See ae eee aes Mee 42 28 26 43 0 (0) 0) 0
INO M2 DEO mee eect cise os ek. 15 5 6 12 0 0 0 ae teal
BAN CTAC CHE. sie S By Be eee Eye 34. 2 31.6 28.1 30. 6 0 2 mal. 1
SUMMARY OF AVERAGE RESULTS FOR THE ENTIRE 145 PLANTS.
Asmn@s, Whig WO TORN Ss seeeeetogases 44.3 38.8 35. 1 42.3 0. 08 0.16 0. 16 0. 22
Al foones ON 25 plants. 22252 -2 se 16.0 974 20. 3 18.0 28 - 48 24 - 36
EAMES LOUD =v OMMLAMLS eee eee 48. 9 42.5 41.3 41.5 oil ail 14 5 il6)
Average, 145 plants. .....-.--- 41.6 | 35.5 35. 5 37. 7 ol -18 16 cepa
The average seed yields given in the first part of Table II should
be compared with the average seed production shown in the sum-
14 BULLETIN 289, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
mary of the same table. The 25 plants listed separately were selected
to represent all the plants upon which this experiment had been
conducted in 1911 and 1912. While the average results shown by
the selected plants vary somewhat from the results of all the plants,
still they are representative of the plants as a whole. It will be noted
that the seed production of the uncovered heads varies considerably
on the same plant, so that final results must be taken from the average
of treated heads on a number of plants rather than on a few plants.
For this reason the results given in the summary more nearly represent
true conditions than those given in the first part of Table II.
From the results obtained on the heads not covered with tarlatan
it will be seen that artificial manipulation was detrimental to seed
production, since the average yield of the check is higher than that
Fic, 4,—Heads of red clover covered with tarlatan to prevent pollination by insects.
of any treated series. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that the
flowers were somewhat mutilated during the operation. Very little
seed was obtained from the heads which were kept under cover and
artificially manipulated. The few seeds obtained were probably the
result of cross-pollination by bumblebees when the tarlatan cloth had
been pushed against the heads by rain or had been cut by grass-
hoppers. Rains would wash the starch from the tarlatan, thus per-
mitting it to fall against the clover heads and allowing the flowers to
protrude. This was avoided by either straightening out the cloth
after it had dried or re-covering the heads. A few flowers on some
heads, however, were exposed to the action of insects for a very
short time. In the work which was conducted at Altoona, lowa
the grasshoppers were so bad that some heads had to be re-covered
RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. 15
as often as three times a day. Many uncovered heads were partly
destroyed by the grasshoppers, and this undoubtedly accounts for
the small seed yield of the uncovered heads, since bumblebees were
plentiful.
HEADS COVERED AND NOT POLLINATED.
Another experiment was conducted in order to determine whether
clover heads kept covered during their entire blooming period and
not pollinated could set seed.
Plants having at least six heads which would come into bloom at
approximately the same time were selected for this work. Fifty
Fic. 5.—General view of the field in which the clover work was conducted in 1912 at Ames, Iowa. The
stakes represent plants selected for individual pollination work. The cages in the background were
used to test the efficiency of different insects as pollinators of red clover.
plants at Ames and 25 at Altoona were selected in 1911 and 27
plants at Ames in 1912. The average seed yields per head are shown
in Table III.
Tasie II1T.—Average seed yields of clover heads which were covered with tarlatan and not
pollinated.
Heads covered with tarlatan.
Location, year, and number of plants.
A B Cc 120) E ¥
AMATES, AAS Ya) GO ENalis) oe Ono a aoeessesabeeseesenccs.46 0.1 0. 11 0.15] 0 0.16 0
Alioone,, ieihie AS olen. oe oe eee eee ee see - 16 4 35 - 04 26 2
ANTINSS. NOUR’ AOI Gono ocee SeeeeREeOEseebMoeSacc cos 0 oll 0 0 02 0
PAtvera ema 0217) eats eeieee eee ae ee ee - 08 oN -15 - 009 «14 | 04
To the results presented in Table III may be added the results
given in column E of the summary of Table II, where 145 heads were
16 BULLETIN 289, U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
covered, not treated, and used as checks in those experiments.
From the 757 heads covered and not treated in 1911 and 1912 an
average of 0.1 seed per head was obtained. The relatively high
average obtained at Altoona in 1911 may undoubtedly be accounted
for by grasshoppers mutilating the tarlatan which was used to cover
the heads. On this account heads were occasionally exposed to the
action of insects for a short time.
Since no more seed was produced by these heads than may be
accounted for by insects working on the flowers when they were
occasionally exposed for a short time on account of rains or grass-
hoppers, we may say that clover flowers must be pollinated by some
agency before any seed is produced.
EFFECT OF SELF-POLLINATION.
Another experiment was conducted in which the clover heads
were covered with tarlatan before any flowers opened and were kept
covered, except while being worked, until mature. As soon as the
flowers came into bloom they were self-pollinated by springing the
keels of the flowers with toothpicks, care being taken to rub pollen
upon each stigma. A separate toothpick was used for each head.
In 1911, 125 heads were self-pollimated and 170 heads in 1912. An
average of 0.16 seed per head was obtained in 1911 and an average
of 0.09 seed per head in 1912.
The results of this experiment show, as have previous experiments,
that red-clover flowers must be cross-pollinated in order to set seed
on a commercial basis. The amount of seed obtained is so small
that it was probably the result of bees working through the tarlatan,
although the cytological work reported upon in this bulletin shows
that it is possible to have an occasional seed produced from self-
pollination.
SEED PRODUCTION OF HEADS UNDER ORDINARY FIELD CONDITIONS.
As a field check on the preceding experiments a number of heads
were tagged in 1911 and 1912 and neither covered nor artificially
pollinated. These heads were labeled in different parts of the field
and Table IV shows the number of heads in each group and the
average seed yield per head.
TasLe LV.—Average seed yield of clover heads not covered or artificially pollinated.
- Average
Number of
Location and year. heads pee ets
collected. Feat
ANOS AOL UC Re cee ae cee ate 5 ee eo Aen ce RRC SOE ow Se ce 300 50.1
D0: be oe ee eee et ee Pe ee ee dae 8 532 55.4
lB [separa te 59 ely Care ae IS mS eae 5 OMEN ies = se 5 IIe 47 50.9
Altoona: 1911.: 2255. S85. ee See er = 0 eee. ei oe 150 43.6
Am Bs? 1912. 3505 SEE ee EE 8 CE Be a Joe one Pee Ree ee 65 53.4
RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. 17
The results given in Table IV are somewhat higher than the average
seed yield of the uncovered check of the experiments summarized in
Table II. It may be that the close proximity of the checks given in
Table II to heads covered with tarlatan kept bees from making as
many visits to those heads as they would otherwise have made.
FLOWERS POLLINATED WITH POLLEN FROM ANOTHER HEAD ON THE SAME PRIMARY
BRANCH.
Since the amount of seed obtaimed in 1911 from self-pollinated
heads under cover was so small that it could be accounted for by bees
working through the tarlatan, it was not deemed necessary to
emasculate the flowers for cross-pollination work in 1912. With
this in view a series of heads was covered before any of the flowers
came into bloom and later pollinated with pollen from another head
on the same primary branch, 20 flowers on each of 11 heads being
pollinated in this manner. Not, a single seed was produced.
FLOWERS POLLINATED WITH POLLEN FROM A HEAD ON A DIFFERENT PRIMARY
; BRANCH OF THE SAME PLANT.
Another experiment similar to the preceding one was conducted,
except that the pollen was taken from heads on different primary
branches of the same plant, 20 flowers on each of 10 heads being
pollinated in this manner. One seed was produced.
CROSS-POLLINATION EXPERIMENTS.
Alternately with the above two experiments 20 flowers on each of
13 heads were pollinated with pollen from a separate plant. An
average of 14.3 seeds per head was obtained.
The results obtained in the last three experiments, as well as with
all preceding ones, show that clover is practically self-sterile and that
pollen must come from a separate plant in order to effect fertilization.
BUMBLEBEES AS CROSS-POLLINATORS OF RED CLOVER.
Tn view of the consensus of opinion that the bumblebee is responsi-
ble for the cross-pollination of red-clover flowers, and since no
investigator, so far recalled, has denied its ability to do this, it was
deemed desirable to study the relative efficiency of the bumblebee
as a cross-pollinator of this plant.
For this work a cage 12 feet square and 6 feet high, made of wire
screen having 14 meshes to the linear inch, was erected shortly after
the first crop of clover had been cut. As soon as the second crop
started to bloom bumblebees were caught with an insect net and
placed in the cage. It was soon found that bees would live about
three days when confined in the cage and that six bees in confinement
would visit approximately as many flowers as one bee would have
visited had it worked nearly all the time. With this in mind, two
bumblebees were placed in the cage each forenoon until all the clover
18 BULLETIN 289, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
heads were mature. An area 4 feet square was marked off in this
cage as-soon as the clover was mature. From this area all heads
were collected, kept separate, and thrashed by hand. Of the 311
heads collected from this area an average of 30.4 seeds per head
was obtained.
Repeated field observations in Iowa in 1911 and 1912 showed that
bumblebees were actively engaged in collecting nectar from eight to
nine hours a day. Little work was done by them before the dew had
entirely disappeared from the foliage and flowers or after 6 o’clock
in the evening. Observations showed that bumblebees are able to
pollinate 30 to 35 flowers a minute. However, they seldom visit
more than eight to ten on a single head at one time.
These results agree closely with those of Pammel and King (382),
who state that bumblebees pollinate on an average 30 flowers a
minute, and Smith, according to Beal (3), who estimates from counts
that ola bees will visit 35 flowers a minute and young bees selelou
more than eight.
HONEYBEES AS CROSS-POLLINATORS OF RED CLOVER.
The ability of the honeybee to cross-pollinate red clover has been
discussed by scientific investigators and beekeepers for some time.
Those who do not believe that the honeybee is able to pollinate red
clover base their statements for the most part on the fact that the
proboscis of the honeybee is not long enough to reach the nectar
located at the base of the staminal tube. Some investigators and
bee men state that some strains of the Italian race of honeybees are
able to obtain some nectar from red-clover flowers, while other
investigators say that honeybees collect pollen from red-clover
flowers and thereby cross-pollinate them.
According to Knuth (22, v. 2, p. 289) the proboscis of the honeybee
is 6 mm. in qensth, which is 3.6 mm. shorter than the average length
of the corolla tubes of first-crop red-clover flowers. Honeybees may
be able at times to obtain some nectar from the sides of the staminal
tubes of red-clover flowers when a large amount is secreted or when
the flowers are not in an upright position. Knuth (22, y. 2, p. 289)
observes that Bombus terrestris, a species of bumblebee oni in
Kurope, pierces the tubes of clover flowers and that honeybees later
obtain nectar through these slits. Bombus terrestris has a proboscis
from 7 to 9 mm. in length. While working on the experiments
reported upon in this bulletin several corolla tubes were observed
which had been slit at the base, but it can not be stated that these
slits were made by bees. Schneck (34) states that the Virginia car-
penter bee (Xylocopa virginica) slits the lower end of the corolla
tubes of red-clover flowers and that he has observed honeybees
obtaining nectar through the slits.
RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. 19
In order to determine the efficiency of the honeybee as a cross-
pollinator of red clover, a cage 12 feet square and 6 feet high, made
of galvanized-wire screen having 4 meshes to the linear inch, was
erected in the same field as the bumblebee cage. It was previously
determined that a mesh of this size would permit a honeybee, or any
insect smaller than a honeybee, to pass through, but would not per-
mit bumblebees to do so. Two weeks before the clover came into
bloom a small colony of honeybees was placed in one corner of this
cage (fig. 6). The bees soon learned to pass through the screen. By
the time the clover began to bloom the bees had become accustomed
to the cage, and while most of them worked on flowers outside, some
could always be seen at work on the clover within the cage. Bees
Fig. 6.—A screen cage in which a hive of honeybees was placed, in order to determine the efficiency of these
insects as pollinators of red clover,
working on the clover within the cage were observed to collect pollen
from the flowers and carry it to the hive.
As soon as all the flowers in the cage were mature, an area 4 feet
square was measured off and all heads within this area were collected,
kept separate, and thrashed by hand. Of the 623 heads collected
from this area an average of 37.2 seeds per head was obtained.
The higher yield of seed obtained in the honeybee cage than in the
bumblebee cage may be attributed, at least in part, to the larger num-
ber of bees which had access to this clover. However, the ratio of
honeybees to bumblebees was no greater in the cages than in the
clover fields in the vicinity of Ames in 1911.
In 1911 the precipitation at Ames was 2.48, 3.83, and 0.39 inches
below normal for June, July, and August, respectively. When the
20 BULLETIN 289, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
clover was in bloom very few nectar-producing plants were to be
found. Whether the honeybee would work on red clover to this
extent in a year of normal rainfall when the number of other nectar-
producing plants is larger is problematical, but our observations
and results show that the honeybee is able to spring the keels of red-
clover flowers and thereby cross-pollinate them.
MECHANICAL CROSS-POLLINATORS OF RED CLOVER.
A machine so constructed that a platform of brushes could be made
to strike clover heads with a vertical stroke was placed on the market
under the name of a clover cross-pollinizing machine (fig. 7). This
machine received some favorable comment. In view of this fact,
a number of experiments were outlined to test its efficiency and also
Fic. 7.—Clover cross-pollinizi ig machine.
to test the efficiency of different types of hand-operated brushes as
mechanical cross-pollinators of red clover. Some plats of red clover
were treated with various types of brushes at different times of day,
while other plats were treated when the clover heads were in different
stages of bloom. The direction of the strokes with the brushes was
also varied in order to see whether this would have any effect on
the yield of seed.
MACHINE POLLINATION EXPERIMENTS.
In order to determine the efficiency of a clover cross-pollenizing
machine several experiments were performed at Ames in 1911.
Machines similar to the one used were offered for sale on the market
at the time these experiments were being conducted.
RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. Pap b
This machine was so constructed as to give vertical strokes with a
brush 4 feet wide and 6 feet long. The brushes could be removed
with little trouble and replaced with others of a different type. Two
types of brushes were used in these experiments. Brush No. 1 was
composed of palmetto fiber, the bristles of which were rather stiff
and of a dark reddish-brown color. Brush No. 2 was composed of
rice-root fiber of light color, somewhat more flexible than the pal-
metto fiber. The plats treated were 12 feet wide and 100 feet long.
The number of heads collected from each plat represents the num-
ber contained within two hooped areas. These hooped areas were
obtained by sailing a hoop into the air so that it would light on a
particular plat. Since each plat contained a uniform stand it was
thought that by this method heads would be selected which would
be representative of the entire plat. Table V shows the results
obtained in these experiments.
TasLe V.—Average seed yield of red clover on plats which were given various treatments
with a cross-pollinizing machine.
Treatments. |
= 7 _| Heads Seeds
No. Brush Times Time Time eee collected.) per head.
used. |goneover.| between.| of day. given.
Days.
TABI to 6ocbessaoetETe ae eee Nos ieee 1 s eAcee Mise 7 460 BES
WAG Bs = -sonecee oe Sees oe ae ee le Niowaleeee 2 1 | AY MES 7 424 59.4
TIBI Bs co csseue [See BOSE SOB Eee NEN Oey lepers al 35 PAS Meee 4 499 64.2
Pik, 4 Gach siscdae eae seer eel Reameeeces | eae) |. ts) Reel ee ee |Oor ea 490 65.1
IP Bh, Bob beutesadseeeeee eS eaete IN@sdlsccs 2 Snipe Wiles 4 414 59.2
DIS. Ga édscsene enna eee | No.1 3 3) | Ay Mee 4 458 70.3
IPbIe 75 ONGC) Sasanesseureseene Resenoedes| bdass56eA Be Seecondalbooouscaca|botdenke ss 582 66. 7
lame Gmemypecececma ane ano cc ee ctete INO 222Ee 3 3 | A. M. 4 527 70.9
late O eee. os ecm aes aes -s Noses 3 3h eee Mees 4 487 64.7
PB EO CiGel sso psenesseesseaese Hee ee acs Cote Beeeeerccel Goocencsoc|bonssce onal 655 64.0
lata ccaanc cect fei INOS Zise= 3 Bi || eo die 4 492 67.4
|
It will be seen from the above experiments that the treatments
with brush No. 1 decreased the yield 1.9 seeds per head, while the
plats treated with brush No. 2 gave an increased yield of 3.9 seeds
per head over the average of the check plats.
EFFICIENCY OF DIFFERENT HAND-OPERATED BRUSHES AS MECHANICAL CROSS-
POLLINATORS OF RED CLOVER.
In order to test the efficiency of hand-operated brushes as a means
of mechanical pollination of red clover, eight pairs having different
types of bristles were used. The different pairs were labeled A, B,
C, ete., for convenience in reference. Following is a brief descrip-
tion of the different pairs of brushes used:
(A) Rice-root fiber, somewhat stiff; bristles about 2 inches long and nearly erect.
(B) Rice-root fiber, similar to A, but with bristles 3 inches long, somewhat coarser
and more spreading.
(C) Tampico fiber, finer but stiffer than the rice-root fiber in brushes A and B,
(D) Wire-bristle hairbrushes,
22 BULLETIN 289, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
(E) Indian palmetto fiber, coarser than any of the others, but somewhat brittle.
A portion of this brush was modified by cutting out sections of the bristles to make
a more uneven surface.
(F) Ordinary bristle hairbrushes.
(G) Same as brush E, but with about half of the bristles clipped out.
(H) Same as brush C, but with about half of the bristles clipped out.
The idea of utilizing pairs of brushes with different types of fibers
was to determine, if possible, if any of them would give sufficient
promise to warrant an application of the particular type of brush
to a mechanically operated machine that would imitate the action
of the small brush when operated by hand. For this reason no
brushes were used which could not be duplicated on a machine for
operation on a field scale.
The work with the hand-operated brushes was done principally at
La Fayette, Ind., and Ames, Iowa. In some experiments the heads
were manipulated with the brushes at different times of day, while in
other experiments different numbers of treatments were given the
heads at varying intervals. The direction from which the heads were
struck also varied in certain experiments, some being given vertical
strokes and others lateral strokes. It was thought that cross-pollina-
tion might be brought about by the vertical stroke, which apparently
would enable some of the brush bristles to spring the keels and convey
pollen from one flower to another. It was also thought that if the
flowers were self-fertile the lateral strokes would accomplish this.
The representative tables that follow indicate the principal features
brought out by this series of experiments.
RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF BRUSHES WHEN THE CLOVER HEADS WERE STRUCK
HORIZONTALLY.
In a clover field 24 miles east of La Fayette, Ind., 26 square-rod
plats were laid off for this experiment in 1911 (Table VI). All of
the heads in bloom at the time the plats were marked off were re-
moved.
Plat 1 was left as a check, no brushes being used on it. Plat 2 was
worked with brushes A, one brush being taken in each hand and the
blossoms struck between the brushes by a quick movement of the wrists.
When in full bloom the heads received one treatment, the operator
going only in one direction across the plat. Brushes B, C, D, E, and
F were used on plats 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, respectively, in the same manner
as for brushes A on plat 2. Plat 8 was treated by going one way
across it at right angles to the first way, thus giving each blossom two
treatments, the strokes of the two treatments thus being at right
angles to each other. Brushes A were used. Plats 9, 10, 11, 12, and
13 each received treatment similar to plat 8, but with brushes B, C,
D, E, and F, respectively. Plats 14 and 15 were left as checks.
Plats 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, and 21 each received two treatments with
RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. WB:
brushes B, C, EK, B, C, and E, respectively, in the same manner as
plat 8.
Two days later plats 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, and 21 each received two
more treatments with brushes B, C, E, B, C, and E, respectively, and
three days later plats 19, 20, and 21 each received an additional two
treatments with brushes B, C, and E.
Plats 22 to 26, inclusive, were square-rod plats selected at intervals
in the field immediately surrounding the portion laid off with the
regular plats. These were designed to give a large number of check
plats to show the variation in the field under ordinary conditions.
At harvest time 500 heads were picked at random from each of the
26 plats. These heads were hulled and the average seed production
for the 500 heads is given in Table VI.
TaBLe VI.—Average seed yield per head obtained when clover heads were struck horizonially
with different types of brushes and at different intervals at La Fayette, Ind., im 1911.
| Strokes per| Brush Date of Heads Seeds
No. | treatment. | used. | treatment. | collected.| per head.
|
3 c KASS dEUS OEE COTES CHEE tee e Ene cs Saar 500 58.2
1 500 46.0
1 500 67.1
1 500 50.1
1 500 27.0
1 500 39.4
1 500 34.7
2 500 44.0
2 500 35. 4
2 500 59.4
2 500 27.2
2 500 34.7
2 500 59.9
IP ayn 1, @n@Ole 5 Sabet abeedece Debra Aeeeeaeanes| ce 5c amemeee 500 49.3
IP 1G}, Oakes hasan accoubiae 36 Cr Gone eeSeeee ene ooo sae eee 500 57.0
TUE RTS). Sk cse Mae Raye set eae 2 500 59.9
IPIBIE IY ob See cb GeO en SEE ea Ser eee aes | 2 500 26.9
IPI INS 3 oo Soe oeeen SBce 6 Onee Gee eee eee eae | 2 500 64.4
IPP IG). 5 2 4d ae SAR oe eee ea ae te eee ee eee 2 500 35.4
TRIE 20) 3 8 i Se ek ay rea ene 2 500 32.0
IPG Oe ae e so Beare soe sT ae ee eee ene Seer 2 500 22.5
ralalby 2 2c re kaee ese areys se Sates S/S ait ad) ba Seales. ee 500 28.6
IV OBE ANC 7s uy ile a ee ee hee aMEPee ekeae soo aan ease aacs 500 59.0
IMA ALS GCC RA: eee scent ece sae aCe see eeesees || 5.5 Sonne eno oels| ore onccemeee 500 49.5
IEG 2s CIC ead ao eae Se Sante ee Bee EER BRR ap Eee lox Sasaeeeed|isoascosa|>=cesas5senece 500 43,2
ate 2Om CH CCK meee a Re ee ee toe i bia wlne seine pes ctesepeeol|sssssecallscssccecesuses 500 31.6
Awveraceowallichecks= =. ..+- cs... 2+ --e ltesc dA epeeoe esos scnlunsocodsoodete 4,000 47.0
Table VI shows that only 6 plats averaged higher than the average
of the checks, whereas 12 plats averaged lower than the average of
the checks. A variation almost as wide is shown in the 8 check
plats as in the 18 treated plats, yet the results show that, as a whole,
the brushes injured the seed production. The low results on the
plats treated with brush D, the wire hair brush, were undoubtedly
due to the fact that the wire bristles penetrated and injured the
flowers.
This brush work was duplicated on a small scale with brushes A,
B, and E on a few heads left uncovered and on heads that were
covered with tarlatan, near La Fayette, in the summer of 1913.
The heads were worked once. The results are given in Table VII.
24 BULLETIN 289, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TasLe VIL.— Average seed yield of clover heads which were struck horizontally with different
types of brushes and either protected or unprotected from insects at La Fayette, Ind., in
Diese
|
Heads left uncov- | Heads covered with
Strokes ered. tarlatan.
3rush used. es
ment. Heads |Seedsper| Heads | Seeds per
worked. head. worked, head.
1 3 37.4 1 0
1 5 38.8 1 0
1 5 50.1 2 0
al 3 60.8 1 0
1 5 Leas 1 0
1 5 60.1 2 0
Table VIL shows that in each case of the heads left uncovered the
check produced the most seed. As in Table VI, the brushes appar-
ently reduced the seed production. It will be noted also that both
the brush-treated and untreated heads produced no seed when
protected from insect visitation.
Experiments to test the relative efficiency of horizontal strokes
with the different brushes were also conducted at Ames, in the sum-
mer of 1911.. Ten plats 4 feet square were used. These plats were
marked off by placing stakes at the corners and connecting these
stakes with heavy cord. Plats 1 to 8 were each given one treatment
oneach of three consecutive days, with brushes B, A, E, C, F, D, G,
and H, respectively, and plats 9 and 10 were left as checks. Dupli-
cate tests, using the same brushes, respectively, on plats 37 to 44
were also made. The results are shown in Table VIII.
Taste VIII.—Average seed yield per head obtained when clover heads were struck horizon-
tally with different types of brushes at Ames, Lowa, in 1911.
Original tests. Duplicate tests.
Strokes mMreat
Brush used, per treat- Sais
ment. ments. | Plat | Heads Seeds | Plat] Heads Seeds
No. | worked. | perhead.| No. | worked. | per head.
1B 8 ROE crae AR pec See ee aes 1 3 1 464 44.8 37 438 44.9
| Be OCR AOR TaD Ot Spee 1 3 2 476 41.1 38 515 43.2
Ree retin aosismiceciniceneltoss 1 3 3 457 42.6 39 490 30.1
eee pa Se Ee ena sa ar 1 3 4 322 46.2 40 485 42.5
LE A eee Hee Fre aan Oh ete 1 3 5 440 43.9 41 470 47.5
Dees acise aeecincoccacsher see if 3 6 435 36. 2 42 445 33.0
GSS I ieee Seas ee 1 3 7 320 45.1 43 460 39.9
EDT ok [sis ovate eta Nala tete ais aaroacie ciate 1 3 8 430 41.0 44 432 42.9
CHECKS ee a Ns See Bass atice a cioin |e caterte a 9 532 55. 4 9 532 55.4
TD OB ertotietae ccs tee evetetelcloedl ewininata ee [te sicieterecler 10 470 50.9 10 470 50.9
Table VIII shows that in every case where brushes were used the
seed production fell below the yield of the check plats.
From the results obtained in Tables VI, VII, and VIII it is con-
cluded that at least horizontal strokes with the brushes in question
reduced the seed production on account of the flowers being muti-
lated by the brushes,
RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. 25
RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF BRUSHES WHEN THE CLOVER HEADS WERE STRUCK
VERTICALLY.
In order to test the efficiency of brushes in promoting cross-pollina-
tion by carrying pollen from one plant to another on the bristles of
the brushes, experiments were conducted at Ames, Iowa, in the
summer of 1911 on plats 13 to 20 with different pairs of brushes. A
vertical stroke on each of three mornings, three days apart, was
given. The plats were 4 feet square. At maturity all heads from
each plat were collected, kept separate, and later thrashed.
The experiments on plats 21 to 28 were the same in all respects,
except that one treatment when the flowers were in early bloom,
instead of three treatments, was given each plat. Plats 9 and 10
were used as checks. The results are presented in Table TX.
Taste IX.—Average seed yield per head obtained when clover heads were struck vertically
with different types of brushes at Ames, Iowa, in 1911.
| Plats given three treat- Plats given a single treat-
Strokes ments. ment,
Brush used, nee =a
ment. Plat Heads |Seedsper| Plat Heads |Seeds per
No. | worked. head. No. | worked. head.
CHeCeARe eae ee waa cet EP. Aik seb: 9 532 55.4 9 532 55.4
IDOc6 cosd cadena Se BOF REO eae Coes 10 470 50.9 10 470, 50.9
1B sou ao hee agate aoe OCS ae ee eee i 13 366 37.0 21 442 46.8
Jno dea cenucduse ns GOSS eee eee eee 1 14 490 42.0 22 440 33.8
1D ee eeéaadee see a Sees ae eee 1 15 440 42.1 23 420 45.0
©. sn. b 5284S COS CR Nen Hee Ee ee 1 16 521 45.3 24 415 38.9
1 deh bot ese ocean eee ea 1 17 416 39.3 25 380 54.5
ID Sad cece does CoE OnE SES eee eee 1 18 476 37.7 26 400 45.9
Gibb So bwesic Se clades ten a 2 eee 1 19 510 41.8 27 430 48.1
le aso con asa eG eH Nee Se eee eee 1 20 462 44.7 28 436 49.0
Table IX shows that with the exception of plat 25 the treatment
considerably reduced the yield below that of the lowest yielding check
plat. The results of the treated plats 13 to 20, inclusive, taken asa
whole show a decrease of four seeds per head less than the yield of
plats 21 to 28, inclusive. This may be accounted for by the fact that
plats 13 to 20, inclusive, received two more treatments with the
brushes than plats 21 to 28, inclusive, and were therefore subject. to
more injury from the bristles of the brushes. It will be seen from
these experiments that the vertical strokes with the brushes proved no
more efficient than the horizontal strokes in the production of seed.
RELATIVE EFFICIENCY OF BRUSHES WHEN PRESSED TOGETHER BELOW THE CLOVER
HEADS AND PULLED UPWARD. ;
Experiments were conducted in the summer of 1911, at Ames, Iowa,
to determine the efficiency of pressing a pair of brushes together below
the clover heads and pulling them upward with considerable force,
but still not enough to break off the heads. The plats were 4 by 4
feet in size. Pair A of the brushes was used. Three treatments
26 BULLETIN 289, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
three days apart in.the forenoon were given. The results are pre-
sented in Table X.
TasLe X.—Average seed yield per head when brushes were pressed together below the clover
heads and pulled upward, summer of 1911.
No | Heads | © Brush Treat- | Seeds
pan | worked. | used. ments. per head.
|
lati «check < 2 2 ool ce = eee oe ba ee oes oe DB 2 el eee eee | ITY See 55.4
PlatilO}: Cheek: 22522 se0-cSaceaeee coe eee nee ee oeaeeeaee 4708) S352 SS Ree 50.9
Pat lili 2 SUS aoe cee 7 ee ee nove 2 eee epee Sy Pe 432 A 3 39.2
Plat LO. eho Us ees Bors ORE eee ee eee nee | 460 A 3 40.9
Table X shows that this manner of treatment as well as the hori-
zontal and vertical stroke treatments caused a decrease in the pro-
duction of seed.
SUMMARY.
A study of the cytology of red-clover flowers shows that many of
them contain infertile ovules. The percentage of infertile ovules is
greater in the first crop than in the second crop. In the first crop
many plants produce 100 per cent of infertile ovules, while in the
second crop the percentage of infertility ranges from none to a high
figure. The percentage of infertile ovules in red clover is probably
correlated with moisture conditions. ;
The pollen grains of red clover are very sensitive to moisture.
On account of this, there can be little effective pollination when the
flowers are wet. Germination of the pollen grains takes place only
within a limited range of variation in the water supply. It is prob-
ably true that the only function of the stigma is that of supplying the
requisite amount of water to the pollen for germination.
The time between pollination and fertilization varies with the
temperature of the atmosphere. The time between pollination and
fertilization in July is approximately 18 hours, while in October it
varies from 35 to 50 hours. An examination of 30 flowers which had
been self-pollinated for 55 hours showed good germination on the
stigmas but no fertilization. The pollen tubes made a slow growth
and none exceeded 4 mm. in length. In flowers which had been
self-pollinated for 90 hours one pollen tube attained a length of
7.5 mm., while the rest were 5 mm. or less in length. The pistils of
red clover average about 12 mm. in length. Eges were found to be
disintegrating four days after the flowers opened.
The self-pollination and cross-pollination experiments which were
conducted in the field checked up very closely with the results
obtained from the cytological studies. The average yield of seed
obtained on heads which were not pollinated and on heads which
were self-pollinated in different ways was less than one-half of 1 per
RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. 27
cent. This small yield of seed may be accounted for by the occa-
sional access of bees to these heads for a very short time, on account
of rains or grasshoppers mutilating the tarlatan which was used to
cover the heads.
The bumblebee is an efficient cross-pollinator of red clover.
Bumblebees are able to pollinate from 30 to 35 flowers a minute.
The honeybee proved to be as efficient a cross-pollinator of red
clover as the bumblebee in 1911. When the precipitation was con-
siderably below normal in June, July, and August, 1911, and but
few nectar-producing plants were to be found, honeybees collected
large quantities of pollen from red clover. In order to collect pollen
they must spring the keels of the flowers. In doing this they cross-
pollinate the flowers.
A clover cross-pollinizing machine which was offered for sale on
the market did not prove to be an efficient cross-pollinator of red
clover.
The various types of hand-operated brushes which were used did
not prove efficient as cross-pollinators of red clover. In nearly all
cases where these brushes were used the seed yield was decreased
instead of increased. This was undoubtedly due to the bristles of
the brushes injuring the flowers, since the average seed yield of the
plats which received three treatments with the brushes was lower
than that of the plats which received but one treatment.
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LITERATURE CITED.
(1) Armstrrone, J. B.
1883. The fertilization of the red clover. Jn Gard. Chron., n. s., v. 20, no. 516,
p- 623-624.
(2) Bran, W. J.
1887. Grasses of North America, v. 1. New York.
1907. Planning an experiment to show to what extent bumblebees aid in pollin-
izing red clover. In Proc. 28th Ann. Meeting Soc. Prom. Agr. Sci.,
1907, p. 136-138.
(4) Boutey, H. L.
1907. Fertilization of clover and alfalfa. In N. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. 17th Ann.
Rpt. [1906]/07, p. 34-35.
(5) Cook, A. J.
1892. Report of apicultural experiments in 1891. In U.S. Dept. Agr. Div. Bul.
26, p. 83-92.
(6) Darwin, C. R.
1885. The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom.
New York, 482 p.
(7) —— |
1898. The Origin of Species... v.1. New York.
(8) Dunnine, J. W.
1886. [Report on importation of humblebees into New Zealand.] In Proc, Ent,
Soc. London, 1886, p. Xxxli-xxxiv.
(9) Ferrimizine clover and cow-grass.
1891. Jn Agr. Gaz: N.S. Wales, v. 2, pt. 10, p. 636.
(10) Fotsom, J. W.
1909. The insect pests of clover and alfalfa. Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 134, p.
113-197, 35 figs., 2 pl. (1 col.).
(11) Fruwirts, Kar.
1906. Enclosing single plants and its effect on a large number of important agri-
cultural species. Jn Amer. Breeders’ Assoc. Proc., v, 2, p. 197-198.
1906. Die Ziichtung der landwirtschaftlichen Kulturpflanzen. Bd. 3. Berlin.
(13) GENEVIER, GASTON.
1876. Inflorescence et fécondation dans le genre trifolium. Jn Assoc. Frang¢.
Avan. Sci. Compt. rend., 4th sess., 1875, p. 726-730.
(14) Hopxrins, A. D.
1896. On the flowering habits of timothy and red clover and the pollenization of
the flowers by insects. Jn Proc. 17th Ann. Meeting Soc. Prom. Agr.
Sci., 1896, p. 35-40.
Go) ea
1896, Some notes on observations in West Virginia on farm, garden, and fruit
insects. In U.S. Dept. Agr. Div. Ent. Bul. 6, n.s., p. 71-73. Also in
West Va. Agr. Exp. Sta., 9th Ann. Rpt. [1895]/96, p. 152-155.
29
30 BULLETIN 289, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
(16) HUMBLEBEES.
1892. In Agr. Gaz. N. S. Wales, v. 3,-pt. 1, p. 78.
(17) HumBLeBEESs.
1897. In Agr. Gaz. N.S. Wales, v. 8, pt. 5, p. 353.
(18) Hunt, T. F.
1907. The Forage and Fiber Crops in America. New York, 413 p., illus.
(19)
1909. Pollination of clover. Jn Wallace’s Farmer, v. 34, no. 43, p. 1347.
(20) Kerner, A. J.
1895. The Natural History of Plants ... [tr.]from the German ... v.2. London.
(21) KircHNnErR, Oskar.
1905. Uber die Wirkung der Selbstbestiubung bei den Papilionaceen. In
Naturw. Ztschr. Land- u. Forstw., Jahrg. 3, Heft 1, p. 1-16.
(22) Knots, P. E. O. W.
1906-08. Handbook of Flower Pollination ... v. 1-2. Oxford.
(23) LinpHaRD, E.
1911. Om Rédkléverens Bestévning og de Humlebiarter, som herved er virk-
somme. Jn Tidsskr. Landbr. Planteavl, Bd. 18, Haefte 5, p. 719-737,
illus.
(24) McAtpine, A. N.
1898. Production of new types of forage plants—clovers and grasses. Jn Trans.
Highland and Agr. Soc. Scot., s. 5, v. 10, p. 185-158, fig. 33-39.
(25) Martin, J. N.
1913. The physiology of the pollen of Trifolium pratense. In Bot. Gaz., v. 56,
no. 2, p. 112-126, 1 fig.
(26)
1914. Comparative morphology of some Leguminose. Jn Bot. Gaz., v. 58,
no. 2, p. 154-167, pl. 8-11.
(27) Martinet, G.
1903. Etudes et essais de plantes fourragéres. Jn Ann. Agr. Suisse, ann. 4, p.
160-169, illus.
(28) MrrHan, THOMAS.
1876. Fertilization of flowers by insect agency. Abstract with discussion by
Asa Gray and others. Jn Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1876, p. 108-112.
(29) Mitter, Hermann.
1883. The Fertilization of Flowers. London, 669 p., illus.
(30) Pammet, Epna ©., and CLARK, CLARISSA.
1911. Studiesin variation of red clover. In Proc. Iowa Acad Sci., 1911, p. 47-53,
4 pl.
(81), Pamuer, Lb. H. -
1903. Ecology. Carroll, Iowa, 360 p., illus., pl.
and Kine, CHARLOTTE M,
1911. Pollination of clover. Jn Proc. Yowa Acad. Sci., 1911, p. 35-45, illus.
(32)
(33) RoBERTSON, CHARLES.
1892. Flowers and insects. Jn Bot. Gaz., v. 17, no. 6, p. 173-179.
(34) ScHNECK, JACOB.
1891. Further notes on the mutilation of flowers by insects. Jn Bot, Gaz., v
16, no. 11, p. 312-313.
(35) Sreprve of red clover.
1895. In Agr. Gaz. N.S. Wales, v. 6, pt. 6, p. 439.
RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION. onl
(36) SHame., A. D.
1906. The effect of inbreeding in plants. Jn U. 8. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1905,
p- 377-392, fig. 90-91, pl. 42-44.
(37) Stree, F. A.
1891. Notes on methods of cross-pollination. Jn Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 13,
p. 87-92.
(38) Smrru, C. B.
1907. Red clover seed-growing. In Bailey, L. H. Cyclopedia of American Agri-
culture... v. 2, p. 235-237. New York.
(39) STeBuerR, F. G., and ScHrotER, CARL.
1889. The Best Forage Plants ...3-v.in1., illus. London.
(40)
1913. Die Besten Futterpflanzen ... Bd.1. Bern.
(41) Waxupron, L. R.
1908. Fertilization of clover. Jn N. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. Dickinson Sub-Exp.
Sta. Ist Ann. Rpt., 1908, p. 7-8.
(42)
1910. Pollination of clover. In N. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. Dickinson Sub-Exp.
Sta. 3d Ann. Rpt., 1910, p. 20-21.
(43) Watiace, Henry.
1892. Clover Culture. Des Moines, Iowa, 156 p., illus.
(44)
1909. The fertilization of clover. Jn Wallace’s Farmer, v. 34, no. 36, p. 1104.
(45) WasHBury, F. L.
1911. A method of securing the fertilization of clover by means of bumblebees,
in experiments with Bruchophagus funebris. Jn Jour. Econ. Ent., v. 4,
MOD se AN:
(46) Wirrr, HERNFRID.
1908. Om sjalisteriliteten hos rédkléfvern (Trifolium pratense L.). Jn Svensk
Bot. Tidskr., bd. 2, hafte 4, p. 333-339.
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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF pe CML TURE
Contribution from the Office of Markets and Rural
Organization, CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief
Washington, D. C. WV August 30, 1915.
RAIL SHIPMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF FRESH
TOMATOES, 1914.’
By Wetts A. SHerman, Specialist in Market Surveys, and Paut FrRoEru.icu and
Houston F. WatkeEr, Scientific Assistants.
INTRODUCTION.
There is probably no perishable vegetable commonly grown out of
doors in the United States which appears upon the market through
a longer season than does the tomato. Winter supplies are received
from Cuba, and until railroad communication was interrupted by the
recent troubles there was a constantly increasing production on the
west coast of Mexico. The industry in Florida has been an important
and rapidly increasing one until now shipments range around 5,000 to
6,000 carloads per year. The charts on page 6 show the average
length of the shipping seasons for each of the principal producing areas
and the relative quantities of tomatoes shipped from each of these
districts. Florida opens the commercial shipping season in January,
and throughout the first few months encounters comparatively little
competition in the eastern markets. South Texas is a competitor
during May and June, and it is possible that the production of this
territory will be largely increased.
The two areas of important production which first come upon
the market in direct competition are the southern Mississippi and east
Texas areas. In each of these the heavy shipping season is short,
extending through June and the first week of July. Every effort is
made to rush the crop on the market as rapidly as possible. Prac-
tically all of the numerous growers in the State of Texas report that
the shipping season begins about May 1 and ends about July 15.
There are a few points, however, at which two crops of tomatoes are
raised. From such points the second crop is shipped usually from
1 About 95 per cent of the reports of shipments listed in this publication were furnished by railroad
officials, to whom acknowledgment is made for their courtesy and assistance.
Note.—This bulletin is of generalinterest to tomato growers, shippers, dealers, transportation companies,
and consumers, and to allengaged in the trade in tomatoes and vegetables.
3108°—Bull. 290—15——1
&
>
2 BULLETIN 290, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
October 15 to January 1. In southern California the tomato shipping
season can be extended the year round, as the tomato grows there as a
perennial.
The Texas and Mississippi territories are followed by west Tennessee
and New Jersey, the former overlappmg the Texas and Mississippi
areas, while New Jersey usually comes on the market when the
shipping seasons close in these two States. Shipments from other
States may be said in a general way to move over shorter distances
and to be of importance in a smaller number of the large markets.
Cuban, Mexican, Florida, and south Texas tomatoes, as a rule,
have been luxuries or semiluxuries. The first shipments from Mis-
sissippi and northeastern Texas generally bring high prices, but when
the shipments from these areas reach their height, tomatoes may be
said first to come within the reach of the general purchasing public.
METHODS OF CULTIVATION AND SHIPPING.!
The system of cultivation in practically all of the southern tomato
districts is not calculated to result in the greatest possible production
per acre, but is designed to hasten maturity and to give a crop of
uniform smooth tomatoes which can be marketed within the shortest
possible time. Plants are staked, trimmed, and topped, and the
fruit even may be thinned to limit the quantity, hasten maturity,
and perfect the appearance of the individual specimens.
Large quantities are wrapped individually and packed very
carefully in what the consumer would call a perfectly green state.
The producers, however, consider a tomato ‘‘mature’’ when it has
reached full size and appears smooth and well filled out. They are
called “ripe”? when they show the first tinge of pink or reddish color.
Green wrapped stock is shipped long distances under ventilation
without refrigeration; but nearly all ripe stock, whether wrapped
or not, is shipped under refrigeration. The last of the southern crop
frequently is wasted because it does not sell to advantage in competi-
tion with locally grown northern tomatoes. The latter are larger, as
a rule, than those grown in the South, where varieties are selected
for early production and smoothness rather than for the size of the
fruit.
METHODS USED IN COMPILING DATA.
In this publication an effort has been made to list largely by rail-
road stations the actual shipments of tomatoes for table use in 1914.
Practically all of this information has been obtained from, or checked
by, transportation companies, and while this tabulation may not be
complete, it is believed to approximate very closely the actual car-
load movement.
1 Farmers’ Bulletin 642, ‘Tomato Growing in the South,’’ by H. C. Thompson, 1915.
SHIPMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF TOMATOES. 3
In the summer of 1914 inquiries were addressed by the Office of
Markets and Rural Organization to station agents at all points from
which there was any reason to believe that tomatoes were shipped in
full carloads, and to every cooperative association handling the crop
of which the department had any knowledge, asking for a record of
the car-lot shipments in 1913 and an estimate of the shipments to be
made in 1914. A growers’ list was compiled with the object of
obtaining reliable information on every phase of tomato marketing.
After the shipping season of 1914 was ended the inquiry was renewed
and has been followed up both by addressing local station agents and
general railroad officials, until this office has definite reports on the
shipments during 1914 from 330 shipping points at which tomatoes
originate in car lots, and a statement from the transportation or
shipping agencies as to the number of carloads shipped from each in
that year.
DETAILED REPORT OF SHIPMENTS.
The tabulated statement placed at the conclusion of this bulletin
shows the tomato shipping stations and the reported number of
cars shipped from each during the 1914 season. No attempt has
been made to list stations where no full cars originated. Yet at
those stations where full cars did originate, the less than car-lot ship-
ments have been ascertained, and have been reduced to equivalent
carloads, and these are included in the tables here shown. The
number of carloads shipped from many points varies greatly from
year to year, due to seasonal variation and to the fact that the
tomato crop, if unprofitable in any one section in any one year, is
likely to be much reduced the next. For this reason the figures
given for 1914 may be either much above or much below the average
shipments, and there are no authentic figures for preceding years for
comparison. In some cases certain stations are credited with less
than car-lot shipments. The fact is that these stations normally
ship in full carloads, but, owing to a short crop or other abnormal
conditions in 1914, they did not ship their usual quantities. These
figures are classified by States, and to some extent by shipping
districts.
SHIPMENTS BY BOAT.
There are a number of localities in which the situation as to tomato
shipments is somewhat complicated. This is particularly true of the
territory surrounding the lakes and bays where many of the ship-
ments are made by boats to markets located comparatively near to the
points of origin. There are many small boat lines that handle con-
siderable quantities of this commodity, and it has been found almost
impossible to secure complete and accurate records of all these
shipments. For instance, the region in the neighborhood of Benton
Mi
4 BULLETIN 290, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Harbor and St. Joseph, Mich., ships large quantities of tomatoes by
boat to Chicago, and the region along Chesapeake Bay ships in the
same manner considerable amounts to near-by cities.
LOCAL SHIPMENTS.
Near many cities large quantities of tomatoes are carried to market
by trucks, electric lines, and other local transportation facilities.
This renders it impossible to secure complete records of the entire
commercial crop. Our main effort has been to secure material
which will show the location and relative importance of the several
districts which supply the major part of the tomatoes shipped to
market over comparatively long distances. The data for Florida
shipments in 1914 are unavoidably incomplete, inasmuch as one rail-
road system handling large quantities of Florida tomatoes has not
yet submitted any report.
EXPLANATION OF MAP.
The accompanying map indicates the actual shipments of fresh
tomatoes to market in the season of 1914. Each dot represents five
cars, or fraction thereof. These dots are grouped in the county in
which the stations are located, although it is well known that pro-
duction does not actually follow the county lines. In cases where
shipments are too heavy to be represented by dots the counties have
been blacked in and the actual number of cars shipped given in
figures. The size of the blackened area is not directly in proportion
to the quantity shipped, but exact comparisons may be made by
consulting the tabulation. The use of the county as the unit inmap
graphics necessitates this system.
The dates within which the various areas ship are shown by curved
lines, all of the areas shipping at a given period bemg grouped in a
zone under the line representing that period. The map in this way
shows at a glance the various competing areas as well as the dates
of heaviest crop movement. These dates are, of course, subject to
seasonal variation of considerable extent.
TOMATOES FOR CANNING.
An important element in the tomato situation is the cannery
supply. It is undoubtedly true that more tomatoes go to the
canneries than to market as table stock. The modern methods of
preparing this canned product have rendered it so wholesome and
palatable, as well as economical, that this industry has developed
very rapidly. Certain localities—Delaware and the eastern shore
of Maryland and Virginia, and large areas in New York State, for
instance—produce considerable quantities of tomatoes for this pur-
pose. It is a fact, however, that general conditions as to quantity,
AIA
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1160
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bulletin 290. Fic. 1,—Map showing tomato shipmentsduring the year 1914. Each dot represents 5 carloads (or fraction thereof). Black areas represent number of carloads indicated by figures.
3108°—15 (To face page 4)
SHIPMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF TOMATOES. 5
quality, and price of table stock, when the supplies are locally
obtained, are much modified by the presence of canneries. When
prices warrant it on account of small crop or poor transportation
facilities from other regions a considerable amount of tke crop ordi-
narily gomg to canneries may be placed upon the market fresh, while
on the other hand a plentiful supply will cause very much larger
quantities to be offered to the canneries. There are certain localities
where the climatic conditions are such that cannery stock can be
raised profitably, but where under ordinary conditions it is not
profitable to produce tomatoes to ship fresh for table use. This is
sometimes due to the long distance to market and the small local
cénsuming population. A careful investigation of the cannery situa-
tion in reference to this crop undoubtedly will aid very much in a
clear understanding of the whole tomato marketing situation.
The effort has been made to separate all figures for tomatoes used
for canning stock and include in these tabulations only those shipped
for table use. It is very difficult to distinguish accurately between
shipments to market and shipments to canneries from the records of
carriers in many sections. The tabulation on page 7 shows a total
of 11,995 carloads of tomatoes shipped for table use last year and it
has been estimated that a somewhat greater number is grown for
canneries, catsup factories, etc. The figures of the National Can-
ners’ Association show that 15,222,000 cases of tomatoes (No. 3
size, 24 cans to the case) were packed during the 1914 season. It is
possible that a few hundred cars included in the following tabula-
tion were so used. On this account there may be slight errors in
the figures for some sections.
The line of demarcation between the regions where the production
is principally for table stock and those regions where the crop is
grown both for local consumption and for canning probably would
pass east and west across the United States through the lower Ohio
Valley, and through southern Virginia to Norfolk, the region to the
south of this imaginary line specializing in table stock in car lots.
COMMERCIAL SUPPLY OF TABLE TOMATOES.
The total reported shipments of table stock for 1914 were 11,995
cars, nearly one-half of the entire crop being shipped from the
State of Florida, which is practically without competition so far as
the production of tomatoes for table use is concerned, as the season
there is so early that there are few other districts shipping when the
Florida product is put on the market. The States next in impor-
tance are Mississippi, New Jersey, and Texas, each shipping from
1,100 to 1,500 cars. Ohio and California ship approximately 400
cars each; Tennessee, 300; Illinois, 200; and Indiana, 125. There
are no other States reported as having shipments reaching 100 cars.
6 BULLETIN 290, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TOMATO SHIPPING SEASONS
——— souTmERN FLORIDA
CENTRAL F EW TRAL FLORIDA L FLORIDA
SOU. $0u, TEXAS | 5
| aoa aan |
LOUISIANA
ee SISS. 715S15510P |
é. e.TEFA
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ANESSEE| |
KENTUCKY | TUCKY _|
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Bena Pee)
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“MISSOURI
NEW WEW MEXICO
oan]
a YORK
MCHICA 'CHIGAN
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ea
RELATIVE BULK OF SHIPMENTS
OF FRESH TOMATOES TO MARKET-19/4.
#500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500
6900 CARS
FLORIDA
o 500 1000
ees M/S S/SS/PPI
—E NEW JERSEY
Ses B TEXAS
—— O10
BSS CALIFORNIA
BB TENNESSEE
8 /LL/NO/S
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NEW YORK
UTAH
LOUISIANA
MICHIGAN
ARKANSAS
MISSOURI
KANSAS
Fic. 2.—Chart showing shipping seasons and amount of fresh tomatoes shipped to market, by States, 1914.
7
SHIPMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF TOMATOES. 7
DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED.
Some of the railroads do not keep separate records for tomatoes
shipped, but classify them together with a number of other com-
modities as ‘‘vegetables.’”’ This has increased to a very con-
siderable degree the difficulty of securing the information here
presented. Many of the transportation companies have indicated a
willingness to separate this product in their records. Owing to the
importance of the crop, it is hoped that all of the transportation
companies will adopt such a system. One of the important factors
in marketing any crop is, of course, a knowledge of the amount
marketed the preceding year, and the probable amount to be
handled during the current season.
It is realized that a survey of this character presents many diffi-
culties and can be perfected only as it is subjected to the criticism
and correction of the trade, railway officials, and shippers. This
compilation. and the map showing graphically the location of the
important tomato shippimg areas and the approximate dates for
shipments is believed to be the most comprehensive statement of
the commercial tomato crop that has been attempted, and it is pub-
lished with the belief that it will be found immediately useful to all
concerned in marketing the tomato crop in 1915. It is hoped to
perfect this work and to make it much more complete in the future.
TOMATO SHIPMENTS, 1914.
Allnumbers which are marked with an asterisk (*) are estimates, based upon the shipments for 1913
and figuresfurnished for the 1914 crop previous to its being marketed. Stations believed to be important
shipping points but for which no figures have been obtained are marked with a dash (——). :
ALABAMA: | CALIFORNIA—Continued.
(May 25 to July 1.) Carloads. (June 15 to Oct. 1)—Contd. —_Carloads.
iiversreen.. 02502200222. 0. 0 Manysville225seens-- aoe 41.0
Tae Bullertontess-eese eee ee 39.0
Siateotallaeemern se ee) 0.0 MoutOcc tne rece 23.0
DULY Vales see a ee 22.0
ARKANSAS: inahcimes saree ema 11.0
(July 1 to Sept. 1.) ; SAMERCEN ATG OMe eee 10.0
White River district. ...--- 30. 0 Bigeye tas 5.0
Decatur Barer Hepes ace 9.0 hn eee ee 5 0
domi gems wes oes 8 Ee 2.0 UGTA ede eo a abe 3 0
Gravette..............-..-. Lo UU REYEY OX) ol ee i gy Se i 3.0
Sfafemtotaieeenn ee 42. 0 Puente: -2-------------2--! 3.0
SanwDiccgarey ree n 3.0
CALIFORNIA: ! Sanped noes vee pe apn neue 3.0
(June 15 to Oct. 1.) Mary freld eine 2 sas tee ee 2.0
lelem@lensom. Looe ee wee ne- *60. 0 MoumtainiVile was seeee 22 2.0
SAGMIMEMION- -Asesseseece sue 60. 0 Placentia nn anne t 280
Wierce digas wae arcs ata shone. 47.0 Spin, eNeNeOL . Hsenbo seeds 2.0
oswAncelest ei a2 2. 5282 45. 0 PMs OMemee ys ie a a LO
1The following shipments of tomatoes in 1914 were reported too late to appear on the map and chart:
From Decoto, Cal., 95 cars.
8
BULLETIN 290, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
CALIFORNIA—Continued.
(June 15 to Oct. 1)—Contd. —_Carloads.
Dam aye sto sae eee 1.0
Fars Vee ae ee es eee a 1.0
Gardenass. sce. e ner EO
Ta wrenCe so .i3in see ee 0
iINewaMnark. 930-4 peewee eee AO
iPasa dena. 32.20 eee 0
Dany) OSC=2 5.0.5. eee eee 0
San Juan Capistrano. .-....-. 10
TOUTAING Cesare ee eee oe EO
Wihittiers 2: acces eneeeen ens 120
Wilmington. ..-. oe ee ee 1.0
SL ::TH GO Lirik: eas = eee ies eee ees 0.0
State totalke pes eee 403. 0
CoLoRaApo: !
(Aug. 1 to Sept. 15.)
Rocky Mord! ;s8s 5225 22st 10)
State totals ethics qa
Fiorina: !
(Southern section, Jan. 1 to
June 15.)
Wa nace pectic eee ee 354. 0
IPOLCIS Pah sst mare se te ber 303. 0
iPompanose sances eo ose. 223. 0
omestea dase ssce eee ys 199. 0
Colohatcehee. 3222222222222 198. 0
(Coy uTI KG [2a eas etna An ne 193. 0
Hallandales S26 32s aktse ae 183. 0
Hortlianuderdales:. 2 22232. 181.0
Weerheld semen.) ja eae 174. 0
Delrayeereore sc seer 167.0
Boymtonaese. eee saan 151.0
dam elt S See oe see ier sey eeepc 150. 0
Naranjaes {oee< - tec Sas 144.0
Rien all eee rea a 95.0
INT CHUC TCE MRE neko ote eae 87.0
Ojist ae SS. sete ee 73.0
ELON CeneeTs. etes Ae) eae 63. 0
IBISCKHROlte s+ Seen 60. 0
JUPLCh ae eat sco a tee ee 59. 0
I GY ooh a aaa ree eS Sa 56. 0
Bocaratonesee- eee eee 55. 0
INellsmerens ee oo oes 48.0
Permine haces ve anh eee 41.0
ittlenivierse sees. eee 37.0
QUayere ee eee Sere 19.0
CocoamutiGnrov.esers assess 18. 0
FortiMiy ers 2 occm ese asciiee 15.0
a Ehistroeee ee ON tee 15.0
Fioripa—Continued.
(Southern section, Jan. 1 to
June 15)—Continued.
Rockdales 2.) :
Detroit. 3) eee
Hort Piercete: 2 eee
Biscayne 35235 ee eae
Hobe Sound: ..3522. 23 eeee
(Central section, Apr. 15 to
July 1.)
Palmetto: 222) See
Colemani 2532252232 eee
Bushnell :2. 25223 Sean eee
HMllenten= sess eee
Plant City -... ose eee
Webster-~ <x =.=. Ses eee
Dade Gity- =... 5.3 eee
Sarasotas.J222 oo See eee
Anthony..2. - eee
Gainesville: 233-235
Wildwood:..-2.2. 5 Sasa
Oxford... - 8 ie See
Terra Ceiae.,./.. - ee eeeeee
Winter Garden. - 2-255 seee
Thldenwille: 5552 5e eee
Homeland=. 25. -ose eee
Lakeland 33242232. 2e eee
iBradentowntss--2ose eee
St. Catherines._- sea
Bowell: \25.5-2. 5.0) See
Ocala. $8442.55 eee
Carloads.
14.0
S=
on
lel EOL CE ee
SiS eS Cistie Oo Cheroreo
1 The following shipments of tomatoes in 1914 were reported too late to Eppes on the map and chart:
From State of Colorado, 130 cars; from Sanibel, Fla., 75 cars.
ce
SHIPMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION
Fioripa—Continued.
(Central section, Apr. 15 to
July 1)—Continued. Carloads.
[BHO 6.6 Gt cee ee eee 9.0
lH. sac Gs SS Se 9.0
TAGGING) Cage cee Sees 9.0
INI@GRIE) Sse Sere es oe ee ee 9.0
pS 5 oy as = ialoj si aia iers 9.0
Summerville sk yo sie 9.0
Balllennignyeckbeeaeees pone 8.0
A) NPE Sen a8 eet tie 8.0
OECD: «cst es oe eee ae 8.0
Summvertieldisss5..25.. 0.25: 8.0
Vegetable Siding........--- 8.0
ARERGIINE aig Mee ane ee ee 7.0
SAMOS Meane rs 52 SE ae ear 5.0
Onis docesbsseue aera ANS
Bradley Junction.......--- 4.0
APLC MAK C oe a noo aa an 2 .n apopare « 4.0
ILBES| OUTS S52 4.0
He linniOO Mess 44622 1 oe 4.0
PTOOKSVUllesseeeeis se. 2 2 uae 0)
HOt G Ree Meee coe 3.0
McDonald’s Siding......... 3.0
Vind OCkesese ee ss a ,-- 3.0
urkeyaCreek a. 022... 28 3.0
IMontiVerdGae ie ako e ess oe 2.0
INGER odaS8 CoCo ee ee 2.0
South Lake Weir........-.- 2.0
(CET Seen ote eels eee 116%)
IMelbounnesss622 20+... S- Stes
aun OEM ee ss cae sae ce 1.0
Miler mie, ae ee 1.0
IVeStPA DOD Kas...) 5 = 1.0
ame eM pve ys cece ne 0.5
Pamptones 2 eat 2... 0.3
Adanirayallieapye aya eos yee a Le 0.0
Metalparreeer se cnt: 0.0
Ocoee....-- 0.0
Oranvemtake=o2s5 222... 2. 0.0
SAC NLA SoS a 0.0
BIsINeTeSSeueiae ore eerste NPS 0.0
LENTROBVGUIBLS 145 SpE Oia a
Menten Em le tee Meese eae: a
FE avAITs TOM tae we ee ae ——
Miclmiboshts2 2 ee ae —
Malcamopyyn 225-25 22 ene ae -
ed Ciiclketetr yas Cer a Mie —
“4 Mo ir) pees Maas Te ee care a to 2, 504. 9
Stave ntota ler eee yee 5, 940. 9
GEORGIA:
(June 1 to Aug. 15.)
Colittase ese ee ae
@arinn ll eee ee
Sopertone ses cen cere sc
Vine cua eee es aaa
Stateutotale ss seta
ILLINO!Is:
(July 15 to Oct. 1.)
Cobdencar er aee meee
Grand @hainy eee. 28 ‘2
INGO Basses en aie ne nn
Mialkan'd aise sranee a res
Moccasins +4 uate see
INDIANA?!
(July 15 to Oct. 1.)
Haimnirountese ces see
Alexandra ae ee Bid hs
Princeton ea eee eee
Statetotales a. ose
KANSAS:
(July 15 to Oct. 1.)
Meavienwortne sess lesee
Eni ol dita
Stabentota lessees
KENTUCKY:
(June 25 to Sept. 1.)
Was Graneese ee eeeaee
SGlence stil! eee ear
Middletownes-sssaeeeeee
Statextotalss esses
LOUISIANA:
(May 15 to July 15.)
Napoleonville. .........
INorwoode ese ae seo. -
OF TOMATOES.
Carloads.
6.0
4.0
220
1.5
0.0
0.0
13.5
_ 1 he following shipments of tomatoes in 1914 were reported too late to appear on the map and chart:
From New Albany, Ind., 6 cars.
10
Lovistana—Continued.
(May 15 to July 15)—Contd.
Shreveport, << accien ae ee
Aachary:. 2 ish-eystacee eee
State.totals s..54 ese
MICHIGAN:
(Aug. 15 to Oct. 15.)
Benton Harboreras s-aescs
Jonesvilles si ces see ae
MOonTOG ata eo eae cea
Petersburg. .
Grand “Rapids. -3 s00hico--%
State:total ae en see
MISSISSIPPI:
(May 25 to July 15.)
ia zlehurstase asc en ete
Grystali Springs. seacee aoe
Gallimanies san Ses osties
Hopewell: 32ers
MOTT yore a Meee Se Bape rs oe
@entery lille psec ce
WIESSONRG 4 Hee ree eee ey ays
Gatesville: 2 ek se
Haviette irs eee e aie eats
Mantinsvilles se.) ee
Georgetown: 4. c-sec enue
IMicComibes eases so tenies a oes
Nia. t@hiez nici ek ce (a satel
Rock portscr aceceta scenes
Gloster! pee teeta Beek
DSH OYSy cline sp eterna Eel see
Beauregard. oS. Seas
AVORE aii Soares ae elle
Weathersbyerjeacseee see oe
Hmiterprises 2 Sects sea
Op areata eerie
BYAXtOM se ease ee cincea se
DUELS. ones edison heehee
Ei LeTcOwmlane naam mse eerie
Statestotal: eo
Missouri:
(July 15 to Oct. 15.)
White River district. ......
AVexanadniaes sso ese
Statertotales aaiiie an leh ae
Carloads.
0.0
ooo corRrwroaoanmnmoemoeoewoeoeeoococrweonec
lon
or
eo
SP
ie)
31.0
BULLETIN 290, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
NEBRASKA:
(July 15 to Oct. 1.) Carloads.
Nebraska City. 2.2 2c ee 3.0
Statettotal.. -- aan 3.0
New JERSEY:
(July 15 to Oct. 15.)
Swedesboro... 02. 05-ceeee 1, 346.0
Morganville. . -.....-d222 ee 50.0
Sicklertown:.. 22.22 -22¢eeee 1.0
Tuckahoe: 2.5. eee 0.0
State totale: = 22 sneer 1, 397.0
New Mexico:
(July 25 to Oct. 15.)
Lakewood! & 202222442 Cee 9.0
Harmington:: 252 5 ssseaseee 1.5
Mesilla *ParkJ2 22a aes 1.0
Tas: Cruces 5 22 eae eee 0.5
State totals. 2. {2 sae 1220
New York:
(Aug. 15 to Oct. 15.)
Horestvilleae je. eee 18.5
Dunkirk) 22:2 3-2 eee 16.0
‘Perrysbury . 5.5.22 Sseeeeee 15.0
Angola: i242 22 oie eee 14.0
Seria saeco eee 7.0
Westileld) 23.2 eee 6.0
Smniths) Mulls. <<... fesse 5.0
Portlanders 2s. 252 eee ee 3.0
Vineyardjo2. 2c.) nee 3.0
Brocton 232 -..22 cee 2.0
Irvingeess o2s- Jos See 0.2
Silven@reek. 522 cess 0.0
State totale... 4 3=--eeee 89.7
OHIO:
(July 1 to Oct. 15.)
Marietta os.2.2 -.sdenee eee 331.0
Howellioccs. 6. 2 eee 80. 5
Genoa..238s55. .: eee 49.0
Berlin Heights.............. 23.0
INVOLYis 2 Secs sls eee 6.0
Watertordi esses oe eee 5.1
Filmore: 2 Sancck eeeeeeee 4.0
PortiClinton’:.-eeese eee eee 2.0
Harrison. sa-ceesse eee 1.0
New Philadelphia.......... 0.5
GeneVae. Sheet cc. cck eee 0.1
Aghtabula2’. 200) ses 0.0
SLAC tO tale eee cee eee 502. 2
SHIPMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF TOMATOES. 11
OREGON: _Texas—Continued.
(July 15 to Oct. 1.) Carloads. (Eastern section, June 1 to
IDE iG 2S eae 11.0 July 15.) Carloads.
—_——. Jacksonwallless aug. Uae cet 225.0
SHEA) OE LI a 11.0 Grek ee my eat 65.0
E Diailyallevem ye Veen Rea it 63. 0
SoutH CAROLINA: Turney as 63.0
(June 1 to Aug. 1.) Ni ee Ce eee 62.0
Charleston........-...-.-..- 0.0 Grallilavtime ey eee te ane h eae n i 57.0
Beaufort.-..-..-........---- en nam is tOMis iy. 44 1s o) 50. 0
HPTLUGI ce 25 22th a aoe ooo oe Tae Mount Selman.............- 46.0
Mylene REAR SESE oe eos 43.0
Statenuotallee ees fa 0.0 MiLAN OTN Y Or uum ne al: 2.0
TBOUU ENGL ete eee sie he a 33. 0
DENN ESSER: Maydelle!. 2 88 27.0
(June 20 to Aug. 15.) ee AG MARLEE, St 24.0
Humboldt. cospedssneeesorua 126.0 Frys Gap NS sateen Mor hee a 24.0
Gibson inert ec 70.0 edi awit ae eee 24. 0
Milan... 57.5 Ronan Hop Oye peice een cl aN 19.0
Bradford ernst nrc aoe Peppenwine*. sesso see. 17.0
Miedimameense cielo ccs acts cers 14.0 Pe ee Ok 15.0
Tazewell Station........-..-. 11.0 Flint i 14.0
CHa Sei ah de Cae re ee 8-0 Gresham ees 2 eee 14.0
Fruitland..........+-.-.---. 3.0 Wihitehousel: seers =a asnene 14.0
UGiOl S01) Se Sap eee ae ee 3.0 Osburne wae Voor en eke 9.0
“UN REIA OS 3 oe oe eee eee 2.0 CRe TE als poate aes 8.0
Qe STONG Ls 5.55 Sess eres ere 1.5 Cushing AG hee ae 8.0
Dyer.....---------++++---- 0.5 Nacordoches= sess eene amar 7.0
J TARO 2S oe eee ee 0.0 Pert em Ob Siete age ce) OAT 7.0
SHUI. on sdd cade cecseseaerec 0.0 (Good soni a4 34 55-py ere ee 6.0
West.. 0.0 Appleby: See taal eee 5.5
Chattanooga.--..........-.. == G@law sone) eee a ie: 4.0
Dod gee sustt OVA ta Ge rake: 4.0
Statentotale sys. 58 320. 5 Tsim dale’ pee ep anes aes 4.0
; Sulphur Springs: sess ce 4.0
TRXAS: Delmer eee ae ae Ce 2.0
(Southern section, May 1 to iBilishoie Bee ee eee 2.0
July 1.) Teese see) eee pee 1.0
Mrampasveasasy sso. ee 40. 0 Van Raub............------ 1.0
Hi edesicl eee EO 37.0 Edgewood iguana ere ees 0.5
Hoek porte sar ee dies. 16.0 ae SA ache aa ea 5 ;
WME SS GIIQS 3 2e2ce 8 cece os ell ERE NOOK oo See boeedaode 0.0
eG HOO: Ree Miu jn arty eo Ibi yaboreys Ros oe etemGoeee eae 0.0
Corpus Christi) 3522.25.05 3.0 oneview ele ae 0.0
C@arnzo Springs’: 22... 25.2 2.0 ee eta nn 0.0
Mission.........-.......... 2.0 NGO LC Serie eae ag 0.0
tslitaiserys ay erie Nie 1.5 GAYA a ot SOR TE Ba 0.0
I OMUL ATG ape asp le Us lye ee 0.5 NWVAT eit eee eee REA 0.0
JE CONNER aes che ese ene esas ea 0.3 Wanimnsh oro: ees tite 0.0
LQG NAC NSS a ee 0.0 ACTA eles —
Te esbaveXerayiieie eh pa eulnlee rahe 0.0 OMA es eerie ans ete oy St
Penn oc cae net aige ne Eoratlieners seattle 7 1,014. 1
Total............-....... 109. 3 Soatestotale seen suet ts 1, 123, 4
12 BULLETIN 290, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
UTaAz: VIRGINIA:
(Aug. 15 to Oct. 1.) Carloads. (July 1 to Sept. 1.) Carloads.
»Oléartield< a. scgcc0 se hee 60. 0 Norfolk. 522... .c222eeeee 3.5
ROW a5 obese See ee ee 6.0 Accotink Station=_. -222seee= —
Wallard so22c cis sees Sane DAG State total’. 22a 3:5
Kavsv less s.2c2 foes eee 4.0 | WASHINGTON: So
iprichaim': --ceesesee eee 2.0 (July 15 to Oct. 1.)
——— | White Salmon... 2222 GE)
Statectotaliacte see eee 77.0 State-total: «222 722-eeeee 15.0
| Grand -total. 252.22 eee 11, 995. 0
PUBLICATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT.
Department Bulletin 237. Strawberry supply and distribution in 1914. By Wells A.
Sherman, Houston F. Walker, and O. W. Schleussner. 1915.
Department Bulletin 266, Outlets and methods of sale for shippers of fruits and
vegetables. By J. W. Fisher, jr., J. H. Collins, and Wells A. Sherman. 1915.
Department Bulletin 267. Methods of wholesale distribution of fruits and vegetables.
By J. H. Collins, J. W. Fisher, jr., and Wells A. Sherman. 1915.
Farmers’ Bulletin 642. Tomato growing in the South. By H. C. Thompson. 1915.
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
5 CENTS PER COPY
Vv
WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1915
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Contribvtion from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. January 25, 1916
BREEDING MILLET AND SORGO FOR DROUGHT ADAPTATION.
By A. ©. Duuman, Physiologist, Office of Alkali and Drought Resistant Plant
Investigations.
CONTENTS.
Page. | Page
TinOdU CHOMeer eee ne es =)-leisl-jncie = siacinere cee 1 | Breeding sorgo for adaptation to drought.... 8
The place of millet and sorgo in the agricul- | Comparative yields of sorgo, millet, and other
treo ftherGreatblains! oes. cee ais o- 1 | annual forage crops in the central and
Adaptations to drought in millet and sorgo- . 2 northern Great Plains.....-........------- 12
Ghimaticiconditionstas-e assess. ne bec < coe 3 | Water requirement of millet and sorgo....... 15
Breeding millet for adaptation to drought -.. 4...|. CONCIUSIONSS ete wincice Moles tetera = = ee eel eels 18
INTRODUCTION.
In the course of investigations which have as their object the per-
fection of methods for testing the comparative drought resistance of
crop plants and for breeding drought-resistant varieties, two strains
of millet and one of sorgo have been developed. These strains give
evidence of being more uniform, more productive, and better adapted
to the climatic conditions of the north-central Great Plains than the
varieties generally grown in that region. The object of the present
publication is to point out those characteristics of the new strains
which indicate their value to dry-land agriculture in the Great Plains
region.!
THE PLACE OF MILLET AND SORGO IN THE AGRICULTURE OF THE
GREAT PLAINS.
It is becoming more and more evident that successful farming in
the Great Plains must include the raising of live stock. The estab-
1 By cooperative arrangement with the Office of Forage-Crop Investigations these strains will be tested
at numerous dry-land stations in comparison with other varieties of the same crops, in order that their
relative merit and range of geographical adaptation may befully ascertained. It seems desirable, however,
to publish an account of them at this time, since they give every indication of being superior to the ordinary
commercial varieties of sorgo and millet which are now grown in the northern portion of the Great Plains
area.
The earlier results of these investigations have been reported in a previous publication, which also
gives fuller details of the plant-breeding methods. See Dillman, A. C., Breeding drought-resistant forage
plants for the Great Plains area, U. S. Dept Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 196, 1910.
14648°—Bull. 291—16——1
2 BULLETIN 291, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
lished settlers in this region are those who have depended on live
stock as their main source of income. In favorable seasons grain
crops are profitable, but the profit from growing them can doubtless be
increased if a portion of the grain is consumed on the farm as feed for
animals. In the driest seasons, however, when small grains are likely
to be a total failure, forage crops sufficient to carry animals through
the winter can nearly always be depended on. This is because the
most drought-resistant forage crops can be raised on a much smaller
supply of moisture than the grain crops.
The native range is used to a large extent for summer pasturage,
but it is necessary to produce under cultivation most of the forage for
winter feeding, and it is often necessary to supplement the summer
pasturage with cultivated crops. It is evident, therefore, that forage
crops should occupy a very important place in the agriculture of the
Great Plains.
In some sections of the northern Great Plains alfalfa, brome-grass,
and other perennial crops give excellent results, but certam annual
forage crops appear to be much more dependable in the central
Plains. Two of the most suitable crops for this region are the millets
and sorghums. Millets grow and mature in a comparatively short
season and are often able to escape drought when other crops are
overtaken. Sorghums endure drought well, standing a long period
of drought and yet renewing growth upon the return of favorable
conditions. Both crops have a very low water requirement.
ADAPTATIONS TO DROUGHT IN MILLET AND SORGO.
ROOT DEVELOPMENT.
Millet has a comparatively shallow root system with a great devel-
opment of fine fibrous roots. It is therefore well adapted to make
the best use of light rains which wet the soil to a depth of only a few
inches. The early root growth is somewhat slow, so that the young
plants are sometimes injured by high winds before the roots are well
enough established to hold the plants firmly. Sorgo has a much
deeper root system than millet and can apparently make use of mois-
ture which is stored 3 or 4 feet deep in the soil. Both crops draw
heavily upon the supply of soil moisture and are likely to use for
their growth all of the water that is available in the area penetrated
by their roots.
EARLY MATURITY.
The period of growth of the crop is of great importance under dry-
land conditions. The ideal crop is one that will mature in a short
season and therefore lessen the risk of being overtaken by drought.
The short-season crop has the further advantage of allowing the soil to
lie fallow for a considerable period of the year when moisture conserva-
BREEDING MILLET AND SORGO FOR DROUGHT ADAPTATION. 3
tion may be practiced and the largest possible quantity of water stored
in the soil for the use of the following crop. The strain of millet
(Dakota Kursk) described in this bulletin may be cut for hay in from
70 to 75 days after planting and will mature seed in 90 days. The
early strain of sorgo (Dakota Amber) described here matures seed in
a period of 95 to 100 days from the date of planting and is sufficiently
mature for forage in 15 days less time.
DROUGHT ENDURANCE.
The most important adaptation to drought presented by sorgo is
its ability to revive quickly after a period of drought. The crop may
cease growth for a considerable time during a dry period, but if a
heavy rain occurs it will then revive and make a rapid growth. This
was the case at Akron, Colo., in 1910, when a dry period during June
and July allowed only a limited growth of the crop and caused the
plants to produce seed heads‘earlier than usual. A rain of 2.8 inches
on August 4, however, caused a vigorous secondary growth, so that
the plants produced additional seed heads, which were fully two
weeks later in maturing than the seed first formed.
Millet shows much less drought endurance than sorgo, but it com-
pares favorably with the small grains and corn.
LOW WATER REQUIREMENT.
A low water requirement! is an important factor in the adaptation
of plants to conditions of drought. In this respect millet and sorgo
are preeminent among drought-resistant crops. At the Belle Fourche
(S. Dak.) station in 1912 millet had a water requirement of 240, as
compared with 460 for wheat and 735 for alfalfa; that is, the quan-
tity of water which was required to produce 1 ton of dry matter
(hay and grain) in a mature millet crop would produce only 1,043
pounds of dry matter (hay and grain) in the form of a mature wheat
crop and only 654 pounds of dry matter in the form of alfalfa hay.
In experiments conducted at Akron, Colo., Briggs and Shantz found
that the water requirement of sorgo is only slightly higher than that
of millet. The water requirement of millet and sorgo is further
discussed elsewhere in this bulletin.
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS.
Crop production in the Great Plains is largely dependent upon the
amount of rainfall which occurs during the growing season of the
crop. By means of summer fallowing a part of the precipitation of
one season may be stored in the soil for the benefit of the following
1°The term ‘water requirement’ is used . . . to indicate the ratio of the weight of water absorbed by
a plant during its growth to the weight of dry matter produced.” (Briggs, L. J.,and Shantz, H.L. The
water requirement of plants. 1.—Investigations in the Great Plains in 1910 and 1911. U.S. Dept. Agr..
Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 284, p. 7, 1913.
4 BULLETIN 291, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
crop, but the amount of moisture stored im this manner usually is not
enough in itself to mature a crop, though it is oftentimes first-class
insurance against complete failure.
The plant-breeding work here reported has been conducted on the
United States experiment farms at Newell, S. Dak., and Akron,
Colo. At Akron the average annual precipitation from 1908 to 1914,
the seven-year period covered by these investigations, was 17.66 inches;
at Newell the average was 13.03 inches for the same period. The
average seasonal rainfall (April to August, inclusive) was 11.33
inches at Akron and 8.20 at Newell.
The annual and seasonal rainfall for each year is shown in Table I.
Tasie I.—Annual and seasonal rainfall at Newell, S. Dak., and Akron, Colo., from
1908 to 1914, inclusive.
Period and location. 1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 ee
Annual: Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches.
NewellaSaDaksscses-caaeeeee oases 14.16 Lies 12.55 6.74 16.09 | 12.53 11.39 13.03
Akron, 'Colotise sastiscsasaee ee 16.63 | 22.46 17.36 14.51 |» 20.73 16.35 15.58 17.66
Seasonal:
Newell, 8. Dak? 2c.ct5..ce cease 8.46 | 13.30 7.19 3.78 | 10.87 5.94 7.86 8.20
Akron; Colov. se esccn- soesese cc see 11.26 13.97 12.59 7.90 13.90 7.97 11.72 11.33
It will be seen that the moisture conditions at Akron have been
much more favorable than at Newell during the period specified,
even when we take ito consideration the greater evaporation at
Akron, which reduces somewhat the effectiveness of the greater
amount of rainfall.t
BREEDING MILLET FOR ADAPTATION TO DROUGHT.
Preliminary tests? showed that the smaller and earlier varieties
of millet (Kursk, Siberian, and Common) were more valuable under
conditions of drought than the larger and later maturing varieties
(German and Hungarian). The latter were therefore discarded and a
large number of individual plants which showed evidence of adapta-
tion to drought were selected among the earlier ripening varieties.
In making these selections the aim was also to secure plants haying
a good forage type, stooling freely, fine in texture, and leafy, combined
with desirable seed habits. Simple selection, without hybridization,
was the method used throughout. The original stocks of the varieties
with which the work was begun showed abundant variation, and the
improvement accomplished has been the result of segregating the
superior strains.
1 Fora full discussion of this subject, see Briggs, L. J., and Belz, J. O., Dry farming in relation to rainfall
and evaporation., U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 188, 71 p., 23 fig., 1 pl., 1910.
* Dillman, A.C. Breeding drought-resistant forage plants for the Great Plains area. U.S. Dept. Agr.,
Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 196, p. 25. 1910.
WN}
INE
Bul. 291, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I.
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FIG. 1.—DAKOTA KURSK MILLET, SHOWING THE ERECT, LEAFY GROWTH OF THE MH}
PLANTS AND THE ERECT OR INCLINED HEADS. Hi
Photographed at Newell, S. Dak., August 23, 1912. | |
Fic. 2.—SIBERIAN MILLET (A. D. |. No. 4—3), OF CoaRSER TYPE THAN THE DAKOTA
KURSK AND HAVING LARGE DECLINED OR DROOPING SEED HEADS.
Photographed at Newell, S. Dak., August 23, 1912.
Bul. 291, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il.
Fic. 1.—DAKOTA AMBER SORGO, SHOWING ITS COMPARATIVELY LEAFY HABIT OF
GROWTH.
Photographed at Akron, Colo., Julv 22. 1912.
FiG. 2.—DAKOTA AMBER SORGO, SHOWING A CLOSER VIEW OF SOME NEARLY MATURE
PLANTS.
Photographed at Newell, 8. Dak., August 22, 1914,
BREEDING MILLET AND SORGO FOR DROUGHT ADAPTATION. 5
Several of the selected individuals gave rise to uniform and pro-
ductive strains. Comparative-yield tests of these strains, both in
drilled plats and cultivated rows during several seasons, resulted
in the final selection for increase and distribution of the Dakota
Kursk and of the Siberian strain described in the following pages.
DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW STRAINS OF MILLET.
DAKOTA KURSK MILLET.
Dakota Kursk (A. D. I. No. 3) is the name proposed for one of the
selected strains of millet which is being distributed on the northern
and central Great Plains. The type is a definite one, although
closely resembling in its botanical characters certain other strains of
Kursk millet. The plants grow erect, or inclined when nearly ripe;
the stools or culms are very numerous and small. The leaves are
numerous, comparatively narrow, fine in texture, and of a distinctly
lighter green than those of the other selections of Kursk millet men-
tioned in this bulletin. The seed head is from 2 to 4 inches long,
about five-eighths of an inch thick in the middle, and tapers
slightly to base and tip. It has the characteristic stiff bristles of other
millets, but the head is close and firm, so that the seed does not shatter
easily. The color of the seed coat of mature seeds is nearly apricot
orange, as represented by Ridgway.1
This variety has not always ranked first among the writer’s selec-
tions in respect to hay production, but it is one of the best in quality
of forage and in habit of growth, and it is also one of the most produc-
tive, both of hay and of seed. (See PL. I, fig. 1.)
SIBERIAN MILLET.
Siberian millet (A. D. I. No. 4-3) is a larger type of millet than the
Dakcvta Kursk, and therefore produces a somewhat larger tonnage of
hay under favorable moisture conditions. The plants grow fairly
erect or slightly spreading. The stems are coarser and less numerous
than in the Kursk variety, and often have an olive-brown coloring
of the basal internodes. The leaves are broad, rather thick, and
comparatively coarse. (See Pl. I, fig. 2.) The seed head is 3 to 5
inches long, cylindrical, and much less compact than in the Kursk
millet, usually declined or drooping. The seeds are the same color
as in Dakota Kursk, apricot orange, but the shade is paler.
The results of plat tests at Akron, Colo., and Newell, S. Dak., show
that, on the average, Siberian millet (A. D. I. No. 4-3) will produce a
slightly larger tonnage of hay than Dakota Kursk. The latter, how-
ever, produces a more desirable quality of hay, being finer, more leafy,
and possibly more nutritious, as is indicated by the results of chemical
1 Ridgway, Robert. Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, pl. 14. Washington, 1912.
6 BULLETIN 291, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
analyses. The seed production of Dakota Kursk is also better,
especially in dry seasons, than that of the Siberian strain. Under
more humid conditions this millet may be the more profitable variety,
but in the Great Plains it is probable that Dakota Kursk will give
better average results.
COMPARATIVE YIELDS OF SELECTED STRAINS OF MILLET. -
In testing the comparative value of the progeny strains of millet,
two methods of planting have been used. These were (1) ordinary
plats of one-tenth or one-twentieth acre in size, with the seed drilled
at the rate of 20 pounds per acre, and (2) cultivated rows 8 rods long,
seeded at the rate of 2 pounds per acre. In most cases the plats have
been planted in duplicate or triplicate, and the rows in all tests have
been planted in duplicate.
At the Akron Field Station the two varieties of rie which have
given the largest yields are Siberian and Kursk. These varieties
have been represented in the comparative tests by uniform strains
selected for drought adaptation. The two strains of Siberian millet
have given slightly higher yields than the six strains of Kursk millet,
both in drilled plats (Table IL) and in cultivated rows. Of the strains
of Siberian millet, A. D. I. No. 4-3 is a better hay type than No. 4-5,
being finer and more leafy.
TaBie II.— Yields of millet strains in drilled plats at Akron, Colo., from 1910 to 1914,
inclusive.
Yield of air-dry hay per acre (pounds).
Variety and number. . Senne
19101 19112 19122 19138 19142 | average,
1911-1913.
Dakota Kaursk;:A..DD.N0..3 22522252 sons. 5,320 3, 700 5, 830 4,420 5,300 4,650
Dakota Kursk, A. De TINO oat etre see eal Socceroos 3, 500 5, 990 4.700.) 2s enereee 4,730
Kursk, A.D. MaNOnO Pots meet e este 5, 080 3,300 5, 820 4,500 5, 580 4,540
Kursk, Xp 1D) s {INO ee saebesetedeoron dae 4,340 3,430 5,470 4° 010i} ae eee 4,300
Kursk, A.D.I.No. 10:3 Bo Baas cosceas sane Saateaccce 3,370 5,980 4, 480} |eteeri eee 4,610
Kursk, A. IDUSN OWS dice selecet eset eieaiee | aeteieeioscce 3,430 5, 755 4,420 3|- seer , 040
ACV OLA DP Oncismete eet eae atin neiaiann 4,910 3,460 5,810 4,430 5,47 4,560
SiberianeeAs OD UON Oss Sess cen cecerinia c= | nssieionas 4, 220 6, 020 4,580 5,710 4,940
Siberian; IRE TD TERN Op 4b eae ters eect Ceretage oN yet ke Aes 4,340 6,170 4 560} | exceeceeee 5, 020
GH sebcanasc cosponeooboosseeced poaarenoce 4,280 6, 100 4,570 5, 710 4,980
1 Yields based on single plats.
8 Yields based on the average of triplicate plats.
2 Yields based on the average of duplicate plats.
Among the strains of Kursk millet, A. D. I. No. 3 and a selection
from this strain, A. D. I. No. 3-2,
Akron. (See Table II.)
have given the highest yields at
These two strains are practically identical
in type of plant and have been given a common name, Dakota Kursk.
No. 3-2 has given somewhat the greater yield, both at Akron and at
Newell, and hereafter the strain bearing this number will be used as
far as possible for distribution to farmers.
BREEDING MILLET AND SORGO FOR DROUGHT ADAPTATION. 7
At the Belle Fourche station, Newell, S. Dak., in drilled plats,
Siberian millet, A. D. I. No. 4-3, produced larger yields than the
strains of Kursk millet in 1912 and 1914, while in 1913 the yield was
about the same. In cultivated rows, the highest yieldmg strain in
1912 was Dakota Kursk No. 3. At the Ardmore (S. Dak.) Field
Station in 1914 the Siberian strain, No. 4-3, yielded slightly higher
than the Kursk strains. At the Mandan (N. Dak.) Field Station the
yields of Dakota Kursk millet and Siberian No. 4-3, based on the
average of triplicate plats, were exactly the same, 4,300 pounds per
acre. (See Table III.)
Tasue III.— Yields of millet hay in drilled plats at Newell, S. Dak., 1912 to 1914, inclu-
sive, and at Ardmore, S. Dak., and Mandan, N. Dak., in 1914.
Newell, 8. Dak. Fetes eeauGen,
Variety and number. iA
| 19121 1913 2 1914 2 1914 2 1914 3
Dakota Kursk: | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds.
A NOs Be Gash BESS ae ee ees ee 6, 410 3,040 1,300 2, 080 4,300
AN6 1De TA SIOQ3 BES sa as Sah ae Sena eee byes Sa aaa 67510" Paaaacte cha eseetascos sasouneree
Kursk
AN. ID) Ils INKDS ies Ba Men 0 6,320 3, 650 1,500 2,000 4,240
PASI) OIE PING Sil Overernterte mere srsicreieintereicje cis civisisviaicie cosy 6, 400 PASO) S ee et ae opal beso a oe oe
SAUD RTO cl Seo bite te Sos Se Bk en ote 6,350 BanlOO eee puaceell hace ee le eS eee
PANY CLA Cletate eels ace Seite Rigeciesie tae deste adele 6,370 3,330 1,400 2.040 4,270
SiberianeAeeD TNO 42o% "eee eS |e 6, 850 3,300 2,000 2,170 4,300
1 Yields based on single plats. 3 Yields based on the average of triplicate plats.
2 Yields based on the average of duplicate plats.
SEED PRODUCTION OF MILLET.
Millet of the foxtail type (Chaetochloa italica) is grown chiefly for
forage, and yet some varieties, especially the Kursk, produce very
good crops of seed. When millet is grown for seed in the Great
Plains it is generally safest, in order to insure a crop, to plant in
cultivated rows. When planted in this way Kursk millet has seldom
failed to produce a profitable crop. Table IV gives a summary of
the yield of seed at Akron, Colo., and Newell, 8. Dak. The lowest
yield recorded at Akron was in 1910, when the average from all
strains of Kursk millet was at the rate of 17.8 bushels per acre. In
1912 the six Kursk strains yielded at the rate of nearly 36 bushels
per acre. At Newell in 1912 five strains of Kursk millet yielded at
the rate of 21.7 bushels per acre and the two strains of Siberian millet
at the rate of 14.3 bushels per acre.
There is a demand from commercial seed companies for pure millet
seed, and it would seem that growing this crop for seed is likely to
become a profitable industry in some sections of the Great Plains.
it can, no doubt, be raised more economically on the cheaper lands
of the Great Plains than on the more expensive lands of the prairie
region farther east. There is certamly every reason why farmers in
8 BULLETIN 291, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the Great Plains should grow all the seed required for their own
planting, and it is not unlikely that much of the eastern demand for
millet seed can be supplied from this region.
TaBLe IV.—Seed yield of millet strains at Akron, Colo., and Newell, S. Dak., in bushels
per acre}
Akron. Newell.
Variety and number. ate
1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1912 ;
Dakota Kursk:
sD CS NOS M a eae cies Spee eee arate eon is he 2980 sl Seecteree 32.0 28.4 24.3 28.6
TALS) STEN 00-222 Sot Perea eect ay cee ee ECE Seed | Saas 16.6 30.5 39.0 24.4 27.6
Kursk
ADEA. NO: DES. Sten tot PAes atone ee ease ae 34508 a seeaeo 26.0 39.0 18.8 29.5
ASD RTS NO MIOSY Set ees ecn cee se eens me emane ae 2825) easton 31.0 36.3 Visi 28.4
AS Dor No. LORS 2s 53 cetera SISA E a ae Sees eae ae 20.4 31.0 36.5) |z=seeeee 29.3
Ase DME IN O13 Be coe ine een eee 2 ne A | Ron epee ee 16.4 23.0 35.8 23.4 24.7
sASVeTare OL Koursk Strains se 22 sees eee ees eee 30.7 17.8 28.9 .|- 35.8 21.7 27.0
Siberian:
ALD: TNO 24-352 kaon ors SOA as eee ceealare Besiec 24.4 20.5 37.8 15.2 24.5
AS DR TANOn a0 see eee Ree Seer PB eu eee cetera A eee ints 20.4 24.0 39.8 13.4 24.4
AVeTa ron sIDeriamMStlains sess. ness on. 2 sles oe | 99.4 22.3 38.8 14.3 24.5
1 For seed production the millets were grown in cultivated rows 3} feet apart. Fifty pounds of seed is
considered a bushel.
BREEDING SORGO FOR ADAPTATION TO DROUGHT.
In breeding sorgo! it has been the object to secure a type which
matures early, in order that it may be grown with greater profit in
the northern Great Plains, where at the present time very little sorge
is grown. The drought resistance of sorgo and its heavy forage pro-
duction make it a valuable crop for the dry-land farmer, while its
many varieties and types, which cross-fertilize readily and are ex-
tremely variable, offer great opportunities for the plant breeder in the
improvement of the crop.
The sorgo-breeding work described in this paper was begun with
an early strain of the Minnesota Amber type, known as South Dakota
No. 341. The original seed of this stra was noted by Prof. W. A.
Wheeler at the Highmore (S. Dak.) substation in 1903, where it was
being grown under the name “Montana.” The variety was extremely
variable and contained a few very early and desirable types. Indi-
vidual plants representing these types were selected and several more
or less uniform strains were developed from these. Comparative-
yield tests of these strains in cultivated rows at Newell, S. Dak., and
Akron, Colo., have resulted in the selection of one of the best for
increase and distribution on the northern Great Plains. ‘This is the
earliest and most distinct of the selected types and is described in
this paper under the name Dakota Amber.
1 The term ‘‘sorgo”’ is here used in accordance with the practice established by Mr. Carleton R. Ball
(The history and distribution of sorghum, U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 175, p. 8, 1910) to
designate the saccharine as distinguished from the grain types of sorghum.
BREEDING MILLET AND SORGO FOR DROUGHT ADAPTATION. 9
DAKOTA AMLCER SORGO, A NEW FORAGE VARIETY.
The name Dakota Amber is here proposed for the strain A. D. I.
No. 341-10-4, which is a selection from Minnesota Amber (S. D.
No. 341). This strain of sorgo is of a distinct type and comes true
when not crossed with other forms of sorghum. It most nearly re-
sembles the Minnesota Amber type, but it is more dwarf in habit of
' growth and is 15 days earlier in maturing than the Minnesota Amber
variety. ‘The plants are slender, 44 to 5 feet high, bearing 3 to 5
stems nearly equal in height; leaves 7 or 8 per stem; panicle rather
compact, 5 or 6 inches long; seed oval, cinnamon color;! glumes
black, shining, with slight hairiness at base.
This variety is valuable on account of its earliness, excellent forage,
and good seed production. It will mature perfectly at the Belle
Fourche Experiment Farm, Newell, S. Dak., in 90 days. This sta-
tion is in latitude 44° 42’ N., and has an altitude of 2,900 feet. It is
probable that this variety will mature wherever Northwestern Dent
corn will ripen.
The forage, on account of the fine stems and comparative leafiness,
is of excellent quality. The stems are uniform and equal in height.
Each stem produces a seed head, or panicle, which makes a ripening
field very uniform in appearance. ‘The leafy character of the variety
is well shown in Plate II, figures 1 and 2.
In the latitude of Kansas and Nebraska the larger types of sorgo
(Red Amber, Orange, and ordinary Minnesota Amber) will, no doubt,
produce larger crops than this dwarf variety (Dakota Amber).
Throughout the Dakotas and Montana, however, and at higher alti-
tudes farther south in the Great Plains, this early variety is likely
to prove a valuable addition to the few forage crops grown there.
The yield of this variety can be increased, where drought is not too
severe, by planting somewhat thicker than is recommended for the
larger varieties. ‘Thicker planting compensates for the small size of
the individual plants.
The seed production of this variety is remarkably good. Under
average conditions of moisture supply it will produce from 15 to 25
bushels of seed per acre. At Akron, Colo., m 1912, under rather
unfavorable conditions, the yield of seed was 14 bushels per acre,
while at Newell, S. Dak., on soil that was fallow the previous season,
the yield in 1913 was over 28 bushels per acre. It is an easy matter,
therefore, to increase the variety and secure seed for forage planting.
In perfectly clean seed of Dakota Amber sorgo there are about
26,000 seeds per pound, but in ordinary seed, which contains a large
proportion of hulls, there are about 16,000 or 18,000 seeds per pound.
1 Ridgway, Robert. Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, pl. 29. Washington, 1912.
14648°—Bull. 291—16 —2
10 BULLETIN 291, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Allowing a germination of 75 per cent, ordimary seed will produce about
one plant per linear foot of row when seeded at the rate of 1 pound
per acre in rows 3} feet apart. This dwarf form of sorgo, Dakota
Amber, may be planted somewhat thicker than the larger kinds, so
that 5 or more pounds per acre are recommended.
It is necessary to have sorgo nearly mature at the time of harvest,
in order that the crop may have the highest possible food value.
The protein and fats are present in relatively large quantity in the
earlier growth of the plant, while the carbohydrates develop most
rapidly in the later stages of growth. For this reason it is desirable
to have a variety which will approach maturity in the region where
it is grown, in order to secure the maximum food value of the crop.
Tasie V.—Comparative yields of air-dry forage of sorgo, corn, and Sudan grass at
Akron, Colo., Mandan, N. Dak., Newell, S. Dak., and Ardmore, S. Dak., from 1911
to 1914.
[The actual yield is stated as pounds pet acre; the relative yield is the ratio to that of Dakota Amber,
which is taken as 100 in each case.]
Akron, Colo, Mandan, N. Dak.
Crop, variety, and strain. 1911? 19122 1914 3 19143
. |
Rela- Rela- Rela- Rela-
Actual. tive Actual. tive, Actual. cives Actual. tive,
Sorgo, Dakota Amber:
A. D.I. No. 341-10-4....-
Sorgo, Minnesota Amber:
Ay DLN. 341-2! 22 so. -
A.D. TI. No. 341-13. z
A. D.I. No. 341-5-1
Sorgo, Red Amber.....-
Corn, Northwestern Dent. .--
Sudan orissesecemeesecceesigst sas secee | seme sos | saeieeeisice
Newell, 8. Dak. Ardmore, 8. Dak,
Crop, variety, and strain. ee rieey ie loa
‘ Rela- Rela- Rela- Rela-
Actual. | tive, Actual. | yi, | Actual.| yi... | Actual. | jive
Sorgo, Dakota Amber:
A.D. I. No. 341-10-4..... 2,150 100 3, 400 100 820 100 1,670 100
Sorgo, Minnesota Amber:
A.D: DONo. 341-2--<5<... - 2,770 129 4,040 119 700 85 1, 660 99
A. D. I. No. 341-13 -
A. D. I. No. 341-5-1
Sorgo, Red Amber........-- Baits 114500) 70| 3,420 101 600 73| 2,600 156
Corn, Northwestern Dent.... 1,600 74 2,500 (Bye ESSE eee 65 1,010 60
Stdanjgrass--ce ese os peee aan | baeee eee sale eases 1,570 461 Sen cee eee egeiee 890 53
1 The average yield of duplicate plats except in the case of Red Amber Sorgo, of which only 1 plat was
grown,
2 The average yield of duplicate plats.
3 The average yield of triplicate plats.
4The yields of Dakota Amber sorgo, Red Amber sorgo, and corn were secured from single plats; the
yields of the three selections of Minnesota Amber sorgo from duplicate plats.
5 The yields secured from single plats of each variety.
BREEDING MILLET AND SORGO FOR DROUGHT ADAPTATION. 11
Another advantage in growing this early strain is the profit to the
farmer in producing his own seed. Sorgo seed costs from $2 to $5
per 100 pounds! when bought from seedsmen, and farmers are not
likely to grow a large acreage unless they can produce their own seed.
There is probably a further advantage in having locally acclimated
seed. This has been shown to be true of other field crops, and it
will no doubt be found to be the case with sorgo.
COMPARATIVE YIELDS OF SELECTED STRAINS OF SORGO.
The strains of sorgo developed from selected individual plants of
the Minnesota Amber type of sorgo were tested during several sea-
sons in regard to their comparative forage production and drought
resistance at the Akron (Colo.) and Newell (S. Dak.) stations. The
principal tests were made in plats by planting in rows 3} feet apart,
cultivating between the rows. Other tests were made by planting
Dakota Amber sorgo in comparison with millet and Sudan grass in
drilled plats. Red Amber sorgo (commercial seed), Sudan grass,
and corn (Northwestern Dent) were included for comparison in some
of the tests. The results are summarized in Table V.
At Akron the larger types of sorgo, Minnesota Amber and Red
Amber, have produced greater average yields of fodder than the early
dwarf type, Dakota Amber. (See Table V.) In 1913 the varieties
of sorgo were not weighed separately, on account of the very poor
stand secured, due to drought at planting time. A half-acre plat of
Dakota Amber which was grown for increase of seed yielded at the
rate of 1,675 pounds per acre of air-dry forage.
At Newell the advantage also, taking the average of all yields, has
been somewhat in favor of the larger types. In 1913, on plats which
had produced millet the preceding year and on which the moisture
supply was consequently limited, Dakota Amber (2,150 pounds per
acre) yielded more than Red Amber (1,500 pounds per acre), but less
than the larger type of Minnesota Amber No. 341-2 (2,770 pounds
per acre). In 1914 the mean yields of Dakota Amber and of Red
Amber at Newell were the same, 3,400 and 3,420 pounds per acre,
respectively, while Minnesota Amber No. 341-2 made nearly 20 per
cent more, or 4,040 pounds.
In spite of the larger yield of Minnesota Amber No. 341-2 there
is reason to believe that Dakota Amber is the more valuable variety.
It is early and will mature seed in any season, the stools are small
and are easily eaten by stock, and the fodder is relatively more leafy
than the larger type. Because of its smaller size Dakota Amber may
be planted more thickly than the larger sorgos. This has not been
done in the tests referred to, but it would probably increase the yield
ot this dwarf type to plant it thicker.
1 Three seed companies in the Northwest quoted Minnesota Amber sorgo seed in their catalogues for
1914 at $3.50, $3.75, and $6 per 100 pounds, respectively.
12 BULLETIN 291, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
YIELDS OF EARLY AND LATE TYPES OF SORGO UNDER CONDITIONS OF DROUGHT.
There is no doubt that the later and larger growing varieties of
sorgo will produce a greater tonnage of forage in a favorable season
than the smaller forms, but in a dry season the earlier kinds are likely
to produce the larger crop. The advantage of an early variety was
shown at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1913, where two
types of sorgo were grown under different conditions of soil moisture.
The two sorgos compared were Red Amber, which is late in maturing
in this locality, and Dakota Amber, a very early variety. They were
grown under two conditions of soil moisture: (1) On plats which
produced millet the previous season and were entirely exhausted of
any stored moisture, and (2) on plats which were fallow in 1912 and
were in excellent moisture condition at the time of planting. The
total dry matter produced is shown in Table VI.
TaBLe VI.—Forage production of early and late types of sorgo under conditions of limited
and of ample soil moisture supply at Newell, S. Dak., in 1918.
| Air-dry forage per acre
| (pounds).
Variety. Series A; | Series B;
moisture | moisture
limited. ample,
7,600
RedrAmberi(latematurin oe). Ve soo sae geek "eo Raete tye eee ee We ates 500 | d
4,500
Dakota Amber (early maturing) No. 341 Ei Qed a Lh tie cs ee eens Steen ; 2 aie
The plats which had been in millet (series A) suffered en
from lack of moisture and were harvested August 25, 79 days after
planting, the plants having by that time reached the limit of their
growth, The plats which had been fallowed (series B) contaimed
available moisture throughout the season and were harvested Septem-
ber 11, 96 days after planting. At this time the seeds of Dakota
Amber were fully mature, while the seeds of Red Amber were in the
early dough stage. Under conditions of drought the early strain
produced 43 per cent more air-dry forage, but where both were
enabled to approach maturity under favorable conditions of moisture
the later strain produced the larger crop by 69 per cent.
COMPARATIVE YIELDS OF SORGO, MILLET, AND OTHER ANNUAL
FORAGE CROPS IN THE CENTRAL AND NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS.
The farmer will desire to know which of the two crops here dis-
cussed is the more profitable under dry-land conditions and also how
they compare in value with other annual forage crops which are
suitable for growing in the Great Plains. Variety tests conducted
in the Great Plains region by the Office of Forage-Crop Investigations
of the Bureau of Plant Industry! have shown that the saccharine
1V. inall, H. N. Aemeal forage crops for the dry lands. Jn Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron., v. 5, no. 3, p. 176-
181. 1913.
BREEDING MILLET AND SORGO FOR DROUGHT ADAPTATION. 13
sorghums produce much the largest tonnage of any of the annual
forage crops tested. The average yield of four varieties of saccharine
sorghums was 3.5 tons per acre, as compared with 1.3 tons for four
varieties of foxtail millets, 1 ton for cowpeas, and.0.8 ton for field peas.
From comparative yields at Akron, Colo., it appears that sorgo is a
more profitable crop than millet from the standpoint of tonnage.
In Table VII is given the average tonnage production of all varieties
of millet in drilled plats and all sorgos in cultivated rows at Akron
from: 1910 to 1914, inclusive. The figures show that each year the
relative yield was larger for sorgo, its average yield having been 40
per cent higher than that of millet.
TaBLe VII.—Comparative yield of millet and sorgo at Akron, Colo., in 1910, 1911, 1912,
and 1914,
Number | Pounds ; Number | Pounds d
Year and crop. | of plats, per Heletive Yearandecrop. | ofplats,| per Pelative
averaged.| acre. Ue averaged.| acre. yee es
1910: | 1914:
Millet....:....... 10 4,950 1003)| | Milletesens-8eee 12] 5,17 100
SOWA@IS. dioaeae see 5 7,940 160 SOrgOeeee reece 11 | 6, 360 123
1911: ee ee eee
Milleteacgese ena 22 3,530 100 Average yield
Soreomean terre: 11 5,190 147 for 4 years:
1912: MINE Geers beer actos | 4,880 100
Millet se esse 2 22 16 5,880 100 SOrkOee eset basenn nee 6, 850 140
Sorrose ene 14 | 7,890 134
Some idea of the relative yield of the new strains of sorgo and
millet described in this paper, as compared with other types of annual
forage crops, can be had from the data presented in Table VIII.
Taste VIII.— Yield of air-dry forage (in pounds per acre) of Dakota Amber sorgo, Red
Amber sorgo, Dakota Kursk millet, Sudan grass, and Northwestern Dent corn at Newell,
S. Dak., Akron, Colo., Ardmore, S. Dak., and Mandan, N. Dak.
: Culti- Relative,
Location and crop. paren wien Average. peak.
4 100.
Newell, S. Dak., 1913:
DAKOTAPAMM DEL SOLZ Om «ce = scia\assjn cacti niesdis ayaice « «12 12.9.2 ie eee | eee teeters 3, 320 3,325 100
Red Amber sorgo. . E Peee rece 4,550 4,550 137
Millet...... 3 BHAI) Ile dacecadac 3, 250 op
SUGATNOTASS Reet eye bees ane e Mens ls c ZAGO0) ee eee see 2, 650
Comeene se: Deh Sie is otis off = yee eral sic Geteia siete seis a als nee Pee epee 2, 600 2, 600 78
Newell, S. Dak., 1914:
Dakota Amber SOTZO ee Boosts see esssjaieisini= sie) sae 2) 2 Se PRE Ree reela 3, 400 3, 400 100
edpAimber/sorgo 4. 3550238 aes a-ie b jo ac ceiaes O22 oe IS. See eee see 3, 420 3, 420 100
Dakotapkerskemill oti = cesta eicee see acicieis ra) 1,300 2,080 1,690 5
Slidamierass ee Bek See ae oe Se Ae) See bess es ee 2, 300 1,570 1, 935 57
Corn em ee gece art ieenh oe Gi” ne an ee aan 2, 560 2, 560 75
Akron, Colo., 1914:
Waker apAcnbensolgon- ee ee cc 5,530} 5,530 100
IRedpAmbersOLgo sees hither sep eee me oe oe dco ee oe eee 7, 320 7, 320 132
Dakovaskeurskymilletecns ccc ace cect snes <6 eee eee DOOM eee eee 5, 360 97
Sudamjoracsh 445. PLease. pba ete seoe See eee 4,380 3, 840 4,110 74
Ardmore, S. Dak., 1914:
DakotarAm Her SOrgo).|.jcasea- esas cee He snes = ee: dae Pee oe 1,670 1, 670 100
VGC RAUTIDER SONE ORG eo Gate sce nee te ee ee see ci = =). aii DeREE eee eee 2, 600 2, 600 156
Dakota Kursk millet...........-.--.-.. BUBASAAQADopodaaco ss PA) eSoseesend 2, 080 125
Sudamerasse syns. 2 Noe Sees WS ee eS S352 Sees eet 575 890 735 44
~ (QWs SOs tae SAC Rae he eos et ine oe Se ee eee 25 | a ke a © 1,010 1,010 60
Mandan, N. Dak., 1914:
Spee akotay Amber SOrgon.jjssseee so socse nes qe sense ee Sos ee eee Eero eee 7,570 7,570 100
Red eA ber SOLE Oss neces reese pee micaccine ce see one ene | Meee eerie 11, 720 11, 720 155
Dakotaykurskomillotaee. see eeeeeaqe- eeao-eee ese 45300) |e eceteen- 4,300 57
BSUGAMISTASS Scan Seer Pe sense ee ciciseiicte heise oe oeies cee eee 3, 140 3, 215 3, 180 42
Corny S008 | Pee cae tate alia 633 2 ie Re a, 4,910 | 4,210 56
14 BULLETIN 291, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
In comparing Dakota Amber sorgo and Dakota Kursk millet it
will be seen that the results are not consistent. At Ardmore in 1914
the yield of the millet was 25 per cent greater than the sorgo, while at
Newell in 1914 the millet produced only one-half as much forage as
the sorgo. At Newell in 1913 and at Akron in 1914 there was a slight
difference in yield in favor of the sorgo. It should be noted, however,
that Dakota Amber is not as productive in seasons of favorable mois-
ture conditions as the larger-growing sorgos. The relative yield of
millet is less favorable when compared with Red Amber sorgo than
when compared with the smaller and earlier Dakota Amber sorgo.
Red Amber sorgo produced a greater tonnage of fodder than Dakota
Amber in each of the five tests included in Table VIII. The relative
yield in 1914 of Red Amber sorgo where Dakota Amber equaled 100
ranged from 100 at Newell to 156 at Ardmore. The question arises,
Will it pay the farmer on the northern Great Plains to raise Dakota
Amber sorgo, in view of the higher average yields of Red Amber
sorgo? It has already been suggested that the yields of Dakota
Amber sorgo can no doubt be increased under favorable moisture
conditions by thicker planting. It has been shown that under con-
ditions of drought Dakota Amber is likely to produce a larger crop
than Red Amber. Dakota. Amber will mature in a much shorter
season than Red Amber and consequently can often be used as a catch
crop where earlier crops have failed. It will ripen seed much farther
north than Red Amber and the grower can therefore be certain of
raising his own seed. These advantages of Dakota Amber sorgo seem
to balance somewhat the disadvantage of lower average yields as
compared with those of Red Amber.
In all the tests Sudan grass has been less productive than Dakota
Amber sorgo, the relative yield where Dakota Amber equals 100
ranging from 42 at Mandan in 1914 to 80 at Newell in 1913.
Corn has produced less fodder than Dakota Amber sorgo. The
relative yield at Newell in 1913 was 78, in 1914, 69; at Ardmore in
1914, 69; at Mandan in 1914, 56. The comparative yield of sorgo
and corn fodder at Newell is discussed later.
It will be seen that in nearly every case the yield of sorgo is greater
than that of corn, millet, or Sudan grass, and from the standpoint of
tonnage alone sorgo must be considered the most desirable crop.
In comparing the yields of the three crops, millet, Sudan grass, and
corn, it will be seen that in all tests except at Newell in 1914 millet
has outyielded Sudan grass and corn.
COMPARATIVE YIELDS OF SORGO AND CORN FODDER AT NEWELL FROM 1908 TO 1914
The Office of Dry-Land Agriculture of the Bureau of Plant Industry
has used an early strain of sorgo in its rotation experiments at the
Belle Fourche station and has furnished the writer with the results
BREEDING MILLET AND SORGO FOR DROUGHT ADAPTATION. 15
of yields secured from 1908 to 1914, inclusive. The strain of sorgo
used from 1908 to 1910 was of the Minnesota Amber type (S. Dak. No.
341), which is the parent stock from which the selections mentioned
in this bulletin were made. In 1912, 1913, and 1914 S. Dak. No.
341-13, a selection from this strain, was used instead of the original
stock. The results of yields from two closely adjacent and compara-
ble plats of corn are given for comparison. These results are shown
in Table IX.
It will be seen that where forage is the main consideration 1t would
be much more profitable to grow sorgo than corn, for the total yield
of sorgo is one-half more than that of corn. It should be considered,
however, that the corn produced an average annual yield of grain of
6% bushels per acre, which helps to compensate for the lower total
weight of the crop. In most cases the sorgo also was nearly ripe when
the crop was harvested and would probably have produced a yield
of seed equal in value to that of the corn, although no records of the
seed yield were taken.
TaBLE I1X.—Comparative yield (in pounds per acre) of air-dry sorgo and corn fodder
at the Belle Fourche station, Newell, S. Dak., for 1908 to 1914.1
Relative
yield of
Year. Sorgo.2 Corn.? sorgo,
corn=
100.
LOR yee een ee a= See Aa croverajalh a eee dosh 4s eon «eee eae ee 3, 270 3, 090 106.
OG Ie epee ieee sacle ete cise clsoe sins oe coe ae 6 clare Se Eee eteler ease 5, 920 3, 230 183
THOS Rot eke ne: SORES Gono cot Rape ese ae eee ne Se cae a eas 4 3, 360 1,990 169.
TD cia sis 56d BORE REMC EE EG SCTE Aes erate ear vSH Er a aa anu 4,100 3, 870 106
DG UO Sree alae fa oretn SYN =e cfefay ve Sse hai gpeciejsie'e ovis, cick eA eae eee 3, 400 1, 490 228
NG A epee ee tere itr a iaicicte onset incising a \siat aeisictic nie = ow « 2 SORE ME eee eee , 125 725 238
PANVCLAS CHOUISC VOM \VCalSen 2-0. Gace csc. --- 2624 - BE eee eos aa: 3, 110 2, 060 151
1 No crop was planted in 1911 on account of the extreme drought of that year.
2 Average of two rotation plats.
Corn is grown to a considerable extent in the northern Great Plains.
In a favorable season a fair yield of grain is obtained, and even ‘in a
dry season some fodder will be secured. Corn is often planted for
fodder alone. There is no doubt, however, that sorgo is a more
profitable crop to grow where forage is the main consideration, not
only on account of the higher yield of sorgo but also on account of
its excellent feeding value.
WATER REQUIREMENT OF MILLET AND SORGO.
An important factor in the adaptation of millet and sorgo to condi-
tions of drought is the low water requirement of these crops. This is a
factor of special importance in the Great Plains, where the rainfall is
limited and the relative water consumption of crops is in general much
higher than im the more humid sections of the country. In humid
16 BULLETIN 291, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
regions crops are selected without regard to their water economy, but
in the drier sections of the country those crops which show. a low
water requirement are the most likely to mature in years of deficient
rainfall.
In the water-requirement measurements of Briggs and Shantz? at
Akron, Colo., they have found that millet and sorgo are the most
efficient in the use of water of any of the numerous crops compared
at that place. In their summary of water-requirement determina-
tions in 1911, 1912, and 1913 (table 34, op. cit.), the authors men-
tioned give the water requirement of Dakota Kursk millet (S. P. I.
No. 34771) as 265 and that of Minnesota Amber sorgo (A. D. I. No.
341-13) as 305. The average water requirement of 11 varieties of
corn was 368, of 7 varieties of wheat 513, and of 4 varieties of alfalfa
831. On this basis, the water required to produce 100 pounds of dry
matter in Dakota Kursk millet would produce only 87 pounds of
Minnesota Amber sorgo, 72 pounds of corn fodder, 52 pounds of wheat
(grain and straw), and 32 pounds of alfalfa hay. The results con-
firm the experience of farmers, who find that sorgo and millet are
among the most dependable crops grown in the Great Plains.
In 1912 the water requirement of Dakota Kursk millet was 187,
being ‘‘the lowest water requirement so far recorded for any crop at
Akron.” In comparison with other crops this was a remarkable
showing. German millet had a water requirement of 248, the proso
millets 207, Red Amber sorgo 237, corn 280, Sudan grass 359, and
alfalfa 659. The water required in 1912 to produce 100 pounds
of Dakota Kursk millet would produce only 28 pounds of alfalfa, 52
pounds of Sudan grass, 67 pounds of corn fodder, 79 pounds of Red
Amber sorgo, and 75 pounds of German millet.
WATER REQUIREMENT OF SELECTED STRAINS OF MILLET AT NEWELL.
The plant breeder who is working for increased drought resistance
should determine the relative water requirement of his selected
strains, as the method is a simple and comparatively rapid one and
the differences, if significant, afford one of the best indications of
differences in adaptability to drought conditions.
In 1912 and 1913 determinations were made of the water require-
ment of two strains of Kursk millet, Dakota Kursk (A. D. I. No. 3) and
Kursk (A. D. I. No. 13-3), in comparison with a strain of Siberian
millet (A. D. I. No. 4-3). In 1912 common millet also was included
in the experiment. In 1914 only Dakota Kursk and Siberian
millet (A. D. I. No. 4-3) were compared. The water requirements
were as shown in Table X.
1 Briggs, L. J.,and Shantz, H. L. Relative water requirement of plants. Jn Jour. Agr. Research, v. 3,
no. 1, p. 1-63, 1 fig., pl. 1-7, 1914.
BREEDING MILLET AND SORGO FOR DROUGHT ADAPTATION. 17
TaBLEe X.—The water requirement (mean of 6 pots) at Newell, S. Dak., of selected strains
of millet in comparison with a commercial variet y.
Water requirement.
Variety and number,
1912 1913 1914
Dakota Kursk he IDad NOSE) aes Senco SUE See rE ene rancc sc coococmeEeners 23943 29343 311411
Fears CAD PHNOM Sole Se ee So eS a Seetieieie crerdels era 24643 BOOSH Ne geese
Siberian (A. D. p mel Ce) BU DOE SCOR OC On Aa eee ee ea aa. oincooob SST Otoos 24444 32642 303-47
Commronbmtille Gaye sake esos oeeec oie sec ject oe cae cet eRe snes wales SIGHS: ewes ancanwaees
The results of these determinations at Newell show no consistent
differences among the selected strains. The two strains of Kursk
millet and Siberian millet gave the same water requirement within
the limits of experimental error in 1912, but in 1913 there was a
difference in favor of Dakota Kursk of 36+4 as compared with
Kursk (A. D. I. No. 13-3) and 33+4 as compared with Siberian
millet. In 1914 the water requirements of the two varieties measured
(Dakota Kursk and Siberian, A. D. I. No. 4-3) were again practically
the same. On the other hand, in 1912 all three of the selected
strains had a water requirement much lower than that of common
millet, a commercial variety. At Akron, Briggs and Shantz! found
that the selected strains of millet differed in their water requirement
When the entire season’s growth was considered, Dakota Kursk
(S. P. I. 34771) showed the lowest water requirement of the varieties
and strains compared. Further comparison of the water requirement
of these strains is evidently desirable.
WATER REQUIREMENT OF DAKOTA KURSK MILLET IN SOUTH DAKOTA, COLORADO,
AND TEXAS.
The water requirement of Dakota Kursk millet (A. D. I. No. 3)
has been measured for three years in South Dakota by the writer and
in Colorado and Texas by Briggs and Shantz. The water require-
ment shows considerable variation, depending both upon the latitude
of the locality where the measurement was made and upon the
character of the season. At Newell, S. Dak. (Table. XI),
water requirement was 239 in 1912, 293 in 19138, and 311 in 1914.
The lowest measurement recorded was 187, at Akron, Colo., in 1912;
the highest 331, at Dalhart, Tex., in 1912. The average water
requirement for the three years was 256 at Akron, 281 at Newell,
and 306 at Dalhart and Amarillo.
In the matter of seed production this strain of millet shows a very
low water requirement. At Newell the water requirement, based on
the grain, was 577 in 1912 and 661 in 1913.2 The water requirement ©
of Grimm alfalfa at the same place was 735 for these two years. It
1 Briggs, L. J., and Shantz, H.L. Op. cit., p. 38, 58.
2 At Akron in 1912, Briggs and Shantz (op. cit-, p. 26) obtained the remarkably low figure of 483 for
the water requirement for seed production of Dakota Kursk millet (S. P. I. 34771).
18 BULLETIN 291, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
will be seen, theretore, that millet produced grain with the use of less
water than was used by alfalfa in the production of hay.
Tape X1.— Water requirement of Dakota Kursk millet(A.D.I. No.3) at Newell, S.Dak.,
Akron, Colo., and Dalhart and Amarillo, Tex.
Water requirement
based on—
Place and year.
- Total dry
Grain. matter.
Newell, S. Dak.:
MOLD ao ic Lob eck acdc Sodas © Sates oe ote ela aie aie ce eT Re rae Patent aa orate an cra ‘T7418 23943
NOUS E oars oo inra aimyaletsove ice mia isle etoile aoe Oe ae ee aie ata aarti eee ane ae rie oe eee 66146 29343
LOVAS o\iore citate 2 Salenteielecere eS a Sasmte 2 skis s sistant asthe soem elcistinclese oaieAacee| Meee ae 311411
JAVETASO ES SHS Aes Soe hase sic ae Se Rete aia alt neat a een yaa ray aayetaysie ae vo nfelajnintare'n 2 21a | Sates a Setanta 281+4
Akron, Colo.:
UO 1D E'S arch bfer deste caus ceacarepate Gide ice eta Sista = ayers ee nie sian ene eee ai eon eae eres 483411 18741
LOG? oo eh Seth s ae e Sh thet eke etek . tis sasea cede ese cs aoc es eee ee 286+4
(1 ane RST HENCS SOD ee iaees SR IRT, SCE es Bayes. nO Cr ee Ne BB are OD 1,0744+38 29542
AVOLAGO: «= oisays da ae ice noes 2 wine eiaeaid=eitnainn Sciebinis Shige eels aaige s be sleedjon noose eee aero 25642
Dalhart, Tex.:
1912522 Ss Ue oS Ree Soest he ae gates e en ioe ieee eotle ne ioteeek ae | See See 33142
Amarillo, Tex.:
QU aie Sa eeae eee oe ee eae aitls tlatinice Aa ciaiesionicticisrs caieetotice aise mec seete §44+10 26942
L914 ees ob beleh esata cee Ceebdac tile bees otcisee Bees Sales baa ttecmete seekers 1,005+19 31844
AVOrAle SIS. She ee Bey oi Oe ES Soe Been coves, Jade ade os ota | See eee 306+2
CONCLUSIONS.
It has been the experience of old settlers in the Great Plains that
successful farming in this region must include the raising of live stock.
This requires the production of forage crops under cultivation, since,
except in sand-hill regions and along the watercourses, the native
grasses do not grow tall enough for hay. The native “short grasses”’
that cover the Plains usually produce sufficient feed for summer
pasturage, but cultivated crops must be depended upon for winter
feeding. In the northern Great Plams certaim perennial crops—
alfalfa and brome-grass—give good results, but farther south the
annual forage crops, millet and sorgo especially, are the most depend-
able. These two crops have proved to be adapted to drought and
capable of producing profitable crops where the annual rainfall
averages from 12 to 18 inches.
The drought adaptation of millet is due largely to its early maturity
and low water requirement, while sorgo has, in addition to these two
valuable characteristics, a remarkable ability to endure drought.
Even though its growth is severely checked during a period of drought,
it will resume growth upon the return of favorable conditions. It
has been shown that millet and sorgo require less water for the produc-
tion of a ton of hay than any other crops that have been tested in
the central Great Plains.
The Kursk and Siberian varieties of millet have given larger yields
of hay than other varieties of this crop tested in the northern Great
| BREEDING MILLET AND SORGO FOR DROUGHT ADAPTATION. 19
Plains. In each of these varieties a strain has been selected which
is believed to be much superior to the parent stock. Dakota Kursk
millet, one of these selections, is an early variety of good forage type.
The plants are 30 to 34 inches high when mature, have many rather
fine stems, and many leaves. The yield of hay from this variety has
averaged 24 tons per acre at Akron, Colo., and 1? tons at Newell,
S. Dak. In seed production this variety is excellent, producing under
ordinary conditions from 15 to 25 bushels per acre. The seed head
is close and firm and does not allow the seed to shatter readily.
Siberian millet (A. D. I. No. 4-3) is a larger type of millet than
Dakota Kursk, growing from 36 to 40 inches high. It has coarser,
stems and leaves and makes a somewhat poorer quality of hay. It
does, however, produce a larger yield per acre than the Dakota
Kursk. The seed head is much larger and less firm than in the
Dakota Kursk, and the seed shatters more readily. In regions of
greater rainfall this variety may be more valuable than Dakota
Kursk on account of its higher yield, but for the northern Great
Plains it is believed that the latter variety is the better type.
A strain of early sorgo is much needed for cultivation in the north-
ern Great Plains, where at the present time very little sorgo is
grown. A strain of sorgo has been developed by selection which is
especially promising for this region and for higher altitudes farther
south in the Great Plains. In favorable seasons the larger growing
sorgos produce a larger tonnage than this dwarf type, but in dry
seasons the latter will yield at least as heavily as the larger varieties.
This type is very early, maturing seed in a period of about 90 days,
and can often be used as a catch crop where other crops have failed.
It produces seed freely, and the farmer can easily raise his own supply
of seed for forage planting. On account of the smaller size of the
plants this dwarf sorgo can very well be planted thicker than the
larger growing varieties. This new variety has been named Dakota
Amber sorgo.
Sorgo will probably produce a larger tonnage of fodder than any
other annual forage crop of this region. At Akron, Colo., sorgo has
produced 40 per cent greater yields than millet. At Newell and Ard-
more, S. Dak., also the results have been in favor of sorgo. In a
7-year test at Newell sorgo has produced 51 per cent more fodder
than corn. Dakota Amber sorgo has produced on the average 40
f per cent more forage per acre than Sudan grass in tests at Newell,
Akron, Ardmore, and Mandan.
It is believed that Dakota Kursk millet and Dakota Amber sorgo
will prove valuable additions to the list of forage crops adapted to
the northern and central Great Plains.
«
WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1916
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
i; BULLETIN No. 292 oN
Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey ‘
HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief
Washington, D. C. q Vv October 25, 1915
DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATION OF NORTH
AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES.
By Wetts W. Cooke, Assistant Biologist.
CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
Untnoductioneecs(cis- 22 «tsetse aielai-i oajasee oe 1 | Introduction—Continued.
Economic importance of gulls.....-..--- 1 Distribution—Continued.
Jail TUITE s os guuee hose See oes Sonoe aaa eee 2 Forms breeding and wintering in the
Protection by private associations. ....-- 3 Wnited'!Statessa eee sea- sae see ee 4
eraliprovection: 2. (4154- o 4 joc as ,. = 3 Forms breeding in the Arctic but
IDS AEN OURO ee Sees ee Se a 4 occurring in the United States in
Old World forms accidental in North winter or in migration..........-.- 5
ENIMIOTICAM ASH: cheeses aotee ses A. 2 4 Misrations 233.5212 5 Eee ees eee 5
Forms breeding in the Arctic not Annotated list of species: ....--$---2 22-2 5---- 5
wintering in the United States. . 4 | Indextasscno- cs sccecce sesenoeeeecr eee eter 69
INTRODUCTION.
Gulls, including skuas and jegers, are represented in the United
States by 22 species or subspecies and are important from several
points of view. Belonging to the order of long-winged swimmers,
they are strong of wing, and nearly all are coast-loving forms. They
spend comparatively little of their time in fresh water; but some are
true inland birds, frequenting prairies, marshes, and inland lakes.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF GULLS.
Flocks of gulls resting ightly on the waters of our harbors or fol-
lowing the wake of water craft are a familiar sight, but not every
observer of the graceful motions of the birds is aware of the fact that
gulls are the original ‘‘white wings.”” As sea scavengers they wel-
come as food dead fish, garbage, and offal of various sorts, and their
Notr.—This bulletin presents precise information regarding the ranges of the several species of gulls
and their allies, the skuas and jegers, especially the breeding ranges and migrations, and includes data
for use for legislative reference to serve as a basis for legal protection for the species by States in which
they are found. For general distribution.
3673°—Bull. 292—15——1
2 BULLETIN 292, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
services in cleaning up such material are not to be regarded lightly.
It will surprise many to learn that certain gulls render important in-
land service, especially to agriculture. At least one species, the Cali-
fornia gull, is extremely fond of field mice, and during an out-
break of that pest in Nevada in 1907-8 hundreds of gulls assembled
in and near the devastated alfalfa fields and fed entirely on mice,
thus lending the farmers material aid in their warfare against the
pestiferous little rodents. The skua also feeds on mice and lemmings.
Several species of gulls render valuable service to agriculture by
destroying insects also, and in spring hundreds of Franklin’s gulls
in Wisconsin and the Dakotas follow the plowman to pick up the
insect larvee uncovered by the share.
That at least one community has not been unmindful of the sub-
stantial debt it owes the gull is attested in Salt Lake City, where
stands a monument surmounted by a bronze figure of two gulls,
erected by the people of that city ‘‘in grateful remembrance” of the
signal service rendered by these birds at a critical time in the his-
tory of the community. For three consecutive years—1848 to 1850—
black crickets by millons threatened to ruin the crops upon which
depended the very lives of the settlers. Large flocks of California
gulls came to the rescue and devoured vast numbers of the destruc-
tive insects, until the fields were entirely freed from them. It is no
wonder that the sentiment of the people of Utah as reflected through
their laws affords gulls the fullest protection. It would be well if such
sentiment prevailed elsewhere throughout the United States. How-
ever, within the last few years much progress has been made in
protecting these most beautiful dwellers of coasts and marshes.
BIRD REFUGES.
On March 14, 1903, President Roosevelt issued an Executive order
making Pelican Island, Fla., a bird reservation—the first established
in the United States. To-day there are 68 bird reservations, vary-
ing in size from a few acres to many hundred square miles. Some
27 of these, situated on the seacoast or on islands in the Great Lakes,
are resorted to by gulls during the breeding season, and here these
birds find safety from human molestation, while local wardens have
endeavored to reduce their native wild enemies to a minimum. The
27 national bird reservations frequented by gulls are: Breton Island,
Tern Islands, East Timbalier Island, and Shell Keys, La.; Passage
Key and Matlacha Pass, Fla.; Huron and Siskiwit Islands, Mich.;
Lake Malheur, Klamath Lake, and Three Arch Rocks, Oreg.; Flat-
tery Rocks, Quillayute Needles, and Copalis Rock, Wash.; Chase
Lake, N. Dak.; Clear Lake and the Farallon Islands, Cal.; Green Bay,
Wis.; and nine reservations in Alaska.
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 2
Among the birds frequenting these reservations are the glaucous-
winged, western, herring, California, and laughing gulls. Thus these
reservations protect several of the most important species of North
American gulls.
PROTECTION BY PRIVATE ASSOCIATIONS.
In 1900, principally through the efforts of Mr. Abbott H. Thayer,
a fund of $1,400 was raised for the protection of coast birds, particu-
larly gulls and terns, along the Atlantic from Virginia to Maine. A
wardenship system was inaugurated, and 23 bird wardens were
appointed the first year. The next year $1,600 was raised, 27 war-
dens were engaged, and the work was extended to Florida, Louisiana,
and Texas. In 1902, $2,000 was donated for the protection of gulls
and terns, and about 30 wardens were engaged in watching their
breeding grounds. From these beginnings the work of the National
Association of Audubon Societies has grown until, m 1913, over
$80,000 was spent by this association for bird protection. Out of the
large number of guards and wardens employed that year a consid-
erable portion were engaged in guarding the islands and beaches along
the Atlantic coast, and so extensive has the work become and so
thoroughly has it been systematized that there is probably no im-
portant colony of gulls or terns throughout the whole extent of the
coast from Maine to Florida that is not guarded during the breeding
season. On the Gulf coast from Florida to Texas a few colonies are
protected, and along the Oregon coast colonies of breeding birds are
euarded by State wardens.
The results of the protection thus afforded have been most gratify-
ing. Herring gulls along the coast of Maine have increased decidedly,
while laughing gulls are beginning to be common once more in
various localities where they had been almost exterminated.
LEGAL PROTECTION.
Fully as important for the protection and increase of gulls has
been the enactment of State laws prohibiting their killing at any
time of year and of laws prohibiting the sale of their plumage. Gulls,
with their close allies, the terns, have been among the greatest suf-
ferers from the millmery trade. As is usually the case, the birds
were shot on the breeding grounds during the height of the nesting
season, thus causing the death not only of the parent birds, but
insuring the death of the young birds by lmgering starvation. A few
years ago the public awoke to the barbarity of such slaughter, and
after much agitation New Jersey, in 1885, enacted the first effective
State law prohibiting the killing of gulls. This example has been
followed by other States until now—1915—there are 40 States which
4 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
protect gulls all ihe year. Louisiana protects them during the breed-
ing season, February 1 to August 1, while five States—Montana,
Idaho, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico—offer them no protection
at any time of year.
The surest way to protect any given bird is to remove the tempta-
tion to destroy it, and so the most certain way to stop the killing
of gulls for the millinery trade is to prohibit the sale of gulls’ wings
and plumage, so that the plume hunter can find no market for his
spoils. To California belongs the credit of incorporating in the game
law of 1895 the first law in this country prohibiting the sale of gulls’
plumage for millmery purposes. Many States followed this lead
until, in 1910, New York, enacting the most drastic law of all, pro-
hibited not only the sale but the having in possession of the plumage
of any bird belonging to the same family as any of the birds of the
State of New York.
DISTRIBUTION.
North American gulls and their allies include 29 species, one of
which is divided into two subspecies, making a total of 30 forms.
Three of these are birds of the Eastern Hemisphere which have
occurred only accidentally in North America, while five others breed
in the far North and are not known to occur in the United States
even during migration or in winter. This leaves 22 forms of 21
species that are found in the United States. Of these, 7 both breed
and winter in this country, 14 breed in the Arctic and occur here in
migration or in winter, and 1 breeds south of the United States and
then comes north in migration.
Oxtp Wortp Srecres AccIpDENTAL IN NortH AMERICA.
Siberian gull (Larus affinis). Once in | Little gull (Larus minutus). Once in Ber-
Greenland. muda and once on Long Island.
Mew gull(Larus canus). Oncein Labrador.
Forms BREEDING IN THE ARcTIC AND Not WINTERING IN THE UNITED STATES.
Red-legged kittiwake (Rissa brevirostris). | Vega gull (Larus vege). Not wintering
Not wintering south of the Aleutians. south of the Aleutians.
Nelson’s gull (Larus nelsoni). See note. | Ross’s gull (Rhodostethia rosea). Not
Slaty-backed gull (Larus schistisagus). wintering south of the Pribilofs.
Not wintering south of the Aleutians.
Norr.—Nelson’s gull breeds in the Arctic, and, though it migrates south in winter
as far as Lower California, it has not yet been taken in the United States.
Forms BREEDING AND WINTERING IN THE UNITED STATES.
Glaucous-winged gull (Larus glaucescens). | Ring-billed gull (Larus delawarensis).
Western gull (Larus occidentalis). Laughing gull (Larus atricilla).
Herring gull (Larus argentatus). Franklin’s gull (Larus franklini).
California gull (Larus californicus).
—_
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 5
Forms BREEDING IN THE ARCTIC BUT OCCURRING IN THE UNITED STATES IN WINTER
OR IN MIGRATION.
Skua ( Megalestris skua).
Pomarine jeger (Stercorarius pomarinus).
Parasitic jager (Stercorarius parasiticus).
Long-tailed jeger (Stercorarius longicau-
dus).
Ivory gull (Pagophila alba).
Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla tridactyla).
Pacific kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla polli-
carts).
Glaucous gull (Larus hyperboreus).
Iceland gull (Larus leucopterus).
Kumlien’s gull (Larus kumlieni).
Great black-backed gull (Larus marinus).
Short-billed gull (Larus brachyrhynchus).
Heermann’s gull (Larus heermanni). See
note.
Bonaparte’s gull (Larus philadelphia).
Sabine’s gull (Xema sabini).
Norr.—Heermann’s gull breeds south of the United States and migrates north
after the breeding season.
MIGRATION.
All the gulls of North America are migratory, but the distances
traversed by the several species in migration vary widely. Some of
them, notably Ross’s gull and the red-legged kittiwake, remain near
the Arctic throughout the year, and retreat southward in winter for
only a few hundred miles. At the other extreme is Sabine’s gull,
which breeds north of the Arctic circle and winters on the coast of
Peru, more than 5,000 miles away. Franklin’s gull does not breed
so far north as Sabine’s gull, but it goes enough farther south on the
coast of Chile to make its migration route fully 5,000 miles in length.
Most of the gulls and their allies travel much shorter distances in
their migrations, and comparatively few individuals winter as far as
2,000 miles from the breeding grounds.
Two gull-migration routes deserve special mention: Bonaparte’s
gull breeds about freshwater in the subarctic parts of northwestern
North America, whence many individuals in fall migration travel
3,500 miles to the southeastward, reaching the Labrador coast by
way of Hudson Bay before they turn southward toward their winter
home on the coast of the South Atlantic States. The migration of
Heermann’s gull is unique among North American gulls, in that the
species breeds south of the United States and at the end of the
nesting season migrates north by thousands and swarms along the
Pacific coast of the United States, even journeying to British Colum-
bia. The birds remain on the California coast all winter and at the
approach of the breeding season depart southward to their summer
home.
ANNOTATED LIST OF SPECIES.
SKUA. Megalestris skua (BRUNNICH).
The skua breeds in Iceland and on the Faroe and Shetland Islands.
Though reported as breeding in North America, there seems to be
no proof that it has ever nested in the Western Hemisphere, even in
Greenland. The bulk of the birds winter off the coast of Europe
south to Gibraltar, but the species is not rare at this season around
6 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the banks of Nova Scotia and near Georges Banks, off the Massa-
chusetts coast.
During migration it has occurred in Greenland at Disco Island,
(Figgins), Unamak (Schalow), and Ivigtut (Helms), and has been
noted in the eastern part of Hudson Strait (Low); near Lady
Franklin Island, north of Hudson Strait, in September (Kumlien); a
few on the Grand Banks off Newfoundland, in fall (Collins); one, at
Belle Isle Strait, Labrador, June 22, 1882 (Turner); Ipswich Bay,
O OCCURRENCE
Fig. 1.—Skua ( Megalestris skua).
B2052-5
Mass., September 17, 1878 (Allen); a pair near Nantucket Island,
Gennes 17, 1883 (Collins) ; Woods Hole, Mass., September 19, 1889,
August 30, 1889 (Edwards); Georges Banks, Mass., July, 1878 (Baird,
Brewer, and Ridgway); one, Niagara River, N. Y., spring of 1886
(Bergtold); one, Montauk, N. Y., August 10, 1896 (Scott); one, near
Amagansett, Long Island, N. Y., winter of 1885-86 (Dutcher); the
species has w: smder ed twice to the Pacific coast, since a specimen was
taken by Colonel Pike off Monterey, Cal., many years ago, and one
was taken in Monterey Bay, Cal., August 7, 1907 (Beck).
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. Ve
POMARINE JAGER. Stercorarius pomarinus (TEMMINCE).
Range.—Both hemispheres, from the Arctic Islands south to
Australia, southern Africa, and Peru.
Breeding range.—The rarest of the three jegers is probably the
pomarine jzeger, which breeds in North America from North Somerset
Island at Fury Point (Ross) and Upernivik on the west coast of
Greenland, latitude 73° (Hagerup), south to the northern coast
!
@ BREEDING
lO OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER
Fig. 2.—Pomarine jeeger (Stercorarius pomarinus).
of Alaska, at Cape Lisburne (eggs in National Museum), and Point
Barrow (Stone); to the coast of Mackenzie at the mouth of the An-
derson River (MacFarlane), Cape Bathurst (Thayer), and Franklin
Bay (MacFarlane); Igloolik (Richardson), Exeter Sound on Baffin
Land (Kumtien), and on the west coast of Greenland, latitude 64°
(Hagerup). It has been noted north to Melville Island (Sabine),
and probably breeds there. It also breeds in the Arctic regions of
8 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
the Eastern Hemisphere, where it has been noted to latitude 83°,
north of Spitzbergen, but though recorded during the breeding season
at numerous places from the eastern coast of Greenland to north-
eastern Siberia, there are few if any actual breeding records, except
on the islands off the northern coast of eastern Siberia.
Winter range.—Actual winter records are almost lacking. The
species has been taken south to Cape York, in Australia, Walfisch
Bay in southern Africa, and Callao Bay in Peru. It seems probable
that the regular winter home lies south of the Equator and that indi-
viduals recorded with more or less certainty as having occurred in
winter on the Orkneys, off the coast of Massachusetts, and on the
California coast are stragglers or belated migrants.
Migration range.—During spring and fall the pomarine jeger occurs
as a migrant off both coasts of the United States. It is not rare at
either season, but is much more common in fall, when it continues
passing the coast of Massachusetts and Long Island Sound until
November. As is the case with many other water birds, this species
is fairly common south to the eastern end of Long Island, then as the
coast turns westward, the birds continue southward out to sea and are
unknown along the coast of the rest of North America or anywhere
on the eastern coast of South America. Stragglers have twice been
taken on-the coast of New Jersey at Long Beach (Scott) and Anda-
lusia (Vansciver). On the California coast the species is a rare mi-
grant in spring and is common, at least near Monterey, from August
to October, but it is not recorded along the coast between California
and Peru.
In the interior the pomarine jexger is rare, but is more than a casual
visitor to the lakes of Mackenzie. It was taken near Fremont, Nebr.,
in May, 1873 (Aughey), and at North Platte, Nebr., November 11,
1895 (Barnum).
Spring migration.—Dates of spring migration in the United States
are almost lacking. The birds are said to pass the New England
coast in May, but if so, the migration must be quite rapid, for the
first arrived June 10, 1823, at Igloolik (Richardson), 2,000 miles
north of Massachusetts. Dates of arrival at Pot Barrow, Alaska,
latitude 71°, are June 24, 1882, June 6, 1883 (Murdoch), and May 23,
1898 (Stone). <A strageler was taken near Detroit, Mich., May 30,
1879 (Collins).
Eggs have been recorded at Cape Bathurst, Mackenzie, June 20,
1901 (Thayer); Cape Lisburne, Alaska, June 10, 1885 (Thayer); and
Point Barrow, Alaska, June 24, 1898 (Stone).
fall migration.—The return movement begins so early that before
the young are out of the nest fall migrants are appearing many
hundred miles south of the breeding grounds. These early birds
must, of course, be those which did not nest or which lost their eggs
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 9
or young. Some dates of fail arrival are: Peach Bottom, Lancaster
County, Pa., July 4, 1869 (Barnard); near Lynn, Mass., July 5, 1889
(Tufts); Little Gull Island, Long Island, N. Y., common August
6-16, 1888 (Dutcher); Bonne Bay, Newfoundland, August 16, 1877
(Kumlien); mouth of the Churchill River, Keewatin, several July 21,
1900 (Preble); Cape Blossom, Alaska, July 1, 1899 (Grinnell); Nome,
Alaska, July 14, 1908 (Thayer); Kodiak, Alaska, August 15, 1888
(Ridgway) ; Mionteres, Cal., August 1, 1892, July 31, 1894 cain
Callao, Peru, November 17, 1883 (Maeiarlane).
Some ere fall records are: Montauk, N. Y., October 30, 1889
(Scott); Ossining, N. Y., October 18, 1877 (Fisher). Block ielend.
R. I., October 11, 1895 (Howe and Sturtevant); Long Beach, N. J.,
December, 1876 (Scott); near Halifax, Nova Scotia, about October
4, 1869 (Gilpin); Chicago, Ill, October 9, 1876 (Nelson); Fort Simp-
son, Mackenzie, October 16, 1860 (Ross); Point Barrow, Alaska, Sep-
tember 20, 1897 (Stone); Cape Irkaipij, northeastern Siberia,
September 5, 1911 (Thayer and Bangs); near Victoria, British
Columbia, October 22, 1898 (Kermode); Monterey, Cal., November
11, 1896 (Loomis); and the Galapagos, December 15, 1897 (Roths-
child and Hartert).
PARASITIC JAGER. Stercorarius parasiticus (LINNZUS).
Range.—Both hemispheres, from the Arctic islands south to Aus-
tralia, southern Africa, and Brazil.
Breeding range.—The parasitic jeeger breeds on many of the Arctic
islands of the Eastern Hemisphere and south to Scotland, and from
Point Barrow, Banks Land (Bay of Mercy), Melville Island (Winter
Harbor), and Godhayn, Greenland, south to Kamchatka, (Bering
Island) Near Islands (Agattu), Aleutians (Kiska and Amchitka),
Kodiak Island, and Glacier Bay, Alaska, Great Slave Lake (Stone
Island and the eastern end of the lake), to near York Factory,
Keewatin, and to Hudson Strait.
Winter range.—Winter records for the parasitic jager in the Western
Hemisphere are so rare as to suggest the probability that the species
does not regularly occur at that season along the coasts of either North
or South America. It was taken both December 4 and June 20 at
Rio Janeiro, Brazil (Saunders), but of course the June bird was an
accidental straggler, unless this is really a mistake in labeling for
January. A summer bird also was taken on Barbados July 10,
1888 (Feilden). These three seem to be the only certain records at
any seascn of the year for South America and the West Indies, and
there seems to be no record at any time of the year for Central
America and Mexico. There are several December records for the
United States, but these seem to represent late fall migrants rather
than wintering birds. In the Eastern Hemisphere the species winters
3673°—Bull. 292—15——2
10 BULLETIN 262, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
south along the coasts of Europe and Africa to the Cape of Good
Hope, the Persian Gulf, Australia, and New Zealand.
Migration range.—In fall this jeger appears not rarely on both
coasts of the United States from Maine to Florida and from Wash-
ington to southern California. It also occurs along the coast of
British Columbia and the Maritime Provinces. It has been noted
not rarely on the Great Lakes and several times as a wanderer in
Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, and Missouri. Almost without
&
[2 ee
© BREEDING
© OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER
Fia. 3.—Parasitic jeeger (Stercorarius parasiticus).
exception all these records are in fall. There are hardly half a dozen
spring records for both coasts, indicating that these birds are strag-
glers from the regular migration routes. Those seen October 26-28,
1912, off the coast of southern Brazil (Murphy) were undoubtedly
migrants on their way to a more eastern and southern winter home.
Spring migration.—As just remarked, records in spring are not
common south of the breeding range. The parasitic jeger arrived
at Bay of Mercy on Banks Land, May 31, 1852 (Armstrong), and was
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 11
noted at Dealy Island, June 16, 1853 (M’ Dougall), Fort Conger, lati-
tude 81° 40’, June 18 and 20, 1883 (Greeley), and Thank God Harbor,
about the same latitude, June 14, 1872 (Davis). The species cer-
tainly did not breed that season at Fort Conger, and probably did
not at Thank God Harbor. Its regular breeding range does not seem
to extend north of about latitude 75°. At Point Barrow, Alaska,
the first arrived May 31, 1882, and May 29, 1883 (Murdoch), and
June 1, 1898 (Stone); at Kigulik Mountains, Alaska, May 21, 1905
(Anthony); at St. Michael, Alaska, May 7, 1851 (Adams); and at
Bering Island, Kamchatka, May 4, 1883 (Stejneger). Some other
spring records, probably accidental, are: Stone Harbor, N. J., May
27, 1901 (Voelker); Tacoma, Wash., May 17, 1897 (Bowles); and
Renovo, Pa., June 18, 1911 (Pierce).
Eggs have been secured on Bering Island, May 29, 1882 (Stejneger) ;
Kodiak Island, Alaska, June 19, 1911 (Thayer); Kowak River,
Alaska, June 20, 1899 (Grinnell); mouth of the Mackenzie River,
June 27, 1894 (Russell); and on the coast of central and southern
Gees d from June 4 to July 25 (Hagerup).
Fall migration. Birds common near Cape Eskimo, Keewatin,
August 4-13, 1900 (Preble), were probably in fall migration, while
by this date they had already appeared much farther south at
Little Gull Island, N. Y., August 6-16, 1888 (Dutcher), and at Mont-
erey, Cal., August 1, 1892, and August 4, 1894 (Loomis). Some
other fall dates are: Mingan Island, Quebec, July 20, 1881 (Brew-
ster); Orient, Long Island, N. Y., September 13, 1907, September
12, 1909 (Latham); Sodus Bay, N. Y., August 28, 1910 (Guelf);
Ottawa, Ontario, September 4, 1909 (Hifrig); Charlestown Beach,
R. I., September 2, 1897 (Hathaway); Cambridge, Mass., August 30,
1901 (Eustis); Seabrook, N. H., September 2, 1897 (Allen); near
Sable Island, Nova Scotia, September 9, 1878 (Allen); Comox, Brit-
ish Columbia, September 2, 1903 (Brooks); and Tacoma, Wash.,
September 17, 1896 (Bowles).
Someé dates of casual or accidental occurrence in the interior are:
Billings, Mo., August, 1905 (Widmann); Keokuk, Iowa, October 6,
1896 (Praeger); Eagle Lake, near Britt, Iowa, September 20, 1905
(Anderson); near Lincoln, Nebr., September 13, 1898 (Hiche); near
Lawrence, Kans., October 10, 1898 (Snow); Boulder, Colo., Decem-
ber Gee Denwee 815., fall of 1889 (Smith); Pueblo, Colo.,
fall of 1894 (Lowe). We ane fi Great Lakes the species has been
seen at Sandusky Bay, Ohio, October 6, 1895, and September 13,
1899 (Moseley); Detroit River, Mich., November 27, 1903 (Barrows);
near Dunnville, Ontario, October 16, 1886 (MclIlwraith); Erie, Pa.,
October 15, 1874 (Sennett); North Hamlin, N. Y., November 16,
1894 (Guelf); Toronto, Ontario, June 20, 1891, and Octoner 20, 1894
(Fleming).
yy BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
The last were noted at Point Barrow, Alaska, August 27, 1882
(Murdoch), and September 9, 1897 (Stone); Port Providence, Plover
Bay, Siberia, September 12, 1880 (Bean); St. Michael, Alaska,
September 16, 1899 (Bishop); St. George Island, Alaska, October 18,
1913 (Hanna); Wellington Channel, latitude 75°, September 2, 1852
(McCormick); Fort Simpson, Mackenzie, October 16, 1860 (Ross);
North Hamlin, N. Y., November 16, 1894 (Guelf); Comox, British
Columbia, November 8, 1903 (Brooks); Bellingham Bay, Wash.,
October 28, 1893 (Edson); Hyperion, Los Angeles County, Cal., Decem-
ber 18, 1911 (Willett); San Diego, Cal., December 16, 1884 (Hen-
shaw); Charleston, 5. C., occasional in November and never seen later
(Wayne)
LONG-TAILED JGER. Stercorarius longicoudus VIEILLOT.
Range.—Arctic regions of both hemispheres; south in winter to
Gibraltar and Japan.
Breeding range.—Since the long-tailed jager seems to be confined
in winter to the Eastern Hemisphere and finds its principal summer
home on the Arctic islands north of Europe and Asia, it is natural
that it should be most common during the latter season in those parts
of the Western Hemisphere which are nearest these mam breeding
grounds. It is an abundant breeder in northern Greenland on both
coasts south to Scoresby Sound on the east and Disco Bay on the
west; it is equally common on the neighboring Ellesmere Island from
Cape Union on the north (Feilden) to King Oscar Land on the south-
west (Sverdrup). On the western side of North America it ranges
east from Siberia, breeding in Kotzebue and Norton Sounds, south to
St. Michael (Nelson) and east along the Arctic coast to Franklin Bay
(MacFarlane). It nested inland on the tundra near Fort Anderson,
and eggs were sent to the United States National Museum, claimed to
have been taken as far inland as La Pierre House, Yukon, and are in
the Thayer Museum from the Caribou Hills, Mackenzie. Between
these two breeding areas in North America hes a district stretching
across 35 degrees of longitude, in which the species is not yet known to
occur during summer.
Winter range.—lt seems probable that the long-tailed jager does
not regularly winter anywhere in the Western Hemisphere. There
are only two records during the winter season (from November to
May), and if not mistakes in identification they must represent acci-
dental occurrences. The winter home is in the Eastern Hemisphere,
south to Gibraltar on the Atlantic side and to Japan on the Pacific.
Spring migration.—The first birds of this species arrived at St.
Michael, Alaska, May 16, 1881 (Nelson); Nulato, Alaska, May 15,
1868 (specimen in U. S. National Museum); Kowak River, Alaska,
May 22, 1899 (Grinnell); and at Poimt Barrow, Alaska, May 30, 1883
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 13}
(Murdoch). On Ellesmere Island the first was noted at Cape Sabine,
May 23, 1884 (Greeley); Fort Conger, June 3, 1882, and June 4, 1883
(Greeley); and at Cape Union, June 6, 1876 (Feilden).
The species is practically unknown in spring in North America
south of latitude 60°. few are reported to have visited Cumber-
land Gulf in June, 1878, but did not breed and soon disappeared.
Two individuals are recorded as having been seen May 6, 1894, 80
@ BREEDING
QO OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER
; Te ane jeeger (Ste longicaudus). Parent
miles offshore from Barnegat, N. J. (Chapman); these birds, if cor-
rectly identified, were 2,000 miles away from their usual habitat at
that season. :
Eggs were taken at Waigat Strait, near Godhayn, Greenland, June
1, 1878 (Kumlier) and also as late as July 21, 1860, near this locality
(specimens in the U. S. National Museum); Baillie Island, Mackenzie,
July 12, 1901 (Bodfish); Caribou Hills, Mackenzie, June 21, 1898
(Thayer); tundra east of Fort Anderson, Mackenzie, in 1865, from
14 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
June 28 to July 30, and in 1863 as early as June 26 (MacFarlane);
St. Michael, Alaska, June 16, 1880 (Nelson); and at the mouth of the
Kowak River, Alaska, June 17, 1899 (Grinnell).
Fall migration.—The regular disappearance of the long-tailed jager
from its breeding grounds takes place in August and September.
The last was noted at Fort Conger, August 30, 1882 (Greeley), and at
Point Barrow, August 12, 1883 (Murdoch). A few individuals pass
south along both coasts of North America before they cross the ocean
to their winter homes. On the Atlantic side they have been noted
on Anticosti Island, in August, 1900 (Schmitt); West Castleton, Vt.,
about September 7, 1877 (Howe); Woods Hole, Mass., August 12,
1888, September 10-22, 1906, and October 13, 1894 (Edwards); on
Georges Bank, off Massachusetts, not rare in fall (Collis); Monomoy
Island, Mass., September 29, 1885 (Cahoon); Wallingford, Conn.,
August 30, 1873 (Merriam); once on Long Island, N. Y., in fall
(Lawrence); and once at Cape Canaveral, Fla. (Cory). The Pacific
slope records are: Okanogan Landing, British Columbia, August 30,
1905, and September 18, 1911 (Brooks); Chilliwack, British Colum-
bia, August 23 and September 7, 1889 (Brooks); near Monterey, Cal.,
August 23, 1894 (Loomis); and Pacific Beach, Cal., September 19,
1904 (Bishop).
The species has occurred casually in the interior at San Sault Rapid,
Mackenzie, June 19, 1904 (Preble); near Winnipeg, Manitoba, Sep-
tember, 1896 (Seton), and October 8, 1902 (Atkinson); Southampton
Island, Keewatin, August 17, 1821 (Saunders); near Cairo, Ill., No-
vember, 1876 (Ridgway); and at Lone Tree, near Iowa City, Lowa,
June 15, 1907 (Anderson).
IVORY GULL. Pagophila alba (GUNNERUS).
Range.—Arctic seas, wintering in high latitudes in the Eastern
Hemisphere south to France.
Breeding range.—The principal summer home of the ivory gull
includes the Arctic islands of the Eastern Hemisphere. Here it is
abundant, in many places outnumbering all other gulls combined, and
has been noted north to latitude 85°. It is abundant also as a breeder
in the extreme northwestern part of Greenland, from Thank God
Harbor (Bessels) to Rensselaer Bay (Kane), throughout Ellesmere
Island, and south to the northern part of Baffin Land at Port Bowen
(Parry). To the westward it is much less common but has been
found breeding west to Winter Harbor (Parry) and to the north-
eastern part of Prince Patrick Island (M’Clintock).
Winter range.—In the Eastern Hemisphere the ivory gull winters
just to the southward of its summer home, and ranges thence south
to France. It withdraws almost entirely at this season from the
Western Hemisphere, except for an occasional bird that remains near
NORTH AMBRIGAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 15
the south end of Greenland, or that wanders to the eastern coast of
Canada.
Spring migration.—The first ivory gull arrived at Winter Harbor,
May 24, 1820 (Parry), and on the northern coast of Prince Patrick
Island, June 12, 1853 (M’Clintock). One appeared at Peterman Fiord,
near the northeast point of Ellesmere Island, May 28, 1876 (Feilden).
It appears to be not rare in migration at Point Barrow, Alaska, where
® BREEDING
© OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER
Fic. 5.—Ivory gull (Pagophila alba).
B2056-5
it was noted May 22, 1882 (Murdoch), and June 2, 1898 (Stone).
Stragelers have been recorded from Godbout, Quebec, April, 1877,
and March 7, 1906 (Comeau), and Sandwich Bay, Labrador, June 12,
1897 (Dawson), while one of the few records for the Pribilof Islands,
Alaska, is that of a specimen taken on St. Paul Island in the early
spring of 1895 (Prentiss).
The earliest eges were found June 21, 1853, on Prince Patrick
Island (M’Clintock), and the nesting season is so extended that eggs
16 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
have been secured the first week in August on both Spitzbergen
(Bendire) and Franz Josef Land (Johnson).
Fall migration.—In 1850 the last ivory gull was seen near Welling-
ton Channel, September 15 (Kane). Two years later none were seen
there after September 5 (McCormick), while the last had been noted
at Boothia Felix, September 21, 1829 (Ross). Near the northern
limit of its range, at Lincoln Bay, Ellesmere Island, the last disappeared
September 1, 1875 (Feilden), but 10 degrees farther south, at Point Bar-
row, Alaska, the species was seen until October 10, 1882 (Murdoch),
and to September 25, 1897 (Stone). A few were still present Novem-
ber 9, 1912, in Bering Strait, between East Cape and the Diomede
Islands (Thayer and Bangs), and on Bering Island, December 2, 1875
(specimen in U.S. National Museum).
Individuals wander south along the Atlantic Coast of North
America and a few have been captured at Okak, Labrador (Weiz);
Rigolet, Labrador (Dawson); Anticosti Island, October, 1902
(Schmitt); Godbout, Quebec, December 9, 1895, and January 5, 1908
(Comeau); Halifax, Nova Scotia (Jones); St. John, New Brunswick,
November, 1880 (Brewster); Grand Manan, New Brunswick (Board-
man); Penobscot Bay, Me., December, 1894 (specimen in U. 8,
National Museum); Lake Ontario (McUlwraith); Monomoy Island,
Mass., December 1, 1886 (Allen); and Sayville, Long Island, N. Y.,
January 5, 1893 (Dutcher). The species has been noted once on the
Kowak River, Alaska (McLenegan), once on St. George Island, Alaska
(specimen in U. S. National Museum), and three times in British
Columbia: Dease Lake, September, 1889 (Kermode); Penticton,
October, 1897 (Brooks); and Okanogan Lake, November, 1897
(Kermode).
KITTIWAKE. Rissa tridactyla tridactyla (LINNEUS).
Range.—Arctic America, east of the Mackenzie; Arctic Europe and
western Siberia; south to northern Africa, the Canaries, Bermuda,
and New Jersey; casual in the interior of eastern North America.
Breeding range.—The kittiwake breeds as far north as it can find
solid land on which to put its nest, and it has been noted over the
ice packs even to latitude 84° 52’ (Sverdrup). It is cireumpolar and
almost everywhere that observations have been made on the Arctic
islands, this species has been recorded as nesting abundantly.
In the Western Hemisphere it was found breeding north to Thank
God Harbor, Greenland (Bessels); Cape Union, Ellesmere Island
(Feilden); north of Wellington Channel, latitude 77° (Belcher);
Winter Harbor, Melville Island (Parry); Point Barrow (Stone); and
the whole length of the coast of northwestern Alaska north of Bering
Strait and of northeastern Siberia.
The above represents the range of the species as a whole. The
dividing line between the eastern (typical) subspecies tridactyla and
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 17
the western pollicaris has not yet been determined. It is known that
the western form extends east to Point Barrow, but since Murdoch
did not observe the bird there, and Seale did not see it east of Icy
Cape, it is probable that it is rare at Point Barrow, and that this
marks about the limit of the eastern extension of its range. If many
nested east of Point Barrow, then the birds would probably be
common there in fall migration, since they are strictly confined to
the seacoast. East of Point Barrow for 30 degrees of longitude there
are no records of kittiwakes of any form nor was one recorded by any
of the explorers who visited Banks Land and Prince Patrick Island.
Though seen by Richardson at Franklin Bay, in 1826, it was not
included in the enormous collections made by MacFarlane in this
same region 40 years later; showing that if it occurs there at all at
present it must be very rare. The above statements seem to warrant
the belief that the western subspecies pollicaris is restricted to the
region west of Point Barrow, and that all the birds on the Arctic
islands of North America belong to the eastern subspecies tridactyla.
The subspecies tridactyla breeds south to the mainland of northern
Asia, to northwestern France, the southern end of Greenland (Hage-
rup), Magdalen Islands (Brewster), Godbout, Quebec (Comeau), Cape
Fullerton (Low), and Franklin Bay, Mackenzie (Richardson).
Winter range.—The birds breeding north of Europe and eastern
Siberia range southward in winter to the shores of the Caspian Sea,
to the southern coast of the Mediterranean, and to the Canaries
(Saunders). The breeding birds of the Western Hemisphere desert
the Arctic islands during winter, but are common at this season
among the outer islands on the Maine coast (Knight), at Grand
Manan, New Brunswick (Herrick), and at least as far north as
Halifax, Nova Scotia (Jones). The species remains in the Gulf of
St. Lawrence around Prince Edward Island as long as it can find open
water, and undoubtedly it often stays all winter.
The whole New England coast is visited during winter, as well as
Long Island Sound and the New Jersey coast south to Long Branch
and Atlantic City (Stone). The kittiwake wanders still farther
south and was noted February 4, 1913, off the coast of Maryland,
latitude 37° 46’ N., longitude 74° 10’ W. It is not rare on Ber-
muda, having been seen from January 5 to April 4 (Reid), and in
January, 1901, all the way on the ocean from New York City to
latitude 25° 51’ N., longitude 37° 43’ W., several hundred miles
southeast of Bermuda.
Migration range.—The kittiwake is normally a salt-water species,
but it ascends the St. Lawrence regularly to Quebec and rarely to
Montreal (Dionne). It has wandered inland to Enosburg Falls, Vt.,
November 12, 1906 (Woodworth); Oak Orchard, Orleans County,
3673°—Bull. 292—15——_3
18 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
N. Y., April 10, 1881 (Bruce); Auburn, N. Y., January 4, 1854 (Hop-
kins); Oneida Lake, N. Y., November 9, 1890 (Bagg); Lancaster,
Pa., once, winter (Warren); Erie, Pa., October 17, 1900 (Todd); To-
ronto, Ontario, one, October 31, 1899, and several in November of that
year (Fleming) ; Chicago, Ill., December 9, 1896 (Woodruff) ; Neebish
Island, Mich., once, taken in fall (Boies)—in fact, it is probable that
‘| @ BREEDING
| © OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER
+ WINTERING
4 OCCURRENCE IN WINTER
B2057-5
Fic. 6.—Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla). Typical subspecies (tridactyla) ranges west to the Rocky Moun-
tains; Pacific subspecies (pollicaris) is found on the western and northwestern coasts.
each fall and winter finds some individuals around the Great Lakes;
near Kansas City, Mo., once, in 1897 (Widmann); Arctic Red River,
Mackenzie, October 5, 1910 (Thayer); Fort Simpson, Mackenzie, May
15, 1860 (Ross); Douglas, Wyo., November 18, 1898 (Jesurun); and
Boulder, Colo., one in December (Ridgway).
Spring migration.—Just north of the winter home, the first kitti-
wakes arrived at North River, Prince Edward Island, on the average,
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 19
March 26, earliest March 15, 1891; Godbout, Quebec, average April 6,
earliest March 25, 1884, and the mouth of Great Whale River,
Quebec, March 26, 1899 (Hifrig). With such an early start the
northward progress is not fast and it is June before the first arrive in
the northern part of the range—Cape Farewell, Greenland, June 7,
1821 (Parry); Cape York, Greenland, June 10, 1825 (Parry) ; Fort Con-
ger, Ellesmere Island, June 21, 1885 (Greeley); Prince of Wales Strait,
June 7, 1851 (Armstrong); and north of Wellington Channel, latitude
77°, June 19, 1853 (Belcher). In 1887 the first arrived at Ivigtut,
Greenland, on March 26 (Hagerup).
The southern part of the winter home is deserted early in the
season and the last bird is reported to remain on Long Island to
March 17 (Dutcher); New Haven, Conn., April 14 (Merriam); New-
port, R. I., March 23, 1900 (Mearns), and Gloucester, Mass., March
13, 1890 (White). A few remain on the coast of Maine all summer
and have been reported at White Horse Ledge, in Jericho Bay, July
11, 1903; and near Portland, July 14, 1907 (Norton). The species
was noted June 5-11, 1894, on Sable Island, Nova Scotia (Dwight).
In none of these cases did these summer birds show signs of breeding,
and they were undoubtedly barren.
Eggs of the kittiwake were taken on the Bird Rocks near the Mag-
dalen Islands, June 10, 1877 (specimens in U.S. National Museum),
and July 10, 1855, on the west coast of Greenland, latitude 76°
(Kane). Exceptionally early eggs were found at Ivigtut, Greenland,
June 1, 1887 (Hagerup).
Fall migration.—A few migrants appear in southern Maine early
in fall—Piper Pond, August 4, 1901 (Ritchie), and Islesboro, August
14, 1907 (Knight)—but these may be nonbreeding birds that have
spent the summer not far to the northward. The main body of the
migrants does not appear until much later. Many years’ observa-
tions on the Massachusetts coast give November 6 as the average
date of arrival, earliest October 27, 1890. The earliest date on Long
Island is November 4 (Braislin).
Ice drives the kittiwake from the Arctic in early fall and in 1852
the last was seen at Wellington Channel, September 2 (McCormick),
and September 1, 1876, at Lincoln Bay, Ellesmere Island, latitude 80°
. (Feilden).
PACIFIC KITTIWAKE. Rissa tridactyla pollicaris RIDGWAY.
Range.—Coasts of the North Pacific, Bering Sea, and the adjacent
Arctic Ocean.
Breeding range-—The Pacific kittiwake replaces the eastern sub-
species, tridactyla, in the North Pacific and neighboring parts of the
Arctic Ocean. It breeds north to Herald Island (Nelson), Cape Lis-
burne (Stone), Icy Cape (Seale), and Point Barrow (Stone), though it
20 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
is not common east of Cape Lisburne, and its presence at Point Bar-
row may be more or less casual. It breeds south to Seldovia, Alaska
(Chapman), and the Shumagin Islands, Alaska (Dall), while a speci-
men taken at Yakutat, Alaska, June 21, 1899, and now in the U. S.
National Museum, indicates that the subspecies may breed in that
locality.
It is abundant on the eastern Aleutians, but much less common
west of Unimak Pass, though it was not rare on Kiska Island, June
17-21, 1911 (Wetmore), and occurs on the Near Islands (Turner).
On the Asiatic side it is abundant on the Commander Islands (Stej-
neger) and breeds south to the Kurils (Saunders). It breeds on
the Arctic coast of Siberia west to Koliutschin Islands, and ranges
west to Chaun Bay (Thayer and Bangs).
Winter range.—The Pacific kittrwake is commonly believed to
winter in the Aleutians, but there seems to be no certain record of
its occurrence there at that season. It does winter at Sitka, Alaska
(Willett), and on the coast of southern British Columbia—Discovery
Island, January, 1896 (Kermode)—and thence south along the coast
regularly to central California, and occasionally to southern Cali-
fornia and northern Lower California: Paso Robles, March 31, 1913,
(Thompson); Playa del Ray, January 9, 1906, and December 30,
1911 (Willett); Alamitos Bay, April 14, 1907 (Linton); San Diego,
February 26, 1895 (Anthony); San Geronimo Island, Lower Califor-
nia, March 15, 1897 (Kaeding). Kittiwakes are probably more com-
mon during winter along the coasts of northern California, Oregon,
and Washington than is indicated by the scant half dozen records
for this long coast.
On the Asiatic side there seem to be no winter records farther south .
than the southern limit of the breeding range on the Kurile Islands,
indicating that these most southerly breeding kittiwakes are non-
migratory. The more northern breeders retire so far to the south-
ward that they do not winter on the Commander Islands (Stejneger).
Spring migration.—The first kittiwakes arrived at St. Paul Island,
Pribilofs, April 20, 1909 (Island log), and April 24, 1911 (Hanna);
at St. Michael, Alaska, May 6, 1851 (Adams); and Point Barrow,
Alaska, June 2, 1898 (Stone). The first were noted in 1883 on Ber-
ing Istead anon April 1 (Stejneger).
Hines were taken at Walrus Island in Bristol Bare Alaska, June
8, 1889, and at Cape Lisburne, June 10, 1885 (specimens in U. S.
National Museum). The nesting season is much prolonged, for eggs
were obtained at Seldovia as late as July 24, 1903 (Chapman), and
on St. Paul Island to August 2, 1890 (specimens in U. S. National
Museum).
Kittiwakes were last seen at Point Pinos, Cal., April 25, 1907 (Beck) ;
and they were still present at Port Townsend, Wash., May 19, 1911
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 21
(Wetmore), and at Campbell Island, British Columbia, May 24, 1911
(Wetmore).
Fall migration.—Throughout the entire summer kittiwakes in adult
plumage are present at Sitka, Alaska, in large numbers, but they
do not nest (Willett). Several hundred were seen at Glacier Bay,
Alaska, July 13, 1907 (Grinnell), including some immature birds
which undoubtedly had been raised farther west or northwest and
were already on their fall migration. The first were seen at Queen
Charlotte Islands, British Columbia, in September, 1895 (Fannin),
but it is not until November that the species reaches California. The
average date of arrival at Point Pinos is November 14, earliest
November 6, 1907 (Beck).
The last one noted at Pomt Barrow, Alaska, was on August 31,
1897 (Stone); Nome, Alaska, September 10, 1910 (Thayer); Plover
Bay, Siberia, September 17, 1880 (Bean); Unalaska Island, Octo-
ber 5-6, 1899 (Bishop); St. Paul Island, October 12, 1914 (Hanna);
and on Koliutschin Island, Siberia, September 22. 1912 (Thayer and
Bangs).
RED-LEGGED KITTIWAKE. Rissa brevirostris (BRUCH).
Range. Coasts and islands of Bering Sea.
The red-legged kittiwake breeds abundantly on the Pribilof
Islands (Coinde), the Near Islands (Turner), and also on the Com-
Zr Gri
BAY
Fic. 7.—Red-legged kittiwake (Rissa brevirostris).
mander Islands (Stejneger). It was common on St. Paul Island,
Pribilofs, April 30, 1911 (Hahn), and eggs have been taken on St.
22 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
George Island, Pribilofs, June 25, 1873 (specimens in U.S. National
Museum). It also breeds so late that young were still in the nest on
St. George Island, August 31, 1913 (Hanna). In fall the species
was noted at Unimak Pass (Seale), and one bird was seen October 5,
1899, on the north side of Unalaska at Dutch Harbor (Bishop). The
last was noted on St. George Island November 11, 1913 (Hanna).
There is apparently no winter record for the species. Turner says
that it breeds on the Near Islands but does not winter there, while
Stejneger records its return to the Commander Islands about the
first of April.
A straggler was taken at Forty-Mile, Yukon, October 12, 1899
(Grinnell).
GLAUCOUS GULL. Larus hyperboreus GUNNERUS.
Range.—Arctic regions, south to California, the Great Lakes, Long
Island (New York), the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas, and
Japan. :
Breeding range.—The glaucous gull, or burgomaster, as it is com-
monly called by sailors, is a truly cireumpolar species; wherever man
has collected in the Arctic he has found this bird. It breeds on all
the Arctic islands of the Eastern Hemisphere, and in the Western
Hemisphere breeds north to Thank God Harbor, Greenland (Hall) —
occurs north to Cape Union (Feilden), but not known to breed—King
Oscar Land (Sverdrup), Prince Patrick Island (M’Clintock), Point
Barrow, Alaska (Murdock), and the Chukchi Peninsula (Schalow).
It breeds south along the Labrador coast to Hopedale (Townsend
and Allen) and most likely even farther south, for it breeds not
rarely in Newfoundland south to Bay of Islands (Arnold). It is
quite common on the east coast of Hudson Bay south to the mouth
of Great Whale River and even in James Bay (Macoun), while it
seems to be absent in summer from the west coast south of Fullerton
(Low). It breeds along the Arctic coast from Cambridge Bay (Col-
linson), to Franklin Bay (MacFarlane) and Herschel Island (Thayer), .
and is a common breeder on the northern shores of Bering Sea south
to the mouth of the Yukon (Nelson), to the Kuskoquim (Hinckley),
to the Pribilofs (specimen in U.S. National Museum), and to Indian
Point, Siberia (Thayer).
Winter range.—The breeding and wintering ranges of the glaucous
gull overlap, since the species winters as far north as Ivigtut, Green-
land (Hagerup), and Cape Mercy, Baffin Land (Kumlien), and thence
south along the Atlantic coast regularly to Long Island (Peavey),
rarely to the Great Lakes, and on the Pacific coast from the Aleu-
tians south to Monterey, Cal. (Breninger). In the Eastern Hemis-
phere it winters south to tha Mediterranean, Black, and Caspian Seas
and to Japan. The few individuals that inhabit the shores of the
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. WD.
Pacific Ocean during the winter season apparently do not go south
of California and Japan.
Migration range.—Outside of the regular winter range the species
has been noted at Cape Lookout, N. C., April 3, 1897 (Coues); Ber-
muda, one large flock in March, 1901, and present until April 28, 1901
(Verrill); Erie, Pa., February 22, 1898 (Simpson); Ossining, N. Y.,
January 19, 1889 (Richardson); Buffalo, N. Y., January 29, 1895
(Savage); Millers, Ind., August 8, 1897 (Woodruff); Ottawa,
Ontario, December 2, 1905 (Hifrig); Kingston, Ontario, November
TES SET es
PA il [rx
-
fH @ BREEDING }
H © OCCURRENCE 1N SUMMER }
fo WINTERING i
H -<» OCCURRENCE IN WINTER i
Fig. 8.—Glaucous gull (Larus hyperboreus). Gi
16, 1905 (Beaupré); London, Ontario, February 1, 1906 (Saunders) ;
Lake Ontario, common in winter, December 8 to March 25, 1889
(McIiwraith); Milwaukee, Wis., January 8, 12, and 14, 1895 (Kum-
lien and Hollister); Racme, Wis. (Hoy); Kelley Brook, Wis., one,
December, 1890 (Schoenebeck); Red River, Clay County, Tex.,
December 17, 1880 (Ragsdale). ae |
Spring migration.—The first glaucous gulls were noted at Kinewah
Fiord, Baffin Land, April 20, 1878 (Kumlien), though the species
had wintered on the open water not far distant. At the southern
end of Greenland, where it also wintered, the numbers were augmented
24 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
by the arrival of migrants as early as March 20, 1887 (Hagerup).
Toward the northern limit of the range, the date of arrival is much
later: Polaris House, May 10, 1873 (Davis); Rennselaer Bay, May 22,
1854 (Kane); Fort Conger, May 14, 1882, and June 5, 1883 (Greeley) ;
Whitsunfiord, King Oscar Land, May 27, 1901 (Sverdrup); Bay of
Mercy, May 31, 1852 (Armstrong); Winter Harbor, June 3, 1820
(Parry); near Wellington Channel, latitude 76°, May 16, 1851
(Sutherland); Yukon Delta, Alaska, May 13, 1879 (Nelson); Kowak
River, Alaska, May 11, 1899 (Grinnell): ; maa Pontt Barrow, Alaska,
May 11, 1882 (Murdoch).
pone late spring dates south of the breeding range are: Rockaway,
Long Island, May 1, 1904 (Peavey) ; Boston; Mass, April 23, 1906
(Remick); Peaks fein near Portland, Me., eal 27, 1883 (Knight);
Godbout, Quebec, April 29, 1882 (Comeau); and Monterey, Cal., May
4, 1897 (Loomis); while several were seen at Unimak Pass, Aleutian
Islands, June 4, 1911, and at Unalaska Harbor five days later (Wet-
more), but there were no indications of breeding.
At Kingwah Fiord, Baffin Land, the first signs of nest building
were noted May 24, 1878, and the first eggs were found June 8 (Kum-
lien). Eggs were taken at Ivigtut, Greenland, from May 10 to
June 14 (Hagerup); Beechey Island, June 21, 1853 (McCormick) ;
Cape Sabine, June 17, 1900 (Thayer); Yukon Delta, June 4, 1879
(Nelson); Kowak River, Alaska, May 26, 1899 (Grinnell); incubated
eggs, in the Kolyma Delta, Siberia: June 26, 1912 (Thayer and Bangs);
eggs ready to hatch, in King Oscar Land, June 24, 1901 (Sverdrup);
young in the nest, at Gape York, July 2, 1858 (M’Clintock); and
young just hatched, on Hall Island, Alaska, July 14, 1899 (specimen
in U.S. National Museum).
Fall migration.—Birds on Amak Island, Aleutians, July 18, 1911
(Thayer), may have been either nonbreeders that had remained
through the summer or the van of the fall migrants. At Anticosti
Island, only a short distance south of the breeding range, the first
migrants usually appear in August (Schmitt). The southern part of
the winter range is not reached until much later: Fresh Pond, Mass.,
November 29, 1899 (Brewster); Orient, Long Island, November 30,
1909 (Latham); Boston, Mass., December 15, 1909 (Wright); Far
Rockaway, Long Island, January 1, 1891 (Howell); Comox, British
Columbia, December 15, 1903 (Brooks); and Monterey, Cal., Novem-
ber 6, 1893 (Breninger), and December 11, 1894 (Loomis).
Long before this the ice has driven the glaucous gull from most of
its northern nesting grounds; the last were seen at Cape Union,
Ellesmere Island, September 1, 1875 (Feilden); Thank God Harbor,
September 3, 1871 (Hall); Winter Harbor, September 6, 1819 (Parry) ;
Wellington Channel, September 5, 1852 (McCormick); Stordalen,
| NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 25
King Oscar Land, September 11, 1899 (Sverdrup); Bowdoin Bay,
Greenland, September 9, 1896, and October 17, 1893 (Clarke); Fort
Rae, Mackenzie, September 30, 1893 (Russell); Roche Trempe-
Veau, Mackenzie, October 9, 1903 (Preble); Point Barrow, Alaska,
November 1, 1882 (Murdoch); Kowak River, Alaska, October 13,
1898 (Grinnell); Unalaska Island, Alaska, November 12, 1904
(Thayer); St. Paul Island, Pribilofs, December 13, 1914, and Febru-
ary 18, 1915 (Hanna); and Diomede Islands, in Bering Strait, De-
cember 7, 1912 (Thayer and Bangs).
ICELAND GULL. Larus Icucopterus FABER.
Range.—North Atlantic Ocean and contiguous parts of Arctic
Ocean, south to the British Isles and Massachusetts.
The Iceland gull, though an Arctic species, ranges over only a
small part of the Arctic regions. It occurs regularly from longitude
90° W. at Boothia Peninsula to longitude 10° W. at Jan Mayen. It
is recorded as having occurred on Nova Zembla, longitude 60° E.
(Smirnow). The center of its abundance is the west coast of Green-
land, where it is a common breeder from the southern end at Ivigtut
(Hagerup) to about latitude 70° (Schalow), though it was found at
Northumberland Island, latitude 77° 30’ (Bessels), and stragglers
were noted at Fort Conger, latitude 81° 40’, May 19, 1882, and June
5, 1883 (Greely), but the species does not breed there. Westward it
ranges to Bellot Strait (Walker), Felix Harbor (Ross), and Cam-
bridge Bay (Collinson). It has been taken on the east coast of
Greenland north to Sabine Island, latitude 74° (Schalow), and is a not
rare breeder on Jan Mayen.
Eggs were taken at Ivigtut from May 14 to June 10 (Hagerup); at
Claushavn, June 20, 1878 (Kumlien); and at Christianshaab (speci-
mens in U. S. National Museum).
This gull winters in small numbers on the southern coast of Green-
land (Hagerup), and the great bulk of individuals, particularly the
fully adult birds, remain at this season around northern waters from
Iceland and the Faroe Islands to the British Isles, while immature
birds have wandered south to Scandinavia, the Baltic Sea, and even
‘to the Bay of Biscay.
On the American side of the Atlantic Ocean the Iceland gull comes
south in winter as far as Massachusetts, Long Island, and the Great
Lakes, though it is never common, and the individuals ranging so far
south are principally immature birds. It has been recorded along
the coast at Godbout, Quebec, February to May 1 (Comeau); Per-
leys Mills, Me., January 12, 1898 (Knight); near Boston, Mass.,
November 4, 1897 (Lothrop), December 11, 1897 (Brewster), J anuary
15, 1894, and January 31, 1880 (Bangs), and February 11, 1894 (Jef-
3673°—Bull, 292—15——4
26 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
fries); Rockaway Beach, Long Island, February 6, 1898 (Peavey);
and Rye, N. Y., March 3, 1894 (Porter).
Inland it has been noted near Brockport, N. Y., September 10,
1899 (Bruce); Lansingburg, N. Y., November 21, 1888 (Eaton);
Oswego, N. Y., December 28, 1899, (Miller); Peterboro, N. Y., Feb-
[
@ BREEDING
H © OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER
+ W/NTERING
© OCCURRENCE IN WINTER
+ RESIDENT
Fic. 9.—Iceland gull (Larus leucopterus).
ruary 1, 1884 (Lawrence); Ithaca, N. Y., March 17, 1897 (Fuertes) ;
Rochester, N. Y., April 14, 1904 (Eaton); Lorain, Ohio, December
22, 1888 (McCormick); Toronto, Ontario, December 12, 1898
(Ames); Port Sydney, Ontario, April 6, 1898 (Fleming); Sault Ste.
Marie, Mich., (Barrows); and Dorchester, Nebr., January 15, 1907
(Swenk).
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. Dil
GLAUCOUS-WINGED GULL. Larus glaucescens NAUMANN.
-Range.—Coasts of the North Pacific, Bering Sea, and the adjacent
Arctic Ocean, south to Lower California and Japan.
Breeding range.—The center of abundance of the glaucous-winged
@ BREEDING
1 0 OCCURRENCE -IN SUMMER
+ WINTERING
H ~- OCCURRENCE IN WINTER
5} «RESIDENT
Fic. 10.—Glaucous-winged gull (Larus glaucescens). ye
eull during the breeding season is the Aleutian Islands, where it is
the most abundant of gulls nesting throughout the whole chain,
including the Near Islands (Turner) and the Pribilofs (Lucas). It
nests also on the Commander Islands (Stejneger) and north to St.
Michael and Cape Denbigh (McGregor). A single bird was seen at
28 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Port Clarence, July 24, 1897 (Stone), another, September 6 (Bean),
and one at the mouth of the Kowak River, May 11, 1899 (Grinnell).
It is not probable that the species breeds anywhere north of Bering
Strait. It is a common breeder on the southern coast of Alaska,
the whole coast of British Columbia, and south to Destruction Island,
Wash. (Jones).
Winter range.—It winters on Kodiak Island and the Pribilofs, Alaska,
and probably some individuals remain at this season on the Aleutians,
as they do on the Commander Islands. On the Asiatic side the species
winters south to Japan, and on the American side south to Guadalupe
Island, Lower California (Kaeding). It is a common winter resident
along the United States coast from northern Washington to southern
California.
Spring migration.—This gull was found fairly common on San
Martin, Todos Santos, and San Geronimo Islands, Lower California,
March 10-15, 1897 (Kaeding), and on Guadalupe Island, March 22,
1897 (Kaeding). It remained at Santa Cruz Island, Cal., until May
2, 1911 (Howell and Van Rossem), and at Monterey until May 10,
1907 (Beck). An immature bird was noted July 4, 1910, at Hyperion,
Los Angeles County, Cal., but it must then have been far south of
the place where hatched.
Kees were taken June 8, 1907, off Cape Johnson, Wash. (Thayer);
Carroll Island, Wash., June 19, 1908 (Jones); Mittlenatch Island,
Strait of Georgia, B. C., June 18, 1896 (Dawson); Sitka, Alaska, June
16 to August 4, 1896 (Grinnell); Chico Island and Round Island in
Akutan Pass, Alaska, June 2, 1872 (Dall); Walrus Island, Pribilofs,
June 13, 1890 (specimens in U. S. National Museum); Bering Island,
June 8, 1882 (Stejneger), Ariz Kamen, May 16, 1883 (Stejneger) ;
Houston Stewart Channel, Queen Charlotte Islands (just hatching),
July 3, 1900 (Osgood); and young, near Seldovia, Alaska, July 11,
1903 (Chapman).
Fall migration.—The first of these gulls was seen at Monterey, Cal.,
October 30, 1896 (Loomis), and the species was fairly common by
November 12. In 1906, the first came to Monterey October 25,
(Beck), and, in 1884, to Ventura, November 19 (Evermann).
Inland the species appeared at Chilliwack, British Columbia,
- August 26, 1889, and was last noted November 28, 1888 (Brooks),
and has also been observed at Okanogan Lake, British Columbia
(Brooks). Several cases are known of its following ships all the way
from the California coast to Hawaii.
KUMLIEN’S GULL. Larus kumlieni BREWSTER.
Little is known of the distribution or migratory movements of
Kumlien’s gull. The type was taken June 14, 1878, on Cumberland
Sound, where the species nested commonly (Kumlien). It had arrived
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 29
as soon as open water appeared and full-grown young were common
there the first days of September. A large extension of the known
range was made in 1900 when eggs were taken on June 15, at Wey-
precht Island, latitude 79°, on the east coast of Kllesmere Island
(Thayer), and on July 1 a specimen was taken a few miles farther
south, at Alexander Haven (Thayer).
In winter the species comes south along the Atlantic coast as far
as Long Island, near Rockaway Beach, March 8, 1898 (Braislin);
f ret) “+ y
\ pots
@ BREEDING BE eho
+ WINTERING
~& OCCURRENCE IN WINTER
Fie. 11.—Kumlien’s gull (Larus kumlieni).
B2062-5
Stamford, Conn., February 16, 1894 (Dwight); Plymouth, Mass.,
January 5, 1888’ (Dwight); Moon Island, Boston Harbor, Mass.,
February 22, 1905 (Allen); Tadousac, Quebec, probably in the spring
of 1901 (Dwight); near Grand Manan, New Brunswick, about Janu-
ary 21, 1883 (Merrill); one in the Bay of Fundy, about November 1,
1881 (Brewster); and one on Prince Edward Island, October 7, 1905
(Mac Swain). Inland, one was taken at the mouth of the Mohawk
River, N. Y., January 28, 1884 (Brewster).
|
30 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
NELSON’S GULL. Larus nelsoni HENSHAW.
A single specimen of Nelson’s gull, taken by Nelson at St. Michael,
Alaska, June 20, 1880, served as the basis for the description of this
gull. A specimen in the British Museum, taken many years pre-
viously on the coast of Alaska near Bering Strait by Captain Kellett
and Lieutenant Wood, also belongs to this species. No more speci-
mens were obtained for 17
years, until in 1897 two
were taken at widely sepa-
rated localities. One was
secured at San Geronimo
Island, Lower California,
March 18, 1897 (Dwight),
and one at Point Barrow,
September 5, 1897 (Stone).
Nofurtherspecimens have
been recorded in the last
18 years, though during
this period active collect-
ing has taken place at
many localities along the
Alaskan coast from north-
ern British Columbia to
Point Barrow.
GREAT BLACK-BACKED GULL.
Larus marinus LINNZUS.
Range.—North Atlantic
from central Greenland
and northern coast of Hu-
rope, south to the Great
Lakes, Delaware Bay, the
Canaries, and northern
Egypt.
Breeding range.—'The
usual northern limit of
nesting of the great black-
=~ backed gull is in central
Greenland, about latitude
70°, Disco (Dawson), and Godhavn (M’Clintock), but occasionally a few
breed north to latitude 73° at Upernivik (Schalow), whence it breeds
south to the southern end of Greenland on the west side. There
seems to be no certain record of its breeding on the east coast of
Greenland or anywhere on the Arctic islands of North America. It
breeds along the northern coast of Europe east to the Petchora
River (Saunders), but is rare on the islands off the coast; it also
O OCCURRENCE
Fic. 12.—Nelson’s gull (Larus nelsoni).
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 31
breeds on Iceland and south along the western coast of Europe to
about latitude 50°. The principal summer home seems to be the
Labrador coast, where it is an abundant breeder from Cape Chidley,
Hudson Strait (Low), along the whole coast and south to Newfound-
le BREEDING
Q OCCURRENCE -IN SUMME
B-- WINTERING i
id OCCURRENCE IN WINTER
+ RESIDENT
asked aR BOGS
Fic. 13.—Great black-backed gull (Larus marinus).
land (Arnold), Anticosti Island (Brewster), Godbout, Quebec (Co-
meau), Pictou, Nova Scotia (Hickman), Halifax, Nova Scotia (Jones),
and Kentville, Nova Scotia (Tufts). A few nonbreeders remain all
summer on the Maine coast (Knight).
32 BULLETIN 292, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Winter range.—A few of these gulls winter as far north as southern
Greenland (Hagerup), but the bulk are found along the United States
coast from Maine to New Jersey. Some remained at North River,
Prince Edward Island, all of the winter of 1888-89 (Bain), but usually
they are forced away by the ice. <A few visit the Great Lakes in
winter. The European birds winter on inland waters and occur
along the coast south to the Canaries; they also stray rarely south
to Egypt. The winter of 1894-95 one wandered to St. Augustine,
Fla. (Cory), and the species has been taken twice on Bermuda, De-
cember, 1851, and December 27, 1862 (Reid). It was noted at
Columbus, Ohio, December 16, 1907 (Jones), and near Detroit, Mich.,
in March, 1904 (Swales). How nearly some individuals are non-
migratory is shown by the fact that a young bird banded July 27,
1912, in Yarmouth County, Nova Scotia, was found December 6,
1912, in Cumberland County, Me., while another one banded at the
same place July 23, 1912, had moved only a few miles to the next
county by December 18, 1912 (Cleaves).
Spring migration.—The first great black-backed gull was noted
April 25, 1887, and April 18, 1888, at North River, Prince Edward
Island (Bain); at Romaine, Labrador, March 26, 1914 (Birdseye);
and at Rigolet, Labrador, April 9, 1914 (Birdseye). At St. Johns,
Newfoundland, the species was present as early as March 1, 1883
(Merriam). _
It was noted at Atlantic City, N. J., to March 13, 1888 (Rhoads) ;
Orient, Long Island, to March 24, 1909 (Latham); Shelter Island,
Long Island, April 12, 1893 (Worthington); Branchport, N. Y.,
April 18, 1898 (Stone); Boston, Mass., average, April 10 (Wright).
Some unusually late individuals were seen at Toronto, Ontario, May
26, 1897 (Fleming); Rockaway, Long Island, May 13, 1910 (Griscom
and Dow); Boston, Mass., May 25, 1907 (Wright); and at Woods
Hole, Mass., May 30, 1893, and June 10, 1891 (Edwards). Those
seen July 27, 1908, at Portland, Me. (Eastman), and July 9, 1887, at
the Magdalen Islands (Bishop) may have been nonbreeding birds
that had summered, or early fall migrants.
Eggs have been taken at Ivigtut, Greenland, from May 3 to June
15 (Hagerup); near Kentville, Nova Scotia, May 22-25 (Bishop);
and at Godbout, Quebec, as late as July 17, 1882 (Comeau).
Fall migration.—The average date of arrival in fall at Woods Hole,
Mass., is October 8, earliest September 24, 1895 (Edwards); the aver-
age at Boston, Mass., October 14, earliest October 7, 1909 (Wright);
and the average at Orient, Long Island, October 5, earliest September
12, 1906 (Latham). A very early individual was seen near Cam-
bridge, Mass., August 29, 1901 (Eustis) ; one near Jones Inlet, Long Is-
land, August 14, 1910 (Weber); and at Toronto, Ontario, September
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. oe
18, 1896 (Fleming). The species becomes common in its winter
home about the middle of November.
The last one in 1892 at Gothaab, Greenland, was seen on September
3 (Stone); North River, Prince Edward Island, November 12, 1889
(Bain); and Pictou, Nova Scotia, December 13, 1894 (Hickman).
SLATY-BACKED GULL. Larus schistisagus STEINEGER.
The principal summer home of the slaty-backed gull is on the
northern shore of the Sea of Okhotsk, the eastern coast of Kam-
al |
sa
a
Fig. 14.—Slaty-backed gull (Larus schistisagus).
chatka, and on the Kuril Islands. Here it arrives about April 20;
the height of its nesting season is June 1-10, and it leaves for its
winter home the middle of October, while a few remain to the last of
that month. On Bering Island, where it does not breed, it arrived
April 20, 1883, and remained until May 5 (Stejneger). It winters to
southern Japan.
It has wandered to Herald Island in the Arctic Ocean (Ridgway) ;
Diomede Islands in Bering Strait, September, 1880 (Hooper); Port
3673°—Bull. 292—15—_5 :
34 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Clarence (Ridgway), where single birds were noted; and to Chernoff-
sky Bay, Unalaska, where a large flock was seen October 1, 1880
(Bean). None of these places is far distant from the usual home
of the species, and it probably occurs not rarely in migration on the
shores of Bering Sea and of the adjacent Arctic Ocean. A specimen
taken June 9, 1901, at Franklin Bay, Mackenzie (Babbitt), was a
strageler far from home.
WESTERN GULL.
Larus occidentalis AUDUBON.
The western gull
isresident along the
Pacific coast from
northern Washing-
ton to southern
Lower California.
The species breeds
north at least to
Carroll Islet, Wash.
(Jones), and one
was seen at Tatoosh
Island, Wash., June
F 5, 1907 (Jones), but
it may have been
a nonbreeder.
Southward it
breeds to the south-
ern end of Lower
California, near
Carmen Island
(Frazar). During
the spring of 1905
it was common
along the coast of
the mainland of
§ @ BREEDING
O OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER
tM ANTE LLIN G: Mexico south to
Ae UTES : San Blas, Tepic
Fig. 15.—Western gull (Larus occidentalis). (B ail e y) » an d,
though as late as
April 6-12 it was still common on Isabella Island, one of the Tres
Marias, there was no sign of its breeding anywhere in that region
(Bailey).
Eggs were taken March 13, 1887, near Carmen Island, Lower Cali-
fornia (Frazar); Idlefonso Island, Lower California, April 5-7,
1906 (Thayer); in California on the Farallon Islands, May 6, 1863, and
May 13, 1864 (Cooper); May 9, 1885, May 9, 1886, and May 13, 1887
(Bryant); Santa Barbara Island, May 18, 1897 (Grinnell); and
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 85
Tomales Point, May 24, 1884 (specimens in U. S. National Museum).
Eggs and young were found at Otter Rock, Oreg., June 29, 1899
—— —————————————— =
—————
Fia. 16.—Western gull (Larus occidentalis), adult in summer plumage. eS
(Prill), and on the islands near Lapush, Wash., June 21, 1897 (Young).
The species winters commonly in Shoalwater Bay, Wash., dnd is not
rare at this season north to
Vancouver Island, British
Columbia (Mayne). It also
winters salong the whole
Pacific coast of the United
States and Lower California
and was abundant at the
head of the Gulf of Califor-
nia, November 25 to Decem-
ber 15, 1898 (Price), and
February and March, 1905
(Stone).
The species was taken
once at Socorro Island, Mex-
ico (Anthony), and once,
September 30, 1889, at
Loveland, Colo. (Osburn).
[SIBERIAN GULL.
sr Larus affinis REINHARDT.
OQ OCCURRENCE
Though normally an inhabitant
of the Eastern Hemisphere, the
Siberian gull was originally de-
scribed from a wanderer to Nenortalik, in the Julianehaab district of southwestern
Greenland. This species breeds regularly in northern Russia and Siberia from the
Dwina to the Yenesei, and winters south to western India and northern Africa.]
Fie. 17.—Siberian gull (Larus affinis). Bee ees
36 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
HERRING GULL. Larus argentatus PONTOPPIDAN.
Range.—Northern Hemisphere from the Arctic islands of North
America east to the White Sea, and south to the Caspian and Medi-
terranean Seas, the Gulf of Mexico, and western Texas.
| @ BREEDING
} © OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER
+ WINTERING
+ OCCURRENCE IN WINTER
Fic. 18.—Herring gull (Larus argentatus).
Breeding range.—The herring gull, or silvery gull as it was called
by the early Arctic explorers, breeds far north on the western Arcti¢
islands to Melville Island (Parry), Wellington Channel (McCormick),
and King Oscar Land (Sverdrup); these are in latitude about 75°,
but thence eastward the breeding range turns south, and the species
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 37
is not known to breed anywhere in Greenland nor on the islands north
of Europe. It has wandered once to Jan Mayen (Schalow), to Fred-
erickshaab, Greenland (Walker), and to a few other places on the
west coast of Greenland (Schalow). In northwestern North America
there seems to be no sure breeding record north of near Mount McKin-
ley (Sheldon), and the middle Yukon (Dall).
The breeding range extends south to Babine Lake, British Col-
umbia; Shoal Lake, Manitoba; Mille Lacs, Minn. (Roberts); the
islands in Lake Michigan at the mouth of Green Bay (Van Winkle);
the Sisters and Strawberry Island in Green Bay, Wis. (Palmer); Little
Charity Island, Saginaw Bay, Mich. (Wood and Gaige); the lakes of
southern Ontario (Clarke); near Wilmurt, N. Y. (eggs in U. S.
B2070-5
Fie. 19.—Herring gull (Larus argentatus), adult in winter plumage.
National Museum); Four Brothers, Lake Champlain (Jordan); on
the outer islands of the Maine coast west to No Mans Land Island in
Penobscot Bay (Knight); and in Nova Scotia south to Kentville
(Bishop).
In Europe the species breeds east to the White Sea and south to
northern France (Saunders).
Winter range.—A few herring gulls sometimes remain in the Gulf
of St. Lawrence all through the winter, as they did at North River,
Prince Edward Island, the winter of 1888-89 (Bain), and at this
season they are abundant on the Maine coast and southward. In
the interior they are common on all the Great Lakes until the ice
forms; many remain through the winter on Lake Erie, and some even
on Lake Superior. On the Pacific coast the species winters north to
northern Washington.
88 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
It ranges commonly in winter to the Gulf coast from Florida to
Texas, less commonly to Lake Okechobee (Phelps) and Key West
(Scott). A few were noted on the north coast of Cuba at Cardenas
and Matanzas Bay, and the species was once found in the market at
Habana (Gundlach) ; once, in 1888, near Nassau, Bahamas (Cory); and
a few in Bermuda, November 4 to March 19, where it was more than
usually common the fall of 1875 (Reid). In Texas it has been reported
south to Corpus Christi (Saunders) and to Fort Brown (Merrill). A
few pass south of the United States to Progreso, Yucatan, March 22
(Stone); the mouth of the Colorado River (Rhoads); Cerros Island,
Lower California, January, 1885 (Bryant), and a few at the Tres
Marias, May 22, 1897 (Nelson). The European birds winter south
to the Mediterranean and Caspian Seas.
Spring migration of the herring gull.
Num-| , Num- ‘S
ber of averse Earliest date ber of velage Earliest date
Place. years’ Savin of spring Place. years’ 2 oe of spring
ee Seat arrival, zee Oat arrival.
ords 5 ords. ?
Renovo, Pa....--.- 7] Feb. 17} Feb. 5,1911 || Athabaska River,
Montreal, Canada. . 4] Apr. 22 | Apr. 13,1892 Alberta, latitude
Quebec City, Can- BB cyte SES cieisl «ail eteh Men | cae ee een May 7, 1901
Adasen 6 | Apr. 17 | Apr. 10,1901 || Fort | Resolution,
Godbout=@uebec=s|Ssi25| 92 ese Apr. 3,1888 Mackenzie....... Serine seamen nee May 17,1860
Pictou, Nova Scotial(cis s\ne. 2o0e 01 Apr. 8,1895 || Fort Simpson,
North River, Prince Mackenzie......- 3 | May 22 | May 14,1868
Edward Island... 3 | Apr. 2] Apr. 1,1887 || Pelly Lake, Yukon.|...-..|-..-.----- May 16,1893
Ottawa, Ontario...| 22] Apr. 4] Mar. 13,1894 || Fort | Enterprise,
Madison, Wis..-...- 8 | Mar. 19 | Mar. 2,1904 Macken zien 25 |b 62 in| stare tee May 21,1910
Heron Lake, Minn. 6 | Mar. 27 | Mar. 20,1889 || Igloolik, Franklin. .|......|-..-.--.-- Apr. 19,1823
Harrisburg, N. Dak. 2} Apr. 7}| Apr. 3,1904 || Winter Island,
Aweme, Manitoba.| 16) Apr. 11] Apr. 2,1906 Rranklin <2 53-0272) sokeies | Bee See May 3,1822
Indian Head, Sas- : Bay of Mercy,
katchewan (near) 9 | Apr. 27 | Apr. -19, 1910 Brankdins 02 202 de| 3. snas| seers May 31,1852
Osler, Saskatche- Prince of Wales
Wallies sain o eal Pec sea eee May 1,1893 Strait, Pranklin: :|4o55-0|ses=-esece June 7,1851
Edmonton, Alberta : :
(Neal)\-2 2 Aare 3| May 2|May 1,1911
Num- Num-
ber of phatase Latest date ber of she Latest date
Place. years’ of the last Place. years’ of the last
7 the last the last
ec- one seen. rec- one seen,
ords, | ome Seen. ords, | ome Seen.
Mortugast Mla. 293.) SS Sse eee Apr. 27,1914 || Jersey City, N. J.
Clearwater Harbor, (mean) ees oat ee 3 | May 10] May 14,1910
Weer das dora | Sas: ots |e teers May 21,1886 |} Central New York..| 15 | May 15} June 2,1906
Cumberland Gass .|o2e 2] eee Apr. 16,1902 || Providence, R. I.
Charleston,S. C/9)3| oh aii May 2,1910 || (mear)........... 5 | May 13]| June 12,1900
PegslandegNiC eels seeee| = sere May 3,1902 |! Woods Hole, Mass... 4] June 11] July 4,1904
Waverly, W.Va... 3 | Mar. 22 | Mar. 25,1906 || New Orleans, La...|......].....----- Mar. 25,1894
Washington, D. C.. 4] Apr. 27 | May 10,1887 || Bay St. Louis, Miss.|......].--..---..- Mar. 26, 1902
Baltimore Maas s/s 42 ee eee May; (28; 1897))|Brazos)) Dex: - 222.0). 8: j25| Sas eakeee Mar. 24, 1853
Beaver, Pa.......- 3} Apr. 10] Apr. 16,1890 || St. Louis, Mo....-.. 2] Apr. 15 | May 28, 1887
Eriey Pat. (27 el saa. ee eae May 16,1875 || Chicago, Ill.......- 6 | Apr. 23 | June 15,1909
Renovo, Pa....... 6 | Apr. 20 | May 16,1907
a -~- -- -- WW -— = +... eee
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 39
Fall migration of the herring gull.
Num-| ,_ | Num-| 460.
ber of ewolaee Earliest date | ber of veraee Earliest date
Place. years’ fall of fall i Place. years’ fall ofa
Bee areal arrival, as arial arrival,
ords : ords. ;
RE eve |) SOMO lOO pene | Mak TAGS
Woods Hole, Mass. . 5 | Aug. 21 | Aug. 8,1887 || Savannah, Ga...-... 3 | Nov. 3] Oct. 28,1910
Central New York.. 7 | Aug. 20') Aug. 13,1908 |) Mortugas, Plast is e222 220] ) 325-228: Dec. 12,1887
Jersey City, N. J.-- 2 | Sept. 21 | Sept. 20,1905 || Keokuk, Iowa..... 6 | Oct. 8} Sept. 1,1900
IDG) es So piscodces| hese Geeesee ae PATO 2251 O00 Mn Cac ose eee | eee one eee Aug. 8,1906
Chanrlestoumon Cre. |seeeocles sae ee ee NOV. 25519115) Eackamamy Keygen |e soo ee Oct. 14,1886
INTIMA ona | Num-} , =
ber of erpee Latest date ber of eerage Latest date
Place. years’ 45 ofthelast || Place. years’| 4 mah of the last
e the last the last
rec- one seen. rec- % one seen,
ords. | One Seen. ords. | °2e seen.
Winter Island, PRelly River, Yukoni|-. 22.2) 2.242-0-- Oct. 7,1904
iramiiclings ayer it bee oo ee Sept. 15,1821 || Fort Wrigley,
Wellington Channel]|......|........-- Sept. 8, 1852 Mackenzie (near).|-..-..|..-------- Oct. 13,1903
ReineiOscanWwand: /2|- a2 -4|- 0. =e Oct. 30,1899 |} Fort | Resolution,
Montreal, Quebec. - 7| Nov. 5] Dee. 11,1891 Mackenzie.....-- 2 | Sept. 22 | Sept. 25, 1907
Pictou, Nova Scotia|......|......-.-- Dec. 18,1894 || Killarney, Manito-
North River, Prince pate sate 5 | Oct. 18 | Oct. 30,1910
Hdward Island 2:|-.=2-.-|--------.- Dec. 25,1889 || Aweme, Manitoba..|.....-]..--.--.-- Nov. 7,1899
Ottawa, Ontario...| 12) Nov. 7} Nov. 21,1892
Nonbreeding herring gulls are not rare during summer at many
places south of the breeding range: Coosaw River, S. C., July 20,
1892; Erie, Pa., still common in early June, 1912; near New Haven,
Conn., June 29, 1877; and common all summer on Pelee Island, in
Lake Erie. The number of these summer nonbreeding birds on
Long Island has largely increased within the past few years (Braislin).
Eggs have been taken at Midriff Lake, N. Y., May 15, 1894 (speci-
mens in U.S. National Museum); Kentville, Nova Scotia, May 27 to
July 5 (Bishop); Rowleys Bay, Wis., May 27, 1878 (specimens in
U. 5. National Museum); Great Duck Island, Me., May 27, 1900,
and May 15, 1902 (Dutcher); Sturgeon Island, Lake Winnipeg, June
1, 1889 (Macoun); Great Whale River, Quebec, June 12, 1899 (Eifrig) ;
Fort Resolution, Mackenzie, June 25, 1860 (Kennicott); Fort Ander-
son, Mackenzie, June 27, 1863 (MacFarlane), and Bellot Strait, June
25, 1859 (M’Clintock).
Probably the largest breeding colony of herring gulls in the United
States is on Great Duck Island, Me., where in 1902 it was estimated
that 3,400 pairs were nesting (Dutcher). The nesting season is ex-
tended, for eggs were found on an island in Penobscot Bay as late
as August 19, 1896 (Knight).
One of the most interesting records of bird migration ever secured
is that of a herring gull which wintered for many years at the Bren-
ton Reef Lightship, near Newport, R. I. This gull—called by the
lightkeeper ‘‘Dick’’—came each day during winter to be fed. It
was first noted and fed in the fall of 1872, but, of course, there was no
way of knowing how old the bird was at that time. It continued
40 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
to visit the lightship and spend the winter in the immediate vicinity
for 24 consecutive years, outliving all the lightship attendants who
first fed it. During the last years it arrived October 5, 1890; Octo-
ber 12, 1891; September 28, 1892; October 7, 1893; October 2, 1894;
and October 2, 1895. It was last seen in spring April 6, 1892; April 7,
1893; April 5, 1894; April 6, 1895, and April 7, 1896—a remarkably
uniform date of departure.
VEGA GULL. Larus vege PALMEN.
Knowledge concerning the distribution and migration of the Vega
gull is very limited. It was originally described from specimens
taken at Pidlin, on the northern coast of Siberia, where the ship
Vega had wintered, and it has since become known along that coast
from the Taimyr Peninsula
east to Bering Strait, on
the Liakoff Islands, and at
Plover Bay, where it is
common, and also along the
coasts of Kamchatka and
the Sea of Okhotsk. A
specimen now in the United
States National Museum
was taken by Nelson on
Diomede Island in Bering
Strait, in July, 1881.. In
Va migration and winter this
x gull has been taken on the
alc 1 coasts of Japan and China,
| Za south to Formosa and the
© OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER eee \| Ogasawara (Bonin) Islands.
Piel) Medien Cana vee) ae eT Information concerning
the occurrence of the Vega
gull on the eastern side of Bering Strait is less satisfactory. Under
the name of Larus borealis, Baird notes a specimen from Norton
Sound, and the catalogue of the United States National Museum re-
cords that it was taken by Bischoff at St. Michael in May; Nelson
records a specimen of Larus cachinnans that was brought to him at St.
Michael, October 16, 1880, and thinks that he saw the same species on
several other occasions, and that it occurs on the Alaska coast from
Kotzebue Sound to the mouth of the Yukon. Both these names,
borealis and cachinnans, refer to Larus vege, whose occurrence on the
Alaskan coast was made certain in 1910 by the capture of four speci-
mens at Nome, September 2-14, (Thayer). One of these was identified
at the Biological Survey. Whether or not the species breeds to the
eastward of Bering Strait remains for future determination.
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 41
Eggs were taken in the Kolyma delta, Siberia, June 26, 1912, and
at Cape Bolshaja, Baranof, July 12, 1912. Even as late as Septem-
ber 10, 1911, young fully fledged but still being fed by their parents
were seen at Cape Kibera Island (Thayer and Bangs).
CALIFORNIA GULL. Larus californicus LAWRENCE.
Range.—Western North America from the lower Anderson River,
Mackenzie, to Oaxaca, Mexico.
Breeding range.—The California gull breeds throughout a great
extent of latitude, but im this wide range the nest has been found at
only a few places: Fort Anderson and the lower Anderson River,
Mackenzie (MacFarlane), though probably rare, if anything more
than casual, so far north; Great Slave Lake from Fort Resolution to
Fort Rae (eggs in U.S. National Museum); Big Stick Lake and Crane
Lake, Saskatchewan (Bent); Stump Lake, N. Dak. (Eastgate); Devils
Lake, N. Dak., common (Job and Bishop); Great Salt Lake (Ridgway);
Utah Lake (Goodwin); Malheur Lake and Lower Klamath Lake,
Oreg. (Finley); Pyramid Lake and Soda Lake, Nev. (Ridgway);
Clear Lake, Cal. (Finley); Eagle Lake, Cal. (Townsend), and Mono
Lake, Cal. (Brewster).
Winter range.—The principal winter home of the California gull is
along the coast of the State from which it derives its name and north
to Portland, Oreg. (Anthony). A few remain in winter on Great
Salt Lake (Goodwin), and the species ranges south at this season to
the coast of Lower California, bemg common even as far south as
La Paz (Bryant). Thence it has occurred at Rio de Coahuayana,
Colima (Brewster); Manzanillo, Colima (Nelson); Alvarado, Vera
Cruz (Werrari-Perez); and San Mateo, Oaxaca, February, 1869
(Sumichrast). It is also fairly common in winter at the head of the
Gulf of California (Rhoads), and inland to the Salton Sea, Cal. (Grin-
nell) and to Owens Lake, Cal. (Fisher).
Migration range.—Outside the usual breeding and winter ranges
the California gull has been taken at Fort Simpson, Mackenzie (speci-
men in U.S. National Museum); Many Island Lake, Alberta, June 18 to
July 13, 1906 (Bishop); Reno County, Kans., October 20, 1880 (Goss) ;
Galveston, Tex. (Singley); Laredo, Tex., October 16, 1866 (specimen
in U.S. National Museum); Denver, Colo., October 26, 1878 (Carter);
Middle Park, Colo., at 7,000 feet altitude, April 28, 1884 (Carter);
Coventry, Colo., one in 1905 (Warren); Loveland, Colo., May 7, 1890
(Osburn) ; Larimer County, Colo., April 18, 1894 (Breninger) ; Hawaii,
once (Bryan); British Columbia, on the coast north to Cormorant
Island, May 24, 1911 (Wetmore); and at Hot Springs, Atlin, British
Columbia, July 16, 1914 (Kermode). .
Spring mgration.—The first of these gulls was seen at Okanogan
Lake, British Columbia, April 11,1907 (Brooks); Devils Lake, N. Dak.,
49 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
April 24, 1903 (Bowman); Harrisburg, N. Dak., April 25, 1904
(Eastgate); and the last at Catalina Island, Cal., May 12, 1897 (Grin-
nell); Monterey, Cal., May 19, 1897 (ipemiay. and San Jose del
Cabo, Lower Galiertie May 17, 1882 (Belding).
Eges have been taken
at Pyramid Lake, Nev.,
May 16, 1868, May 15,
1875, and June 4, 1891
(specimens in U.S. Na-
tional Museum); Car-
rington Island in Great
Salt Lake, June 17, 1869
(Ridgeway); Fort Reso-
lution, Mackenzie, June
26, 1860 (specimens in
U. S$. National Mu-
seum); young just
hatched, at Big Stick
Lake, Saskatchewan,
June 14, 1906 (Bent);
and young, a few days
old, on Loon Island,
Great Slave Lake, July
13, 1901 (Preble).
Fall migration. — A
single California gull,
unusually early, ap-
peared at Monterey,
Cal., August 1, 1894; no
more were seen until
August 21, and by the
first of Septem the
species was fairly com-
mon. In 1896 the first
a SSS ae was not seen until Sep-
| © OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER tember 28, the next
+ WINTERING October 9, and it was
| & OCCURRENCE IN WINTER ~ common from this lat-
Pia. 21.—California gull (Larus Sinan po-5 ter date (Loomis). At
Berkeley, Cal., the first
was seen October 9, 1888 (Palmer); near San Pedro, Cal., Sep-
tember 13, 1902 (Daggett); Magdalena Island, Lower California,
November 24, 1905 (Nelson and Goldman); Puget Sound, Wash.,
August 3 and 12 (specimens in U. S. National Museum); and
Chilliwack, British Columbia, August 26, 1889 (Brooks). The last
was seen at Hay River, Mackenzie, November 5, 1908 (Jones).
eee
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 43
RING-BILLED GULL. Larus delawarensis ORD.
Range.—North America from British Columbia, southern Macken-
zie, and central Quebec south to Florida and southern Mexico.
Breeding range.—The ring-billed gull occupies in summer a rather
narrow belt stretching across North America with its northern side
beginning at Hamilton Inlet, Quebec (Macoun), and extending to
Fort George, on James Bay (eggs in U. S. National Museum); a little
north of Fort Churchill, Keewatin (Preble); and Great Slave Lake,
@ BREEDING ;
© OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER
+ WINTERING
i > OCCURRENCE IN WINTER
Fig. 22,—Ring-billed gull (Larus delawarensis). eens
Mackenzie (Kennicott). The distribution on the Pacific slope is not
so far northward. The species is known to breed on Malheur Lake
and Lower Klamath Lake, in southern Oregon (Finley), and at Buffalo
Lake, near Red Deer, Alberta (Dippie). It was common at Shu-
swap Lake, British Columbia, in June, 1889 (Macoun). It breeds
south to Cape Whittle, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Frazar); the
islands in Georgian Bay (Fleming); formerly on the islands in Green
Bay, Wis., and in 1860 at Lake Koshkonong (Kumlien and Hollister) ;
in 1892 on Gull Island, near Vans Harbor, Mich. (Van Winkle); Heron
+4 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Lake, Minn. (Roberts); Devils Lake, N. Dak. (Job); San Luis Lakes,
Colo. (Cooke); Great Salt Lake, Utah (Saunders); and Minidoka,
Idaho (Dille).
Winter range.—The principal winter home of this gull along the
Atlantic coast is from North Carolina to Florida, but a few remain
in the Chesapeake Bay and rarely on the New Jersey coast—Cape
May, January, 1892 (Stone)—while it is a straggler in winter still
farther north. It can usually be found at Detroit, Mich., and on
Lake Michigan during winter, and at Chicago, IIl., it was common
the whole winter of 1894-95 (Parker). It is common on the Gulf
coast in winter, south to Fort Myer, Fla. (Scott), and to Browns-
ville, Tex. (Merrill), while in the interior it has been known to occur
at Washington, D. C., January 23, 1887 (Fisher); Hickman, Ky.,
January 1, 1887 (Pindar); Barr Lake, Colo., occasional in winter
(Rockwell); near Colorado Springs, Colo., about January 1, 1890
(Aiken and Warren); Fort Sherman, Idaho, once in January (Mer-
rill); Lewistown, Mont., one, December 31, 1898, killed by eating of
the carcass of a sheep that had been poisoned as bait for coyotes
(Silloway); and Pyramid Lake, Nev.; December 21, 1867 (Ridgway).
On the Pacific coast it winters from San Francisco Bay, Cal., to San
Diego, and, in the interior, on Owens Lake, Salton Sea, and Lake Tahoe
(Grinnell); also south to San Quintin, Lower California, December 27,
1905, to January 21,1906 (Thayer); La Paz, Lower California, Feb-
ruary 15, 1882 (Brewster); Mazatlan (Lawrence); Guaymas, Decem-
ber; Presidio, January and February; Santa Ana, near Guadalajara,
November (Saunders); and Tehuantepec, February 21, 1869, and in
March (Sumichrast). It occurs casually in winter north to Portland,
Oreg. (Anthony), Bellingham Bay, Wash. (Edson), and to the Lower
Fraser Valley and Lake Okanogan (Brooks). A straggler was taken
in Bermuda, January 1, 1849 (Reid).
Migration range.—A specimen of the ring-billed gull was taken Sep-
tember 6, 1900, at Port Manvers, on the Labrador coast (Bigelow).
It is reported as occurring in Newfoundland (Reeks); at Ingonish,
Cape Breton Island (Townsend); and was seen during the fall of 1911
in Alaska as follows: Kings Cove, the middle of August; Iey Strait,
August 30; Wrangell Narrows, August 31; and Ketchikan, September
1(Wetmore). Onewas taken May-24, 1911, near Campbell Island, Brit-
ish Columbia (Beck), and August 6-18, 1897, the species was common
in flocks along the British Columbia coast near Port Simpson (Preble).
The first record for Hawaii is that of an individual taken February 1,
1901 (Bryan).
Spring migration.—The first spring migrants of this species usually
appear at Washington, D. C., in February—February 5, 1900, and
February 16, 1913; Canandaigua, N. Y., February 1, 1906 (Antes) ;
Rockaway Beach, N. Y., February 13, 1910 (Griscom and Dow);
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 45
Saybrook, Conn., March 8, 1887 (Clark); and had reached the coast
of Newfoundland by April 19, 1883 (Merriam).
In the interior the first were reported at Grand Rapids, Mich.,
March 28, 1891 (White); St. Louis, Mo., March 7, 1909 (Betts);
Keokuk, Iowa, March 8, 1903 (Currier) ; Storm Lake, Iowa, March 15,
1888 (Bond) ; Canton, Ill., March 9, 1897 (Cobleigh) ; Madison, Wis.,
average March 19, earliest March 12, 1911; Lanesboro, Minn., March
23, 1893 (Hvoslef); Heron Lake, Minn., average April 1, earliest
March 22, 1894 (Miller); White Earth, Minn., April 3, 1882 (Cooke);
Lincoln, Nebr., average April 3, earliest March 28, 1899 (Wolcott) ;
near Valentine, Nebr., average April 1, earliest March 12, 1893
(Bates); Sioux Falls, S. Dak., March 19, 1911 (Larson); Vermilion,
S. Dak., March 31, 1884 (Agersborg); near Devils Lake, N. Dak.,
average April 16, earliest April 11, 1895; southern Manitoba, average
April 25, earliest April 21, 1905; Indian Head, Saskatchewan, April
11, 1908 (Lang); mouth of Pelican River, Mackenzie, May 9, 1901
(Preble); Pecks Lake, Ariz., April 13, 1886 (Mearns); Fort Verde,
Ariz., April 17, 1888 (Mearns); Loveland, Colo., average March 14,
earliest March 9, 1890 (Smith); San Luis Lakes, Colo., April 4, 1887
(Woodbury); Coventry, Colo., April 13, 1906 (Smith); Great Falls,
Mont., average April 6, earliest April 5, 1890 (Williams); and Stony
Plain, Alberta, April 24, 1911 (Stansell). )
The last in spring were noted at Big Gasparilla Pass, Fla., May 22,
1886 (Scott); Pea Island, N. C., May 10, 1906 (Bishop); Washing-
ton, D. C., April 28, 1887 (Fisher) ; Erie, Pa., April 26, 1902 (Todd) ;
Loyalhanna Creek, Pa., May 7, 1881 (Townsend); Atlantic City,
N. J., June 20, 1900 (Stone) ; Geneva, N. Y., May 24, 1888 (Miller) ;
New Orleans, La., April 28, 1894 (Beyer); Bay St. Louis, Miss.,
March 29, 1902 (Allison); Kansas City, Mo., May 3, 1902 (Bryant) ;
Chicago, Ill., June 21, 1907 (Armstrong); Sioux City, lowa, May 8,
1904 (Rich); Spirit Lake, Iowa, June 14, 1890 (Berry); Madison,
Wis., May 17, 1905 (Blackwelder); Corpus Christi, Tex., April 12,
1889 (Sennett); Emporia, Kans., May 6, 1884 (Kellogg); Hyperion,
Cal., May 24, 1910 (Grinnell) ; and Quinn River, Nev., June 1, 1909
(Taylor).
Nonbreeding individuals remain all summer along the coast of
Long Island (Braislin), on Lake Ontario near Kingston (Clarke), on
Lake Michigan, and on the small interior lakes of Wisconsin (Kumlien
and Hollister), and Barr Lake, Colo. (Rockwell).
Eggs have been taken from June 20, 1884, in southeastern Labrador
to August 3, 1860, at Rupert House, Quebec (specimens in U. S.
National Museum). Eggs were obtained May 23, 1898, at Devils
Lake, N. Dak. (Job), and June 13, 1893, at Stump Lake, N. Dak.
(Knight). Audubon found many eggs, but none of them hatched,
June 18, 1833, at Little Mecattina, on the north coast of the Gulf of
46 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
St. Lawrence, latitude 50°. In the same latitude at Crane Lake,
Saskatchewan, young were already out of the shell, June 9, 1894
(Spreadborough). Young not yet able to fly were noted near Strater,
Mont., July 18, 1910 (Anthony).
Fall migration.—The first fall migrant of the species was noted at
Woods Hole, Mass., September 17, 1891 (Edwards); Wildwood, N. J.,
September 7, 1895 (Stone); Pea Island, N. C., July 23 and August
20, 1904 (Bishop); Charleston, S. C., September 26, 1909 (McDer-
mid); Savannah, Ga., September 30, 1909, and common by October
6 (Perry); and Fernandina, Fla., July 13, 1906, next seen August 3,
and common September 16 (Worthington). It is evident that these
July records refer either to nonbreeding birds that have spent the
summer south of the regular summer home or to birds that having
lost their eggs or young have started early on their southward journey.
The first appeared at Delavan, Wis., August 18, 1892, and the next,
September 1 (Hollister); Toronto, Ontario, August 20, 1890 (Fleming);
Point Pelee, Ontario, August 24, 1907 (Taverner); Lake Forest, Iil.,
August 8, 1906 (Ferry); Bay St. Louis, Miss., October 10, 1901, com-
mon by October 14 (Allison); Lincoln, Nebr., August 14, 1900 (Wol-
cott); Denver, Colo., August 21, 1910 (Williams); Okanogan Lake,
British Columbia, July 28, 1907, and August 8, 1911 (Brooks); Chilli-
wack, British Columbia, August 13, 1888, and August 15, 1889
(Brooks); Alamitos Bay, Los Angeles County, Cal., September 17,
1907 (Grinnell).
The last one seen in 1901 on Anticosti Island was on September 18
(Schmitt); Woods Hole, Mass., November 17, 1889 (Kdwards); near
Newport, R. I., December 1, 1900 (Mearns); Erie, Pa., October 17,
1900 (Worthington); Harrisburg, N. Dak., October 17, 1901 (Hast-
gate); Denver, Colo., November 12, 1908 (Rockwell); Provo, Utah,
November 30, 1872 (Henshaw); and Valentine, Nebr., November 15,
1894 (Bates).
SHORT-BILLED GULL. Larus brachyrhynchus RICHARDSON.
Range.—Western North America from northwestern Mackenzie to
southern California.
Breeding range.—The short-billed gull was originally described from
a specimen taken at Fort Franklin, Great Bear Lake, Mackenzie, May
23, 1826 (Richardson), from nearly the northern limit of its range,
the species breeding only a little farther north, to Fort Anderson
(MacFarlane). Thence it ranges in the breeding season west to Fort
Yukon (Dall) and the mouth of the Kowak River (Grinnell). The
principal summer home of the species is in Alaska, where it breeds
west to Cape Lisburne (eggs in U.S. National Museum); Nelson Island
(Thayer) ; and Nushagak (eggs in U.S. National Museum) ; and south to
Morshoyoi Bay (Littlejohn); Kodiak Island (U.S. National Museum) ;
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 47
Homer (Chapman); Montague Island (Grinnell); Yakutat (Black-
welder); and Glacier Bay (Fisher). Inland it breeds south to Lake
Marsh (Bishop); Hot Springs and Pike River, Atlin, British Columbia
(Kermode); and is acommon breeder in the Mackenzie Valley south
to the lower Slave River (Preble) and to the Charlot River on Lake
Athabaska (Harper).
Winter range—This gull winters on the Pacific coast from Van-
couver Island (Kermode) to extreme southern California at San Diego
asses
a
i @ BREEDING
f © OCCURRENCE /N SUMMER |
# + W/NTER/ING r
H OCCURRENCE IN WINTER P
~ B2074-5
Fic. 23.—Short-billed gull (Larus brachyrhynchus).
(Henshaw), and occasionally as far north as Sitka, Alaska, where it
was taken in December 1865, and January, 1866 (specimens in U.S.
National Museum).
There are three records of extensive wanderings: One was taken
near Quebee City, Canada (Dionne); one on the Kuril Islands in
February (Saunders), and a specimen now in the collection of the
Biological Survey was taken August 28, 1893, on Lake Fork, in the
Wind River Mountains, Wyo., at 10,000 feet altitude (Bailey).
48 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Spring migration.—One of these gulls was noted in Queen Charlotte
Sound, British Columbia, April 6, 1909 (Swarth); Windfall Harbor,
Admiralty Island, Alaska, April 24, 1907 (Grinnell); St. Michael,
Alaska, May 11, 1866 (specimen in U. S. National Museum); Mount
McKinley, Alaska, near base, May 10, 1908 (Sheldon) ; Fort Simpson,
Mackenzie, May 8, 1904 (Preble); and the lower Kowak River,
Alaska, May 15, 1899 (Grinnell).
Hees were mlcen on the Lockhart River, Machen! as early as
May 28, 1862 (MacFarlane); Fort Resolution, Niaokenm June 7,
1860 Gonimconn: Fort Rae, Mackenzie, June 6, 1862 (specimen 7
U.S. National Museum); mouth of Porcupine River, Yukon, June 9,
1865 (U. S. National Museum); St. Michael, Alaska, June 6, 1878
(U. S. National Museum); Cape Lisburne, Alaska, June 10, 1885
(U. S. National Museum); Montague Island, Alaska, July 5, 1908
(Grinnell) ; and downy young on Hawkins Island, Alaska, June 23,
1908 (Grinnell), and at Lake Marsh, Yukon, July 1, 1899 (Bishop).
The species was common all the summer of 1907 at various localities
in the Sitka district, but apparently none were breeding (Grinnell).
Fail magration.—A specimen taken July 30, 1856, in Puget Sound
(U. S. National Museum) probably represents an early fall migration
of a nonbreeding bird, as also those seen July 18, 1909, at Bradfield
Canal, British Columbia (Swarth). The first was noted at Chilli-
wack, British Columbia, August 26, 1889 (Brooks); Scio, Oreg.,
September 21, 1900 (Prill) ; Berkeler Cal, October 9, 1886 (Kealenk
Monterey, Cal, October 29, 1896 oats) ; Ventura, Cal., Novem-
ber 26, 1884 (Henshaw); and San Diego, Cal., December 11, 1884
(Henshaw). ;
The species departed from the lower Kowak River, Alaska, the last
week in August, 1898 (Grinnell); the last were at Cape Nome,
Alaska, August 28, 1910 (Thayer); Icy Cape, Alaska, July 30 (Seale) ;
Collinson Point, near Camden Bay, Alaska, September 8, 1914 (An-
derson); St. Michael, Alaska, September 23, 1899 (Bishop); near
Lake Hardisty, Mackenzie, August 25, 1903 (Preble); and Peters-
burg, near Sitka, Alaska, October 7, 1913 (Willett).
An interesting question arises in connection with the migration
route of those individuals that breed in the Mackenzie Valley.
Migration dates show that the birds do not enter Mackenzie by way
of the Yukon Valley, for the arrival dates are as early at Fort Simpson,
Mackenzie, as at the mouth of the Yukon. Future investigations
will undoubtedly show that these Mackenzie Valley birds make a
direct flight from the coast of southern Alaska to Great Slave Lake,
though this requires that they cross the divide of the Rocky Moun-
tains—here about 2,500 feet high—in early May, when even the
lowest passes are still deep in snow.
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 49
- (MEW GULL. Larus canus LINNZUS.
The mew gull is a species of the Eastern Hemisphere, having there a wide range from
northern Europe and Asia to the Mediterranean, the Nile, and the Persian Gulf. On’
the Pacific coast it occurs from the northern coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, Kamchatka,
and Bering Island, to Japan and China.
The only sure record for North America is that of a specimen taken by Dr. Coues at
Henley Harbor, Labrador, August 21, 1860. This specimen found its way to the
British Museum.
The mew ¢ull has been erroneously recorded several times on the coast of California.
One recorded November 30, 1905, at Pacific Beach, was a young ring-billed gull, and
one reported April 14, 1907, from Alamitos Bay proved to be the Pacific kittiwake.
Early records of Loomis and late records of Beck, from Monterey Bay, are referable
to the short-billed gull.]
HEERMANN’S GULL. Larus heermanni CASssINn.
Range.—Pacific coast from British Columbia to Mexico.
Heermann’s gull is the only member of the group that regularly
migrates in summer to the north of its breeding grounds and is com-
mon in the United States at that season, though not as yet known
to breed north of Mexico. Up to date only a few nesting places are
known. In April, 1875, Dr. Streets found an immense colony pre-
paring to breed on Isla Raza, on the west side of the Gulf of California
near latitude 29°. Though eggs had not yet been laid, the birds
were mating, and the presence of many thousands of tons of guano
bore witness to the fact that the island had been used as a breeding
place for untold generations.
The eggs of Heermann’s gull have been among the desiderata of
collectors for many years, and it is noteworthy that they should at
last have been found in the same month at widely separated locali-
ties by two expeditions sent out principally for this purpose. W. W.
Brown, jr., collecting for J. EK. Thayer, found a colony, March 28, 1909,
on Idlefonso Island, near the west coast of the Gulf of California,
latitude 26° 30’. The first eggs from a colony whose nests were
estimated as at least 2,500 were not obtained until April 2. Nine
days later eggs were found by Osburn and Lamb on Las Marictas
Islands, off the coast of Jalisco, latitude 20° 30’. The eggs at the
more southern colony, which contained less than a hundred pairs,
had been laid so much earlier that some hatched April 14.
The original discoverer of this species, Dr. A. L. Heermann, said that
it bred on Los Coronados Islands, Lower California, near San Diego,
but this statement was probably not based on the finding of the eggs,
but on the presence of the bird on the near-by coast during the
breeding season. Later observers have failed to find the species
nesting on these islands, or, indeed, anywhere along the whole west-
ern coast of Lower California, though it has been reported breeding
50 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
at Magdalena Bay (Bryant), on the Tres Marias (Bailey), and at
Mazatlan (Lawrence).
The species is present the whole year on the coast of Lower Cali-
fornia and western Mexico from the United States boundary to
Tepic, a distance of over a thousand miles, and it is not probable that
all these untold thousands of birds gather for nesting purposes on
the few acres of the two islands where their eggs have been obtained.
As soon as the young birds are strong of wing both old and young
begin to work their way northward. On the southern coast of Cali-
f © BREEDING
© OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER
h + WINTERING
Fic. 24.—Heermann’s gull (Larus heermanni).
fornia, where only a few birds are present after the middle of March,
the numbers begin to increase the last week in May and early in
June (Willett). The first northward migrant reached Eureka, Cal.,
June 1, 1889 (Palmer), and William Head, Vancouver Island, British
Columbia, June 28, 1904 (Kermode). The species is an abundant
summer migrant along the whole coast and has been taken north to
the northern end of Vancouver Island (Saunders).
Its stay in this northern part of the range is not prolonged. In
1894, by the end of July flocks were beginning to pass southward at
Monterey Bay, Cal. (Loomis). Though common during July and
August at the southern end of Vancouver Island (Kermode), by
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 51
September so many had started south that during this month at
Yaquina Bay, Oreg. (Bretherton), it outnumbered all other gulls.
It is an abundant southward migrant at Monterey, Cal., from August
through October, but its numbers begin to decrease in early Novem-
ber (Loomis). The last leave Fort Rupert, at the north end of
Vancouver Island, British Columbia, in October (Saunders), and
only a few were still present in November, 1889, as far north as
Ilwaco, Wash. (Chapman). A specimen was taken at Bodega Bay,
Cal., as late as December, 1854 (Lawrence), and a few remain all win-
ter as far north as San Francisco Bay (Henshaw), and casually—
January, 1896—even at Esquimault, British Columbia (Macoun). It
is less rare at Monterey Bay during the winter (Loomis) and common
at that season along the coast of southern California (Willett). It
ranges south in winter to Chiapam and San Jose, Guatemala, where
specimens were taken in January, 1863 (Salvin). A few were noted
in Acapulco Bay, Guerrero, April, 1903 (Nelson and Goldman).
LAUGHING GULL. Larus atricilla LINNZUS.
Range.—Atlantic coast from Maine to British Guiana, the Gulf of
Mexico, and the Pacific coast of western Mexico and Guatemala.
Breeding range.—Vhe laughing gull is preeminently a breeding bird
of eastern Caribbean Sea. It is a common breeder on the islands of
Aruba, Bonaire, Curacao (Hartert), and Margarita (Clark), off the
coast of Venezuela, and on the southern islands of the Lesser An-
tilles—Grenada, Carriacou, Barbuda, Grenadines, and Soufriére. It
is recorded from the others of the Lesser Antilles and from Porto
Rico and Haiti, but though it undoubtedly breeds at many places
throughout this region there is apparently no specific record of the
finding of eggs. The bird reappears as a breeder in Jamaica (Field) ;
Cuba (Gundlach); on the coast of Campeche, at Arcas Keys (Nel-
son); probably at Saddle Cay, British Honduras (Salvin); and the
northern Bahamas—Andros, New Providence, Cat, Watling, and
probably many other islands, as the species ranges throughout the
Bahamas.
Along the United States coast from Florida to Maine the laughing
eull was formerly an abundant breeder and 50 to 60 years ago nested
in great numbers at many places. A large part of these colonies have
been extirpated by the plume hunter, but some birds escaped the
slaughter, and during the last few-years, under the careful protection
of the National Government and of the National Association of
Audubon Societies, these remaining colonies have increased in size
and the birds are returning to others of their former homes.
On the western and southern coasts of Florida these gulls breed
near Passage Key (Pillsbury) and on a key near Cape Sable (Bent and
Job). Many of the birds wereseen during June, 1904, near Key West,
~— LO,
52 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
indicating a breeding colony not far distant. The next colony to the
north is on Royal Shoal, Pamlico Sound, N. C., where about 250 birds
were nesting in 1909 (Philipp). The coast of northeastern Virginia
is the home of the largest colonies in the United States. Here the
birds breed commonly on most of the islands from Cobbs Island
(Harper) to Chincoteague (Knight). In 1902 about 2,000 birds were
nesting on the former. The birds still breed at Brigantine and on
Gull Island, N. J., a few in each place (Stone), and some 500 birds
near Stone Harbor (Carter). It is probable that a few pairs also still
© BREEDING
© OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER
| + WINTERING
f < OCCURRENCE IN WINTER
h + RESIDENT
Fig. 25.—Laughing gull (Larus atricilla). the
breed around Great South Bay, Long Island (Eaton). Sixty years
ago on the islands off the Massachusetts coast the laughing gull was
acommon breeder; now it is restricted to Muskeget Island, but the
colony there during the past few years has increased until in 1908
it was estimated to contain a thousand birds (Forbush).
Only one colony of the laughing gull remains in the States north
of Massachusetts, and that, near Penobscot Bay, on the coast
of Maine, is reduced to scarcely a dozen individuals. Previous to
1870, the species nested at several places along the coast east to
the vicinity of Grand Manan,. and in the summer of 1856 Dr. Brvant
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 53
collected two pairs nesting on Green Island, near Yarmouth, Nova
Scotia.
The species is a common breeder on the islands off the coast of
Louisiana—Kast Timbalier, Tern, Breton, and Battledore (Job)—and
it still breeds on Bird and Padre Islands and Matagorda Peninsula,
on the coast of Texas (Strecker), where 30 years ago it nested at
many places from Galveston to Brownsville.
Winter range.—On the Atlantic coast, birds of this species retire in
winter to South Carolina and are abundant at Charleston all through
the cold season (Wayne). Thence they range throughout the West
Indies, and a very few wander south of the breeding range to George-
town, British Guiana (Loat); Surinam (Saunders); and to Cajutuba,
Brazil, February 20, 1835 (Pelzeln). The laughing gull is a common
winter bird on the United States coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and
less common on the Mexican coast. It even crosses Mexico to the
Pacific, where it has been noted on the coast from Mazatlan (Law-
rence) to Manzanillo (Baird), Tehauntepec (Sumichrast), Tonala
(Nelson and Goldman), and Chiapam, Guatemala, January, 1863
(Salvin). A straggler was taken at Santa Lucia, Peru, December
20, 1876 (Taczanowski); there is one record without exact locality
for Chile (Hartert); and one bird was taken the winter of 1881-82
in Bermuda (Reid).
Other wandering birds have been collected at Buffalo, N. Y.
(Bergtold); Cayuga Lake, N. Y. (Rathbun); Sodus Bay, N. Y.,
August 28, 1910 (Guelf); Montreal, Canada, October 24, 1888 (Win-
tle); Toronto, Ontario, May 23, 1890 (Cross), and June 1, 1898
(Fleming); Blencoe, Iowa, October 10, 1894 (Anderson); Lake
Koshkonong, Wis., once, July, 1860 (Kumlien and Hollister); Alda,
Nebr., July, 1880 (Powell); Kansas, six times (Bunker); Sloans Lake,
near Denver, Colo., December, 1889 (Smith); and Fort Wingate,
N. Mex. (Coues).
Spring migration.—The first laughing gulls arrive on the coast of
Virginia the first of April (Bailey); Cape May, N. J., April 11, 1907
(Hand); and Muskeget Island, Mass., May 7, 1891, May 10, 1892,
May 17, 1893, May 9, 1896, May 7, 1898, average May 10 (Mackay).
Two wandered inland to Gainesville, Tex., April 10,.1886 (Ragsdale).
April and May are the nesting months on the coast of Venezuela;
May and June find the birds nesting in Florida, Jamaica, and Cuba;
the earliest eggs taken on the coast of Virginia were on June 3, and
the nesting season continues to the middle of July. Here the eggs
of the laughing gull are among those gathered regularly for human
food. All the eggs are taken systematically until about July 4,
after which the birds are left undisturbed to lay another set and raise
their young (Bailey). On Muskeget Island, Mass., the earliest eggs
i
54 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
were found June 24, 1890, June 7, 1893, June 15, 1894, and June 24,
1898 (Mackay).
Fall migration.—Birds are found returning from the north at Orient
Point, Long Island, August 11, 1905, and August 1, 1908 (Latham),
and at Charleston, S. C., by August 13 (Wayne). Most of the indi-
viduals have left the New Jersey coast by the first of October (Stone),
and the last was seen at Nantucket, Mass., October 8, 1907 (Gurley);
Springfield, Mass., October 1, 1887 (Morris); Vineyard Sound, Mass.,
October 4, 1886 (specimen in U. S. National Museum); and Sayville,
Long Island, N. ¥., October 28, 1880 (specimen in U. S. National
Museum). :
FRANKLIN’S GULL. Larus franklini RICHARDSON.
Range.—Iinterior of North America from Saskatchewan and Mani-
toba to the Gulf of Mexico, Middle America, and the western coast of
South America to Chile.
Breeding range.—¥ranklin’s gull is more strictly a bird of the inte-
rior than any other member of the genus. Its center of abundance
while breeding is in the marshy lakes of North Dakota, Manitoba,
and Saskatchewan. Here it breeds north to Lake Winnepegosis
(Macoun); Quill Lake, Saskatchewan (Barnes); and Many Island
Lake, Alberta (Bent). Birds have also been seen north to Hayes
River, Keewatin (Saunders); Cumberland House (MacFarlane);
Osler, Saskatchewan, May 2, 1893 (Colt); Flagstaff, Alberta, April
24, 1908, and May 4, 1909 (Buswell); and near Edmonton, Alberta,
May 11, 1907 (Preble). ‘The species is so erratic in its choice of
nesting sites that there is no certainty that any of these latter records
represent breeding.
This gull does not breed anywhere east of the Mississippi River, but
to the westward it is found south to Heron Lake, Minn. (Roberts);
Brookings, 8. Dak. (Matheson); Pitrodie, S. Dak. (Cheney); Fort
Sisseton, S. Dak. (McChesney); and at Devils Lake, N. Dak. (Kast-
gate). During the years 1890 to 1893 it nested at Spirit Lake, Iowa
(Berry), but it probably does not breed anywhere in that State at the
present time.
Winter range.—The species has been taken at Mazatlan, Sinaloa,
December (Lawrence); Chiapam, Guatemala, January, 1863 (Salvin);
and Panama, December 28, 1855 (specimen in U.S. National Museum);
but the real winter home is on the coast of Peru and Chile, from Payta,
Peru (Saunders), to Concepcion, Chile (Philippi).
Migration range.—During spring or fall migration Franklin’s gull
has been taken at Laguna de S. Baltazar, Puebla, September (Ferrari-
Perez); near the City of Mexico (Saunders); Zacatecas, August
(Saunders); Progreso, Yucatan, fall (Saunders); Port Limon, Costa
Rica (Cherrie); and the Galapagos (Snodgrass and Heller). It has
occurred accidentally at St. Bartholomew Island, Lesser Antilles
——————————
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 55
(Sundevall); Blacksburg, Va., October 24, 1898 (Smyth); Licking
Reservoir, Ohio, October 15, 1906 (Jones); Hamilton, Ontario, once
in April and once in October (MclIlwraith); near Philadelphia, Pa.,
October 22, 1911 (Stone); and near Holland, Mich., April 28, 1897
(Barrows). The species has been widely chronicled—through a
printer’s error—as an abundant bird in Utah, whereas it is only
accidental there, having been noted June 2, 1902, and once in 1906,
both at Great Salt Lake (Goodwin).
Spring migration.—That the earliest spring dates for Franklin’s
gull in the United States should come from Minnesota and South
Dakota is remarkable. .This is an extreme example of what has
been noted in lesser degree with many species—that they appear in
their southern breeding grounds, earlier than in the region directly
to the south which they must have crossed to reach the summer
home. The average date of spring arrival at Heron Lake, Minn., is
April 4, earliest March 27, 1889; southeastern South Dakota, average
April 7, earliest March 27, 1890; Badger, Nebr., average April 2,
earliest March 30, 1900; Wall Lake, lowa, average April 24, earliest
April 19, 1911; eastern Kansas, average April 21, earliest April 10,
1891; eastern North Dakota, average May 1, earliest April 21, 1895;
Aweme, Manitoba, average April 25, earliest April 8, 1901; Indian
Head, Saskatchewan, average May 3, earliest April 25, 1906.
Some other spring dates are: Monteer, Mo., April 20, 1909 (Savage) ;
Liter, Ill., April 21, 1882 (Griffin); Warsaw, Ill., once, May, 1875
(Ridgway); Keokuk, Iowa, April 6, 1902 (Currier); Elk River, Minn.,
April 13, 1888 (Bailey); Fort Stockton, Tex., April 24 (specimen in
U. S. National Museum); Kerrville, Tex., April 26, 1909 (Lacey);
Lincoln, Nehr., April 10, 1899 (Wolcott); Alda, Nebr., April 3, 1884
(Powell); and Brookings, S. Dak., March 22, 1908 (Matheson).
The species was common in Callao Bay, Peru, as late as April 11,
1883 (Macfarlane), while a late date is that of one taken at Cham-
perico, Guatemala, May 30, 1873 (Salvin). Other late spring dates
are: Kerrville, Tex., May 17, 1910 (Lacey); Nishna Lake, Mo., May
15, 1909 (Burnett); Wall Lake, lowa, average date of the last seen,
May 24, latest June 27, 1910 (Spurrell); Onaga, Kans., May 11,
1910 (Crevecoeur); Clay Center, Kans., June 6, 1909 (Graves);
Hudson, Kans., June 9, 1907 (specimen identified at Biological Sur-
vey); and Aransas Bay, Tex., June, but not breeding (Armstrong).
The earliest eggs were found at Heron Lake, Minn., May 25, 1885,
May 8, 1886, May 18, 1890, and May 26, 1893 (Miller); near Marsh
Lake, Minn., May 16, 1885 (Preston); and eggs heavily incubated,
near Crane Lake, Saskatchewan, June 13, 1894 (Macoun). An enor-
mous colony, estimated at 15,000 to 20,000 nests with eggs, was found
at Lake of the Narrows, Saskatchewan, June 9, 1905 (Bent). The
2 -@:
,
q_> °
cli 2
jain
RAL 2.
sie
@ DING 7
O OCCURRENCE IN SUMMER
S
eee
+ WI/NTERING
| & OCCURRENCE IN WINTER
F —F lin’s
60’
1G. 26.—F rank (Larus franklini),
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 57
next year not a nest could be found at this lake, owing to a drought
that had lowered the water level.
Fall migration.—A very early migrant was taken at Valparaiso,
Chile, in September, 1859 (Philippi), though usually the species does
not reach southern Texas until the last of that month (Armstrong).
The extreme northern part of the range is deserted, however, at an
early date, since for 14 years the average date of the last one seen at
Aweme, Manitoba, is August 10, latest August 21, 1905 (Criddle);
Harrisburg, N. Dak., latest October 1, 1901 (Kastgate) ; southeastern
South Dakota, average of the last seen October 13, latest November
12, 1891; Badger, Nebr., November 12, 1899 (Colt); Lincoln, Nebr.,
November 17, 1900 (Wolcott); Lawrence, Kans., November 1, 1905
(Wetmore); Madison, Minn., October 8, 1894 (Lano); West Depere,
B2078-5
Fic. 27,—Franklin’s gull (Larus franklini), adult in sammer plumage.
Wis., October 22, 1884 (Willard); Lake Koshkonong, Wis., a few
each year in September and October, latest October 29, 1871 (Kum-
lien); and Corpus Christi, Tex., November 3-7, 1909 (Thayer).
BONAPARTEH’S GULL. Larus philadelphia (ORD.)
Range.—North America from Alaska and Mackenzie to Yucatan
and Jalisco, Mexico.
Breeding range.—A distinction needs to be made in the case of
Bonaparte’s gull between its summer home and its nesting range,
since many of this species remain through the summer as nonbreeders
far south of the district in which they nest. Eggs or nests or un-
fledged young have been found at only a few places. This gull
breeds abundantly in northern Mackenzie in the region around Fort
Anderson (MacFarlane), and thence west to Fort Yukon and the
lower Yukon, at Nulato (Dall), the only places in Alaska whence the
58 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
eggs have been reported. It breeds south to the lakes on the upper
Pelly River in Yukon (Pike) and to Atlin in northern British Colum-
bia (Anderson); these five places seem to be the only sure records of
actual nesting. Although the species has been reported as nesting
at various places south to southern British Columbia, Alberta, Mani-
toba, southern Keewatin, and even to North Dakota, Minnesota,
Wisconsin, and Michigan, it is very suggestive that it is not known
f @ BREEDING
H © OCCURRENCE JN SUMMER
+ WINTERING
H <> OCCURRENCE IN WINTER
B2079-5
Fic. 28.—Bonaparte’s gull (Larus philadelphia).
to nest on any of the large lakes in southern Mackenzie, where it
would certainly breed if it did at these much more southern locali-
ties. The probabilities are that Bonaparte’s gull is an aretie- and sub-
arctic-breeding bird which finds its most congenial home on the Arctic
lakes and rivers at the farthest north it can find the evergreens on
which it places its nest.
During summer, nonbreeding individuals of the species occur com-
monly on the coast of southeastern Alaska (Swarth) and not rarely
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 59
on the coast of British Columbia (Kermode). To this same class
should probably be referred the birds seen at the north end of Lake
Winnipeg, June 15-17, 1900 (Preble), July 7-9, 1900, in southern
Keewatin (Preble), and the late June birds of the Bay of Fundy
(Brewer). Audubon notes that individuals found to be abundant
about the Bay of Fundy in May were birds one year old that on dis-
section showed they were not to breed that year.
Winter range.—Bonaparte’s gull winters regularly and commonly
on the coast from Florida to South Carelina, less commonly to Long
Island, and stragglers have occurred at this season north to Maine.
It winters on the Gulf coast of the United States and on the Pacific
coast north at least to southern Washington. On the coast of Los
Angeles County, Cal., it winters commonly, and less commonly to
San Quintin, Lower California, January 12, 1907 (Thayer); Mag-
dalena Island, Lower California, December 5, 1905 (Nelson and Gold-
man); Mazatlan, Smaloa, December, 1896 (Loomis); and to La Barca,
Jalisco (specimen identified at the Biological Survey). It ranges in
Florida south to Lemon City (Brown), was noted at Progreso, Yucatan,
in late January (Cole), and winters at the mouth of the Colorado
River (Rhoads).
Migration range.—Breeding in the interior on fresh water, Bona-
parte’s gull seeks salt water as soon as its family cares are concluded.
Although the principal breeding range is in the northwestern part of
the American Continent, many more than half of the gulls go east-
ward in their migration to spend the winter on the Atlantic coast.
The line of flight corresponds in general with the northern limit of
tree growth, reaching the coast of Hudson Bay in the vicinity of Cape
Churchill, and thence passing around its southern end to the Gulf of
St. Lawrence; a few individuals occur along the Labrador coast at the
Strait of Belle Isle and as far north as Hamilton Inlet (Bigelow).
Another numerous group choose a route a little to the southward by
way of Lake Winnipeg and the Great Lakes to the Atlantic coast.
Small numbers go south in fall through the Mississippi Valley to
winter on the Gulf coast, but only a few choose this route, for Bona-
parte’s gull is a bird of lakes rather than rivers, and there are few
congenial stopping places in the southern half of the Mississippi Valley.
The small contingent electing the Pacific coast for their winter
home go directly south, crossing the main divide of the Rocky Moun-
tains to the coast of southern Alaska, whence they follow down the
coast to the winter home. <A few seem to wander up the valley of
Peace River and cross southern British Columbia to the coast.
The same routes seem to be retraced in spring, except that the.
Atlantic coast birds at this season probably do not go northeast of
the western part of the Gulf of St. Lawrenee.
60 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
During migration Bonaparte’s guli has wandered north to the mouth
of the Kowak River, May 18, 1899 (Grinnell); it was taken on Laysan
Island, of the Hawaiian Group, December 27, 1912 (Willett); once on
Long Island, in the Bahamas, October 8, 1876 (Moore); in Bermuda,
January 27 and December 15, 1849, February 24, 1850, and January,
1876 (Reid); and has been recorded at various places in Europe eleven
times as an accidental visitant.
Spring migration.—The average date of arrival at Washington,
D. C., is March 30, earliest March 25, 1881; Erie, Pa., average April
20, earliest April 13, 1900; Branchport, N. Y., average April 21,
earliest April 17, 1905; North River, Prince Edward Island, average
May 21, earliest May 10, 1887; Godbout, Quebec, April 27, 1888
(Comeau); Chicago, Ill., average April 14, earliest April 6, 1903—also
a few in winter, December 11, 1906, January 1, 1907, and Febru-
ary 4, 1909; Oberlin, Ohio, average April 16, earliest April 8, 1907,
and a straggler or wintering bird February 8, 1909; Ann Arbor,
Mich., average April 19, earliest April 16, 1911; Keokuk, Iowa, aver-
age March 29, earliest March 28, 1895; eastern Kansas, average April
21, earliest April 7, 1890; Madison, Wis., average April 30, earliest
April 22, 1904; Minneapolis, Minn., average May 1, earliest April 1,
1882; southern Manitoba, average April 24, earliest April 20, 1905;
Indian Head, Saskatchewan, April 27, 1904 (Lang); Osler, Saskatche-
wan, May 2, 1893 (Colt); near Fort Resolution, Mackenzie, average
May 14, earliest May 9, 1904; Fort Simpson, Mackenzie, May 22,
1860, May 12, 1904; Comox, British Columbia, April 11, 1904; Bur-
rard Inlet, British Columbia, April 13, 1889; and Okanogan Landing,
British Columbia, average May 1, earliest April 25, 1907.
The latest date at which Bonaparte’s gull was noted at Coronado,
Fla., was April 9 (Longstreet); St. Joseph, Fla., April 6, 1886 (Ever-
mann); Frogmore, S. C., May 1, 1885 (Hoxie); Charleston, S. C.,
May 15, 1909 (Weston); Fort Macon, N. C., May 3, 1869 (Coues);
Washington, D. C., average May 1, latest May 30, 1884; Erie, Pa.,
May 15, 1901, and May 25, 1895; Rochester, N. Y., June 8, 1902
(Eaton); Ithaca, N. Y., June 14, 1908 (Reed and Wright); near
Newport, R. I., May 22, 1902 (King); Woods Hole, Mass., June 3, 1891
(Edwards); Monomoy, Mass., June 9, 1886 (Cahoon); Penobscot Bay,
Me., to June 20 (Knight); New Orleans, La., March 25, 1894 (Beyer);
Chicago, Ill., average May 17, latest May 30, 1908; Oberlin, Ohio,
average May 20, latest May 31, 1897; Ottawa, Cntario, June 9, 1885
(White); and at Monterey, Cal., rare after May 18, latest June 2 1897
(Loomis).
Eggs were taken at Fort Yukon, Alaska, June 16, 1861 (Kenni-
cott); June 7, 1862 (Dall); and at Fort Anderson, Mackenzie, June 6,
1862, and June 16, 1863 (MacFarlane). Downy young were taken at
Hot Springs, Atlin, British Columbia, July 3, 1914 (Anderson).
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 61
Fall migration.—The most pronounced characteristic of the fall
migration of Bonaparte’s gull is its early date of beginning. At
Okanogan Lake, British Columbia, the average date of its arrival
in southward migration is July 21, earliest July 9, 1911 (Brooks) ;
this species was noted at Lake Iliamna, Alaska, July 16, 1902
(Osgood); a flock appeared at Erie, Pa., July 4,.1909 (Simpson) ;
one at Ithaca, N. Y., July 24, 1908 (Reed and Wright); Portland,
Me., July 27, 1908 (Hastman); Chicago, IlU., July 15, 1906 (Arm-
strong); on the Yellowstone River, Mont., July 31, 1905 (Cameron) ;
and on the Laramie River, Wyo., July 23, 1857 (Knight).
Probably the normal beginning of fall migration is represented
by the numerous birds present at York Factory, Keewatin, July
17-22, 1900 (Preble), and the continuation of this movement is
is noted at Baddeck, Nova Scotia, August 4-16, 1886 (Dwight);
Portland, Me., August 9, 1905, sit August 4, 1906; Charlestown,
N. H., August 3, 1897 (Buswell) ; Menomioy? Mass., August 13,
1885 (Cahoon); Point Judith, R. I., August 5, 1900 (Hathaway);
Erie, Pa., August 20, 1890, and August 13, 1902; Atlantic City,
N. J., August 21, 1892 (De Haven); Charleston, S. C., August 20,
1909 (Wayne); Coronado, Fla., earliest September 16 (Longstreet) ;
Chicago, Ill., average August 21, earliest August 17, 1907; Oberlin,
Ohio, average September 4, earliest August 11, 1910; Moose Factory,
Ontario, August 11, 1860 (specimen in U. S. National Museum);
Toronto, Ontario, August 4, 1890 (Fleming); Ottawa, Ontario, Aug-
ust 24, 1887 (White); Delavan, Wis., August 26, 1892 (Hollister);
southern Manitoba, average August 31, earliest August 15, 1899;
and on the coast of Los Angeles County, Cal., common after
August 20, 1910 (Willett). The foregoing dates are the records of
a comparatively few individuals, most probably nonbreeders or those
that lost their eggs or young. The great bulk of the birds move a
month to six weeks later. They are most numerous along the New
England coast in October and reach the coast of soem California
in ants November.
The average date of the last one seen at Montreal, Canada, was
September 26, latest October 1, 1892 (Wintle); North River, Prince
Edward Island, average November 20, latest November 25, 1888
(Bain); Woods Hole, Mass., December 23, 1892 (Edwards); near
Oberlin, Ohio, December 17, 1906, and January 6, 1908 (Jones);
Toronto, Ontario, November 25, 1898 (Nash), and December 15,
.1897 (Fleming); Birch Lake, Alberta, October 13, 1909 (Brooks
and Cobb); Fort Good Hope, Mackenzie, as late as October, 1864
(specimen in U.S. National Museum); Margaret, Manitoba, average
October 19, latest October 24, 1910 (Black); Aitken, Minn., Novem-
ber 2, 1902 (Lano); Lincoln, Nebr., November 3, 1896 (Bruner) ;
Pueblo, Colo., November 15, 1895 (Nash); Unalaska Island, Alaska,
62 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
October 4-5, 1899 (Bishop); southwestern British Columbia, aver-
age November 5, latest November 29, 1888; and Klamath Lake,
Oreg., November 7, 1909 (Lewis).
[LITTLE GULL. Larus minutus PALLAs,
The little gull is only a straggler in North America. Its regular summer home is
in northern Europe and northern Asia, whence it retires in winter as far south as the
Mediterranean and the Adriatic. It is found at this latter season in northern Africa
and in northern India. Its claim toa place in the North American list rests on a few
specimens taken at widely separated times and places: Bermuda, January 22, 1849,
and one in February, 1849 (Wedderburn); Fire Island, Long Island, one about
September 15, 1887 (Dutcher);
Rockaway Beach, Long Island,
one May 10, 1902 (Braislin); and
Pine Point, Scarborough, Me., one
July 20, 1910 (Norton).]
ROSS’S GULL. Rhodostethia
rosea (MACGILLIVRAY).
Range.—Arctic regions of
both hemispheres in sum-
mer; winter home unknown.
The first eggs known to
science of Ross’s gull were
taken June 13, 1905, at
Pokhodskoe, near the center
of the delta of the Kolyma
River, Siberia (Buturlin).
They were already incu-
bated, but incubation could
not have been far advanced,
for the first arrival, a single
bird, was not seen until
May 30, though the species
became common the next
day. Eggs nearly hatched were collected June. 26, and young 2 to
3 days old on July 1. Eggs were also taken June 13 at Malaya,
about 150 miles to the westward of Pokhodskoe. The birds were
equally common in this region in 1911 and nested m large num-
bers in swamps north of the town of Nijni Kolymsk, in the upper
part of the delta, latitude 68° N., longitude 161° 30’ E. The next
season the whole coast was searched, from these swamps to the
northern end of the delta and along the Arctic coast eastward for
150 miles to Chaun Bay, but not a breeding colony could be found;
one stray individual was taken May 3, 1912, at Nijni Kolymsk (Thayer
and Bangs).
jo
Fic. 29.—Little gull (Larus minutus).
B2080-5
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 63
During Buturlin’s stay at the mouth of the Kolyma River he paid
particular attention to Ross’s gull and obtained definite information
in regard to the extent of its breeding range. It is known to breed
northwest to Russkoe Ustje, in the delta of the Indigirka River,
latitude 71° N., longitude 149° E.; southwest to Abyi, near the
Indigirka River, about 300 miles inland from the Arctic coast, latitude
67° 30’ N., longitude 145° E.; northeast to the northeastern part
of the Kolyma delta near the Arctic coast, latitude 69° 30’ N.,
longitude 161° E.; and southeast to Sredne-Kolymsk, on the Kolyma
River, about 200 miles from its mouth, latitude 67° 30’ N., longi-
tude 155° E. The breeding range extends, therefore, through 34
degrees of latitude and 16 degrees of longitude, covering an area a
little less than 300 miles square. The species has not been found
breeding on any of the Arctic islands either east or west of the Kolyma
O OCCURRENCE
: B2081-5
FiG. 30.—Ross’s gull (Rhodostethia rosea).
delta, but all these islands are rocky, while Ross’s gull is exclusively
a marsh breeder.
An interesting habit of this gull is its early desertion of its breeding
grounds. Only 20 days after the first egg hatched, both old and
young left the interior of the delta, and four days later the last one
disappeared from the coast at the mouth of the river.
If the 60,000 square miles near the mouth of the Kolyma River
really comprise the only nesting place of this gull, then many non-
breeding individuals must spend the summer far from the breeding
grounds. The type specimen was taken in the height of the breeding
season, June 23, 1823, at Alagnak, Melville Peninsula, near Igloolik
(Ross). A second was seen there four days later, but the birds
were certainly not breeding anywhere in this region, for these are
the only individuals recorded im the vast stretch of 2,000 miles
between Greenland and Point Barrow. Birds presumably non-
breeders were noted by naturalists of the Jeannette just west of
Wrangell Island, June 22-30, 1880; one at Pitlekaj, July 1, 1879
64 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
(Nordenskiold); just north of Bennett Island, in July, 1881 (De
Long); in the delta of the Lena River, July 8, 1883 (Bunge)—the
conditions here are so similar to those of the nesting site that it
would not be surprising if eventually the bird should be found breed-
ing in the Lena Valley; Hvidtenland, just east of Franz Josef Land,
earliest July 14, 1895, common the next day (Nansen); Disco, Green-
land, June 15, 1885 (Seebohm); and Point Barrow, Alaska, June 9,
1898 (Stone). The last two records are probably of stragglers, but
the others would indicate a summer nonbreeding range on the Arctic
coast and islands from longitude 173° W. to longitude 63° E., nearly
2,000 miies in this latitude.
The most extensive migrations occur in September and the most
notable of these so far recorded are those witnessed by Murdoch at
Point Barrow. Here the first birds were seen September 28, 1881, and
the species was common for a month, literally thousands passing, all
going toward the northeast. A similar flight was witnessed the next
year, when the species was abundant from September 10 to October 9.
When the same place was visited in the fall of 1897, only two indi-
viduals were seen, one on September 9 and the other September 23
(Stone). Similar flights of large flocks of the birds were seen by
Birulia, near the New Siberian Islands, in 1901 and 1902. Young
birds of the year were abundant September 11, 1901, near Bennett
Island, and the next year flocks of young appeared at New Siberia
August 16, followed by flocks of old birds September 5. After
this both were abundant September 11-15, and disappeared Sep-
tember 20.
Northeast of the New Siberian Islands, in about latitude 81° N.,
Nansen saw 8 birds in early August, 1894, during the drift of the
Fram. The naturalists of the Jeannette saw them in October,
1879, near Wrangell Island, and on October 10, 1879, a lone indi-
vidual appeared at St. Michael, Alaska (Nelson).
The winter home of Ross’s gull is entirely unknown. Stragglers
have been taken at this season on Bering Island, December 10, 1895
(Stejneger); two at Cagliari Bay, in the Sardinian Sea, in early
January, 1906 (Martorelli); one at Pointe de la Roche, on the coast
of Vendée, France, December 22, 1913 (Sequin); one on Suderoe
Island of the Faroe group, February 1, 1863 (Miieller); and one
on Helgoland, February 5, 1858 (Gatke). Even stragglers have
not been noted anywhere during March and April or before late May,
when the birds arrived at their breeding grounds in the delta of the
Kolyma Riyer, and were also noted in migration at Verkhojansk, on
the Java River, 250 miles from the coast and about the same distance
west of the most western known breeding colony. Inhabitants of
this latter place reported that visits of this gull were unusual and
that it did not breed in that district. Another spring bird, but
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIES. 65
evidently a wanderer, was taken on St. George Island. Alaska,
May 25, 1911 (Hvermann).
In the 35 years following discovery of this species only two in
‘dividuals were seen, one in latitude 82°, north of Spitzbergen, about
1827 (Ross), and one at Felix Harbor in either 1830 or 1831 (Ross).
During the next 20 years only about 10 additional birds were seen,
and then in the three years from 1879 to 1882, the real home was
found and the birds were seen by hundreds.
In addition to the records given in the foregoing, Ross’s gull has
been taken on the west coast of Greenland about six times, from
Sukkertoppen to Melville Bay (Schalow); north of Spitzbergen in
midsummer, about latitude 84° 40’ (Sverdrup)—the most northern
record to date; near Franz Josef Land, one in 1873 (Payer); two in
Kamchatka (Saunders); and one in Yorkshire, England (Saunders).
SABINE’S GULL. Xena sabini (J. SABINE).
Range.—Arctic regions of both hemispheres, south to South
America.
Breeding range.—Eggs of Sabine’s gull have been taken in only a
few localities, but these are scattered across the Arctic coast from
Greenland on the east to the mouth of the Yukon on the west, about
a hundred degrees of longitude. Then comes a space of a hundred
degrees in which the species is not known to breed, and then a large
colony of nesting birds is recorded from the Taimyr Peninsula in
northwestern Siberia (Middendorff), with no other known breeding
place within 2,000 miles in either direction. It is evident that the
real summer home of the species is in the Arctic regions of the Western
Hemisphere and that the breeders on the Siberian coast must be
considered a sporadic colony.
The type specimen was taken in latitude 75° 30’ in Melville
Bay, on the west coast of Greenland, July 25, 1818 (Sabine),
where the species was common and young were just hatching. The
most northern breeding record on this coast is at Thank God Harbor,
latitude 81° 40’, where a bird was taken containing an egg just
ready to be laid (Davis). To the westward the breeding range is
much farther south, since eggs were taken in latitude 63°, on South-
ampton Island in Hudson Bay during the summer of 1904 (Low).
Eggs were found by Collinson at Cambridge Bay, and the species is
common to abundant as a breeder on the shores of Liverpool and
Franklin Bays, Mackenzie (MacFarlane). It has not been found
nesting on any of the Arctic islands in either hemisphere, though it
was taken north to Walker Bay (Collinson), Wellington Channel
(Sutherland), and Prince Regent Inlet (Sabine). It was found com-
mon at Igloolik, on Melville Peninsula, but apparently did not breed
near there. Nor is it certain that it nests at Point Barrow, where
ee
66 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Murdoch, Seale, and McIhenny found it common in migration. It
breeds commonly at the mouth of the Yukon and on the shores of
Norton Sound and south along the Alaska coast to the mouth of the
Kuskokwim (Nelson).
Winter range.—The only place where Sabine’s gull has been found
in winter is on the coast of Peru. Here it is common in Callao Bay
from December (Markham) to April (Macfarlane). It was also taken
B2082-0
Fira. 31.—Sabine’s gull (Xema sabini).
at ‘Tumbez, on the extreme northern coast of Peru, in September, 1872
(Steere). Except as single birds have been found wandering far
inland, the record for Callao Bay is the only known occurrence of the
species for half the year, from October to April. Whenever the
winter home of Ross’s gull is discovered Sabine’s gull will probably
be found there also, for the two species arrived together at the mouth
of the Kolyma River, Siberia, the first of June, 1905 (Buturlin),
and were together when seen in migration in May several hundred
miles west of that district (Buturlin).
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS AND THEIR ALLIBS., 67
Migration range.—During both spring and fall Sabine’s gull occurs
regularly on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States and
has also wandered inland so many times that there are records of it
from most of the States of the Union. There are no Mexican, Central
American, or West Indian records, except afew on the western coast
of Lower California, and no record on the whole coast of the United
States from Long Island to Texas. The bird is known from Spitz-
bergen, Jan Mayen, the coasts of the North Sea, and inland to Austria-
Hungary, and Lake Geneva, Switzerland. It is a fairly common fall
migrant on the coast of Siberia, at Plover Bay (Dall), and was once
collected at Novo Marinsk at the head of the Gulf of Anadyr (Allen).
Spring migration.—The earliest dates of arrival at St. Michael,
Alaska, were May 7, 1851 (Adams), and May 10, 1878 (Nelson), and
the species became common there May 15-25. The first were seen
at Point Barrow June 2, 1882, and June 6, 1883 (Murdoch), and the
first at Camden Bay, Yukon, May 13, 1854 (Collinson). The fact
that the species was still common in April at the southern limit of its
range, in Peru, would seem to indicate that it remains in its winter
home until the breeding season is near at hand and then performs a
late and rapid migration.
During the period of spring migration the species is rarely noted in
North America south of the breeding grounds, and has been recorded
from Scarborough, Me., May 31, 1877 (Smith); Indian Head, New
Brunswick, May, 1878 (Boardman); Chicago, Ill., April 1, 1873 (Nel-
son); near Janesville, Wis., April, 1897 (Hollister); near Norway
House, Manitoba, June 11, 1859 (Kennicott); Cumberland Gulf, June
15, 1884 (Henderson); Winter Island, Melville Peninsula, June 29,
1822 (Parry); Fort Conger, Ellesmere Island, July 6, 1882 (Greely);
San Diego, Cal., May 15, 1905 (Nelson and Goldman); Monterey, Cal.,
several, April 9, 1903 (Breninger) ; one, May 12, 1897 (Loomis), and 11
birds, May 15-21, 1907 (Beck); near Bellabella, British Columbia,
several, May 24, 1911 (Wetmore); and Chilkat Inlet, Yukon, one, June
1, 1899 (Osgood).
The earhest eggs at St. Michael, Alaska, were laid June 5; by June
13, 1880, full complements of eggs were common; and the earliest
young were on the wing July 15-20 (Nelson). Eggs were just hatch- |
ing in Melville Bay, Greenland, July 25, 1818 (Sabine), while eggs
were taken on Southampton Island, Hudson Bay, June 28, 1908
(Low), and young were already on the wing at Poimt Dalhousie,
Mackenzie, August 8, 1848 (Richardson).
Fall migration.—Evidently some individuals start southward before
the normal ending of the breeding season, for the first fall migrants
have appeared at St. Matthew Island, Alaska, July 15, 1899 (Fisher) ;
near mouth of Georges River, Ungava Bay, middle of July, 1884
(Turner); Raynor South, Long Island, N. Y., July, 1837 (Giraud);
68 BULLETIN 292, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. |
while in 1907 the first fall migrants appeared at Monterey, Cal., July
22 (Beck), and were thus 2,000 miles south of the nesting grounds at
the time the earliest young were just learning to fly. In other years
the first appeared in August: Santa Cruz Island, Cal., August 6, 1909
(Wright); Monterey, Cal., August 23, 1894 (Loomis); near Los
Coronados Islands, Cal., August 20, 1910 (Wright); Unimak Island,
Alaska, August 14, 1901 (McGregor); St. Lawrence Island, Alaska,
August 29, 1879 (Nelson); San Quintin, Lower California, August
14, 1905 (Nelson and Goldman); and North Truro, Mass., August 21,
1889 (Miller).
In the interior Sabine’s gull has been taken at Cayuga Lake, N. Y.,
about 1887 (Eaton); on the Mississippi River opposite Clark County,
Mo., September, 1900 (Worthen); once at Cleveland, Ohio (Winslow) ;
Ann Arbor, Mich., November 17, 1880 (Covert); Burlington, Iowa,
October 15, 1891, and October 12, 1894 (Bartsch); Delavan Lake,
Wis., October 7, 1900 (Hollister); Big Lake, near Claremore, Okla.,
November, 1910 (Strode); Humboldt, Kans., September 21, 1876
(Snow); Beatrice, Nebr., September 2, 1899 (Swenk); Lincoln, Nebr.,
near, September 30, 1899 (Carriker); Albuquerque, N. Mex., October
7, 1900 (Birtwell); Ogden, Utah, September 28, 1871 (Allen); Terry,
Mont., several, September 22-23, 1904 (Cameron); Corvallis, Oreg.,
September 14, 1904 (Shaw); Mono Lake, Cal., September 18, 1901
(Fisher); and Okanogan Lake, British Columbia, September 9, 1897
(Brooks). It is somewhat strange that there should be about as
many records of Sabine’s gull in Colorado as in all the rest of the
interior. Most of them are between September 3 and November 17,
and come from the western edge of the plains from Fort Collins to
Denver, but one was taken September 26, 1886, in the mountains
near Breckenridge at 10,000 feet altitude (Carter).
The last seen at St. Michael, Alaska, was on October 10, 1879
(Nelson); Point Barrow, Alaska, October 22, 1881 (Murdoch), and
September 17, 1897 (Stone); Kowak River, Alaska, September 5,
1898 (Grinnell); Sea Island, Shoalwater Bay, Wash., September 24,
1897 (Dawson); San Francisco Bay, Cal., October, 1889 (Bryant);
) Monterey, Cal., October 5, 1899 (Loomis), October 28, 1907, and Octo-
| ber 6, 1909 (Beck); Igloolik, Melville Peninsula, August 13, 1822
(Parry); Kikkerton Island, Greenland, October 6; 1877 (Kumlien) ;
near Portland, Me., September 22, 1899 (Knight); Boston Harbor,
| Mass., September 27, 1874 (Brewster); Gardiners Bay, Long Island,
October 6, 1899 (Worthington); Quebec City, Canada, about October
1, 1909 (Dionne); and Corpus Christi, Tex., October (Armstrong).
A.
affinis, Larus, 4, 35.
alba, Pagophila, 5, 14-16.
Annotated list of species, 5-68.
argentatus, Larus, 4, 36-40.
artricilla, Larus, 4, 51-54.
B.
Bird refuges, 2-3.
borealis, Larus, 40.
brachyrhynchus, Larus, 5, 46-48.
brevirostris, Rissa, 4, 21-22.
Cc.
cachinnans, Larus, 40.
californicus, Larus, 4, 41-42.
canus, Larus, 4, 49.
D.
delawarensis, Larus, 4, 43-46.
Distribution, 4-5.
E.
Economic importance, 1-2.
F.
franklini, Larus, 4, 54-57.
G.
glaucescens, Larus, 4, 27-28.
Gull, Bonaparte’s, 5, 57-62.
California, 2,3, 4, 41-42.
Franklin’s, 2, 4, 5, 54-57.
glaucous, 5, 22-25.
glaucous-winged, 3, 4, 27-28.
great black-backed, 5, 30-33.
Heermann’s, 5, 49-51.
INDEX.
J.
Jeger, long-tailed, 5, 12-14.
parasitic, 5, 9-12.
pomarine, 5, 7-9.
Kittiwake, 5, 16-19.
Pacific, 5, 19-21, 49.
red-legged, 4,5, 21-22.
kumlieni, Larus, 5, 28-29.
L.
Larus aflinis, 4,35.
argentatus, 4, 36-40.
atricilla, 4, 51-54.
borealis, 40.
eachinnans, 40.
californicus, 4, 41-42.
canus, 4, 49.
delawarensis, 4, 43-46.
franklini, 4, 54-57.
glaucescens, 4, 27-28.
heermanni, 5, 49-51.
hyperboreus, 5, 22-25.
kumilieni, 5, 28-29.
leucopterus, 5, 25-26.
marinus, 5, 30-33.
minutus, 4, 62.
nelsoni, 4,30.
occidentalis, 4, 34-35.
philadelphia, 5, 57-62.
schistisagus, 4, 33-34.
vegee, 4, 40-41.
Legal protection, 3-4.
brachyrhynchus, 5, 46-48.
el
leucopterus, Larus, 5, 25-26.
herring, 3, 4, 36-40. longicaudus, Stercorarius, 5, 12-14.
Iceland, 5, 25-26.
ivory, 5, 14-16. M.
Kumlien’s, 5, 28-29.
laughing, 3, 4, 51-54. marinus, Larus, 5, 30-33.
little, 4, 62. Megalestris skua, 5-6.
Migration, 5.
mew, 4, 49. eee ee
Nelson’s, 4, 30. minutus, Larus, 4,62.
ring-billed, 4, 43-46, 49. N.
Ross’s, 4, 5, 62-65. nelsoni, Larus, 4,30.
Sabine’s, 5, 65-68. o.
short-billed, 5, 46-4849.
Siberian, 4, 35.
slaty-backed, 4, 33-34. ibe
Cae ars 34-35 Pagophila alba, 5, 14-16.
este ; parasiticus, Stercorarius, 5, 9-12.
H. philadelphia, Larus, 5, 57-62.
pollicaris, Rissa tridactyla, 5, 17, 19-21.
pomarinus, Stercorarius, 5, 7-9.
Private associations, protection, 3.
I. Protection, legal, 3-4.
Introduction, 1-5. private, 3.
occidentalis, Larus, 4, 34-35.
heermanni, Larus, 5, 49-51.
hyperboreus, Larus, 5, 22-25.
69
70 BULLETIN 292, U. S.
R.
Refuges, bird, 2-3.
Rhodostethia rosea, 4, 62-65.
Rissa brevirostris, 4, 21-22.
pollicaris, 5,17, 19-21.
tridactyla, 5, 16-19.
rosea, Rhodostethia, 4, 62-65.
Ss.
sabini, Xema, 5, 65-68.
schistisagus, Larus, 4, 33-34.
Skua, 2, 5-6.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
skua, Megalestris, 5-6.
Species, annotated list, 5-68.
Stercorarius longicaudus, 5, 12-14.
parasiticus, 5, 9-12.
pomarinus, 5, 7-9.
Te
tridactyla, Rissa tridactyla, 5, 16-19.
V.
vegee, Larus, 4, 40-41.
X.
Xema sabini, 5, 65-68.
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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
N; BULLETIN No. 293 43
e Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology &
L. O. HOWARD, Chief
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER October 7, 1915
THE GRASSHOPPER OUTBREAK IN NEW MEXICO DURING
THE SUMMER OF 1913.1
By Harrison E. SMITH,
Entomological Assistant, Cereal and Forage Insect Investigations.
INTRODUCTION.
Of the several important grasshopper outbreaks in the United
States during the summer of 1913 that of the so-called long-winged
Fic, 1.—Long-winged grasshopper (Dissosteira longipennis): Adult
female. About one-third enlarged. (Original.)
grasshopper (fig. 1) in the Pecos Valley of New Mexico proved one
of the most interesting. Though more or less important outbreaks
of this grasshopper have been reported heretofore, very little actual
data pertaining to this species appears to have been assembled.
The writer, under the direction of F. M. Webster, in charge of
cereal and forage insect investigations of the Bureau of Entomology,
spent the month of June, 1913, in the field investigating this rather
unusual invasion.
The data are of necessity in certain phases somewhat incomplete
since the investigations were carried on entirely under field condi-
tions, although a very considerable amount of information relative
to this species was obtained and is herein presented.
1 The grasshopper discussed in this paper is scientifically known as Dissosteira longi-
pennis Thomas; synonym, Oedipoda nebracensis Bruner.
4070°—15
2 BULLETIN 293, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
HISTORY IN AMERICA.
This long-winged grasshopper was originally described by Cyrus
Thomas in 1872 under the name of Oedipoda longipennis, from a
male specimen, marked “ Kansas,” submitted to him in a collection
from the Agricultural Department. C. V. Riley claims to have col-
lected this species in Colorado on his first trip to that State in 1867.
In 1876 S. H. Scudder proposed a new genus (Dissosteira) for the
reception of Oedipoda longipennis Thom. and Gryllus carolina Linn.,
designating the latter species as the genotype.
In 1875 Philip R. Uhler found this species in small numbers in
the region west of Colorado Springs, Colo.
In 1891 Lawrence Bruner, while upon a general tour of observation
to investigate rumored grasshopper ravages in different parts ofthe
Western States, stated that the species causing the alarm in Colorado
was “* a rather rare species, known as DP. longipennis, it
occurring at that time over 400 sq. miles of territory in sufficient
numbers to materially injure the grasses growing on the range of
the entire region. Grains and other cultivated plants did not appear
to be especially attractive to it. In fact, very little or no injury
was done by it to the cultivated crops growing within the region
infested.”
Between July 10 and 19, 1891, the late E. H. Popenoe visited Lin-
coln County, Colo., where grasshoppers of this species were so
numerous as to stop the trains.
In 1892 Kellogg stated that this species was locally hurtful in
Kansas, but that no serious crop destruction was threatened. He
stated further, “* * *™ This locust is a nonmigratory form,
occasionally abundant on the plains of eastern Colorado. It some-
times occurs in sufficient numbers in restricted areas to destroy all
vegetation.”
In 1895 Bruner noted this species Out on the plains
away from the foothills and irrigating ditches,” as quite abundant
over a large portion of Colorado and Nebraska. He believed
ea stony hillsides furnished a suitable place for the increase
of D. longipennis and several other barren-ground species.”
In 1896 Bruner again noted this species abundant in Colorado
and Nebraska, recording it attacking and actually destroying entire
fields of small grains, some corn, potatoes, and a number of garden
plants.
In 1898 this species was occasionally noted in western Kansas by
S. J. Hunter, who stated that in Edwards County this locust was
abundant in a portion of an alfalfa field of 320 acres. This was first
observed July 6. On September 1 females of this species were
seen ovipositing in this field. It was his opinion that this colony
ce Ok OF
1a
GRASSHOPPER OUTBREAK IN NEW MEXICO, 3
was bred and reared upon this ground. In the same year he also
recorded: “ On the evening of July 21 the locusts came from the west
down into Colorado Springs in countless numbers.”
In 1900 this insect invaded the town of Las Vegas, N. Mex., in
great numbers and crushed specimens were everywhere seen on the
sidewalks.
In 1904 Bruner wrote, regarding this species, “A native of the
high prairies of western Kansas, Nebraska, eastern Colorado, and
Wyoming; not nearly so abundant as it was five years ago.”
The 1913 outbreak of this species extended over 400 to 500 square
miles, the prairie grasses, grain, and garden crops within this area
being in great part devastated. Herds of cattle usually grazing
within this infested area were forced to travel from 11 to 13 miles
for grazing facilities, and would return to their usual watering
places only at intervals, varying from 24 to 56 hours. Freight and
passenger trains were repeatedly stopped by grasshoppers massing
upon the railroad tracks, this being frequent from the middle of
May until the first of July.
The prairie grasses within the infested area were so completely
ravaged that hardly a surface depression of the soil could be located
which was not from one-fourth to completely filled with grass-
hoppers’ droppings.
DISTRIBUTION.
This species is native to the western United States. Since Thomas
described the species from western Kansas it has been found in
Colorado, Wyoming, Nebraska, Idaho, New Mexico, Texas, and
Oklahoma.
SEASONAL HISTORY.
The eggs of this species in New Mexico evidently commence to
hatch en masse during the first week of May, though a few nymphs
may probably appear during the latter part of April.
Adults were first noted on June 4, and by June 24 the majority of
the grasshoppers were in the adult stage. However, third and
fourth stage nymphs were present in numbers up to the second week
in July.
So far as known, this species has but a single generation per year,
the eggs being deposited during late August and early September.
A MIGRATORY OR NONMIGRATORY SPECIES?
In 1892 Kellogg stated that in Kansas this grasshopper is a non-
migratory species.
4 BULLETIN 293, U.:S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
In 1913, from May 4 to June 24, nymphal droves of this species
traveled in a northeasterly direction some 15 to 18 miles, ravaging
the entire growth of prairie grasses in their path.
The species is gregarious, the early maturing adults remaining
with the nymphal droves until the majority have attained the fully-
winged state.
The adults are readily attracted to hghts, having been taken at
Clovis, N. Mex., during June, 1913, about 25 miles north of Elida,
where the main nymphal droves were located at the time.
In the winged state these insects are very wary and are excep-
tionally strong fliers.
ORIGIN OF OUTBREAK.
This outbreak originated from a tremendous swarm of adults flying
from some unknown point to the north. These settled in the outly-
ing districts of Elida, N. Mex., during the latter part of August and
early September. During one evening, when swarms of this species
were passing over Elida, large numbers of them flew against the
plate-glass window of a brilliantly hghted barber shop. The follow-
ing morning several bushels of dead grasshoppers were heaped on
the sidewalk.
BREEDING GROUNDS.
The breeding grounds on which these swarms settled to deposit
their eggs were in most part in a chain of sandhills running from
about 8 to 10 miles northwest to southwest of Elida. Another con-
siderable swarm settled and deposited eggs in the sandhills 64 miles
southeast of Elida.
On May 4, 1913, at a point 8 miles northwest of Elida, Mr. B. W.
Kinsolving noted the tiny grasshoppers coming out of the sand “by
the million.” Watching this area for a little over a week Mr. Kin-
solving says: “Tiny hoppers appeared to be coming out of the sand
continually. One evening during a heavy shower certain areas of this
breeding ground were covered at least 6 inches deep with tiny hop-
pers.”
On May 6, 1913, 64 miles southeast of Elida, Mr. Bruce Marsh
noted the tiny grasshoppers issuing from the sand in an area nearly
1 mile square, “the ground over this area appearing like a living
mass of crawling maggots.”
At about the same time the cowboys on the Littlefield ranch, 84
miles southwest of Elida, noted the sand moving up and down over
a great area. When examined they found “countless millions of
tiny hoppers crawling to the surface.”
GRASSHOPPER OUTBREAK ™N NEW MEXICO. 5
Though the major portion of the egg pods were deposited in the
sandhills during the fall of 1912, the writer was informed by several
parties that some of the eggs, at least, were deposited in hard land.
This is very probably true, but at best they constituted a very small
percentage.
METHODS OF TRAVEL.
Grasshoppers of this species appear to have a decided preference
for massing together and traveling over barren areas, such as road-
ways, footpaths, and along railroad, tracks and right of ways.
Over such areas, under favorable weather conditions, immense
droves 1 or 2 miles in length, massed closely together, travel along
at a rapid gait, all generally traveling in the same direction.
Though large droves mass and travel over the prairie proper, the
rate of travel is somewhat less than that of the droves passing over
barren areas.
Grasshoppers in the third nymphal stage travel at the rate of
from 8 to 12 feet per minute; those in the fourth instar from 15 to
20 feet per minute. The rate of travel of nymphs in the first two
instars is proportionally less. Nymphal droves of these grasshop-
pers, under proper weather conditions, travel from 1 to 2 miles a
day.
Adults taking flight during a heavy wind fly with the wind,
though generally facing it during the rise from the ground to the
desired altitude, which usually is from 30 to 40 feet. Adults have
been noted to alight on De surface of water and then easily take
wing therefrom.
WEATHER CONDITIONS.
Weather conditions are a very important factor in the dispersion
of the grasshoppers, at least during that period when the majority
are in the nymphal stages.
Throughout the month of June, 1913, the amount of precipitation
in New Mexico was greatly in excess of normal.
On dark, cloudy days or during rainy weather the grasshoppers
travel very little. Under such conditions they generally collect be-
neath available shelter, or mass upon the prairie to feed, or slowly
wander around with no apparent object in view. If, however, during
one of these periods the sun breaks through the clouds to shine bril-
liantly for a few moments, every individual becomes active and almost
immediately the entire drove is rapidly moving along its usual course
of travel. The moment the sun disappears travel ceases as promptly
as it began, and the former state of inactivity is soon restored.
During fair, bright sunny weather travel usually commences early
in the forenoon and continues until the latter part of the afternoon.
6 BULLETIN 293, U..S.;. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Under high prevailing wind conditions the grasshoppers will seek
the windward side of any available shelter, there to remain until the
wind has ceased or considerably abated.
FEEDING HABITS.
The major portion of the feeding takes place during the early
morning hours and the last part of the afternoon, although intermit-
tent feeding is indulged in throughout the day. Under favorable
weather conditions the approximate hours of feeding are from day-
Jight until 8 or 9 o’clock in the forenoon, and from 8 to 4 o’clock until
sundown during the afternoon. Apparently little or no feeding
takes place during the night. The foliage may be entirely devoured
or irregular patches cut out from the margin of the leaves. The
stems or stalks may be partly or entirely girdled and cut off.
FOOD PLANTS.
Grama grass (Bouteloua oligostachya), buffalo grass (Bulbilis dac-
tyloides), and mesquite grass (Bouteloua hirsuta) are by preference
the most relished food plants of this species. Fields of maize, kafir
corn, and millet were completely devastated. Millet is in all instances
a most desirable food plant. Mr. Hobson, of Elida, informed the
writer that he noted the grasshoppers massing in 5 acres of millet on
his farm, and in less than 30 minutes every plant had been eaten to
the ground. Sorghum is fed upon to a slight extent, but is seldom
disturbed if other more desirable food plants are readily available.
Truck crops in the infested area were entirely defoliated, including
the following plants: Cultivated mustard, radish, lettuce, squash,
sweet potato, young white potato (old plants seldom disturbed),
tomato, sweet corn, and immature onion plants.
Under certain conditions Russian thistle (Salsola tragus) is read-
ily fed upon, and slight feeding upon soapweed (Chlorogalum pom-
eridianum) has been noted.
Though S. J. Hunter has recorded this species as being abundant
in part of a 320-acre tract of alfalfa in western Kansas during 1898,
nymphs of this species forwarded to the Wellington, Kans., labora-
tory, and confined in a Comstock cage placed over alfalfa plants,
failed to display any desire for feeding upon this plant, the nymphs
ultimately dying from apparent starvation.
PREDACIOUS ENEMIES.
Among the more important bird enemies noted to be feeding upon
grasshoppers during this invasion were the desert horned lark (Ofo-
coris alpestris leucolaema), western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta) ,
GRASSHOPPER OUTBREAK IN NEW MEXICO. 7
desert sparrow hawk (falco sparverius phalaena) , nighthawk (Chor-
deiles virginianus), killdeer (Oxyechus vociferus), and quail (Col-
nus virginianus). The results of further investigations in coopera-
tion with the Biological Survey on the destruction of grasshoppers
by birds in New Mexico will be published in another connection.
Several species of lizards, which were very numerous in this local-
ity, fed voraciously upon the nymphs. Oftentimes lizards were noted
-so bloated from grasshopper feeding that travel was accomplished
only with great difficulty. Horned toads: were also heavy feeders
upon the immature grasshoppers.
While the large droves were passing through the prairie-dog towns
these animals appeared to feed upon the grasshoppers in numbers.
PARASITIC ENEMIES.
A dipteron, Sarcophaga kellyi Ald., was found to be by far the
most important factor in the control of this species, and it was
equally efficient as a parasite upon both the nymphs and adults.
Larviposition by the female of S. kellyi was continually noted
throughout the month of June. The female, as far as observed by
the writer, always chose individuals freshly molted or inactive, but
in an apparently healthy condition.
During the latter part of June the grasshoppers were enormously
reduced in numbers from parasitism by S. kellyi. It was a simple
matter to count 15 or more dead grasshoppers to the square foot over
large areas. The grasshoppers died in such numbers in some lo-
calities that ranchers informed the writer that certain droves were
almost completely destroyed.
On June 16 a female of S. /ellyi was noted to deposit tiny mag-
gots on the dorsum of the thorax (pronotum) of a freshly molted
nymph. This nymph was captured as the fly finished the act. The
fly in question was then noted to rest upon the thorax of a second
nymph, where it commenced to larviposit. At this time, while in the
act of depositing a maggot, she was captured, and, although badly
crushed, the specimen was not so greatly disfigured but that com-
parison with previously reared specimens proved beyond a question
that all were identical. Careful comparison of this female taken in
the act of larviposition, with another female noted to be larvipositing
in the same manner, but not captured while in the act, proved again
that both were the same species.
From the captured nymph above noted six specimens of S. hellyi
were reared.
This was the only female which the writer was able to capture in
the act of depositing the tiny maggots, but it abundantly determined
the method of larviposition utilized by S. kellyi in parasitizing D.
ee
8 BULLETIN 293, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
longipennis. Sarcophagids were continually noted to larviposit on
nymphs left comatose upon the open prairie, after having been stung
by a wasp (Priononyx atrata Lep.). In not a single instance was
it possible to note a sarcophagid endeavoring to strike a moving
nymph or flying adult.
When large numbers of the grasshoppers were molting at approxi-
mately the same time the familiar noise of hundreds of female sar-
cophagids in search of their victim was easily heard. Hot, sunny
weather greatly stimulated the activities of the flies, as well as those
of the grasshoppers, whereas cold, cloudy, or rainy weather mvari-
ably checked them.
The female, upon locating a suitable victim, was observed to alight
upon the dorsum of the thorax and quickly deposit several living
maggots, which, encountering only the soft, tender membrane, speed-
ily made their way into the body
cavity of their host. The maggots
are capable, however, of entering a
host which is fully dried out and
hardened, the writer having noted
a female sarcophagid to larviposit
on a grasshopper nymph (fig. 2)
which had been stung by Priononye
atrata and left upon the open prai-
rie beside the partially excavated
Fic, 2.—Long-winged _ grasshopper: hole of the wasp: the maggots de-
Nymph which had been stung by the : :
Si cnonuel aikator aiid. On Mamie posited soon entering the host and
the parasitic fly Sarcophaga kellyi the puparia later emerging, to give
afterwards deposited a larva. About : .
Been eaical teed! (Origiial) issuance to adults of S. kelly?.
The number of living maggots
deposited by the female upon an individual host during one period
of larviposition would vary from 1 to 7 or more, although from 3 to
6 appeared to be the more general. The writer has reared individuals
from five puparia of S: kellyi taken from an adult of Dissosteira
carolina captured at Wellington, Kans., on the wing July 9, 1913,
the maggots emerging from the host July 10, As many as 16 mag-
gots have been found in the body cavity of a large nympth of Wip-
piscus sp. in New Mexico.
The maggots of S. hellyi usually issue from their host just pos-
terior to the anterior coxa. <A certain percentage, however, depart
from the host by boring through the abdomen at the segmental
sutures or by passing through the anal orifice. Upon leaving the
host the maggots may enter the soil directly beneath their victim, or
they may crawl several feet away before entering the ground. The
summer generations of S. kellyi pupate from one-half to 2 inches
GRASSHOPPER OUTBREAK IN NEW MEXICO, 9
below the soil surface, but very probably the maggots or puparia of
_ the hibernating fall generation enter the soil to a much greater depth.
Sarcophaga kellyi is a plural-brooded species, several generations
occurring during the.season. At least two and probably three gen-
erations went through to maturity as parasites of D. longipennis
from early May to the middle of July.
The grasshoppers will die from the effects of the parasitism while
in the act of feeding, and thus they are found hanging to a grass
stem, the mandibles firmly attached, in their last dying grasp. The
dead grasshoppers lying on the ground may be full of crawling
maggots still feeding or endeavoring to issue from their host to enter
the soil. When the maggots have emerged from the host only the
shell of the grasshopper remains.
Methods of larviposition much similar to those noted by the writer
have been recorded by Kunkel d’Herculais on Sarcophaga clathrata
Meig. in Algiers during 1893-1905. Apparently the foregoing
writer had only one species of Sarcophaga involved, as was true in
the case of the writer during the present studies.
Second in importance as a controlling factor of D. longipennis
was the preying upon the nymphs by the sphecid wasps Priononyx
atrata Lep.
These wasps were always present in large numbers among the
hoppers. Being very diligent workers, apparently working from
sunrise to sunset during favorable weather conditions, the numbers
of the grasshoppers were greatly depleted from their efforts. Dur-
ing the observations of the writer, however, only nymphs were noted
to be attacked.
In nearly every instance the single nymph placed in each nest is
stung before the excavation is undertaken, but occasionally the bur-
row will be completed before this is done. However, the female
wasps frequently sting several nymphs during the period of con-
structing a single nest, and in one instance, observed by the writer,
as many as five were stung by a single female while excavating an
individual burrow. In this case it was the last nymph stung which
was drawn into the burrow. The nest finished, the Priononyx flew
away, leaving the other four victims lying upon the prairie in a
comatose condition. The nymphs once stung by Priononyx seldom,
if ever, regain consciousness. This habit, naturally, increases the
efficiency of this species.
Usually the hopper is stung in the abdomen, but stinging in the
venter of the head regions is common. The wasp, approaching the
victim unawares, generally seizes and stings it so quickly that the
grasshopper has little opportunity to offer any effective resistance.
When a nymph is aware of the presence of a Priononyx it will sud-
denly assume the very characteristic protective attitude of defense.
10 BULLETIN 293, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Crouching close to the ground, it will raise the posterior pair of legs
above the abdomen in the shape of an inverted V, whereupon it will
remain perfectly quiet until the wasp has apparently departed.
Though the Priononyx will occasionally attack a nymph while in this
protective attitude, a severe struggle generally ensues, with the grass-
hopper infrequently the victor.
A large number of the nymphs which have been stung by Prio-
nonyx and left upon the prairie while she is building the nest are in
the meantime larviposited upon by Sarcophaga kelly.
The nest is usually built in compact sand. Between railroad tracks
and along the right of ways are also desirable nesting places. The
excavation of the burrow is commenced by the female rapidly
scratching away the surface with the anterior pair of legs. As the
depth of the burrow increases the head is cooperatively brought into
play with the workings of the anterior legs, when finally the exca-
vation of the burrow is completed by the wasp bringing huge
mouthfuls of the soil to the surface. The burrow is excavated almost
vertically downward to a depth of 14 to 2 inches and about one-
half inch in diameter. The bottom of the burrow is then excavated
in a horizontal direction until a cavity is made sufficiently large con-
veniently to permit of a nymph being placed within it. In drag-
ging the nymph to the burrow the wasp assumes a horizontal posi-
tion astraddle the victim. Seizing the nymph with her mandibles
at the base of the antenne, she drags it venter down to the entrance
of the burrow. Then facing the nymph, still holding it at the base
of the antenne, she backs into the burrow, dragging in the nymph
head foremost behind her. Placing the nymph in the horizontal
cavity at the base of the burrow, venter down, in a horizontal posi-
tion, she deposits a single egg. This egg, white in color, elongate
oval, and somewhat curved, is invariably attached to the tender
membrane at the base of the posterior coxa.
The egg having been deposited, the wasp proceeds to the surface.
Taking a position, back to the burrow, she rapidly scratches the
excavated soil into the hole. From time to time she packs down the
soil with her head, which she uses as a most efficient ramming instru-
ment. The excavation filled, the wasp carries small sticks, stones,
cinders, and the like—these often much heavier than the wasp her-
self—and places them over the burrow. The time elapsing from the
moment the nest is started until its completion usually varies from
30 minutes to 1 hour.
Though it is virtually impossible for the human eye to locate a
completed Priononyx nest, there is a bembecid wasp, Megastizus
unicinctus Say, a secondary upon Priononyx atrata, which without
the least difficulty locates the Priononyx nest with the greatest exacti-
GRASSHOPPER OUTBREAK IN NEW MEXICO. 11
tude. After Priononyx has completed a nest, a Megastizus will locate
it, reexcavate the burrow, and proceed to destroy the egg deposited
-upon the nymph by the sphecid. This egg is apparently destroyed
by the Megastizus crushing it between her mandibles. The Megas-
tizus then deposits upon the nymph an egg of her own.
Megastizus is not particular about refilling the burrow, nor does she
attempt to hide the location of it in any manner, as does the Prio-
nonyx. Oftentimes Megastizus will leave the nest when the burrow is
not more than half refilled with soil. Occasionally the Priononyx
will be driven from her nest by Megastizus while in the act of filling
up her burrow. Neither Priononyx nor her nest, however, were ever ;
noted to be disturbed by Megastizus until after the prey had been
placed in the burrow.
Megastizus never attempted to sting a grasshopper during the
present observations, but preyed upon Priononyx entire:y, in the role
of a secondary within the sphecid’s nest. Being present in consid-
erable numbers, it most certainly affected the efficiency of Priononyx
to a great extent.
ARTIFICIAL REMEDIES.
The most effective artificial means of exterminating the grasshop-
pers of this species was found in the use of the poisoned bran mash.
This was made as follows: Thoroughly mix together in the dry state
25 pounds of wheat bran and 1 pound of Paris green. Into a sepa-
rate receptacle containing 2 quarts of a cheap molasses or sirup add
the juices and finely ground skin and pulp of three oranges or lemons.
Dilute the molasses mixture in 2 gallons of water and add to the
poisoned bran mixture. Thoroughly mix the two together, adding
enough more water, if necessary, to bring all to a stiff dough. This
amount of poisoned bait will treat from 5 to 10 acres.
The bait should be sown broadcast early in the morning, before
sunrise, in strips 1 rod apart, over the area to be treated. The
most satisfactory method of distributing the bait is to sow it from
the rear end of a buggy.
In using the poisoned bait as above, with lemons as the fruit em-
ployed, tremendous numbers of the grasshoppers were exterminated.
As many as 75 dead grasshoppers per square foot were frequently
found, several days after the application, over large areas. The
grasshoppers usually die from 6 to 80 hours after taking the poisoned
bait into the system. |
Coarse-flaked brans should be used in preference to the fine-flaked
varieties. Only those brands of Paris green which are guaranteed
to contain not less than 55 per cent of arsenic should be employed.
Arsenate of lead should not be used in any form. There have ex-
12 BULLETIN 293, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
isted some differences of opinion as to whether oranges or lemons
make the bait more effective. As 75 per cent of the efficiency of the
bait is attributed to the use of these citrous fruits, this point is natu-
rally a very important one. The writer, in extensive experiments
with different species of grasshoppers, has yet to note any material
advantage or marked difference of efficiency in favor of either
oranges or lemons.
The Criddle mixture, as commonly employed in grasshopper ex-
termination, was not experimented with during the present investi-
gation for lack of available material. But as nymphs of this species
are voracious feeders on horse droppings and dried “cow chips”
there seems little question but what this bait could be effectively used
if the ingredients were readily available.
On account of the irregularity of the land in the infested area of
this outbreak the use of a hopperdozer was not practicable.
LITERATURE CITED.
1872. Thomas, Cyrus. Notes on the saltatorial Orthoptera of the Rocky Mountain
Regions. In U. S. Geol. Surv. of Montana and . . . Territories, being a
5th Ann. Rpt. of Progress, v. 5, p. 423-466, 2 pl.
1876. Scudder, Samuel H. Ann. Rpt. Geog. Surv. west of the 100th meridian .. .
being Appendix J J, of the Ann. Rpt. Chief of Engineers f, 1876, p. 278—295.
1877. Uhler, P. R. Report upon insects collected during the explorations of 1875, includ-
ing monographs of the families Cydnidae and Saldae, and the Hemiptera collected
by A. S. Packard, jr. Bul, U. 8. Geol. and Geog. Surv., v. 3, p. 765-801, pl. 27-28.
1891. Bruner, Lawrence. Destructive locusts of North America, together with notes on
the occurrences in 1891. In U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Insect Life, y. 4, nos, 1
and 2, p. 18-24.
1891. Popenoe, E. A. Notes on the recent outbreak of Dissosteira longipennis, In U.S.
Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Insect Life, v. 4, nos. 1 and 2, p. 41-42.
1892. Kellogg, V. L. Kansas Notes. In U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Insect Life, y. 5,
no. 2, p. 114-117.
1892. Kellogg, V. L. Common Injurious Insects of Kansas. 126 p., 61 fig.
Page 41-49. Injurious locusts.
1892. Riley, C. V. The locust or grasshopper outlook. Jn U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent.,
Insect Life, v. 4, nos. 9 and 10, p. 321-323.
1895. Bruner, Lawrence. Grasshopper report for 1895. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bul.,
Nt) 8:5).D0. 10, P= o2—oD.
1896. Bruner, Lawrence. Grasshopper report for 1896. U.S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bul.,
n. §., no. 7, p. 36—39.
1898. Hunter, S. J. Alfalfa, grasshoppers, bees: their relationship. Bul. Dept. Ent.
Univ. Kansas, no. 65, pt. 1, 64 p., 8 pl., 30 fig.
1898. Bruner, Lawrence. The first report of the Merchants’ Locust Investigation Com-
mission of Buenos Aires, 98 p., 1 pl., 28 fig.
Page 47. Tachina flies.
1904. Bruner, Lawrence. Grasshopper notes for 1901. U. 8. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Bul,
n. s., no. 38 (revised), p. 89-61.
Page 48. Dissosteira longipennis.
1893-1905. Kunckel d’Herculais, J. P. A. Invasions des Acridiens yulgo Sauterelles en
Algerie, t. 1, pt. 2, p. 690, .
1914. Kelly, E. O. G. A new sarcophagid parasite of grasshoppers. Jn U. S. Dept. Agr.,
Jour. Agr, Res., v. 2, no. 6, p. 435-446, pl. 40.
WASHINGTON ; GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1915
\
Contribution from States Relations Service
A. C. TRUE, Director
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 30, 1915
LESSONS ON COTTON FOR THE RURAL COMMON
SCHOOLS.
By C. H. Lang,
Chief Specialist in Agricultural Education, States Relations Service.
INTRODUCTION.
In the cotton States the importance of elementary agriculture as a
school subject is very generally recognized, and it is now being taught
to a greater or less extent in a large proportion of the rural schools.
More and more it is becoming a part of the daily program of the
schools.
It is hoped that these lessons, exercises, and references on the grow-
ing of cotton, based on economic production and properly supervised,
may serve as a supplement to the organized school work in elementary
agriculture, contributing in a very definite way elements that can be
obtained by no other means.
The application of the lessons as outlined here will put the boy
at actual farm problems where the expenditure of more or less money
is necessary and where profitable incomes may be expected. Thus,
through textbook instruction, laboratory exercises, correlations, and
practical work in the growing of cotton on the home farm, this bulletin
will aid in developing the real educational value of this study.
LESSON I.
Subject.—Varieties of cotton.
Topics for study.—Points of difference between the following
prominent and typical varieties of cotton: Cook Improved, Cleveland
Big Boll, Triumph, Truitt, Lone Star, Rowden, Foster, Snowflake,
Jackson, Trice, Griffin, Express, Russell, Columbia, Durango, and
Georgia Big Boll. How many of these varieties are grown in your
school district? Which has proved most profitable? Compare
one of these varieties with some local variety not found in the list.
NortE.—This bulletin furnishes elementary lessons on cotton and is of interest to rural school teachers
in the Southern States.
4069°—Bull. 294—15
2 BULLETIN 294, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Emphasize the desirability of communities restricting themselves
to one kind of cotton. Place the above varieties under the following
sroups: (1) Big-boll group (see fig. 1); (2) long-staple group (see
fig. 2); and (3) small-bolled early group (ee fig. 3).
Exercises—Have six or more pupils bring all the varieties of cotton
mentioned in this lesson they can find at home or in the neighbor-
Fig. 1.—Triumph.
hood. These samples should be used in studying the shape of plant,
size and shape of bolls, and relative earliness and colors of seed.
Have the pupils report in writing the opinions of several farmers as
to which varieties are thought to make the largest yields of lint.
Before the pupils attempt to select the most desirable plants from
which to select seed for the next year’s crop, have them read the
LESSONS ON COTTON FOR RURAL COMMON SCHOOLS. 8
references. Then have the pupil bring from the home farm that
| plant which he thinks approaches nearest to his ideal cotton plant
7 for use in the lesson on judging cotton.
References.:—Bureau of Plant Industry Bul. 163; Office of Experi-
ment Stations Bul. 33, pp. 197-224 (these two bulletins are procurable
f ws
S.-i
Fic. 2.—Durango.
only from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing
Office, Washington, D. C., at 25 cents and 60 cents, respectively);
Farmers’ Bul. 601, pp. 3-5; U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1902, pp.
365-389.
1 The references in this bulletin are to publications of the U. S. Department of Agriculture unless other-
wise specified.
4 BULLETIN 294, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
LESSON II.
Subject.—The botany of cotton.
Topics for study.—This lesson should deal with significant points,
such as the morphology and physiology of the plant, including the
effect of temperature and moisture on germination and rate of growth,
branching habits, cross-fertilization and its effect, the range of type
within the variety, and the significant features of well-recognized
varieties. Such points as these have a direct bearing upon the lessons
Fig. 3.—King.
of judging cotton, seed selection, time and methods of planting, and
time and manner of thinning.
Cotton roots: Dig down around a cotton plant and see how near
the surface the roots grow. Compare the root system of cotton with
corn, and determine the effect of deep cultivation after the plant is
several inches high.
Stems and branches: Study carefully the different types of branches,
their function, and arrangement on the plant, as these are important
means of distinguishing varieties and determining productiveness
and earliness.
ie
LESSONS ON COTTON FOR RURAL. COMMON SCHOOLS. 5
A blooming cotton plant:
Root: Fibrous or taprooted ?
Stem: Shape of stem, color of bark, color of wood.
Leaves: Alternate or opposite? Shape. Numberof lobes. Make
drawing showing veins.
Calyx: Size, shape.
Corolla: Color, shape, size.
Petals: Number separate or coalescent.
Stamens and pistils: Number of each. Make drawings of sta-
mens and pistils.
Exercises—Bring a sufficient number of cotton stalks into the
schoolroom, or better still, go with the class to a field of standing
cotton. Make notes of your observations in answer to questions on
Topics for Study.
References.—Bureau of Plant Industry Circ. 109, pp. 11-16;
Bureau of Plant Industry Buls. 221, 222, 249; Textbooks on ele-
mentary agriculture; Office of Experiment Stations Bul. 33, pp. 67-80.
LESSON III.
Subject.—Judging cotton.
Topics for study.—Object of cotton judging. Meaning of expres-
sion cotton “‘runs out.’’ Four reasons for depreciation in productive-
ness and quality. Crossing versus selection as a means of improving
cotton. Simplest method of selection. Principal qualities desired in
the plant.
Exercises.—With the, use of the score card and directions for
judging cotton given below, determine the best plant selected by the
pupils.
DIRECTIONS FOR JUDGING COTTON.1
1. THe PLANT.
On the score card as suggested the ideal plant is given a rating of
25 points. In judging the exhibits in contests, cuts should be made
more severe as the plant departs farther from the standard.
For plants departing only slightly from the variety standard as to
size, a cut of 1 to 14 points should be made. If this departure is
very marked a cut of 3 points may be made.
For excessively long joimts and poorly placed and developed
branches cut a maximum of 2 to 5. For slight defects in these
respects cut from 24 to 3 points.
For a plant which develops a single central stem bearing numerous
horizontal fruiting branches allow five points as the perfect score.
1 Adapted from directions published by the Georgia State College of Agriculture.
6 BULLETIN 294, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Score card for the cotton plant.
Score.
The cotton plant.
Per- Stu- Cor-
fect. | dent’s. | rected.
Plant, vigorous, stocky, 25 points:
Size, medium to large as influenced by soil, location, season, and varicty....| . 5 Reo Ss | Eee
Form, symmetrical, spreading, conical, height, and ‘spread according to soil,
Ol Eee aE Se Sepa acer ree nane sao DEO gos pnee Sap! Soc db Scabeasotceseisoedoe D) || -Praeoe [Pesonoe
Stalk, minimum amount of wood in proportion to fruit............--.---.--- tay ae meee | Seite
3ranche Ss, Springing from base, strong, vigorous, in pairs short-jointed, in-
clined upw Dh 6 las eee ae ee Be claim. mene eee cin ae 52 |au8 se 26 | pee
Head, well branched and filled, fruited uniformly
ee ‘Od points:
Bolls, large, abundant, uniformly developed, plump, sound, firm, well-
rounded, apex obtuse, s Sing ly,ongi; CIUSLOES= 2-24 eeneemenen cane eae Asi eee | ees
Number of bolls, ae cording to: variety, Soll; andiscasolssece -.- aceon enieeeae ha Peepers aay IE To oe oe
30lls per plant, tl 1in uplands, 10-20; fertile uplands, 20-25; ‘‘bottoms,’’
50-100; special selection,,.100—-b002. =: tee aes ane ee See 4) anos Sees
30lls par pound of seed cotton, large, 40-60; medium, 60-75; small, 80-110. - Sl Peers eet ee
Character of bolls, number of locks 3 to 5 5; kind of sepals; retention of cotton. Ce Peed hae cess
Opening of bolls, ttniform including top crop, classify as good, medium, poor. Cal RE ee eset asa
Yield—standard 1 bale per acre, 30 points:
Seed cotton, estimated by average plant, distance of planting, per cent of
stand, plants per acre; thin uplands, 10,000; fertile uplands, 6,500; ‘‘bot-
toms,”’ 4,500; distance ‘of plants 33 by 1} feet, 44 by 1} feet, 43 by 2 feet, re-
spectiv ely Ets SHAS clan ecia serial ae mstele eee ne eee eee ee ere ee tee eee emoaee 123 ee eer
Per cent lint, not less than 30,:standard 33 to 35..........-..---..----2+----- 12 | se eee
Seeds, 30-50 per boll, large, plump, easily delinted, color, according to variety;
germination not less than 95 ioe (Ul once onoak yEnc aauesuCEboeeBenatodae (ial Re ANS 23
Quality and character of lint, 21 points:
Strength, tensile strain good, even throughout length.............-......--- 50) Stee eee
Length, common standards for uplaad, short % to 1 inch, premium 1, to
14 inches; long staple, 13% inches and better -..... ----2----0------- 22 cn - ne DB loottooa| ee
Tinene SS, fibers Soft 5 silky, and pliable, responsive to touch.......---::...-- igi Esser See ie ant
Uniformity, all fibers of equal length, strength, fineness.....-.-.----.---:--- 53) eee ees
Purity, color dead ¥ “hite; fiber free from stain, dirt, and trash-..-.-- SS ee igs eee) hee ee
NOR Of lam bee fe eee: SOUrce Le sol
VY Peis obsess die sods hace eetiemin bea) _pe Be. a) sate
Remarks on plant.) 5a ee eis a ee oe
N BE oi sat ee ioe ee = LO es ay Name ofistudent...0. 2.5. -5 3 eee
When the head is full, on account of superabundance of long
upright branches, cut a maximum of three pomts. As these faults
are less pronounced, reduce the cuts until for shght defects on these
accounts 2 minimum cut of one-half point should be given.
2. PROLIFICACY.
In considering the fruitfulness of a plant or set of plants the term
prolificacy can be used only in a relative sense. The plant possessing
the greatest number and best-formed bolls should be given a rating of
24, or perfect in this respect, while others should be cut more or less
severely as the number of bolls they bear falls below that of the
standard. The single or cluster arrangement of bolls should vary
with the typical habit of the variety; some varieties are cluster
bearers while others are noted for bearing bolls singly. Uniformity
in which the bolls are arranged on any exhibit should be made the
standard. Give an exhibit absolutely uniform in this respect 4
points. As others are more or less irregular in this respect cut from
1 to 14 points on the score ecard.
LESSONS ON COTTON FOR RURAL COMMON SCHOOLS. i
Next in importance to prolificacy or number of bolls is their size,
shape, and manner of opening. Large bolls yield more cotton
per boll than do small ones. There is also a difference in the average
size of the bolls on different plants of any single variety. The prefer-
ence should be given to the plants bearing the larger bolls, provided,
of course, that the quality of lint is maintaimed and the increase
in size fully compensates for the decrease in number.
The shape or form should be true to that peculiar to the particular
varicty shown. Uniformity in shape or form in plants and fruit shows
good breeding and also suggests ability to transmit desirable qualities
to the progeny. Consequently it is of value to the plant breeder. As
the bolls are of different shapes cut from one-half to one point as the
number departing greatly from the variety shape increases. Special
attention should be given to malformed bolls.
The way in which the mature bolls open is of importance. The
opening should be such as to make the cotton easy to pick, but at
the same time it should not be such as to cause easy shedding of lint.
For the best opening bolls give the plant a rating of 5 points. If the
opening is only fair make a cut of from 1 to 14.
3. YIELD or SEED Corton.
Yield of seed cotton, while depending on the qualities already
discussed, that 1s, the right kind of a plant and a sufficiently large
number of bolls of good size and shape, should have considerable
weight in fixing the value of superior rating of any cotton exhibit.
After the exhibit has been rated as to prolificacy and size of bolls,
select a fixed number, say 10 four-locked or five-locked bolls already
opened, pick the seed cotton from these bolls, determine the yield
from these bolls, and then from this average calculate the yield
from the entire 10 plants constituting the exhibit. Give the best
yielding lot a rating of 30 points. Then as others yield less and less
give them a maximum accordingly.
After total yield has been rated attention must be given to the per-
centage of lint produced by the different lots of cotton to be judged.
This is given a possible rating of 12 poimts, which should be assigned
only to samples showing not less than 35 per cent of the lint to the
cotton seed. For each and every 1 per cent below 33 the sample
should be given a cut of 1 point. Thus if a sample should only show
25 -per cent lint it should receive a cut of 10 points, which, deducted
from the possible score of 12 points, indicating perfection, leaves
only 2 points to the credit of the sample.
The percentage of lint should be determined by taking the contents
of a few bolls from each sample, placing them in the sun, or, better,
in a dry room, for a period sufficiently long to bring the samples to a
8 BULLETIN 294, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
uniform point of dryness; after which the lint should be removed
from the seed by hand, then each-carefully weighed and the per-
centages calculated.
4. Quatity or Lint.
Quality of lmt is assigned a possible rating of 21 points on the
score card. These are divided as follows: Strength, 5 points;
length, 5 points; fineness, 5 points; purity, 1 pomt; uniformity
as to length, fineness, purity, and freedom from faulty fibers, 5
points. Of course, these scores are only intended to offer means or
standards by which the different exhibits may be compared. There-
fore, when there are points about which there seems to be uncer-
tainty the most perfect sample can well be given the highest score
obtainable for that pomt. Then the others should be rated as they
approach the standard fixed by this better sample. Thus, for the
longest lint give five points and the same for the finest; also, that
showing the greatest degree of purity and also for the greater uni-
formity. Then, as other samples fall short in any one of all these
respects cut accordingly.
Exercises.—Combing and mounting (fig. 4) samples of seeds from
bolls of different varieties will be instructive to pupils.
References.—Bureau of Plant Industry Bul. 222; Farmers’ Bul. 591;
cotton score card published by the State agricultural college; State
cotton growers’ association, if there is one.
LESSON IV.
Subject.—Selecting seed.
Topres for study.—Qualities desired in the plant. Four defects of
boll to be looked for in selecting seed for planting. In how many
directions does the cotton selected for judging purposes need im-
provement? Discuss how these improvements may be brought
about. What constitutes good seed for planting? Where to obtain
the best possible seed. How to gather seed for planting. Methods
of separating large and small or heavy and light seed. Growing
improved varieties, advantages, money value.
Exercises.—Let the pupils pick the cotton from 100 plants of
poorest or least productive ones and weigh. From this weight
determine how many plants of this type would be required to give
a yield of 1,500 pounds of seed cotton or one bale of 500 pounds of
lmt. Then have the pupils pick the cotton from 100 of the best
plants found in some cotton patch. Determine the number of bolls
they contain, the average number per plant, the number required
to give 500 pounds of lint, the number of plants required to produce
this yield.
LESSONS ON COTTON FOR RURAL COMMON SCHOOLS.
Fic. 4.—Varieties in order from top: Blackseed, Durango, Lone Star, Trice, King, and Half-and-hallf,
10 BULLETIN 294, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
References.—Bureau of Plant Industry Cir. 66; Farmers’ Bul. 501;
Office of Experiment Stations Bul. 33, pp. 211, 212. Write to your
State college of agriculture for literature on selecting seed for
planting.
LESSON V.
Subject.—Place of cotton in crop rotation.
Topics for study.—(1) Reasons for rotation: (a) Different crops
make different requirements of the soil; (6) root systems differ; (c)
crops should be selected to suit varying seasonal conditions; (d)
the culture of one crop prepares for a succeeding crop of a particular
kind; (e) distribution of labor. (2) Cotton in systems of rotation.
How would you make a crop of cotton regardless of the boll weevil?
Exercises.—Draw plans of the home farm, showing fields, and
write in each field the crops in the order in which they were grown
during the last five years. Write to the State agricultural college
for (a) a system of crop rotation in cotton farming and for (6) a
system of rotation in live-stock farming, which will help to create
extensive home markets for roughage and leguminous crops and at
the same time add to the fertility of the soii.
References—Farmers’ Buls. 326, p. 21; 364, pp. 8, 9; Office of
Experiment Stations Bul. 33, p. 260.
LESSON VI.
Subject.—Preparation of the seed bed.
Topics for study.—It is good practice to plow any soils except the
sandiest in the fall, provided some winter-growing crop, such as the
small grains, or clovers, or vetches, are sown.
Kinds and conditions of soil necessary. Time of plowing.
Methods of plowing or breaking. Depth of plowing. When should
cover crops be turned under for cotton? Characteristics of a good
seed bed.
Exercises.—Show the effect of plowing under cloddy soil, or a large
cover crop, on the rise of capillary water; also the effect of disking a
cover crop, or heavy coating of manure into the surface soil before
turning under. Use four lamp chimneys, numbered 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Fill all to a depth of 5 inches with a sandy soil. Finish filling No 1,
using good loam soil. On top of the sand in No. 2 put 1 inch of
wheat or oat chaff well packed down. In No. 3 put 2 inches of fine
clods. Finish filling Nos. 2 and 3 with loam soil. Complete the
filing of No. 4 by using a mixture of loam and the same amount of
chaff used in No. 2. Set all chimneys in about 1 inch of water.
Observe and explain results.
References.—Textbooks on elementary agriculture; bulletins pub-
lished by the State agricultural college; Office of Experiment Stations
Bul. 33, pp. 258-260.
LESSONS ON COTTON FOR RURAL COMMON SCHOOLS. iets
LESSON VII.
Subject.—Fertilizers and how to apply them.
Topies for study.—What are the indispensable requirements for a
good cotton yield? What is one of the surest fertilizers for pro-
ducing a large cotton crop? Why? What element of plant food is
needed most by the soils for profitable cotton production in your
district? What necessary elements of plant food do commercial
fertilizers supply? When are such fertilizers likely to be profitable
and how should they be applied? Show the relation between profit-
able cotton production and the use of commercial fertilizers and
legumes in different kinds of soils. Name the steps necessary in
building up the soil permanently on a run-down cotton farm in
your district.
Exercises.—lf nitrogen is worth 16 cents per pound, available
phosphoric acid 4 cents, and potash 4 cents, figure the value of the
plant food in a ton of commercial fertilizer of the following composi-
tion: (1) Phosphoric acid 10 per cent, nitrogen 2 per cent, potash 2
per cent (10:2:2); (2) nitrogen 3 per cent, phosphoric acid 10 per
cent, potash 3 per cent (3:10:3). What percentages of phosphoric
acid, nitrogen, and potash are contained in a ton of fertilizer con-
sisting of 900 pounds of acid phosphate, 800 pounds of cottonseed
meal, and 300 pounds of kainit ?
References.—Farmers’ Buls. 44, 48, 326; Farm Arithmetic; Office
of Experiment Stations Bul. 33, pp. 169-196.
_ LESSON VIII.
Subject—When and how to plant cotton.
Topics for study— At what time do the best farmers im your school
district plant their cotton? Why should farmers wish to plant
cotton as early as it is safe from frost? Is there any advantage in
late planting in weevil-infested districts? There is no warrant in
fact for the idea that only the earliest and most inferior of cotton
can be grown under weevil conditions. See references on the im-
portance of community action as to season of planting. The weevil
invasion. should lead to a better appreciation of the importance of
growing improved varieties. Why? Close spacing, use and value
im crop increase. Show reasons for and against flat planting and
planting in beds. Which is frequently the practice in semiarid sec-
tions? Amount of seed per acre. How far are the rows spaced
apart? Time and purpose of ‘‘choppmg’’? Show the relation
between time of chopping and the branching habits of the plants
and that delayed thmning may result in suppressing the vegetative
branches and so increasing yield of cotton. What is the secret of a
prize-winning cotton aint
Exercises.—If each cotton seed planted 4 feet by 12 ee apart
developed into a mature plant, how many seed would be needed to
12 BULLETIN 294, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
plant an acre of ground? How many pounds would that require
for the different varieties? Source of cotton seed? How many
pounds of cotton seed do the best farms in your district raise on an
acre? How many bales of cotton do the best farms in your district
raise on an acre? Show how the production per acre may be increased
and the fertility of the soil maintained.
References.—U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook Sep. 579; Farmers’ Buls.
36; 48; 364; 501, pp. 11-13, 21; 510, pp. 13, 14; 601, pp. 3, 4, 6, 7;
Bureau of Plant Industry Cire. 1130; Office of Experiment Stations
Bul. 335 p. 261.
LESSON IX.
Subject—The cultivation of cotton.
Topics for study.—Stages at which a weeder or harrow is needed
in the cultivation of cotton. Importance of first tillage. Under
what special conditions may the turnplow be used for ‘‘barring off”
cotton? Shallow cultivation. Proper depth of cultivation. Fre-
quency of renewal. Advantages of closer spacing. What is best to
sow in cotton along in August in order to make winter pasturage ?
What can be sowed at the last ‘‘plowing”’ of cotton that will serve
as a winter cover to the land and furnish humus-forming material
to be turned under the following spring? Discuss the importance
of such a practice.
Exercises.—The effect of-frequent shallow cultivation to maintain
soil moisture may be shown by filling two cans or flower pots with
rich soil and planting cotton. When the plants are 2 inches high cover
the soil in one pot with a layer of coarse sand or granular dry soil
to a depth of 1 inch. Place in a warm place and observe which
plants first show the need of water.
References —A New System of Cotton Culture and Its Application
is the title of Farmers’ Bul. 601. Practice of cultivation on a profit-
able cotton farm may be found in Farmers’ Bul. 364, pp. 13, 14.
Bureau of Plant Industry Cire. 1130. Office of Experiment Stations
Bul. 33, p. 261. Nearly all the cotton States have one or more
bulletins on this subject. These should always be procured from the
State agricultural college and studied in class.
LESSON X.
Subject.—Insect and other enemies of cotton.
Topics for study.—The bollworm. The Mexican cotton-boll weevil.
The cotton caterpillar. The cotton red spider. The nematode worm.
The cowpea-pod weevil.
Exercises.—Find out from the farmers in the district the extent
to which cotton is injured by the above insects. The teacher and
pupils should study the features of the hfe history and of the
seasonal history of the weevil that are of cardinal importance in
‘LESSONS ON COTTON FOR RURAL COMMON SCHOOLS. 13
control. If possible, have the pupils collect and preserve for the
school exhibit local cotton insect pests.
References.—Farmers’ Buls. 500, 501, 512, 606; Office of Experi-
ment Stations Bul. 33, pp. 317-342.
LESSON XI.
Subject.—Cotton diseases.
Topics for study.—Cotton wilt. Cotton root rot. The control of
root rot by crop rotation. Boll rot or anthracnose. Cotton rust.
What should be said in reply to the question, ‘‘Do you know of any
method of cultivation or any fertilizer that will prevent blight in
cotton ?”’
Exercises—Have the pupils gather data at home concerning the
extent to which cotton is affected by the above diseases. If possi-
ble, have the pupils collect and preserve for the school exhibit local
cotton diseases.
References.—Farmers’ Buls. 555, 586, 625; Bureau of Plant
Industry Cire. 92; Office of Experiment Stations Bul. 33, pp. 279-
314. Nearly all the State agricultural colleges in the cotton States
have one or more bulletins or circulars on this subject. . These should
always be procured and studied in the class.
LESSON XII.
Subject—Harvesting and marketing cotton.
Topics for study.—The three chief elements to satisfy market condi-
tions are: (1) A definite and well-established standard, (2) reliable and
recular quotations based thereon, and (3) adequate storage facilities
to protect cotton against the weather and country damage, and which
at the same time places the cotton in position for the issuance of
warehouse receipts that may be used for obtaining loans at low rates
of interest. Time for harvesting. Gathering of the crop. Sepa-
ration of fiber and seed. Baling of the cotton. The nine United
States official cotton standards for grades in more or less general
use. How is the grade of a sample of cotton determined? Reasons
for protecting baled cotton from the weather.
Exercises —Through your pupils and especially those in a cotton
contest collect data for record blank shown on pp. 14 and 15.
References.—Department Bul. 62; Farmers’ Buls. 302, 364, 591;
Office of Experiment Stations Bul. 33, pp. 351-360, 381-384; U. 5.
Dept. Agr., Office of Markets and Rural Organization, S. R. A. 1.
LESSON XIll.
Subject.—Cotton seed.
Topics for study.—Cottonseed products in the feeding of farm
animals; as a human food; as a fertilizer.
Exercises. —With the assistance of reference books such as Henry’s
Feeds and Feeding work out with the pupils a balanced ration which in-
cludes cottonseed meal for a dairy cow, a 1,000-pound steer, and a work-
14 BULLETIN 294, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ing mule. Also prepare fertilizer formulas, which will include cotton-
seed meal for the common truck crops and cereals as well as for cotton.
veferences.—Farmers’ Buls. 22, 36, 170, 346, 410; Office of Experi-
ment Stations Bul. 33, pp. 385-421.
LESSON XIV.
Subject.—Cotton and its products.
Topics for study.—Agricultural products of cotton. Manufactured
products of cotton. By-products of cotton.
Exercises.—Which removes the most plant foods from the soil—
cotton that yields 1,000 pounds of seed cotton per acre or corn that
yields 25 bushels to the acre, the stalks and leaves left on the land
in both cases? In comparative valuations of feeding stuffs to what
extent in per cent does cottonseed meal exceed corn meal? In one
ton of cotton seed how many pounds are there of hulls, meal, and oil?
References.—Farmers’ Buls. 36, 286; Office of Experiment Sta-
tions Bul. 33, pp. 365-380.
EXHIBITS, REWARDS, AND ORGANIZATION FOR CLUBS.
Since the rural schools have begun to teach agriculture a wide and
useful field for school exhibits has come into existence. Many
teachers are using exhibits as the best means of calling the attention
of their respective communities to the work that is bemg done in
agriculture. It is well to hold an exhibit in the schoolhouse at the
close of the contests and invite parents and others interested m school
work to attend. Before an exhibit should be allowed to enter a
contest or school credit given for a home project in cotton, a report
similar to that given below should be kept and presented in good
condition with the exhibit.
For information and suggestions on rewards or prizes as well as
organization of clubs write your State agricultural college.
Record blank for club project in cotton.
CROP.
easone 2: 2... ClassSi22ccte ee Shas Wariety...=: 2): Plants per acre. --.-..
Charactemotisoile. 2-2 =. 2226 3.0 Sate Crop for 5 ‘years past: 525-42-0-= =e
.
SOIL PREPARATION.
Dateroitplowing sy. a2-0224. = 2s eae Dates of cultivation 522552 eeeeee ee
Implementmsede tee. a5 S02 as eee Implements used... 23gsh2 55 eee
Depth plowed se sence eee ae ey Cost of preparing seed bed.......-.-.--..
Cost of jolojwaiale ey see ie eee ee es Condition of land when seeded.......... S
CROP SEEDING AND CULTIVATION.
Variety of cotton planted:.........-.-.--- Amount of fertilizer per acre........
Date of planting see een eee Gost of fertilizer... <5. Sei cc eee
Cost of seed and seeding...-.-....------- Datesiof cultivation. 52. 2. oss. eeeeeeeee
Per,cent lof stand 225 Sasgeee eaten s Implements used -: ::5_ 5 -sa5eseeee
Distance between rows.....---..-------- Cost of cultivation. --.2- = SSE ee eee
Distance betweenvhilllsas eee ee Mand. of fertilizer_.-2... eee
LESSONS ON COTTON FOR RURAL COMMON SCHOOLS. 1165)
HARVEST AND YIELD.
WaherorWarVester =o ssc o4se25 6o2- sss iYavelduimiseed cottons 40034. fe ana s-
Days from seeding to harvest. .....-.--- Costmottharvest=s-st eos l. ewe LINES
INGOTS. <a poeple eGo Aree IME. oc yo cet a ESS aes ere A ea ae eee
ANOIOIROWEGLS. MR een MIE) <, SRA ee alee Teacher.
eee ee eae Student: pence see mee neers Wares Nae Meg enay pee
JPOSK: ONEVOCY. ly ete eee ee eae SMR cP Scene. art ae nar ete Part School.
Wommiypeerne eee ea. eee att sl
Estimate the rental of your land at $5 per acre and your time at 10 cents per hour, -
Count all commercial fertilizers at actual cost, and homemade manures at $2 for a
2-horse load of about 50 bushels, and $1 for a 1-horse load of 25 or 30 bushels.
EXPENSES.
veriigOialanOMes ane aaa Sot. aka sick. . 2 SRA EE... Seale Seoes se
Preparation of seed bed:
hours of horse labor, at 5 cents an hour for each horse....... .....-
Domemlapor at lOycents an hour foreaehetar 45 ae oer
CBS: O! SOC6 5225 cee SR eee Oe 65 SS RU ae sre races ee meee
Cost of planting, boy’s own labor hours, at l0'centsperhour....... ....-.
COST, GLP TAVIT OUTRO ec ee CE a Ocho > RS te ete Es Se
Cost of fertilizer, pounds, at $ Pek homey ects he teehee oles
Cost of cultivation:
— hours of horse labor, at 5 cents an hour, each horse.......... ....-.-
hoursiohiboys: labor,at 10*cents anvhoutees.- 55-22 =¢-- + ok ee nee
Cost of gathering:
hours of boys’ labor, at 10 cents an hourdor each: -2-..:--.2.. --:--.
Costomcmnimespalines and marketing. .- 9. uae. ses eee ee oe ee
Moiell CONieodecaateodoose As 5 i io er ae ae ais ieee
RECEIPTS.
Total value of lint, pounds:at ——. ..) same Ue ees a) Dit va
Total value of cotton seed, POUNDS, at. eemmeeeye cory ces Coes pete
Motalsrecelp tes ie2 ste basa)... ., ene eer ae 2 ee tae ee ee
INGLE | Ou 01dl ee nee eM ce 2 oa yc anon nh Ci Mee bo oe
We, the committee, hereby certify that we have measured the cotton of
of on this day of 19 , and that the following statements are cor-
rect: Length of plat, yards, feet; width of plat, yards, feet; area
of plat, acres. The amount of cotton obtained, pounds, in the measured
plat.
SUGGESTIVE CORRELATIONS.
Reading and spelling—The Farmers’ Bulletins, the bulletins and
circulars of the State college of agriculture, and the books that are
consulted in connection with the study of the various questions raised
while studying the subject of cotton will all give reading material of
the best kind. Magazine articles and articles in the farm papers
should be used freely for reading and discussion.
16 BULLETIN 294, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
List and assign new words related to the cotton industry for spell-
ing exercises.
Language lessons.—Written reports of field observations. Compo-
sitions on selection of seed in the field. A careful study of these
compositions should be made to the end that the pupils may grow
in power to express their ideas truthfully, systematically, adequately,
and interestingly. Write letters ordering seed catalogues and asking
for the quotation of prices on cotton. In these letters study for cor-
rect form, good composition, and for courtesy in expression.
Drawing.—Make drawings of ideal and faulty specimens of common
varieties of cotton grown in the district. Collect, name, and make
drawings of common weed and insect pests of cotton. Pupils should
be encouraged to illustrate their descriptions by offhand sketches
on the blackboard. Make drawings of the important parts of ma-
chinery used in cotton culture. In this connection emphasize the
learning of the names and uses of implements and their parts.
History.—Study the history of the varieties of cotton common to
the community as to their origin, time, and circumstances of their
introduction and the success with which they have been grown.
Special attention should be given to the development of the cotton
gin and its relation to the cotton industry. The history of cotton in
India, Egypt, Persia, the West Indies, and Brazil should be studied
carefully. Study the history of weeds, insects, and fungous diseases
of cotton as to origin, introduction, spread, damage done, and
methods of combating.
Geography.—Study the commerce of cotton from (1) India to the
Mediterranean countries; (2) Mediterranean countries to western
Europe; (3) America to western Europe. Prepare maps showing
lines of commerce and locate the principal receiving and distributing
points for each agricultural product bought and sold. Study the
trade that results from the exchange of agricultural products between
your State and other States and countries; compare the exports and
imports as to quantity, value, and character.
Arithmetic.—The business of the farm offers the best possible mate-
rial for arithmetic study. Develop exercises on the cost of producing
one bale of cotton per acre under different methods of farm practice.
Problems involying the annual reports of club members should be
developed. All business forms used locally, such as receipts, bills,
freight bills for fertilizers, ete., should be studied in school.
“Correlating Agriculture with the Public School Subjects in the
Southern States” is the title of Department Bulletin 132, published
by the United States Department of Agriculture.
WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE + 1915
Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology
L. O. HOWARD, Chief
Washington, D.C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER October 28, 1915
' THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH.'
By JosEF BRuNNER, Assistant in Forest Entomology, Forest Insect Investigations.
CONTENTS.
E Page. | Page.
Descniphioniof thepinsects2).- 2349-5 -.5-2 2 | Character of injury and work of larve...... 8
Seasonal history and habits....-..........-- 3 | Effect of infestation on tree growth and forest. 9
Relation to other insects.........-.......---- 5 Remedy net kan cee A ER re ee Ae 10
Relation to natural enemies. ...-.......--..- 6 | Conclusions: jes. Se ay eee ee aie il
Habivanand host treest = 2...-.--------<---- Wa eAlSenaLUNeVCLUGG) sacce eae ecieeene ee eicaene 12
INTRODUCTION.
One of the msects of the order Lepidoptera very destructive to
coniferous trees, and especially to yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) in
various sections of the West and, according to Zimmerman, Grote,
and Kellicott, to white pine (Pinus strobus), Canadian or red pine (P.
resinosa), Austrian pine (P. austriaca), Scotch pine (P. sylvestris),
Swiss pine (P. cembra), and other pines in the Hast, is the Zimmerman
pine moth (Pinipestis zimmermani Grote’). Aside from being
largely the cause of ‘‘spike-top”’ (Pl. [) in mature timber, it spike-tops,
stunts, and kills outright innumerable trees of the so-called “second
erowth.” The inher of at least one area, thus far discovered, has
been brought into such ill repute that carpenters and builders refuse
to use it ia anything in which ‘‘never-ending shrinkage” is objec-
tionable.
Having noted during several seasons the severe injuries inflicted by
the larvee of this insect, the writer, at the suggestion of Dr. A. D. Hop-
kins, undertook, during the autumn of 1912, a systematic study of its
seasonal history and habits, the recorded information on this insect
being inadequate. This study was conducted during 1913-14 m
conjunction with other work on insects which affect reproduction and
1 Pinipestis zimmermani Grote. 2 Tdentification by August Busck.
Note.—This bulletin is of special interest to manufacturers and users of pine lumber from the Western
States.
4249°—Bull. 295—15
eae
2 BULLETIN 295, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the development of forest trees, with a view of discovering possible
methods of elimination or at least amelioration of its ravages.
Definite details were gathered only in certain areas within the
States of Montana and Idaho, but correspondence with the other forest
insect field stations in the West, together with larve collected and
forwarded from those stations, proves that this moth occurs almost
everywhere in the West. Considering that Packard records its
occurrences in New York and Pennsylvania, it is evident that this
insect is probably distributed over most of the United States. Its
habits and the result of its larval work also apparently do not vary
materially anywhere in its range. These facts lead to the conclusion
that the remedy outlined below should be as effective in other regions -
as in the West. :
DESCRIPTION OF THE INSECT.
THE ADULT.
The length of the moth (PI. IT, fig. 1) is about-one-half inch. ‘There
is no appreciable difference in size and coloration between the two
sexes although the general color of individual specimens varies from
a light gray to a reddish gray and the body of specimens having
the latter hue on head and thorax is usually dark gray, The under-
side of the entire insect is of a uniform gray color.
The wing expanse is from 1} to 14inches. ‘The fore wings are shaded
reddish on the basal and terminal fields, the median space, divided
from the latter by W-shaped lines, being blackish and gray, these two
colors being again divided by a small white bar on a brownish field.
The hind wings are pale yellowish white, the color becoming deeper
toward the terminal fringe, which is paler than that of the fore wings,
on which it frequently shades to a dark gray. These characters
agree fairly well with Grote’s description.
THE LARVA.
When full grown the caterpillar (Pl. I, fig. 2) is about three-fourths
of aninchinlength. The head is chestnut brown, the mandibles black.
The body is naked, with a series of dots, darker than the skin, from
each of which issues a single bristle. It has three pairs of thoracic
legs, four pairs of abdominal prolegs, and a pair of anal claspers.
The body varies greatly in color, which ranges from a dirty white,
through reddish yellow, to a vivid green. The larva found in yellow
pine is almost mvariably gray-brown, resembling the color of the
bark of the host tree, while those in Douglas fir are of such a vivid
green color that it seems almost incredible that they should be repre-
sentatives of the same species which infests pine. Rearing them to
the adult stage, however, always dispels any doubt in this regard.
Variations in color, about which Grote and Kellicott differ, are
evidently merely a matter of host differences.
THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH. 3
THE PUPA.
Freshly formed chrysalids are of a light brown color, which changes
to blackish brown as the moth within develops toward maturity.
The chrysalis is cylindrical, about three-fourths of an inch long,
rather slender, and without spines on the segments. This last char-
acter makes it readily distinguishable from a sesiid pupa, which is
frequently found under somewhat similar conditions.
SEASONAL HISTORY AND HABITS.
While adults emerge and mate from about May 1 to September 15,
the maximum flight of the moths occurs during the month of July.
They appear to be rather long lived, many 2-weeks-old specimens
reared in the laboratory being as ready to take wing when disturbed
as when they had just burst the bonds of the chrysalis. No other
species of moths reared in captivity the larve of which feed on
internal tree tissues were observed to live more than 10 days after
emergence under similar conditions. The longevity of the Zimmer-
man moths evidently extends the period of mating beyond the
general flight, and consequently fertilized eggs are deposited during
any of the milder months.
Larve of all sizes, except the most minute in winter, may be found
at any time of the year.
Though frequently but a single larva is found m a wound, the
writer is of the firm opinion that eggs are almost invariably depos-
ited in clusters. In the many observations while the larva was less
than three-eighths of an:inch in length six or more of them were
always found in one infested spot. From a specimen of yellow
pine 6 inches in length and but 1 inch in diameter showing old work,
which was placed in a breeding cage during the middle of December, a
month and a half after heavy frost had ended all outdoor insect
activity, seven larvee emerged early in January from eggs which had
evidently been deposited on this small specimen during the previous
late autumn. (PI. IJ, fig. 3.) ,
Again, it is often the case that a space a foot or more wide and
several feet long on a tree trunk has the cambium literally honey-
combed with the tunnels of numerous larve. In one such case the
writer found 27 nearly mature Pinipestis larvee at work.
In mature stands, in ‘“‘spike-tops”’ in the making, and at the bases
of new spikes, plural infestation is evidently the rule.
This conclusion is verified to some extent by the observations of
Mr. W. D. Edmonston at the Forest Insect Field Stations at Ashland,
Oreg., and later at Colorado Springs, Colo., and by quite a number of
larve and valuable notes that he sent to the writer. These notes
generally end with the statement: “‘Under bark in hardened pitch
4 BULLETIN 295, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
were found empty pupa cases,”’ or ‘‘ Empty chrysalids were found in
the pitch masses.”’
Since no other pitch moth so seriously destructive to the trunks
of mature or nearly mature trees leaves the entire pupa shell
within the bark or the pitch which sheltered the immature insect,
its identity is quite easily determined.
The eggs deposited in July appear to hatch within about two weeks.
During the latter part of August the young larva manifests its presence
in infested trees rather plainly by the mixture of coarse castings and
brown bark dust which is thrown out through the entrance and other
holes in the bark made by the larva. Unlike the larve of the sesud
pitch moths, the pine moth caterpillar does not work into the cam-
bium and stay there. Quite often, if not always, after attaming
nearly half its full growth, it leaves the place where it hatched and
drills into the tree tissues again at a spot which presumably suits it
better, not infrequently several feet away from the original spot.
To this migratory habit probably must be attributed the frequent
occurrence of but one larva in a wound, except in instances where the
work of woodpeckers accounts for their isolation. This assumption
seems to be supported by the fact that all such hermits when located
are developed well toward maturity.
As the larva grows and the inactive season approaches, this pro-
miscuous gnawing of holes in the bark ceases. In no case even
where most of them remain where they first saw the light is migra-
tion resumed the following spring. In the spring each larva prepares
for pupation in its own individual tunnel, though under the same
space of infestation, by hning it with silky thread. Packard states!
that ‘‘the worm in July spins a whitish, thin, papery cocoon in the
mass of exuding pitch, which seems to act as a protection to both the
larva and the chrysalis.”” This applies to the insect in the East.
In the West the caterpillar of the pine pest restricts its weaving
operations before pupating to the above-mentioned lining of the
tunnel. Cocoons which answer Packard’s description are frequently
found in these tunnels, but they are of a parasite which will be
referred to later.
On approaching maturity, about the middle of June, the larva
grows sluggish and is found to be transformed into the chrysalis
within a few hours. -When the moth has attained full development,
29 days from the time the pupa was formed and a year after the ege
was laid, it merely bursts the chrysalid skin, leaving the empty sHell
within the tunnel, and pushes its way out through the very thin
pitch covering at the mouth of the tunnel. The period of pupation
in Leap uals: under very varying temper atures and during all seasons
1 Pe BR A. S., Insects Tarrio to eee canal Shade Trees. 5th Rpt. U.S. Ent. Com., 955 p. (p.
731), 38 pl., 306 fig. 1886-1890.
THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH. 5
within a period of two years has in all cases proved to be exactly 29
days.
Eggs laid the previous autumn hatch in early spring and develop
into adults during August and September of the same year, while
eggs deposited during “May ev ident develop into adults early the
following spring.
RELATION TO OTHER INSECTS.
Tn the northern Rocky Mountain region Pissodes schwarzi Hopk.'
is a common associate of the pine moth in yellow pine, if the trees
are attacked near the base. It appears that there the moth takes as
frequent advantage of the work of the beetle as the beetle does of
the moth’s. The result of infestation by either of them is exactly
alike, although the latter’s attack is by no means restricted to the
base of trees, while the work of the beetle is rarely found more than
2 or 3 feet-above ground.
Sesia brunnerr Busck,? wherever it exists (at present known in
Montana and southern Idaho), is frequently associated with Pinipestis
in yellow and lodgepole pine. While the attack by the Sesia in
lodgepole pine appears to invite and to be the cause of subsequent
infestation by the Pinipestis, the former frequently takes advantage
of the work of the latter in yellow pine greatly to augment its own
numbers. When this sesiid moth attacks a tree primarily it inva-
riably deposits but one egg at a spot; but when it infests the pine
moth’s work in yellow pine it seems always to deposit quite a number
of eggs. The writer has taken as many as six nearly mature Sesia
larve from a single space surrounding a spot previously infested by
the pine moth. The space infested by the latter is always killed and
subsequent infestation can only occur at the border of such a spot.
. As the Sesia larva works parallel with the grain of the wood, its
infestation of Pinipestis work becomes evident on the surface of the
surrounding fresh bark by regular pitch masses of the size of a silver
dollar instead of the general pitchiness which characterizes pine pest
infestation, owing to the numerous holes it makes in the bark.
If the pine moth reinfests such a Sesia-infested space, its larve,
feeding on the strictly fresh cambium surrounding it, usually stop
the necessary flow of sap to the space occupied by the Sesia and the
latter is starved to death on this account. To comprehend how this
is possible, 1t must be understood that the sesiid larva is not able to
move around at will on the surface of the bark, that it is apparently
unwilling, if not unable, to cross spaces already sapped by other
insects, and that it requires two years to complete its life cycle.
Two small moths of the genus Laspeyresia,? one in yellow pine and
one in Douglas fir, frequently breed in the work of the pine moth in
1 Tdentified by A. D. Hopkins.
2 Busck, August. Descriptions of new microlepidoptera of forest trees. In Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington,
v. 16, no. 4, p. 143-150, pl. 7-8, 1914.
3 Identified by August Busck.
6
6 BULLETIN 295, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
considerable numbers. However, the relation seems to be of no
economic importance.
In Montana and Idaho another species of Pinipestis, P. cambiicola
Dyar,! is one of the most important factors in regard to the existence
oi Pinipestis zimmermani Grote. It infests during the latter part
of June the cambium of the terminal branches of mature yellow
pine, and many of these wounds are subsequently reinfested by
the latter year after year. The work of this insect is almost invari-
ably the primary cause of the knobby growth on branches in which
the Zimmerman pine moth breeds undisturbed by woodpeckers or
parasites, and this moth must therefore be regarded as a provider
of brood trees for the more destructive Pinipestis zimmermani.
(Pl. III.)
RELATION TO NATURAL ENEMIES.
In most sections of the Rocky Mountains the Rocky Mountain
hairy woodpecker (Dryobates villosus monticola) is unquestionably
the most efficient natural force in restraining the Zimmerman pine
moth. Thousands of trees are each year regularly infested by the
moth in comparatively small areas, and this bird as regularly destroys
almost all of the larvae in all of them during early winter, so that,
although hundreds of trees may be examined at a time, it is only on
rare occasions that larvee are found after December in wounds in the
trunks of trees which had been infested during the previous summer.
This woodpecker seems to have a decided preference for the cater-
pillar of the pine moth wherever the writer and the entomological
rangers assigned to the Northern Rocky Mountain Field Station have
had opportunities for observation. In the extreme southeastern part
of Montana, and particularly that portion covered by the Northern
Cheyenne Inaian Reservation and by the Custer National Forest,
the moth has apparently neither bird nor insect enemies. In all other
localities this woodpecker is fully able to eliminate this imsect as a
serious factor in timber destruction. Especially will the work of the
bird become effective when the habits of the moth are more generally
understood and its ‘‘ brood trees’’ are eliminated through use by man.
From reports from other field stations the-writer concludes that
from Idaho west toward the Pacific coast and in the southern Rocky
Mountain region woodpeckers are of no consequence as a check upon
this insect. But, considering that much confusion still exists con-
cerning the identity of Pinipestis among the “pitch moths,” this
conclusion may prove erroneous when more thorough information is
available. :
The woodpecker never molests the caterpillars of the pine moth
which live under “spike tops’? and in knobby branches on certain
1 Identified by H. G. Dyar.
Bul. 295, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I.
REPEATED INJURY BY THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH TO LARGE TREE,
RESULTING IN © SPIKE-T OP.” (ORIGINAL.)
Bul. 295, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
PLATE ll.
Fig. 1.—ADULT MOTH. SLIGHTLY ENLARGED. Fila. 2.—LARVA.
(ORIGINAL. )
TWICE ENLARGED.
(ORIGINAL.)
Fic. 3.—MOTH ON SECTION OF TREE TRUNK, SHOWING CHARACTER
OF INJURY. SEVEN LARV/E WERE FOUND IN THE BARK OF THIS
SECTION IN DECEMBER. (ORIGINAL.)
THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH
(PINIPESTIS ZIMMERMANI) AND
ITS WORK.
Bul. 295, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Ill.
PINE SHOOT SHOWING PRIMARY INJURY BY PINIPESTIS CAMBIICOLA,
AND INFESTATION, TWO YEARS LATER, BY THE ZIMMERMAN PINE
MOTH. NATURAL SIZE. (ORIGINAL.)
PLATE IV.
Bul. 295, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
=
oy —
EER: Fie wm
ee | ines
PINE TREE SHOWING RESULT OF REPEATED ATTACK BY THE ZIM-
MERMAN PINE MOTH, AND THE INJURY AGGRAVATED BY THE ROCKY
IN ITS SEARCH FOR THE LARVA.
MOUNTAIN HAIRY WOODPECKER
(ORIGINAL. )
Bul. 295, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.
YELLOW PINE SHOWING CHARACTER OF INJURY BY THE ZIMMERMAN
PINE MOTH.
A, Tree broken at injury; B, tree attacked by insect and insect removed by
woodpeckers; U, tree girdled and killed by the insect. (Original.)
PLATE VI.
5, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
29
Bul.
CROSS SECTION OF PINE SAPLING SHOWING EFFECT OF INJURY BY THE
)
(ORIGINAL.
ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH.
—
Bul. 295, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII.
Cross SECTION OF OLD, SLOWLY-GROWING YELLOW PINE SHOWING
INFESTATION BY THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH AND ITS INJURY IN
BARK. (ORIQINAL.)
Bul. 295, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII.
PINE TREE SHOWING EFFECT OF CONTINUOUS INJURY BY THE ZIM-
MERMAN PINE MOTH. (ORIGINAL.)
PLATE IX.
Bul. 295, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF YELLOW PINE SAPLING SHOWING RESULTING
DAMAGE TO WooD FROM ATTACK BY THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH
(ORIGINAL.)
SS ee
Bul. 295, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X.
Fias. 1, 2, 3.—TyPICAL YELLOW-PINE ‘BROOD TREES” OF THE ZIMMERMAN PINE
Moth.
The removal of such trees and the burning of the affected parts is the most effective
measure for the control of this pest. (Original.)
Bul, 295, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI.
OLD YELLOW-PINE TREE SHOWING RESULT OF INJURY TO TOP BY
THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH. (ORIGINAL.)
THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH. Tk
mature trees (see Pinipestis cambiicola, p. 6) and this is evidently
‘the reason why its activities bear no permanent fruit. Considering
also that the birds in hunting for the larve strip the trees of as
much bark and cambium as the moth larve destroy in one generation,
and that this operation is repeated each season, it is doubtful whether
the woodpecker cure is not as bad as or even worse than the moth evil,
when one considers that the brood trees are allowed to replenish the
ranks of the insect year after year. (PI. IV.)
The cocoon of a pimplinid of a new genus and new species * is fre-
quently found in the tunnels of the pine moth in Montana and Idaho.
In some localities this parasite kills as many as 80 per cent of the
larvee of the moth in second-growth trees. As the parasite cocoons
are not molested by woodpeckers, a full quota of this fly emerges
during the first warm days of each spring. While this parasite
greatly aids in checking the increase of the moth from larve which
infest second growth, it fails, as does the woodpecker, to pursue the
caterpillars in the above-menticned brood trees. Hence it is as
much of a signal failure as is the bird.
Another, somewhat larger parasite (/ehnewmon n. sp.') is fre-
quently found during winter in the chrysalis of the moth. The moth
does not pass the winter in the pupal stage, and chrysalids found at
that time always contam the parasitic fly, which, like the pimplinid,
emerges during early sprmg. It is apparently less numerous than the
latter and consequently of still less economic importance.
There seems to be justification for the conclusion that, without
man taking a hand by eliminating the main propagating opportuni-
ties, no natural enemy of the moth will ever render it harmless. With
human aid these agents will accomplish all that can be reasonably
expected of them, 1. e., the elimination of the ravages in rationally
managed woodlands. ;
HABITAT AND HOST TREES.
Open, sunny stands of timber are those most affected by the Zim-
merman pine moth. Slashings, on which reproduction has reached a
height of 10 feet or more, fens a scattered stand of mature trees,
which were left standing to reseed the area or on account of being
unfit for logs, invariably contain the greatest amount of pine-moth
injury. It appears to be an absolute necessity to the insects’ exist-
ence in a locality stocked with second growth, that the stand contam
some of these specimens, which constitute brood trees for this insect.
Where the mature timber has been cut clean over quite large areas,
so that the chance for influx from without is remote, the insect does
no damage, even though the ground may be stocked with an ideal
1 Determined by S. A. Rohwer. ~
8 BULLETIN 295, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
stand of second growth. Yellow pine, lodgepole pine, and Douglas
fir are the tree species thus far noted to be subject to infestation by
this insect in the West. Out of a hundred trees so infested about 80
per cent are yellow pine, 15 per cent lodgepole pine, and 5 per cent
Douglas fir. Trees with a thick layer of fresh bark and cambium, as
well as the more vigorous growers, are preferred for attack. All
sizes, from but a few inches to several feet in diameter, are subject to
infestation; but it is the mature trees which furnish the most favora-
ble means of existence for this moth, while in the smaller ones, up
to about a foot in diameter, it does the greater damage. (PI. V.)
CHARACTER OF INJURY AND WORK OF LARVA, |
The moth, as a rule, attacks mature trees from between 10 to 30
feet from the top down, and second growth from about breast high
up to from 35 to 40 feet. Infestation nearer the top or base occurs
only to a very limited extent.
As stated under “Seasonal history” (p. 4), fresh infestation is
only indicated by the castings on the surface area of the attacked
trees. If this area is very heavily infested, as in the case cited above,
where the writer found 27 nearly mature larve in a space less than
5 feet in length by about 1 foot in width, there is at no time any other
indication observable. The bark dries up without exuding pitch, as
if scorched by extreme heat, and several years after the insect has
vacated the bark drops off and the injury becomes manifest to the
average passer-by. Usually, however, in such cases some larve
leave the point originally infested and bury themselves higher up
near a branch of the same tree. The pitch tube at the entrance of
this tunnel invites close examination of the entire tree, whereupon the
less conspicuous, yet heavy infestation is almost sure to be detected.
(Pls. VI and VII.)
During the spring following infestation drops of pitch usually
begin to ooze out of the tunnels in the bark and cover the surface of
the average wound with a uniform, thin layer, somewhat similar in
appearance to a liberal application of paint with a brush. The inner
bark assumes a spongy appearance and gains in thickness, which
tightens and even breaks the outer bark, together with the dried pitch
covering it. The entire infested space finally presents a strikingly
rough aspect which resembles the injury of no insect except Pissodes
schwarz, which produces a similar effect at the base of trees.
By repeated infestation at the border of the wound, in the course
of years the tree is gradually girdled and the part above the collar dies
and finally rots off at its base, provided the moth abandons the tree
at this stage. But frequently infestation continues downward, on
young trees usually until the lower branches, which by that time
THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH. Gg
show a tendency to develop into tops, are reached and the trees
killed, and on mature ones to a point where the thickness of the bark
fails to suit the insect. (PI. VIII.)
On wounds infested by a single larva a pitch tube, resembling that
produced by sesiid pitch moths, is usually formed, presumably because
one larva alone is not capable of cutting as near the surface as when
several work together in one space. In the latter case the tunnels
cross and recross continuously, and when a larva strikes the tunnel of
another, which must happen frequently, it usually cuts to the surface
in order to avoid the solidified pitch. ‘To the presence of the larva
so very near and even at the surface of the bark must be attributed
its rather heavy parasitization in localities where its parasite exists,
because larve living singly are very seldom parasitized.
EFFECT OF INFESTATION ON TREE GROWTH AND FOREST.
It is obvious that the killing of many trees in stands preferred by
the moth results in too great a thinning out of the stand. This
wastage of ground is further augmented by the permanent stunt-
ing of a still greater number of trees by the insect’s work, because
the space taken up by such scrubs would just as readily accommodate
thrifty, well-formed trees.
Moreover, the wood from trees that have been infested by the moth
is invariably so permeated with pitch that the lumber cut from
such logs is either materially reduced in value or is rendered wholly
unfit for commercial use. (Pl. 1X.) From one part of southeastern
Montana, where this moth is especially abundant and a large per-
centage of the trees are pitch soaked, the lumber is, for this reason,
only used for sheds, etc., where shrinkage can be discounted; the
users find it cheaper to have the better material shipped in than to
pick it out of the local stuff and throw half of it away unless it is
needed for the less particular purposes indicated. To the writer this
practice at first seemed rather to indicate prejudice against the home
product, because there is a large amount of first-grade lumber pro-
duced along with the bad. However, the pine moth is responsible for
this condition, as was abundantly proved by examination of its
injury in the district. The manner in which the moth’s work “‘pitch-
ifies” the wood is best seen in the well-known tops which have been
infested by it. From these tops the bark has dropped off, but the
‘surface of the wood has a roughened appearance and the tissues are
literally saturated with pitch, while at the lower end, where the
infestation ended:and the wood was not pitchified in the process, the
spike is rotted off from the tree. This insect’s work alone accounts
for the fact that the extreme top of a tree may be excessively pitchy,
while the rest of the same tree is not.
> 10 BULLETIN 295, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
REMEDY.
There is probably no other seriously injurious insect which can be
eliminated with less expense and trouble than the Zimmerman pine
moth, because practically everywhere, wherever its existence is caus-
ing real damage, the country is readily accessible, being either
already logged over or adjacent to settled farming land. :
In slashings the remedy consists in logging, thus removing the
mature trees as soon as the area is reseeded, and in any other wood lot,
where it shows its presence in the second growth, in merely using all
‘‘spike-topped,” lightning-struck, and heavily branched mature trees
for firewood or domestic purposes. These are the ‘“‘brood trees” in
the great majority of cases, and their disposal ends the trouble in
the growing trees. The larva in these three types is found at the base
of the spike, along the scar caused by the bolt, and in the knobby
growths on the branches which are the result of primary injury by
Pinipestis cambvicola (in the West) and probably other msects. The
affected parts should be destroyed, the simplest way being to burn them
before the arrival of spring. The judicious choosing of the right trees
for firewood for home consumption alone would prevent on many farms
further damage by this insect to the growing trees. In one wood lot
east of Missoula, Mont., covering about 40 acres of a quarter-section
farm, 25 per cent of the second growth had been infested annually
for several seasons, and the cutting of only three overmature trees
| during 1913-14 for firewood ended the damage absolutely. One of
i them was a still infested spike-top and two were full of knobby
branches, also infested. There are still about 80 overmature trees
standing on that farm, but the three cut were evidently, as supposed
before the cutting, the only ‘‘ brood trees,” and, as the woodpeckers had
taken care of the infestation in second-growth trees, the elimination
of the moth at that place was a natural result of the disposal of
these trees. (Pls. X and XI.)
In a locality about 5 miles north of Missoula, Mont., where at
least 3,000 second-growth trees are infested and reinfested annually,
the writer is positive that the cutting of not more than 24 over-
mature ‘‘brood trees”? in a stand of about 1,000 of the same age as
these would effectively end the continuous depreciation. In other
localities not so thoroughly examined, the proportion of work
necessary to end the trouble appears to average about the same.
Even in southeastern Montana, though the moth is not subject there
either to woodpeckers or parasites, the insect damage could be
greatly reduced, if not eliminated, by disposing of the ‘‘ brood trees”’
by merely selecting them for fuel.
a a
Sy
THE ZIMMERMAN PINE MOTH. iNT
CONCLUSION.
It is evident that natural agencies have not succeeded in preventing,
and will not be able in the future to prevent, serious damage by this
-moth unless man aids their efforts by disposing of such trees as have
fulfilled their usefulness in the forest and wood lot, and which,
instead of being an asset there, have become a menace. To end
“spike topping” in mature stands, and to eliminate damage in
growing timber, or at least reduce it to a negligible amount, it is
necessary to remove (1) those trees which, below the spike, show
branches with yellow needles (a certain indication of present infesta-
tion), (2) those which are struck by lightning and remain green, as
the moth usually breeds in great numbers along the lightning scars,
and (3) those which display knobby growths on branches, they being
in many localities the most prolific source of replenishment of the
moth.
ee
LITERATURE CITED.
Grots, A. R. A new lepidopterous insect injurious to vegetation. In Canad. Ent.,
vol. 9, No. 9, p. 161-163. September, 1877.
Grote, A. R. Note on the structure of Nephopteryx zimmermani. In Canad. Ent.,
vol. 10, No. 1, p. 19, January, 1878.
ZIMMERMAN, OHAs. D. Jn Canad. Ent., vol. 10, No. 1,»p. 20, January, 1878.
Kewuicott, D. 8. Observations on Nephopteryx zimmermani. In Canad. Ent., vol.
11, No. 6, p. 114-116, June, 1879.
Grote, A. R. On the neuration in certain genera of Pyralidae. Jn North American
Entomologist, vol. 1, No. 2, p. 9-12, August, 1879.
Page ll. Pinipestis zimmermani.
Packxarp, A. S. Insects injurious to forest and shade trees. U.S. Dept. Interior,
Ent. Com., Bul. 7, 275 p., 100 fig., 1881.
Pages 182-184. Nephopteryx (Pinipestis) zimmermanni Grote.
Pacxarp, A. 8. Insects injurious to forest and shade trees.. U. 8. Dept. Agr., 5th
Rpt. Ent. Com., 952 p., 38 pl., 306 fig.; 1890.
Pages 731-733. Nephopteryx (Pinipestis) zimmermanni Grote.
12
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Contribution from the Bureau of Crop Estimates
LEON M. ESTABROOK, Chief
Washington, D. C. V October 25, 1915
OUR FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS.
Prepared under the direction of Perry Exiiiorr, Division of Crop Records.
CONTENTS.
Page Page
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SUMMARY.
The foreign trade of the United States has increased more than
tenfold during the last 64 years, the products interchanged with
foreign countries being valued at 400 million dollars in 1851 and
4,259 million dollars in 1914. The exports of domestic merchandise
were valued at 179 million dollars in 1851, of which 147 million
dollars, or 82.1 per cent, were agricultural products; the exports of
domestic merchandise increased to 2,330 million dollars in 1914, of
which the agricultural value was 1,114 million dollars, or 47.8 per
cent.
The imports of merchandise in 1851 were 211 million dollars, of
which 61 million dollars, or 28.7 per cent, were agricultural products;
this trade increased to a grand total of 1,894 million dollars in
1914, of which the agricultural portion was 924 million dollars, or
Norr.—This bulletin is a summary of the leading features of the foreign trade of the
United States in farm and forest products. It is intended for general circulation.
4251°—Bull. 296—15 1
wy BULLETIN 296, U..S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
48.8 per cent. The foreign or reexports increased from 10 million
dollars in 1851 to 85 millon dollars in 1914. The reexports of agri-
cultural products in 1851 were 5 million dollars, or 49.4 per cent, and
in 1914 were 18 million dollars, or 50.8 per cent.
During the period 1851-1914 there has been a balance of trade in
agricultural products in favor of the United States with the excep-
tion of 1864 and 1865; for those two years the balance against this
country—that is, the excess of imports over exports—was 26 and 11
million dollars, respectively. The smallest balance in agricultural
products in favor of this country was 27 million dollars in 1869 and
the largest balance was 571 millon dollars in 1901.
The exports of domestic forest products increased from $4,189,000
in 1851 to $106,979,000 in 1914, the foreign or reexports increased
from $567,000 to $4,518,000, and the imports increased from $1,333,-
000 to $155,261,000 for the same period. During the period 1851-
1878 the average balance of trade in forest products was in favor of
this country, but during 1879 and subsequently, except in 1901, the
balance has been against the United States, due mostly to the large
amount of india rubber imported.
The principal domestic farm and forest products exported from the
United States during the five-year. period, 1910-1914, are cotton,
packing-house products, grain and grain products, and forest prod-
ucts, which represent over three-fourths of the total domestic farm
and forest products exported. Cotton exceeded all other items in the
value of domestic farm products exported, having an average annual
value of $550,000,000; packing-house products, next in order, were
valued annually at $155,000,000; grain and grain products, over
$150,000,000; and forest products, $100,000,000. Other commodities,
in the order of their importance, in the domestic export trade are:
Tobacco, with an average annual value of $45,000,000; fruits, $28,-
000,000; oil cake and oil-cake meal, $24,000,000; vegetable oils, $21,-
000,000; live animals, $13,000,000; vegetables and coffee, $7,000,000
each; sugar, hops, dairy products, glucose and grape sugar, and
starch, each averaging an annual value of $3,000,000.
The principal farm and forest products entering into the import
trade of the United States during the five-year period, 1910-1914, are
packing-house products, coffee, animal fibers, and sugar. The aver-
age annual value of each of these four articles exceeded $100,000,000,
while their combined annual values amounted to over one-half of the
total imports of farm and forest products. Other articles, in the
order of their importance in the import trade, are: India rubber, with
an annual average value of $86,000,000; vegetable fibers, excluding
cotton, $40,000,000; tobacco, $30,000,000; fruits, $29,000,000; vege-
table oils, $28,000,000; seeds, $22,000,000; cotton, $21,000,000; gums,
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS, 3
other than india rubber, and alcoholic liquors, each $20,000,000;
cocoa and chocolate, tea, wood pulp, and nuts, each valued at over
$15,000,000; dairy products and live animals, each $9,000,000.
LEADING COUNTRIES.
UNITED KINGDOM.
The United Kingdom leads all the countries in the world as a
market for the domestic farm and forest products of the United
States. During the last 10 years the United Kingdom averaged
annually 39 per cent of all farm and forest products exported.
Nearly one-half of the cotton exported was taken by this market
during the five years 1910-1914, averaging annually 1,750,000,000
pounds, valued at $220,000,000. Three-fourths of the hops exported,
one-half of the glucose and grape sugar, live animals, sugar, and
starch, one-third of the packing-house products, grain and grain
products, tobacco, and dairy products are sent to the United
Kingdom.
During the five-year period 1910-1914 an annual average of one-
third of the wheat, which is the leading grain exported, amounting
to over 20,000,000 bushels; one-fourth of the corn, amounting to
11,000,000 bushels; and three-fourths of the barley, or 5,000,000
bushels, were consigned to the United Kingdom. Ninety per cent of
the grain products exported went to that country, of which wheat
flour was the largest item, having an annual average of 3,000,000 bar-
rels, valued at $14,000,000. .
The value of wood (logs, lumber, hewn and sawed timber) exceeds
that of all other forest products exported, and of this the United
Kingdom receives nearly one-fourth, amounting to $80,000,000 an-
nually. Of the naval stores, the United Kingdom takes about one-
fifth of the rosin exported amounting annually to 500,000 barrels,
valued at $3,000,000, and almost one-half of the spirits of turpentine,
or 7,000,000 gallons, valued at $3,000,000.
In the import trade of the United States the United Kingdom takes
fourth place, first, second, and third places being held by Cuba, Brazil,
and Japan. The value of india rubber exceeds that of all other
articles imported and was valued at $28,000,000. Packing-house~
products were valued at $13,000,000, of which $8,000,000 were hides
and skins. One-third of the wool, amounting to 69,000,000 pounds,
valued at $15,000,000; one-fourth of the vegetable oils, valued at
$6,000,000; over one-fourth of the alcoholic liquors, valued at $5,000,-
000; also tea, 12,000,000 pounds, valued at $3,000,000; vegetables,
feathers and downs, and mahogany, each amounting to $2,000,000
annually, came from that country.
tf
4 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
GERMANY.
During the last 10 years Germany averaged annually about 18 per
cent of the total farm and forest products exported from the United
States. Of these products the leading articles are cotton, packing-
house products, grain and grain products, forest products, oil cake
and oil-cake meal, fruits, and alcoholic liquors.
During the five-year period, 1910-1914, Germany took 28 per cent
of the cotton, amounting to an annual average of 1,000,000,000
pounds, valued at $150,000,000; about one-eighth of the packing-
house products, valued at $25,000,000; nearly one-third of the lard,
amounting to 142,000,000 pounds, valued at $16,000,000; one-third of
the sausage casings, or 14,000,000 pounds, valued at $2,000,000; one-
sixth of the oleo oil, or 20,000,000 pounds, valued at $2,000,000; and
one-fourth of the hides and skins, amounting to 7,000,000 pounds,
valued at $700,000; also our exports to Germany in 1910-1914 in-
cluded an annual average of 6,000,000 bushels of wheat, valued at
$6,000,000 ; 5,000,000 bushels of corn, valued at $3,000,000; over one-
half of the dried grains and malt sprouts, or 30,000 tons, valued at
$800,000; and one-half of the mill feed, or 96,000 tons, valued at
$3,000,000. Of the forest products exported, Germany took naval
stores valued at over $5,000,000, consisting of 700,000 barrels? of
rosin, with a value of $4,000,000, and 2,900,000 gallons of spirits of
turpentine, valued at $1,400,000.
FRANCE,
France held third place in the export trade of the United States
during the last 10 years,-and has received annually about one-sixth
of the domestic farm and forest products. That country took, annu-
ally during the five years 1910-1914, over 500,000,000 pounds of cot-
ton, valued at $70,000,000; $3,000,000 each of forest products, pack-
ing-house products, and grain and grain products; $1,000,000 each of
fruits, oil cake and oil-cake meal, and vegetable oils.
Leading farm and forest products imported from France are:
Packing-house products, alcoholic liquors, vegetable oils, gums, nuts,
wool, vegetables, silk, seeds, argols or wine lees, live animals, nursery
stock, and vanilla beans.
BRAZIL.
As a destination for agricultural products, Brazil was exceeded by
9 countries in 1905 and by 18 countries in 1914. Consignments to
Brazil of this class of merchandise were valued at $2,144,000 in 1905
and $4,714,000 in 1914, of which the principal item was wheat flour,
valued at $1.226,000 in 1905 and $3,752,000 in 1914.
1'Tons used in this bulletin are tons of 2,240 pounds.
* Barrels of 280 pounds for rosin, tar, turpentine, and pitch.
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 5
As a source of supply for agricultural products Brazil held second
place, being exceeded by Cuba. The imports from Brazil in 1914
were valued at $84,187,000, of which $76,016,000 was coffee. The
principal forest product imported from Brazil is india rubber; it
was worth 16 million dollars in 1914.
OTHER COUNTRIES.
During the fiscal years 1910-1914 Canada received three-fourths of
the horses and oranges, one-half of the raisins and peanuts exported,
and supplied one-half of the sheep, butter, and wood pulp, 90 per
cent of the lumber, all of the cream and pulp wood imported; Argen-
tina supplied one-fourth of the cattle hides, 90 per cent of the que-
bracho extract and quebracho wood; the Netherlands took one-half of
the oleo oil, one-fourth of the cottonseed oil, and supplied one-half of
the nursery stock; Belgium took one-third of the flaxseed oil cake and
wood pulp; Italy was the source of one-third of the cheese, one-half of
the argols or wine lees, three-fourths of the hemp, filberts, and olive
oil, 90 per cent of the macaroni, lemon oil, and ground sumac; Cuba
was the destination for two-thirds of the eggs, one-third of the lard
compounds, one-half of the coffee and potatoes, and supplied one-half
of the beeswax and honey, 90 per cent of the molasses, three-fourths
of the sugar, and two-thirds of the tobacco; Spain was the source of
90 per cent of the grapes and olives and one-half of the almonds;
Japan was the source of one-half of the silk, rice, and tea, and 90 per
cent of the camphor gum; Mexico took one-fourth of the malt, and
supplied three-fourths of the cattle, 90 per cent of the istle or Tam-
pico fiber and sisal grass, and all of the guayule gum; Egypt sup-
plied three-fourths of the cotton; Russia three-fourths of the horse
hides; British India three-fourths of the buffalo hides, one-half of
the goatskins, 90 per cent of the jute and jute butts and shellac; and
the Philippine Islands was the source of 95 per cent of the manila
fiber. :
LIVE ANIMALS.
The principal countries to which the United States has exported
live animals are Canada, Mexico, and the United Kingdom. Exports
of live animals to all countries were valued at $298,000 in 1855;
$2,626,000 in 1858; $15,882,000 in 1880; $33,638,000 in 1890;
$43,585,000 in 1900; then the exports declined and amounted to only
$5,804,000 in 1914. The live animals exported were cattle, horses,
mules, sheep, swine, and other, including fowls.
The imports were cattle, horses, sheep, and other, including fowls.
The import value of live animals was $367,000 in 1855; $1,408,000 in
1858; $4,710,000 in 1880; $6,767,000 in 1890; decreased to $4,531,000
in 1900 and increased to $24,712,000 in 1914. Prior to 1877 the
6 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
imports of live animals exceeded the exports in value; from 1878
to 1912 the imports were less than the exports, amounting to less
than one-tenth for a portion of the period, but in 1914 the imports
were four times the value of the exports.
Cattle——The cattle exported during the 10 years 1884-1893 aver-
aged 234,914 head annually. The greater portion of these went to
the United Kingdom, amounting to 218,752 head, or 93.1 per cent.
The next 10-year period, 1894-1903, the United Kingdom received
332,134 head, or 84.4 per cent. The next 10-year period, 1904-1913,
the United Kingdom received 233,987 head, or 74.4 per cent. During
1914, 18,376 cattle were exported, of which nearly 9,000 went to Can-
ada and 7,000 to Mexico. During the 10-year period 1884-1893 these
three countries supphed more than 98 per cent of the cattle imported,
the percentage being 56.5 for Canada, 40.9 for Mexico, 1.2 for the
United Kingdom. During the next 10 years these three countries
supphed 99 per cent of the imported cattle; 29.2 per cent came from
Canada, 70.6 per cent from Mexico, and a small quantity from the
United Kingdom. During the 10 years 1904-1913 these three coun-
tries again supplied about 99 per cent of the imported cattle, the
percentage being 6.6 per cent for Canada, 92.9 per cent for Mexico,
and 0.05 per cent for the United Kingdom. In 1914, 868,368 cattle
were imported, of which 27.8 per cent came from Canada, 72 per cent
from Mexico, and 0.2 per cent from the United Kingdom.
Horses.—The exports of horses during the 10 years 1884-1893
were consigned chiefly to three countries, Canada, Mexico, and Cuba.
Canada received 38.6 per cent; Mexico, 29 per cent; and Cuba, 1.2
per cent. The average annual exports for that period were 2,671
head. From 1894 to 1903 the annual exports were 46,482, of which
29.1 per cent were consigned to Canada, 3 per cent to Mexico, and 4.8
per cent to Cuba. During the 10 years 1904-1913 the annual exports
amounted to 30,900, of which 77.3 per cent were consigned to Canada,
5.9 per cent to Mexico, 7.6 per cent to Cuba. In 1914, 22,776 horses
were exported, of which 17,700 were consigned to Canada.
The imports of horses during the three 10-year periods, 1884 to 1913,
were supplied chiefly by Canada and Mexico. During the 10 years
1884-1893, 42,351 horses were imported annually, of which 42.4 per
cent came from Canada, 48.2 per cent from Mexico, and 3.8 per cent
from the United Kingdom. During the next 10 years, 1894-1903, the
annual imports were 5,910, of which 74.6 per cent were supplied by
Canada, 12.2 per cent by Mexico, and 5.3 per cent by the United King-
dom. During 1904-1913 the annual imports were 7,241, of which
Canada supplied 36.2 per cent; Mexico, 14.9 per cent; and the United
Kingdom, 14 per cent. In 1914 the imports were 33,019, of which
13.4 per cent came from Canada, 77.5 per cent from Mexico, and 0.2
per cent from the United Kingdom.
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. iu
Mules.—The exports of mules have about equaled in number the
exports of horses. [For the 10-year period 1884-1893 the annual ex-
ports of mules were 2,299. For the next 10-year period, 1894-1903,
the annual exports averaged 14,248, of which 12.7 per cent were con-
signed to Cuba. During 1904-1913 the annual exports averaged
5,422, and in 1914 they were 4,883, of which 1,399 were consigned to
Cuba, 1,256 to Mexico, and 1,039 to Canada.
Sheep.—The exports of sheep have been consigned chiefly to three
countries—Canada, Mexico, and the United Kingdom. During the
10-year period, 1894-1903, the annual exports were 257,589 head, of
which 23.4 per cent went to Canada, 1.2 per cent to Mexico, and 71.5
per cent to the United Kingdom. For the last 10-year period, 1904—
1913, the exports were 152,677 head annually, of which 50.5 per cent
went to Canada, 3.8 per cent to Mexico, and 42.2 per cent to the
United Kingdom. During 1914 the exports were 152,600, of which
145,715 were consigned to Canada.
The sheep imported were nearly all supplied by Canada during
the last 30 years. During the 10-year period, 1894-1903, the annual
imports were 328,244, of which 96 per cent came from Canada. Dur-
ing the 10 years, 1904-1913, the annual imports were 143,663, of
which Canada supplhed 92.9 per cent. During 1914 the imports were
993,719, of which 7.8 per cent came from Canada and 91.8 per cent
from Mexico.
Swine.—The swine have been sent chiefly to three countries—Can-
ada, Cuba, and Mexico. During the 10 years, 1894-1903, the annual
exports were 19,182, of which 9.5 per cent went to Canada, 44.1 per
cent to Cuba, and 34.8 per cent to Mexico. During the next 10 years
those three countries received nearly an equal amount, the average
exports to all countries being 23,108, of which 32.8 per cent went to
Canada, 40.4 per cent to Cuba, and 24.5 per cent to Mexico.
DAIRY PRODUCTS.
The foreign trade in dairy products consists of butter, cheese,
cream, fresh and condensed milk. The total export value of these
products in 1851 was 1 million dollars, which increased to nearly
23 million dollars in 1881, and decreased to a little less than 3 million
dollars in 1914. The import value was slightly more than $100,000
in 1851, and increased to 1 million dollars in 1884, 6 million dollars
in 1907, and 15 million dollars in 1914.
Butter.—The quantity of butter exported ranged from 31 million
pounds in 1897 to 4,000,000 pounds in 1914. During the period
1896-1909 about one-half of the butter was consigned to the United
Kingdom. During 1910-1914 about two-thirds of the butter was
consigned to Canada, Panama, Mexico, and the West Indies. Vene-
8 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
zuela has been a good market for butter during the last 20 years,
receiving about one-half million pounds annually.
Canada has been the chief source of supply for butter imported
into the United States. The imports from that country during the
five-year period 1895-1899 were 74.7 per cent of all imports. Dur-
ing 1900-1904 that country supphed 51.6 per cent; 1905-1909, 45
per cent; 1910-1914, 25 per cent. Other countries in 1914 supplying
large quantities of butter were Denmark, United Kingdom, and New
Zealand. ‘The imports of butter for the five years ending 1914 ranged
from a little over 1 million pounds in 1910 to nearly 8 million pounds
in 1914.
Cheese.—The cheese exports have ranged from 60 million pounds
in 1895 to a little less than 24 million pounds in 1914, of which about
three-fourths were sent to the United Kingdom. Other good markets
during the last five years were Canada, Cuba, Mexico, Panama, and
the British West Indies.
The imports of cheese for the last 20 years have ranged from 10
million pounds in 1895 to 64 million pounds in 1914. The annual
imports during the five years 1895-1899 were more than 11 million
pounds; 1900-1904, nearly 18 million pounds; 1905-1909, more than
30 million pounds; 1910-1914, 49 million pounds. Italy and Switzer-
land each supplied about one-third during the 20 years just men-
tioned. Other countries supplying large quantities during the same
period were France, Germany, Greece, and the Netherlands. The
average annual imports from Italy ranged from a little over 3
million pounds during 1895-1899 to nearly 21 million pounds during
1910-1914. The average annual supply from Switzerland ranged
from 5 million pounds during the five years 1895-1899 to nearly 17
million pounds during 1910-1914.
Cream.—More than one-half of the milk, including cream, was sent
to Canada, and was valued at $245,000 in 1912, $474,000 in 1913, and
$333,000 in 1914. The imports of cream in 1910 were 731,783 gal-
lons, 2,333,000 gallons in 1911, 1,121,000 gallons in 1912, 1,247,000
gallons in 1913, and 1,773,000 gallons in 1914. Practically all of
this product came from Canada, the percentage being 99.99. The ay-
erage import value was about $1 per gallon.
Milk.—The quantity of condensed milk exported has only been
shown for the last five years. The exports were 13 million pounds in
1910 and 16 million pounds in 1914. Cuba received nearly one-half
of this article, and other good markets were Panama, Mexico, China,
Asiatic Russia, and the Philippine Islands. Imports of milk, fresh
and condensed, were valued at $63,000 in 1910, increasing to $1,089,-
000 in 1914. The United Kingdom and Canada have been the chief
sources of supply for this product.
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 9
PACKING-HOUSE PRODUCTS.
The exported products of the slaughtering, or “ packing-house,”
industry consist chiefly of fresh and cured meats, fats, and oils. The
exports reached their highest point about 10 years ago, and have
been on a general decline ever since. The total exports of beef and
pork exported in 1906 were 2,198 million pounds, which decreased to
less than one-half, or 1,070 million pounds, in 1914. The beef prod-
ucts increased from 33 million pounds during the five years, 1852—
1856, to 733 million pounds in 1906, and decreased to 148 million
pounds in 1914. The pork products increased from 104 million
pounds during the five years, 1852-1856, to 1,465 million pounds in
1906, and decreased to 922 million pounds in 1914. The value of the
packing-house products about equals the-value of the surplus cereal
products and exceeds the total value of all forest products exported.
MEAT.
The value of the meat exported has been many times the value of
the imports, but the imports of fresh meats in 1914 were in excess of
the exports, the imports being 197,472,887 pounds, valued at $17,079,-
449, and the exports 9,062,424 pounds, valued at $1,147,974.
Beef.—The exports of beef and its products were more than 33
millon pounds annually during the five years 1852-1856; increased to
71 million pounds during 1862--1866; to 219 million pounds during
1877-1881; to 639 millon pounds during 1897-1901; and decreased to
448 million pounds during 1907-1911. The largest quantity exported
for any one year was 733 million pounds in 1906, decreasing to 148
million pounds in 1914.
The imports of beef and its products were 1,875,000 pounds, valued
at $45,000, in 1900; 11,188,000 pounds, valued at $1,108,000, in 1910;
and 185,381,000 pounds, valued at $15,884,000, in 1914. During
1914 Argentina supplied 59,775,000 pounds; the United Kingdom,
57,540,000 pounds; Uruguay, 25,903,000 pounds; Australia, 19,859,000
pounds; and Canada, 15,920,000 pounds.
Canned beef.—The canned beef exported in 1887 was 438 million
pounds, which increased to 110 million pounds in 1891, and decreased
to 76 million pounds in 1903, and to 3 million pounds in 1914. The
United Kingdom has been our best market for canned beef, taking
about three-fourths of this product 20 years ago and about one-half
during the last five years. During the five years, 1910-1914, the
United Kingdom was the only country to which more than 1 million
pounds were consigned for any one year, the range being from 9
million pounds in 1910 to 1 million pounds in 1914.
Cured or pickled beef.—The cured beef exported in 1866 amounted
to 19 million pounds, which increased to 98 million pounds in 1890,
4251°—Bull. 296—15——2
wT
10 BULLETIN 296, U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
and decreased to 23 million pounds in 1914. The five principal coun-
tries to which this was consigned during the last five years, in their
order, were United Kingdom, Newfoundland and Labrador, Ger-
many, Belgium, and British West Indies.
Fresh beef.—The fresh beef exported in 1877 amounted to 49
million pounds, which increased to 852 million pounds in 1901, and
decreased to 6 million pounds in 1914. From 1894 to 1911 practi-
cally all of this product was consigned to the United Kingdom. For
1912 the United Kingdom received one-half and Panama one-third;
for 1913 and 1914 Panama received about three-fourths.
The imports of fresh beef and veal in 1900 were 337,000 pounds,
valued at $17,000; in 1910, 949,000 pounds, valued at $64,000; in
1914, 180,187,000 pounds, valued at $15,424,000. During 1914 Argen-
tina supplied 60 millon pounds; the United Kingdom, 58 million
pounds; Uruguay, 26 million pounds; Australia and New Zealand,
21 million pounds; and Canada, 16 million pounds.
Beef fats and oils.—Oleo oil exported in 1882 amounted to 20
million pounds, increased to 212 million in 1908, and decreased to
97 million pounds in 1914. A little more than one-half of the total
exports have been consigned to the Netherlands during the last 20
years, part of which were probably reshipped from the Netherlands
to other countries. Other countries to which large consignments
were sent were Germany, Denmark, Norway, and the United King-
dom. The value of this product increased from 3 million dollars in
1882 to 19 million dollars in 1908, and decreased to a little more than
10 million dolars in 1914.
Oleomargarine.—The oleomargarine exported in 1882 amounted
to more than 2 million pounds, which increased to nearly 12 million
pounds in 1906, and decreased to 25 million pounds in 1914. During
the last five years nearly all of this product was consigned to North
American countries, chiefly the subtropical countries of the West
Indies and the Central American States.
Stearin.—The export data of stearin from animal fats are only
available for 1913 and 1914, the exports being 3,745,000 pounds for
1913, and 2,724,000 pounds for 1914. Canada received about one-
third of this product and the remainder was consigned chiefly to
Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, Mexico, and Cuba.
Oleo stearin.—During the five years ending with 1914 the imports
of oleo stearin averaged 6,705,522 pounds annually, of which five
countries supplied 88 per cent. The five countries and the average
annual imports from each in their order were Argentina 1,579,160
pounds, United Kingdom 1,282,708 pounds, the Netherlands 1,082,289
pounds, Italy 999,727 pounds, and France 956,366 pounds.
Tallow.—The beef tallow exported during the five-year period
1852-1856 amounted to 7 million pounds annually, which increased to
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 11
97 million pounds in 1877-1881, and again increased to 128 million
pounds in 1907. This product gradually declined to a little less than
16 million pounds in 1914. The United Kingdom, the Netherlands,
Germany, France, and Belgium have been the best markets for tallow.
Pork products.—Exports of pork and its products amounted to 104
million pounds annually during the five-year period 1852-1856, in-
creasing to 1,467 million pounds in 1906 and decreasing to 923 million
pounds in 1914. During the 20-year period 1892-1911, the pork prod-
ucts exported averaged more than 1 billion pounds annually. For the
years 1901 and 1909 the annual exports ranged from 1,042 million
pounds to 1,465 million pounds. The billion mark was again reached
in 1912, the exports being 1,072 million pounds.
The imports of pork and its: products were 320,000 pounds, valued
at $94,000, in 1900; 659,000 pounds, valued at $147,000, in 1910;
6,634,000 pounds, valued at $924,000, in 1914. During 1914 Canada
supplied 89 per cent, amounting to 5,917,000 pounds, valued at
$749,000.
The exports of canned pork in 1900 were a little more than 8
million pounds, which increased to nearly 14 million pounds in 1908
and decreased to a little more than 3 million pounds in 1914. The
United Kingdom has been the best market for this class of meat,
receiving a little more than three-fourths during the last five years.
The exports of bacon amounted to 18 million pounds in 1851,
increased to 760 million pounds in 1880, and gradually declined to
194 million pounds in 1914. During the five years ending with 1914
about three-fourths of this class of meat was consigned to the United
Kingdom. Cuba received as much as all the other countries of
North America combined, and Brazil received about 90 per cent of
the bacon consigned to countries of South America. The countries
purchasing more than 1 millon pounds annually during the last five
years were the United Kingdom, Belgium, Italy, the Netherlands,
Canada, Cuba, and Brazil. The average export value of bacon ranged
from 18 million dollars in 1910 to nearly 26 million dollars in 1914.
Bacon and hams imported were 287,697 pounds, valued at $50,009,
in 1900; 2,008,960 pounds, valued at $383,669, in 1914. During 1914
more than half, or 1,314,093 pounds, came from Canada, 222,226
pounds from Germany, 223,862 pounds from the United Kingdom,
and 178,286 pounds from the Netherlands.
The hams and shoulders exported amounted to 48 million pounds
annually during the five years 1882-1886, which was doubled ten
years later, or during 1892-1896, the annual exports being 96 million
pounds, and again doubled during the next five years, 1897-1901,
the exports being 201 million pounds. Approximately 90 per cent
went to the United Kingdom during the last 20 years, 1895-1914.
During the same period Belgium received an annual average of
12 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
about 5 million pounds, Cuba 4 million pounds, and Canada 3 million
pounds.
Fresh pork exported in 1884 amounted to 185,000 pounds, which
increased to 44,000,000 pounds in 1902 and decreased to 2,668,000
pounds in 1914. During the 15 years 1895-1909 about 90 per cent
of this product went to the United Kingdom. During the five years
1910-1914, 35 per cent of the fresh pork was consigned to the United
Kingdom, 26 per cent to Panama, and 20 per cent to Canada. The
fresh pork imported in 1914 amounted to 4,624,799 pounds, valued
at $540,801. Canada supplied 4,600,000 pounds and Russia 21,000
pounds.
The annual exports of salted or pickled pork during the five years
1852-1856 averaged 41 million pounds, which was doubled 25 years
later, or during 1877-1881, amounting to 86 million pounds; this
amount was again doubled 20 years later, or in 1907, the amount
being 166 million pounds, which decreased to less than one-third, or
52 million pounds, in 1909, and to 46 million pounds in 1914. In
1895 the United Kingdom received about one-fourth of this article,
or 14 million pounds. Ten years later, or during 1904, this was in-
creased to about one-half, or 58 million pounds. After a lapse of
another 10 years, or in 1914, the proportion to the United Kingdom
was reduced to about one-eighth, or 5 million pounds. In 1896 four
countries—the United Kingdom, Canada, Haiti, and the British
West Indies—received 10 million pounds each. In 1914 the same
countries received 5 million pounds, 18 million pounds, 1$ millon
pounds, and 5 million pounds, respectively.
Lard.—The exports of lard in 1851 amounted to 20 million pounds.
Ten years later this was doubled, amounting to 40 million pounds,
and continued to increase until 1906, when the quantity amounted to
742 million pounds, which decreased to 481 million pounds in 1914.
In 1895, 184 million pounds were consigned to the United Kingdom
and 104 million pounds to Germany. ‘Ten years later, or in 1905, 229
million pounds were consigned to the United Kingdom and 188 mil-
lion pounds to Germany. After a lapse of another 10 years the con-
signments decreased to 165 million pounds to the United Kingdom
and to 146 million pounds to Germany. During the five years, 1910—
1914, the value of the lard exported formed about one-half of all the
pork products sent abroad.
Neutral lard exported in 1911 amounted to 38 million pounds, in-
creased to 62 million pounds in 1912, and decreased to 45 million
pounds in 1913, and to 29 million pounds in 1914. The Netherlands
was the leading country to which this product was consigned, taking
approximately one-half of the neutral lard exported. Denmark, Ger-
many, Norway, and the United Kingdom received the greater portion
of the remainder.
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 13
The lard oil exported increased from 103,000 gallons in 1855 to
1,963,000 gallons in 1879, and decreased to 111,000 gallons in 1914.
During the five years, 1910-1914, the greater portion of this product
was consigned to three countries, Germany, the United Kingdom, and
Mexico.
Lard compounds.—The lard compounds exported in 1893 were
912,000 pounds. During the next 10 years, or in 1903, this product
had increased 500 per cent, amounting to more than 46 million
pounds, and continued to increase to more than 58 million pounds in
1914. The United Kingdom has been the best market for this article,
receiving about 90 per cent in 1895 and about 40 per cent in 1914.
Other countries receiving large quantities during recent years were
Mexico, Cuba, Haiti, and Chile.
Mutton.—The exports of mutton in 1877 amounted to 349,000
pounds. This was increased to 1,440,000 pounds in 1879, to 3,356,000
in 1885, then gradually decreased to 101,463 pounds in 1892. In-
creased again to more than 2 million pounds in 1894 and to 6 million
pounds in 1903. During the last five years the exports have ranged
from 1,989,000 pounds in 1910 to 4,685,000 pounds in 1914. Twenty
years ago the United Kingdom was the best market for this class of
meat, but during the last five years Canada has been the better
market, receiving a little more than one-half during that period. A
large quantity was also consigned to the United Kingdom and
Panama.
The fresh mutton and lamb imported in 1914 amounted to 12,710,905
pounds and was valued at $1,114,730. Argentina supplied 5 million
pounds; Australia and New Zealand, 4 million pounds; Uruguay, 2
million pounds; and the United Kingdom, 1,305,000 pounds.
Miscellaneous meats.—The canned-meat products exported in 1900
were valued at $1,724,000. This article has not fluctuated much in
value since that time, the average annual exports being slightly more
than $1,000,000, amounting in 1914 to $1,350,000. During the last
five years about one-half of this product has been consigned to the
United Kingdom.
Exports of canned sausage meat during 1913 and 1914 amounted
to a little more than 1 million pounds, of which about one-half was
sent to Cuba; also large quantities were consigned to the Philippine
Islands and British South Africa. Sausage meats, other than canned,
for 1913 amounted to nearly 7 million pounds, and decreased to a
little less than 5 million pounds in 1914. This product was consigned
chiefly to France, Canada, Cuba, and Belgium. This item included
the canned sausage exported in 1901 and amounted to nearly 10 mil-
lion pounds, decreasing to 8 million pounds in 1912.
The value of poultry and game exported in 1895 was $17,898, which
increased to $1,397,000 in 1906 and decreased to $914,000 in 1914.
"| Baa
14 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
During the last five years, 1910-1914, about 90 per cent of this prod-
uct went to the United Kingdom. Canada and Panama each re-
ceived large consignments.
Various other meat products exported ranged in value during the
five years, 1910-1914, from $1,362,000 to $1,936,000. About three-
fourths of this class of meat products were consigned to the United
Kingdom. Other countries receiving large quantities were Belgium,
Canada, Panama, British West Indies, Cuba, and Haiti.
Imports of bologna sausage in 1878 were valued at $27,554, which
gradually increased to $186,824 in 1914. The quantity imported was
first shown in 1906, the amount being 744,634 pounds, which de-
creased to 730,326 pounds in 1914. The average annual imports for
the nine years were 658,935 pounds, of which 75 per cent came from
Germany.
The miscellaneous prepared or preserved meats imported in 1914
were valued at $1,676,360. Nearly one-half of these meats came from
Australia and New Zealand, amounting to $761,825; Canada suppled
$255,881, the United Kingdom $194,288, and Argentina $148,096.
HIDES AND SKINS.
The exports of hides and skins from the United States has been
unimportant when compared with the imports. Furs are not in-
cluded in this classification. The quantity exported in 1895 was a.
little more than 86 million pounds. This decreased to 7 million
pounds in 1900 and increased to nearly 20 million pounds in 1914.
The export hides and skins have been consigned chiefly to Ger-
many and Canada during the last five years. Twenty years ago, or
in 1895, Canada received one-half of our hides and skins.
The large production of hides and skins in this country has never
been equal to the demand, for the imports have annually been far
in excess of exports. Compared with other countries, this country
held first place in the world trade in this article, receiving one-fourth
of the hides and skins imported into all countries during the calendar
vears 1911-1913. The first year for which the total weight of hides
and skins was shown in our foreign trade was in 1895, the exports
being 36,002,859 pounds and the imports 226,575,745 pounds. A
similar comparison for other years exhibits a still greater contrast.
The exports have decreased almost one-half, while the imports have
more than doubled. The exports in 1914 amounted to 19,867,135
pounds and the imports were 561,070,686 pounds.
Buffalo hides.—Prior to 1911 the imports of buffalo hides were -
included with cattle hides, the imports for that year being 3,599,386
pounds, 4,988,675 pounds in 1912, 16,234,751 pounds in 1913, and
14,492,943 pounds in 1914. The British East Indies supplied 90.9 per
cent of this class of hides during the last four years.
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 15
Calfskins.—The calfskins exported in 1912 amounted to more than
500,000 pounds, and increased to 900,000 pounds in 1913, but de-
creased to 328,000 pounds in 1914. Nearly all of these were consigned
to Canada.
Imports of calfskins were separately stated for the first time in
1910, and since that time the imports have averaged 83,518,403
pounds annually. Eight countries supplied 83 per cent of this kind
of hides. The countries and the average annual supply from each
were: Russia, 22,419,150 pounds; Germany, 16,567,590 pounds; the
Netherlands, 7,839,510 pounds; Canada, 6,267,359 pounds; France,
4,874,163 pounds; Belgium, 4,238,167 pounds; Denmark, 4,182,108
pounds; and Argentina, 2,929,755 pounds.
Cattle hides.—More than half of the cattle hides were consigned
to Canada during the three years 1912-1914, the exports being 17
million pounds for 1912 and 1913, and 13 million pounds for 1914,
of which Canada received 11 million pounds during each of the
years 1912-1913 and nearly 8 million pounds in 1914.
The imports of cattle hides increased from 126 million pounds in
1898 to 280 million pounds in 1914. Three countries of South Amer-
ica—Argentina, Uruguay, and Venezuela—have been the source of
about one-third of the cattle hides imported during the last 17 years.
In 1898 Argentina and the United Kingdom each supplied a little
less than 20 million pounds. In 1914 Argentina had increased to 80
million pounds, while the United Kingdom had decreased to 11
million pounds. This product came from practically every country
on the globe, but the eight principal countries were Argentina, Brit-
ish East Indies, Canada, France, Mexico, the United Kingdom,
Uruguay, and Venezuela.
Goatskins.—The quantity of goatskins imported in 1895 amounted
to 54 million pounds, which increased to 111 million pounds in 1906
and decreased to 85 million pounds in 1914. The yearly imports were
57 million pounds during 1895-189), 83 million pounds during 1900-
1904, and 96 million pounds during 1905-1914. British East Indies,
China, France, Mexico, and European Russia supplied slightly less
than one-half of this item during 1895-1899 and increased to about
two-thirds during 1910-1914. The imports from British East Indies
increased from 18 per cent 20 years ago to 43 per cent during the
last five years.
Horsehides.—The horsehides exported during 1913-14 amounted
to more than 5 million pounds for each year. About 90 per cent of
these were consigned to Germany, the exports to that country being
4,924,000 pounds in 1913 and 5,055,000 pounds in 1914. |
The quantity of horse and ass skins imported during the last five
years has averaged 14,865,419 pounds annually, of which Russia
16 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
supplied annually 6,724,976 pounds, or 45.2 per cent, and Canada
1,447,265 pounds, or 9.7 per cent. France, Germany, and the United
Kingdom were important as a source for this class of hides and skins.
Kangaroo skins.—Imports of kangaroo skins for 1913 and 1914
came chiefly from Australia. That country supphed 1,064,918
pounds in 1913 and 1,265,904 pounds in 1914. The total imports
from all countries were 1,097,038 pounds in 1913 and 1,328,668 pounds
in 1914.
Sheepskins.—Sheepskins imported in 1909 amounted to 49 million
pounds, which increased to more than 70 millicn pounds in 1913 and
1914. The annual average imports for the six years were 62,381,892
pounds, of which 27,781,488 pounds, or 44.5 per cent, annually came
from the United Kingdom. Other countries that supplied large
quantities of sheepskins during that period were France, European
Russia, Argentina, Canada, British India, Australia, and New
Zealand.
Hide cuttings.—Imports of hide cuttings, raw, and other glue
stock were valued at $1,605,482 in 1910 and increased to $2,158,514 in
1914. More than $1,000,000 annually came from European countries,
chiefly France, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom.
MINOR PRODUCTS OF THE SLAUGHTERING INDUSTRY.
Grease and oils.—The grease and grease scraps consigned to for-
eign countries have been divided during the last three years into two
classes—the grease for lubricating purposes and grease for soap
making. The grease for lubricating purposes was valued at
$2,193,000 in 1912 and $2,395,000 in 1914. This product was mostly
consigned to Germany, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and
Canada. The grease for soap making was valued at $4,486,000 in
1912 and $5,047,000 in 1914, and was consigned chiefly to Belgium,
France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom,
Canada, and Cuba.
During the last three years imports of grease not specified was
supplied chiefly by six countries—Belgium, France, Germany, the
United Kingdom, Canada, and China. The imports in 1912 were
valued at $963,205 and in 1914 at $1,028,595.
Hair and bristles—The exports of unmanufactured animal hair
were valued at slightly more than one-half million dollars in 1895,
which gradually increased to $1,165,000 in 1908 and to $1,449,000 in
1913 and decreased to $1,085,000 in 1914. Prior to 1913 this article
contained a small quantity of manufactures of hair. European
countries have received the greater portion of this product, the prin-
cipal countries being Belgium, Germany, and the United Kingdom;
also a large quantity was consigned to Canada.
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 17
The imports of horse hair in 1910 were 5,410,930 pounds; in 1911,
4,542,930 pounds; in 1912, 5,381,730 pounds; in 1913, 5,147,923 pounds;
-and in 1914, 3,738,836 pounds. European and South American coun-
tries have supplied 87 per cent of this product in the last five years—
44.4 per cent came from Europe and 42.6 per cent from South Amer-
ica. The imports from Argentina exceeded those of any other
country and amounted to an average of more than 1,228,000 pounds
annually.
The average annual imports of bristles for the five years 1905-1909
were more than 2,800,000 pounds, and during the next five years,
1910-1914, these imports increased to more than 3,600,000 pounds.
China and the United Kingdom supplied 61.2 per cent during the
five-year period, 1905-1909, and 69.2 per cent during 1910-1914.
Large quantities also came from France, Germany, Hongkong, and
Russia.
Sausage casings.—Sausage casings exported in 1875 were valued
at $135,000, which increased to more than $1,900,000 in 1893, to
nearly $4,000,000 in 1908, and for the five years 1910-1914 the value
ranged from a little less than 4 million to 54 million dollars, of which
Germany and the Netherlands received about 60 per cent during
1910-1914. The quantity exported is only shown for the last five
years, and ranged from 26 million to 40 million pounds. Imports of
sausage casings for the last five years were valued at an average of
$2,634,735 annually, of which $1,637,347, or 62.1 per cent, came from
the United Kingdom. Three other countries—Argentina, the Nether-
lands, and Germany—each supplied large quantities of this product.
Bones, hoofs, and horns.—The bones, hoofs, horns, horn tips,
strips, and waste exported in 1895 were valued at $288,000. The next
10 years this had decreased to $181,000, and again decreased to $109,-
000 in 1914. This product was consigned chiefly to Belgium, France,
Italy, and the United Kingdom.
The imports of unmanufactured bones, hoofs, and horns for the last
five years have annually averaged over $1,000,000. These have been
supphed chiefly by cattle-producing countries, such as Argentina,
Canada, Mexico, and Uruguay. Argentina supplied 42.2 per cent of
this product during the last five years. The cleaned bones imported
_for the last three years were valued at $18,512 in 1912, $40,612 in
1918, and $5,023 in 1914. The greater portion of these were sup-
plied by Belgium and Canada.
Dried blood.—The dried blood imported in 1904 was valued at
$23,671, and the value of this product did not exceed $100,000 until
1910, when it was valued at $221,587, and increased to $391,816 in
i914. Argentina, Australia, and the United Kingdom have been the
source of more than half of this article during the last five years.
4251°—Bull. 296—15——3
18 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Bladders.—Imports of bladders, except fish, during the last four
years have been valued at $38,129 in 1911, $41, 954 4 in 1912, $96,237 in
1913, and $52,336 in 1914. Ganmds and Germany have been the source
of more than half of this article during the last five years.
Rennets.—For the last 20 years the imports of rennets were valued
at an average of $96,205 annually. Denmark supplied an annual
average of $70,719, or 73.5 per cent. This product first appeared
in the import trade of the United States in 1876, when the value
amounted to $16,441. For the last five years the annual imports
were $92,459 in 1910, $111,609 in 1911, $102,142 in 1912, $129,557 in
1918, and $129,720 in 1914.
OTHER ANIMAL PRODUCTS.
WOOL.
The exports of wool from the United States since 1852 have been in
negligible quantities, the exports for that year being 55,550 pounds.
The largest quantity exported for any one year was in 1896, the
exports being nearly 7 million pounds. For 1901 and subsequently
the exports have averaged only a few hundred thousand pounds
annually, decreasing to so small a figure that it was not separately
shown in the customs returns for 1911 and 1912, and amounted to
335,848 pounds in 1914.
As an importing country for wool during the 10 calendar years
1904-1913 the United States held fifth place among the countries of:
the world. The five leading countries importing wool were: France,
555 million pounds; United Kingdom, 487 million pounds; Germany,
458 million pounds; Belgium, 217 million pounds; and the United
States, 198 million pounds. Our wool imports during the fiscal year
1840 amounted to nearly 10 million pounds. This was almost doubled
in 1850 and continued to increase until during the last 20 years the
imports have been approximately 200 million pounds annually. The
annual production for the latter period has been close to 300 million
pounds; thus the consumption of wool in the United States during
that time has been about 500 million pounds annually, or about 5
pounds for each individual. The annual average imports of wool
during the five years 1895-1899 were 199 million pounds; 1900-1904,
155 million pounds; 1905-1909, 209 million pounds; 1910-1914, 208
million pounds. As a source of supply for imports of wool eight ©
countries have supplied the greater portion during the last 20 years.
The supply from those eight countries during the 15 years 1895-1909
was 90 per cent of the wool imported, but for the last five years,
1910-1914, only 87 per cent came from those countries. As a source
of supply the United Kingdom held first place, supplying 41.1 per
cent during the five years 1895-1899, 34.2 per cent during 1900-1904,
30.7 per cent during 1905-1909, and 33.1 per cent during 1910-1914.
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 19
During the five years 1910-1914 an average of 27 million pounds
annually came from Argentina, 17 million pounds from Australia,
33 million pounds from China, 44 million pounds from New Zealand.
16 million pounds from European Russia, 10 million pounds from
Asiatic and European Turkey, 69 million pounds from the United
Kingdom, and 44 million pounds from Uruguay. As a port of entry
for imports of wool for recent years Boston exceeded all the other
ports. New York was second and Philadelphia third.
SILK.
The largest quantity of silk waste exported from this country for
any one year was 300,553 pounds in 1909, which decreased to 266,207
pounds the following year, and again decreased to 27,597 pounds in
1914. Four countries, China, France, Italy, and Japan, have been
the chief source of our silk supply. Japan has annually supphed
about one-half of the silk used in this country, which is mostly raw,
in skeins, or as reeled from the cocoon. From 1871 to 1879 imports
of this grade of silk averaged a little over 1 million pounds annually.
These imports increased to more than 10 million pounds in 1898, 23
million pounds in 1909, and to nearly 29 million pounds in 1914.
The average annual imports for all silk for the five years ending
with 1909 were 20,060,664 pounds, of which 47.6 per cent was sup-
plied by Japan, 20.2 per cent by Italy, 17.4 per cent by China, and 8.1
per cent by France. For the five years ending with 1914 the imports
averaged annually 28,671,132 pounds, of which Japan supplied 55.4
per cent, China 22.2 per cent, Italy 11.4 per cent, and France 3.6
per cent.
EGGS.
The eggs consigned to foreign countries ranged from 1,300,000
dozen in 1897 to 20 million dozen in 1913, and decreased to 16 million
dozen in 1914. Canada and Cuba have received about three-fourths
of our eggs exported during the last 20 years. During the last 10
years Mexico has taken an average of more than half a million dozen
annually, and since 1908 Panama has taken a like amount. Prior
to 1897 the imports greatly exceeded the exports, but since that time
the reverse has been the case. )
The imports of eggs in 1872 were a little less than 5 million dozen,
which increased to 164 million dozen in 1884, and decreased to less
than 3 million dozen in 1895. This product continued to decrease
to a little more than 231,000 dozen in 1907, and again increased to
more than 6 million dozen in 1914. Twenty years ago, or in 1895,
nearly all of the imported eggs came from Canada, but for the last
five years the United Kingdom has been the chief source of supply.
During 1914 Austria-Hungary supplied more than 1 million dozen;
20
BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
EXPORTS OF
NON-AGRICULTURAL
DOMESTIC (IERCHANOISE
&4/56,000 000
LXPORTS OF
| DO/TESTIC FARIA
PRODUCTS
B/O8Q00Q000
JUNO FARIA PRODUCTS:
NOT PIENTIONED BELOW
#52000 000
|Z/VEANITALS BIE DOD OOO
VEGETABLE OLS
BE2I0G 000
OLCAKE AND (TEAL
5,000,
W/IPORTS OF
NON -AGFICULTURAL
PIER CHAN DISE
B 9P/,000 000
| APU/7TS BFQOOQOOO
&
Ny
NY
8
8
TOBACCO TENUPACTURED) to
[ ¥FE00Q000
SIPORTS OF
FAPSI PRODUCTS
% BOL,00Q000
GRA/M A7ND
GRAIN PRODUCTS
#/5E00G 000
| WOR FAP PRODUCTS
ROT IIENTIONED BELOW
B EZ 000000
DAIRY PRODUCT S BIZO00 O09
LVEANIIALS VF /2Z200Q000,
VEGETABLES $/F00Q000
PACKINGHOUSE |GRAINE PRODUCTS 18/2 000000 |
PRODUCTS NUTS 8/6000000
#/60 000 000
LXPORTS
NON-AGRICULTURAL
| 3 (OO/V7EST7/C)
%4/5E 000.000
| 7EA &/7000000
COCOSE CHOCOLATE $1E009000
_| S£EOS $22002000
VEGETABLE OLS
| £29000000
FRUITS 8 30000000
TOBACCO UMMANUIACT URED)
B P2.000,000
WOOLS 836009000
IIPOPTS
WON -AGRICULTURAL
¥ 9240008000
VEGETABLE FIBERS
& 6FO0GOCO
SILA (RAW)
¥ 83000000
COTTON (RAW)
577000 000
HIDES AND SHINS
%/03,000, 000
SUGAR B/O#FOOGI0O
COFFEE $ 1/Q00G000
Fic. 1.—Average annual value of agricultural and nonagricultural products in
the trade of the United States with foreign countries during the fiscal years
ending June 30, 1911-1914.
4]
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 21
Germany, 1,847,000 dozen; and China, 1,875,000 dozen. Other coun-
tries supplying large quantities of eggs in 1914 were Russia, the
United Kingdom, Canada, and Hongkong.
The exports of egg yolks, canned eggs, etc., appeared in our export
trade in 1892 when the exports were valued at $5,500. The trade
in this product has been unimportant. For some years there were
VALUE OF FAIRS? PRODUCTS EXPORTED AND I(7PORTED FOR THE UNITED STATES, (851 -+HF |
YEAR
TF
N
N\ ny)
x x
7890
79/0
S915 -
S885
S865
4/870
AEG SOS ESE ce 1B /,000,000000 LINE.
see seal 5
ivig, 2.—Exports and imports of agricultural products for the United States during the
fiscal years ending June 30, 1851-1914.
no exports. The exports in 1913 were valued at $67,854, which ex-
ceeded all previous years. In 1877 the imports were valued at $2,529.
The largest quantity imported for any one year was 3,420,412 pounds
in 1914, valued at $504,619. In 1914 more than one-half of this prod-
uct exported was sent to Canada and nearly two-thirds of the im-
ports came from the United Kingdom.
|
|
|
22 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
HONEY AND BEESWAX.
The quantity of honey exported has not been stated, but the yearly
export value for the five years ending with 1899 was $77,323, which
was doubled during the five years ending with 1914 and amounted to
$154,325. Germany and the United Kingdom have received more
than one-half of the honey exported during the last 20 years. Other
countries receiving important consignments of this product since
1905 were Canada and the Netherlands.
The quantity of honey imported has ranged from 66,432 gallons in
1897 to 287,696 gallons in 1903. The annual imports during the last
five years have averaged a little more than 100,000 gallons. Mexico
and Cuba supplied 83.2 per cent, of which 40.3 per cent came from
Mexico and 42.9 per cent from Cuba. The average annual imports
of honey during the last 20 years was 140,990 gallons.
The exports of beeswax to all countries for the last 20 years have
averaged a little over 100,000 pounds annually. Prior to 1900 this
product was consigned principally to the United Kingdom, but dur-
ing the five years ending with 1914 Canada received nearly as much
as all other countries combined. During the five years, 1895-1899,
56.7 per cent of the beeswax exported was sent to the United King-
dom and 1.1 per cent to Canada; 1900-1904, 49.3 per cent was sent to
the United Kingdom and 8.7 per cent to Canada; 1905-1909, 49.7 per
cent was sent to the United Kingdom and 26 per cent to Canada;
1910-1914, 35 per cent was sent to the United Kingdom and 49.6 per
cent to Canada.
Cuba has been the chief source of our beeswax supply during the
last 20 years, supplying annually more than any other country and
more than all other countries combined for most of that period.
The imports in 1895 were 288,001 pounds, of which 180,742 came
from Cuba. The imports in 1914 were 1,412,200 pounds, of which
484,989 came from Cuba. The imports from Germany have greatly
increased, being 223 pounds in 1895 and 322,578 pounds in 1914.
FEATHERS.
The exports of feathers from this country in 1910 were valued at
$312,784 and in 1914 at $640,020. During this period more of this
product has been consigned to Canada than to any other country.
Other countries receiving large quantities for the same period were
Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands. Begin-
ning with 1895 the annual imports of feathers, crude and undressed,
have been valued at more than 1 million dollars. For the five years
ending with 1899 the average annual imports were valued at
$2,074,745, of which 60.8 per cent came from the United Kingdom.
For the five years ending with 1904 the average imports were
$2,102,512, of which 69.7 per cent came from the United Kingdom.
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 23
For the five years ending with 1909 the average imports were
$3,855,375, of which 58.5 per cent came from the United Kingdom.
For the five years ending with 1914 the average imports were
$6,224,799, of which 53.9 per cent came from the United Kingdom.
During 1907 and subsequently the imports of feathers, crude, frora
British South Africa have been valued at more than 1 million dollars
annually, amounting to nearly 24 million dollars in 1913. Ostrich
feathers were not separately stated in the import returns until 1912,
and since that time 77.2 per cent of the imports of feathers have
been ostrich. During the last three years 59.2 per cent of the ostrich
feathers came through ports of the United Kingdom and 38.2 per
eent from British South Africa.
GLUE AND GELATIN.
Beginning with 1898, and subsequently, the exports of glue have
averaged more than 2 million pounds annually, while the imports
for the same period ranged from a little over 4 million pounds to
nearly 9 million pounds, except in 1914, when the imports amounted
to more than 22,700,000 pounds. Since 1895 more than half of the
glue exported was consigned to three countries, the United Kingdom,
Canada, and Germany, and the same countries, including France,
supplied more than three-fourths of the glue imported during the
same period.
Imports of gelatin were separately shown in our foreign commerce
in 1909. Since that time the average annual imports have been
1,367,635 pounds, of which 53.6 per cent came from Germany. Other
countries supplying this product in large quantities were Austria-
Hungary, France, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.
COTTON.
The exports of cotton in 1851 amounted to 927 million pounds,
which was increased the following year to more than 1 billion pounds,
and doubled in 1881, amounting to more than 2 billion pounds; dou-
bled again in 1905, amounting to more than 4 billion pounds; and
amounted to 4,761 million pounds in 1914. As an exporting port for
cotton, Galveston exceeded all other ports. That port handled 1,780
million pounds, or 37.4 per cent of all cotton exported, in 1914. New
Orleans ranked second, handling 895 million pounds; and Savannah
third, amounting to 766 million pounds. This product has been ex-
ported chiefly to three countries, the United Kingdom, Germany, and
France. The United Kingdom has received approximately one-third
ef our cotton during the last 20 years, the exports to that country be-
ing 1,777 million pounds in 1895 and 1,791 million pounds in 1914.
The exports to Germany in 1895 were 752 million pounds, increasing
24 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
to 1442 million pounds in 1914. The exports to France in 1895
exceeded 395 million pounds, which increased to 570 million pounds
in 1914. Other countries receiving large quantities of cotton during
the last five years were Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Italy, Russia,
Spain, Canada, Mexico, and Japan. The value of the cotton exported
in 1851 was 112 million dollars; in 1866, 281 million dollars; in 1911,
585 million dollars; and in 1914, 611 million dollars, or one-half the
value of all products of the farm and forest exported. Imports of
cotton came chiefly from Egypt, China, and Peru, some being for-
warded by way of Europe. In 1910-1914 the annual imports were
nearly 111 million pounds.
GRAIN AND GRAIN PRODUCTS.
The grain and grain products exported in 1851 were valued at
$14,556,000. This increased to $160,568,000 in 1874, $269,570,000 in
1881, $334,200,000 in 1898, and decreased to $164,815,000 in 1914.
Compared with other agricultural products sent abroad during the
last 10 years, grain and grain products held third place, being ex-
ceeded by cotton and packing-house products.
The imports of grain and grain products were valued at $1,879,000
in 1851, increased to $10,883,000 in 1856, and again increased to more
than $16,000,000 in 1866; decreased to $7,500,000 in 1867, remaining
practically at that value until 1891, when the value decreased to
$4,567,000, and again decreased to about $2,500,000 for the period
1893-1899. During the last 15 years this product gradually increased
from $1,397,000 in 1900 to $27,442,000 in 1914.
Wheat and wheat flour.—For the fiscal years 1911-1914 the value
of our exports in wheat and wheat flour, as compared with the total
value of our domestic exports, amounted to about 4.1 per cent.
‘ During the three fiscal years 1900-1902, inclusive, our exports of
wheat, including wheat flour, exceeded 200,000,000 bushels; but such
was the decrease in the succeeding years that on an average for the
decade 1901-1910 our exports of domestic wheat and wheat flour
contributed 7.8 per cent of the total value of our domestic exports.
After falling to an average of 4.1 per cent for the last four fiscal
years the percentage of our domestic exports formed by wheat and
flour rose during the last half of the calendar year 1914 to 18.8, a
percentage exactly equal to that for the decade 1871-1880.
Wheat and wheat flour began to make their appearance among
our articles of export early in colonial times. It was first sown on
the Elizabeth Islands, off the coast of Massachusetts, as early as
1602, and from there was naturally introduced in the various British
colonies, where its production increased to such considerable quan-
tities that a surplus was being exported prior to 1723. The first
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 25
decade for which exports of wheat and flour from the United States
can here be given begins with 1791. The total amount exported in
the decade was 4,259,285 bushels of wheat and 7,032,865 barrels of
flour. Combining the two, on a basis of 5 bushels of wheat to a
barrel of fiour, we get an annual average for the decade of 3,942,361
bushels of wheat. In the decade 1801-1810 the exports amounted to
3,418,761 bushels of wheat and 9,099,100 barrels of flour, making
an annual average of 4,891,426 bushels of wheat, while in the next
decade, 1811-1820, the wheat amounted to only 1,026,572 bushels,
exclusive of the exports in 1814, and the quantity of flour exported
reached a total of 10,199,104 barrels, giving a total of 52,022,092
bushels for the decade, or an average of 5,202,209 bushels yearly.
Out of 142,163,031 bushels of domestic wheat, including flour, ex-
ported from the United States between October 1, 1820, and June 30,
1846, the United Kingdom took 23,981,000, or 16.9 per cent, while out
of the 51,011,699 bushels exported between July 1, 1846, and June 30,
1849, the United Kingdom received 26,998,000 bushels, or 52.9 per.
cent. During the long period of practically free trade in breadstutts
covering every fiscal year from July 1, 1849, to June 30, 1914, inclu-
sive, the United Kingdom has taken 53.7 per cent of all the wheat
and flour exported from the United States, leaving only 46.3 per
cent for all other countries. Only nine times since 1820 have the
exports of wheat to France exceeded 10,000,000 bushels, while those
for Germany since the German oe came into existence as such
never reached that amount until 1899, for which year the quantity
was 10,311,450 bushels, and only seven times in all has the limit of
10,000,000 bushels Been exceeded.
eon .—Doubtless the most striking feature of our corn industry
is that the enormous production is absorbed almost entirely by the
home demand. Relative to its importance as the greatest of all our
grain crops, it is exported in comparatively small amounts. In spite
of an increase since 1897 of 25 million acres in the area planted, ex-
ports, which in that year attained the maximum of 179 million
bushels, have since almost steadily declined, and in 1913 amounted
to only 49,064,967 bushels, valued at $28,800,544, while for 1914 there
was a tremendous drop of nearly 40 million bushels in our exports
of corn, as we exported that year only 9,380,855 bushels, valued at
$7,008,028. This drop was probably due to a heavy shortage in the
domestic crop, the 1913 yield being only 2,447,000,000 bushels, com-
pared with 3,125,000,000 in the preceding year.
Of all the corn produced in the United States and exported there-
from in the form of grain during the 64 fiscal years from July 1,
1850, to June 30, 1914, no less than 50.3 per cent was exported to the
United Hihedo: The total quantity exported during that period of
4251°—Bull. 296—15——4
26 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
nearly two-thirds of a century was 3,287,804,238 bushels, of which
1,655,241,185 bushels went to the United Kingdom. In recent times
the percentage of our exports in corn taken by the United Kingdom
has been diminishing, due partly to the mcreasing competition of
other countries in supplying the world’s demand for maize and partly
to our own increasing use for the corn or produce. Among other
countries that have been quite regular purchasers of American corn
may be mentioned Germany, British North America, the Nether-
lands, Denmark, and Belgium.
In general, our imports of corn have been insignificant in amount,
but within the last few years increasing quantities have been im-
ported into the United States from Argentina. During the fiscal
year 1914 we imported 12,367,000 bushels, of which 11,624,000 bushels
were from Argentina. During 1901-1913 the yearly imports of corn
ranged from 5,169 to 903,062 bushels.
Rice.—Beginning with 1713, the exports of rice from the British
colonies in North America amounted to more than 8 million pounds,
and increased to 76,511,000 pounds in 1771, from which an annual
decrease is shown to 12,112,000 pounds in 1783, increasing to 50
million pounds in 1789. The exports continued to increase to 105
million pounds in 1828, and 127,789,800 pounds in 1836, then a de-
crease to 136,143 pounds is shown in 1883, after which a yearly in-
crease is shown to 163,091,000 pounds in 1914.
The imports of rice were nearly 57 million pounds in 1862, which
increased 500 per cent in 1914, the imports being 290 million pounds.
During the last three years practically all of the “uncleaned ” rice
has been supplied by Japan. China supplied more than half of the
“ cleaned ” rice during 1912-1913, the imports being 13 and 22 million
pounds, respectively. In 1914 more than half of our imports of cleaned
rice came by way of the Netherlands, the imports from that country
being 48 million pounds, while the imports from China were 30 mil-
lion pounds. The rice flour, meal, and broken rice imported in 1885
were 38 million pounds, which increased to 140 million pounds in
1914. Germany consigned about 90 per cent of this article 20 years
ago, but decreased to a little less than one-half during the last five
years, 1910-1914. During this latter period about one-fourth came
from the Netherlands, and large quantities also came from Austria-
Hungary, the United Kingdom, China, Hongkong, and Siam.
Barley.—Exports of this grain have shown wide fluctuations, the
exports being 66,482 bushels in 1864, 9,810 bushels in 1868, nearly 4
million bushels in 1878, 200,000 bushels in 1882, 5 million bushels in
1894, 20 million bushels in 1897, 24 million bushels in 1900, 14 million
bushels in 1912, 18 million bushels in 1913, and nearly 7 million
bushels in 1914. The United Kingdom has been the destination for
about 75 per cent of our barley during the last 20 years.
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. Oi
The imports of barley during the last 25 years gradually decreased
from 11,333,000 bushels in 1890 to 339,000 bushels in 1914. About 90
per cent of the import barley has been supplied by Canada during
the last 20 years.
Malt.—The malt exported in 1880 amounted to 5,672 bushels,
which increased to 162,000 bushels in 1895, to 453,000 bushels in 1899,
to 882,000 bushels in 1906, and decreased to 330,608 bushels in 1914.
During the last 10 years Canada and Mexico have been the best
markets for malt, receiving about 90 per cent of the malt exported.
The imports of aril in 1873 amounted to 279,000 bushels, which in-
creased to 1,856,000 bushels in 1883 and decreased to 5,165 bushels in
1892, and has remained at nearly that figure down to date. Euro-
pean countries, chiefly Germany and the United Kingdom, have sup-
pled practically all of the malt imported during the last 20 years.
Rye.—The exports of rye in 1864 were 154,960 bushels, which
increased to more than one-half million bushels in 1868 and in-
creased to 1,564,000 bushels in 1874. During the 10 years 1876-1885
the annual exports were about 2,000,000 bushels, and decreased to
79,000 bushels in 1888, then increased to 12,000,000 bushels in 1892,
decreased to 9,000 bushels in 1895, increased to nearly 16,000,000 in
1898, then gradually decreased to less than 3,000 bushels in 1911, and
increased to 2,223,000 in 1914. The rye has been consigned chiefly
to European countries during the last 20 years, principally Belgium,
Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom.
The imports of rye in 1867 were 249,718 bushels, and remained at
nearly that figure until 1878, the imports for that year being 430,235
bushels, which increased to 973,677 bushels in 1883; and since 1886
the imports of rye have been of little importance, decreasing to as
low as 5 bushels. As a source of supply Canada has exceeded all
other countries, supplying nearly 90 per cent of the rye imported.
Oats.—The exports of oats were 305,755 bushels in 1864; increased
gradually to 13 million bushels in 1896; reached 69 million bushels
in 1898; decreased to 1 million bushels in 1904; increased to 46 mil-
lon bushels in 1906; and since that date the exports have been
slightly over 1 million bushels, except 1913, when the exports were
nearly 34 million bushels. During the 10 years 1894-1903 about 75
per cent of the oats were sent to Belgium, France, the Netherlands,
and the United Kingdom. During the five years 1910-1914 the
United Kingdom took nearly one-half of the oats, and large quan-
tities were consigned to Cuba and the Philippine Islands.
The imports of oats were about 500,000 bushels during the five
years 1851-1855 and ranged from 1 to 10 million bushels during
the 10 years 1856-1865. During the five years 1871-1875 the imports
were again about 500,000 bushels, decreasing to less than 100,000
bushels during the period 1876-1907. In 1910 the imports were 1
28 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
million bushels, valued at $400,000. In 1914 the imports were 22
million bushels, valued at $7,886,000. During the last 20 years
about three-fourths of the oats came from Canada.
Buckwheat.—The exports of buckwheat in i897 amounted to
1,677,000 bushels, valued at $678,959, which gradually decreased to
580 bushels, valued at $695, in 1914. Germany and the Netherlands
have received about 90 per cent of the buckwheat since 1897.
Macaroni, vermicelli, ete—The quantity of macaroni, vermicelli,
and similar preparations was not stated prior to 1903, the imports
for that year being 28,787,821 pounds, valued at $1,171,887, which
increased to 126,128,621 pounds, valued at $5,698,783, in 1914. Asa
source of supply for this commodity Italy has exceeded all other .
countries during this period, supplying 94.7 per cent.
Bread and biscuit—Bread and biscuit have been the principal
bakery products consigned to foreign countries and the quantity
exported has remained nearly uniform from year to year. In 1866
and subsequently the quantity was stated in pounds and varied from
7,610,400 pounds in 1867 to 17,580,740 pounds in 1884. This article
has been sent to nearly all countries on the globe, about half of which
went to the British West Indies.
The imports of bread and biscuit were valued at $282,753 in 1912,
and $415,318 in 1914. A little more than one-half came from the
United Kingdom and about one-third came from three other coun-
tries, Germany, the Netherlands, and Japan.
Bran, middlings, and mill feed—The exports of bran, middlings,
and mill feed amounted to 53,548 tons in 1910, 67,687 tons in 1911,
144,504 tons in 1912, 162,321 tons in 1913, and 70,260 tons in 1914.
More than three-fourths of this item went to countries in Europe,
Germany receiving about two-thirds of the total exports.
Distillers’ grains and malt sprouts.—Distillers’ and brewers’ grains
and malt sprouts exported were 59,136 tons in 1901, increased to
102,683 tons in 1906, and decreased to 59,788 tons in 1914. During
the last five years nearly one-half has been consigned to Germany,
while the greater portion of the remainder went to Belgium and the
Netherlands.
Oatmeal.—The oatmeal consigned to foreign countries amounted
to 27 million pounds in 1884, decreased to 4 million pounds in 1888,
increased to 92 million pounds in 1901, and decreased to 16 million
pounds in 1914. During the 10 years 1894-1903 one-half of this
article went to the United Kingdom, but shipments to that country
decreased to about one-third during the five years 1910-1914. Dur-
ing the latter period the Netherlands received annually from 2 to 8
million pounds and Argentina and the British East Indies each re-
ceived about half a million pounds annually.
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 29
The imports of oatmeal during the seven years 1884-1890 agere-
gated 1 million pounds annually. During the five years 1891-1895
the annual imports were about half a million pounds and for the 15
years 1896-1909 the annual imports were about 300,000 pounds, in-
creasing to 1 million pounds in 1914. About 90 per cent of this item
came from the United Kingdom.
SUGAR.
Beginning with 1901, the annual imports of sugar into the United
States have averaged about 4 billion pounds, or nearly ten times the
yearly imports in 1851-1855. The great increase occurred in 1866-—
1870 over the previous five-year period. In 1861-1865 a yearly aver-
age of 634 million pounds were imported; in the next five-year period
an average of 1,082 million pounds were imported, and again an
increase, when in 1876-1880 the average yearly imports equaled 1,670
million pounds. Beginning with 1881-1885, yearly averages ex-
ceeded 2 billion pounds, reaching in 1891-1895, 3,744 million pounds;
in 1896-1900, 3,900 million pounds; in 1901-1905, 3,721 million
pounds; in 1906-1910, 4,006 million pounds; and in 1911-1914, 4,462
millon pounds. To the imports subsequent to 1901 should be added
the sugar received from Hawaii and Porto Rico, which prior to
1901 were classed as foreign countries. Receipts from Hawaii and
Porto Rico during 1911-1914 averaged 1,801 million pounds, which,
added to the imports for these years, gives an annual average of
6,263 million pounds. Cuba for more than threescore years has been
the chief source of our-sugar supply. Imports from Cuba averaged
332 million pounds a year in 1851-1885 and 3,615 million pounds
during 1911-1913.
In 1914 the imports from Cuba had risen to 4,926 million pounds,
and receipts from Hawaii and Porto Rico were, respectively, 1,114
million and 641 million pounds. Imports from the Dutch East
Indies, which in 1906-1910 averaged 610 million pounds a year
decreased to 194 million pounds during 1911-1913.
All but a small fraction of the sugar imported into the United
States is intended to be further treated before it is ready for con-
sumption. For convenience this kind of sugar is generally called
“raw” sugar and the kind fit for consumption is spoken of as
“ refined.”
Compared with imports, the sugar exported from the United
States is relatively unimportant and has been since the beginning
of cur foreign trade. At present (1914) and for a long period of
time the sugar exported is refined. Much of it is sent to Central
America and the West Indies, even to countries from which we
import raw sugar. Occasionally large quantities are shipped t>
5)
|
310) BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
cther countries. In 1911-1913 an average of 26 million pounds a
year were sent to the United Kingdom, 30 million pounds to coun-
tries in North America, chiefly Central American and West Indian
countries, and about 4 million pounds elsewhere. The sugar consti-
tuted during 1911-1913 about one-seventh in value of the total
imports of agricultural products into the United States.
COFFEE AND COFFEE SUBSTITUTES.
Coffee.——The exports of coffee began in 1901, when the Spanish
possessions of Hawaii and Porto Rico became United States terri-
tory. The exports of coffee during the fiscal year 1901 were 497,559
pounds, and during the next year the exports increased to more than
274 million pounds. Exports of this article continued to increase
until the latter amount was almost doubled in 1914, the exports beng
54 million pounds. The bulk of this coffee is grown and exported
from the customs district of Porto Rico, and approximately one-half
was taken by Cuba during the period 1901-1914. The bulk of the
remainder was sent.to four countries, Austria-Hungary, France,
Italy, and Spain.
As early as 1790 our coffee imports amounted to more than 4
million pounds. Three years later the imports were over 34 million
pounds. More than 103 million pounds were imported in 1835, 236
million pounds in 1856, 516 million pounds in 1883, and more
than 1,091 million pounds in 1902, the largest quantity imported
for any one year. During the 10 years 1905-1914 the imports aver-
aged 932 million pounds annually. As a coffee importing country
compared with other countries, the United States ranks first, the
imports for recent years being approximately one-third of the total
imports into all countries. As a source of supply, Brazil leads all
other countries combined, supplying approximately three-fourths of
our coffee during the last 20 years. During the five-year period
1895-1899 the average annual imports of coffee were 735 million
pounds, of which 72.5 per cent came from Brazil; 1900-1904 the
imports were 929 million pounds annually, of which 78.1 per cent
came from Brazil; 1905-1909 the imports were annually 965 million
pounds, of which 77.5 per cent came from Brazil; 1910-1914 the
imports annually were 899 million pounds, of which 74.8 per cent
came from Brazil. Other countries supplying large quantities of
coffee during the last five years were Colombia, Mexico, Venezuela,
and Guatemala. The imports from each of these countries, except
Venezuela, have nearly doubled during the last five years. In 1914
the per capita imports were 10.2 pounds. The consumption of coffee
in the United States during the 10 years 1904-1913 averaged annually
slightly more than 10 pounds per person. Of the large quantities
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 831
of coffee imported into the United States through various domestic
_ ports considerably more than one-half entered through the port of
New York. Entries through that port for the 10 years 1904-1913
averaged 645 million pounds annually. The port of New Orleans
ranked second, with an average of 241 million pounds, and San
Francisco third, the entries being 34 million pounds.
Chicory root.—The imports of chicory root during the five years
1910-1914 averaged 2,895,791 pounds annually, of which 81 per cent,
or an average of 2,345,263 pounds, came from Belgium and 16.4 per
cent, or 474,485 pounds, came from Germany.
Coffee substitutes other than chicory root.—The imports of coffee
substitutes other than chicory root in 1910 were 200,008 pounds; in
1911, 169,201 pounds; in 1912, 70,810 pounds; in 1913, 146,897
pounds; and in 1914, 188,446 pounds. More than half of this product
came from Germany.
COCOA AND CHOCOLATE.
The yearly imports of crude cocoa and leaves and shells of cocoa
was about 2 million pounds from 1851 to 1866; from 1867 to 1879 the
average was about 34 million pounds; increased to 7 million pounds
in 1880 and to 176 million pounds in 1914. During the last 20 years
about one-half of the cocoa came from countries in North America,
chiefly the British West Indies, Cuba, and Santo Domingo. Twenty
years ago countries of South America—Brazil, Ecuador, Dutch
Guiana, and Venezuela—supplied nearly one-half but decreased to
about one-third during the last five years. Also large quantities
came through Portugal and the United Kingdom.
‘The cocoa and chocolate exported in 1902 was valued at $166,000.
Five years later this was doubled, amounting to $349,000, which in-
creased to $499,000 in 1911 and decreased to $337,000 in 1914. Dur-
ing the last five years, 1910-1914, Canada received the greater por-
tion of this product. Other important markets during the same
period were Panama and Cuba.
Imports of chocolate, including cocoa, prepared or manufactured
during the five years ending with 1914 averaged nearly 3 million
pounds annually. The Netherlands supphed a little more than one-
half, or 51.3 per cent; the United Kingdom, 18.6 per cent; Switzer-
land, 15.7 per cent; and the greater portion of the remainder came
from Germany. .
TEA.
Tea has been an important article of our foreign commerce, the
imports ranging from 17 million pounds in 1851 to 91 million pounds
in 1914. The import value of this product has ranged from 5
million to 17 million dollars for the years 1851 and 1914, respectively.
32 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Compared with other countries in imports of tea, the United States
is exceeded by only two countries, the United Kingdom and Russia. |
The imports mto each of the three countries during the calendar
year 1913 were 89 million pounds, 306 million pounds, and 152
million pounds, respectively. As a source of supply, approximately
90 per cent of our tea came from China and Japan. During the 10
years, 1895-1904, the imports from China exceeded those from Japan
and amounted to about one-half of the imports. During the 10
years, 1905-1914, Japan rose to first place and supplied about one-
half of our tea. Other countries consigning large quantities of tea
to us were British East Indies, Canada, and the United Kingdom.
The imports of tea waste, siftings, or sweepings, for manufac-
turing purposes, were a little less than 2 million pounds in 1909,
which increased to 6 million pounds in 1914. This product came
from the British East Indies and Japan.
TOBACCO.
As early as 1619 the exports of tobacco from the British colonies
of North America were 20,000 pounds, valued at $10,950. The ex-
ports did not assume large proportions until 1665, when 23,750,000
pounds, valued at $733,875, were exported. With various fluctua-
tions, the exports of this product gradually increased to more than
100 million pounds in 1771, 200 million pounds in 1859, 300 mil-
lion pounds in 1874, 400 million pounds in 1913, and increased the
next year to nearly 450 million pounds, valued at approximately
$54,000,000.
During the 10 calendar years, 1903-1912, the United States sup-
plied 41.7 per cent of the world’s exports of tobacco, and during the
same period 33 per cent of the world’s crop of tobacco was produced
in this country. For this period the per capita production of to-
bacco in the United States was 9.3 pounds and the per capita ex-
ports were 3.8 pounds. The annual production of tobacco in the
United States for the 10 years, 1903-1912, was 824 million pounds,
and for the same period 338 million pounds, or 41 per cent, was
exported.
During the 10 fiscal years 1903-1912, 68 per cent of the tobacco ex-
ports was consigned to four countries—10.5 per cent each to France
and Italy, 13 per cent to Germany, and 34 per cent to the United
Kingdom. The average annual exports to France for this period
were 35,500,000 pounds; to Germany, 48,500,000 pounds; to Italy,
35,900,000 pounds; and to the United Kingdom, 114,100,000 pounds.
Other countries to which large consignments were sent in 1914 were
the Netherlands, 28 million pounds; Canada, 18 million pounds;
Spain, 17 million pounds; Australia, 13 million pounds; Belgium, 12
million pounds; and China, 11 million pounds.
CN te ae
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 33
The imports of tobacco were 729,900 pounds in 1847. These im-
ports increased the next year to more than 3 million pounds. Im-
ports continued to show a general increase and reached 21 million
pounds in 1890, 40 million pounds in 1907, 68 million pounds in 1913,
and fell to 61 million pounds in 1914. Cuba is the source of about
one-half of the tobacco imports. Other countries supplying large
quantities are Germany, the Netherlands, Asiatic and European
Turkey, and the United Kingdom.
OIL CAKE AND OIL-CAKE MEAL AND VEGETABLE OILS.
Oil cake and oil-cake meal.—The exports of oil-cake meals were
valued at $739,589 in 1855, which was increased to $21,667,672 in
1914. The quantity increased from 342 million pounds in 1878 to
1,530 million pounds in 1914. This article is a by-product of three
grains—corn, cotton seed, and flaxseed.
Imports of oil cake for the last five years ranged from a little
more than 5 million pounds in 1910 to 12 million pounds in 1914.
This product came chiefly from five countries, Japan supplying
nearly one-half. Mexico, the United Kingdom, Canada, and China
supplied the remainder.
The exports of corn oil cake were 2,203,000 pounds in 1898. in-
creasing to 59 million pounds in 1914. The cottonseed oil cake ex-
ported in 1895 amounted to 490 million pounds, increasing to 800
million pounds in 1914. The flaxseed oil cake increased from 244
million pounds in 1895 to 663 million pounds in 1914. Other oil
cake was separately shown in 1912, the exports being 9 million
pounds for that year, 7 million pounds for 1913, and 8 million pounds
in 1914. France has received about one-half cf the corn oil cake, and
large quantities have been consigned to Germany, the Netherlands,
and Sweden. More than half of the cottonseed oil cake has gone to
Denmark and Germany, and large quantities have been consigned to
Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Norway, the United Kingdom,
and Canada.
Corn oil.—During the five years 1900-1904 about 60 per cent of
the corn oil went to Belgium, but shipments to that country decreased
to less than one-fourth during the five years 1910-1914. Italy re-
ceived less than one-tenth of the corn oil in 1900, but received two-
thirds in 1914. The shipments of corn oil to all countries were
4,383,926 gallons in 1900, 25,316,799 gallons in 1911, and 18,281,576
gallons in 1914.
Cottonseed oil.—The cottonseed oil exported in 1895 was valued
at $6,813,000 and in 1914 at $13,848,000. The Netherlands has been
the best market, receiving about one-fourth; also large quantities
were consigned to France, Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom,
34 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Canada, and Mexico. The exports of this oil amounted to nearly
159 million pounds in 1895, which increased to nearly 400 million
pounds in 1912, and decreased to 193 million pounds in 1914.
The imports of cottonseed oil amounted to more than 14 million
gallons in 1912, more than 3 million gallons in 1913, and increased to
17 million gallons in 1914. More than half of this product came
from China; other sources of importance were the United Kingdom,
Canada, eal the Netherlands.
Flaxseed or linseed oil— Flaxseed oil expor ted amounted to 62,718
gallons in 1895, increased to 282,188 gallons in 1905, and has fluctu-
ated very little since that date, except in 1913, the quantity being
1,733,925 gallons, of which three-fourths were sent to the United
Kingdom.
Flaxseed or linseed oil imported in 1912 was 737,256 gallons; in
1913, 173,690 gallons; in 1914, 192,282 gallons. The chic sources of
supply for this item were Germany, the Netherlands, and the United
Kingdom. More than one-half came from the Netherlands in 1912,
but more than one-half came from the United Kingdom in 1914.
Cocoa butter or butterine.—The cocoa butter or butterine imported
in 1910 amounted to more than 3 million pounds, increasing to 6
million pounds in 1912, and decreasing to a little less than 3 million
pounds in 1914. The Netherlands, as a forwarding country, was the
chief source of supply for this product, and a large quantity also
came through Germany.
Coconut oil—The imports of coconut oil were more than 354
million pounds in 1907, which doubled seven years later, amounting
to 74 million pounds in 1914. About one-half of the coconut oil was
supplied by the British East Indies. As a secondary source Belgium,
France, and the United Kingdom supplied the greater portion of the
remainder, except in 1914, when a large quantity, more than 19
million pounds, came from the Philippine Islands.
Nut oil or oil of nuts.—The imports of nut oil or oil of nuts in
1907 amounted to 2,453,597 gallons, which increased to more than 6
million gallons in 1914. This product was supplied chiefly by France
and China. In 1912 this product was stated as Chinese nut and
peanut oil. Chinese nut imported in 1912 amounted to 4,767,596
gallons, in 1913, 5,996,666 gallons, and in 1914, 4,932,444 gallons, of
which more than 90 per cent came from China. The peanut oil
amounted to nearly 900,000 gallons in 1912 and increased to more
than 1,300,000 gallons in 1914. The peanut oil came chiefly from
France, Germany, and the Netherlands.
Olive oil——The olive oil imported is of two kinds, one used for
manufacturing or mechanical purposes and the other asa salad oil, the
salad or table oil being the more important. The salad oil imported
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 35
in 1906 amounted to nearly 24 million gallons, which increased to
more than 6 million gallons in 1914. About two-thirds of this grade
of olive oil came from lialy, that country supplying 1,626,692 gal-
lons in 1906, which increased to 4,319,567 gallons in 1914. Three
other countries, France, Greece, and Spain, have each supplied large
quantities of this oil. The olive oil used for manufacturing pur-
poses amounted to 24 million gallons in 1906 and decreased to
763,924 gallons in 1914. During the last five years this product
has been supplied chiefly by Italy, Spain, and Turkey in Europe.
Palm oil.—The palm oil imported in 1907 amounted to nearly 30
millon pounds, increasing to 93 million pounds in 1910, and decreas-
ing to 58 million pounds in 1914. Practically all of this oil has been
forwarded to this country by way of Germany and the United King-
dom, the imports in 1907 being more than 14 million pounds from
Germany and 15$ million pounds from the United Kingdom. In
1914 Germany supplied 13 million pe TENS and the United Kingdom
44 million pounds.
Palm-kernel oil_—The palm-kernel a imported in 1912 amounted
to more than 26 million pounds and in 1913 decreased to 24 million
pounds, and increased to 34 million pounds in 1914. About 77 per
cent of this product was consigned from Germany, and the greater
portion of the remainder came by way of the United Kingdom.
Rapeseed oil.—The rapeseed oil imported during the last three
years averaged a little over 1 million gallons annually, valued at
$588,188 in 1912 and $704,655 in 1914. More than half of this prod-
uct came from the United Kingdom. France was next in importance,
supplying over 100,000 gallons during each of the three years 1912—
1914.
Soya-bean oil.—The imports of soya-bean oil in 1912 amounted to
more than 28 million pounds, 12 million pounds for 1918, and 16 mil-
hon pounds for 1914. About one-half of this product came from
Japan. The remainder was supplied by Belgium, the United King-
dom, and China. The import value was $1,577,131 in 1912, $635,888
in 1913, and $830,790 in 1914.
Lemon oil.—The imports of oil of lemon in 1910 amounted to
415,501 pounds, valued at $309,383, which decreased to 385,959
pounds, valued at $858,220, in 1914, of which about 90 per cent was
supplied by Italy. The average import price of this oil increased
from 74 cents per pound in 1910 to $2.22 per pound in 1914.
NUTS.
The imports of almonds since 1884 have ranged from nearly 4
million pounds in 1884 to 19 million pounds in 1914. This product
has been supplied during the last 20 years chiefly by three countries,
France, Italy, and Spain.
:
wien
36 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The coconuts imported since 1905 have been valued at more than 1
million dollars annually. These have been suppled mostly by the
British West Indies, those islands supplying approximately 50 per
cent.
The coconut meat, broken, or copra, not shredded, desiccated, or
prepared, was first separately shown in the customs returns in 1907,
when more than 7 million pounds were imported, which more than
doubled during the following year and continued to increase to more
than 45 millon pounds in 1914. This product has been supplied
almost entirely by the Philippine Islands and French Oceania.
The imports of coconut meat, broken or copra, shredded, desiccated,
or prepared, amounted to more than 5 million pounds in 1912, increas-
ing the following year to nearly 7 million pounds, and to more than
10 million pounds in 1914. This product was supphed almost en-
tirely by the British East Indies.
Cream and Brazil nuts imported in 1907 were 252,538 bushels, which
increased to 21,540,000 bushels:in 1912, and decreased to 20,423,497
bushels in 1914. This product has been supplied almost entirely by
Brazil, that country supplying 233,919 bushels in 1907, 21,454,000
bushels in 1912, and 20,178,535 bushels in 1914.
Filberts imported during 1910-1914 averaged about 12 million
pounds annually. About 10 million pounds, or nearly 90 per cent,
came from Italy. Two other countries supplying the principal por-
tion of the remainder were Spain and Turkey in Asia.
The exports of peanuts, which were a little over 7 million pounds in
1906, increased to slightly more than 8 million pounds in 1914. Can-
ada received about three-fourths of this article, and other countries
receiving large quantities were the United Kingdom, the Netherlands,
the Central American States, and Guiana.
The imports of peanuts during the last five years ranged from 29
million pounds in 1910 to more than 44 million pounds in 1914. Four
countries were the chief sources of supply for this product, France,
Spain, China, and Japan. Nearly one-half of this product has been
supphed by Japan.
The imports of walnuts in 1903 amounted to more than 12 million
pounds, increasing to 37 million pounds in 1914. About two-thirds
of these were supplied by France. Two other countries, Italy and
China, each supplied large quantities. The imports were valued at
$1,106,000 in 1903, which increased to $4,339,000 in 1914.
ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS.
Distilled spirits——The exports of alcohol, including cologne spirits,
during the 10 years 1905-1914 ranged from 1,081,871 proof gallons
in 1905 to 187,845 proof gallons in 1914. Canada has been the best
market for this product, receiving about one-half of the total exports.
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. aM
The annual imports of brandy during the last 30 years was approx-
imately 500,000 proof gallons, the range being from 138,000 gallons
in 1898 to 716,000 gallons in 1910. France has supplied considerably
more than all the other countries combined. In 1903 and subse-
quently the import value of this article aggregated $1,000,000 an-
nually.
The imports of cordials, liqueurs, ete., were 532,151 proof gallons,
valued at $1,059,929, in 1912; and 515,575 gallons, valued at $1,063,-
267, in 1914.
Since 1910 the annual average quantity of gin imported has been
about 1 million gallons, of which about 95 per cent has been supplied
by the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, the import value being
slightly less than $1 per gallon.
The exports of rum ranged from 865,275 proof gallons in 1886 to
1,388,738 gallons in 1914. During the 10 years 1905-1914 the exports
of this product have averaged more than 1,000,000 proof gallons,
valued at an average price of a little more than $1 per gallon.
The annual imports of whisky since 1910 have been a little over 1
million gallons, of which nearly three-fourths was supplied by the
United Kingdom. Canada was the next country in importance and
supplied nearly 375,000 gallons annually.
The bourbon whisky exported 30 years ago, or in 1885, amounted
to 4,794,646 proof gallons. With one exception, 1894, when the
exports amounted to 4,105,639 gallons, this product has shown a gen-
eral decline to 47,775 gallons in 1914. During the 15 years 1895-1909
Germany was our best customer, taking a little more than 73 per cent
of this product.
The exports of rye whisky decreased from 834,087 proof gallons in
1884 to 134,152 proof gallons in 1914. Germany, the Philippine
Islands, and the Central American States have been the best markets
for this product.
Malt liquors.—The exports of malt liquors were valued at $558,770
in 1895, increased to slightly more than $2,000,000 in 1900, and de-
creased to $1,485,000 in 1914. The malt liquors in bottles have been
consigned chiefly to the West Indies, Central American States,
Hawaii, and the Philippine Islands.
The malt liquors imported during the last 25 years have ranged
from a little over 3 million gallons in 1891 to more than 7 million
gallons in 1914. Three countries, Germany, the United Kingdom,
and Austria-Hungary, have supplied ‘practically all of the malt
liquors imported during this period.
Wines.—Our export wine trade did not develop until near the
close of the Civil War. The exports in 1864 were valued at $84,000,
which increased to $118,110 in 1886; $729,000 in 1898; and decreased
38 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
gradually to $373,412 in 1914. This article has been consigned chiefly
to Germany, the United Kingdom, Canada, Mexico, and Japan.
Champagne and other sparkling wines imported since 1884 have
averaged a little less than 300,000 gallons annually, the imports in
1884 being 201,000 gallons, increasing to 270,000 gallons in 1914.
Practically all of this product came from France.
The still wines imported since 1851 have varied from nearly 6
million gallons in 1851 to a little over 7 million gallons in 1914. The
smallest quantity imported for any one year during that period was
shghtly less than 2% million gallons in 1898, and the largest quantity
imported was 11 million gallons during 1866. For the last five years
about one-half of this product has been supplied by Italy.
SEEDS.
Castor beans.—Castor beans imported during the last five years
ranged from 726,002 bushels in 1910 to 1,030,543 in 1914. Practically
all of this commodity was supplied by the British East Indies and
the United Kingdom, the import value being a little over $1 per
bushel.
Clover seed.—European countries have received practically all of
our clover seed, amounting to 22,901,000 pounds in 1895 and 4,641,000
pounds in 1914. During the 10 years 1895-1904 a little less than
half was sent to the United Kingdom, with Germany as the next
best customer. During the five years 1910-1914, Germany, the United
Kingdom, and Canada received the greater portion. About two-
thirds went to Canada during 1913-14.
Canada, France, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom have
supplied about 90 per cent of the clover seed imported during the last
eight years. France and Germany have supplied nearly one-half, the
quantity from each being nearly equal. During each of the years
1913 and 1914 a little over 6 million pounds of red-clover seed were
imported, while other clover seed amounted to 15 and 23 million
pounds, respectively.
Cotton seed.—As a destination for cotton seed, the United King-
dom exceeded all other countries during the 10 years 1895-1904,
taking about 90 per cent, the range being from 9 to 46 million
pounds. During the five years 1905-1909, the consignments were
about evenly divided between Germany, the Netherlands, and the
United Kingdom, each receiving about 6 million pounds annually.
During the five years 1910-1914 about three-fourths was sent to Ger-
many. Mexico has also been a good market, receiving a yearly
average of about 2 million pounds during the last 17 years.
Flaxseed.—The countries of northern Europe have been the chief
markets for our flaxseed, taking about 90 per cent during the last 20
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 89
years. The countries of this group were Belgium, Germany, the
Netherlands, and the United Kingdom. The yearly average of flax-
seed sent abroad during 1895-1904 was about 2 million bushels. Dur-
ing the five years 1910-1914 the yearly average decreased to 78,586
bushels.
The flaxseed imported in 1910 amounted to 5 million bushels, 10
million bushels in 1911, 7 million bushels in 1912, 5 million bushels
in 1913, and nearly 9 million bushels in 1914. During 1910-11 one-
half of this product came from Argentina; but Canada supplied two-
thirds during 1912-13 and practically all in 1914. During the five
years 1910-1914 the average import price of flaxseed was $1.70 per
bushel.
Sugar-beet seed.—Sugar-beet seed shown in our imports in 1910
amounted to 10 million pounds, 11 million pounds each for 1911 and
1912, 15 million pounds in 1918, and 10 million pounds in 1914. Ap-
proximately 90 per cent of this product came from Germany. The
import value of this seed was $668,000 in 1910, $1,103,000 in 1912, and
$800,000 in 1914.
Timothy.—The timothy seed sold to foreign countries during the
last 25 years had a yearly average of about 13 million pounds, with
very slight fluctuations from year to year. European and North
American countries took more than 95 per cent, each taking about
the same amount. The principal customers in Europe were Ger-
many and the United Kingdom, while Canada was the best market
on the western continent.
SPICES.
The exports of spices from the United States in 1884 were valued
at $41,191, which increased to $84,427 in 1914. About one-third
of this ean during the five years 1910- 1914 went to Canada,
Mexico, and the Philippine Islands.
The imports of all kinds of spices were valued at $780,650 in 1851
and $5,595,509 in 1914. These came chiefly from British and Dutch
East Indies, but other sources of importance were the Netherlands,
the United Kingdom, and the British West Indies.
The imports of cassia and cassia vera in 1912 were 6,795,943
pounds; in 1913, 6,853,915 pounds; in 1914, 6,771,901 pounds. The
value of this product was $514,758 in 1912, $535,974 in 1913, and
$404,853 in 1914. About one-half came from China and the re-
mainder came chiefly from three countries—Hongkong, the Dutch
East Indies, and the Netherlands.
The ginger root, not preserved, imported in 1912, amounted to
5,979,314 pounds, 7,756,090 pounds in 1913, and 3,771,086 pounds in
1914. The value was $368,175 in 1912, $399,270 in 1913, and $171,250
40 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
in 1914. The United Kingdom supplied one-half of this item, and
nearly all of the remainder came from Jamaica, China, British India,
Hongkong, and Japan.
The black and white pepper imported in 1884 aggregated 13 mil-
lion pounds, which was nearly doubled in 1914, amounting to more
than 24 million pounds.
The imports of ginger, preserved or pickled, in 1899 amounted to
142,698 pounds, valued at $6,309. This quantity increased to 478,058
pounds, valued at $36,434, in 1914. Practically all of this product
has been supplied by China and Hongkong.
VEGETABLES.
Beans and peas exported in 1900 amounted to 617,355 bushels,
which decreased to about one-half in 1914, the exports being 314,655
bushels. In 1900 the export value of this product was about $1.60
per bushel, which increased to about $2.75 per bushel in 1914. Asa
destination for our beans and peas Cuba has led all other countries
during the last 20 years, receiving approximately one-half of the
total exports.
During the last five years the imports of beans have averaged more
than 1 million bushels annually, valued on an average of a little over
$1.75 per bushel. These have been supphed by Austria-Hungary,
France, Italy, Mexico, and Japan.
The exports of onions have ranged from 53,335 bushels in 1895 to
386,322 bushels in 1914. The average annual exports for the 10 years
1895-1904 were about 100,000 bushels. During the five years 1910-
1914 this quantity was increased to about 350,000 bushels annually.
Canada has been the chief market during the last five years, receiving
trom 100,000 to 300,000 bushels annually. Other countries to which
large quantities were consigned were Panama, Mexico, and Cuba.
The onions imported in 1897 amounted to more than 560,000 bush-
els, which increased to a little over 1 million bushels in 1914. This
product came chiefly from Spain, the United Kingdom, and Ber-
muda. Large quantities also came from the Canary Islands and
Kgypt. :
During the last three years the imports of dried peas were sup-
plied chiefly by Germany, Canada, and Mexico. The imports
amounted to 806,762 bushels in 1912, 1,134,346 bushels in 1913, and
866,488 bushels in 1914. The average import price has been a little
less than $2 per bushel.
The exports of potatoes in 1851 were slightly more than 106,000
bushels, which increased to more than 500,000 bushels in 1863, and
remained at practically that figure until 1898, when the quantity
exceeded 845,000 bushels. This quantity increased to 999,476 bushels
in 1910, and during the four years 1911-1914 the average exports
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 4]
were nearly 2 million bushels annually. During the last five years
the average export value per bushel was slightly less than $1. During
the 20 years 1895-1914 Cuba has been our best market for potatoes,
receiving approximately one-half of the total supply exported.
The imports of potatoes have been supplied chiefly by Bermuda
and Canada with a small quantity from Mexico. The imports were
299,000 bushels in 1851 and 3,646,000 in 1914. In 1914 Belgium sup-
plied 1,168,220 bushels, Denmark 384,662 bushels, the Netherlands
803,144 bushels, and Canada 1,025,536 bushels. The average import
price of potatoes during the five years 1910-1914 was 53 cents per
bushel.
The United Kingdom, Canada, Panama, Mexico, and the Philip-
pine Islands have been our best customers for canned vegetables.
The value of this product consigned to the United Kingdom ranged
from a little more than $160,000 in 1910 to $376,000 in 1914. The
total value of this product exported in 1910 was $783,000, which
increased to $1,521,000 in 1914.
The imports of mushrooms and truffles were more than 7 million
pounds in 1910, which increased to 9 million pounds in 1914. Prac-
tically all of this product came from France, that country supplying
more than 6 million pounds in 1910 and 8 million pounds in ‘1914.
Imports from Japan amounted to more than half a million pounds
during the five years 1910-1914.
The pickles and sauces exported during 1918 were valued at $837,-
571; in 1914 the value was $928,611. About one-half of this product
was consigned to the United Kingdom. Canada, Cuba, the Philip-
pine Islands, and Panama were also good customers.
The pickles and sauces imported in 1860 were valued at $137,000.
Twenty years later the imports of this product were valued at $295,-
000, which increased to $1,246,000 in 1914. During the last five years
this article has been supplied by three countries, Italy, the United
Kingdom, and Japan, each supplying approximately one-third of the
total imports.
FRUITS.
In viewing the situation of this country as to exports and imports
of fruit, the years 1903 and 1913 are used for comparison.
In the year 1903 the imports of oranges were valued at $818,780,
as against $233,760 in 1913. But meanwhile the orange groves in
this country had been growing, both in age and extent, for in 1913
the exports were valued at $2,976,520, while the exports for 1903 were
enly $465,397. In 1903 the oranges received from the British West
Indies amounted to $495,256, which decreased to $62,618 in 1913.
In 1903 imports from Italy were valued at $197,620, but decreased in
1913 to $70,651.
49 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Imports of figs from Turkey in Asia were 11,642,204 pounds in
1908, compared with 13,981,643 pounds in 1913. From Greece we
received 1,940,793 pounds of figs in 1903 and 1,517,901 pounds in
1913, and from Spain we received 275,531 pounds of figs im 1903,
which decreased in 1913 to only 74,852 pounds. But, despite these
decreases in importations of fruit from some individual countries, the
total imports for each of the two years remain about 164 million
pounds.
Of prunes we exported in 1903, 66,385,215 pounds; in 1913, 117,-
950,875 pounds. Of this amount in 1903 about 44 million went to Bel-
gium, 184 million to Germany, 16 million to France, and 15 million to
the United Kingdom. In 1913 about 6 million pounds went to Bel-
gium, 49 million to Germany, 12 million to France, and 84 million to
the United Kingdom. Imports of prunes amounted to 673,516 pounds
in 1903 and decreased to 266,661 pounds in 1913. These came chiefly
from Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, and Japan.
Our imports of fresh apples are comparatively small compared
with exports, for in 1913 imports amounted to 7,559 barrels, while our
exports for the same year were 2,150,132 barrels. In 1903 the ex-
ports were over 14 million barrels, making a gain of nearly 1 million
barrels in our exports in 10 years. The United Kingdom received the
greater part of our apples, while large shipments were consigned to
Germany, Canada, and Mexico. Fresh apples from this country find
their way to almost every country on the globe. Even Siam received
2 barrels in 1913.
The dried apples exported in 1903 were 39,646,297 pounds; in 1913,
41,574,562 pounds, while our imports for 1903 were 3,098 pounds and
in 1913, 7,072 pounds, which shows conclusively that we are able to
raise all the apples required for consumption in this country besides
having many for export.
No dried apricots are imported, but an increase of nearly 400 per
cent is shown in our exports of this fruit since 1903, the exports for
that year being about 9 million pounds and 35 million pounds for
1913. Belgium, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, the Nether-
lands, and Canada were all large purchasers of apricots. The exports
to Germany increased from about 24 million pounds in 1903 to over
74 million pounds in 1913.
In 1903 the imports of raisins exceeded the exports, the imports
being 6,700,000 pounds and the exports 4 millon pounds. But that
relation was changed in 1913, when the imports were 2,580,000 pounds
and the exports 28 million pounds. Our exports to Canada increased
from 3,141,258 pounds in 1903 to over 18 million pounds in 1913.
The imports of raisins from Greece fell in the 10 years from 261,802
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 43
pounds in 1903 to 27,543 pounds in 1913; from Italy, from 7,872
pounds in 1903 to 161 pounds in 1913, and from Spain and Turkey
in Asia the decrease was about 2 million pounds each.
Imports of currants in 1903 were 33,878,209 pounds, and 30,843,735
pounds in 1913, of which more than 98 per cent came from Greece,
with small amounts from Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom.
Currants are really the Corinth raisin, so called because of their
origin in the Levant, some of which are grown in this country.
Imports of dates in 1903 were nearly 22 million pounds, in 1913
over 34 million pounds, of which the largest amount came from
Turkey in Asia, nearly 15 million pounds in 1903, and over 27 millon
pounds in 1913.
Imports of bananas were valued at 84 million dollars in 1903, and
144 millon dollars in 1913. We get the most of our bananas from
Central America, Cuba, and the British West Indies, having received
from the British West Indies alone in each of the years 1903 and
1913 about 34 million dollars worth. The value of cur banana trade
with Cuba increased from $670,690 in 1903 to $834,206 in 19138, and
for Colombia, from $612,114 in 1903 to $1,107,429 in 1913.
In 1903 the imports of lemons were 152 million pounds, valued
at over 3 million dollars; in 1913 the imports were 151 million
pounds, valued at 4 million dollars, of which more than 95 per cent
came from Italy.
The imports of pineapples in 1903 were valued at $634,945, and
$1,319,006 in 1913. Most of them came from Cuba, but a small quan-
tity came from the Straits Settlements, the Azores and Madeira
Islands, and Mexico.
More than 97 per cent of the grapes came from Spain during the
five years 1909-1913, amounting to 14 million cubic feet capacity
of from 25 to 30 pounds annually at an average value of about $1
per cubic foot. Belgium, Canada, and the Netherlands each sup-
plied small quantities.
The exports of dried peaches were first separately stated in 1906 and
amounted to 1,182,000 pounds, which increased to 7 million pounds
in 1911 and decreased to 6$ million pounds in 1913. Germany re-
ceived 211,355 pounds in 1906 and 2,482,000 pounds in 1913. Canada
took 479,431 pounds in 1906 and 2,365,000 pounds in 1913.
Our export trade in fresh pears was valued at $631,972 in 1906
and increased slightly to $796,913 in 1913, Canada, the United King-
dom, Cuba, and Brazil being the largest purchasers; a little less than
one-third went to Canada and more than one-half went to the United
Kingdom. Hongkong and the Philippines were the smallest pur-
chasers, Hongkong taking $25 worth and the Philippines $24 worth.
|
44 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
VEGETABLE FIBERS.
Flax.—The imports of flax fiber in 1895 were 7,233 tons, and in
1914, 9,885 tons. During the last five years about 90 per cent of this
product was supphed by European countries, chiefly Belgium, Russia,
and the United Kingdom.
Hemp.—Like flax, our supply of hemp has come chiefly from Euro-
pean countries, mostly from Italy, during the last 20 years. The im-
ports were 6,954 tons in 1895 and 8,822 tons in 1914. From 1870 to
1890 the imports were larger, ranging from 22,557 tons in 1870 to
36,591 tons in 1890. The average annual value for 1907 and sub-
sequently has been more than $1,000,000.
Istle or Tampico fiber.—Imports of istle or Tampico fiber (used
for bagging, carpets, hammocks, etc.) increased from 2,956 tons in
1885 to 15,607 tons in 1905, and decreased to 10,660 tons in 1914.
Practically all of this fiber has been supplied by Mexico. The import
value in 1900 was $475,090, or $83 per ton; in 1914 the value was
$1,036,431, or $97 per ton.
Jute and jute butts—The quantity of imports of jute and jute
butts (used for making carpets, bags, etc.) has remained practically
the same for the last 30 years. The imports in 1885 were 98,343 tons
and 106,033 tons in 1914, with slight fluctuations for intervening
years, the range being from 50,037 tons in 1894 to 141,704 tons in 1891.
The value, however, has shown a large increase, from 3 million
dollars in 1885 to 11 million dollars in 1914, this being due to an in-
crease in the import price per ton of from $31 to $105. Practically
all of this article has been supphed by British India.
Kapoc.—The imports of kapoc fiber (a substitute for cotton) in
1911 amounted to 2,070 tons; in 1914, 1,827 tons. The Dutch East
Indies supplied 84 per cent of this commodity, but a small quantity
came from British India, Ecuador, and the Netherlands.
Manila.—The manila fiber imported has been supplied almost ex-
clusively by the Philippine Islands. The imports of this product
amounted to 35,331 tons, valued at $6,218,254, or $176 per ton, in
1891; increased to 93,253 tons, valued at $10,517,100, or $113 per ton,
in 1910, the largest quantity imported for any one year; and decreased
to 49,688 tons, valued at $9,779,539, or $197 per ton, in 1914.
New Zealand flax.—The imports of New Zealand flax were first
shown in our import trade in 1910, and since that time two-thirds of
it came directly from New Zealand, the country from which it takes
its name. The quantity imported in 1910 wis 3,353 tons, valued at
$362,888; in 1914, 6,171 tons, valued at $716,953.
Sisal grass—Imports of sisal grass (largely used for binder
twine) have quadrupled in the last 20 years, the imports in 1895 being
47,596 tons and 215,547 tons in 1914. The average value per ton has
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 45
doubled, being $58 in 1895 and $120 in 1914. This product has been
supplied almost exclusively by Mexico, chiefly the State of Yuca-
tan. The imports from that country in 1895 were 47,483 tons, valued
at $2,734,909, and 195,086 tons, valued at $25,980,480, in 1914.
MINOR AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS.
The argols or wine lees (crude cream of tartar) imported were
32,115,646 pounds in 1909 and 29,793,011 pounds in 1914, of which
nearly 90 per cent came from France and Italy.
The exports of glucose or grape sugar were 229 million pounds in
1899 and 200 million pounds in 1914, of which about 80 per cent went
to the United Kingdom since 1908.
The exports of ginseng were 106,510 pounds in 1851, which in-
creased to 224,605 pounds in 1914. During the last 20 years Hong-
kong has taken about 95 per cent, and the export value during the
last five years has averaged $7.54 per pound.
The exports of hay were 153,431 tons in 1902 and 50,151 tons in
1914. The imports were 48,415 tons in 1902 and 170,786 tons in
1914. The United Kingdom was the destination of about one-third
of the exports and Canada supplied practically all of the imports.
As an exporting country for hops this country is exceeded by
Austria-Hungary and Germany, and is exceeded in imports by
Belgium and the United Kingdom. The exports increased from 650
pounds in 1791 to 24,262,896 pounds in 1914, and the imports in-
creased from nearly 500,000 pounds in 1881 to 5 million pounds in
1914. The United Kingdom took most of the exports and Austria-
Hungary and Germany supphed nearly all of the imports.
Nearly all of the indigo came from Germany and increased from
1 million pounds in 1851 to 8 million pounds in 1914. The imports
of licorice root were 115,636,131 pounds in 1914, of which about 70
per cent came from Russia and Turkey. The exports of nursery
stock were valued at $315,065 in 1914 and the imports were valued at
$3,606,808. The exports went to Canada and the imports came from
the Netherlands. The annual imports of opium since 1870 have been
about 500,000 pounds, 75 per cent came from Turkey and 15 per cent
came through the United Kingdom. The sago, tapioca, etc., was
valued at $1,641,540 in 1914, and came chiefly from British and Dutch
Kast Indies. The vanilla beans came from French Oceania and
Mexico, and amounted to 898,100 pounds in 1914.
Nearly all of the exports of broom corn were consigned to Canada,
while Austria-Hungary and Italy supplied nearly all of the imports.
Imports of curry and curry powder came from the United Kingdom,
and were valued at $11,861 in 1914. The exports of flavoring ex-
tracts and fruit juices amounted to $85,000 in 1910 and $107,000 in
1
46 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
1914, The exports of natural flowers were valued at $121,000in 1914
and the imports at $24,540. The malt extract, fluid or solid, came
chiefly from the United Kingdom and was valued at $16,566 in 1914.
The exports of roots, herbs, and barks were valued at $531,071 in
1914. The exports of starch were 76,714,000 pounds in 1914 and the
imports were 15,518,000 pounds. The exports of straw were valued at
$4,714 in 1914 and the imports were valued at $33,499.
The exports of molasses were 1,002,441 gallons in 1914 and the im-
ports were 51,410,271 gallons. The sirup exported in 1914 was
11,631,000 gallons. Teazels came from France and were valued at
$24,310 in 1914. There were 125,666 gallons of vinegar exported in
1914 and 311,643 gallons imported. One-half of the unmedicated
wafers came from Germany and were valued at $32,797 in 1914. The
imports of vegetable wax in 1914 were 4,255,686 pounds, and the ex-
ports of yeast in 1914 were valued at $332,895.
LOGS, LUMBER, AND TIMBER.
During the last half century the exports of timber may be divided
conveniently into four periods that show the development of the
trade, each period doubling over the preceding one. During the first
period, 1865-1869, the value of the yearly exports were $1,451,607;
during the second period, 1870-1881, the value was $3,794,097 ; during
the third period, 1882-1899, the value was $6,131,414; and during the
fourth period, 1900-1914, the value was $12,412,688.
The exports of logs and round timber were 138,067,000 feet in
1914 and the imports were 148,938,000 feet. The exports went to
Germany, the United Kingdom, Canada, and the Netherlands, and
the imports came chiefly from Canada.
Our export trade in lumber consists of boards, deals, planks, laths,
shingles, shooks, etc., and was consigned chiefly to the United King-
dom, the Netherlands, Germany, Canada, Mexico, the West Indies,
Argentina, and Brazil, while Canada was the chief source of supply
for imports. In 1895 the exports were valued at $14,959,287 and the
imports at $7,259,428. In 1914 the value of the exports was
$72,484,756 and the imports $22,486,585. The boards, deals, planks,
and the imports at $17,817,550. The joists and scantling exported in
1914 were 12,143,000 feet, valued at $206,919, of which about two-
thirds went to Canada and Panama.
The imports of laths were 564,778,000, valued at $1,613,586, in
1914, of which more than 99 per cent came from Canada. The num-
ber of railroad ties exported were 5,416,713, valued at $2,616,563, in
1913, and 5,128,004, valued at $2,564,543, in 1914, of which about
three-fourths went to Canada. The exports of shingles were
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 47
46,964,000, valued at $112,463, in 1914, and the imports were
895,038,000, valued at $2,190,170. Canada received more than 72
per cent of the exports and was the source of about 98 per cent of
the imports. The exports of shooks in 1914 were 12,017,337, valued
at $2,812,749. These were sent chiefly to Cuba, Mexico, the Straits
Settlements, Argentina, and China.
The exports of staves and heading increased from $3,138,424 in
1895 to $6,184,892 in 1914. These were consigned chiefly to countries
of northwestern Europe, Canada, and the West Indies. Other lum-
ber exported in 1914 was valued at $3,028,642 and the imports of a
similar class were valued at $815,279. The briar root imported dur-
ing the last five years had an average value of a little more than
$300,000, which came chiefly from France, Italy, and French Africa.
The cedar imported amounted to 17,285,000 feet, valued at $982,152,
in 1914, of which more than half came from Cuba. The mahogany
imported amounted to 70,470,000 feet, valued at $4,925,126, in 1914.
During the last 10 years about one-half of the mahogany imported
came from the United Kingdom and Mexico. Imports of other
cabinet woods were valued at $721,000 in 1910 and increased to
$1,217,000 in 1914. The imports of chair cane or reed were valued
at $451,099 in 1914, of which about 90 per cent came from Germany.
The imports of pulp wood in 1914 were 1,073,023 cords, valued at
$7,245,466, all of which came from Canada. The rattans and reeds
were supplied by the Straits Settlements and large quantities came
through Germany, the total imports being valued at $885,000 in 1910
and $1,210,000 in 1914.
NAVAL STORES.
The rosin exported from the United States constitutes about two-
thirds of the world’s trade in that product and amounted to 2,417,950
barrels, valued at $11,217,316, in 1914. For a number of years Ger-
many and the United Kingdom have taken about one-half of this
article. The exports of tar, turpentine, and pitch in 1914 were
351,353 barrels, valued at $568,891, of which about 90 per cent went
to France and Italy. Compared with other countries, the United
States ranks first in the world’s trade in spirits of turpentine, ex-
porting about three-fourths of the world’s supply. The exports in
1914 were 18,900,704 gallons, valued at $8,095,958. The imports of
naval stores are small quantities of tar and pitch of wood and spirits
of turpentine, the total value in 1914 being $36,764.
GUMS.
The imports of india rubber in 1910 were 101,044,681 pounds,
valued at $101,078,825; in 1914, 131,995,742 pounds, valued at $71,-
219,851, of which Brazil and the United Kingdom each supplied
48 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
about one-third in 1914. The import value per pound decreased
from slightly more than $1 in 1910 to 54 cents in 1914. Compared
with other countries, this country exceeds all others in imports of
this article. The balata rubber gum imported in 1910 amounted to
399,000 pounds and increased to 1,533,024 pounds in 1914, nearly all
of which came from Guiana and Venezuela. The guayule gum came
from Mexico, and amounted to 19,749,522 pounds in 1911 and
) 1,475,804 pounds in 1914. The gutta-joolatong or East India gum
came from the Straits Settlements, and amounted to 24,926,571
pounds, valued at $1,155,402, in 1914. The gutta-percha also came
from the Straits Settlements, and amounted to 1,846,109 pounds,
valued at $323,567, in 1914.
The camphor gum was supplied by Japan, and is of two kinds—
crude and refined. In 1914 the imports of crude were 3,476,908
pounds, valued at $929,715, and the refined amounted to 566,106
pounds, valued at $182,790. The chicle gum (used largely for the
manufacture of chewing gum) came from British Honduras, Mexico,
and by way of Canada, and amounted to 8,040,891 pounds, valued at
$3,012,458, in 1914. The chicle gum brought from Canada is a Hon-
duran and Mexican product sent there to dry, as it dries best in a
cold country. The drying process reduces the weight about one-half,
which makes a saving in the duty. It is on the free list in Canada,
but is dutiable in this country at 15 cents per pound in the crude
state and 20 cents per pound dried or manufactured. The imports of
copal, kauri, and damar gum amounted to 32,695,412 pounds, valued
at $3,354,679, in 1914. The gambier or terra japonica gum came from
the Straits Settlements and amounted to 14,936,129 pounds, valued
at $571,067, in 1914. The gum shellac came from British India and
amounted to 16,719,756 pounds, valued at $2,689,269, in 1914.
MINOR FOREST PRODUCTS.
| In 1914 the exports of wood pulp were 26,961,254 pounds, valued
at $529,741, and the imports were 1,138,727,195 pounds, valued at
. $17,023,338. The imports came from Canada and the exports went
to Europe, yet those countries were the source of much more than
they received. In 1914 the exports of tanning materials were valued
| at $666,880, while the imports were valued at $4,568,041. The dye-
| woods and extracts imported were valued at $793,926 in 1914. In
1914 the value of the charcoal exported was $81,997, and the import
value was $60,634. About 99 per cent of the cinchona bark (from
| which quinine is extracted) came through the Netherlands and
| amounted to 3,648,868 pounds, valued at $464,412, in 1914. The cork
wood or cork bark imported in 1851 was valued at a little less than
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS. 49
$20,000, which increased to nearly $4,000,000 in 1914. Portugal and
Spain have supplied about 85 per cent since 1910. The vegetable
ivory or tagua nuts came from Colombia, Ecuador, and Panama and
amounted to 27,135,406 pounds, valued at $881,354, in 1914.
The imports of natural palm leaf were valued at $14,044 in 1914,
and the exports of moss were valued at $51,006. The exports of
wood alcohol in 1914 were 1,598,776 gallons, valued at $652,486, of
which 90 per cent went to the United Kingdom, the Netherlands,
and Germany.
REEXPORTS.
“Foreign exports,” or reexports, comprise those articles of foreign
origin imported into this country which are subsequently exported
without change in their form.
Farm products.—During the 14-year period from June 30, 1901,
to June 30, 1914, reexports of farm products averaged 124 million
dollars yearly, ranging from 94 millions in 1909 to 17% millions in
1914. In percentage they represent 43 per cent of total foreign ex-
ports, 2.1 per cent of total agricultural imports, and 1.3 per cent of
domestic agricultural exports.
Coffee, tobacco, hides and skins, and bananas, named in the order
of their importance, were the chief articles of reexport for the period
named, each averaging over 1 million dollars a year. Coffee averaged
20,675,000 pounds annually, valued at $1,854,000; tobacco, 2,790,000
pounds, valued at 41,413,000; hides and skins, 6,334,000 pounds, val-
ued at $1,333,000; and bananas, $1,280,000. The quantity of ba-
nanas is not given prior to 1908.
In 1914 bananas held first place, followed by tobacco, hides and
skins, and coffee. Reexports of bananas amounted to 2,255,000
bunches, valued at $2,437,000; tobacco, 2,621,000 pounds, valued at
$1,538,000; hides and skins, 6,426,000 pounds, valued at $1,408,000.
Forest products.—Exports of foreign forest products for the 14
years averaged 54 million dollars annually. They were lowest in
1903, at $2,865,000, and highest in 1910, when they reached $9,802,000.
In percentage they amounted to 17.8 per cent of the total foreign
exports, 4.5 per cent of the total forest products imported, and 4.7
per cent of domestic forest products exported.
India rubber was the chief article of reexport for the 14-year
period, averaging 4,262,000 pounds annually, valued at $3,559,000,
and ranging from 2,912,000 pounds in 1903 to 6,493,000 pounds
in 1910.
Chicle, the basis of chewing gum, was next in importance, reexports
averaging 1,875,000 pounds, valued at $481,000. There were violent
fluctuations in the reexports of this product. Thus the year in which
ooo ee
——e
50 BULLETIN 296, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
exports were lowest, 586,000 pounds, immediately preceded the high
record year of 1913, when 4,897,000 pounds were exported.
Lumber, including boards, planks, deals, and other sawed lumber,
ranked third in importance, averaging 16,811,000 feet, valued at
$345,000. ‘There has been a marked decrease in the last three years.
TRANSPORTATION.
Exports of domestic merchandise for the 14 years 1901-1914 aver-
aged 1,774 million dollars yearly, 88.5 per cent of which was carried
in vessels and 11.5 per cent in cars and other land vehicles. Of the
domestic exports shipped in vessels, averaging 1,570 million dollars
annually, steamships carried 97.2 per cent and sailing vessels 2.8 per
cent. American steamships carried 7.3 per cent and foreign 89.9 per
cent. American sailing vessels carried 0.6 per cent and foreign 2.2
per cent. American steamships carried 4.8 per cent of this trade
in 1901, 9.2 per cent in 1906, and 7.8 per cent in 1914.
There has been a general downward trend in the proportion of
sea-borne domestic exports carried by sailing ships, ranging in the
case of American ships from 1.2 per cent in 1901 to 0.34 per cent in
1912, and in the case of foreign ships from 4.9 per cent in 1902 to
slightly less than 1 per cent in 1914.
Total imports for the 14 fiscal years 1901-1914 average 1,319 mil-
lion dollars yearly, 93.5 per cent of which came in vessels and 6.5
per cent in cars and other land vehicles. Of the imports arriving by
sea, averaging 1,234 million dollars annually, steamships brought
98.1 per cent and sailing ships 1.9 per cent. American steamships
carried 11.5 per cent and foreign 86.6 per cent; American sailing
vessels carried 0.7 per cent and foreign 1.2 per cent. The proportion
brought by American steamships was highest in 1905, amounting
to 14.6 per cent, and lowest in 1910, amounting to 9.6 per cent.
The sailing ship has steadily diminished in importance as a carrier
in the import trade. Thus the percentage of sea-borne imports ar-
riving in American sailing ships fell from 1.9 per cent in 1901 to
0.32 per cent in 1914, while the proportion carried in foreign sailing
ships in 1914 amounted to just one-tenth of the 2.8 per cent carried
in 1903.
PUBLICATIONS OF U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING
TO AGRICULTURAL EXPORTS AND IMPORTS.
Bureau of Statistics bulletins:
No. 29. Methods and routes for exporting farm products.
No. 38. Crop-export movement and port facilities on the Atlantie and Gulf
coasts.
No. 51. Foreign trade of the United States in forest products, 1851-1908.
FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND FOREST PRODUCTS, 51
No. 55. Meat supply and surplus, with consideration of consumption and |
exports.
No. 67. Ocean freight rates and the conditions affecting them.
No. 74. Imports of farm products into the United States, 1851-1908. :
No. 75. Exports of farm products from the United States, 1851-1908,
No. 89. Marketing grain and live stock in the Pacific coast region.
No. 95. Imports of farm and forest products, 1909-1911.
No. 96. Exports of farm and forest products, 1909-1911.
No. 103. International trade in farm and forest products, 1901-1910.
Bureau of Statistics circulars:
No. 32. Cotton Crop of the United States, 1790-1911.
No. 33. Tobacco Crop of the United States, 1612-1911.
No. 34. Rice Crop of the United States, 1712-1911.
No. 35. Hop Crop of the United States, 1790-1911.
Yearbook, Department of Agriculture, statistical appendix.
Yearbook 1903, article, The Nation’s Farm Surplus, reprint No. 304.
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D.C.
AT
10 CENTS PER COPY
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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
- BULLETIN No. 297 3
Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry ~
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief
Washington, D. C. Vv October 28, 1915
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE
~ FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM.'
By Crcit SALMON,
Formerly Plant Physiologist, Office of Cereal Investigations.
CONTENTS.
Page. Page.
[mat RoGi ctl OM meee seer nee eae cine neti Ny: 1 | Bxpenimentsiwithloatseec-c- css e-eeee ee: 29
Description of the field station...........-... 2 | Experiments with barley........-.....-.---- 34
Hxperimentalymetbods: +. -2es- 222 --\- = -- 10 | Experiments with minor cereals......-..-... 38
Interpretation of experimental results.....-. 13) ||; Experimentishwithunlaxsoncsse seemeeeeee eae 39
Experiments with wheat........-.--- SS sueee NYS) IES OU MNCTIAY = aes doonoonotedoodgud stocdsdesans 40
INTRODUCTION.
The experiments with cereals at the Belle Fourche Experiment
Farm, near Newell, S. Dak., have been conducted for the following
purposes: (1) To determine the best crops, varieties, and races for
that section; (2) to improve the better varieties by selective breeding;
(3) to determine the best methods of cereal production; and (4) to
correlate differences in production with chmatic and soil conditions
in order to determine the principles upon which the best practices
are based. The results of these investigations have been reported
in part in two previous publications.2, The present bulletin is
intended to bring the work up to date and to include results that for
various reasons have not heretofore been given.
1The experiments here reported were conducted on the dry-farmed portion of the Belle Fourche
Experiment Farm, near Newell, S. Dak. This farm, which is located on the Belle Fourche Reclamation
Project, is operated by the Office of Western Irrigation Agriculture of the Bureau of Plant Industry. The
experiments were conducted by the Office of Cereal Investigations in cooperation with the Office of Western
Irrigation Agriculture. On April 1, 1912, the cooperative agreement between the Office of Cereal Investi-
gations and the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station was expanded to include the work at
Newell. The writer was in charge of the cereal work on the farm from its beginning (1907) until Septem-
ber 30, 1913, when he resigned to accept another position. He therefore has personal knowledge of
all the experiments here reported.
2 Salmon, Cecil. Dry-land grains for western North and South Dakota. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant
Indus. Cire. 59, 24 p., 1 fig., 1910.
Winter wheat in western South Dakota. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cire. 79, 10 p., 1911.
4506°—Bull. 297—15——1
|
|
2 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The results of the experiments for six years (1908-1913) are here
reported. So short a period is entirely inadequate to settle many of
the problems of dry-land grain production. However, a presenta-
tion of the results obtained should be of assistance to those engaged
in similar work.
DESCRIPTION OF THE FIELD STATION.
It is believed that the results here reported are applicable in general
to western South Dakota, northeastern Wyoming, and southeastern
Montana. The variations in soil and climate within this section,
however, are considerable. To determine just how far the results
obtained at Newell are applicable to any other locality, a comparison
of soil and climatic conditions is necessary. In order to permit such
a comparison, a description of the field station is here given, together
with detailed information regarding the temperature and the amount
and distribution of the rainfall during the period covered by the
experiments.
LOCATION.
The Belle Fourche Experiment Farm is located near the center of
the Belle Fourche Reclamation Project, in western South Dakota.
The farm is about 24 miles northeast of Bellefourche and 2 miles
northwest of Newell. The latitude is about 44° 43’ 45’’ N. and the
longitude 103° 26’ 15’’ W. The elevation is approximately 2,950
feet. About one-half of the farm js irrigated. The portion which
is above the irrigation ditch is used for dry-land experiments, includ-
ing those here reported. The topography of the farm and of the
surrounding country is rolling, affording good drainage at all times.
GENERAL PHYSICAL FACTORS.
A study of the crop yields for the series of years here presented
may be made more intelligently if combined with a knowledge of the
factors which have influenced crop growth. The most important
physical factors are (1) the soil, (2) the rainfall and its distribution,
and (3) the temperature, especially the length of the growing season
as limited by spring and fall frosts. These and other physical data
for the Belle Fourche farm are summarized in the paragraphs which
follow.
SOIL.
The soil of the Belle Fourche farm and surrounding area is mapped
as Pierre clay by the Bureau of Souls.’ To stockmen and farmers it
is familiarly known as gumbo. Table I shows the results of a mechan-
ical analysis of Pierre clay. Its characteristic stickiness is perhaps
' Strahorn, A. T., and Mann, C. W. Soil survey of the Belle Fourche area, South Dakota. Jn U.S.
Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils Field Oper., 9th Rept:, 1907, p. 888. 1909.
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 3
explained by the large percentage of clay and silt it contains, these
amounting to 35 and 43.2 per cent, respectively.
TasLE I.—Composition of Pierre clay, as determined by mechanical analysis.
Per cent.
TRTWONS, (CARN LAGS sa ee a ENS ce, 2 PRS Se ee ec 0.2
Clomins@) ROG LE 5s ls ce eRe er 2 ee ES ner 1s dt
Misa bitenaay Sei axe le eS eee eee epmnrieetnte ene SS ee ae Pepe eS 1.4
LITMAN Clee epee Sens Sa jae, Sve RM le Be Lex pap sguaree uy 5.5
Niemglme: Sands scc.02 205 2 3. 2d ee err reese 13.0
Srl epee rece eee eS ST bit. el gM ep ay rete 43.2
(CIENTS, cs Eta leeks ce eae a 2) LR See Re at a 3080
The soil is a very heavy, stiff, impervious residual clay. It is
somewhat deficient in humus, but is probably well supplied with the
mineral elements of plant food. The imperviousness of the soil and
the topography of the country cause considerable loss of water by
run-off during heavy rains.
Plowing is difficult and expensive. Other necessary field opera-
tions, such as disking, harrowing, ete., are accomplished without
difficulty. Hf these operations are performed at favorable times, the
soil is easily put in excellent condition.
There is considerable variation in the soil on the experiment farm,
-even within the limits of a single field. As a general rule, the higher
land is lighter in texture, better supplied with humus, and more
productive. The lower land is heavier, more impervious to water,
contains less humus, and is more difficult to work and to get into
condition for cropping.
NATIVE VEGETATION.
The native vegetation of the locality consists largely of western
wheat-erass (Agropyron smith, A. occidentale) and buffalo grass
(Bulbilis dactyloides). Grama grass (Bouteloua oligostachya) and
needle grass (Stipa comata) are frequently found. Buffalo grass
usually occupies the higher and lighter soils, especially where Pierre
clay is the soul type. Western wheat-grass is confined mostly to the
lower slopes and bottoms. On bottom lands subject to overflow this
erass produces considerable hay of excellent quality.
Weeds, such as sunflower (Helianthus petiolaris), gum weed (Grin-
delia squarrosa), goosefoot (Atriplex volutans), and wild parsley
(Peucedanum foeniculaceum), are plentiful. They are particularly
abundant followmg extremely dry seasons, when the grass may be
so injured that weeds are practically the only vegetation. Marsh
elder (Iva axillaris) is of considerable economic importance because
of the difficulty of eradicating it m cultivated fields. This plant
commonly is called gumbo weed in this locality because it is found
usually on the more impervious soils of the Pierre-clay type.
4 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
PRECIPITATION.
The climate of western South Dakota is fairly typical of that of
the semiarid Great Plains, which extend from western Texas into
the prairie provinces of western Canada. The precipitation decreases
steadily from the eastern border of the State to the western, being
least in the north-
o 5 > ry west corner.
oe : The Black Hills
modify the climate
of the immediately
surrounding country
to a great extent,
mainly by increasing
the precipitation.
This effect extends
FOAAIVFALL IN INCHES
Fig. 1.—Diagram showing the annual and seasonal precipitation at S
the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, for six years, 1908 to 1913, in- several miles beyond
elusive. Solid bars show the seasonal precipitation, while the total the outlying foothills.
length of the bars shows the annual IQS PRE ABIOt The Belle Rouse h s
farm is situated about 30 miles from the foothills and, so faras known,
is not influenced to any extent by proximity to the Black Hills. The
annual and average precipitation by months at the Belle Fourche Ex-
periment Farm for the six years from 1908 to 1913 is given in Table
II. Except as noted, these data were recorded at the station. The
annual and seasonal rainfall is shown graphically in figure 1.
TasLe I1.— Monthly, seasonal, and annual precipitation at the Belle Fourche Experiment
Farm for the six years from 1908 to 1913, inclusive.
[Data (in inches) from the records of the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry, except
as noted.]
Year. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June.|July.| Aug. |Sept.} Oct. | Nov. | Dee. Seals ae
|
us = | cee E | :
AOD Ree seh ae a0. 20 120.19 |a1.65 | 1.16 | 3.95 | 1.47 | 1.26 | 0.62 | 0.52 |a2.10 Ja0. 20 |a0.91 | 9.49 | 14. 23
L909 RES ae a,17 | a.23 | a.19 . 84 | 3.87 | 5.59) | 2.45 SOON LOL eid .73 | 1.28 |12.94 | 17. 7%
LOLOL eee = slic} . 70 693.1 1..57. |1.,26.). 1/519) 1.42.) 1.03 | 2.92 ad. SLD I SORES B9N Rt ZRoo
LOU cree e115} .05 . 09 Bele 4oul 00) -80 | 1.86 92 39 .98 | .30] 2.01 6. 64
NOMDS 2 ese ee . 24 .10 SAN PE BeFA Paes) .29 | 3.20 | 2.80 | 3.49 SOL . 04 .13 | 8.78 | 16.09
VOWS ela erate i} abies . 24 .99 .25 | 1.98 | 3.10 33D .26 | 2.38 | 1.86 .10 |e 45 6.67 | 12.53
Average...| .37 . 26 -76 | 1.05 | 2.29 | 2.08 | 1. 58 | 1.19 | 1.88 | 97 -36} .53) 7.76 | 13.41
Maximum | .73 ~70 | 1.65 | 2.32 |-3.95 | 5.59 | 3.20 | 2.80 | 3.49 | 2.10 .98 | 1.28 |12. 94 | 17.73
Minimum.| .13 .05 .09 Bley 45 29 Wet) . 26 oe «ot O49), LOM 2701 6.64
a From records of the United States Weather Bureau at Vale and at Orman, 8. Dak.
The average precipitation at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm
during the 6-year period under discussion (1908-1913), as shown in
Table IL, was 13.41 inches. Of this total, 7.76 mches fell durmg the
months from March to July, inclusive, or during the period when
small grains make most of their growth. The annual precipitation
varied from 6.64 inches in 1911 to 17.73 inches in 1909. The seasonal
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 5
precipitation (March to July, inclusive) for the same years varied
from 2.01 to 12.94 inches.
The average precipitation at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm
is very near the normal for the western part of the State. The
period during which experiments have been conducted includes three
years in which the precipitation was less than the normal, one of them
being the driest known in the history of the State, and three years
in which the precipitation was above normal.
In order to make practical use of field experiments, it is necessary
to know to what extent the conditions under which they were con-
ducted are likely to continue through a considerable period of time.
For this reason Table III, which gives the annual precipitation at Fort
Meade, S. Dak., for a period of 35 years (1879-1913) is included.
The record of precipitation at Fort Meade is practically continuous
since 1879. Where there have been omissions, it has been completed
from the records at near-by points.
TasLE III.—Monthly, seasonal, and annual precipitation at Fort Meade, S. Dak., for
35 years, 1879 to 1918, inclusive.
[Data (in inches) from the records of the Weather Bureau.]
: 2 mee x ee Sea- | To-
Year. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May.| June.| July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. sonal.| tal.
J Sanadleenene | Oven ete OnlOs 4 | 9160) 10:04 ||KOS897 |S. 52 ne eee
; (7G), |badoae 4.68 | 1.62 | 3.91 | Ta .o4 44 SO} ree Merete
é ils 3.33 | 2.66 | 1.50 | 1.57 | 1.00] .63 -46 | Ta@ | 9.54 | 15.06
: 4. 3.87 | 5.47 | 3.05 | .44 ~-26 | .49) .05 .12 |17.76 | 19.32
bi 4.% 9.61 | 1.56 | 2.80 | .18 | 1.60 - 67 .05 . 72 120.63 | 27.05
} 5. 8.58 | .48 | 1.20 | 2.30 | .23 79 -53 . 90 |17.56 | 22.97
: 1 .64 | 3.38 | 1.52 | 3.22] .28)] .74 - 93 Lh, |\daoOn|wloneo
5 2. 07 | .90 | 3.388] 1.50] .40) .40] 1.60 .72 | 7.90 | 13.51
: 2. 2.72 | 1.76 | 4.46 | 4.25 | 1.10 40 | .24 -36 }11. 82 | 18.93
6 i 3.94 | 5.50 | 2.64 | 3.54 .02 14 -16 | .17 |13.03 | 20.00
c d 2. 2.02 | 1.60 | 6.38 | 0 -67 | 1.71 .88 | .86 |12.76 | 18.00
BOOS ate eee = 539) 46 | 1.24 | 1.65 | 2.31 | 6.30) .16]| 1.64 - 76 38 | .40 | .38 11.66 | 16.23
LOIN een 78 83 | 1.63 | 2.29 | 6.60 | 4.29 | 1.75 | 1.50) .87] .41 -02 | .32 (16.56 | 21.79
SES sGecdaur 1.36 27 | .67 | 5.70 | 3.30 | 3.99 | 1.04 | 2.93 | .32 | 2.46 | 1.51 | 1.54 |14.70 | 24.09
ISPB)s- Acodeoods . 40 74 | 2.41 | 3.45 | 2.01 | 1.63 | 1.14] .70)0 3.48 | 1.48 | 1.68 |10.64 | 19.12
O94 eae metaisic'= 55 12 | 3.08 | 3.48 | 1.15 | 3.80] .57}] .42 62 | 1.24 | 1.03 . 72 |12.08 | 16.78
IRs ca saoobece 61.05 |62. 26 | 2.91 | 3.35 | 5.05 55 | .95 80 23 | 2.36 | .40 |14.12 | 20.76
SOG ee cseicis cis -66 | 1.14 | 3.43 | 2.51 | 2.69 | 2.62 72} .05 | 2.46} Ta | 1.27) .06 /11.97 | 17.61
ASO 7s sie cizjes 1.33 05 | 1.36 | 1.80 | 1.07 | 5.32 | 2.05 | 3.11 01} .02| .50] T@ |11.60 | 16.62
PROS Eee eeacecins 1. 20 15 . 83 | 1.20 | 9.60 | 2.70 | 1.20 | 1.50 | 1.80 | 1.54 OoUee LOM Ss oom |e 2omLo)
Oe caaesaasor 91 46 | 1.42 | 4.15 | 6.75 | 2.35] .29 30 | 1.10 | 1.94 14 | .56 |14 96 | 20.37
IU sbacesoede - 50 34 | 1.14 . 95 .35 | 3.00 | 2.05 | 1.90 | 2.03 | .46|] .50] .70) 7.49 | 13.92
AQOV ES see cetsicte 47 99 | 1.71 | 1.68 | 2.83 | 6.78 | 2.83 | 2.75 | 1.35 | .83 -17} .89 |15. 83) | 23. 28
OOP sebaceous IBGE PESO) |) GHGRI | SEG || Gheky le eey ey pale ili! 07 75 10%) 01 .07 {17.36 | 22.19
JIB) og sp5cocoe .50 90 | 1.70 | 2.55 | 3.36 | 2.16 | 4.25 | 3.56 ! 2.90 40} .80] .81 |14.02 | 23.89
IG eae seeadce -26| 1.22] .31| .96 | 4.52 | 5.76| .40 | 2.35 4511.86] .16] -.72 /11.95 | 18.97
IWODssedaanese -97 21 | 1.14 -49 | 5.94 |-4. 84 |10.383 | .62 12 | 4.95 . 64 - 12 |22.74 | 30.37
MW Oseackoaceas 30 | 1.42 | 2.25) .25 | 5.37 | 1.85 | 1.45 | 5.55 12] 1.20) .92-) 1.30 |11.17 | 21.98
Ge eeaacsoaes - 60 40 30} .85 |10.95 | 8.10 | 6.23 04 | 1.40) 0 0 .33 |26.43 | 29. 20
1O0Stere cece -10 | 1.00 | 1.15 | 2.80 | 3.98 | 1.87 | .50 | 6.80 58 | 2.20 | .32] 1.70 |10.30 | 17.00
1000 Boeke 12} .12 42 | 2.23 10.20 | 8.53 | 3.19 30 | 1.50 50 | 1.70 | 1.31 |24.57 | 30.12
TOO Week cise ere -57 | .10] 1.55 | 2.00 | 2.70 | 1.70 | 1.62 | 1.44 | 3.49 52 | 1.06} .13 | 9.57 | 16.88
QUE er tepmisteraisre le -17| .45} ¢.09 | ¢.47 | ¢.04 | c.62 | ¢.58 |c2.29 | c,97 |cl1.06 |c1.08 | ¢.58 | 1.80] 8.40
NOT 2 eeseeciciccs c. 09 31 | 1.19 | 2.90 | 1.91 70 | 2.78 | 9.15 | 2.50 80} T | 1.02} 9.48 | 23.35
1 cocodeaon -95 | .60 | 3.30 40 | 3.10 | 2.08) .25] .93 68 |¢2.37 | c.14 30 | 9.13 | 15.10
Mean..... -68} .64 | 1.47 | 2.24 | 4.02 | 3.57 | 2.18 | 1.92 94 | 1.06 61 . 63 |13.45 | 19.86
a T=trace.
b Record missing; estimated from the records at near-by stations.
¢ Record missing; rainfall at Vale;S. Dak., about 15 miles north of Fert Meade, substituted.
|
i
’
|
6 BULLETIN 297, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Fort Meade is only about 25 miles south of Newell, but the eleva-
tion is 675 feet greater. Its proximity to the Black Hills apparently
influences the rainfall to a considerable extent, as the annual precipita-
tion is greater at Fort Meade than at Newell in those years for which
the rainfall records of both are available. A comparison of Tables IT
and III, however, will indicate to some extent the frequency with
which conditions of precipitation similar to those prevailing from 1908
to 1913 are to be expected.
The mean annual rainfall at Fort Meade, as shown by Table ITI, is
19.86 inches for the 33 years from 1881 to 1913. The maximum rain-
fall for the period, 30.37 inches, was recorded in 1905. The minimum
rainfall, 8.40 inches, was recorded in 1911. For practically all of this
year, however, there are no records at Fort Meade, so that the rainfall
at Vale, S. Dak., has been substituted. The rainfall at Vale is usually
considerably lower than at Fort Meade, though the two poimts are
only about 16 miles apart. The lowest annual rainfall actually re-
corded at Fort Meade is 13.25 inches, the record for 1885. °
The rainfall during the growing period for cereals (March to July)
also shows a wide variation. The average seasonal rainfall for the
33-year period is 13.45 inches. The maximum rainfall for the five
months, 26.43 inches, was recorded in i907; the minimum (except
that of 1911 at Vale), 7.36 inches, was recorded in 1885. In the six
years covered by the experiments at Newell the rainfall at Fort
Meade during the growing season has exceeded the normal only in
1909.
EVAPORATION.
The seasonal evaporation probably ranks next in importance to
seasonal precipitation among the factors which influence the growth
of crops at Newell. The daily evaporation has been recorded at the
Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, and the total amount in inches by
months from April to July is shown in Table IV. The record of
evaporation was not kept for the month of March, but at Newell crops
ordinarily make little growth during that month and hence this omis-
sion is not of importance. The evaporation is determined from a
free water surface, the method being that employed at all of the
stations where the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant
Industry has been cooperating.!
The average evaporation for the four months from April to July,
inclusive, for the six years from 1908 to 1913 was 27.620 inches. The
lowest total evaporation, 23.627 mches, was recorded in 1909, the
year of the greatest rainfall during the same months. The highest
total evaporation, 33.906 inches, was recorded in 1911, the year of
the lowest seasonal rainfall. Thus, the evaporation usually varies
inversely with the precipitation, though this is not always the case.
| Briggs, L. J., and Belz, J. O. Dry farming in relation to rainfall and evaporation. U.S. Dept. Agr.,
Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 188, p. 16-20. 1910.
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. Th
Taste 1V.— Monthly precipitation and evaporation from a free water surface at the Belle
Fourche Experiment Farm, by months, from April to July of each year, 1908 to 1918,
inclusive.
[Data (in inches) from the records of the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry.]
April. May. June. July. Total.
Year. fae Ratio.
Precipi-| Evapo-| Precipi-| Evapo-|Precipi-| Evapo-|Precipi-| Evapo-| Precipi-| Evapo-
tation. | ration. | tation. | ration. | tation. | ration. | tation. | ration. | tation. | ration.
GOSS aece TGS ooso 3.95 | 5.917 1.47 | 6/820 1.26 | 8.081 7.84 | 26.354 |1: 3.36
190922 s)fees- .84 3.657 3. 87 6. 413 5.59 5. 859 2.45 7.698 VON 2o0 O20 | les l85
NOLO REE rs. 1.57 5. 408 1. 26 5.306 To 8.975 1.42 | 10.429 Sa(Gn|PoO MLSS M5523)
IG) Wifes Sees se .17 | 4.649 -45 | 8.302 .50 | 10.241 .80 | 10.714 1.92 | 33.906 |1-°17.66
IQ DS eee ae 2.32 | 4.849 2.26 | 6.423 .29 | 8.175 3.20 | 7.980 8.07 | 27.427 |1: 3.40
LOLS Re mata SoA NY CEOs) 1.98 | 4.302 3.10 | 7.046 .30 | 8.235 5.68 | 24.288 |1: 4.26
Average. 1.05 | 4.801 2.29] 6.110 2.08 | 7.853 1.58 | 8.856 7.00 | 27.620 | 1:3.95
The ratio of precipitation to evaporation, also given in Table IV,
shows the evaporation for the six years to be 3.95 times the precipita-
tion. In 1909 the ratio was the narrowest, the evaporation for that
year being only 1.85 times the precipitation. In 1911 the ratio was
the widest, the evaporation being 17.66 times the precipitation. The
ratios of precipitation to evaporation for the different years compared
with the average ratio for the entire period afford an excellent basis
for judging the seasonal conditions under which the experiments re-
ported in this bulletin were conducted.
WIND.
The record of wind measurements has been taken at the Belle
Fourche Experiment Farm during the growing season since May,
1909. The anemometer stands near the evaporation tank, at a height
of about 2 feet from the surface of the ground. The average wind
velocities in miles per hour during the months from April to July for
the years 1908 to 1913, inclusive, are presented in Table V.
TasLe V.—Average wind velocity at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, by months,
Jrom April to July of each year, 1908 to 1913, inclusive.
[Data (in miles per hour) from the records of the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry.]
Month. 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 Average.
PAN ilar ener rs rts Sets es aa aoe Meee. 9.1 9.2 9.2 9.5 6.2 8.6
WIEHY S35 See asseaeuaadaccueseose 8.3 10.1 8.2 11.6 ie a 5.9 9. 2
UipiNe: 55 So SoeaCacanBEEceaUaceceee 7.2 6. 2 9.3 9.1 7.6 6.8 ot
MUEliye ees eae ci)s beioere ncsinecion 5.0 6.0 et 7.9 6.0 5.8 6.5
PAW OT AS OMe ietareieiemierate sissy 6.8 7.8 8.6 9.5 8.6 6. 2 8.0
Table V shows the average wind velocity at Newell to be 8 miles
per hour from April 1 to July 31. The greatest average wind velocity,
9.2 miles per hour, is for the month of May. In June and July there
is a considerable decrease in the velocity of the wind, the average for
4506°—Bull. 297—15——2
SSS
mT
|
8 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the latter month being 6.5 miles. The greatest seasonal velocity was
recorded in 1911, which was the year of least rainfall and greatest
evaporation. The highest average velocity for the entire period was
recorded in May of that year, 11.6 miles per hour. The average
velocity for both June and July was also unusually high. The low
yields in 1911 were due to the combination of very low rainfall, high
evaporation, and injury to crops from high winds. The wind for any
one day (24 hours) seldom exceeds a total of 500 miles, while for any
one day during June and July it is usually much less than 250 miles.
TEMPERATURE.
The temperatures at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm are
recorded throughout the year by means of maximum, minimum, and
dry-bulb thermometers. A summary of the mean, maximum, and
minimum temperatures from April to July, inclusive, for the six years
from 1908 to 1913 is presented in Table VI.
TaBLe VI.— Mean, maximum, and minimum temperatures at the Belle Fourche Experi-
ment Farm, by months, from April to July of each year, 1908 to 1913, inclusive.
[Data (in °F.) from the records of the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry.]
April. May. June. July.
q
3
. a . : : = ° ° g
Year. gq | ¢ Bee) od Shsib tel Ee] gg] &
e | z | -8 ae: # |e | 8
qd f-o | 8 jg | SeS8 | a |-o-| 8) aa) See
3 K g Sill! irs = S oa q 3 4 fs w
o cst . | Ss = a S = o 3 “A 3
= = = = | = = = = = = = = D
Is Soceooacoaccode 48 89 5 52 | 79 29 63 90 39 7 100 43 59
O00 Be ractenicisiesieisten 38 73 6 52 84 22 66 95 45 70 100 41 56
OT Oar eisletosisteieeiereis 51 89 24 52 81 27 68 | 108 36 76 | 109 44 62
1 eS pecosnasoaadas 43 88 13 58 94 23 73 101 43 71 105 41 61
IEA AS Saccospeoacne 47 78 22 55 84 32 66 101 39 70 94 40 60
I SeS 2 Goo guadcaseds 48 89 24 53 95 26 66 98 45 70 101 42 59
ASV. CLALC siete Setanta 46 84 16 54 86 26 67 99 41 72| 1Ol| 42 | 59.5
Table VI shows that the highest average mean, maximum, and
minimum temperatures have been recorded in July, though the maxi-
mum and minimum temperatures are only very slightly higher than
those recorded in June. During the six years, frost has not occurred
in June, the lowest minimum temperature recorded being 36° F.
This table shows that the average mean temperature for the growing
season for cereals for the six years is 59.5° F. The greatest variation
from this average in any one year was in 1909, when the seasonal
mean was 56° F.
The temperature of western South Dakota is somewhat higher than
that of corresponding latitudes in the eastern part of the State. This
is shown in Table VII, in which the mean monthly and annual tem-
peratures at Newell, Camp Crook, Aberdeen, Pierre, and Brookings
are given. Camp Crook is near the northwestern corner of the State,
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 9
about 60 miles north and 30 miles west of Newell. Aberdeen is
directly east of Camp Crook, but is about 90 miles from the eastern
boundary. Pierre is on the Missouri River in the central portion of
the State. Brookings is in the same latitude as Pierre, but within 20
miles of the eastern boundary.
Taste VII.— Mean monthly and annual temperatures at Newell, Camp Crook, Aberdeen,
Pierre, and Brookings, S. Dak., for the periods indicated.
[Data (in °F.) for Newell from the records of the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry
and for other stations from the records of the United States Weather Bureau. ]
Tai Camp é anes Sera a
Newell. rani Aberdeen. Pierre. Brookings.
Months.
6 years 20 years 23 years 21 years 24 years
(1908-1913).) (1894-1913).} (1891-1913).) (1893-1913).| (1890-1913).
JGINERIAY sSsods cose genes aneeeuesoucuseEseses a15.0 17.7 9.6 14.1 12.2
February..-..--.--------------- sonecagbane a 19.0 18.9 11.2 16.9 13.8
WG al. Boe pb or Sees RON FOOSE Aor iSsorene a 31.8 28. 2 26. 2 29. 4 28. 5
JN oil 51-2 55eda5n055ecoo secs UREnOs SUSE eneee 45.8 43.9 44.8 46.7 45.0
WIEN) sc cccsae>namas Oe ao Nga OHU BADE EE SOOO ERE Dont 54.1 55.9 59.1 04
IN CM PRE eee antic cia > oe Sass sees ee eecue 67.0 63. 2 66. 1 69.1 65.1
Viti ice cée ate se nse BBE bee BEL Op AUR OeUnaeeoBEs 71.7 69. 5 70.9 (BSH? 69.6
INWGUB cocoa. eGo ses sauepeseeee cops aageaaee 69. 7 68. 7 68.7 73.3 67.9
S@piembermeeeerrens- 9-2 ste ccasee «anemia 59. 0 58. 6 59. 0 62. 9 59. 7
OGIO OEP ~ 5 soe -4qdoece de DOSE SEE Sepp eneae 45.3 45. 6 45.7 48.9 46.3
INOW OGL oS cos scoshesoSEEeose seem Sree 33. 2 31.3 28. 8 32. 0 29.5
ID GOGH) NEE 5 Sncidosorb) SOS E SBR ee enaenEe 21.3 23.7 16.9 20. 5 19.6
ANTITN UM Bese a sen seeiecepieeecsiie ss 44,4 43.6 42.0 45.7 42.7
a For five years only.
The record of mean temperatures at Newell is for a much shorter
period than the records for the other localities noted in Table VII,
so that the figures are not entirely comparable. The annual mean
and monthly mean temperatures at Newell differ only shghtly from
those at Camp Crook.
The annual mean temperatures in western South Dakota are shown
to be slightly higher than those in the eastern part of the State. The
difference between the mean temperature at Camp Crook and at
Aberdeen is 1.6 degrees, while that of Pierre is 3 degrees higher than
that of Brookings. The variation between the Brookings and Pierre
temperatures is quite constant throughout the year, but most of the
variation between the Camp Crook and Aberdeen temperatures oc-
eurs in December, January, and February. The average of the
mean temperatures for these three months is 7.9 degrees lower at
Aberdeen. This variation in winter temperatures perhaps accounts
for the fact that winter wheat is more likely to winterkill in eastern
than in western South Dakota.
Table VIII gives the dates of the last spring and first fall frosts
and the number of days in the frost-free period during each year from
1908 to 1913, inclusive. The latest date on which frost has occurred
in the spring during the six years was May 23, and the average date
10 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEFARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
was May 13. The earliest frost in the autumn during this period was
on August 27, while the average date of the first frost was September
14. The average frost-free period for the six years is 123 days.
TasBLeE VIII.—Dates of killing frosts, the last in spring and the first in autumn, with
temperatures recorded and length of the frost-free period for each year from 1908 to 1913,
inclusive, at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm.
[Data from the records of the Biophysical Laboratory of the Bureau of Plant Industry.]
|
Last frost in First frost in | Last frost in First frost in
spring. fall. | spring. fall.
Frost- Frost-
Year. free | Year. free
Tem- Tem-| period. | Tem- Tem-|period.
Date. |pera-| Date. | pera- | Date. |pera-| Date. | pera-
ture. ture. | ture. ture
oo SE Days: | SHS | °F. | Days.
1908-222 May 20 29 | Sept 26 22 T29 LOND. oe May 4 32 | Sept. 23 32 141
19092222 May 17 26 | Sept. 23 31 L283 \g1O13=.....-2 May 6 32 | Sept. 24 29 140
191 Oe a May 23 31 | Aug. 25 32 93 |
LOT Aes os May 11 30 | Aug. 27 32 107 || Average -| May 13 |.---.-- | Sept. (45) Seesce 123
iT
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS.
The tests with dry-land cereals on the Belle Fourche Experiment
Farm have been conducted in field plats and m the nursery. In the
field plats varietal tests and tests of rates and dates of seeding have
been included. The plats have ranged from one-fiftieth to one-tenth
of an acre in size. In the cereal nursery the varieties have been
grown in short rows. The use of the nursery has made it possible
to test economically a much larger number of varieties than could
have been grown in the field plats. Careful records have been kept
of the behavior of the varieties included in both the plat and nursery
experiments.
PLAT EXPERIMENTS.
The field tests have included varietal tests of winter wheat, rye,
and emmer and of spring wheat, oats, barley, and flax. There have
also been rate-of-seeding tests with sprig wheat and oats and date-
of-seeding tests with flax and winter wheat.
SIZE OF PLATS.
All of the plat experiments in 1908 and 1909 and nearly all in
1910 were conducted on tenth-acre plats. These plats were 2 rods
wide by 8 rods long. They were arranged side by side in series, the
plats in the series being separated by 5-foot alleys. The series were
separated by 16.5-foot or 20-foot roads. Each plat thus had a
5-foot alley along each side and a 16.5-foot or 20-foot road along
ach end.
Most of the tests in 1911 and all of those in 1912 and 1913 were
in plats made by sowing a single drill width across an 8-rod series.
As the drill was 6 feet wide, this gave a plat of one-fifty-fifth of an
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 11
acre in area.. The alleys between these plats have been 19.2 inches
in width. By the use of plats and alleys of these dimensions it was
possible to sow five plats within the area formerly occupied by one
tenth-acre plat. As the plants draw considerable moisture and
plant food from the alleys, it has been thought fair to consider these
one-fifty-fifth-acre plats as one-fiftieth-acre plats in computing acre
yields.
REPLICATION OF PLATS.
In 1908, 1909, and 1910, when the tests were conducted on tenth-
acre plats, there was only a single plat of each variety. Check plats
of standard varieties of each cereal were sown at regular intervals
in 1909 and 1910, and in most of the tests in 1908. As this method
did not appear to be entirely satisfactory, a change was made in
1911 in some of the tests and in all those conducted in 1912 and
1913. The size of the plats was reduced, as stated in the preceding
paragraph, and the tests were replicated. In the varietal tests, five
plats of each variety were grown. In rate-of-seeding and date-of-
seeding experiments it has been considered sufficient to grow three
plats of each rate or date, as there is a correlation between the differ-
ent parts of the experiment which is not found in the varietal tests.
PREPARATION OF THE LAND.
In preparing the land for experimental work the aim has been to
keep within practical farm limits as far as possible. The plowing has
been done at a moderate depth, 6 to 8 inches, and subsequent treat-
ment has been in accord with the best farm practice. The necessity
for keeping the land uniform has sometimes required hand work,
such as the removal of weeds, and probably more cultivation at
times than would be done by a practical farmer. The work also has
been more timely than is usually the case on large farms.
Most of the experimental work has been on land fallowed during
the preceding year. Fallowing also has been necessary to imsure
uniformity in soil conditions. When the experimental work was
begun, this appeared to be the most practicable method of producing
crops under dry-land conditions.
The usual practice has been to plow in the fall after the crop was
removed, or the following spring if conditions were not favorable
for fall plowing. Ground plowed in the fall has been left rough or
has been worked down with the disk and spike-tooth harrows, ac-
cording to the moisture condition. If it contaimed considerable
moisture it was worked; otherwise it was not. All fallow has been
worked when necessary to remove weeds or to prevent evaporation.
The spring-tooth harrow has proved to be the most satisfactory tool
for working fallow land. Other implements, such as the smoothing
:
|
}
12 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
harrow and disk harrow, pulverize the soil to a greater extent and
increase the danger from soil blowing.
The only varietal tests here reported which were not conducted on
fallowed land are those with oats, barley, and flax in 1913. The
varietal test of oats was on corn ground, which was disked and har-
rowed into geod condition before seeding. The barley varieties were
erown on land cropped to wheat the previous season, which was
plowed about 10 inches deep soon after the wheat was taken off and
was worked down with disk and harrow immediately after plowing.
The flax varieties were sown on land on which small grain was grown
in 1912, the preparation being the same as that for barley.
The rate-of-seeding test with spring wheat in 1910 and with oats
in 1913 and the date-of-seeding test with flax in 1913 were on land
on which corn was grown the previous year. The land was disked
and harrowed but was not plowed before seeding. The rate-of-seeding
test with spring wheat in 1913 was on land cropped to small grain
the preceding season and prepared the same as that for the barley
varieties.
RATES AND DATES OF SEEDING.
The usual rate of seeding for spring wheat has been from 4 to 5
pecks to the acre; for winter wheat, 3 pecks; for oats, 6 pecks; for
barley, 5 pecks; and for flax, 2 pecks.
Spring grains have been sown as early as seemed practicable, seldom
before April 1 or later than April 15. Winter grains have been sown
at what was thought to be the most favorable date each year. This
has usually been between September 15 and October 1.
NURSERY EXPERIMENTS.
The nursery tests at Newell have included varieties newly intro-
duced and those of which there was not sufficient seed for sowing in
the field plats, and also pure-line selections from the better commer-
cial varieties. The latter has been the most important feature of
the nursery work. The varieties and selections have been grown in
short rows, thus making possible the economical testing of a very
much larger number, of varieties and races than could have been
included in the plat tests.
NATURE OF THE WORK.
Although the improvement of the cereal crops by selection has
required a considerable outlay of time and money, the results are
less than were expected at the outset. This is due to several causes,
the most important of which are the partial or complete crop failures
resulting from the extremely dry seasons. This has prevented
sufficient increase of the more desirable strains for a thorough test in
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 13
field plats. In many cases the drought has been so severe that all
the races and varieties failed to mature grain, regardless of their
ability to evade or resist moderate droughts.
When work was begun at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm,
the best crops and varieties for that section were fairly well known.
It seemed, therefore, that the best plan in crop improvement was to
select from these few varieties rather than from many which might
prove to be unadapted. As the better varieties were for the most
part unselected, this line of work seemed to be specially promising.
It appeared that isolation of these types and a study of their char-
acteristics and values ought to precede attempts to improve them by
hybridization. Accordingly, in 1908, several hundred selections
were made from winter wheat, spring durum wheat, spring common
wheat, and oats. These were mainly from Turkey, Kharkof, and
Crimean winter wheat, Kubanka durum wheat, and Sixty-Day and
Kherson oats. Additional selections from these and other varieties
were made in subsequent years.
NURSERY METHODS.
Single heads were selected from the field plats, the aim being to
obtain as many types as possible. Each head was described carefully
before it was thrashed. The seeds from each head were then sown
in a 5-foot row. The number of kernels sown in each row was
usually 25. The dates of planting, emergence, heading, and ripening
were recorded, as were such other notes on hardiness, yield, ete., as
appeared to be desirable. At harvest the rows which seemed to be
especially undesirable were discarded, but in all cases at least one
selection of each type was retained for further study. Most, of these
races which were retained were sown with an ordinary grain drill
in 60-foot rows in 1910 and succeeding seasons. As far as possible,
replicate plantings have been made, but loss of seed in unfavorable
seasons and lack of land and labor have made impossible as frequent
replication as has seemed desirable.
INTERPRETATION OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS.
The best variety or method of culture is the one which, on the
average, will produce the highest yield of grain of the greatest value at
the least cost. It is seldom that a single variety or method will fulfill
all these requirements for all seasons. Usually one will give the best
results one season, another the second, and perhaps still another the
third. The best method or variety, presumably, is that one which
gives the best average during a series of years, provided the seasons
are representative. In actual practice, however, the problem is more
complicated than would appear from this statement. The variation
14 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
in soil and in seasons, the importance of weather and soil conditions
at critical stages of growth, and the variable reaction of varieties
to seasonal conditions make it difficult to arrive at definite conclusions
by a study of averages alone.
EXPERIMENTS WITH WHEAT.
The experiments with wheat at Newell have included plat and_
nursery tests of both spring and winter varieties. In addition to
the varietal tests there have been rate-of-seeding experiments with
spring wheat and date-of-seeding experiments with winter wheat.
Because there is always a ready market for the grain and its value
js high in comparison with its bulk, wheat is always an important
crop in a newly settled district. For that reason the experiments
with wheat at Newell have been more extensive and of greater popu-
lar interest than those with any other grain. Considerable effort
has been devoted to the improvement of varieties by selection.
SPRING WHEAT.
Spring wheat is much more commonly grown in western South
Dakota than winter wheat. There is considerable diversity in
varieties, for both common and durum wheats are grown. The
common wheats include representatives of the Fife, bluestem, and
Preston (bearded Fife) groups. A varietal test of spring wheat
has been conducted on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm each
year since 1908. A rate-of-seeding test with Kubanka durum wheat
was begun in 1909 and was continued throughout the period here
discussed.
; VARIETAL TEST OF SPRING WHEAT.
The spring-wheat varieties included in the tests at Newell are those
which have given the best results in other dry-land districts, with the
addition of a few which have been introduced recently from foreign
countries. Because so many of the poorer ones were eliminated by
previous tests elsewhere, the varieties grown at Newell do not show
wide variations in yield.
Twelve varieties and strains of durum wheat and thirteen of com-
mon wheat have been grown in plats. In some cases several lots of
the same variety from different sources have been included in the
test. Therefore, only 6 varietal names of durum and 10 of common
wheat are represented by the 25 lots. The annual and average yields
for all varieties and strains are shown in Table IX.
As shown in Table EX, good yields of spring wheat were produced
in 1908, 1909, and 1913, fair yields of some varieties in 1910, and fail-
ures of practically all varieties in 1911 and 1912. Only five of the
durum varieties and strains and five of the common varieties have
been grown during all of the six years (1908-1913).
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 159
TaBLeE I1X.—Annual and average yields of varieties of spring wheat on the Belle Fourche
Experiment Farm, 1908 to 1913, inclusive.
Yield per acre (bushels).
Group and variety Ge Me |
y Brey: No.a 6-year
1908 1909 1910 1911 | 1912 1913 aver-
age.
Durum: |
ANGWVttiL Co) LEN Ee ae ea QO4T [5218530 | Ree Pee a TN eereye. lh gran iS Panel nes ahah
PAIN AIG ase nace ie nieces cle acl cise = 1493 22.3 22.6 8.3 0 0 u/Gal 7,
1) OME Eee ee en oeee 1537 ee sleepers 11.5 0 (OE | eeebarst Seach Sse
1) Oe eR olor eee sie e 1547 PAT B} 22.0 9.2 0 OM Ee ace ee Lee
equi opal his Sek Se Le eee 354 24.8 19.5 4.0 0 (0) 9 G2 oe Lee selene 3
ORF ie eaten rie inion Sisisisiesiead 1440 24.9 | 021.4 c7.4 0 0 15.6 11.6
1D) Oe ee te Ae 1516 | ¢23.8 22.6 5.3 0 0 19.1 11.8
MD) Oe ie focn sores see es 2246 PATA E55 conlladoccono Seba desd Sse scamtoce Gacssses
DL OFSR Eee Lee eect coca e 2882 PRM iocaccsc||scoscesa Goaccood Seacooes adecoado sodacaas
IRGlISSIGI Memento coc cone eate 1584 POY elt oo colloes Qe HtoS WRI eee ate eee see (pea ee
IRCrerodkae era reek een 1350 22.5 BY) Sera 0 0 16.7 1S
i Yellow Gharnovka............... 1444 22.7 20.9 5.0 ; 0 0 16.5 10.9
ife
Ghirka..... LOS GREE BEECH aE Berle 1517 16.2 ile es 12.8 0 1.9 16.3 9.8
Glyndon (Minn. No. 163).......-- 2873))|5 <2 2 |e Pees oes ca le 0 IES lees Seons
WIC TOUS: 35 564 sue sper oe seeeseneoss 32765) eo: 2: ss eee eeeeee | sucee ros 3.8 GES | eye
IROWCrE Ores abe ee ec eh Sk. 3025 18.5 17.3 10.6 0 0 16.6 10.5
TEy/S Ulm Pape ney este aera o Soe ce 3022 19.3 15.0 10.3 0 0 15.0 9.9
Bluestem:
LAVA OS Bere sae es anaes sce Seki PAN (a BRPSEE esl noc aolboeedooc pooesede 0 OE Bapaaobe
1DXO)S 2G een 3020 18.3 13.8 9.0 0 0 14.1 9.2
DD) ORES ra ecitiencioe eu 3021 IW AU es 55 Salle aoooeosibE CaeeHa Sab oeeoal pacerocsl macasacs
Preston:
IRTOSUOMPEE Bea ae ao asic nese jeisieis 30815 |; 2. |. 6 | ees | eeeelereral [eerie 0 L9R5 i Seaseee
DD) OMe ee Seon Seite BN: V/el See 22. - 35|boaeoecsl pootnoee 0 19500 |Paeee ae
PLM CMMUGKG Vases oe ee eee ae ee 4154.2 =. 2.:. S| Eanes | Memeeerns |erommete 0 LG a 2h eects
Miscellaneous:
(Cloyne. 0 oe Se Sires eae a a mean OAS) ie) ar Ee ol |e so aeeion| Hepasese 7 VAS GM Eo eee
Mian chiitiabererns ssh cee ias Llanes 2492 16.2 16.0 12.8 0 4.5 fap ileal
a Cereal Investigations number. 6 Average of two check plats. c Average of three check plats.
The rainfall in 1908 and 1909 was fairly heavy and its distribution
was particularly favorable to spring grains, as the greater portion
came during the growing season. In 1910 the ground was in excel-
lent condition for seeding and the prospects for a crop were excellent
until about June 1. The rainfall was so light during the growing
season, however, that many of the varieties did not produce grain.
There were only two rains of more than 0.5 inch between April 15 and
the time the wheat matured, and these two only slightly exceeded
that quantity. As a shower of less than 0.5 inch is soon evaporated
and is of little benefit to growing crops, particularly in a dry season,
the conditions were especially trying during 1910. The moisture
stored in the soil the previous season was the principal factor in crop
production.
A surprising feature of the varietal test in 1910 was the larger yields
produced by the common spring wheats in a season when it appeared
that the durum varieties should have yielded best. The production
of straw of the latter was sufficient for a heavy yield of grain, much
greater than from the common varieties. From the appearance of
the plats they seemed to have withstood the drought better than the
common wheats, but when they matured it was found that many
heads contained little or no grain. The only explanation of the differ-
4506°—Bull. 297—15——3
16 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
ence in yield between the durum and common varieties that appears
plausible is that the durum wheats bloomed during a hot, dry period,
about June 20, while most of the common varieties bloomed about a
week later, when weather conditions were more favorable. Low
yields of durum wheat were obtained at several stations in the Great
Plains in 1910 and 1911, and in every case it was noted that the durum
varieties bloomed during a hot, dry period. This matter has been
discussed more at length by the writer in another publication.'
The crop season of 1911 was so dry that spring grain sown at the
usual time did not germinate till August. Table II shows that the
total precipitation from March to July, inclusive, was only 2.01
inches and that, with one exception, this precipitation came in such
small showers that it was of no value in promoting crop growth. No
yields of any of the cereals were produced that year.
The soil was so dry in the spring of 1912 that only small yields were
produced that year, even though the precipitation was nearly normal.
The rainfall during May and June was light, and this factor con-
tributed further toward the partial failure of the crops. In that year
all the replicated plats of only two varieties of spring wheat, the
Ghirka and Manchuria, were harvested. Only single plats of the
Changli and Marquis were grown; these produced the yields shown in
Table IX. None of the other varieties produced enough grain to har-
vest. All four of the varieties which matured grain in 1912 are early
and so in a measure escaped the effect of the drought.
In 1913 five fiftieth-acre plats of each variety were sown, but on a
portion of the area the germination and growth were not at all uni-
form, probably due to the replowing of the land the previous summer
to eradicate gumbo weed. Two plats of each variety were sown on
land which received uniform treatment, so the results from these plats
only are included in Table IX.
Two plats of the Galgalos wheat, C. I. No. 2398, a beardless variety
with short, stiff straw and a rather large, soft, white kernel, were
grown on land not entirely comparable with that on which the varie-
ties shown in Table [X were sown. Plats of the Kubanka and Power
were grown, however, on the same area. The Galgalos produced an
average mle of 17.5 bushels, the Kubanka 18.1 bushels, and the
Power 14.3 bushels.
SUMMARY OF YIELDS OF SPRING WHEAT.
Of the numerous varieties of spring wheat grown at Newell, only 10
have been included in the test for the entire period of six years. Of
these 10 varieties, 5 are durum and 5 are common wheats. Of the
common wheats, 3 belong to the Fife group, 1 to the bluestem, and 1,
1 Salmon, Cecil. Sterile florets in ER and other cereals. Jn Jour. |Aaowe Soc. Neen , VY. 6, no. 1,
p. 24-30, 2 pl., 1914,
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 17
the Manchuria, is a bearded wheat which does not belong to any
group how commonly grown in this country.
Table X shows the average date of heading and of maturity,
height, and weight per bushel of these 10 varieties in 1908, 1909, 1910,
and 1913. In 1911 none of the varieties matured grain, so that
none of these data are available for that year, while in 1912 data
were obtained for
only two or three YIELD PER ACRE.
. ° (2) Ss 10
varieties. DURUM
Table X also shows z
: PER ERODKA..—--=-'
a YELLOW GHARNOVEA.
the average yields Petumiies 17s
acre of grain and of POWER FIFE ~~~ ~~~ =
: BY STAIN GIFUEL = mmm
straw for these varl- I aoa
eties. The yield of IMA psc =
grain 1S the Cree Fic. 2.—Diagram showing the average yields per acre, in bushels, of
for the entire period the leading varieties of spring wheat at the Belle Fourche Experi-
: ment Farm, for six years, 1908 to 1913, inclusive.
of six years, 1908 to
1913. These yields are shown graphically in figure 2. The yield of
straw 1s for five years, 1912 being excluded for the reason that only two
of the varieties were harvested, though all of them made some growth.
The groups and varieties are arranged in the table according to their
average yield of grain per acre.
TaBLeE X.—Average dates of heading and of maturity, height, weight per bushel, and
yields of the 10 leading varieties of spring wheat on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm,
1908 to 1913, inclusive.
[The groups and varieties are arranged according to their average yield per acre. |
Date of— Yield per acre.
Ci) : Weight
Group and variety. NGL sai ae Height. ns bee
ea atur- ushel.a ¢
ing.a ity.a Grain.b | Straw.¢
Durum: Inches. | Pounds. | Bushels. | Pounds.
RSD AINA sprayers = c-.cca = seo 1516 | July 1] July 27 30 62.2 11.8 1,540
eA AU caleerctate sete ieiciel ce ate 1493 | June 30 |..-do_.._. 33 62.4 11.7 1,570
Tian eases seis = sao 1440 | July 2 | July 28 32 61.8 11.6 1,590
Herero dka tes sac soak cscs 1350) ead 022222 July 30 33 62.5 11.3 1,700
Yellow Gharnovka.....-.-.-- 1444 |._.do....- July 28 34 62.4 10.9 1,730
Miscellaneous:
INigmelibink). sec cqesesesecusele 2492 | June 29 | July 25 30 58.9 11.1 1,390
Fife:
IRONY GIs ce con ean eo cae eee ee 3025 | July 6 | July 28 28 59.7 10.5 1,370
PRAViSGIM Omen ccs eee. 3022 | July 7 | July 29 28 55.9 9.9 1,370
(CUI aes foe tse sees eels 1517 | June 274| July 204 a27 57.6 9.8 1,200
Bluestem
JelenyGsh 288 5 Sesame ear ee 3020 | July 9 | July 30 28 55. 4 9.2 1,320
a Average for four years (1908-1910 and 1913), except as noted.
b Average for six years, 19u8 to 1913, inclusive.
e Average for five years (1908-1911 and 1913).
d Average for two years, 1912 and 1913.
LEADING VARIETIES OF SPRING WHEAT.
As shown in Table ae the best yields of spring wheat at Newell have
been obtained from the durum varieties, Kubanka and Arnautka.
Some of the varieties of common wheat, however, have produced
18 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
yields nearly as high as those of the best durum varieties. Brief de-
scriptions of the more important varieties of durum and common
wheat grown at Newell are given herewith, and heads of typical varie-
ties are shown in figure 3. A more complete discussion of hard spring-
wheat varieties will be found in another publication."
Durum wheat.—The heads of durum wheat? are broader and more
compact and the beards are longer than those of the sprmg common
varieties. The kernels are large and very hard and are usually clear
amber in color. There is considerable variation among the durum
wheats in the color of chaff and of beards. The leading varieties at
Newell all have yellowish, hairless chaff and yellow beards. They all
belong to the Kubanka group of durum wheats.
The highest average yields for the six years from 1908 to 1913, in-
clusive, were produced by the Kubanka, C. I. Nos. 1440 and 1516, and
Fic. 3.—Representative heads of the different groups of wheat discussed in this bulletin; 7, Turkey winter;
2, Fife; 3, Preston; 4, bluestem; 5, durum.
the Arnautka, C. I No. 1493. There is practically no difference in
the average yields of these three lots, nor is there much difference in
the appearance of the varieties. Somewhat lower yields were pro-
duced by the Pererodka and Yellow Gharnovka varieties, though the
difference even here is slight.
All these varieties except the Arnautka were introduced into the
United States from Russia by the United States Department of Agri-
culture in 1899 and have since been grown in the northern Great
Plains. The Arnautka variety was brought in and grown by farmers
at an earlier date. It is still probably more widely grown than any
other durum wheat in the United States, though the quality of the
1 Ball, ©. R., and Clark, J. A. Varieties of hard spring wheat. U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 680, 20p.,
7 fig., 1915.
2 For a more complete discussion of durum wheat, see Salmon, Cecil, and Clark, J. A. Durum wheat.
U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul, 534, 16 p., 4 fig., 1913.
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 19
Kubanka is higher. The best durum wheat to grow in western South
Dakota is the Kubanka. A field of this variety on the Belle Fourche
Experiment Farm is shown in figure 4.
Common wheat.—All the spring common wheats which have been
erown at Newell for more than one year have hard or semihard red
kernels. They vary chiefly in the hairiness of the chaff, in the pres-
ence or absence of beards, and in the quality of the grain.
The highest yield of the spring common wheats has been produced
by a variety called Manchuria, C. I. No. 2492. The average yield
of this variety for six years is 11.1 bushels, slightly less than that of
the best durum wheats. The Manchuria is an early, bearded variety,
with hairless, brown chaff, and medium-sized, semihard, red kernels.
It has produced fairly good yields at Newell because of its earliness.
Its milling qualities are poor and it is not to be recommended.
Fig. 4.—Plats of Kubanka durum wheat on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1910.
Three varieties of Fife wheat have given slightly lower yields than
the best durum wheats. These three Fife wheats are the Power,
Rysting, and Ghirka. The Power and Rysting are somewhat later
in heading than the durum varieties, but mature at about the same
time. The Ghirka is slightly earlier than any of the durums.
The Fife is one of the standard groups of hard red spring wheat in
Minnesota and the Dakotas. The Fife wheats all have slender, rather
open, beardless heads, with white, hairless chaff.
If common spring wheat is to be grown in western South Dakota,
some variety of the Fife group should be chosen. In addition to the
three here mentioned, the Marquis, a variety which originated in
Canada and which has given excellent results in the Canadian Prairie
Provinces, is worthy of trial. It is very early in maturing and is of
20 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
excellent milling quality. The Marquis was one of the few varieties
which matured grain in 1912, while in 1913 it produced a slightly
higher yield than any other variety of Fife wheat grown at Newell.
The bluestem wheats, another of the important groups of hard red
spring wheats, have given rather poor yields at Newell. The only
variety which has been grown for the entire six years is the Haynes,
C. I. No. 3020. This variety is also known as Minnesota No. 169.
The bluestem wheats have beardless heads, with hairy, white chaff.
They mature slightly later than the Fife varieties, and for that reason
probably have not given as good yields as the latter.
The only other group of common spring wheat of importance in
western South Dakota is the Preston (bearded Fife). The varieties
of this group have been grown only two years—1912 and 1913. In
1912, in common with practically all other wheat varieties, they
produced no grain. In 1913 they produced higher yields than any of
the other common wheats. The Preston, C. I. No. 3081, produced the
highest yield of any variety under trial that year, including the
durums. One or two varieties of the Preston group appear to be
worthy of further trial.
RATE-OF-SEEDING TEST OF SPRING WHEAT.
A rate-of-seeding test with Kubanka durum wheat was conducted
in 1909, 1910, 1912, and 1913. The seed, the preparation of the
ground, and the date of seeding have been identical for all plats. In
1909 and 1912 this test was conducted on land which was fallow the
previous year. In 1910 it followed corn and in 1913 was on land
which produced a very small crop of wheat the preceding season.
In 1909 and 1910 single tenth-acre plats and in 1912 and 1913 three
fiftieth-acre plats were sown at each rate. The rates varied from 2 to
8 pecks per acre, but only the 4; 5, 6, and 8 peck rates were sown in
each of the four years. Table XI shows the annual and the average
yields of grain and of straw from the different rates of seeding.
TaBLE XI.—Annual and average yields of Kubanka durum wheat in a,rate-of-seeding
test on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1909, 1910, 1912, and 19138.
Yield per acre.
Rate of seeding. 1909 1910 1912 1913 Average.
—¢6 - — ||
Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw.
Bush. Dbs. Bush. Lbs. Bush. Lbs. Bush. Lbs. | Bush. Ebs.
2 pecks..-/.. Saas 12.5 870 Dept) UO Elta stasc mtn!| = wtwtwiel Smell o\esereleieiie | <i tee ete | Cae ee | ee
BIDOCKS Ze ieee ee aeell catered mea niateseve reall ci s-m slze =] ce Bae 0 0 | 9.3 1, SLO} cee eens nemo
4 pecks-4 75 Becccace 14.4 1,055 5.5 1,270 0 0 9.8 1,860 7.4 1,046
OPeCcKS sees ee eee 16.8 1,650 2.8 &30 0 0 10.4 1,830 7.5 1,077
6peckse. <b aebcee | 17.2 1,230 1.8 690 0 0 9.9 1,800 7.2 930
TIDECKS oe aera! | eas ea aa | te Re | 0 0: | ~° 10.3" | 105/740) Sees | beeen
Specks sees eeceoe | 17.9 1,365 3.4 745 0 0 10.6 1,780 8.0 972
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 21]
In 1909 and 1913, as shown in Table XI, fairly good yields of both
erain and straw were obtained. In 1910 the yields were very small,
and in 1912 there was not sufficient growth on any of the plats to
make them worth harvesting. In the particularly favorable year
1909, the higher rates of seeding gave the best yields. There was
little difference in the yields from the different rates in the somewhat
less favorable year 1913. In 1910, a very unfavorable year, the
plats from the lower rates produced the best yields and in 1912 they
made the best growth early in the season. None of the plats, how-
ever, produced grain in the latter year.
The average yields of grain for the four years from the 4, 5, 6, and
8 peck rates show very slight variation. The highest yield, 8 bushels
to the acre, was produced from the 8-peck rate, while the lowest
yield, 7.2 bushels, was produced from the 6-peck rate. The 4-peck
rate produced an average yield of 7.4 bushels, only 0.6 bushel less
than was produced from sowing 8 pecks. In other words, the extra
bushel of seed required at the 8-peck rate produced a gain of only
0.6 bushel in the resulting crop, so that the higher rate really entailed
a slight loss. The yield of straw is considerably higher from the 4
and 5 peck rates than from the 6 and 8 peck rates.
While the data here presented are far from conclusive, they indi-
cate that it is safer to sow 4 or 5 pecks of durum spring wheat in
western South Dakota than to sow a larger quantity. Because of
the smaller size of the kernels of common wheat and the consequent
ereater number in a peck, the proper rate of seeding for spring com-
mon wheat is 3 or 4 pecks to the acre.
NURSERY EXPERIMENTS WITH SPRING WHEAT.
The nursery experiments with spring wheat on the Belle Fourche
Experiment Farm have been confined to the testing of pure-line
selections of the more important varieties. In 1908 about 100 heads
each of durum wheats and of spring common wheats were selected
from the varieties in plat tests. These were grown in head rows the
following year. In 1910 these selections were grown in 60-foot rows,
and in 1911 in 60-foot rows replicated four or five times. The durum-
wheat selections were complete failures in 1911 and produced little
erain in 1912, so that only a very small quantity of seed was avail-
able for testing in 1913. Only slightly better results were obtained
from the selections of common wheat.
None of the selections has as yet shown any marked superiority
over the parent varieties, though there has been considerable varia-
tion among the different selections from the same variety. These
variations consist principally of differences in earliness, height, yield,
and quality of grain. In many cases a selection which has appeared
to be particularly good one year has given poor results the next, so
We) BULLETIN 297, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
that it can not be said that any material advance has been made.
More extensive trials, particularly of the earlier varieties, appearto
be desirable.
WINTER WHEAT.
VARIETAL TEST.
Winter wheat has been grown successfully at Newell in four of the
six years from 1908 to 1913. In 1911 the spring rainfall was so defi-
cient that the winter wheat died before making much growth, although
the winter survival of all varieties was good. In the fall of 1911 the
soil was so dry that the wheat did not germinate; hence, no crop was
produced in 1912.
Winter wheat has been sown each year on land fallowed the pre-
vioussummer. The date of seeding in each case has been that which
seemed to be most favorable in the particular season. The rate of
seeding usually has been 4 pecks to the acre.
The annual and average yields of the varieties of winter wheat
grown on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm from 1908 to 1913
are shown in Table XII.
Taste XII.—Annual and average yields of varieties of winter wheat on the Belle Fourche
Experiment Farm, 1908 to 1913, inclusive.
Yield per acre (bushels).
C. I. Variety.
No. AV
1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 anes
2979 x PAI bertadRGd xccecnccce sco ce acim aacci| - «COE | Meeeeecte 16.7 0 0 30:0. eee
16674) pBeloglina. stale sik ce ot Stesele s o13|+ eet eee 19.2 0 0 S2h ee eee
2239 IDOm oes a5 re SoS oe eee ote eb SSRs Sees 19,2 0 0 39: 4) eo. Seen
1435a|RCrimeaneaee apes cee emcee ee 18.7 31.5 19.7; | scloas- |: 2 eo See eee eee
1437 TD Yo eeaie, le See Nats eer 25.3} 36.0] 20.3 0 0| 36.4] 19.7
NAAQS EG ar kOfepeser sys rctcie cite ids eee teyees te 25.4 40.3 22.7 0 0 38.6 21.2
1583 DOR re eels einicieeet wins eee walestes 2255 39.0 23.6 0 0 38.8 20.7
2208 DOs ete hs ee Rie nee oat ace. | 3, a eee 1755) |. .2-.22s)seece0- 4 eee eee eee
15 Gils |G CISS eters ese oe heen eee cee oe Becooco|cosneose 19.4 0 0 SOS Shicseemeee
LSS Hl LULKO ME eae se eerste see ns meenioss 24,1 41.0 17.8 0 0 38.1 20. 2
1571 ID) OFetare ece reise ie isco cree cia aves 25.5 39.0 20.3 0 0 38. 7 20.6
2943 OSE ease 8 2. SESS. | ... So eee 15.0 0 0 395 Sk eee
2998 DD Oscars Mesisrcnictietwisiciers ¢ oo Bete eciee <0] ce eee Rees 14.2) oo ccc 2c] deco-ecc] ose eee See
8055 ID ty 5 3 ARE Soon SOND CR HCeEoT Aas 22.3 44.5 (1) 0 0 35.0 | 17.0
1 Did not emerge in the fall.
In the fall of 1907 the winter-wheat varieties were sown on new
land which had been broken the previous spring and disked durmg
the summer to keep down weeds. The seven strains grown that
year were all of the hard red winter or Turkey group. The varietal
names included Turkey, Kharkof, and Crimean. Two sowings were
made of each variety, one on September 15 and one on October 5.
The plants from both dates of seeding made a small growth before
winter. The winterkilling ranged from 25 to 45 per cent in the
various plats. The favorable sprig conditions caused the plants to
tiller, so that at harvest time the stand was about normal. The
ve
GBEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 23
average yields from the two dates of seeding varied from 18.7 to 25.5
bushels to the acre.
The same varieties were grown in 1909 as in 1908. The growth in
the fall of 1908 was small. There was some damage from the blow-
ing of the soil the following spring, for the most part at one end of
all the plats. For this reason only a part of each plat was harvested
and the yield determined therefrom. The yields were considerably
higher than in 1908, ranging from 31.5 to 44.5 bushels. A view of
the winter-wheat plats after harvest in 1909 is shown in figure 5.
In the fall of 1909 the number of varieties was increased to 14 by
including 7 which had made a particularly favorable showing in
nursery plats the previous season. These latter were grown on
fiftieth-acre plats, while the other varieties were grown on tenth-acre
plats. The preparation of the soil and the date and rate of seeding
Fig. 5.—Winter-wheat plats on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm after harvest in 1909.
were the same for all plats, however, so that the yields are compa-
rable. One of the strains of Turkey, C. I. No. 3055, did not germi-
nate, but all the other varieties germinated well and made a little
growth before winter. The following spring there was some damage
from the blowing of the soil, but the winter survival was fairly good,
and quite favorable yields were obtained.
In 1911 and 1912, as previously stated, failures were recorded from
all of the varieties of winter wheat. In the fall of 1912 eleven varie-
ties were sown under favorable conditions. Three fiftieth-acre plats
of each variety were sown instead of a single tenth-acre plat, as in pre-
vious years. The growth during the fall was particularly good, and
as the winter was mild there was practically no winterkilling. The
rainfall during the growing season was sufficient for crop growth,
so that yields rangmg from 35 to 39.4 bushels to the acre were
2.4 BULLETIN 297, U. S$. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
produced. The highest yield was obtained from the Beloglina, C. TI.
No. 2239.
Of the fourteen varieties and strains of winter wheat grown on the
Belle Fourche Experiment Farm only five have been sown in each of -
the six years. The
average date of
AHARKOF, C1. NO. 1442. — B 2/28: heading and of ma-
AHAPRAOF, C./. NO. 15 8 3.— = ve) Pn E s 20.78U. . .
TURKEY, CL. NO, 1571.~ ~~ SS A zoser| turity, weight per
TURKEY, C4, NO.1E SE, = = 20. .
CAIMEAN, Cl, NO.14 37. a a= = fee Sood bushel, and yield of
grain and of straw
Fic. 6.—Diagram showing the average yields per acre, in bushels, of these five varile-
of the leading varieties of winter wheat at the Belle Fourche Experi- ties are given in
ment Farm, for six years, 1908 to 1913, inclusive. Tan 1 6 ELE The
yields of grain are shown graphically im figure 6. Table XIII shows
that there is practically no variation in the date of heading and of
maturity and in the weight per bushel of these stocks and that the
variation in yield of grain and straw is very slight.
TasLe XIII.—Average dates of heading and of maturity, weight per bushel, and yields of
five varieties of winter wheat grown continuously on the Belle Fourche Experiment
Farm, 1908 to 1913, inclusive.
Date of— Yield per acre.
Weight
C.J. No. Variety. per 3
Heading.1 alae bushel.’ | Grain.s | Straw.
Pounds. | Bushels. | Pounds.
L442h ekcharkottery cacesen cee neosks neeeesccsen aoe June 17 | July 11 60.9 21.2 1, 860
1583 1 B Yo Yigal pest ee a Sen eee | a Gosaeet |e dOecses 60.3 20.7 1,994
15 (1S lurk eye ee setenv ean see ans = “seeeeralbers Goze==4|s52 0d 0nsss 60.7 20.6 1, 842
1558 DOs See eee ean ase am oe etapa ene Goseess|e-eOOseses 60.8 20. 2 1,798
14S farmed nas Na eee he eae pertain at eget June! 16-)..-do-.--- 60. 4 19:7 1,924
1 Average for 1910 and 1913 only. 3 Average for the entire period of six years, 1908-1913.
2 Average for 1908-1910 and 1913 only. 4 Average for 1908, 1910, 1911, 1912, and 1913.
LEADING VARIETIES OF WINTER WHEAT.
The leading varieties of winter wheat at Newell are the Kharkof,
Turkey, and Crimean. These varieties all have bearded heads, with
white, hairless chaff, and hard red kernels. They all were imported
from southern Russia, the Kharkof and Crimean by the United
States Department of Agriculture and the Turkey by Russian immi-
grants and by commercial agencies. They are not distinguishable
in appearance and differ only slightly in yield and in hardiness. It is
probable that the Kharkof is slightly hardier than the Turkey or the
Crimean, and for this reason it is to be preferred for sowing in western
South Dakota.
DATE-OF-SEEDING TEST OF WINTER WHEAT.
A date-of-seeding test has been conducted each year at Newell
with Turkey winter wheat, C. I. No. 3055. In this experiment, plats
have been sown about the first and fifteenth of each month, from
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 25
August 15 to November 1. In addition, all the varieties were sown
in the fall of 1907 on two dates, September-15 and October 5. In
growing winter wheat in western South Dakota the date of seeding
is considered to be next in importance to the selection of the variety
and the preparation of the seed bed. The climatic conditions vary
so much from year to year that it is difficult to determine this date
accurately. The data here printed are believed to be suggestive
only.
Table XIV shows the annual and average yields of winter wheat
obtained on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm from seeding on
several dates during the years 1908 to 1913.
TasLE XIV.—Annual and average yields of Turkey winter wheat in a date-of-seeding test
on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1908, 1909, 1910, and 19138.
Yield per acre (bushels).
Date of seeding. Average.
1908 1909 1910 1913
1908-1910 |1909, 1910,
and 1913.) and 1913.
INO RAUINE Ih oo3 5 nudes casa gaoseesucunEos dae eEcecSsoapel Saabods>|loscacsaclsonosede 2621 leonaoascopllbooneended
AGRUS 1B... azecusdac cbenaokeosdubseuesesooeseSsua eaebesss 37.5 19.3 74cBa lel ee erence 28. 6
September 1 ........- sehgadenosodsskaceodaseadeube 23.0 39.0 8.3 28.1 24. 6 25.1
Seyouieialoer 1G .2+ cance ssqsdscansosasbe seosedecEesose 20.3 40.5 22.0 CO esp eeineclnd sabes a
OGiolnge ll . wes dsossaac sepgudsooneoepesoseaeedesened 24.3 43.0 (?) 28.1 23.8 20.7
OGIO? 16 so cocsoocsasssonteoecuoesSeoneesousceHse 24.7 42.0 13.3 21.4 25.3 25.6
INOWOUMMDGP I. sos oecogapdossansensecao [cop qCeseReSes 25.5 37.3 13. 2 16.3 23.1 22.3
INOWOM OE ND -.ssocéascsnqsabondne sconceoceuSasonEa||seeecdoc|oassesorllsccsacce V6. L; |e cteaejaalsee seme:
1 Not sown because of severe drought. 2 Did not germinate.
As shown in Table XIV, the highest yield in 1908, 25.5 bushels
per acre, was produced from the latest seeding. The difference in
yield from the various dates of seeding was slight, except that the
plat sown on September 16 yielded only 20.3 bushels per acre. .The
fall of 1907 was dry and the comparatively low winter survival and
low yield of the earlier sown plats may have been due to the fact that
growth was checked by the drought, and hence the plants did not
go into the winter in good condition. In the varietal test, which was
sown in duplicate on September 15 and October 5, six of the seven
varieties produced higher yields from the later seeding.
The highest yield in 1909 was from the plat sown October 1, with
gradual decreases toward the earlier and later seedings. Germination
was prompt on the plat sown August 16, but the plants on the plats
sown September 1, September 16, and October 1 did not emerge
until October 23. Damage from the blowing of the soil prevented
taking accurate notes on winterkilling.
In the fall of 1909 the plats were sown in duplicate with the excep-
tion of the first date. For some reason there was no germination on
the plats sown October 1. The plants on one series of the plats sown
on October 16 and November 1 were killed by the blowing of the soil
, ae
26 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the following spring. The highest yield was obtained from the plats
sown on September 16.- The poor yield from the plat sown Septem-
ber 1 was due to low germination.
In the fall of 1910 the two sowings germinated at about the same
time and the plants made a vigorous growth. The plat sown Sep-
tember 16 showed good germination but less growth than the two
earlier seedings. The plants on the plats sown October 1 emerged
but made little growth before winter, while in the plats sown Octo-
ber 16 and November 1 the seed germinated but the plants did not
emerge. As there was little precipitation during the fall, winter,
and spring, practically all of the plants were dead by May 1. There
was a higher moisture content and better survival in the late-sown
Fic. 7.—Plats of winter wheat in the date-of-seeding test on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm. (Photo-
graphed October 24, 1912.) 4
than in the early-sown plats. The fall of 1911 was so dry that the
date-of-seeding as well as other tests with winter wheat were a com-_
plete failure.
In the fall of 1912 the test was replicated three times on fiftieth-
acre plats instead of being sown on a single tenth-acre plat. An
earlier and a later date of seeding, August 6 and November 16,
respectively, were added to the test. The seeding of September 16
was not made, because the soil was so dry that germination could not
be obtained. Good stands were secured from the plats sown on each
date. A view of the plats on October 24 is shown in figure 7. The
earliest date of seeding produced the highest yield, 29.2 bushels.
Because of the variations from year to year, the difference in
average yields obtained from the various dates of seeding was not
great. If the plats sown October 1, 1909, had not failed to germinate,
that date probably would have given the highest average yield for
the four years when crops were produced. The next highest yield
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. ay
was from the plats sown October 16. For the three years, 1909, 1910,
and 1913, the highest yield was from the August 16 seeding, with that
of October 16 second.
The great variations in seasonal conditions make it difficult to
decide the best date for seeding wheat in western South Dakota. If
rains occur early and are fairly abundant, early seeding is probably
best. It is not always possible to conserve sufficient moisture to
insure germination; hence, it is not usually safe to sow in dry soil
with the expectation of receiving sufficient rain for germination.
The safest rule seems to be to have the ground ready for early seeding,
so that the seed may be sown early or late as the conditions seem to
indicate. The results obtained on the Belle Fourche Experiment
Farm appear to show that sowing as late as November 1 will often
give better yields than are obtained from spring wheat. Because the
Fic. 8.—The winter-wheat nursery on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1910.
current season’s crop is often not thrashed and ready for sowing in
August, it is desirable to carry over a supply of seed, so that the crop
may be sown early if it appears to be desirable.
NURSERY EXPERIMENTS WITH WINTER WHEAT.
About 600 selected heads of Turkey, Kharkof, and Crimean wheats
were sown in head rows in the fall of 1908. Practically all of these
were sown in 60-foot rows the following year. As it seemed desir-
able to test the best of these selections in field plats as soon as pos-
sible, about 35 of them were sown in fiftieth-acre plats in the fall of
1910. Because of the extreme drought the next spring and summer
no grain was produced. Enough seed was left from the 1909 crop,
however, to sow in duplicate 60-foot rows in the fall of 1911. The
seed did not germinate until the following spring, and the stand was
then so thin that very low yields were obtained. The selections were
28 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
again sown in duplicate rows in the fall of 1912, while a few of which
there was sufficient seed were sown in fiftieth-acre plats. A view of
the winter-wheat nursery in 1910 is shown in figure 8.
The average yields of the selections in duplicate 60-foot rows in
1910, 1912, and 1913 varied from 32 to 65.8 ounces. Most of the
selections yielded between 48 and 60 ounces. A few beardless races
which were selected proved to be particularly high in yield. The
average yield of all nine beardless races was 56.2 ounces, while the
nine best bearded races produced an average yield of 56 ounces. The
best beardless race, selection No. 343, produced an average yield of
65.8 ounces, while the best bearded race yielded 61.4 ounces.
The beardless races sown in fiftieth-acre plats in 1910 appeared to
be fully as resistant to drought as any of the bearded races. There
appeared to be little difference in hardiness between the bearded and
beardless strains, not only at Newell but also at three other field
stations in the
VELD PER ACRE. northern Great
40 15 20 25)
WINTER: Plains where they
AHARAOF..-.~~---E AS 2/2 OY
QUARUM SPRING V :
7 SPRING | were tested. The
COMMON SPAING.
PROWL IFE= a z
HAYNES BLUES 7TE/)
MANCHUA/A.— ~ --
erain is very similar
to that of the Turkey
and Kharkof wheats
Fia. 9.—Diagram showing the average yields per acre, in bushels, in quality and ap-
of the best varieties of winter wheat and each group of spring
wheat at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, for six years, 1908 Pearance. Whether
to 1913, inclusive. th ese b ear d ] ess
strains originated from mechanical mixtures of some beardless fall
variety, such as Ghirka Winter, or from accidental hybrids between
a bearded hard winter wheat and a beardless winter wheat was not
determined.
COMPARISON OF SPRING AND WINTER WHEATS.
A comparison of the yields of winter and spring wheat which have
been obtained at Newell should be of interest and value. The annual
and average yields of the best varieties of winter, of durum, and of
common spring wheat are shown in Table XV. The average yields
are also shown graphically in figure 9.
The yields of winter wheat in 1908 were slightly larger than those
of the best durum wheats and exceeded by several bushels those of
the spring common wheats. In 1909 the yields of winter wheat were
nearly double those of the durum and more than double those of the
spring common varieties. Again in 1910 the yields of winter wheat
were double or more than double those of the spring varieties. In
1911 no yields of either spring or winter wheat were obtained, while
| in 1912 no grain was produced except by a few varieties of spring
| common wheat. In 1913 the yields of winter wheat were again
about double those of durum and more than double those of the
spring common wheats,
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 29
TaBLE XV.—Annual and average yields of the best varieties of winter and of durum and
common spring wheats on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1908 to 1913, inclusive.
Yield per acre (bushels).
Group and variety. C.I.
No. Aver-
1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 ere
ge.
Winter:
Reh anko pyaar cee cat setae a oelseie st 1442 25.4 40.3 2207, 0 0 38.6 21.2
Spring durum:
eu bankaeeery eee eee oe os 1516 23.8 22.6 5.3 0 0 19.1 11.8
Spring common:
Man Chiniaeeeseen sees eeeness set 2492 16.2 16.0 12.8 0 4.5 17.1 1a ead
EO Wiel eee ees ao encroach slewie 3025 18.5 I/5e3 10 6 0 0 16.6 10.5
HUA VMESSaeeaieiscio aceeeeectecee 3020 18.3 13.8 9.0 0 0 14.1 9.2
~ To summarize: In three of the six years covered by the experi-
ments the winter varieties have produced about double the yield
obtained from the spring varieties. In one year the yield was only
slightly larger and in two years practically all varieties of both
spring and winter wheats were total failures. The average yield of
the best winter variety for the six years was 21.2 bushels, while the
average yield of the best durum variety was 11.8 bushels. Winter
wheat is to be preferred to spring wheat, because the growing of a
fall-sown grain allows a better distribution of labor throughout the
year. Winter wheat also matures earlier and so is more likely to escape
hailstorms, hot winds, and other unfavorable climatic conditions.
On the other hand, sufficient moisture for germination is less likely
to be available in the fall than in the spring, and there is also danger of
damage to the crop from the blowing of the soil during the winter.
Winterkilling has not been a factor of much importance in the experi-
ments at Newell, nor is it likely to be if varieties of the Turkey group
are grown. If a crop of winter wheat is lost because of the blowing
of the soil, winterkilling, or other factors, there is still opportunity to
sow the land to some spring crop. For these reasons the growing
of winter rather than spring wheat is strongly recommended.
EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS.
The yields of oats which have been obtained at Newell have for
the most part been unsatisfactory. In 1908, 1909, and 1913 fairly
good yields were obtained, but in 1910 and 1912 the returns were
less than the cost of production, while in 1911 a total failure was
recorded.
= The average yield of the best variety for the six years from 1908
to’ 1913 was only 19.4 bushels, which is less than the average yield
of winter wheat for the same period. The yield of the best spring
wheat for the six years was slightly less than 12 bushels to the acre,
but the production in pounds is greater than that of oats and the
value of the crop is also higher. For this reason the oat crop can not
30 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
be recommended to the farmer on the dry lands in western South Da-
kota. If oats are grown, only the very earliest varieties, such as
Sixty-Day and Kherson, should be used.
The experiments with oats at Newell have included varietal tests
and a test of rate of seeding with Kherson oats.
VARIETAL TEST OF OATS.
The varietal experiments with oats during the six years from 1908
to 1913 have included 16 varieties and races. Of these, eight may be
classed as early, five as midseason, and three as late varieties. All the
late varieties are side oats, while all the early and midseason varieties
have open or spreading panicles. Only five of the 16 varieties have
been grown in all of the six years. The annual and average yields
of the 16 varieties and races are given in Table XVI.
TaBLeE XVI.—Annual and average yields of 16 varieties and races of oats on the Belle
Fourche Experiment Farm, 1908 to 1913, inclusive.
Yield per acre (bushels).
Group and variety. C. I. No. | | Average.
1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913
6 years, | 4 years,
1908-1913. |1910-1913,.
Early varieties: |
Barbas ears vere ire oh Asada a 293: |So aes oP meee | ee She 620.) 2254.) ae bee Eee
KN ELSONSS ae eee See Ree | 459 |a47.5 |a25.7 \a15.0 0 |> 6.2 | 21.9 19.3 10.8
Seventy-Five-Day ............ | Sol | Secor Seer lessees too) (725° 21.02) 2 ee | ee
Sixty Daly (ie teed Seas ae 165 |246.6 | 25.0 | 15.6 0| 6.6 | 22.7 19.4 Te
Sixty-Day selection............ (165-562) |] Oe aeier ae AA solos 6.2) heats Seeeaeees Sees
dD OMe eeneye Sey Pee eae @L65—566 )\ |eeaeee eres ERS SES So Tel | 23.3425. eet Eee
1 D Xo ear ail Peen eee NER cn ar yaa 626° | SaaS eee 14.4 0 729 | 21569 |e 11.0
DL) OR ae eae are gee Aono a 626: | Rese ees 16.6 0 Q9 | 2426. | sae tees 12.8
Midseason varieties:
BI SHH OUI ee ee eee ee 1658 \|pauoee 32208 386 0 | L421 -)1955 | Sake 9.3
Canadian® see sea ee 444 | 38.8] 21.3] 4.4 0 | 10.4 | 18.5 15.6 8.3
IBY Wabi] ote Bee ae ee eet bia 441 ||" 36s Dae e esos Se Sees Sees eases Goons poSsul casos coo
GreatiD anes aes ceeseee So aed ore che | Ae doe 2656) eis Son]. 55 252.5] U en eee | See eeee
Swedish’Select: ...2:-....2.--. 134 | 38.1 | 28.4 2.18 0 ge2e | 1552 15.5 6.7
Late varieties:
Whitey Ussian Sea = sere eee 551 | 30.9 | 20.0 0 ONN22575 | 143 14.6 9.2
Winite Mantanianee eee ease: 300 | 30.9 | 22.8 0 (Rese Steere soceecea e's Saae- 558
bellow Giantess ae sone ee se 342 | 19.4 1 17.5 0 Veer nee beer |e eo
}
a Average of two plats.
Table XVI shows that fairly good yields of oats were obtained
from all varieties in 1908, when the seasonal rainfall was slightly
above normal and the distribution of the rainfall was favorable.
The low yield in 1909 was due in large measure to poor preparation
of the seed bed and resulting poor germination and slow growth.
Abundant rainfall favored the larger and later varieties, such as Big
Four and Swedish Select, which may always be expected to yield
more than the early varieties in particularly favorable years. In
1910 the conditions early in the season were exceptionally good, but
the rainfall after the seed germinated was much below normal and
consequently only the earliest varieties produced yields which were
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 81
worthy of consideration. In 1911 no yields were obtained from any
of the varieties, because of the severe drought.
In 1912 there was little water stored in the soil, but the precipita-
tion during the growing season was fairly favorable. On account of
the dryness of the soil at seeding time the drill was run rather deeper
than usual. Just after seeding a heavy rain caused the soil to pack
and crust, so that the germination was low. This, in addition to
the lack of stored water, caused the low yields which were obtained.
The midseason and late varieties yielded better than the early
varieties, for the reason that they were benefited by a heavy rain
which fell early in July, too late to be of material help to the early
varieties.
In 1913 the varietal test of oats was grown on land which produced
a crop of corn in 1912. In all previous years the oats were grown
on soil which had been fallowed. The corn land was not plowed but
was disked and harrowed to make a good seed bed. The rainfall
conditions were about normal and fair yields were obtained. ‘As in
previous years the
earlier varieties pro-
duced the highest [ear
YIELD PER ACRE.
o s Ze)
SINGS = DAY. aan
af ields. Ney a >
In 1907 two plats CANADIAN...
SWEO/SH SELECT.
of Boswell Winter | ca
oats, C. I. No. 480,
were sown. Only Qa Fic. 10.—Diagram showing the average yields per acre, in bushels,
f the leading varieti é the Experi
small percentage of (0) e leading varieties of oats at the Belle Fourche Experiment
Farm, for six years, 1908 to 1913, inclusive.
the plants survived
the winter, but these tillered so freely that a yield of 28.5 bushels
per acre was obtained. This variety was again sown in 1908 and
1909, but winterkilled entirely each year.
WHITE RUSSIAN. ~-
LEADING VARIETIES OF OATS.
In Table XVII the average date of heading, date of ripening, weight
per bushel, and yield per acre of grain and of straw are given for the
five varieties which were grown during the entire period of six years.
With the exception of the yield data, the averages are for five years
(1908-1910, 1912, and 1913). The average yields of grain are shown
graphically in figure 10.
The five varieties which have been grown for the entire six years
at Newell, in the order of their average yield, are the Sixty-Day,
Kherson, Canadian, Swedish Select, and White Russian. The pure-
line selection of Sixty-Day, C. I. No. 626, which was added to the
test in 1910, has given an average yield 1.6 bushels higher than the
unselected Sixty-Day for the four years from 1910 to 1913.
The Sixty-Day and Kherson are very similar varieties, imported
about 15 years ago from southern Russia. ‘They are earlyin maturing,
32 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ripening at Newell about July 20. The straw is short and the grains
small and yellow. They are the best varieties for growing on the dry
farms in the Belle Fourche section.
Taste XVII.—Average dates of heading and maturity, weight per bushel, and yields of
five leading varieties of oats on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1908 to 1913,
inclusive.
Date of— Yield per acre.
aoe Weight Oa rald
Group and variety. No; || ieee os re |S
; A -,_ | bushel. - =
Heading. |Maturity . Grain. | Straw.
Early: Pounds.| Bushels.| Pounds.
KH ORS OTM ese crtay eee rel a ace eee ore a are pe 459.| June 27 | July 20 30.8 19.3 800
SixtyaD ayesec orescence cece seems sis 0m asi sakes 165 | June 26 | July 17 30.9 19.4 720
Midseason:
Cama dank Se seen neste satya canst c's 25a eee 444 | July 8 | July 29 34.5 15.6 1,080
: Swedishiselects: 22.2% oan ee an. Se cece 134 | July 9] Aug. 2 28.2) |) S155 930
sate:
Wihite sR Ssign Mes eee ee eee. 2 tos eee 551 | July 18 | Aug. 8 30. 4 14.6 1,040
The Canadian is a medium-early oat which has averaged 4 bushels
less than the Sixty-Day and Kherson at Newell for the six years.
The yield of straw, however, is greater. The heads are large and
spreading, and the kernels are white, broad, and very short. This
variety matures about 10 days later than the Kherson. .
The Swedish Select is extensively grown in the more humid regions
to the eastward, but it is rather too late for sowing in western South
Dakota. This is a white oat with kernels of medium length, rather
broad, and usually bearing a strong, black awn. It matures about
five days later than the Canadian and about two weeks later than the
Kherson and Sixty-Day.
The Big Four is quite similar to the Swedish Select except that the
awns are few and weak. It has produced rather better yields than
the Swedish Select at Newell each year since 1909, when it was added
to the test. For the four years from 1910 to 1913 this variety was
exceeded in average yield only by the Kherson and Sixty-Day and by
two pure-line selections of the latter variety. It is apparently the
best of the midseason and late varieties which have been included in
the test.
White Russian is a late side oat, with long and rather slender white
kernels. The average yield of this variety for the six years is shghtly
lower than that of the Swedish Select and Canadian. It matures
about one week later than the Swedish Select and about three weeks
later than the Kherson and Sixty-Day. It can not be recommended
for growing in the Great Plains.
RATE-OF-SEEDING TEST OF OATS.
A rate-of-seeding test with oats was conducted on the Belle Fourche
Experiment Farm in 1909, 1910, 1912, and 1913. In 1909 and 1910
the Kherson and in 1912 and 1913 the Sixty-Day varieties were
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. Be
used. Plats were sown at the rates of 4, 6, 8, and 10 pecks each year.
In addition, the 2-peck rate was used in 1909 and the 12-peck in 1910,
1912, and 1913. The test was conducted on fallow land in 1909,
1910, and 1912, while in 1913 it was on land which produced corn
the previous year. In 1909 and 1910 single tenth-acre plats were
sown at each rate. In 1912 and 1913 the test was replicated, three
fiftieth-acre plats being sown at each rate.
Table XVIII shows the annual and average yields obtained in the
rate-of-seeding test with oats in 1909, 1910, 1912, and 1913.
Taste XVITI.—Annual and average yields of oats in a rate-of-seeding test on the Belle
Fourche Experiment Farm in 1909, 1910, 1912, and 1913.
[In 1909 and 1910 the variety used was the Kherson, C. I. No. 459. In 1912 and 1913 the Sixty-Day variety,
C. I. No. 165, was used.]
Yield per acre (bushels).
Rate per acre.
1909 | 1910 | 1912 | 1913 | Aver
age.
PAC CKSPEN Se reeiesict(aieiareyeceicie cole lefateiom = Detect ffs ie ls «sae eee 74) O | botaddos| san oocasneanacsollonoousac
4) OEOES . caso dons oc hoaseeT Ene nodose a SpeneCeeeEEeEEEEonaso4oS5 30.2 i.) 8.9 28. 2 19.8
@ (DEO jonscoecbhodpapslecbeods sons SRE CeORCOSeCEeeB aonb oascaGs 32.8 12.5 10.3 27.3 20.7
BID CC Sper etsterctcthe tat eictaeeistercys Saya ainjalajase olctciaisic/eieva cassis oe 2.0 ats eee 35.3 10.3 9.2 27.3 20.5
1 DROS ccosetenssese beg neon dod Ub abs Bo BRDOOGEEEBEEeEEE S Bocacks 35.9 4.1 Ghz 28.1 19.5
IP) JOSOKS = poonaonbanapeoupeb une onesSounboeoadedseseereeanesescood|buccedss 3.4 Ghal Zeb? |looasaobe
In 1909, which was a favorable year, the higher rates of seeding
gave the better yields, though the differences between the 6, 8, and
10 peck rates were small. In 1910, a very dry year, the best yields
were obtained from the 4-peck and 6-peck rates. The yields obtained
from the 10-peck and 12-peck rates of seeding little more than equaled
the quantity of seed which was sown. In 1912, another dry year,
there was little variation in the yields which were obtained, though
the 6-peck rate produced slightly more than any of the others. In
1913, a favorable year, the yields obtained from all the rates of seed-
ing were practically the same.
The average yield for the four years from the 4, 6, 8, and 10 peck
rates shows little variation, though the figures favor slightly the 6-
peck rate. The thickly sown plats ripened earlier than those sown
at the lower rates, while the yield of straw was usually less. In
very dry years thin seeding is to be preferred. On the other hand,
in favorable seasons fully as good yields and slightly earlier maturity
will be obtained from thick seeding. It seems probable that 6 pecks
is about the best rate for early varieties, such as the Sixty-Day and
Kherson. |
NURSERY EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS.
About 100 heads each of the Sixty-Day and Kherson oats were
selected in 1908 and grown in head rows in 1909. In addition a
number of selections of the Sixty-Day made at the Highmore sub-
34 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
station, Highmore, S. Dak., were grown in head rows in 1908 and in
duplicate 60-foot rows in 1909. The most promising of the High-
more selections were grown in duplicate fiftieth-acre plats in 1910,
while the remainder of these and the progeny of the 1909 head rows
were grown in 60-foot rows. In 1912 and 1913 the best of these
selections were grown either in plats or in replicated 60-foot rows.
Two of these selections, Nos. 562 and 566, were grown in the regu-
lar varietal test in 1912, where they produced about the same yields
as the unselected Sixty-Day. Selection No. 566 was again grown in
1913, when it slightly exceeded in yield the parent variety. None
of the selections which have been made at Newell from the Sixty-
Day and Kherson varieties appears to be particularly better than the
original unselected stocks.
EXPERIMENTS WITH BARLEY.
Barley is quite an important crop in the northern Great Plains,
because of its early maturity, its comparatively low water require-
ment, and the feeding and market value of the grain. The varietal
test at Newell has included the principal varieties that have given
good results elsewhere in the northern Great Plains. On the whole,
the results which have been obtained are decidedly disappointing.
From the results here reported, barley can not be recommended for
the Belle Fourche section.
VARIETAL TEST OF BARLEY.
The varietal test has included five strains of 6-rowed hulled, two
of 6-rowed naked, and five of 2-rowed hulled barley during the six
years. Only two of the varieties were grown in all of the six years,
while six were grown in the five years from 1909 to 1913. The annual
and average yields of all the varieties from 1908 to 1913 are shown in
Table XIX.
In 1908 two lots of Hanna barley, one of Manchuria, and two of
Nepal were grown. The highest yields were cbtained from the
Hanna, a 2-rowed hulled variety. The yields from both the 2-rowed
and 6-rowed hulled varieties were fairly. satisfactory. Two varieties
of winter barley which were sown in the fall of 1907 entirely winter-
killed. .
In 1909 four 2-rowed hulled, three 6-rowed hulled, and two 6-rowed
naked varieties were grown. The hulled varieties yielded from
17.3 to 23.8 bushels per acre, while the naked varieties yielded about
9 bushels each. The highest yield was again obtained from the
Hanna, C. I. No. 24.
The same varieties were grown in 1910. Because of the extreme
drought only the very earliest varieties matured grain, and the crop
obtaimed even from these was very small. The Odessa, an early
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 85
6-rowed variety, produced the highest yield, 8.1 bushels. The yields
obtained from the 6-rowed naked and the 2-rowed hulled varieties
were not sufficient to pay for the cost of harvesting. All the varieties
were a total failure in 1911.
Taste XIX.—Annual and average yields of 12 varieties of barley on the Belle Fourche
Experiment Farm, 1908 to 1913, inclusive.
Yield per acre (bushels).
Group and variety. Sone Average.
1908 | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 |
6 years, | 5 years, | 2 years,
1908-1913.) 1909-1913.| 1912-1913.
Six-rowed hulled:
Gatamieess 22s asec: SiUGy eeaeel Sees amc Beste 18.3 Sei ericsreyy ssa | eee cis ce 13.2
Manchuria (Minn. No.
oo Rae eee S04 eee Srl Reeeisie| oot <4 eee
Manchuria (Minn. No.6)| 638 |....-- LONE 522 0
IWMeyateinnborkl= Sees eee 643 | 26.0 | 17.3 | 4.3 0
Odessamaeimae cence cae = ESP 4) least eral 8.1 0
Six-rowed naked:
Nepal (White Hull-less).| 262] 16.3} 9.6] 2.5 OB Sees | Sasccc ls osmseicen sl cick sereccis ete Sereisrset
IDO) Sas bes Sees acsel Sete 12.0 9.0 BY 0] 10.7} 8.9 7.0 6.1 9.8
Two-rowed hulled:
- Chevalionsliie eat ss 5308 |Reeeee 22.1 0 0 @))|l std Begeeeooee 5.8 3.4
lniGinae Se. Sse aaeeeeneeee 24 | 29.0 |@23.8 |a1.0 0 0 | 10.7 10.7 Ceol 5.3
Ores ce Seis eee 203 | 27.9 | 21.4 1.4 0 Wilensous ecbeceaomne aececeens so raroron
iamncheneeas— eee Bt eoooe PALO 2a- Bol 0 (Oi) UP eeaceccoue 7.0 6.3
Wihite smyrna (Ouchac)) |: 658))|--22--|----..|----.-|ba-see IQs 7/7) 1 6} Bee onese sosseasnec LORS
}
a Average of 2 plats.
In 1912 ten of the twelve varieties which were included in the test
were grown in fiftieth-acre plats replicated five times. The other
two varieties were grown in single plats, as there was not sufficient
seed for the replications. The soil in which the test was conducted
had in previous seasons appeared to be very uniform, but the growth
and yield of the barley varieties in 1912 showed great variation.
This was perhaps due to the drifting of the snow on the plats during
the previous winter, as the rainfall was extremely low in 1912 and
slight differences in moisture content were likely to cause considerable
variations in yield. Many of the plats produced no grain and others
matured seed only along the borders. The only vatiety of which all
plats were harvested was the Gatami, an early black 6-rowed variety,
which was grown for the first time at Newell in 1912. The yield of
this variety was 18.3 bushels to the acre.
In 1913 the barley varieties were grown on land upon which a
small crop of spring wheat was produced the previous year. The
soil was in excellent condition at the time of seeding, and germination
and growth were prompt and vigorous. The rainfall during June
and July was slight, so that all the varieties were injured by drought. —
A hailstorm which occurred just as the earlier varieties were heading
severely injured the Gatami and did some damage to the Manchuria
and Odessa varieties. The highest yields in 1913 were produced by
nl
36 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the 2-rowed barleys, though it is probable that the Gatami and the
other 6-rowed varieties would have yielded more than any of the
2-rowed barleys if they had not been injured by hail.
Only the Hanna, C. I. No. 24, and the Nepal have been grown
for the entire six years. The average yield of the Hanna for that
period was 10.7 bushels, and of the Nepal, 7 bushels. Six varieties
have been grown for
the five years from
Bn Ree Crom 7 BU: 1909. to 19S eG
these, the highest
yield. 9.7 bushels,
HANNCHEN = === =~ mB 70 4u was produced by the
Odessa, a medium-
Mee) Gna, ACRE.
Fic. 11.—Diagram showing the average yields per acre, in bushels,
oi the leading varieties of barley at the Belle Fourche Experiment early 6-rowed va-
Farm, for five years, 1909 to 1913. inclusive. Tl et Ve: The Man-
churia (Minnesota No. 6) averaged 8.2 bushels for this period and
the Hanna and Hannchen about 7 bushels each. The average
yields of these varieties are shown graphically in figure 11.
LEADING VARIETIES OF BARLEY.
The average date of heading and of maturity, weight per bushel,
and the yield of grain and of straw for the leading varieties of barley
crown at Newell. are given in Table XX.
TABLE XX.—Average dates of heading and of maturity, weight per bushel, and yields of
the seven leading varieties of barley on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1909 to 1913,
inclusive.
Date of— mkt Yield per acre.
= CI Weight P
Group and variety. : NGU Haars Selene =r ae |e
Heading. |Maturity. bushel.| Grain. | Straw.
Six-rowed hulled: i | Lbs. | Bush. | Lbs.
Gata ines cee nae ee eee note a oe 575 | June 25a) July 144) a45.1) a13.2 as70
i} (OXGLSSES AE See en ace eee ewan 182 | June 26 6|...dob_..| 645.5 9.7 760
it Manchuria (Minn SINOs G6) Nose eee ae ace ne ene 638 | June 30 6| July 184) 644.3 8.2 600
; Two-rowed hulled:
WihiteiSmymna (Ouchac)i:22:aess: =2. 55s. fee G58ulEseeeeeees July 154) @42.4 |] @12.5 a940
JaleveWab i SOS WS eee es en ee eee 24 | July 3¢) July 22d) 446.9 Wok. 750
ET ann CHET eee eee be ree eerie ey a. cee 531 doc July 184) @46.9 7.0 640
) Six-rowed naked
ING DalESes Poet ee eat eecean cork soaees - 52a ee June 28 >| July 206) 058.6 6.1 590
a Two-year average, 1912 and 1913.
b Four-year average, 1909, 1910, 1912, and 1913.
eae only; heads not fully exserted in 1910, 1912, and 1913.
d Three-year average, 1909, 1910, and 1913; failure i in 1911 and 1912
The Odessa, C. I. No. 182, a 6-rowed bearded hulled barley, has
given the highest average yield at Newell for the five years from
1909 to 1913. This variety is early in maturing, ripening at Newell
about a week before the Hanna and four or five days earlier than the
Manchuria. It was introduced from southern Russia, where it is
grown in the same region as the Sixty-Day and Kherson oats. It is
recommended as one of the best varieties of barley for western South
Dakota.
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 37
The Gatami, C. I. No. 575, has been grown at Newell only in 1912
and 1913. In 1912 it yielded 18.3 bushels to the acre, nearly double
the yield gbtained from any other variety. In 1913 it was exceeded
in yield by several varieties. Its average yield for the two years is
4 bushels greater than that of the Odessa for the same period. The
Gatami matures a little earlier than the Odessa, and for that reason
is to be preferred to it. The grain, however, is black and hence is
lower in market value than the Odessa and other light-colored
barleys.
The Manchuria (Minnesota No. 6), C. I. No. 638, is the 6-rowed
bearded barley commonly grown in Minnesota and Wisconsin. It is
several days later in maturing than the Gatami and Odessa, and its
average yield for the five years from 1909 to 1913 is 14 bushels less
than that of the Odessa. It can not be recommended for western
South Dakota.
Fic. 12.—Plat of Hanna barley on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1910.
The Hanna and Hannchen are 2-rowed bearded hulled barleys
which yielded well in 1909 and 1913. The Hanna was also grown in
1908, when it produced the highest yield of any variety included in
the test. The Hanna and Hannchen matured no grain in 1911 and
1912 and only a very small crop in 1910, so that their average yields
for the five years from 1909 to 1913 were only 7.1 and 7 bushels per
acre, respectively. This is more than 23 bushels less than the average
yield of the Odessa for the same period. These 2-rowed barleys are
a week to ten days later in maturing than the Odessa and the Gatami,
and ordinarily they mature later than the Manchuria. At Newell
they have usually ripened prematurely, so that the length of their
growing season there is below the normal. A field of Hanna barley
on the experiment farm in 1910 is shown in figure 12.
38 BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The White Smyrna, C. I. No. 658, an early 2-rowed barley, was
grown at Newell only in 1912 and 1913. In 1912 it was exceeded in
yield only by the Gatami, while in 1913 it produced the highest yield
of any variety in the test. The average yield for the two years is
12.5 bushels, only 0.7 bushel less than that of Gatami and higher
than that of any other variety. If a 2-rowed variety of barley is to
be grown in western South Dakota, it is probable that the White
Smyrna or some similar one should be selected.
The yields obtained from the Nepal (White Hull-less), a 6-rowed
naked variety, have been less than those from any of the hulled
varieties, except in 1912 and 1913. In these years the. Nepal pro-
duced less than the best hulled varieties.
EXPERIMENTS WITH MINOR CEREALS.
RYE.
Winter rye has been grown in field plats at Newell for only one
year, 1913. Three plats produced an average yield of 5.3 bushels,
as compared with a yield of 38.8 bushels of Kharkof winter wheat on
a near-by plat The low yield of the rye was in part due to damage
from a hailstorm, which occurred after the ryé headed but before
the wheat was far enough advanced to be injured. Another reason
for the low yield was that a large percentage of the florets failed to
set seed, probably because the pollen was injured by high tempera-
tures, low humidity, or some other unfavorable climatic condition.
EMMER.
Spring emmer, C. I. No. 1524, has been grown each year with the
series of barley varieties, as it was considered that emmer is com-
parable to barley as a feed grain. The yields obtained were as fol-
lows: 1908, 31.8 bushels; 1909, 21.7 bushels; 1910, 0.3 bushel; and
1913, 11.1 bushels. No yields were produced in 1911 and 1912.
The average yield for the six years was 10.8 bushels, while the yield
of Hanna barley for the same period was 10.7 bushels. For the five
years from 1909 to 1913 the average yield was only 6.6 bushels, as
compared with 9.7 bushels for the Odessa barley. For the same
period, Sixty-Day oats yielded 14.0 bushels and Kubanka durum
wheat 9.4 bushels. These yields are equivalent to 211 pounds of
emmer, 466 of barley, 448 of oats, and 564 of wheat.
Black Winter emmer, C. I. No. 2337, was sown in the fall of 1908.
It is estimated that only 1 per cent of the plants survived the winter.
This crop was not grown again until the fall of 1912, when a plat of
Buffum Improved winter emmer, C. I. No. 3331, was sown. This
variety yielded 1,035 pounds of grain, as compared with 2,130 pounds
of winter wheat on a near-by plat.
The few tests of emmer which have been made at Newell indicate
that the crop is not one which can be recommended for that section.
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM. 39
EXPERIMENTS WITH FLAX.
VARIETAL TEST.
A varietal test of flax was begun at Newell in 1912, when nine
varieties were grown. Only five of these were grown in 1913. In
1912 flax was grown on land which was fallow the previous year and
in 1913 on land which produced a crop of small grain in 1912. The
annual and average yields of grain and of straw for the five varieties
are shown in Table XXI.
TaBLE XXI.—Annual and average yields of five varieties of flax on the Belle Fourche
Experiment Farm in 1912 and 1913.
1912 1913 Average.
Seas Variety.
Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw. | Grain. | Straw.
Bushels.| Pounds.| Bushels.| Pounds.| Bushels.| Pounds.
On| Penimosti@Manne No: 25)i 2-2: cee. 5. 9.1 880 4.8 910 7.0 895
19 | Russian (N. Dak. No. 155).....-....--- 8.9 730 5.2 830 Cal 780
MANGO TINY TEM Dats erates ete eiel=aaieeia's ese leieie = — 11.4 880 2.8 710 Uoal 795
1 | Select Russian (N. Dak. No. 608).-.-.--. 10.6 1,130 3.3 630 7.0 880.
3 | Select Russian (N. Dak. No. 1215)..... 2, 940 5.6 910 8.4 925
The highest average yield of flax obtained on the Belle Fourche
Experiment Farm, 8.4 bushels per acre, as shown in Table XXI, was
produced by the Select Russian, C. I. No. 3. This variety produced
the highest yield in 1913 and was only slightly exceeded by one other
variety in 1912. C. I. No. 3 is a pedigreed strain from the North
Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, being North Dakota No.
1215. The yields of the four other varieties which were tested both
years were practically the same, being 1.3 or 1.4 bushels less than
that of C. I. No. 3.
DATE-OF-SEEDING TEST OF FLAX.
A date-of-seeding test with Primost (Minnesota No. 25) flax was
conducted at Newell in 1912 and 1913. Fiftieth-acre plats replicated
three times were sown on each of two dates, May 15 and June 1,
in 1912, and on three dates, May 2, May 23, and June 9, in 1913.
The yields of grain and of straw and the weight per bushel of the
grain from the various dates of seeding are shown in Table XXII.
The highest yield in 1912 was obtained from the later date of
seeding, June 1. The increase in. yield over the sowing made May 15
was about 25 per cent. ‘The earlier sown plats were injured by
drought to a greater extent than the plats sown on June 1. In 1913
this condition was reversed. The highest yield was produced from
the earliest sown plats and the injury from drought increased with
the later dates of seeding. It is probable that the best results will
be obtained in western South Dakota if flax is sown at the earliest
date when good germination and growth may be expected.
40) BULLETIN 297, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TaBLE XXII.— Yields of flax and weight of seed per bushel in a date-of-seeding test on the
Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1912 and 1913.
| Yield. | Weight
Date of seeding. | of seed
Grain. Straw. | bushel.
1912. | Bushels. | Pounds. | Pounds.
1 oy 9 is Seer es ets ine eee Cee et See jo oe ie Bee 8.3 1,020 55.0
ABD i ays 3A lester eae cs Die haan Sa oD A ee ee OT een ayes! Beek 10.6 1,860 54.3
1913
MaDe Set Siac. Beare = eae ane See 5.2. oe a ee ee ee eee 7.7 1,110 54.8
May, 23 Ree! ai Meee ae 3 Yt | SRR ae vena me ome 4.8 830 55.0
JUNE OV ee Sia as ee eee Sa EE fa ep Ses a eee Eee 3.0 530 | SS
SUMMARY.
The experiments here reported were conducted on unirrigated land
on the Belle Fourche Reclamation Project at Newell, S. Dak., from
1908 to 1913.
The results obtained at Newell are believed to be applicable in
general to western South Dakota, northeastern Wyoming, and south-
eastern Montana.
The experiments were conducted on a heavy, impervious clay soil
known as Pierre clay. This soil is quite typical of the locality.
The average precipitation during the six years was 13.41 inches.
The average precipitation during the growing season for small grains,
March to July, inclusive, was 7.76 inches. The minimum precipita-
tion for the growing season and for the year was recorded in 1911.
On the average, satisfactory yields were obtamed from winter
wheat and fairly good yields from spring wheat. The returns from
spring oats, barley, and emmer and from winter rye and emmer have
not been sufficient to make these crops profitable. Total or almost
total failures of all crops were recorded in 1911 and 1912.
The best average yields of spring wheat have been obtained from
the durum varieties, Kubanka and Arnautka. Of the spring common
wheats, the best variety to grow appears to be the Power Fife.
The best rate of seeding for durum wheat is from 4 to 5 pecks to the
acre and for spring common wheat from 3 to 4 pecks.
The best varieties of winter wheat for western South Dakota are
the Kharkof, Turkey, and Crimean. These are very similar varieties,
which -differ only slightly in value.
Experiments to determine the best date of seeding for winter wheat
have failed to show any definite results. In general, the date of
seeding must be determined by the seasonal conditions. Medium
early seeding is to be preferred if there is sufficient moisture to insure
germination.
It is much better to grow winter wheat than spring wheat in the
Belle Fourche section. The average yield of Kharkof winter wheat
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE BELLE FOURCHE FARM, 41
for the six years was 21.2 bushels, of the best durum 11.8 bushels, and
of the best spring common 11.1 bushels.
The best average yields of oats for the six years were obtained from
the Sixty-Day and Kherson varieties. The returns from this crop
were much lower than from winter wheat and slightly lower than
from spring wheat.
The best rate of seeding for small-kerneled early varieties of oats,
such as the Sixty-Day and Kherson, is about 6 pecks to the acre.
The returns from barley were even less satisfactory than those from
oats. The best average yield for the six years was only 10.7 bushels,
and for the five years from 1909 to 1913, only 9.7 bushels. The most
satisfactory varieties are those which mature early, such as the 6-
rowed varieties, Gatami and Odessa, and the 2-rowed variety, White
Smyrna.
The yields obtaimed from winter rye and from winter and spring
emmer have been much lower than those from the other cereals.
These crops can not now be recommended for western South Dakota.
The best yield from flax in a 2-year test was obtained from the
Select Russian variety. It is probable that the best results will be
obtained if this crop is sown as early as good germination and
growth may be expected.
The following varieties are recommended for the Belle Fourche
section:
Winter wheat.—Kharkof, Turkey, Crimean.
Spring wheat.—Kubanka durum, Arnautka durum, Power Fife, Marquis.
Oats.—Sixty-Day, Kherson.
Barley.—Odessa, Gatami, White Smyrna.
*
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PUBLICATIONS OF U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE TREATING OF
CEREAL PRODUCTION IN NORTHERN GREAT PLAINS.
AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION.
Cereal Experiments at Dickinson, N. Dak. Department Bulletin 33.
Experiments with Wheat, Oats, and Barley in South Dakota. Department Bul-
letin 39.
Spring Wheat in the Great Plains Area. Department Bulletin 214.
Oats in the Great Plains Area. Department Bulletin 218.
Barley in the Great Plains Area. Department Bulletin 222.
Crop Production in the Great Plains Area. Department Bulletin 268.
Cereal Experiments at the Williston Substation. Department Bulletin 270.
Sixty-Day and Kherson Oats. Farmers’ Bulletin 395.
Oats: Distribution and Uses. Farmers’ Bulletin 420.
Oats: Growing the Crop. Farmers’ Bulletin 424.
Barley: Growing the Crop. Farmers’ Bulletin 448.
The Smuts of Wheat, Oats, Barley, and Corn. Farmers’ Bulletin 507.
Durum Wheat. Farmers’ Bulletin 534.
Winter-Wheat Varieties for the Eastern United States. Farmers’ Bulletin 616.
Growing Hard Spring Wheat. Farmers’ Bulletin 678.
Varieties of Hard Spring Wheat. Farmers’ Bulletin 680.
Winter Wheat in Western South Dakota. Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 79,
Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. Separate 649, Yearbook, 1914.
The Work of the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1912. Miscellaneous Papers.
Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 119.
FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS.
Wireworms Attacking Cereal and Forage Crops. Department Bulletin 156. Price,
5 cents. 5
The Prevention of Stinking Smut of Wheat and Loose Smut of Oats. Farmers’
Bulletin 250. Price, 5 cents.
Commercial Status of Durum Wheat. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 70. Price,
10 cents.
Improving the Quality of Wheat. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 78. Price,
10 cents.
The Loose Smuts of Barley and Wheat. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 152.
Price, 15 cents.
Cereal Experiments in the Texas Panhandle. Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 283.
_ Price, 10 cents.
Dry-Land Grains for Western North and South Dakota. Bureau of Plant Industry
Circular 59. Price, 5 cents.
Suggestions to Settlers on the Belle Fourche Irrigation Project. Bureau of Plant
Industry Circular 83. Price, 5 cents,
43
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D.C.
AT :
10 CENTS PER COPY
V
N, BULLETIN No. 298 4
‘ ba OX
Contribution from Office of Markets and Rural Organization
CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief
Washington, D. C. Vv August 31, 1915.
PEACH SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1914."
By Weis A. SHermAN, Specialist in Market Surveys; Houston F. Watker,
Scientific Assistant; L. HpErBErRt Martin, Assistant in Market Surveys.
CONTENTS.
ENfrOdUe hloWene=: esas see sada oh sacce~ cece er 1 | Wiorkqunderiway,.scc--s0ss-c-is0 sdacce sce 7
PrelimMinany IAQ UINy eee = ferric sls ncl\sino cis a= 3 | Brincipalishipping, States. .2.---4------c=e. 7
Second inquiry—sources of information....-- 3° | ixplanationionmapecsscesce scene ssiee ceases 8
Meship ping S6aASOM ss... see ece ee -se ce sss 3 | Prospective shipments for 1915....-.........-. 8
Areas of commercial production..........--.- 5 | Peachashipments, 1914 yee aise atelete sielaieie 9
Presentation! Of dataisc spi ccisismicins ieee 6 |
INTRODUCTION.
Peaches, bemg among the most highly perishable crops, present
many difficult marketing problems. A large part of the crop must
be transported over long distances to find profitable markets, bemg
handled under refrigeration in insulated cars especially constructed
for the transportation of perishable commodities.
In many sections large orchards have been planted and careful
study has been given to the best methods of propagation, pruning,
cultivation, and general care of the trees, so that there are perhaps
few crops to which more scientific methods are applied so far as
production is concerned.?
_ Much attention recently has been given in certain sections to
erading and packing, but in most localities these two essentials in the
successful marketing of peaches are not receiving the attention they
deserve. All growers should realize the importance of taking the
greatest care in the preparation of this crop for market. When the
1 About 95 per cent of the reports of shipments listed in this publication were furnished by railroad
officials, to whom grateful acknowledgment is made for their courtesy and assistance.
2Gould, H. P. Growing Peaches: Sites, propagation, planting, tillage, and maintenance of soil fertility.
(Farmers’ Bulletin 631.) Growing Peaches: Pruning, renewal of tops, We ciRIalLS interplanted crops, and
special practices. (Farmers’ Bulletin 632.)
NotEe.—This bulletin is of general interest to peach growers, shippers, dealers, transportation companies,
_ and consumers.
4519°—Bul!, 298—15——1
\\
»
2 BULLETIN 298, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
grading is carefully performed and the packing is standardized and
rigidly inspected, peaches will be much more profitably marketed in
almost all cases.
Most of the crop is marketed in containers holding from one-third
to 1 bushel, the size and kind of contamer varymg with the section
of the country from which the peaches are shipped. In the West the
peach box holding approximately 20 pounds is used; in the South-
west the four-basket crate, six-basket crate, and bushel basket; in
the Central States Climax baskets, half-bushel and bushel baskets;
and in the East and South six-basket carriers, half-bushel and bushel
baskets.
‘The large number of varieties of peaches that may be grown suc-
cessfully in some sections tends to prolong the period within which
they can be marketed profitably. By planting a proper assortment
of varieties the peach season in any particular locality can be extended
somewhat, but as the picking season for any one variety is very short
and as the principal commercial orchards are planted largely to
Elbertas the commercial shipping season in these districts is very
short in proportion to the large percentage of the total crop which
they produce.!
The peach, on account of its very perishable nature, must be
marketed as soon as possible after reaching maturity; therefore, the
proper dispatch and distribution present many difficulties. Peaches
will not stand delay, even when graded, packed, and handled in the
best possible manner. If the grower of apples is not satisfied with
the price offered at the time of harvest, he can store certain varieties
until the followmg spring, when prices may be better. Peaches, on
the other hand, must be disposed of immediately. If not already
sold when loaded on the cars they must be started at once toward the
market, and if they are not sold while en route it is important that
they go to a market not already overstocked. An oversupply may
occur in one market meaning heavy losses to certain growers, while
at the same time consumers may be paying high prices in other
localities. It is probable that many smaller towns could serve as
carload distributing points if local dealers in these towns would
cooperate in buying peaches by the carload and in pushing their sale.
The problem of peach marketing is one of irregular production and
of unsatisfactory preparation and distribution rather than of over-
production. The increased consumption of California oranges made
possible by effective distribution is an example of results accruing
from care in the marketing of a crop of which there is a comparatively
uniform supply.
1 Gould, Hi. P. Growing Peaches: Varieties and classification. (Farmers’ Bulletin 633.)
PEACH SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1914. 3
PRELIMINARY INQUIRY.
Previous to the marketing of the 1914 crop inquiries were sent out
by the Office of Markets and Rural Organization to station agents at
all points from which peaches were believed to be shipped in full
carloads, and also to every cooperative organization listed by the
department. These letters asked for a record of the actual number
of carloads shipped in 1913, an estimate of the probable shipments
in 1914, lists of important growers and shippers of peaches, the extent
of the peach-shipping season in each district, and other information
bearing on this subject.
Numerous data were gathered regarding the movement of the 1913
crop, the information being summarized from these inquiries and
from many letters which were written to develop certain special
features that arose during their tabulation. Only very general results
of this investigation were made public, as it was felt that 1t was not
sufficiently complete to warrant a separate publication.
SECOND INQUIRY—SOURCES OF INFORMATION.
After the shipping season of 1914 the inquiry was renewed. In
addition to the sources already mentioned, the general railroad officials
and others known to be interested largely in peach distribution were
consulted. As a result this office has received definite reports on the
shipments during 1914 from 993 shippiig points at which peaches
originate in car lots and a statement from the transportation and
shipping agencies as to the number of carloads shipped from nearly
all of these stations in that year.
It is somewhat difficult to obtain a statement of shipments in many
localities. This is particularly true in territory surrounding the lakes
and bays, where many of the shipments are made by boat to markets
located comparatively near to point of origin. It has been found
extremely difficult to get a statement from the many small boat lines
which handle considerable quantities. In fact, with the facilities at
hand it seems impossible to secure complete and accurate records for
this class of business. Catawba Island, Ohio, is an important com-
mercial peach section, and all the shipments are made by boat.
Many shipments to Portland, Oreg., also are carried by boat. So far
as possible, these figures have been obtained and reduced to equiva-
lent carloads.
THE SHIPPING SEASON.
The peach season, when considered for the whole United States,
extends from the middle of May, when shipments begin in Florida,
to the latter part of October, when they end in the northern States.
California, with its diversified climate and great number of varieties
4 BULLETIN 298, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
of peaches, probably has the longest season, i. e., from the middle of
May to the end of September. The following diagram (fig. 1) shows
[came deer |
[Sec Sn a0
SOUTH CAROLINA.
CALIFORNIA
ALABAMA
{eel
LOUISIANA
DEERE Ta
___ ARKANSAS
OKLAHOMA
NEW MEXICO H
ae)
WEST VIRGINIA
TENNESSEE oa
: OREGON
COLORADO
V/RGINIA
WASHINGTON
eae al
‘NDIANA
NEW JERSEY
[SReRRTE a
MISSOURI
[eerrmets fine |
See)
J4LLINOIS
semen ee
MARYLAND
[ann MARYLAND
Fig. 1.—Peach-shipping season.
in detail the comparative shipping seasons of the different States.
On the opposite page will be found a diagram (fig. 2) showing the
comparative volume of shipments from the leading areas.
PEACH SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1914. 5
AREAS OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION.
A glance at the map (fig. 3) shows that the use of State names to
designate commercial peach areas is often misleading. In certain
cases it leads to useless subdivision of a single continuous producing
area. Such is the case when we speak of the West Virginia, Maryland,
and Pennsylvania peach areas separately, for the bulk of the ship-
ments from these three States comes from a few contiguous counties
forming a rather compact producing area extending from northeastern
West Virginia through western Maryland and southern Pennsylvania.
7) 500 1000. /500 2000 25098 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 CARS
RB GEORGIA
SEESES CAL/FORNIA
WASHINGTON
Za M/CH/IGAN
3 COLORADO
WEST V/RGINIA
NEW JERSEY
mE UTAH
Das MARYLAND
ESE ARKANSAS
BEES PEWNSYLVANMA
Mig DELAWARE
mee /DAHO
BEER CONNECTICUT
Bs TL XAS
Gs /LL/NO/S
fam OREGON
Gasp VEW YORK
ESB M/SSOUR/
EB NORTH CAROLINA
HZ ALABAMA
MH NEW MEX/CO
@ KENTUCKY
B® TENNESSEE
BS OALAHOMA
B® SOUTH CAROLINA
@ V/RGINIA
Fic. 2.—Relative bulk of peach shipments in 1914.
This area could be accurately referred to either as the Central Appa-
lachian or Kastern Mountain district.
There is no geographical nor economic reason for distinguishing the
shipments of central Alabama, central Georgia, and South Carolina
by their respective State names. ‘The greater part of the commercial
crop of these three States is produced in what is essentially a single
commercial area. North Georgia and southeastern Tennessee consti-
tute a rather distinct district with somewhat later shippimg dates,
which, geographically, should be known as the Southern Appa-
lachian or Southern Mountain district.
6 BULLETIN 298, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Delaware and New Jersey peaches are properly so called, since the
shipping district in each case covers a large part of the State. Com-
mercially, however, they constitute essentially one crop, all produced
under similar climatic conditions and naturally supplying the same
markets.
The Michigan, Ohio, and New York peach-shipping regions could
be more accurately described as the Lake Michigan, Lake Erie, and
Lake Ontario districts. In each case heavy shipments originate
chiefly in a narrow belt close to the lake and are confined to a very
small part of the agricultural area of the State.
Missouri peaches are not essentially different from the bulk of the
Arkansas and a part of the Oklahoma crop. Most of the shipments
of the three States could fairly be called Ozark peaches. Texas has
a distinct shipping area in a region of lower altitudes and earlier
season.
Colorado as a whole is not a peach State. It has an important
shipping area, but it is almost wholly confined to two counties.
If the commercial movement of the peach crop of the country is
to be reported daily with a degree of accuracy which will assist
materially in its distribution and marketing, the chief shipping areas
should be grouped somewhat as follows:
(1) Southeastern—Including the Carolinas, Georgia, Florida,
Alabama, and eastern Tennessee.
(2) Southwestern—Including Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, Okla-
homa, and Missouri.
(3) Eastern—Including Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland,
Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, and Connecticut.
(4) New York.
(5) Lake distriets—Michigan and Ohio.
(6) Mountain districts—Colorado, Utah, and New Mexico.
(7) California.
(8) Northwestern—Including Washington, Oregon, and Idaho.
It would be logical to include New York shipments in the Lake
district, but the trade is accustomed to think of the New York crop
as a separate unit in the national supply.
The suggested grouping provides for practically all car-lot move-
ment except from a few localities of minor importance in Kentucky,
western Tennessee, southern Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and West Vir-
ginia. These points might constitute a ninth group—the Ohio
Valley.
PRESENTATION OF THE DATA.
The tabulated statement which is placed at the end of the bulletin
shows the peach-shipping stations, and the number of cars reported
as shipped from each point during the 1914 season, classified by
States and to some extent by shipping districts. No attempt has
PEACH SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1914. 7
been made to list stations where no full car lots originate. At those
stations where full cars do originate the less than car-lot shipments
have been ascertained so far as possible and reduced to equivalent
carloads, and are included in the figures shown. Some of these sta-
tions this year did not ship in full carloads. However, if they usually
are carload shipping points, they are still listed, and the amount
shipped is less than car lots has been inserted.
Certain stations which are ordinarily car-lot shipping points are
listed, although because of a failure of the crop no peaches were
shipped therefrom in 1914. As the peach crop often suffers from
extreme cold in the winter, or from frosts and other weather con-
ditions in the spring and summer, the shipments from large districts
may vary greatly from year to year. There are also certain pro-
ducing areas where many trees are beginning to come into bearing,
and this has a tendency to increase the shipments year by year.
For these reasons, the figures given for any particular point in 1914
may be either much above or much below the average shipments,
and this office has no authentic figures for the several preceding
_ years which can be used by way of comparison.
No attempt has been made to secure figures for peaches supplied
to neighboring markets by trucks or other similar conveyances, and
while it is recognized that large quantities are thus conveyed to
market, it is believed that these may be considered as purely for
local use.
WORK UNDER WAY.
A survey of this character presents many difficulties and the
department will gladly receive any suggestions in order that future
publications may be more complete. This compilation, the map
showing graphically the location of the important peach-shipping
areas, and the approximate date for shipments have been verified
as far as possible with the facilities at hand. It is believed to be the
most comprehensive statement of the commercial peach crop that
has been attempted, and is published with a belief that it will be
found immediately useful in marketing the peach crop in 1915.
PRINCIPAL SHIPPING STATES.
The 10 leading States in the shipment of peaches in 1914, each
showing shipments of more than 1,000 carloads, were as follows:
Shipment of peaches in 1914 by 10 leading States.
State. Carloads. State. Carloads.
(Gieea ary eies ea eee S 4,'803:'|) Colorad omemecse Cac eeie eee ape 2,075
Califonnia 2055 i252 ea SSS ge: 25,983 4|| Wes ae eee Yt ees EE ee 1,978
\Nieslnibaveg ones J ae ares sR a ane 22501). || Nie wadierseyermme esses oor a ee 1, 556
Ovitle, SB a Wee Memes CON Meehan: 2.340 || Cita eameenere EN CT OLE itn ari 1, 556
A TCENT eur ey ua eT a a DONA ||| ilaraylaiaal Sa gek oes Sle ge ee 1, 231
8 BULLETIN 298, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
EXPLANATION OF MAP.
The accompanying map (fig. 3) indicates the reported actual car-
load shipments of peaches in the season of 1914. Each dot represents
from 1 to 5 cars. For example, a county having two dots shipped
from 6 to 10 cars, and one having 20 dots from 96 to 100 cars. Me-
chanical difficulties have necessitated the grouping of the dots in the
county in which the shipping stations are located, although county
lines are of no significance as boundaries for shipping areas. In cases
where shipments are too heavy to be represented by dots, the counties
have been blacked in and the actual number of cars shipped are
given in figures. The size of the blackened area is not directly in
proportion to the quantity shipped, and in order to make exact com-
parisons the tabulation by stations should be consulted.
The reported dates within which the various areas ship are shown
by curved lines, all areas shipping at a given period being grouped
in a zone under a line representing that period. The map im this
way shows the various competing areas as well as the dates of heaviest
crop movement, although these dates are subject to considerable |
seasonal variation.
PROSPECTIVE SHIPMENTS FOR 1915.
Early in the season of 1915, or after the bloom had dropped and
the crop had set, estimates were secured of the prospective car-lot
shipments for 1915 from 571 shipping points in 28 States. In every
case the estimate was furnished by an official of a shipping organiza-
tion, by a prominent grower, or by some one specifically interested
in the crop. The total shipments from these 571 stations in 1914
were 22,877 cars. The estimatcs made indicated. a total of 43,623
cars in prospect for 1915, or an increase of 90 per cent. These figures
are not presented in detail because “June drops” reduced the pro-
spective crop of certain districts while later condition reports to the
department indicate that the shipments will not be as heavy as
expected in other localities. The fact remains, however, that as
this bulletin goes to press it is apparent that no important shipping
area, except Colorado, will have a notably decreased output com-
pared with last year, while many important districts will have very
greatly increased shipments. This is notably true of the Southwest
as a whole, of New York, and of the eastern mountain section.
The Bureau of Crop Estimates reported the condition of the peach
crop of the entire United States on July 1 at 73.1 per cent of a normal,
as compared with a 10-year average July 1 condition of 56.1 per cent
of normal; from which figures a production forecast is made of
58,328,000 bushels this year, compared with a final estimate last year
of 54,109,000 bushels.
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4519°—Bull, 298—15.
JULY 154 OCT. 15
(To face page 8.)
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Fra. 3—Map showing peach shipments in 1914. Each dot represents five carloads, or fraction thereof, The black areas represent the number of carloads indicated by figures.
PEACH SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1914. 9
These figures refer to the entire crop including those areas which
are close to market and which do not contribute largely to the car-lot
movement. They also include all fruit produced for canning and
evaporating and the enormous aggregate which is produced in home
orchards and for strictly local consumption.
It appears reasonable to assume that a large part of the indicated
excess over the production of 1914 will appear as added commercial
shipments this season. This indicates that there will be a much
larger proportionate increase of shipments than of total production.
The best-informed marketing organizations and distributing agen-
cies are anticipating for the country as a whole one of the heaviest
commercial peach movements in the history of the industry.
PEACH SHIPMENTS, 1914.
All numbers which are marked with an asterisk (*) are estimates, based upon the
shipments for 1913, figures furnished for the 1914 crop previous to its being marketed,
and estimates for the 1915 crop. Figures jor the actual shipments in 1914 from these
stations have not been obtained. ;
ALABAMA, ARK ANSAS—Continued. ARKANSAS—Continued.
(June 20 to Aus. 1.) | Carloads. Carloads.
GANDA Gailhamyes s2 2 5... eee 1RO 4. CabiniCreeka=s- 2-4-2 ee 13.0
Wy pe Wialdosieus:< .. eee THON Marazine <= eee 11.3
OOS iia ee Sin Sac geeeeeEoe soucec BO NMEAN TUS = 2.00 fo eeten vets 11.0
I eAGIOUN Es a) sen ENG) Page : 5 :
0 16.5 Grannis’ <0... 2 eee BOM eb mM enivall eee ees 10.0
ee OOF Sas ac aaa ae sy | eta eee =e: Bo uGentenville: see 9.0
a = SO RY gn} eee ne 0 Menaey4.. 22.2 5.2) dO ZATK ss oats Sans eee 9.0
a eas ie 50 IBIOVINS? ce: eee Sian) Wada bh Ss bo celSace 9.0
Th a SERS Seca 4 MAES TNACKOVCh=<..-. eee eeree eouebellevillessceeeeeeeee one 8.0
QUEEN ta Sar ears me eristersc:. >... eee ROU ACK etta tener ease. 8.0
Monte ayme: ja. 2. ~~ .)--!- 250) he i
Comdeni\\:: 2.2504 eee OM een Coline a near aero 8.0
PPevenpale ie =. --.-- - 2.0 i
C Me MOLE os. cee eee SOM Go pring dalessen see essee= 8.0
Pome Sc ioc Hesttatfield.....:..0 setae POW eACticins = seme mae me 7.5
IDB ONT). Se poco 1.0
3 Ope 22-2 55-se nee OM CAD DSS aecmeciwer cies cee 7.0
Witenes es 5e255--% 1.0 : fs
Camp Hill meiMaonolia,....... coer eee AUMPISEN hee Sete Mee ent 7.0
a a es eon ; Mineralt:.22¢. A262 ones OM pears tm anes eee ere 7.0
eGenini7 26° te ePatmosea- 5c AO GONURV Att cae eerie 6.0
State total_.-.-..-.. 14i05)} Rosboro...-..---2-2225 BOM stu bertyeeeeoee see eee 5.0
- WGSSON)..\....-<- cee cee ADI WNOWALK ec coz Casi sciese 5.0
ARKANSAS. Wan Duzer... 02.6 eeee SO) || Imbodens.-.2=-22224=-4 4.5
a NWHCKGS: . 2 .)¢-../ See ¥(0)]) Ravenden..- 2.22.22... 4.5
(SOUTHWESTERN SECTION.) ——
Total: 23.3 194. 2 eee BT can meme einer ce p
(July 1 to Aug. 25.) Sa | Eee aetna 4.0
Wiav.elan des spee sae 4.0
apis diseees 2-252. -.- 75.5 (NORTHERN SECTION.) Cliisa ic. eee ee 3.3
IN ASHIVHI GM ses S555. 32.0 , rl bergs ae ee 3.0
BORAT OE 5-5. == -)5/5 - 18.0 Guly 10\vo Sea Decatur css nea 3.0
Kmroxyilles =. 4.2 =. T5COR ROA ae. 5 le oes 99.0 Bilsck ROCKO ee eee 1.0
Sip Nits ae ee 10200 |e Pardanelle\2.- 22 aaeene AON Conway eee eee 1.0
JAR TI Vane ee aaa ee NOs | wAtlria a 8 2 5. pele iG; (| Pabyssanathatie eed oe wee see 1.0
De Queen.....-........- 7.5} Russellville. ......-.-.--- 3123") "Tonesboroii.. 22s sue 1.0
Sunetion: City... 2552... GlONNClanks ville: 22: 22252eeeee 30.0] Mile Post No. 130....... 1.0
Welneut sae o eet NY ASO Coal El: = eee eae 28.0 Mountainburg Ne a ce 1.0
VOraTION ses. 6222282 ac0ll ilexarkana.. - eee 25 SOM yes ss ean mee 1.0
Mineral Springs...._...- 2aSmECushinan!.- 2. --seeeeee D3 FD WAT OCA eee oe ful Gee alee LF
Buena Vista. -...22.---- 2.0) || WigyrebhiOrN eae oeecacactc- 21.0 | Booneville.............. &
Mockeshburg sas 22432-s25: DRS a WALTON. oo. eee TGVOM Dyer e..2 223085. 1c 5
; Whidesterms <2. 4. 4422525 TOROS IC 520s 4. yh ee 1550) Greenland: -ss5 sane 2-2: a
DICT) Joanie aerated ISOM MRVOSerS!s.':2 <26 2) eee Sto meebancaster-eseere nee =e 5
eet
10 BULLETIN 298,
AREKANSAS—Continued.
Carloads.
PMontitownl 2 eys25. se
Bellfontes=s.s2-8 222 =.
Boarryavalles Saas css see
Green Forest...........-
Mammoth Spring.......
Prairie Groves. -- ssc
Barberest ee cenekcccnee
Ba tavaar: sect s Seek le es
Bentonville ces 25 eee
SCL SMa eet a nee
Blue Mountain. ........
Wentertonec.ss-eeceeos ss
Chapman: 22 --ssssc.ce
@harlestone saeco ecine ais
Doniphan 2. se wie 12226
Harmineton «. -ossc0- 2.
Hayettevillen...2.cecces
Welker. is sheet ee
Garfield 322 ser eee
Greenwoodeenoa-s2. ene
ELA TRISONees sas eeen
12 Gea call GRE eee eae se
ELE WASSCO) oases
Huntington sess. see
JOHNSON easy oa
Marsnallseasse css asaee
Mile Post No. 115.....-
IPI BINN VAG Wiertaiae aie eee
SChaberges Sessa n wees:
Siloam Springs......-..-
SMLELtZenssss ae eee
SPrINstOWMss2 s2ssalaes
Steelevees anisms scene
SulphursRock asst: ss
Sulphur Springs. .......
RWiCSL PHOT Kei terse Senns Le
AWWAINSLOWitee anys ass
Mota eee xemc cease 622. 2
State totals 22525252. 816. 4
CALIFORNIA.
(May 25 to Oct. 1.)
INS WiCaStlOspeiscenceticeee 571.0
OOMIS selec nce eee 365. 0
Sihatey) deat aap S Mae eae 310.0
Kan ESD Ure neers 250, 0
Selimaetess = ee ee A ae 200. 0
POnr Vso ets seg eee 162.0
Cucamonga) es once e 148. 0
Rarliont<s cote semen aoe 143.0
WNT OL See ate levaratarcicstel cio 141.0
Gominges ateeistactens 123.0
ITOSTIO)s ce telce eee 68. 5
Wrointerstesc. cco 88 ee 55. 0
Delp Rayeeeneciceceninen 43.0
Timlares 5 Ae esteem ce 43.0
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF
CALTIFORNIA—Continued.
Carloads.
Clovis 22 312 eee 40.0
PATI DUT ase toe eee ess 38.0
Hanford’: ess seen ee ae 30.0
Dinuba..... Peas saa ee 28.0
Gey nee as ieee Ss a A tee 28.0
Howler. oss Aaa ea 20.0
Reedley 22 aa) eee 13.0
Sultanapeee se ese 12.0
Yuba.Citysoe-eeepses. 12.0
Cutler. 2252 eee 11.0
Riverbank. 23 eee 11.0
SUISUN sass eee ee 10.3
Oleandér-2222o ee 10.0
Denair 222 Hse: weer 8.0
Pasadenas24efe ease. - 8.0
Swall . . 22052 sae See 8.0
Hemet .-egsc eee en as 7.0
Lincoln. 22s eeeeen ees 7.0
Oakdale... 22ers. 7.0
Oakland 23a: senshi nes 7.0
‘Amderson2 ee ates 5.0
Guinda 2.23. ep 4.0
LOMA: 2:2 cas eee 4.0
Sevilles: f.020ace cee se sc 4.0
Wettem 4.5 4 ores 4.0
Corn walle <3 pee sacs 3.0
os; Angeles .sseeeeae 3.0
Wisaliai. 22 22fse sere ase 3.0
ANTIOCH. 4 saan 2.0
Bowles sense sass aeee 240)
Merced saci sacs anes see 2.0
Watons 2422224 geese 2.0
Monmouth eaacaneeeacee 2.0
Win COMMS 5 Se eas eee see 2.0
Corona. sasha sec eaeeere 1.0
Mileyau ss ssosanie ses 1.0
Stock: tones aera 1.0
IWiOOdSDrO sions as eee 1.0
State total’ <1 seseee 2,983.8
COLORADO.
(July 15 to Oct. 1.)
Palisade. \.ssssseaseeeee 1,096.0
PROMID. =... aseiceee eee 405. 0
Clifton.3.23e5.es eee 211.0
Eotchikiss =. jess eee 152.0
ACUSTIN icc Cosas Senet 78.0
Delta... sau sere 73.0
Wuazeari. Sylora 23.0
Montrose). -7-)-eobeeeeeee 16.0
Grand Junction........-. 15.0
Grand Valley....----.-- 5.0
Sitios vc gacuetecemen eee 1.0
MTUite .. Seas e eee .0
State totalecosseecue 2,075.0
CONNECTICUT.
(Aug. 10 to Oct. 10.)
East Wallingford....... 225.0
iV Wiallinyford: =... aseeees 69.0
Middlefieldis=-2s-asaene 23.0
Yalesville...:. J. ccesece 22.0
AGRICULTURE,
CONNECTICU T—Continued.
Carloads.
Tracy... .d.c22 sneer 14.0
Meriden << 3... :2eseeneee 13.0
South Glastonbury....- 11.0
Deep River. . s-2s ee oeee 3
Berlin, 3. cceee eee 0
Cheshire) S22 -22 se eee 0
arming ton eeeeoeeee -0
Highwood). 2.c22-eceee 0
New Britain'=: /. 22252 0
State total. 22ss2ee= 377.3
DELAWARE.
(Aug. 1 to Sept. 15.)
Wyoming: .. 2 .sseseee 244.0
Bridgeville... s2s-2essees 67.0
Seaford ....3.2% sceccerieste *50.0
Milford). 222 eee 24.0
Milton... 322s eee 21.0
Harring ton’_2 5. sees 7.0
Gincolnjt-s-s-eaaeenee 5.0
Ellendale s22an-s2cceeeee 3.0
Houston Station........ 2.0
Wioodside:tee-2eeseeenee 2.0
Farmington’... ss-scescee -5
Green Ww00d 6 at tose -0
Smyrna... -eeee eee 0
Statejtotalic-eeeoeemse 425.5
FLORIDA.
(May 15 to July 15.)
Seville... co cee eens 9.0
Wd gare > <2 cneeeeeeeeer 3.0
McMeokin =... sa.s-2sieeee 3.0
State: totaluec-=-eeee 15.0
GEORGIA.
(June 15 to Aug. 1.)
Fort, Valley22-scss20-see 1,526.0
Marshallville........:... 565.0
BYTON eee s eae eee 265.0
Lee Pope 5. s-se ac eeeeee 122.0
Warm Springs. <-<.-- 102.0
Reynolds's -eeeeeeee 96.0
A:dairsvallotecensceeeeee 94.0
Wioodburysce. eases 92.5
Trebor. sccasdte- eae ceees 84.0
Bradley<jeeeeesses eee 81.0
Zenithe sesseeeeee sees 80.0
Mount Auryeossces=eisea= 79.0
Cohuttasscneececesreree 77.0
GIGYio ence ee eee 70.0
Mayfield isi ..2-sccceeeeer 66.0
Kitchens Siding.......-. 55.0
Summonvllesesceeeeaee 54.0
Betts Siding eseeacesaa 53.0
Hartleys: |: \:cncneeenenees 53.0
Bald with... ceeeeneee 50.0
Comelia: . css.eetee one 50.0
AMeriCUS). 5s. «eee 48.0
Montezuma.........-... 47.0
Red) Clay,..2.<scceneueee 40.0
PEACH SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1914. Pek
GEORGIA — Continued. GEORGIA—Continued. | TLLINOIS.
Carloads. Carloads. (Aug. 1 to Sept. 20.)
Slappeys Siding. .....-- 4050) |pevviellstoneyiss-s22- sees 4.0 £
Uf aS) .c Sone eRe 36:0) | West Lake.........:.58 ON obden ae
uichlan deere aese oes sc BONO) Newnan. -c...c22-seeee 3.5 Alto Dhak Dhaba 2 yin is MA 4
i yilliamsonvee) see 25: 8220) (Cuthbert... 4.25. eeeeee 3.3 OME rec nnnte | best ‘4
Wilsons Mill .........-- 3200) \eAlISton Spur... 2 eeere 3.0 Rapes en sae A a oF 5
IONS GCI ose OceseaaEeee 26:0) |) Ball Ground. <2. 2ess- 3.0 W. alnut Hill Rnbe) Roane a 7 i
AUN OMSONB ease ses = = seer 26:0: Chambers. o... . 3. 28eee 3.0 Rae cet 1G F
EIS OLO sete ese eice el 2040))| Commerce: oc... -eseeme 3.0 onan a. Se inasan a ;
PROTICOLA eres ci atcecieis(a2 2400) Gainesville: - 2. uae 3.0 Kell Tits aint a '
Cleveland aes aneccc--- 2350))|\"Hollywood.... =. ..sebene 3.0 a IRIN SRL xt
IR@WONIG . so ccboseoueeeee 2300 wPersiconee....- ose 3.0 Sense Stigelcios ticle ihe
ILO s «6 AAA SES eee 2025) Bolingbroke. ..5. 22228 2.0 New Burnside.......... 8.0
IDES S a6 Guar Ogos see eeeae 2050) Cullodenzs.-'.. 5.2 --seee 2.0 Altamont. ...-..-.-....- =a
Keithsburgess2-2.5---- 2080" sD ennistpy--..\s..-- se aoe 2.0 Flora Fc Raat catia a 3-15
Wena: 3) Ses 20.0 | Greenville.............. 2 (), | MOSCA fe ais os ate
PAN TOM ten en er ee 1940) Harrisburg... asseeee *2.0 Pexico.......-..-.-.-.-. 5
Middleton. ...-. 2... ig4OhlMolenas 20s... .... ee 2,0 | Salem....,..--.-----.-:. a 0
MIDROI EAR ae ose eeeeee 19205) (elainwilles.—.::2\. heer 2.0 Stateitotalee uae swse 260.3
Mhomastones. css... 2-2 AGMON | ERVCCVESel.55) «<=. eee 2.0 SSS
(COmulng: sceaeeneneebeoe P70 RISIN ge aAWN .,.. .. eee 2.0 INDIANA.
(CRONE OS eee eeweabees On MWellardoe-c. 22: eee EVs 2.0
RioumdiOake 52.4)... 4. AO) Eaves... 2 seaeeee 1.5 (July 20 to Sept. 1.)
Univeter Sas Sa elton 1730) |MOrchardsktill: . 2. . eases ION ENitchell. un 2.0
Barnesvilless...----4--- 16. 0 Lyerly Wea te feeteseceess 1.3] New Albany...........- 2.0
IDEN 35 sak eaaecadac 15.0 | Arlington Vineyard..... XO EN Taniont ne: anne n eens 1.0
Heindeneee see eo a 15.0 Austell Seog 22 eee LO Spee eet wil ol To od. 1.0
ILI. Ssh Se eae 15.0 eines Ses oo 1.0 Claypool eae Mien 1a. a7- 0
Oakhurs theese. aces se L5SOM ME orsyithi-- 4. 72 =. coeeee 1.0 —
(GiGshswete eae ee 14.0 | Fort Gaines..........-- 1.0 State total.......... 6.0
HUETH MOOS # ee siseeicm ic sneer 1350) | blondy ke. =). 2-2 8eeeee 1.0
NAY EEN GASH Us re ec TSCOu| MACON os). ote 1.0 KANSAS.
UGS 00 hai So acne nee eaerSee AMON WNenas- 2-22.) See 1.0
Maniotioneeenene oss. se4- WOuwShannon--.---- sae 1.0 (Aug. 1 to Sept. 1.)
Silver Creek= =... -6:-- IOUS ofkee 2.7 2.) aaaaees ILO: NOuRA Sas qeconedenacacKiee 2.0
BOLE aeaee ic iceecre e oe(o 10.5 | Cave Springs. -../-..222 Onl eal wanlsseee see eee 3
Culvertoneee. 4-2-1 TOXO)|/ Dooling: - 25-2 eae aD
IRGHIG. 2. Saas eee 1ORON Meda sc. 2-25 2 ce ee eee a5 State total.......... 2.3
Biateswillons sp) 25s 2.2 Ox) ittone =.=). eee a5
TEMS ae a ar RuOUlWialden’ 4:02). ceeee eee 5 KENTUCKY.
MINER SHE se ase Sue wOouclasville: see eeeees at :
IROGMMBIMS - Ssesneooasee SxOMMitchell!.. ..- saaeeae 3 ey Ayo Sep se)
Siri ohimeeer eee ne =): 8.0 | Beall Springs. .......... BOM BLOOKS: sake spe eeeemee 26.0
ISITE PR es ce AOU Cantona... 22 seeecomee .0 | Shepherdsville. ...-...-- 26.0
HO MEGA Cepne Mees Fo © || Crnini bas Ramm oa hs Ob. « 40) Bowling Greens222 22222: 21.5
Mrentoneeeee&. fee. ! 7.0 =F | OU a ES ae o nace 20.0
SieweGn ad State total......2.2- RUB | aera ad Me oe TAT 9.0
Menlomeeie oe 6.0 Ceceliatcns sss <a ses tree 0
INORWOOM Es s2 2 5506: 6.0 IDAHO. Statotot alee ee 102.5
AM NOUNS soe aassoseaeHee 6.0 (Aug. 15 to Oct. 1.)
BS REMOM emer neni csiye: 5.0 :
®pltnevia. . <i h eeee 5.9 | Lewiston..--..-..------ 300.0 LOUISIANA.
Wallasey sonst t i 5.9 | Emmett.......-----.--- 77.0 (June 20 to Aug. 15.)
PICO ent Ais Rg) || PENN bedeedeeeacca cece 13.5
TRG oe Ry || CAME Seb eadacsccec tcc AON elev mes villonesenee een ae 5.0
Smyrna Mme neta! 5.0 IBN pe aemaemaaeocodsac 8). ID oper eee oe ee 4.0
Sparta..... ee ets 9) Fe) | alee ER Bee Secs ceo AON EAC kenin > =e seen 83.8)
Stevens Siding......_.. shies () ier oA. ves eerie ZO PASGHENS Ss wiser ase 2.5
MneRockae eee 5,0 | Boise. ------------ 22-85 On eelarnDealingsse asses eas 2.0
Herel ees 4,0 | Gooding. ---.-.---.--5-. EO MG tos Van dase eee -8
DATLOnM ene ge: 2) || WORDS espe eeaecoscdace Te) |) IDO eee ce caceeconne 0
MatOntone eG AL) || VGC Ree eee riccec On MEIN dens oye oie) eee 0
Hunters Siding......... 4.0 | New Meadows.........- (0) | ROO ee se auamae 4 0
Putnam.......-........ 4.0 State totalq--—aeeem 407.8 Siatetotalessseeee 17.6
Stone Mountain.......- 4.0
————————————
—
Wy BULLETIN 298,
MARYLAND.
(WESTERN SECTION.)
(Aug. 1 to Oct. 10.)
Carloads.
Smithsburg. 2-5. 22<-%.: 699.0
IPOLOMACH sree hernia cece 156.8
UAW Sete mises Aaeinee = 111.0
Hd cemonts ees es- =o 86.0
SDOCKCYSo2- + ecceeeeees 43.0
Chewsvillets..,...s2eeec5 21.5
Rohrersville- 0225 252s2 26 18.0
ET aN COCKiaenece cece 14.0
SpringiGapaenasssoceere 13.0
Cavetowls:.ccccseescee 12.0
Cohill eee ee ees tee 9.0
@umberlandseces-esccan 3.5
EASES LOSbecsrecicte fare siei=t= ab AO)
ELA cerstowil: - Sos-creee 3 2.0
WiOOUMON ba) ee eee 2.0
mMeerheld sei. os Sec 1.0
Mapleville..2- 2.232206 42% .0
Totals oes oie eke 1,194.8
(Bay SECTION.)
(Aug. 1 to Sept. 15.)
Pocomoke City...-.....- 30. 0
PrestOMe evs ts Sao rse 3.0
AWOLTON Ss Seeacnsac core 300
iNew? Windsorsecsse-e-2- 3
IB erin sage te eh eee ees Al)
Goldsboro: aieen secs .0
Mendersoni.s. 3222 22ee02- 0
Motale ers toseecee ccs 36.3
State total.......-.- 123 Ten
MICHIGAN.
(Aug. 1 to Oct. 15.)
Benton Harbor......-..- 1, 132.0
Colomass ia: ds... =. sess 334.0
Mennvillossccmeacepoueee 191.0
Eariiordeerasacceece as 116.0
SouthiHavens: sss. s-- 77.0
1iG 10) oC Se eee 70. 0
Shel byereee- cass -ec- ace 40.0
BATE ODE rseeinen ciscicecncs 37.0
WA COLA wes yocee eee sees 37.0
HWrankfortesssosec secs 35. 0
Watervliet. s-pacse neces 82.0
ALGIN StOM sa). else eee 27.0
Beulah’. Se jsacceeeee 16.0
INO WHET ot io)o2)- tees 10. 0
Sodus esas eee 10. 0
PIG P AT seca c scieisin<icietciate 9.5
12 eT eR anne aR 25 8.0
New Buffalo..........-- 8.0
HV CANS Peet fcro sess eisiclaae 7.0
iV ersideh. 825 os ceouee « 6.0
Onekama.....-- SRA ENOEIC 5.5
ATCA CIR = 2 ots aic eke eels 5.0
Grand Junetion......... 5.0
Manistee... 5.522 cne nie 5.0
U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF
MICHIGAN—Continued.
Carloads.
Hountalnass: sees eee 4.0 |
St. Joseph-/4:2ss555---05 4.0
Union Piero ase sess ss. 4.0
BIaVOs scene tac ease 3.0
Sawyer vse. sescnes3 ens: 3.0
Grant. cscs acesaeeee 2.0
Grand Rapids...2 25.2): 2.0
OWOSSOR ooh .sacnsieses ase 2.0
St. Johnseotsasesoceeoe 2.0
Bloomingdale........... 15
Traverse City. .<2ss2:s-- 5.
Wayland ..-s2s-sss5-2222 13
Birmingham: <s22222235. 1.0
Breedsville.-.: 252252222 1.0
Bridgman. 1252285. 55-\ 1.0
Clarkston Station....... 10
Detroit. sotsccicat acerca’ 1.0
Durand 2552s sssaseess-- 1.0
Eau Claire: +s25.2s222.2 1.0
Premont: 222 sc.c-nes 2% 1.0
GC. 222 esnescesset 1.0
PODTIGC. jose aseceece 1.0
Rothburyeeeessssseeee = 1.0
IROYal Oaks vansasdecce 1.0
Scottsvilles:..22222%2.4 uo
Stevensville............ Ab
Bailey conus see terior ce -3
Custer. jasc lua secet rts 38)
Almont sa45 oeeeeee eee -0
Brunswick: -5-ss-2...2~2 *, 0
CasnOVidessscscesee ene. .0
ree: Sollesscuecarssce cen -0
Harberti no sclsiecosoose *,0
Mowell’s ssssac8ssseccens .0
Ment Citys. ccseieceerise -0
Montague. 2s:.scsc0ce ons 30
Newark a) 7 a i5ccseicece -0
NGWSY 20a sac. se-teiercle 0
PAW RaW scenic socscees 0
Spartad 2252 sche seeceeee .0
Wihitehalliss ss x5 Se .0
State total.......... 2, 266. 9
MISSISSIPPI.
(June 20 to July 15.)
UmPomartte ae eee 9.0
Statewline x2 cece asecene 8.0
WMOSDULEeeeee- ee -eeeeene 5
State total.......... 78D,
MISSOURI.
(Aug. 1 to Sept. 1.)
KKoshkonong.........--- 45. 0
STANGSViILes eee 27.0
Waskins Spur..........- 16.0
Wlberta oss... -<nceeceere 15.0
ED OLTC Vente aiainjajieee eee 10.0
Olden 2a522 2. Ansa eeee 8.5
Marionville............. 6.0
Morest City 2. qussee cers 5.0
Saint Wilmore cesses see 5.0
Independence... ...-..-
heban onss-scese sees
Rushivillel.sssssesseeeee
West) Plains? j-csseeeeee
AGRICULTURE.
MISSO URI—Continued.
Carloads.
Cassville... > .2eeeeee 4.0
Mountain Grove.......- 3.9
(Pomona: =. sscsseeeeeeee 3.0
Cedar Gap... - -- 22s. eee 2.0
Oregon - oases eee 2.0
BExeter:.- -ssccecees eee 1.8
Selignvan:. 2.35322 o-seeee 1.8
Willow Springs........- 1.5
Blue Springs. /-)--.asss6 1-3
Cabool:......sasgeeeeeeee 1.0
TF orbes. 22255: ences 1.0
run ter. scene ee 1.0
Jefferson City: - 225-2055 1.0
Logan... 3.03 sceee 1.0
Monett ...s desc snc haseeee 1.0
SeyMour~ -5225522ee5s5 1.0
Wiashburn=:2ssssessese" 1.0
Diggins: - 55 45452540s5se ati
Mordland:..5 52 Sassen a0)
Hutton Valley.......... 5
Norwood. - $22ssss-ee86 i
‘Richmond s552ssses5-eee His
Rockport s.2 = 32234-2268 56)
Bois D? Are. -: 2225528 A)
Burnham 23252 25scesseee so
Doniphan : -.524224ssse0 583
Lanagan -.<s.5.55ssss4e- -3
Mansfield -. =: 5 S4sse0e8 .3
Thayer. ..<jsccasssseaes 3
Ash’ Grove. sasseeeeeeese .0
AULOLA. J sc-- 0 tesnsaoes .0
Branson soi sssecee eee .0
Hollister 22224 eee 0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
2
State total 22 2asses
NEW JERSEY.
(July 20 to Sept. 15).
Ammandale.........---
Hammonton.....--..--.-
Flemington...........--
Moorestowileia esses eee
Middletown..: .......-.-
Dandisvillees .cemseceaee
Califon= Sc ccns oc eee
Mount Holle 2. ~ cece
Glenwoodise. j.sscee ose
Vinblandiyecacusesmiaae
GISssDOLOs.scncnereee re
Main Avenue..........-
Somervillo:ce.se.2- eee
High Bridges sc-nestaee
Wheat Road........--.-
PEACH SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1914. 13.
NEW JERSEY—Continued ;
Carloads.
Poul lbhos) oe ee eeeeeeee=— 4.0
ielaimiiel dteerscr eae 3.0
RedsBanilgsers cen. n5s 2.0
iBloomsburnyes-o-4--- = 1.0
Greenwichteen ae s-.55-- 2 1.0
lamp tonee. je son 1.0
Masonvilleee-. <2 1.0
Egg Harbor City... ..-- 8
aNwuN EMatol. So Uo eae ee ae a
[SHUGEOSS: CEs Sakae .0
State total. ........- 1,556.9
NEW MEXICO.
(July 1 to Oct. 1.)
Marminetome =e. 5-.-2-- 83.5
Carlsbadereae erat cece *25.0
FAW LOC RES neat ee 12.0
Codarshilin = sesso 3.0
iB ernaillOee sees 2 a 250
AULOTAMVASTAR Rat 22s 2.0
JEGlNb< aoe ae eee 2.0
SUC ROL eee 130.0
NEW YORK.
(Aug. 20 to Oct. 10.)
Calvertones ts. 2o2 55 31.0
MORTON Sasser aoa 2 29.5
aVWalliamaisone=.-2--55---- 23.0
(OpiMliCil noaacccesesaaere 1555
Wyo lorahs le). pe aeeaseeee 15.5
LEEVOKGIR Se Se Bene eee 13.0
LIOUI 558 peesoeeseeeeeee 13.0
\CERAIOWGl: So eesoceesenee 11.0
Pochestensesse se cake kets 10.0
Reencalecer aoe 8.0
iskielbins a5 Sees 6.0
SUA OMe ee eee aces On
FAIS WO OGhss asc. 5 <3 2 sae 5.0
IBenmmpyganisersis.ce. ese 2) 5.0
PANIDIOM Bese nc a 3.0
TOME een st cee net 3.0
OGUSHee mer ieee cc. 3.0
NIV ETUC = le a 3.0
BROCK POL: 5: oe. 2% - 255
Ruloy GUO. ek a ie eee 9.5)
TBNOD es eee SE eee 2.0
ATiCheneas ry sae n=. 0 2.0
COGN ESA Lan see ee 2.0
IMDTNETES G5, Sate te ee a 1.5
Knowlesville............ 1.0
WO WaStOMee eee): 1.0
UGG NON A. Hee neel tee (Sielao
Eagle Harbor. ......_..- .8
MIN RCs Gee ena eee -8
G@Harlotterss 2. se case. Anes
LO by eRaVG la Cat Oe eee 33
Obani ase ss eet 3
AGG lens = Bee oes 0
EAD DICLOME ee esse eeecee 0
ibvienehGlescegecuccanusae 0
1 SUBIR SCA SO err a taa yaar
NEW YORK--—Continued.
Carloads.
East Williamson... -..-- -0
Milbertasas-2 ockece eee .0
Wlorid as eere nee eee *.0
Gasportosssaccc cee .0
Greecesig: jock ee .0
bichlandee/. sacar *.0
Eimrodsis22. ee eee .0
Junius Station.......... .0
end aia ase -0
OG ee iso EEE .0
Marl bonouss.. 222 eeee *,0
AY Do} OVI inet OIE A oe .0
Modeli@ity 22.222. hee .0
INewianes: is...) cheer .0
New: Milford... .2cs3as .0
INorthYyROSes.~ 6c eeeee .0
Ransomwville::- =ceeees *.0
Ripley ets Lees -0
Spencerport... .2_ 0 eae .0
Wimiongailss2-_ 22 ee .0
Wralcottss<c. .-\..--ceeeee .0
Walworth: = 2-2 leases .0
Wiaterport.....--ssceeee 0
Walsons.c2......- 2 SeSeeee .0
Youngstown........-<2- 0
Stateitotal’.- -s2eeeee 221.2
NORTH CAROLINA.
(June 1 to Aug. 15.)
INI ROG aeeeeGosee se 60. 0
Candori: Ss20) 5 SSeeee 47.0
Southern Pines. ..-.-.-- 22.0
Mount eAITy- 2... - eee 18.0
Eagle Springs...-....-.- 8.0
Canthages: 22... seeeeee 1.0
Mount Tabor. --42--eee .0
State total ossaeeeees 156.0
OHIO
(Aug. 1 to Oct. 10.)
GaypSumeer Seer 857.0
Danbunyies.- ieee eee 488.0
Oak Harbor: 22222 eeeeee 341.0
Port Clinton...... aes 250.0
Makesidelc. .4s: 2p oeeeee 114.0
Catawba Island....--2-- 112.0
HUACATNG2 oy... ee 101.0
Wiaterville:. .)-)..2 Sena 25.0
SOON Gea aia es 15.0
Berlin Heights.........- 10.0
Werm ihone2222 ceo een 7.0
GitlyS Ville: e222" eee 5.5
Cmeinnatiiie:42) eee 5.0
HraZzeySPUTE {eee ee 3.0
Waddle Bass: 222 eee 3.0
Middleport. 5-22 2-2 eee 2.0
@uaier City. == 2s eee 2.0
Madison 22.2. eee 0
aimesvilleses. 5:22 eee .0
Statertotales seers 2,340.5
OKLAHOMA.
(July 1 to Sept. 1.)
Cailoads.
Checotahie seer ese eee 33.0
Crescent eee Ne sees 7.0
DERG LASTS Bh ela cer nO 7.0
Wie tum kas ic 28 ees 7.0
Op ey ovopaarsy oe Lee Sul 5.0
MTISIKO PEO Hien eterna 4.3
IBS OVA COM a see 4.0
ME pert ees ena 4.0
Camenoneee ease eas 2.0
STO ee rae ene 2.0
Min Owe etapa 1.0
Sparks aw Ai Lae ea 1.0
DUUWel eae eee Se 1.0
TASK Olay neh ve We aay peli. .8
Dallisawpaeweesse eae er 40
JONES: Lee Aen case x3
MarnbleiGityee ne eeeer eee 4G)
Wynnevwood..........- 503
IAT GIMNOLC Hee hee eee 0
IBeSbIN |<. Keer eee .0
Cement ties ee 0
Chickashacs--2-2eeeee- .0
Chocktawin4s 5) 2hae 0
Coyle ia eee eee ree .0
Crowder eee -0
13) (eave eee RSs, .0
Hatz hu che een eee .0
Mletcherty- 4.22 aee eee 0
Fort Towson.........-- 0
Guthries 52 See eee eee .0
Rarrah' eee ace ee 0
awtoni\2 22. -2 eee .0
Mcloudiee-eeeeese eee .0
Mani fouzee eee ee eae 0
Meridian -2 hee eee 0
Mrulhall seep eee 0
Mustang hye eee eee a)
Oalkw00d sae reer eee eee 0
Panamaree eae ee wees .0
Park Elle seen eras .0
IBOLLy) 3. eee 50
Rushi Springsseeeseeceee (0)
Russe baer cease .0
SDECNCEn se mere see 0
Mahlequahis as seem ean .0
eacueme se eae ESSE .0
Watcher): usecase .0
NG) (; na ee RE ot 0
StAaLewovalece eee eee 80.5
OREGON.
(July 15 to Sept. 15.)
Phe yD alles: jain cecuee ee 160.0
Bree Water = eee aes 39.0
Salome) (ee oe aout ties 39.0
SVVid CONC ae ere ene 22.0
Mal COE Mec ae ee p eee 21.0
IBTOO KS ty ays a sos ems 13.0
wAgilehayel joe sk osbscesoes 12.0
Mier lina ee a ee es 12.0
IBLORAM eon eee eee 7.0
1 An equivalent of 25 cars, included here, was picked up by boats at landings along the Columbia River
within 40 miles of The Dalles
14 BULLETIN 298,
OREGON—Continued.
Carloads.
Grantspeasssessser aoa 4.5
IME CTOT die cecccic as susce 4.0
FRCLIMISTON See ~ a see 3.0
TLOOGRRAVCL se fee emo oee = 3.0
‘Dillardyeesesenes seers 1.0
Malenbras sss eee eee se 1.0
Brownsville..-......--- 5
Central Points 22s---5- ms)
Chemawa.e2. 2-2 eee 5
BHOCNIK- sc os 22 eee 5
Rogue Riven... sss 5 5
MOSIC? = 22/so eee 3
Statettotal=: 222s 244.3
PENNSYLVANIA.
(Aug. 15 to Oct. 15.)
Mid Valetta t seenecene ae 151-0
MUSbHULL Ss 4. -ate= e-ee 51.0
MASLON= 2 je eeece eae 50.0
Quincy ceas-e a eoeee se 45.0
Hcoand Sasa eee 40.5
LNG h ane ee eee * 40 0
Wialberis ss. oot sere 36.0
IWiayDeSDOLOs=. 2 ses ee 31.3
Mont AltOseesse eee sane * 12.0
NUCH IMASLEES Sc eee eee 11.0
Shippensburg......-..- 11.0
IBOYeLtOwl < oaceseoer se 10.0
Middleburg.........-.-- 7.0
Allentowileas.2 eo eeeees 6.5
Mechanicsburg.....-..-- iS)
Orwagsburg. 3523.22 4.5
iBethlehe meee eae eer 1.0
McKnightstown.......- 1.0
Orrtannaeteancee eee 1.0
Beavertown.....------- 0.5
Beaver Springs.....---- -0
Chambersburg.....-..-- a)
Fayetteville. --......--- .0
AM Woon lad bis ee Ao ene .0
State totale ssseenes 515.6 |
SOUTH CAROLINA.
(May 25 to Aug. 10.)
GlarksiHull-sss2cse concn. 24.0
Meriwether............- 20.0
Ridge Spring....--..-.. 17.0
Monettaen -. (22 oer sees 4.0
IBALOSDUTE Ae eee elses 2.0
Modocees 2 hiss t eee 2.0
IDeesvillo-. <.:.-2-cice sees 1.0
DOOUSLON- see. o- eee 0
State total: . 22-2. 70.0
TENNESSEE.
(July 15 to Aug. 15.)
Bale Creakec 25553282 25.5
Clovelande:= 525255. 2 5278 23.0
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF
TENNESSEE—Continued.
Carloads.
Daytone 2. saeco eee 13.0
Flarrim an eee eee eee ae 9.5
Vani Leerscaceeeee eens 6.0
Spring Cityseeceeeeee eee 4.5
Trentoneemas eeoeeerece 3.5
Tennessee Ridge.......- 3.0
Cumberland Gap.....-. 2.0
Lonei@alke = eis a acne 1.0
Bakéwell= 2.2222 seesmec .0
Greera 2552 eee ee -0
State wtotale sos: --2-- 91.0
(June 15 to Aug. 15.)
Athens asassseneacecte 56.0
Winona:cssssceeeeeiees 33.0
ATU’. SaoS Hs eeeeeeners 26.0
Collinsyillesssesesse ase 24.0
Tyler - eee eee oe 22.0
Hrankstonee-ceere ese 18.0
Arp ta: Sth eae eee ee 16.0
Hind ales a2 ee eeeeen ate 15.0
Sulphur Springs.......- 14.0
Peachlandii-= 22225-5221 12.0
Jacksonville =-= 3.222. - 125:
Mairchisone ses so22e—c 11.0
Morrill’. )-ee sees eases 9.0
IGONP Vie Wes Sasa eee eee 8.8
IAS he eS exes)-m cae ae cess 7.0
Mount Selman.......... 6.0
Wins DOLOsee-eeeme secon 6.0
BAR tCLe tack © see tote 5.0
Telmahiyie Shes eeeac sie 5.0
Brownsboro.:.-...-.---.. 4.0
GrandsSaline2e.-escsce- 4.0
Hendersonise= soe 4.0
Wane: fo tece eco e nae 4.0
Ogburnesse= ss aseeeeecee 4.0
iWihites boro=S-s-s-aeeeer 4.0
IPicktoneeesee a eee 3.0
Gilmert 322383 sees Zao
May delleswsee=--eeeme. +. 2.5
Beckvillececenceseeemecs 2.0
Pitts burgess ose 2.0
Tatum. 2: ssc neneceeees 2.0
Comoe a-sse- cee eee 15
Mount Pleasant......... isd
SWAT SE eae wiaciclelaeintenlere 1.3
Atlanitaoeses = o-eriecoeeies 1.0
Big ‘Sand yeesasecios ccs 1.0
Bullard ccese eee. 1.0
Coolkxvillens-secceeecees 1.0
Flint. (coco e eck 1.0
Hort Worth:ssseseses-. 1.0
Mrnitlandscee. eee 1.0
Owertoleccs sneer ie rs 1.0
Pritchettsa:t seco eeeee 1.0
Rhonesboro..........--- 1.0
Sactles22 522s Sees 1.0
Gratt'. 3.82: See eee .8
Grapeland::: S=teeesse=s 8
AGRICULTURE,
TEX AS—Continued.
Carloads.
Pottsboro.. <2 <ssssase=
Queen City ..2:. 2. 2-25
UTAH.
Brigham. -<..2--sesseee
PLrov0 scise oss eee e eee
Salt Lake City.......-.2
Corrine: <2. 5.5 cece
Dewey sess: savcscseeeeee
Woods) Crossi25esseecsee
Tremonton. .s---nesee
Honeyville...---.------
Collington' sss ---2-s-ees
Farmington.....--....--
State total
clocro oo oO OSC O OSC SOS OOOO OOOO OSD OOO HUW HWAAANODH
= —"
PEACH SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION IN 1914. 15
VIRGINIA.
(ALBEMARLE SECTION.)
(July 15 to Oct. 1.)
Carloads.
Crozetiaereesec ess ceases 17.0
Greenwood....---.-..-- 11.0
ING TOM Beene et aU sce sieie 1.5
Movaliaee sass t=. 29.5
(LoWER SHENANDOAH VALLEY
SECTION.)
(July 15 to Oct. 1.)
Stephenson.......-.---.- 11.0
Winchester......-..---- 11.0
Bish erspeull gegen see -- 5.0
Rileywilless-osee ==) 5.0
15 G thal) Voie oe soecoueenceee 4.0
Maurertown......------ 1.0
Wioodstock=s.-a-------- fi)
ClearpBrookkaee. 5. ------ 50)
NVONOTOeE mee cee e = sek ee .0
Sinasbuneseecees ees cae .0
Strasburg Junction. -.-. .0
WomspBrooke= ese. ----- .0
Motaliseeschsees: =): 37.8
State totals 2-2." - 67.3
WASHINGTON.
(July 15 to Oct. 1.)
Pan kre eee ses ces cc 583.0
iWrenatchees.----------- 400. 0
Donald)seeeevece 252 =- - 365.0
North Yakima-e 2. - 2). - 253.0
PAU EVS Sabo cneeeneecaeeeee 226.0
WASHING TON—Continued.
Carloads.
Kennewick........-..-- 166.3
Wiapatoteceeck. Suse 150.0
Buena sss ee aeus-jeeeee 61.0
IBishopmeseeseceae seeeee 41.5
Hanford ese. 220-2 sneer 33.0
Grand) Wiewie-eeen- cece 26.0
Ripariac cose sss sconces 25.0
WrhitevBlufisssec-.-asse 24.0
SUCOtHA See eee cee 22.0
PLOSSEL ele done sb cioceete 21.5
Cashmere’. :.5--=s-scesee 15.0
Creston d= <2 ajcja0esecsene * 15.0
SPOkanOeeracee cee eseee 13.0
EVOV CL sao ceicn a amen cee ee 10.0
Wiawawalls 20. sccesees 9.5
Mints 3e2 access eee 9.0
Mrinid adeijeas oon sce 6.5
Sunnyside... . ..- dsc 6.3
Viermitaeetness osc. ceeee 4.5
White Salmon.......... 4.0
Meyers Falls............ 3.0
1G (0) tt: eet EAI E 5 ots 2.0
Mabtonis +2... <<<. s\cs seen 2.0
SQwiyehes.osea6 sco cseeee 2.0
Bmveraldet isa. sooce cee 1.0
Harmington:..-2.. 225 ee 1.0
Benton City. 52... cease ne
Underwood............- 93}
(MUD ULI S25 faci cleo sees .0
Gibbonss2os3 sasscseeeee .0
byndent-<:5 ss.20-- cece .0
SUMASeGe. cectieie oa eeeeee .0
Mouchebs is sees cee .0
Walla Walla...........- *,0
Stateitotal-s.ceeeees 2,601.7
WEST VIRGINIA.
(July 10 to Oct. 15.)
Carloads.
IROMMe yA a seee eee ee 617.0
ey SOL -fecssenn- eee e 411.0
Wanderlipese-seeusccee 203.5
Springfield: 2.4a5- seca 177.0
Patterson’s Creek.....-. 174.0
INGUIN A Bee Be ou oeras os 82.0
Sleepy Creek...........- 71.0
Cherry, bounce se eee 49.5
id cedalesse- caer arenes 32.3
Globee 2335-senesaseeees 30. 6
Petersburg. 22252 22-2 e2 18.0
Ebunting toneeee eee: 17.5
abler)826 sei asoe sect ics 15.0
Paws ba Wisseeee ees Sree 14.0
Martinsburg soc cee ec ee 13.0
PINtOs. oe aaa 12.0
Ridgeway .)-ss2- 256-6 -s 7.0
MCN cil a eeceenne 6.0
Okonokosses sere eee 6.0
IBUTalOLsseseecacceee 5.0
Moorefield 23222 s5-n eae 4.0
Little Cacapon......-.-. 3.8
Wiapacoma- = sen. see 3.2
Durgons )..-eessereece 3.0
Summit, Pointess--ece-- 2.5
Belleville see aos cee .0
Coxs Landing..........- 0
Green Spring..........- -0
North Mountain.......-. .0
Statertotaleaaasseene 1,977.9
Grand total......... 27, 994. 2
PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION.
A System of Accounting for Cooperative Fruit Associations. By G. A. Nahstoll and
W.H. Kerr. Pp. 25. 1915. (Department Bulletin 225.)
Strawberry Supply and Distribution in 1914. By Wells A. Sherman, Houston F.
Walker, and O. W. Schleussner. Pp. 10. 1914. (Department Bulletin 237.)
Outlets and Methods of Sale for Shippers of Fruits and Vegetables. By. J. W. Fisher,
jr., J. H. Collins, and Wells A. Sherman. Pp. 27. 1915. (Department Bulletin
266.)
Methods of Wholesale Distribution of Fruits and Vegetables on Large Markets. By
J. H. Collins, J. H. Fisher, jr., and Wells A. Sherman. Pp. 28, figs. 2. 1915.
(Department Bulletin 267.)
Factors Governing the Successful Shipment of Red Raspberries from the Puyallup
Valley. By H. J. Ramsay. Pp. 37, figs. 26. 1915. (Department Bulletin 274.)
Canning Peaches on the Farm. By H. P. Gould and W. F. Fletcher. Pp. 26, figs.
14. (Farmers’ Bulletin 426.)
Growing Peaches: Sites, Propagation, Tillage, and Maintenance of Soil Fertility.
By H. P. Gould. Pp. 24, figs. 8. 1915. (Farmers’ Bulletin 631.)
Growing Peaches: Pruning, Renewal of Tops, Thinning, Interplanted Crops, and
Special Practices. By H. P. Gould. Pp. 23, figs. 19. 1915. (Farmers’ Bulletin
632.)
Growing Peaches: Varieties and Classification. By H.P.Gould. Pp.13. (Farmers’
Bulletin 633.)
PUBLICATIONS FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS.
The Cold Storage of Small Fruits. By8.H. Fulton. Pp. 28, pls.3. 1907. (Bureau
of Plant Industry Bulletin 108.) Price 15 cents.
The Control of Peach Brown-rot and Scab. By W. M. Scott and T. Willard Ayers.
Pp. 26, figs. 1, pls. 4. 1910. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 174.) Price 10
cents. —
Peach Growing for Market. By Erwin F. Smith. Pp. 24, figs. 21. 1895. (Farmers’
Bulletin 33.) Price 5 cents.
Experiment Station Work with Peaches. By C0. B. Smith. Pp. 399-434, figs. 13.
1906. (Office of Experiment Stations Document 1029.) Price 5 cents.
Cooperation in the Handling and Marketing of Fruits. By G. Harold Powell. Pp.
391-406. (Separate 546 from Yearbook 1910.) Price 5 cents.
The Precooling of Fruit. By A. V. Stubenrauch and S. J. Dennis. Pp. 437-448.
Pls. XLI-XLV. (Separate 550 from Yearbook 1910.) Price 5 cents.
16
ADDITIONAL COPIES
OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM
THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON, D. C.
AT
5 CENTS PER COPY
WASHINGTON ?} GOVORNMENT PRINTING OFFICRH : 1915
ee STATES DEPARTMENT OF a PURE
, BULLETIN No. 299 (Gy
Contribution from the Forest Service
HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. December 13, 1915
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND
MANAGEMENT.
By W. D. Srerrerr, Forest Examiner.
ee
CONTENTS.
Page Page
MITE MONACO meer eeetcicic cies sec cccicslsl<i-l= le) 1 | “Yaeldstaeeemeererc cane. -cescec cece ecesesbenes 32
MeL MD CINCU be metaciicins aicivins isin ise Sisjeie's eisie cresieieye 2.| Valuejofistandingstim beras. 22/32 jjacccia-e~- 34
Wsewpy@industriessesersccscic onesies cen eee nce 4 | Forestimanagement esis aso -c\-e)s ceicieistee 36
(GrowpstandispeciosMeeecsacceccccessccicc- ces 6 |: Rotationzeeererrer ytaceee sc csec ec ctee ccs 39
Silvicultural significance.......-...-..------- 9 | Species for timber growing...........-...-.-- 39
Relative importance of species.....---...-...- 11 | Natural v. artificial reforestation............-- 40
Occurrence....-. aS boGsat ae SaosoSe: SEE meee 13 | Reforesting by natural means........:....-. 41
Soil, moisture, and light requirements ...... 17 | Reforesting by artificial means.............. 44
FUOMROGUCUIONpaiasi-is ciniatais siicersiele neice ate wleleisicre'= 19) || Thinnin spate tester te ce coin en eloici ee nieeiniers 48
inl] UTES ee kerala otiser se cnc eee ae 23. | Summanypemerceer ecco oleae cee ae 61
Form and development.........-.-.-...---- 25\: |'; Appendiesale= oe ose peee « face ee-css- caceies 52
IMPORTANCE OF ASH FOR FOREST MANAGEMENT. ~
' The ash genus (Fraainus), contaming 18 or more native species,
is of considerable importance for forest management in the United
States. Because of its fine qualities, which make it valuable in the
handle, butter-tub, vehicle, boat-oar, athletic goods, and other in-
dustries, and because the supply is limited and the annual output
small, ash timber of good grade commands a high price. The tree
lends itself readily to both natural and artificial reproduction, has
a good rate of growth under proper conditions, responds well to
thinnings made to increase its growth, and is comparatively free
from destructive attacks of insects and diseases. It is probably
more desirable than the other common heavy hardwoods—oak,
hickory, maple, birch, and beech—for commercial timber growing
on sites to which it is adapted, as it is merchantable when smaller
and is usually higher priced and faster growing. It will be one of
the first woods the demand for which will exceed the supply. Handle
producers as.a class feel that they will soon be facing a serious shortage
of ash timber, and have as yet been unable to fmd anything to take
its place satisfactorily.
6023°—Bull. 299—15 1
2 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
This bulletin aims to make clear the economic status of ash; to
differentiate the species, in regard to which there is considerable
confusion, and to indicate their relative importance; to describe
the characteristics of the more important species; and to outline
methods of forest management for commercial growing of ash timber.
THE LUMBER CUT OF COMMERCIAL SPECIES.
The census returns for the past decade indicate an annual cut
of from 200 to 300 million feet of ash lumber, less than 1 per cent
of the total cut of all species and between 24 and 3 per cent of the
total cut of hardwoods. In rank in lumber production ash stands
twentieth or twenty-first among:all species and tenth or eleventh
among hardwoods. In addition to the lumber cut the census returns
show 25 to 35 million board feet of ash used annually in slack cooper-
age for staves, heading, and hoops. The total annual cut in lumber
and cooperage appears to be about the same as for hickory or for
cottonwood. Ash does not figure in the census returns for poles,
ties, and other products.
The census figures indicate further that the annual production
of ash lumber was maintained or somewhat increased during the
decade from 1899 to 1909, but since that time it has considerably
decreased. In average f. 0. b. value per 1,000 board feet of ash
lumber there was an increase of 54 per cent in 1909 over 1899. This
increase in price was not maintained during succeeding years, how-
ever, which is due largely to an increased proportion of lower grades
in the total output. A general survey of the supply of ash timber
leads to the conclusion that the high-water mark in the production
of ash lumber in the United States, both in quantity and quality
of output, has been passed, and it is not likely that either the amount
or value of the 1909 cut will ever be equaled.
Another interesting point to be observed in the census figures is the
constant shifting m rank of ash-lumber-producing States. In 1899
the cut in Michigan, which was from virgin forests, was greater than
in any three other States combined, while in 1911 Michigan had
dropped to seventh place, with an output one-sixth as great as that of
1899. Ohio and Indiana, where the cut is practically all from second
growth, ranked third and fifth, respectively, in 1909, but rose to first
and third places in 1911, although in each case there was considerable
decrease in the actual amount of the output. Arkansas, on the other
hand, where the cut is from old-growth forest, dropped from first to
second place in 1911 and decreased 40 per cent in amount of produc-
tion from 1909 to 1911. If the production of ash for cooperage stock
were added to the lumber cut, however, Arkansas would still be far in
thelead. These figures indicate the waning importance of old as com-
pared with second growth. The decline in total production is due to
3
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT.
the impossibility of the second growth’s keeping pace with the annual
cut, which will be increasingly marked as the supply of old growth
disappears.
About 98 per cent of the ash lumber produced in the United States
is from the three important commercial species—white (/. americana),
green (F. lanceolata), and black ash (Ff. nigra). The species which
make up the remaining 2 per cent of the lumber cut are Oregon (F.
oregona), blue (fF. quadrangulata), Biltmore (/’. biltmoreana), pumpkin
(F. profunda), and red ash (F. pennsylvanica), which all have good
silvicultural possibilities. Commercially there are only two kinds of
ash lumber recognized—white ash and brown ash—and even these are
usually sold together under the common name of ash, because many
of the uses to which the lumber is put do not require their separation.
The term ‘green ash”’ is unknown commercially, and all the lumber
cut from this species is marketed as white ash or simply ash.
Tables 1 and 2 show for each species its cut in each ash-producing
region of the United States, its proportion of the total cut, and its
relative importance in the region. These tables are based on census
data for 1910. From these data the cut of ash by counties was deter-
mined and careful estimates made by the author of the proportion of
each species in each county for which a report was made by the census.
TABLE 1.—Cut of ash, by regions and species.
White ash. ! Green ash. 2 Black ash.
Per Total
ue cents ca
egion. totalin Per Per Per
United ee Hane cent of Cy cent of ae cent of
States. feet) feet totalin feet, | otalin ree total in
8 * |region. * | region * | region.
New Mme landeme.nco- = «2b 2.- cise a0 5.51,| 12) 965) | 1ONSeog imme S3eSilee seen (Mee eee 2, 100 16. 2
Middle Atlantic States.........-..--- 7.4 | 17,370 | 18,945 80.3 55 0.3 | 3,370 19;/4
Lake States (Michigan, Wisconsin,
Minnesota)... -- ne eee eee 19.3 | 45,334 | 13, 630 30.1 | 1,606 3.5 | 30,098 66. 4
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, West Virginia,
Kentucky, Tennessee. ...---------- 32.8 | 76,927 | 53,950 70.1 | 16, 437 21.4] 6,540 8.5
South Atlantic States and Alabama. . 5.7 | 18,307 | 5,405 40.6 | 7,902 A leSocoodallssodwscs
Lower Mississippi Valley, including
Missouri, Arkansas, Oklahoma,
Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi..| 28.8 | 67,678 | 6,900 10. 2 | 60,778 CUE eananea|scescose
Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, and South
IDEIKO IB a ood pase eaRaDSeeOBBEecnosses 2 534 185 34.6 349 ae I ee Olle bao SoS
Washington, Oregon, California ?..... 3 600 le ckee sages te sale Ct We Ea ee oe Se
INOS adegaoncopsaaoss seosnesee 100 = |234, 715 |104, 880 44.7 | 87,177 37.1 | 42,108 We)
1 Includes small per cent of Biltmore and blue ash.
2 Includes small per cent of pumpkin and red ash.
3 All Oregon ash.
4 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE 2.—Distribution by regions of the cut ash of the different species, expressed in per
cent of the total cut of each species.
Region. White ash. |} Green ash. | Black ash.
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
Newel neland = ssh emneeete eae aein= Sone cee eeeeeise seen eee 10. 4 5
Middle Atlantic/Statesicte act ssn ciccee ns Le cence see eaee seers a eno AZES 0.1 8
Lake States (Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota).......----.-----.--- 3 1 71.5
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee......-. 5i.4 18.9 15.5
South Atlantic States.:and Alabama... ...-.-...--22---- 055-5 cee ot 5.1 901 |seeaceaniste 5
Lower Mississippi Valley, including Missouri, Arkansas, Oklahoma,
In round numbers, white ash comprises 45 per cent, green ash
37 per cent, and black ash 18 per cent of the total output of ash
lumber in the United States. The percentage of Oregon ash is
insignificant. If the cut .of ash for slack cooperage were included,
green ash would be just ahead of white ash. These tables show
white ash to be the important species in New England, the Middle
Atlantic, and the Central States; green ash in the South Atlantic
States, the lower Mississippi Valley, and in Iowa, Kansas, Ne-
braska, and South Dakota; and black ash in the Lake States—
Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Over half the total supply of
white ash comes from the Central States; 70 per cent of the green
ash comes from the lower Mississippi Valley, and 71.5 per cent of
the black ash from the Lake States. Over 60 per cent of the total
supply of ash comes from the Central and lower Mississippi Valley
States, 19 per cent from the Lake States, 13 per cent from New
England and Middle Atlantic States, and only 5.7 per cent from
the South Atlantic States.
The areas of heaviest lumber production of ash in the United
States are indicated by Plate I (map showing the cut of ash by
counties for the year 1910.)
CONSUMPTION OF ASH BY WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES AND ITS VALUE
FOR DIFFERENT USES.
Practically all of the ash lumber reported by the United States
Census is consumed in different wood-using industries. The high
value and scarcity of the wood precludes its use in general con-
struction work. Investigations by the Forest Service indicate that a
larger amount of ash was used in the wood-manufacturing industries
than the census figures report as being manufactured into lumber
and cooperage stock. This is probably due to the manufacture of
handles, butter tubs, and vehiele stock directly from logs and bolts.
In round numbers, 22 per cent of the ash used in industries goes
into handles; 20 per cent into butter-tub staves and headings; 15 per
|
LUMBER CUT BY COUNTIES IN
Bulletin 299. US Dept of Agriculture
PLATE |.
ES 6
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7
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COMMERCIAL DISTRIBUTION OF ASH AS INDICATED BY CENSUS RETURNS of LUMBER CUT BY COUNTIES IN 1910.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. y
cent into vehicles, including automobiles; 7 per cent into planing-mill
products; 6 per cent each into furniture, refrigerators and kitchen
cabinets, and car construction; 3 per cent each into boxes and crates,
agricultural implements, and ships and boats (chiefly oars), and 1
per cent each into fixtures, sporting and athletic goods, musical
instruments, machine construction, and hames. It is also used in
small quantities for pump sucker rods, tanks, pulleys and conveyers,
trunks, printing materials, rollers, elevators, picker sticks, professional
and scientific instruments, brushes, patterns and flasks (for foundry
work), litters, and airship frames and propellers.
Long handles for shovels, forks, hoes, and rakes of all kinds,
short ‘““D” handles for shovels and spades, and boat-hook handles.
. are made almost entirely from ash, as it alone seems to have the
proper combination of qualities—straightness of grain, a high degree
of stiffness and strength perpendicular to the grain, suitable weight
and hardness, and capacity to wear smooth in use. The same
qualities make it desirable for agricultural implements, sporting
and athletic goods, and boat oars. For making handles, rapid-
growing second-growth white and green ash, which yield the strong-
est and stiffest wood, are the best and the most often used. Old-
growth ash is usually considered too fine grained and brittle for
handles. All standard baseball bats are made from ash of the
strongest second growth. Practically all long oars and sculls (14
feet and over in length) and a large percentage of short oars and
paddles are made from ash. For large-sized oars select old growth
is much used in order to get the proper size. Black ash as a rule
is not suitable for oars, as it will water-soak and become soft and
spongy.
About 90 per cent of creamery butter tubs are made from ash,
for which it is the most desirable wood because it imparts no dis-
agreeable flavor. For the same reason it is extensively used in
refrigerators, kitchen cabinets, and churns. Its wood is very easily
worked up into staves and heading for tubs and churns, the supply
coming mostly from bottomland green ash of the lower Mississippi
Valley. Ash hoops are made mostly from black ash in the Lake
States.
In the vehicle and automobile industries strong second-growth
white and green ash is used extensively as bentwood for bows, as a
substitute for hickory and white oak for tongues, and for single and
double trees. Ash is also used for vehicle bodies and panels, for which
old growth of all species is preferred, as it can be obtained in greater
widths, is not so-liable to warp as second growth, and holds glue
better.
6 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
For planing-mill products, furniture, and car construction old-
growth ash is usually preferred because a high degree of strength and
stiffness is not required or because large sizes or widths are necessary.
Black ash (called brown ash commercially) makes especially hand-
some interior finish.
Second-growth ash of good quality will usually bring the best price
as handle, boat-oar, vehicle, or agricultural-implement stock rather
than as lumber. This excludes ash grown in swamps, which is too
fine-grained and soft.
Old-growth ash of fair size and quality brings the best price if cut
into lumber and graded, the upper grades being sold for car construc-
tion, vehicle and automobile bodies and panels, and planing-mill
products, the lower grades for furniture, refrigerators, and possibly
the cull stuff for butter-tub heading. In exceptional cases high-
grade old-growth ash timber can best be sold for boat oars.
Ash timber of poor quality for lumber can probably best be sold for
stave and heading bolts for butter tubs or used for firewood or char-
coal. It is also used in some parts of the country for fence posts and
bars where more suitable kinds of trees are lacking.
Ash timber of old or second growth, suitably located, can often be
sold most advantageously for export logs. Five to seven million feet
of green ash logs are exported annually in addition to the several
million feet of ash exported in the form of deals and planks.
GROUPS AND SPECIES OF AMERICAN ASH.
The ashes in the United States may be divided into five groups,
containing in all 18 or more species, distinguished from each other
as shown in the key (Table 3).
TABLE 3.—Key to American ashes.
Genus FRAXINUS.—Trees and shrubs with opposite, pinnately compound
leaves, and fruit a dry samara. Divisible into five groups: white, green, water,
black, and shrub groups, distinguished on the basis of flowers and fruit.
J. Flowers without petals, dicecious, polygamous, or perfect.
A. Body of fruit terete or nearly so. Wings not extending to base of seed.
Bark fissured. Flowers dicecious.
1. Wate Aso Group.. Wings of samara terminal or nearly so.
a. Twigs glabrous.
(1) F. americana—seed with wing, 1 to 2 inches long.
(2) F. texensis—seed with wing, less than inch long.
Hardly more than a form of /’. americana.
b. Twigs and lower surface of leaflets pubescent.
(3) F. biltmoreana.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. tf
2. GREEN AsH Group. Wings of samara decurrent on body of seed to
its middle.
a. Twigs, petioles, and pedicels glabrous.
(4) F. lanceolata '\—leaflets 7 to 9 in number,.3 to 6 inches in
length, lanceolate to acuminate, and rachis grooved.
(5) F. berlandieriana—leaflets 5 to 7 in number, 2 to 6
inches in length, oval or obovate.
b. Twigs, petioles, and pedicels velvety pubescent.
1. Leaflets stalked, subsessile, or sessile—eastern species.
(6) F. profunda—samara 24 to 3 inches long, samara
“body somewhat compressed, leaflets stalked.
(7) F. pennsyluanica'—samara 1 to 2 inches long,
samara body round and long-linear, leaflets
sometimes sessile.
2. Leaflets subsessile or sessile—western species.
(8) F. oregona—seed body slightly compressed (Pacific
coast tree).
(9) FF. velutina*—seed body round (southwestern tree).
(10) F. coriacea—seed body compressed. Thicker,
more leathery, longer-stemmed, and broader
leaflets than F’. velutina. i
B. Fruit body compressed. Seed kernel long-linear and terete as in green
ash. Wings of samara extending to its base and broad. Bark light
gray with small, thin, closely appressed scales. Flowers dicecious.
3. WaTER ASH GROUP.
(11) F. caroliniana—leaflets 5 to 7, ovate-oblong; fruit elliptical
to spatulate, often 3-winged, acute at apex.
(12) F. pauciflora—leaflets 3 to 5, oblong; fruit lanceolate to
oblanceolate, rounded and emarginate at apex. Hardly
more than a form of F. caroliniana.
C. Fruit body and seed kernel flat. Wings of samara extending to its base,
and broad. Bark gray and scaly. Flowers perfect or polygamous.
4. Brack AsH Grovp.
a. Twigs 4-sided; flowers perfect.
(13) F. quadrangulata—5 to 9 leaflets, ovate-oblong to lance-
olate, coarsely serrate, rounded or wedge-shaped at
base.
(14) F. anomala—1 to 3 leaflets (mostly 1); flowers some-
times polygamous.
b. Twigs round; flowers polygamous; northern species.
(15) F. nigra—leaflets 5 to 11, oblong-lanceolate, gradually
acuminate, laterals being sessile.
1Dr. Britton in his Illustrated Flora (1913 ed.) gives F’. lanceolata as a pseudonym for F. pennsylvanica
and gives two other species in this group distinguished from F'. pennsylvanica as follows:
Wane ofjsamaralongelinear-2eek oe a2 2s eae aan tose eee here ie eae ena nie eeee F. darlingtonii.
Wing of samara long-linear spatulate or oblong-spatulate:
Samaras broadly spatulate; leaves firm, entire.............2....220.--ee- ee eeceee ee FF. michauzii.
Samaras narrowly spatulate; leaves thin, serrate, or entire................-..- F., pennsylvanica.
In addition he has F. campestris, with lateral leaflets sessile, as a western plains form of F. pennsylvanica.
2 Under this is included F. towmeyi (Britton), with leaflets distinctly stalked, a rare form.
8 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
II. Flowers with petals, polygamous or perfect—shrubs or small trees of the south-
west.
5. SHruB AsH GROUP.
(16) #. cuspidata—panicles terminal on lateral leafy branches of
the year; 3 to 7 leaflets, lanceolate and ovate-lanceolate.
(17) F. greggii—panicles axillary on branches of the year or pre-
vious year; 3 to 7 leaflets, narrowly spatulate to oblong-
ovate; petioles wing-margined.
(18) F. dipetala—twigs of season’s growth 4-angled and smooth;
5 to 9 leaflets, smooth and thick.
The three important commercial species of ash—white, green,! and
black—occur in different groups, named accordingly. The other two
groups, water and shrub ash, contain species of little or no importance
for forest purposes. The botanical range of the different species of
American ash is shown in Plate IT?
The separation into groups is based on differences in flowers and
fruits, and further separation into species is chiefly on differences in
twigs, leaves,“and fruits. Of less importance in identification are
bark characteristics and general appearance.
Plate IIT shows the differences in the seed of different groups, also
some of the variations of different species in the same group. The
white ash group has the wing of the seed terminal and seed body round
and plump. The green ash group has the wing extending along the
body of the seed to about its middle, and the seed body round, but
slim and long. The water and black ash groups both have the wings
extending all around the seed body, the first having a round, slim, long
seed kernel, and the second a flattened, broad seed kernel.
Plates IV to VII show differences in leaves and twigs, as well as
seed, of the important species of ash. It is important to observe that
the last year’s growth on red, Biltmore, pumpkin, and water ashes is
pubescent, while that on green, white, and Texan ashes is glabrous.
White and green ash group species have a decidedly fissured bark
(Pl. VIII, fig. 1, and Pl. XI, fig. 2) when a foot or more in diameter,
while black, blue, and water ash have a scaly bark (Pl. IX). Green
ash has.finer twigs than white ash, and in the open grows more bushy.
Biltmore ash has stouter looking twigs than white ash, and red ash
stouter ones than green ash. “
In practical identification of ash trees, wherever there is any doubt
as to the species, it is well to decide first to which group a tree belongs.
The geographic range (see map, PI. IT), habitat, and associated species
should be considered. For instance, a swamp ash tree in the Atlantic
1 Green ash ( F. lanceolata) is regarded by many as a variety of red ash ( F. pennsylvanica) on account of the
fact that the two forms run together, especially west of the Mississippi. Botanical nomenclature would
indicate that the pubescent F. pennsylvanica is the important species because named first, but from an
economic standpoint it is of very secondary importance to the glabrous form, F. lanceolata. In the white
ash group the glabrous form, F. americana, is economically the important one, but in this ease it is also
botanically established as the important species.
2 Prepared by W. H. Lamb of the Forest Service and the author.
* Uv Ee SO[GBT UL posn SB IUIBS VJ 9IB SIOGUINU XIPUL VU
{ Ld . | 4 . ua
“SSAHSY NVOIYAWY SO SONVY IVOINVLOG
PLATE II.
Q
A
Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
(HSY INIYIMOTS) WT PLIAID-Y OF (HS ALIATIA) VNILNTFZA AG
(HS 599349) .N9DFHD A Lt (HS NOIFHO) YNOITHO IE
(CHSY JONIY A) HLPOIISNIAI (HSU CF H) YOINFATASND ASL
(HS HOV7G) YYOINY SI (HSU NIHAWNA). YONNIOHS SB
CHS? SEEM) UPYNONE Stl (HSE WVANTADUNVISFIONK IYI S'S
Li (HS & INTE) ELYTAINFYOMNO IE! (HSK NIFZLHO) K-LYTOIINGT SF
SFY ZLEM NYZHLNO) POTS INGA A 21) (HB PYOWLTIG) EN FY OWLTIDI ©
ASK YILEM) KNKINITOY YO + (ASP NRX FIL) SISNIX ILI
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Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTE III.
cenizerc
ASH SEED, NATURAL SIZE.
Nos. 1-8, seed of the white ash group: No. 1, F. texensis; Nos. 2,4, and 8, F. biltmoreana; Nos.
3, 5, 6, and 7, I. americana, Nos. 9-16, seed of the green ash group: No. 12, Britton’s
Wichauxii; No. 13, Britton’s 7. darlingtonii; the remainder show variations in size and
shape of seed of F. lanceolata and F. pennsylvanica. Nos. 17-18, seed of the water ash group:
INO#L7, 2: pauciflora; No. 18, I. caroliniana. Nos. 19-22, seed of the black ash group: Nos.
19-20, profile and face view of a F. quadranguata seed, showing characteristic twist; Nos.
21-22, profile and face view of a J’ nigra seed, which is characteristically flatter than /.
quadrangulata,
Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.
i e zal iM (
a SZ
. GV
» ~S
PY, WS =——
> a ——s
i y SS HSS =
is —
Ss ~ \ASS PRT y if!
: SSS 7
S \
\\
LEAVES AND SEED OF (@) F. BILTMOREANA, (0) F. AMERICANA.
Bul. 299, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.
a
Fase
a, aS ‘ SS \ 2 y,
Me
ine \ ‘ BA | eX,
eS =< = AX
a)
LEAVES AND SEED OF (a) F. LANCEOLATA, (0) F. PENNSYLVANICA.
Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI.
ARQ WBeenizer
19157
LEAVES AND SEED OF () F. CAROLINIANA, (0) F. NIGRA, (¢) F. QUADRANQGULATA,
(d) F, PROFUNDA.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 9
Coastal Plain would likely be F. caroliniana, a tree in Oregon or Wash-
ington would be F’. oregona, etc. Where all the necessary botanical
characteristics are present identification is easy, but the most im-
portant one, seed, is usually absent. This is especially the case with
the two most important ashes, white (7. americana) and green (F,
lanceolata), and the groups they represent, both of which, however,
are readily distinguished from the black ash group. Where seed is
absent it 1s especially important to consider geographic distribution,
site occurrence, and associated species in distinguishing white and
green ash. But where both species are found on the same site, as
occasionally happens, identification by means of differences in leaves
and twigs, bark, and general appearance is the best that can be done.
White ash has more robust twigs and buds than green ash, bark
usually darker colored, and leaves a darker green color, green ash
leaves being more yellowish.
SILVICULTURAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE GROUPS AND THEIR
DISTRIBUTION. ;
The division into botanical groups also has silvicultural signifi-
cance. The white ash group is primarily of upland ashes; the green
ash group is primarily of bottom-land ashes growing on sites with
fair natural drainage during part of the year; the water ash group
is of swamp trees; trees of the black ash group occur usually on
unfavorable sites, the black ash in cold northern swamps, and the
blue ash on dry limestone hills; the shrub group is of chaparral spe-
cies of the southwest, where climatic conditions are especially severe.
The extent of range and character of distribution of the several
groups is influenced to a great degree by reproductive factors, as
these determine largely a tree’s relative aggressiveness. They in-
clude lightness of seed (ease of dissemination), quickness of germina-
tion and seedling development, durability of the seed, and frequency
of seed years. Climatic, soil, moisture, and light requirements and
susceptibility to injury also have considerable influence. All these
things vary a great deal in the five groups as a result of the process
of adaptation to a wide range of conditions. The green ash group is
the most aggressive and widely distributed; the white ash next; and
water and black ash groups the least aggressive and the least able
to hold their own.
The green ash group has the widest geographical distribution
because it seeds most frequently, and has the lightest seed, with the
quickest germination—quick to take hold of a favorable opening.
(Pumpkin ash is an exception, as it has the heaviest seed of any ash,
is not prolific, and has a limited distribution.) The natural local
habitat of the green ash group is chiefly moist to wet bottom lands
—
10 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
or the banks of watercourses. The seed is not durable and must find
immediately favorable conditions for germination, especially moist-
ure. This group has naturally a better chance of holding its own or
even of increasing, like paper birch, through the interference of man,
than any of the groups. Since this group has become the most widely
distributed, it is natural that it should have produced more species
than other groups in adapting itself to varied climatic conditions.
The species vary, from those with smooth twigs and leaves, com-
mon where climatic or soil conditions are favorable, to very pubes-
cent forms where severe conditions prevail. (See botanical range
map, Plate IT.)
The white ash group also has a wide geographic range, but less
than green ash, because it seeds much less freely; the seeds are as a
rule heavier al larger and less easily disseminated, and take much
longer to germinate. On the other hand, their seed is more dura-
ble, larger kerneled, and stouter, and adapted to somewhat more
rugged conditions, so that it has a better chance of germinating and
growing than green ash where soil conditions happen to be adverse
to immediate growth. Trees of this group occur chiefly on uplands,
especially in coves, on moist slopes and depressions, and along up-
land watercourses.
None of the species in the water or black ash groups have as wide
a geographic range as does green or white (see Pl. II), because their
seed is heavier and less readily disseminated, and in the case of the
black ash group seeding is less frequent. Black ash (F. negra) is the
wider distributed of the two and extends farther north than white
ash, but not nearly so far south. Certain characteristics of trees of
these groups, such as durability of seed of the black ash group and
the wide flat wing of the water ash seed which by floating it increases
its chance of finding a favorable spot for germination, enable them
to perpetuate themselves on unfavorable sites to which they have
been relegated by their nonaggressive character. The species of
these groups, except blue ash CF. quadrangulaia), occur chiefly in
swamps where conditions are poor for tree reproduction and growth.
Blue ash is primarily a tree of rough and dry limestone hills, where
conditions for reproduction are also somewhat severe and where
acorn and other nut trees are the prevailing growth. These non-
aggressive groups are likely to decrease continually in amount and
importance.
The shrub group is confined to a very limited area in the South-
west, and may be classified as A ee chaparral species, though
not considered desirable even for this kind of forest.’
1See Forest Service Bulletin No. 85, ‘‘Chaparral,’’ by F. G. Plummer.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 11
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE DIFFERENT SPECIES.
The relative importance for commercial or silvicultural purposes
of the different species of American ash is shown in Table 4.
Tape 4.—Relative importance of the different species of ash.
WHITE ASH GROUP.
1. White ash (Ff. americana)...-- Commercially and silviculturally the most impor-
f tant American ash. Commercially important
east of the Mississippi, except in the Atlantic and
Gulf Coastal Plain region. A tree primarily of
fertile, moist, upland soils and of coves, and of
stream banks where drainage is good.
2. Texan ash (f’. texensis)...... A variety of white ash of no commercial importance,
but of some silvicultural possibilities. Occurs
on dry limestone bluffs and ridges in northern,
central, and western Texas, from Dallas to the
Devils River.
3. Biltmore ash (F. CSN A variety of white ash of some slight commercial
importance and with good silvicultural possibili-
ties. Adapted to somewhat drier sites and makes
more rapid growth in youth. Chief occurrence
in Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana,
especially on limestone formations, at lower
elevations than white ash.
GREEN ASH GROUP.
4, Green ash (F’. lanceolata)..... Commercially and silviculturally nearly equal to
white ash in importance. Commercial occur-
rence limited chiefly to the river bottoms subject
to overflow of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal
Plains. Has extended up the Mississippi and
its tributaries into Colorado, Wyoming, Montana,
Manitoba, and Saskatchewan. The most widely
distributed of the ashes.
5. Mexican ash (F. berlandiert- No commercial importance. Chief occurrence in
ana). Mexico. Used for street and plaza planting with
good success in cities of the Mexican tableland,
but of no importance for the United States.
6. Pumpkin ash (F. profunda)..Of some slight commercial importance in river bot-
toms in southeastern Missouri and eastern and
central North Carolina. Found in sloughs with
cypress, where it is soft and of very slow growth.
On well-drained land more rapid-growing than
green ash, especially in youth, and has good
silvicultural possibilities. Seed scarce.
7. Red ash (Ff. pennsylvanica)...Of slight commercial importance because too infre-
quent, but adapted to somewhat drier sites than
green ash. West of the Mississippi often not dis-
tinguished from green ash.
19 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
8. Oregon ash (F'. oregona)..-.-.. Of some slight commercial importance in the coast
region of the Northwest, on river flats. Occurs
from sea level to 3,000 feet elevation, but of mer-
chantable size, usually below 2,000 feet. Occurs
in river bottoms and along streams with alder,
laurel, maple, walnut, cottonwood, willow, oak,
and in the lower limits of Douglas fir forest. It
has excellent silvicultural possibilities.
9. Velvety ash (fF. velutina)....Very slight commercial importance. Good possi-
bilities as a shade and windbreak tree in the arid
Southwest, especially if irrigated. Range vicin-
ity limited to the Southwest, along streams.
10. Leatherleaf ash (F’. coriacea)..No commercial importance. Closely related to F.
velutina, occurring in the same region, and is
adapted to even more severe climatic conditions
and suitable for similar uses.
WATER ASH GROUP.
11. Water ash (F. caroliniana)...Of very slight commercial or silvicultural impor-
tance. Deep river swamps of Atlantic and Gulf
Coastal Plains from Virginia to Texas. Trees
small and scattering, chiefly under shade of
larger trees.
12. Water ash (#. pauciflora)..... Of very slight commercial or silvicultural impor-
tance. Less frequent than /. caroliniana. Deep
swamps in St. Marys River, Ga., to lower Appa-
lachicola River, Fla. (Sargent).
BLACK ASH GROUP.
13. Blue ash (F. guadrangulata)..Commercially of some slight importance, chiefly in
the limestone regions of Kentucky, Tennessee,
Indiana, and Ohio. Better wood than black ash,
and good for planting on dry limestone soils. Not
a good reproducer.
14, Single leaf ash (#. anonola)..No commercial or silvicultural importance—not
much more than a shrub. Grows along streams
in arid country—McElImo River, southwestern
Colorado, through Utah, to southern Nevada.
| 15. Black ash (Ff. nigra)......0+- Commercially the third most important ash, but
wood inferior to white and green ash. In plan-
tations it grows equally fast. It is primarily a
tree of northern swamps, not a good reproducer,
and not holding its own in second-growth forests.
SHRUB ASH GROUP.
No commercial or silvicultural importance.
16. F. cuspidata....... apa Keays Rocky slopes and dry ridges, valley of Rio Grande,
in Texas and New Mexico, southward into Mexico.
1 (pe Dis jas Aol oe ce ober sopeiace Dry limestone cliffs and ledges, valley of Rio
Grande, from mouth of San Pedro to that of
Pecos River, south into Mexico.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 13
Seer dipetalass 2222 2 Sak Near foothill streams and in gulches; in dryish or
slightly moist rocky and gravelly soils; in clumps
mingled with other chaparral species; inner coast
ranges and foothills of the Sierra Nevada in Cali-
fornia.
OCCURRENCE OF IMPORTANT SPECIES AND THEIR ASSOCIATES.
Ash, with its wide geographic distribution and many different
forms and species, naturally occurs on a great variety of sites and in
many forest types, but usually forms only a small percentage of the
trees of any stand. Exceptions to this are the occurrence of green
ash as a principal tree on limited areas of overflow river bottoms of
the Mississippi and its tributaries, but usually in comparatively young
stands less than 100 years old; of white ash as a principal tree (very
rarely) on small areas of second-growth upland hardwood stands on
fairly moist soil; and of black ash as occasionally ‘a principal tree in
virgin swamp forests of the Lake States. In old-growth virgin
stands white and green ash never form more than a small percentage
of the merchantable stand, which is mainly of longer-lived, more
persistent trees, such as the oaks, birch, beech, sugar maple, yellow
poplar, hemlock, white pine, and spruce, red gum, and cypress. Any
agency removing the old growth, such as lumbering, often gives
white and green ash a chance to become, by their good natural re-
production, relatively more important in the second growth.
WHITE ASH.
White ash occurs on comparatively well-drained sites along small
streams, in swales and coves, and on moist north and east slopes,
usually where the soil is both moist and permeable. It will grow even
in comparatively wet places, provided there is good underdrainage.
_It occurs in three distinct forest types or associations of trees, in all
of which hardwoods predominate: (1) birch-beech-maple-basswood
type; (2) mixed oaks and chestnut type; (8) yellow poplar type. In
places these types often merge into each other. White ash occurs
most frequently in the birch-beech-maple-basswood and the yellow
poplar types, where it attains good development and is usually a
dominant forest tree. In the mixed oaks and chestnut type it is
usually subordinate.
The birch-beech-maple-basswood type is the commen northern
hardwood forest, which extends south into the Appalachian Moun-
tains at constantly higher elevations to northern Georgia and Ala-
bama. ‘The hardwoods of this type include yellow and black birch,
beech, hard and soft maples, basswood, white ash, white elm, bitter-
nut hickory, and black cherry; and in the southern Appalachians,
eucumber, yellow buckeye, chestnut, and oaks. Coniferous species
14 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
in the type are spruce, hemlock, and white pine, the first two espe-
cially on moist situations suitable to white ash. In original forests
of this type white ash rarely forms more than from 1 to 5 per cent of
the merchantable stand, but m second-growth stands it may form 20
per cent or more.
Sites on which the mixed oak and chestnut type of forest is usually
found (exposed upper slopes and ridges and southern slopes) have a
comparatively dry, hard soil often thin and very rocky. Such sites
are not favorable to white ash, which is fastidious in regard to soil,
does not readily develop a rugged, deep-going root system, as do
oaks and chestnut, and requires in consequence more surface moisture.
On this type white ash usually occurs as a subordinate, overtopped
tree of small diameter in comparison with the oaks and chestnut,
except for occasional well-developed individuals in depressions where
soil and moisture conditions are more favorable. It never forms
over 5 per cent of the stand. Ash reproduction takes place readily
wherever the cover is slightly broken and at the same time dense
enough to preserve good moisture conditions in the humus and soil;
but subsequent seedling development is usually poor because con-
ditions are adverse. The mixed oaks and chestnut type is common
below 1,000 feet elevation in the glaciated hills of southern New
England, southern New York, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey; farther
south it occurs at increasing elevations, in the southern Appalachians
up to 4,000 feet, mostly on comparatively dry southern slopes and
ridges. It is common in southern Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, southern
Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee, and in the highlands of southern
Missouri and northwestern Arkansas. The most frequent associates
of white ash on this type are chestnut, red, white, scarlet, black, and
chestnut oaks, bitternut and pignut hickories, yellow poplar, red
maple, and dogwood; other species sometimes occurring with it are
swamp, white, pin, Spanish, black jack, and post oaks, black gum,
a black walnut, shagbark hickory, ironwood, hornbeam, elm, black
Wi cherry, shad bush, sugar maple, sassafras, hemlock, white, pitch,
: and shortleaf pines, scrub pine, black and yellow birch, paper birch,
Wa butternut, black locust, mulberry, beech, and red gum.
| The yellow poplar type occurs only on comparatively moist, fertile
|| sites with good drainage, such as in the hollows of small streams,
north slopes, and small hollows, coves and swales interspersing drier
oak or pine types. In old growth ash forms up to 10 per cent of the
stand, and in second growth up to 50 per cent. The yellow poplar
type is common from southern New England and southern New York
(below 1,000 feet elevation) to northern Florida and west to northern
Louisiana and eastern Arkansas and Missouri. Southward it is
found at increasing elevations until in the southern Appalachians it
reaches 3,500 feet; but it occurs also on moist, well-drained fertile
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 15
sites in the Coastal and Gulf Plain region down to elevations of less
than 100 feet above sea level. The chief associates of white ash on
this type include yellow poplar, red, white, black, pin, and chestnut
oaks, black and red gum, pignut and shagbark hickory, black walnut,
and chestnut. White ash is very much outgrown by yellow poplar,
and often occurs as an overtopped tree in old stands, though in this
type it reaches its largest size.
BILTMORE ASH.
The pubescent form of white ash, known as Biltmore ash, is occa-
sionally found in the mixed oaks and chestnut type and in the yellow
poplar type of the southern Appalachians and Central States east of
the Mississippi River. It is adapted to somewhat drier soil condi-
tions than white ash, and has a more vigorous growth at the outset.
In central Tennessee this species sometimes forms from 1 to 5 per
cent of the merchantable stand of the original forest.
TEXAN WHITE ASH.
Texan white ash is adapted to dry hills of central Texas, where it
occurs with post oak in noncommercial stands.
GREEN ASH.
Green ash is primarily a species of southern overflow river bottoms,
most abundant in those of the Mississippi River and its tributaries
south of Illinois, also common in other rivers of the Atlantic and
Gulf Coastal Plains from Virginia to Texas. It has spread itself
extensively along watercourses all over the upper Mississippi Valley
north into Manitoba and Saskatchewan and west into Colorado and
Montana. In the western and northern limits of its occurrence its
place is sometimes taken by red ash, which is better able to survive
on upland sites. The bottom land on which it grows is compara-
tively free from water during most of the growing season at least
(Pl. X); it does not flourish like tupelo and cypress on land which is
saturated during most of that period, although poor, suppressed
specimens of great age are sometimes found on such areas. The char-
acteristic associates of green ash on drier portions of bottom lands,
often not subject to overflow, are sweet gum, cottonwood, cow and
white oaks, sycamore, white elm, and persimmon; and in the inferior
species are hackberry, red and silver maples, boxelder, slippery elm,
Kentucky coffeetree, sassafras, dogwood, honey locust, and pawpaw.
On intermediate bottom lands, often overflowed but dry during most
of the growing season, green ash is characteristically associated with
sweet and black gum, cow oak, willow oak, swamp white oak, pecan,
hickory, red oak, hackberry, red maple, white elm, cork elm, slip-
pery elm, river birch, willow, mulberry, persimmon, cottonwood,
cypress, and tupelo gum; also (of lesser importance) honey locust,
16 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
soap berry, dogwood, with a dense undergrowth (in wetter situa-
tions) of elbow brush (Cratzgus), poison ivy, wild grapevine, and
wire grasses. Green, pumpkin, ‘and water ashes are often found
around the edges of sloughs or back swamps (upon which water
stands for from 9 to 12 months in a year) in mixture with cypress and
tupelo gum. Green ash is one of the most common species in the
very sparsely forested plains and prairie country of the Middle
West; growing almost entirely along streams in company with white
elm, cottonwood, willow, hackberry, sycamore, black cherry, and
bur oak.
RED ASH.
Red ash is a pubescent species of the green ash group occasionally
found along streams in the New England, Middle, Lake, and Central
States east of the Mississippi River. West of the Mississippi it is
often difficult to distinguish from green ash, with which it is appar-
ently connected by intermediate forms.
PUMPKIN ASH.
Pumpkin ash is a much more distinct pubescent species of the
green-ash group than is red ash, the seeds are much larger, and the
tree is more rapid growing in youth under the same conditions. It
has a very limited occurrence, however, and is usually found on the
wetter parts of overflow river bottoms, unfavorable to rapid deyel-
opment, where it is associated with the same trees as is green ash. It
has been observed in commercial quantities only in southeastern
Missouri, northeastern Arkansas, and in the eastern half of North
Carolina. It may be, geologically, an older species than green ash, but
nonaggressive from a reproductive standpoint and relegated to
undesirable sites. :
OREGON ASH.
Oregon ash occurs along streams, in some cases reaching an eleva-
tion of 5,000 feet, though it usually stops at 3,000. It thrives on
gravelly flats with the water table near the surface. At low eleva-
tions it is associated with maple, oak, and willow. At higher eleva-
tions in the oak-digger-pine type and in the Douglas-fir-yellow-pine
type, its associates are willow, alder, maple, cottonwood, black oak,
yellow and digger pine, and Douglas fir. The largest trees and the
commercially important stands are in southwestern Oregon, in asso-
ciation with alder, broadleaf maple, and California laurel, on good
agricultural soils which are being rapidly cleared for farm land.
LEATHERLEAF ASH.
F. coriacea is the species commonly named leatherleaf ash, although
F. velutina is also sometimes so called. The F. velutina is the more
abundant and occurs chiefly in New Mexico and Arizona, along
—
PLATE VIII.
Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
*‘soroods
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eelels Vbzeela
PLATE IX.
Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Bul. 299, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. |
F68a3
ash and cypress (in the back-
in
Soe
ae ara co OY
and) in mixture with pumpk
ca
ground),
Eig 2.—Green ash near edge of slough-bottom type (continuously wet
IN NORTHEASTERN ARKANSAS.
F57816
Fig. 1.—Large pole green ash on bottom land overflowed only at
GREEN ASH
Associated with red gum, red maple, hackberry, and
high water.
sycamore.
Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI].
F95257
Fia. 1.—Disk from 85-year-old white ash from clay forest soil in central New
York. Shows ability to endure long period of suppression and good
recovery after removal of large trees 12 yearsago. Note ridged bark and
irregular line of heartwood. The slow-growth wood in section is weak
and not suitable for handles.
F57835
Fic. 2.—Green ash logs cut on overflow bottom land in northeastern Arkansas, very much
checked after lying in the sun several months. Characteristically ridged bark.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 17
streams and canyons from 4,000 to 8,000 feet above sea level, with
walnut, cottonwood, boxelder, maple, and sycamore. fF. coriacea
occurs chiefly in desert regions of Nevada and southern California
on low mesas (ash meadows) and in canyons; also in southern Utah
and northern Arizona.
BLACK ASH.
Black ash is primarily a wet-soil swamp tree of northern lowlands
and foothills. Its chief commercial occurrence is in the hemlock
type (75 per cent of the merchantable stand bemg hemlock) of the
northern half of the Lake States, where it often forms 5 to 10 per
cent of the original merchantable stand, averaging 500 to 1,000
board feet per acre. Single forties may average 2,000 feet of black
ash per acre, or about 20 per cent of the merchantable stand, and in
very wet places single acres of nearly pure black ash (black-ash
swamps) sometimes will cut over 5,000 feet. Associated with the
hemlock and black ash on this type are hard maple, yellow birch,
basswood, elm, white ash, balsam, spruce, tamarack, and arborvite
and in the southern part of the Lake States beech, white pine, and
soft maple as well. All of these species associate more or less with
black ash in the Middle and New England States, where the ash is
found chiefly in swamps at an elevation of 500 to 1,500 feet above sea
level, but rarely forms more than from 1 to 2 per cent of the merchant-
able stand. In central Indiana and Ohio its coniferous associates
disappear, and it has only an occasional botanical occurrence on wet
land with such species as willow, sycamore, soft maple, and pin oak.
South of Pennsylvania and Ohio black ash is of no importance what-
ever, having only an occasional botanical occurrence, chiefly in cold
mountain swamps, with balsam, spruce, and hemlock.
BLUE ASH.
This upland form of black ash has adapted itself to dry limestone
soils under the shade of oaks and hickories, where moisture, humus,
and soil conditions are favorable. It occurs primarily on uplands in
the oak type in Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Indiana.
WATER ASH.
F. caroliniana and F. pauciflora.—These are deep-swamp species
of the south Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain region from Virginia to
Texas.
SOIL, MOISTURE, AND LIGHT REQUIREMENTS.
SOIL AND MOISTURE.
Ash as a genus is fastidious and exacting in regard to soil fertility
and soil moisture. It is not exacting in regard to atmospheric mois-
ture or the amount of annual rainfall, its chief requirement being a
6023°—Bull. 299—15——2
—
|
j
y
18 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
soil comparatively moist during a considerable part of the growing
season. It is exacting in regard to mineral food in the soil and is
somewhat exhausting to it. It does well on rich, loose, limy, or
marly soils, and some species even on dry limestone soils. It does
not do well on binding or argillaceous soils or on dry sand. On
porous soils which offer no hindrance to the developing root system
it is as a rule less exacting in regard to surface moisture and fertility
than it is on stiff impermeable soils. Ash is adapted, some species
more than others, for growing in swamps provided the soil is not
acid and there is no turf, but it prefers a rich, moist soil which has a
rapid renewal of the water through either surface or subterranean
drainage.
Although all species of ash thrive best on moist, well-drained,
fertile, porous soils, yet the different species vary in their ability to
erow on very wet or on dry soils. The important wet-soil species,
in the order of their relative capacity for growing on wet sites, are
water, black, pumpkin, and green ash, while the species which will
endure dryness of soil (east of the Mississippi) are, in the order of
relative capacity, blue, Biltmore, and white ash. West of the Mis-
sissippi the green ash forms in the fertile prairie and plain States
(where red and green ashes run together) are very enduring under
dry conditions, as are also the southwestern species of the green ash
Brenes LIGHT.
Ash is a light-demanding tree, except for the first few years, during .
which it does best where the soil is shaded. In youth it is more
tolerant than oak and reproduces itself well under a comparatively
dense forest cover, because this provides, usually, suitable soil-
moisture conditions. The seedlings here show great persistence and
tenacity and are able to survive for some time. As an underwood
in broken forests seedlings thrive well. After the pole stage, how-
ever, ash becomes very light-demanding and space-demanding, espe-
cially in pure stands, which is a natural result of its wide-spreading,
soil-exhausting root system. The relative intolerance of ash is less
apparent becauseit is most often found on moist fertile soils where trees
of all kinds have their greatest tolerance. The effects of even slight
shading or crowding on the side is at once apparent in long, clear,
thin, spindly boles and small crowns. Ash often shows, however,
excellent persistence under unfavorable light conditions, although
making no substantial growth, and is quick to recuperate and respond
to increase in light. The extreme sensitiveness of ash in this respect
is one of the things which commend it for forest management.
Blue, black, and white ash are the most tolerant and persistent
under adverse light conditions, and green and pumpkin ash the
least so.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 19
REPRODUCTION.
Ash reproduces itself well by seed and by sprouting from stumps
of trees cut (Pl. XIV), the first, however, being by far the most
important in perpetuating the species.
SEED PRODUCTION AND DISSEMINATION.
Ash of any species, in any region where it is common, usually seeds
freely about every other year, and bears some seed almost every
year. Exceptionally heavy crops occur at intervals of from three
to five years. Not all ash trees are capable of bearing seed, since
species of the white and green ash groups are dicecious; that is, male
and female flowers are borne on separate trees and seeds occur only
on the female trees. ‘Trees in the open are apt to seed when from
two to three inches in diameter and from 10 to 20 feet high, bemg
only 10 years old, or even less. In dense stands ash commonly seeds
but little until the stand is from 30 to 50 years old and is beginning
to thin out. Small-crowned, suppressed, intermediate, and co-
dominant trees produce little or no seed; dominant, large-crowned
trees and open-grown trees are prolific seeders. Those of the green
ash group are the most prolific, seeding when younger and smaller,
and more frequently and heavily. White ash is next in this respect
and black ash last.
The lightness of ash seed and its long membranous wing allow it
to be carried long distances by the wind. Of the important species
green ash is disseminated most widely by the wind, white ash is next,
and black ash last. The distance depends largely on the weight of
the seeds, which is given in Table 5.
TaBLE 5.— Weight of ash seed of different species.
Number of seed per pound.
Species. Remarks,
Low. High. | Average.
Frazinus americana and F. biltmoreana!.... 8, 500 11,500 10,000 Reed and kernels. float in
water.
F. lanceolata and F. pennsylvanica ?...-..-. 12,000 20,000 16,000
F. nigra, F. excelsior, and F. quadrangulata. 6, 000 8, 000 7,000 | Seed (with wing) floats in
water, but kernels sink.
LP, QHD jadec boss JodsetadocssSes seseb oe ealsnasdensesloscecoscec 14, 000
JP, ORAOMEacaasscsoco sc elect nee ceege eooeceee be ossdesoc|scoccscee= 10, 000
1, (O/C. dosNdassuesadet ondnase spedoaee 3, 000 4,000 3, 500
1 Biltmore averages the heavier of the two.
2 Pennsylvanica averages the heavier of the two.
GERMINATION AND SEED-BED REQUIREMENTS.
There is great variation in the germinative characteristics of the
different species of ash. Experiments! with good, sound, untreated
1 Seed planted in flats in the Arlington Experiment Station greenhouse in Jan., 1913.
26 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ash seed planted under favorable conditions gave the following re-
sults: (1) Green, red, Oregon, and pumpkin ash seed germinate
freely in from four to five weeks; (2) Biltmore ash germinates freely
in from six to seven weeks; (3) white ash feebly in five months; (4)
black, blue, and European ash ! not at all the first year. The relative
perishability of the seed of these species seems to be inversely pro-
portional to the time required for them to germinate, the green ash
group being the most perishable and the black the least. Seed of
the black ash type has a germinating period of from one to three
years. The white and black ash seed can be made to germinate
more rapidly by the method described further on in this bulletin.
Ash seed is especially exacting in its moisture requirements for
germination and seedling establishments, and reproduction is
restricted to spots where the soil or the humus or leaf litter are
liberally supplhed with moisture at the proper season of the year.
Only a limited amount of light (which need not be direct) is required
for reproduction. A moderately open seed bed is sufficient; i. e., a
layer of undecomposed leaf litter less than 2 inches thick with humus
fairly decomposed beneath. Leaf litter and humus serve to keep
the ground moist, but they must not be so thick as to prevent the
roots of the recently germinated seedling from coming in contact
with the soil.
Ash reproduction is most common where the sou is protected
from the drying influences of sun and wind, and where at the same
time there is some light to decompose the leaf litter more rapidly
than is possible in dense stands; for instance, in small openings in
the forest where the light is direct or in pure second-growth white
pime stands where considerable indirect light reaches the ground.
On large, open areas, bare of protecting leaf litter or shrubby plants
and weeds, ash reproduces only along streams and river bottoms
and in damp depressions. On uplands reproduction is confined
mostly to sites where the soil is-well protected.
White ash reproduction is often found in upland forests under
shade; even in the mixed oak and chestnut type the species will
be found reproducing itself in places where the overhead cover is
slightly broken. White ash seedlings are remarkably persistent.
They maintain themselves in a stunted condition under the shade of
large trees for from 5 to 20 years, dying off almost yearly in the hot
part of summer or being eaten off by game or cattle and sprouting
again the following season. These are called seedling sprouts.
Under favorable soil and moisture conditions in the birch-beech-
maple-basswood type and the yellow poplar type ash reproduction
1 Belongs botanically to the black ash group.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 21
occurs under dense shade; ash seedling sprout root systems 10 to
15 years old are often to be found here. If the large trees are cut,
the ash seedlings (or seedling sprouts, as the case may be) will
usually grow, but can keep pace with the more rapid growing oak
and chestnut sprouts only where soil conditions are exceptionally
favorable. Pure second-growth white pine stands form an ideal
seed bed for white ash and often abound with ash seedlings and seed-
ling sprouts which furnish an excellent basis for a valuable future
admixture of ashes when the crop of mature pine is removed.
In general, natural reproduction of white ash is good—that is,
the proportion of white ash increases in second-growth stands
followig lumbering, especially where clean cutting is practiced. It
also seeds in well following fire when seed trees are in the vicinity
and are seeding at that time.
Natural reproduction of green ash on river bottom land is also
good, and it tends to hold its own or to increase in amount in second-
growth stands. Green ash is by far the best species for reproducing
on old fields because of its quick germination; it does especially
well on moist, old-field bottom land, and on hog-rooted pastures.
Natural reproduction of black ash is not so good; the late germi-
nation of the seed makes it more lable to be destroyed and the
small amount of seed produced decreases its chances of finding
favorable sites for germination.
SEEDLING DEVELOPMENT.
Table 6 indicates the rate of growth of ash seedlings under favor-
able conditions.
TABLE 6.—Rate of growth of ash seedlings under different conditions.
Height.
White ash
Green ash | Green ash ;
‘Kx on old inthe | White ash Cane
ee field forest under| in the Mace ,
South half shade, _ forest, MaSSa-
Carolina | Arkansas |Ohiounder| husetts
bottom bottom |halfshade.| 22d New
York
land. land. upland
Years. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet.
1 2.8 iL 7 0.5 0.5
2 7.0 on 1.2 1.6
3 12.2 4,5 2.0 3.0
ANS eee sues 557 3.0 4.6
i} Higapasoceeeon 6.7 4.0 7.0
A seedling that has existed in suppression for a number of years
will usually start to grow, when the forest is opened up, at about the
rate given in the table. Seedling sprouts do especially well when
992 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
given increased light, and often grow much faster than do ordinary
seedlings, because of the large root system they have developed.!
Seedlings and seedling sprouts under shade develop slowly. Some-
times the root system is 15 years old and the tree less than 1 foot high.
After the first year the seedling demands direct overhead sunlight for
best development, but a certain amount of protection on the sides is
beneficial.
SPROUT REPRODUCTION.
Ash is a free sprouter from early youth and usually retains its
sprouting capacity until old age (see black ash sprouts, Pl. XIV, fig. 2),
especially in vigorous trees. The sprouting is both from near the root
collar and higher up on thestump. Thestump soon decays. Sprouts
from near the root collar usually form new roots, and for this reason
cutting of low stumps is very desirable in order to limit the reproduc-
tion to sprouts of the best kind. It is also a good plan to remove the
less vigorous sprouts from a stump in late summer of the first year so
as to concentrate the growth into one, two, or three of the more desir-
able ones.
The vigor of the sprouting increases with the age and size of the
tree up to a certain point, after which it falls off. The following
mea*urements ? on white ash emphasize this point:
DMiamaier Per cent of
stumps Basis.
of stump. sprouting.
Inches. Stumps.
1to 4 100
5to 8 100 52
9 to 12 83
13 to 16 80
White ash sprouts from stumps of healthy trees over 3 inches in
diameter grow from 3 to 7 feet the first year, and from 2 to 4 feet a
year for several succeeding years. Seedling sprouts, on the other
hand (from small seedling root systems), sometimes grow no faster
1 Measurements by Prof. E. E. Carter in 1912 on two sample plots on the Harvard Forest at Petersham,
Mass., gave the following comparative figures on the growth of white ash seedlings and seedling sprouts
after clear cuttings in dense mature stands of white pine, under which there was considerable seedling
reproduction of ash, 4 foot to 4 feet high, and 5 to 40 years old.
Plot 1.—Seedling sprouts from seedlings cut off at the ground 3 years previously, when the mature stand
was cut clean, showed an average total height growth of 4.8 feet in the three years, while seedlings which
were not cut back grew only 3.6 feet.
F lot 2.—Seedling sprouts from seedlings cut off at the ground 4 years previously, when the mature stand
was cut clean, showed an average total growth of 5.9 feet in the 4 years, while seedlings which were not cut
back grew only 4.8 feet.
These plots indicate that cutting off of ash seedlings to facilitate logging operations is beneficial rather than
harmful to ash reproduction. The seedling sprouts grew one-third faster than the old seedlings, which
means that in addition to straighter stems being produced their chances of getting up out of the reach of
browsing stock and deer are much better, which is an important factor in parts of New England and New
York.
2 Measurements taken by J. G. Peters, Hyde Park, N.Y.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 23
when the forest is opened up than do ordinary seedlings; this depends
entirely on the relative vigor of their root systems.
Trees of the green ash group are especially vigorous sprouters.
SUSCEPTIBILITY TO INJURY.
STORMS.
Ash is comparatively windfirm under normal conditions, as it
develops a wide-spreading, very fibrous, and tenacious root system.
Trees of small diameter, with long, slim bodies, left exposed to the
sweep of storms after removal of the larger trees, are sometimes
uprooted by wind before they have a chance to become windfirm.
Also trees located in flood areas of streams are lable to be wind
thrown when the soil is badly washed away from around their roots.
The stems of ash trees are strong and elastic and are not subject to
windbreak unless infected with heart rot. As the twigs are somewhat
brittle, the crowns are sometimes damaged by storms, especially
when covered with sleet, but such damage is usually not serious and
recovery 1s rapid.
FROST.
The leaders of ash seedlings growing in the open are sometimes cut
back by late spring frosts which follow a growimg period of several
weeks, but after the trees attain a height of 5 or 6 feet this danger
disappears. Ash seedlings readily recuperate from frost damage,
but often form double leaders as a result of the mjury. Seedlings
of American ashes seem to be less subject to frost damage in Europe
than native European ash, because they leaf out later. There is
considerable variation in earliness of leafing among the different
species and among seedlings of the same species grown from seed. from
different localities. This is important in the culture of ash stands
on sites subjected to late frosts. Seeds should be collected, if pos-
sible, in the same latitude or to the north of where the planting is
to be done.
DROUGHT.
The ashes, except black, pumpkin, and water ashes, offer good
resistance to drought when once well established on fertile soils.
This is due to their development of numerous long and fibrous lateral
roots. Though their rate of growth is very quickly checked by
droughty conditions and their leaves soon wither and fall, they live
persistently through successive seasons of drought. On the arid
plains of western Kansas and Nebraska green ash survived on aban-
doned timber claims where nearly all other species withered and
died. Young ash seedlings are quite susceptible to drought, up to 3
feet high, but by the time they are 5 feet high they have usually
developed sufficient root systems to be fairly drought resistant.
24 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Black ash growing in swamps seems to be quickly affected by
drainage, and there are large quantities in gradually draining swamps
in New York and the Lake States either dead or dymg. Excessive
transpiration kills these trees down from the top.
In the culture of ash on sites subject to drought, plants from seeds
of drought-resisting trees should be used, and the area cultivated for
several seasons till good extensive root systems are developed.
ANIMALS.
The tender young shoots and leaves of small ash seedlings and
sprouts form unusually attractive browsing for wild animals, espe-
cially deer and cattle, which greatly reduces natural reproduction of
the genus and causes double leaders on many trees. Trees whose
crowns are above browsing distance are practically free from damage
by animals.
DISEASES.
Ash is not subject to extensive damage by diseases, which is an
important point m its favor. Only one (white rot) has done much
serious harm, though a number have been found on the different
species. Diseases on ash are confined for the most part to trees
whose vitality has been weakened by old age, fire, or generally
adverse conditions. Ash stands grown under proper methods of
forest management should be practically immune from serious attacks.
White rot occurs in the heartwood of the trunk and main branches,
and is caused by the fungus Polyporus fraainophilus, which turns the
wood into a mass of yellow pulp. This disease is common in over-
mature green ash m the lower Ohio and Mississippi River bottoms,
near their confluence; also on white ash near the western limit of its
range in Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, and Oklahoma, on dry limestone
hills, where 90 per cent of the trees are infected.!. The ash-leaf rust,
Aeiduim fraxini, is probably the most common fungous parasite,
occurring on almost all species of ash, but doing little or no serious
damage. Other fungi appear on ash leaves and twigs, but rarely in
sufficient numbers to do serious injury to the trees affected. Among
them are several species of Glwosporiwm and Spheropsis, as well as
Septoria fraxint, Phyllosticta fraxvm, and Spheronema spina.
INSECTS.
During the last several years the oyster-shell scale (Lipidosaphes
ulmi) has increased so much on ash trees in northern Ohio as to kill
off entire stands, and is still on the increase in that locality. There
are a number of other insects which attack standimg ash, but none
1 Full discussion of this disease in Bulletin No. 32 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, “A Disease of the
White Ash caused by Polyporus fraxinophilus.”’
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 25
are very harmful, except the ash-tree borer, which is serious and
lessens the value of the wood for lumber.
A large number of insects attack recently felled ash timber. These
include a bark beetle, Hylesinus aculeatus, which also occurs in dying
standing trees; ambrosia beetles or pin borers (Platypus and X ylebo-
rus); a roundheaded borer, Neoclytus capria, destructive to sap-
wood of recently felled trees; and the powder-post borers, which
attack seasoned sapwood. By quick conversion of the felled tree
into lumber and by proper methods of handling, seasoning, and stor-
ing, losses of logs and lumber through insects can be nearly eliminated?
There should be little or no danger of serious insect attacks on
young ash stands under management; nevertheless, the timber owner
should be on his guard, and if insects show signs of becoming destruc-
tive, he should communicate with the Bureau of Entomology, De-
partment of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., for advice on the subject.
FIRE.
Small ash trees are easily fire-killed because of their thin bark.
With increasing size and age ash becomes thicker barked and more
fire resistant. Table 24, showing the thickness of bark of trees of
different sizes and species, indicates their relative fire resistance (see
Appendix, p. 53). Small ground fires, which do not kill standing
timber outright, are especially weakening to ash and lessen its rate
of growth because of damage to its surface-feeding root systems.
It is especially important to keep fire out of young stands.
FORM AND DEVELOPMENT.
Ash is a graceful and beautiful tree, whether growing in the forest
or alone as a shade or ornamental tree. Its compound pinnate
foliage and symmetrical and regular branching (PI. VIII) show to
advantage in contrast with the foliage and branching of the hard-
woods with which it commonly associates.
Ash varies considerably in form and rate of growth in accordance
with the character of the site, the amount of growing space, and the
species. In general, on favorable sites and under normal forest
conditions, dominant ash trees with crowns receiving some direct
sunlight on the sides and full light on the tops grow rapidly in both
diameter and height, reaching a height of 60 to 80 feet and a diameter
of 10 to 20 inches in 40 years. Crowding on the sides, such as
codominant and intermediate trees are subjected to, cuts down the
rate of diameter growth and increases the clear length, but seems to
have little or no effect on the height growth, which persists and is
only appreciably lessened by the tree becoming overtopped. In
1 See Circular 128, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: ‘‘Insect Injuries to Forest
Products.’ i
26 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the open, diameter growth is more rapid, but the tree develops only
a very short trunk and large, wide-spreading lateral branches, and is
very much inclined to fork, all at the expense of growth in height, and
of length, clearness, and cylindricity of bole. Unfavorable sites
make themselves at once apparent in a lower rate of height growth
in dominant trees. The boles are shorter, more apt to be crooked,
and more branchy. In mixed natural stands on such sites ash is
usually a spindling, overtopped tree.
In original forests, ashes from 200 to 300 years old, 3 to 5 feet in
diameter, and from 125 to 175 feet in height were formerly common,
but now 3 feet in diameter is exceedingly large. White ash attains
greater height than black or green ash, but is surpassed in diameter
and age by black ash. Green ash grows larger in diameter than white
ash, but does not become so tall nor live so long.
Crowns of dominant ash trees growing in the forest occupy usually
one-third to half the total height of the tree, more on young trees and
less on old trees. During the period of rapid height growth, which
continues till the tree is from 40 to 60 years old, the crown is rather
narrow in proportion to its length and more or less cone shaped; as
its age increases it broadens out and becomes dome shaped, and in
old age comparatively flat. In youth the crown is considerably
longer than it is wide, but this changes with age until the width is
greater than the length. Trees crowded on. the sides have short,
oppressed crowns, often occupying less than a quarter of the total
height. (Pl. VIII, fig. 2.)
Ash, because of its intolerance, prunes itself readily when growing
in the forest, and develops long, clear, straight boles commonly free
of branches for half its total height. The boles have usually a com-
paratively rapid taper (Tables 25 to 29). Ash trees which have grown
under very crowded conditions often have clear lengths of two-thirds
or more of their total height.
The species vary somewhat in their characteristic forms as a
result of their relative tolerance. Blue (Pl. IX, fig. 1), black, and
water ashes have the most persistent limbs and the shortest clear
lengths, develop ‘‘water sprouts”’ under lesser light conditions, and
for this reason are less desirable to grow (on good sites at least) than
white, Biltmore, green, and red ashes.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. ib
TasBLE 7.—Rate of growth of white ash on uplands in central New York.
A. On moist clay soil.1 B. On fresh to moist sandy loam.?
Fast growth. Average growth. Fast growth. Average growth.
Age.
Diameter Diameter Diameter Diameter
preast- | Height. | breast- | Height. | breast- | Height. | breast- | Height.
high. high. high. high,
Years.| Inches, Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches. hee Inches. Feet.
1 2
0 2.1 25 1.3 17 A) 1.3 17
15 3.7 38 2.4 27 5.5 42 3.0 27
20 5.3 50 3.5 36 8.2 52 4.5 34
25 6.7 59 4.5 43 10. 4 60 5.9 41
30 8.0 67 5.4 49 12.2 67 7.1 47
35 9.2 73 6.2 50 13.9 71 8.3 53
40 10. 2 77 6.9 59 15.3 75 9.4 57
45 11.2 81 7.6 63 16.6 78 10.3 61
50 12.0 83 8.3 66 17.7 79 11.2 65
55 12.9 85 8.9 69 18.7 81 12.2 68
60 13.7 87 9.5 71 19.6 81 13.1 71
65 14.5 88 10.1 73 20. 4 82 13.9 74
70 15. 2 89 10.6 75 21.2 83 14.8 76
75 16.0 90 11.2 77 22.0 82 15.6 78
80 16.7 92 11.7 79 22. 8 83 16.5 81
85 17.3 93 12. 2 HN Sacarscandlloocoossedollagacoabeed laccddcoece
90 17.9 94 12.6 SP. Nan scccdc|sooqseeaao lbeaaeeesno||Gadodsoube
95 18.5 95 13.1 EWE Gooodoasce||Goos cedace jboeacecses| aces cooae
100 19.1 97 13.6 BG). | lnosdososca jodussesdos| seobadhoobllososabsons
1 Based on complete analyses of 47 trees, mostly 80 to 100 years old.
2 Based on complete analyses of 138 trees, mostly 30 to 70 years old.
The root systems of ash are wide-spreading, surface-feeding, very
fibrous, and fairly deep-going, those of the more tolerant blue and.
black ashes being especially deep-going and often developing taproots.
Green and pumpkin ashes growing in wet sloughs are usually bell-
butted. 3
The form and volume of ash trees of different species, diameters,
and heights are given in Tables 25 to 46 in the Appendix.
RATE OF GROWTH OF COMMERCIAL SPECIES.
WHITE ASH.
Table 7 shows the rate of growth, under favorable natural forest
conditions, of second-growth white ash on moist clay upland and on
fresh to moist, sandy loam upland in central New York.
Measurements in central New York on second-growth white ash
on well-drained, alluvial bottom land, with a moist sandy loam soil,
indicate an average rate of growth approximating that of fast growth
on upland, sandy loam in the same locality.
The growth of white ash on sandy loam soil averages faster at the
outset than on the clay, but it is not so sustained. On the clay site
white ash is more tolerant, the stand more crowded, and the growth
in diameter of the average tree is necessarily somewhat slower; the
better quality of the site, however, is indicated by the greater height
attained and by the greater per acre yields. In managed stands of
white ash on suitable uplands it would be possible to secure an aver-
28 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
age rate of growth in diameter and height nearly equal to that of fast
growth under natural forest conditions.
Table 8 shows the rate of growth of white ash under less favorable
conditions in southern Indiana.
TABLE 8 —Rate of growth of white ash on fair upland clay soil in southern Indiana, based
on 81 trees 62 to 152 years old.
Fast growth. Average growth.
Age. | piameter Diameter
breast- Height. breast- Height.
high. high.
Years. Inches. Feet. Inches. Feet.
10 Lot 19 0.6 8
20 2.5 34 1.6 ilY/
30 4.1 45 225 26
40 5.9 54 aso 34
50 &. 2 62 4.6 41
60 10.9 68 6.6 47
70 14.4 73 7.9 52
80 18.4 78 10.3 57
| 90 2258 82 1B AP 61
1
1 The acceleration in growth at about 50 years is due to a thinning of the forest. Measurements taken by
W. Stone in 1909.
Table 9 shows the rate of growth of white ash in natural selection
forests contaiming trees of all ages.
TABLE 9.—Rate of growth of white ash in natural selection forests, based on 179 trees 77
to 803 years in age, east of the Mississippi River, from Tennessee north.
Diameter breast-high. Height.
Age.
Maxi- | Average | Fast Average Fast
mum. growth. | growth. | growth. | growth.
Years.| Inches. Inches. Inches. Feet. Feet.
10 2.7 0.6 1.6 § - il
20 6.7 1.8 “3.9 14 21
30 11.4 aol 6.8 21 32
40 16.5 4.4 10.1 27 44
50 20.7 6.0 13.6 35 55
60 24.3 (et 16.9 43 65
70 27.4 9.5 19.8 52 73
80 30.1 11.4 22.5 60 80
90 32.0 13.2 24.9 67 86
100 34.3 14.9 27.1 74 91
110 36.1 16.7 29.1 80 95
TOO Daceeecisce 18. 2 30.9 85 100
ETE | Pepcosoece 19.8 32.6 90 103
140 | Seems sccs 21.2 34. 2 94 108
GOT Recedter-eae 22.7 35.7 98 lll
ING es eae D2: ew aeao sR eahe 101" ce eee
LO} (eas sees DeAn|soseeseR ee 104-$loze 445284
ASOU ij Serccece 2OSS el eoarcceeee 106\s |) =-seeseene
190 so) se"eceese 2821 revese as 109 electing. sees
200) A) 2-5cec ace ZO ETN Satie ates 1 Bb Kay) eases se
DBM osouhictec BUG Aly eiceeenec LIS il setae ee
220 Meee ae SLOT aa esvare ee 1 hal epapes BN
230) ieecee eae 33516 yee 2 See th ese nce
DAOM eesn cr cc BE ae 0 eters 1188} sc cosee eee
250A We ssea tesa Be Diy |=ae ees ees 119 4 )|ot eh seed
It will be seen by comparison with Table 7 that the growth is con-
siderably slower than that of comparatively even-aged second-growth
with better light conditions. The fast growth in Table 9 about repre-
sents the possibilities under proper management.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 29
GREEN ASH.
Tables 10, 11, and 12 show the rate of growth of green ash on
bottom lands of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Arkansas to be
very rapid and well sustained. The North Carolina table shows
slower diameter growth than the South Carolina and Arkansas
tables, because the stand where the measurements were taken was a
very dense, even-aged, unthinned young stand; the growth in height,
however, was rapid enough.
TABLE 10.—Rate of growth of green ash ' on overflow river bottoms in Orangeburg County,
South Carolina, based on 410 trees 32 to 180 years old.
Fast growth. Average growth. Z
Maximum
Age. | Diameter Diameter old sold
breast- Height. breast- Height. a are
high. high. growth.
Years Feet. Inches. Feet. Inches. Feet
5 2.5 23 1.0 Be) YN 1d a2 eek See
10 5.3 39 2.4 26 46
15 7.5 49 3.8 34 59
20 9.4 57 4.9 41 71
25 10.2 64 6.0 47 80
30 12.8 69 Uoul 52 88
35 14.3 75 8.1 57 95
40 15.7 79 9.1 2 101
45 17.1 83 10.0 66 106
50 18.5 87 11.0 70 110
55 19.8 9h 11.9 74 114
60 PALA 95 12.9 78 117
, 65 22.3 98 13.8 81 120
70 23.5 101 14.7 84 122
75 24.7 104 15.6 88 124
80 25.9. 107 16.4 90 125
85 27.1 110 WG8} OSI etea oss
90 28.2 112 18.1 Oa Beaseaerercn
95 29.4 115 18.9 (Oho Fee ee aS
100 30.5 117 19.7 ied Boseeasececs
105 31.6 119 20.5 OZ ES | See S853 2
110 32.6 121 2153 A ae ae re ae
115 33.7 122 22a LOGUE |e eee
120 34.8 124 22.9 MOGs |Serebe tec
125 35.8 126 23.6 LOS? |Hsee2ee 222
130 36.9 127 24.4 IO Res eee oae
USS EE a sk Se Se: 129 25.2 DU | Se aasse oes
IO) Beet eeocoor 130 26.0 1 ae ee eece
UG book | ete eta ae rs 132 26.7 USF | aS SS
V5 OGAN ae ne eee 133 27.5 1 vl is aes iets
1 Measurements taken by K. W. Woodward, 1905.
TaBLE 11.—Rate of growth of green ash} on old field river bottom land, Iredell County,
North Carolina, in a very dense, even-aged, unthinned stand, based on 20 trees 60 years
old.
Fast growth. Average growth.
Age. | Diameter Diameter
- breast- Height. breast- Height.
high. high.
Years. Inches. Feet. Inches. Feet.
10 3 I 32 eZ 25
15 4.7 44 Doth 35
20 6.2 53 Soil 45
25 5 61 Ani, 53
30 8.7 68 5.6 59
35 9.7 73 6.4 65
40 10.7 78 ee, 69
45 11.6 82 8.1 73
50 1 85 8.9 77
55 1B.83 87 9.7 80
60 14.1 90 10.5 82
1 Measurements taken by J.S. Holmes, 1912.
30 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE 12.—Rate of growth of green ash' on river bottom land, Mississippi County,
Arkansas, based on 394 trees 20 to 160 years old.
Fast growth. Average growth.
Age. | Diameter Diameter
breast- Height. breast- Height.
high. high.
Years Inches Inches. Feet.
1 4. 21 14
20 7.8 2.9 31
30 11.4 7.4 45
40 14.6 9.7 EYe
50 17.4 Ded 67
60 19.9 13.5 76
70 223% Ld<3 85
80 24.2 17.0 92
90 26.2 18.6 99
100 28.1 20.1 105
110 29.9 PATE 111
120 oLe7, 231 U7,
13055 Seo tnsto cme osoocet aes toceeaneeess 122
LA Oks, | 52. ceencise o cea meehee een seeee es eemee 126
150s 8 [55452-5222 | a wee | eee ees se 130
VG6O maf oes occe ssc) teas ete eee | cimec eae eiee 134
1 Measurements taken by G. M. Homans, 1905.
In growing green ash under management it should be possible to
secure an average rate of growth on bottom lands well above the aver-
age for growth under natural conditions, but hardly as rapid as the
figures for fast growth given in Tables 10 and 12.
On uplands, and farther north and west, the rate of growth of
green ash is considerably slower. A green ash plantation on good
prairie soil in central Illinois shows an average rate of growth under
management no greater than that under natural conditions on south-
ern bottom lands, and in Iowa the growth is still slower. The per
acre yield will always be greatest on the well-drained, moist bottom
lands of the South, where the greatest density of stand is possible.
Farther west the possibilities of growth are constantly less. The
rate of growth in upland plantations in eastern Nebraska is consid-
erably slower than the average for natural bottom land growth in
the Kast.
TaBLe 13.—Diameter and height growth of green ash in eastern Nebraska in upland
plantations, diameter growth based on 57 trees and height on 216 trees.
Age. Average. | Dominant.| Height.
Years. Inches. Inches. Feet.
5 ii
10 OSH sa)| Be oon 19
w
or
Agger eT e ok
QorWwWoRDwo
1 Measurements taken by F. G. Miller, 1905.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 31
In this region the growth falls off rapidly after 25 years, and ts
not sufficiently sustained to make management profitable. On the
better classes of sites, however, with moist soils, especially on bottom
land, green ash has a fair chance of profitable growth in the Plains
States (Tables 47 to 49). On bottom lands in western Kansas and
Nebraska, in young natural stands, green ash has been found to
average an inch in diameter growth in three to four years, and in
planted stands it grows an inch in diameter every two to three years.
In planted stands on uplands in the same region green ash takes five
to six years to grow an inch in diameter.
BLACK ASH.
Table 14 shows the rate of growth of black ash in original all-aged
selection forests on typical wet land sites in Michigan and Maine.
TaBLE 14.—Rate of growth of black ash in original all-aged selection forests on wet sites.
A. In northern Michigan.1 B. In Maine.2
Diameter breasthigh. Height. Diameter breasthigh. Height.
Age.
Maxi- Aver- Aver- Maxi- Aver- Aver-
Fast Fast Fast Fast
mum age age mum age : ag
growth. growth. growth. growth. |=" owth. growth. |growth. growth. growth. growth.
Years.| Inches. | Inches. | Inches.| Feet. Feet. Inches. | Inches. | Inches.| Feet. Feet.
9 8
10 1.0 0. 4 0.7 12 1.8 0.4 1.1 15
20 2.4 1.0 1.7 17 24 4.4 1.1 2.7 15 28
30 3.9 1.7 2.7 26 34 7.2 1.9 4.4 22 38
40 5.5 2.5 3.9 34 44 9.9 2.7 6.3 28 45
50 7.3 3.2 5.2 40 52 12.2 3.5 8.1 34 50
60 9. 2 4.1 6.5 47 58 14.1 4.4 oh) 38 54
70 11.1 4.9 7.9 52 63 15.7 5. 2 11.5 41 58
80 12.9 5.8 9.3 57 67 17.1 6.1 13.1 44 60
90 14.6 6.7 10.7 61 70 18.5 7.0 14.5 47 63
100 16.1 7.6 12.1 64 73 19.8 LY 15.7 50 65
110 17.6 8.6 13.5 68 76 21.0 8.9 16.9 52 66
120 18.9 9.5 14.7 70 (key Necdns3e557 9.8 18.1 54 68
130 20.3 10. 4 15.9 72 CNS BRecooccas 10.7 19.3 56 70
140 21.6 11.4 17.1 74 EP sconacosce 11.6 20. 5 57 71
150 22.9 12.4 18.2 76 Ga) lbocoonsscs IPL@. ||ssadeee~ (0) ines
160 24. 2 13.3 19.3 78 8b) |zeSseceoee 1G} |lbedcooce GI ecé Sec
UZ) “|sheosecese 14.2 20. 4 79 shi" |Icoccoosee 15D |leasccooe (Ch jeall eeeeoee
IED) | |lacsncdcase 15.1 21.5 81 S| Reepeeeee Isa Weoogcecd ee eno oe se
UG) Isdoadssece 16.0 22.5 82 88) |eaeteeece = WES |lessockse GO Se saacos
ZU nee saSane5 16.8 23.5 83 SW lisononneces WEG |scsassc CO Sores
PAN) OBS eosoee 17.6 24.5 84 EW banoseease TR (Pal Beeopere GS) sec eeees
220) ba ascodaas Neb Wessocese Sl Weecaoccsllescoccdees IRL \l\eSdossas (Wy lsaeateos
22108 | bec oeeener UES) -eSe5con6 CY Nocosoca||e~soasscce A) Ol Beeeob ee ONS eae
2 Wobeedeeae ANIL Wesesssse S13) laccortes||scsasesnos eb il je eacnes eae eee ace
251") Been Rae ADO lesosodse oR eaposeaelsacsaescne PALS Geocasacs Oma | aeeeee as
2 Nsnoosonees PALS ee coedne EU ar eeesebee| Saas saeas 225) 94 beeaeaee (aH eee
ZO Wn eeeerece = = PPA Gy | aee ease WER SseSoo~c\sonasacose||s- sS0sca|sensasoullasdooosaltasusooe
ASM eeseseapee 23530 Sane 92° a Fins Pease see eeeisal se cosecn te seas e| sae
2010). |Sacoasease Pe eae aeaeee 92) | -bsloccele eee es Semnceree | eaecees ese ecine|(bemacees
ai0d) Sogennobde ZO eacanses PES BAEE DEE A||sqcancecc||baacacsulebeceon ysssoues| oeeesses
1 Based on 90 trees 79 to 292 years old.
2 Based on 45 trees 85 to 242 years old.
This growth is much slower than can be expected of second growth
on land with fair drainage. Black ash planted on uplands in Illinois
has been found to grow as fast or faster than white ash.
32 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
OTHER SPECIES.
Limited measurements on the less important species of ash
indicate the following points:
Biltmore ash grows as fast or a little faster in youth than white
ash on similar sites but is not so long lived.
Pumpkin ash on the same site with green ash grows somewhat
faster, during youth at least, but is not so persistent. Red and
Oregon ashes grow about the same as green, or a little faster, on
similar sites.
Blue ash on upland grows much faster than black ash in its natural
swamp habitat and nearly as fast as white ash on the same site
with it.
PERIODICITY OF GROWTH.
It has been found in southern Indiana‘ that ash does practically
all of its growing during the first part of the season—that is, before
the 1st of July—which is probably true generally of the genus through-
out its range; the latter half of the season it hardens the wood put on,
forms tissues, and stores up energy to be used the next season.
These facts indicate the importance of cultivating planted stands
during the first part of the season.
COMPARATIVE RATE OF GROWTH OF ASH AND ITS ASSOCIATES,
White and green ashes are comparatively rapid growmg on favore
able sites but very slow on poor sites. On good land white ash may
be ranked after black cherry, yellow poplar, chestnut, and basswood
in comparative rate of growth, mm the same class with red oak or
ahead of it (in youth especially), and ahead of white oak, the hick-
ories, birch, beech, and maple. Green ash on bottom lands in the
South with sufficient drainage is less rapid growing than cottonwood,
willow, sycamore, and elm but about the same as red gum and the
faster-growing red oaks and more rapid than the white oaks, red
maple, hickories, black gum, and cypress.
As the prevailing occurrence of black ash is on unfavorable wet
soils, its growth is slow but no slower than other northern hardwoods
on similar sites.
Pumpkin and water ashes also prevailingly occur on very wet soils,
where their growth is slow but not below the average for associated
species on that type of land.
Blue ash grows more slowly than walnut and yellow poplar, as fast
as the oaks on limestone uplands, and faster than the hickories.
YIELD OF PURE STANDS OF ASH.
Although pure stands of ash are very rare, the only way to get an
adequate idea of possible yields per acre under management is by
the study of yields per acre of pure stands.
1 Measurements by Forester Deam, of Indiana, on planted stands of white and green ash.
PLATE XII.
Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
531A
Fl2
undles.
€
e ash cut for h
econd-growth whit
S$
1.—Thirty-five-year-old natural
Tia.
F4199A
000 board
’
., Which will cut 8
paign, Ill
t Cham
SMALL SECOND-GROWTH ASH VALUABLE FOR HANDLES.
ion a
feet per acre
I'i@, 2.—Forty-year-old green ash plantat
Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIII.
F23732
Fia. 1.—Stand in Indiana 15 years old, trees 3 to 6 inches in diameter and 25 to 35 feet high.
Not yet ready for thinning, as natural pruning has not progressed far enough.
ot,
FI3922A
Fig. 2.—Stand 35 to 40 years old in central Ohio. Trees 6 to 12 inches in diameter and 50 to 60
feet high. Stand will cut 7,000 board feet per acre. Natural pruning has progressed sufli-
ciently to admit of heavy thinning if desired. A slight admixture of other species in the
stand, including black cherry, yellow poplar, red oak, and sugar maple. Large tree on left
is black cherry, which has considerably outgrown the ash, and tree on right is red oak, which,
on the other hand, has been outgrown by the ash,
EVEN-AGED, WELL-STOCKED NATURAL STANDS OF WHITE ASH
DESIRABLE TO SECURE IN MANAGEMENT.
THE ASHES : THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 33
Table 15 is the result of tabulating the yields per acre of 63 sample
plots in comparatively pure, even-aged stands of ash, half in natural
and half in planted stands, from 5 to 75 years old, and drawing three
curves to represent high but not the highest (Quality I), average
(Quality II), and low (Quality III) yields. The stands represented
were mostly on average-quality ash sites. Practically all were
unthinned stands, and the yields may be considered as representing
conservatively the possibilities of well-stocked ash stands under
management on fair to good sites.
TABLE 15.— Yield of pure, .even-aged, well-stocked stands of ash on different quality sites.
QUALITY I.
Yield per acre.
Number Average
of trees diameter
Age. peracre | sreasthigh Scribner Decimal C
3” and 3” and Cords.
over. over.
7’ and over.|3’’ and over.
S. Board feet. | Cubic feet.
Dd
Years. Beet Inch
20 42 5.4 2, 000 2, 200 24.4
25 391 6.5 4 200 3,100 34.4
30 375 7.5 6, 500 3, 900 43.3
35 361 8.3 9, 000 4,600 51.1
40 341 9.1 11, 700 5, 250 58.3
45 322 9.9 14, 700 5,830 64.8
50 288 10.5 18,000 6,350 70.6
55 251 a2 21; 700 6, 800 75.6
60 224 11.8 25, 700 7, 220 80.2
65 203 12.4 29, 500 7, 600 84.4
70 188 13.0 32, 800 7,950 88.3
75 176 13.5 35, 600 8, 280 92.0
80 166 14.0 38,000 8, 600 95.6
QUALITY II.
20 482 4/0; hee 850 9.4
25 435 5.0 1,000 1, 680 18.7
30 415 5.8 2; 200 2, 400 26.7
35 393 6.6 3, 600 3, 050 33.9
40 378 7.4 5,300 3, 630 40.3
45 367 8.0 7,500 4, 130 45.9
50 361 8.7 9, 900 4,590 51.0
55 350 9.3 12, 700 5, 000 55.6
60 340 9.8 15, 700 5,380 59.8
65 326 10.4 19, 100 5, 720 66.8
70 309 10.9 22) 600 6,010 66.8
75 288 11.5 25,, 500 6,270 69.7
80 268 12.0 28) 000 6,520 72.4
QUALITY III.
25 469 3.5 ile eee 470 5.2
30 456 49>) an 970 10.8
35 452 4.9 300 1,470 16.3
40 426 5.5 1,300 1, 950 Pile
45 410 6.2 2 400 2; 400 26.7
50 402 6.8 3,900 2,790 31.0
BB i 392 7.3 5, 600 3, 150 35.0
60 382 7.9 7, 700 3,470 38.6
65 377 8.4 10, 200 3, 760 41.8
70 371 8.9 12, 900 4,020 44.7
7 | 365 9.3 15, 700 4260 47.3
80 359 9.8 18, 000 4, 490 49.9
1 Based on 18 plots, Quality I, 30 plots, Quality II; 14 plots,
Quality III, with a total area of 16.9 acres.
6023°—Bull. 299—15——_3
34 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The yield table may be considered as especially applicable to pure,
even-aged, well-stocked natural stands of white ash, as 42 of the 63
plots were white.ash, 28 of which were in natural stands in New
York and Ohio. Fourteen plots in planted white ash stands were
taken in Illinois, but did not average quite as high yields as those
in natural stands farther east.
Fifteen of the plots were in green ash, 14 of which were in planted
stands in Iowa and Illinois and 1 in a natural stand in North Carolina.
The average yield possibilities for well-stocked stands of green ash
on southern bottom lands free from water during most of the grow-
ing season would be considerably above that of Quality u in the
fanle but probably below Quality I.
Ste of the plots were in planted black ash stands in JIinois, which
indicated higher yields than planted white ash stands in the same
State. These yields, however, are very much too high to be repre-
sentative of the best vell:siouked natural black ash stands in typical
black ash swamps of the Lake States.
VALUE OF STANDING ASH TIMBER.
A good way to figure the stumpage in any particular locality is to
subtract from the f. 0. b. mill value of the manufactured lumber the
cost of production plus a reasonable profit to the producer for his
_ time, labor, and capital. The total cost of producing ash lumber
usually varies from $10 to $18 per thousand board feet, and on the
average is not over $14. Ten per cent of the f. o. b. value of the prod-
ucts is enough to allow for profit in figuring what future ash stump-
age grown under forest management will be worth. On this basis
Table 16 is constructed, giving for different costs of production the
value of standing ash timber, which when cut into lumber will sell
(mill run) at the prices indicated. The amount of the producer’s
profit is also given.
TABLE 16.—Stumpage values per 1,000 board feet for different f. 0. b. mill values and
different costs of lumbering (allowing 10 per cent for profit).
|
10 per Cost of lumbering.
TOES 1 Oe | cent
value. | profit of l
| producer.| $10. $12. | $14.
$16. | $18.
he pees Stumpage value per 1,000 board feet.
$20 | $2.00 $8.18 $6.18 $4.18 $2.18 $0. 18
PP It PEE 10. 00 8. 00 6.00 4.00 2. 00
24 2. 40 11. 82 9. 82 7.82 5. 82 3. 82
26 2. 60 13. 64 11. 64 9. 64 7. 64 5. 64
28 2. 80 15. 45 13.45 11. 45 45 7.45
30 3.00 17. 27 15. 27 13. 27 11. 27 9. 27
32 3. 20 19. 09 17.09 15. 09 13. 09 11.09
34 3.40 20.91 18. 91 16. 91 14.91 12. 91
36 3. 60 22. 73 20. 73 18. 73 16. 73 14. 7.
38 3. 80 24.55 22.55 20. 55 18.55 16.55
40 4.00 26. 36 24. 36 22. 36 20. 36 18. 36
|
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 35
Ash stumpage, especially small second-growth trees conveniently
located, will very often be worth more if made into handles (PI.
XII), baseball bats, oars, etc., than if cut into lumber.
From the standpoint of management the value of second-growth
stands is the important thing, and this m turn depends largely on
the proportion of grades which any particular stand will cut. Table
17 indicates the percentage of the different grades cut from second-
erowth white ash under 75 years of age of different diameters from
comparatively straight and sound trees, such as would be grown in
properly managed second-growth stands.t. The second half of this
table shows the f. o. b. mill-run value per thousand board feet of
trees of different diameters, taking the following f. o. b. prices for
the different grades:
Hursis|| @Nose ie Now2 |e iNo.8
seconds. |C2™mon. | common. |common.
IBLTH MgoocanecacenSs $60 $35 $25 $15
Average...-----..- 50 30 20 10
WOW ees ce 40 25 15 5
TaBLE 17.—Per cent of grades cut from white ash trees of different diameters, for compara-
tively straight and sound trees under 75 years old, and f. o. b. mill values of the same.
Grade. F. 0. b. meee per 1,000
Diameter| Firsts
breast- | and sec-
high. onds. 1 com- 2 com- 3 com- ificn, | Anoemes ae
Inches. | Inches. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.
8 34
sodoopDpot 53 13 $29. 00 $24. 00 $19. 00
10 1 51 41 7 29.75 24. 70 19. 65
12 47 40 6 31.55 26. 20 20. 85
14 22 42 30 6 36. 30 29. 20 24, 10
16 29 42 22 7 38. 65 32. 20 25.75
18 35 39 19 7 40.75 33. 70 26. 95
20 43 36 15 6 42.75 35. 90 28.75
Stated in general terms, the mil-run value of second-growth ash
from comparatively vane and sound trees of all three commercial
species is about as follows:
Size of | Mill-run value ber 1,000 board
eet.
trees in
diameter,
breast-
high. Low. |Average.| High.
Inches.
7 to 11 $20 $24
12 to 16 24 29
17 to 21 28 34
1 Based on a mill scale study made in western New York of the cut by grades of 43 white ash logs from
trees 8 to 20 inches in diameter, breasthigh, and 40 to 70 years old.
36 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. -
Applymg the foregoing mill-run or f. 0. b. values to Table 16;
taking $14 as an average cost of lumbering, would give stumpage
values as follows:
Size of Stumpage value per 1,000
trees in board feet.
diameter,
breast-
high. Low. Average.| High.
Inches.
7 toll $4. 18 $7. 82 $12. 36
12 to 16 7.82 12.36 18.73
17 to 21 11.45 16. 91 22. 36
These values may appear too high, because in practice the operator
is often at present able to purchase his stumpage for less than its
real value and accordingly makes more than 10 per cent profit.
This state of affairs, however, is rapidly disappearing as the supply
of raw material diminishes; and the operator will finally be forced
to do business on less rather than on more than a 10 per cent profit
basis, especially when it comes to the purchase of second-growth
‘timber grown at some expense under forest management. Further,
it must be remembered that the timber grower is not at the mercy
of the market so much as the manufacturer and the farmer, because
he can more easily hold his goods until better prices obtain.
Probably a record price for ash stumpage was paid in 1913 in
east-central Illinois (ear the Indiana line) when $32 per thousand
board feet was paid for a quarter million feet of old-growth white
ash, while on the same tract, $125 per thousand board feet was paid
for black walnut, $24.75 for white oak, and $18.05 for hickory.
ADVISABILITY OF FOREST MANAGEMENT OF ASH.
' The growing of ash timber, under proper management, will some-
times pay 6 per cent or better on the money invested, where good
yields per acre and good stumpage prices are obtaimed. This is
shown by Table 18, which gives the compound-interest rates (where
3 per cent or over) to be realized on different initial investments in
growing ash where the yields indicated in Table 15 are obtained and
where the stumpage is worth $5, $10, $15, or $20 per thousand
board feet.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT, 37
TasBLE 18.—Jnterest rates’ (compound) to be expected on money invested in growing ash,
where yield quality I, II, or III stands are secured, calculated for different stumpage
values and for different initial investments.
(Blank spaces indicate less than 3 per cent interest.)
Total initial investment per acre.
Value of 52 10.3 5.4 5 5 6
‘Nae | Shane $ | $10. $15. $20. $25. $30.7
of | per 1,000 ee
stand.| board \ c . & : :
feet. Compound interest rates (per cent) for yield quality I, II, and III stands.
Tio PACS ABs) GS PO OL OR) Teel IDE OG I hae Gila OCs os baits ia ot
Years.
20 fil” Ch Olseee seca Sane Sead BAB sae eeSallsctae sosd[sced|Ss558 |aanallaass|sesce bsba Beek lea dex
I) 768 eecdscoee ah) noua ecadlleodc Senucosc crccone Feed jscise| Aces) |cnadd bcoallacseliaonce
1A, 9.6}.. BO seedleaaee CER aecalAdeae Adee dese eaeee Bass See eee See keel Bee
inl abl aS eawee (bel aod ace HY Gaseljescoc celle Beolabdee S5O| faze lees ete oor Baebes
30 5) 6.1]. Sb 5554 lcgode seer subd lem oc cllaa=| le coclloasealodos ede bebo lodde| lsactllaceae
HOW S318| 4-16] 22 --.- 8 lodSdlseaue tensa lbocde eh) $658 betas Said | aml Seisiere [ene Ne ares | eaten
15} 10.3) 6. 2)....- (eel) et UlSaaee Ope eee blee coc Ghilecelleogee “sOeseclloooae AS Olives seers
- 20) 11.4) 7..3/.--.- 8. 8] 4.8]....- de Al Sa0| eee G54 [eeron|ceaic' On0 mera Bereta 5. afe|(etatayeys
40 Hl GyS|esealleAeoe (hl Seed GBBaa Soca decades dedocca|setellAseecllasea dod bases laooalSocnlvsade
LOW 9555) eet sll Boilseaoc ea le ehsellacece AP aaa sca 2 BHC saa lactic Sail Eerey-ilerarret-
ia) hall MGR EAS S ee (od) eh lisoass | 6.1) 3.8)...-- On |nos Ose a Gleyereia| eae Caine aaeae
20) 10.0) 7. 7)|..--- Sop one |e ete | 7.0) 4.7).-.-- 6522 |535)9|/Nane 5. 6] 3.3]....- SSW Sei eoses
50 5] 5.3] 3.31. lace eee RE PPP eel c|(5-.elb aaa emer aes bor el Peers enes
TO ie) GEO)s5552 iG) Cisse Soe CRU loeocllodsoc “hee eallaoade CHU lSd5el laoaoe aH osaleecao
15} 8.1] 6.6) 3.9] 6.6} 5.2)....-. 5: 7} 1452 | Eee etl) SSOlsSaee CG) Gee scone Ere Wesel
20) 8.8] 7.4] 4.9) 7.3) 5.9] 3.4) 6.4) 4.9)..... 5. 7| 4.3)... SAREE HeSaoe AS |b oa.3| eerie
60 fl Zsa) SEO ease Shit] |bbos SeGad sane Baadlsooodionee| bev elocdoa| Metal dese Haas bose daledooe
10| 6.4! 5.3]..... Reo | eae 4:31) 22a Si She geal Bs be Behe ce ite ccpall ered wa Be eis
15} 7.3) 6.2) 4.4) 6.0] 5.0) 3.2) 5.2) 4.1)..... Ale Has Oleteieio!= Cd neal SeGoe SB Uleecdlidiacce
20} 7.8) 6.8) 5.2) 6.6) 5.6) 4.0) 5.8) 4.8)...-- 5. 3] 4.3]....- Ent: Bb Ullaeoac 4.6) 3.4).....
70 Oleeong eee Sanee Sh tcodllaanoolooed scaclaoocd|aob|[-ceclloooadlecodibedrlecusd|acac Scllonaoc
10} 6.4) 4.8)..... 4.6) 3.8!....- Bt Saar lecace Sho Scee aaees Baa Roce SESsd Saqn wasalecces
15] 6.5] 5:7) 4.4) 5.4) 4.7) 3.4) 4.6) 3.8)..... 4.2) 2.4) .2..- BSylS8eg |seode So 4 len ee| peat
20) 7.0) 6.3) 5.1) 5.9)°5.3) 4.1) 5.2) 4. 5)....- 4.8) 4.0)....- 4.3] 3. 5].-.-- 4.0) 3.2|-..-.
80 | Soeeo Soe Babes Gene acd todas sooasdaclioscs ail °202||>30ellsaciod| Sona|laced|sacaallones S8ocleacoc
HOW 458) 3 19) See BH] eb W Seana lodod sane Sood (556i foadsauS4|eccallsnscllannoa|locee posellscicos
15) 5.6) 5.0) 3.8) 4.7) 4.1)... SH] Bh lle cons $b Gl bAcal Gace Bees nad secacloacaloaad eocse
20) 6.1) 5.7) 4.7] 5.2) 4.7)..... 4.5) 3. 8)... ~- CU eSieosae OnOl ea ialeere Bbtilbocisisense
= n/S+L—A p
1Calculated by the formula p=100 Tae , where p=compound interest rate, n=num-
ber of years or rotation, S=stumpage value at n years; L=cost of land; F=cost of formation; and A=
cost of administration and taxes in n years at 6 per cent compound interest. Five cents per acre annually
is allowed for administration (including fire protection) and one cent on the dollar (full valuation) annually
or taxes.
2 $5 cost of land, and no cost of formation of stand.
3 $5 cost of land; and $5 cost of formation of stand.
4 $10 cost ot land, and $5 cost of formation of stand.
5 $10 cost of land, and $10 cost of formation of stand.
6 $15 cost of land, and $10 cost of formation of stand.
7 $15 cost ot land, and $15 cost of formation of stand.
Where Quality I yields and $20 stumpage are to be obtained, the
operator may spend as much as $20 per acre in buying land and
establishing a stand of ash and still get 6 per cent interest on the
investment. Where Quality Ii or average yields and $20 stumpage
are to be obtained, it is possible to get 6 per cent interest on an
investment of $10 per acre. Quality III yields with $20 stumpage will
only pay a little over 5 per cent interest on an original mvestment
of $5.
88 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
On the average, ash stumpage will be worth only from $10 to $15
per thousand board feet, and well-stocked seedling stands of ash
will usually cost $10 or more per acre. On this basis it will require
at the least a Quality II yield to pay 6 per cent interest. These
figures disregard the possibility of intermediate returns from thin-
nings, which under especially favorable conditions might amount
to from 20 to 30 per cent of the value of the final returns. It may
be said in general, however, that growing ash timber as a profitable
investment is practically limited to lands which will produce good
yields of ash and which do not cost over $10 or $15 per acre.
Ash is one of the most desirable trees for growing in farmers’
woodlots, wherever the soil is suitable, because of its usefulness for
-many purposes on the farm, and because it brings a high price when
sold. It is also especially to be recommended for timber growing on
agricultural land which the owner does not wish to use or develop at
once for agriculture, but which he, nevertheless, desires to hold
indefinitely. The cost of growing temporary forest crops which
will pay fair returns will be very small in comparison with the cost
of developing land agriculturally. Such crops will also require very
little supervision. It will often be a wise policy for the farmer to
cultivate only so much land as he can handle according to the best
farming methods, allowing the rest to grow to timber.
In the management of all forest types in which ash occurs naturally,
it is always to be ranked as one of the most, if not the most, desirable
species to encourage, often to the extent of securing pure or nearly
pure stands of it over limited areas where the soil is suitable.
OBJECT OF MANAGEMENT.
The object of management of ash should be to secure on sites well
adapted to its growth either well-stocked, pure, or nearly pure
stands; or well-stocked mixed stands of desirable species, ash forming
as large a proportion as it is practicable to secure, and being made,
by thinnings if necessary, the favored dominant tree with plenty
of growing space (Pl. XIII).
Pure stands of ash will usually have to be established by planting
or sowing, as only comparatively small patches can be secured by
natural reproduction. They should be limited, as a rule, to the best
sites and to short rotations, which will insure high yields. On all
but the best sites ash is silviculturally better adapted for growing in
mixed stands, either singly or in small groups, because the trees are
light demanding and develop wide-spreading, surface-feeding root
systems, and can be advantageously separated by more tolerant
species with deep-growing roots.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 39
ROTATION.
Ash should be grown, as a rule, on comparatively short rotations
of 30 to 60 years. Table 18 shows that the best financial rotation,
or one which will yield the highest rate of interest on the money
invested, falls between these years. The financial rotation is length-
ened by low yields, low stumpage values, and high initial investment,
while the opposites of these shorten it. The actual rotation in any
particular case may be altered from what seems to be the best finan-
cial rotation by a number of factors, including the purpose for which
the timber is grown, the condition of the market, and the occurrence
of seed years.
From a silvicultural standpoint a short rotation is highly advisable
for pure even-aged stands of ash, because of the tree’s root and
crown requirements. Long rotations in pure stands should be prac-
ticed only on the best sites, and in some cases where a long rotation
is desired the stand should be heavily thinned out and under-planted
after it is 40 to 50 years old, to protect the soil. In mixed stands
where it is the favored Slanstnenne tree ash can often be grown singly
or in small groups on a long rotation.
SPECIES FOR COMMERCIAL TIMBER GROWING.
Species of the white and green ash groups are more desirable for
commercial timber growing than those of the black ash group, because
their wood is superior in mechanical properties and because they are
usually faster growing and attain greater length and clearness of bole.
There are two classes of sites, however, where for silvicultural reasons
it may be advisable to grow ash of the black ash group—namely, blue
ash on dry limestone formations of the Central States and black ash
in northern swamps.
There is no great variation in the mechanical properties of the
different species of the green and white ash groups, and little or none
in the sale value of lumber of the same grade from different species,
so that the selection of species for commercial growing from these
groups depends entirely on their silvicultural qualities. In general,
the species which is most common to the region and character of site
im question should be used. The growing of species outside their
natural habitat (of region and site) should never be tried on more
than an experimental scale. White ash will be the species to use,
as a rule, in the New England, Middle, Central, and Lake States and
in the hills and mountains of the South; and green ash on river
bottom land of the Southern, Central, and Plains States. Of very
minor importance will be the growing of Oregon ash on the Pacific
coast and of leather-leaf ash (/. velutina) in the Southwest (the latter
for shade. ornament, and protection). Biltmore ash is an important
AO BULLETIN 299, U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
supplementary species to white ash and can be advantageously sub-
stituted for it on drier soils in the Central States and in the southern
Appalachians at an elevation of from 1,000 to 2,500 feet. Texas ash
is the natural substitute for white ash on uplands in central Texas,
but is not important for commercial timber growing. Red and
pumpkin ash are two excellent substitutes for green ash, the former
adapted to somewhat drier soils and more rigorous climate than green
(extending farther north), and the latter to somewhat wetter soil
conditions in the central and eastern parts of its range.
Possibilities of reforestation by natural reproduction are quite good
with white and green ash, but naturally very limited with the other
less abundant species.
In planting or sowing ash it is advisable to use seed from trees of
species common in the region (and on similar sites, if possible) where
the reforesting is to be done, or from a region with a slightly more
rigorous climate. Also seed should always be secured, if possible,
from vigorous, rapid-growing individuals.
NATURAL VERSUS ARTIFICIAL REFORESTATION.
Wherever it is possible to secure natural reproduction by using
such methods as are described later every effort should be made to
do so. Artificial reproduction is more expensive and less certain of
ultimate success. Planting should be confined to spots where natural
reproduction is incomplete or to areas where there is no possibility
of natural growth. It will sometimes be more advisable, however,
especially on cheap land, to spend money for disengagement cuttings,
to liberate the ash and other desirable species from suppression, —
rather than for supplementary planting work. In other cases it
may be well to divide the money to be spent between planting and
disengagement work. In general, the more expensive the land and
the higher the stumpage values the more profitable will it be to
spend money on artificial reproduction in order to secure fully stocked
stands with the largest possible per acre per annum growth instead
of being satisfied with incomplete natural reproduction at no expense
and giving smaller yields per acre. For instance, Table 18 shows
that a 5,000 yield on $20 land with no cost of esablishment will not
pay as well as a 10,000 yield on the same with $5 to $15 cost of estab-
lishment, while on $5 land a 5,000 yield without cost of establishment
would pay best. Similarly the less the natural yield capacity of the
soil and the lower the stumpage values the less likely is it to be profit-
able to spend money in establishing a stand.
Adequate reproduction of ash, resultmg in highest yields, demands
that on every separate square rod of space there should be at the
start a mimimum of one thrifty ash seedling, together with at least
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 4]
three other good seedlings of ash or other species, an absolute mini-
mum of 160 ash trees per acre spaced about a rod apart each way,
and a total mmimum of 681 trees per acre of all species. This cor-
responds roughly to a spacing of 8 by 8 feet. For the sake of safety
it is best to have two or more ash seedlings on every square rod at
the outset. The important pomt in production of high per acre
yields is, not the total number of ash seedlings per acre but the num-
ber of individual square rods on the acre which have ash seedlings
on them. It is best therefore to plant the square rod areas having
no promising natural reproduction of ash on them.
The total area where natural reproduction of ash is possible is very
small in comparison with the possible area where it can be artificially
established with success, as it very seldom forms a sufficient propor-
tion of the mature stand to reproduce itself adequately. The princi-
pal species for natural reproduction are the most abundant ones,
which are white, green, and black ash; the other species, where
desired will usually have to be artificially established.
REFORESTING BY NATURAL MEANS.
The methods described here apply to all stands, pure or mixed,
where the object is to remove the mature stand m such a way as to
secure as much natural reproduction of ash as is possible. Methods
of cutting (see pp. 42-44) should be used which will bring about the
production and dissemination of as much seed as possible over the
area, and which will assist m providing suitable seedbed and light
conditions for germination and seedling establishment. In many
cases additional work may be necessary, such as cutting out worthless
material and underbrush to improve conditions for seeding and seed-
ling growth, and later on when the ash seedlings are several years old
disengagement cuttings to free them from crowding or suppression.
All possible use should be made of seedlings and seedling sprouts
already on the ground, as these will usually recover and grow well
when the mature stand is opened up. If such growth is scragegly it
can be cut back near the ground and allowed to sprout up again,
which is especially advisable where it is over 5 feet in height and
even in the case of small poles up to 20 feet in height. The mature
trees should be cut with low stumps, so as to encourage sprouting
from near the ground (below the root collar), which sprouts will form
independent root systems and make the best trees.
Any attempt to secure natural reproduction of ash assumes the
occurrence, mn the stand to be cut, of ash trees which can be used for
seeding purposes. It will often be possible to remove the mature
stand in such a way as to secure so abundant a reproduction that
ash will be one of the leading species m the new stand, though im the
42 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
old stand it may form but a very small proportion (Pl. XIV, fig. 1),
perhaps only three or four seed trees per acre.
The fact that white and green ash have male and female flowers
borne on separate trees will not usually mterfere with ash reproduc-
tion cuttings, as such cuttings will be made after it is apparent that
there is going to be a good seed year, and the tree which will have the
most seed can be picked out and reserved. In preliminary reproduc-
tion cuttings (to induce seed production) it should be remembered,
however, that one large-crowned male tree per acre will pollinate
more than enough flowers of female trees on that acre, and the remain-
ing males can be removed if desired. Determination of sex can be
made by marking trees which bear seed (female trees) in advance of
such cuttings. In mixed stands with a small percentage of ash and
where the sexes have not been determined, it will be best to leave all
large-crowned ash trees.
METHODS OF CUTTING.
The methods of cutting to secure natural reproduction of ash may
be grouped under two general systems; the shelterwood system and
the clean-cutting system, the former being adapted to all sites on
which ash grows, the latter to a limited range of sites. The best
method to use in any particular case depends on a number of factors:
The species to be reproduced; the site, especially soil moisture and
soil covering; age and density of the stand, includmg the amount
and character of the undergrowth; and proportion of ash in the mature
stand.
SHELTERWOOD SYSTEM.
The shelterwood system consists in the more or less gradual removal
of the mature stand, allowing reproduction to get well started under
the shelter of the mature stand before removing it entirely. This
system is especially suitable to upland white ash, as it preserves soil
moisture, a liberal amount of which is necessary for germination and
seedling establishment. The method of cuttmg to be used varies
with the density of the stand.
In comparatively dense stands the mature trees should be removed
in two or three cuttings: First, a seed cutting, often unnecessary,
consisting in opening up around ash trees (and trees of other species
it is wished to favor) to induce them to seed freely; second, a heavy
thinning or. partial clearance in the year of good seed production
removing one-quarter to one-half of the volume of.the stand; third,
removal of the remaining stand a year later or as soon as practicable
after reproduction has taken place. Where these cuttings are made
with reference to a number of small areas—thinning out around
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 43
individual trees or small groups of trees of less than a quarter acre in
area—which are gradually enlarged until they meet, it is called the
shelterwood group method, and where the general cuttings are made
uniformly over a considerable area it is known as shelterwood com-
partment method. The latter method is suitable for comparatively
regular forests, while the former is more applicable to irregular
forests, including overmature natural forests, and hence is the one
to be most often used under present forest conditions. The compart-
ment system is preferable where possible, because it involves less
expensive and complex silvicultural and lumbering operations.
In broken or open stands, where ash seed trees occur with com-
paratively free crowns, the first and second cuttings may be very
much restricted or even omitted altogether. There will usually be,
however, in such stands obstructing undergrowth which should be
removed when there is a good seed year, preferably cut with a brush
hook or bolo in the late summer so as to encourage the feeble growth
of tender sprouts which otherwise will likely be winterkilled. The
mature stand should be removed as soon as possible after reproduction
takes place. Much of the black and blue ash seed will lie over and
not germinate till the second year, which may delay removal of the
mature stand. Previous to the fall of seed much work can be done
in' the way of preparation of the seedbed, especially where it is thick
and dry: (1) Wounding of the soil in logging operations; (2) burning
of the forest floor; (3) turning in stock, especially hogs. This kind
of work is not necessary when the cover is prevailingly of pine needles,
as ash seed can work its way through (PI. XIV, fig. 1). If reproduc-
tion is inadequate at the first seeding it will not pay (except perhaps
with green ash) to wait for another seed year, the area should be cut
clean at once and fail spots planted up.
CLEAN-CUTTING SYSTEM.
This consists in clean cutting the stand when there is a good seed
year at hand. Seed is secured: (1) By making the cutting after the
seed has fallen; (2) by making strip or border cuttings 100 to 200
feet wide on the most protected side of the stand, or by clean cutting
in patches 100 to 300 feet wide, so that seed may be secured from
trees in the adjacent stand; (3) by clean cutting except for scattered
seed trees or groups of trees, several good seed trees or groups to the
acre if possible, well distributed. Clean-cutting methods are adapted
only to moist or wet loamy soils with an open seedbed. Preparation
of the seedbed as described for the shelterwood system will often be
advisable. Green ash on southern river bottom lands is especially
adaptable to this system, but the other species of ash are much less so.
44 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. -
PLANTING OF FAIL SPOTS AND DISENGAGEMENT CUTTINGS.
A year or two after the seeding of a new crop (simultaneously with
the removal of the remaining shelter stand under the shelterwood
system, or during the first good season for planting which follows)
it is very desirable to go over the stand and plant one or more vigorous
young ash seedlings in every square rod which has no reproduction
of ash or other desirable species. Some places may be covered with
a thick growth of inferior species, in the middle of which a square
yard or so is cut clean and an ash seedling planted. Other square
rods may be fail spots for reproduction of any kind, and here four
(approximately 8 by 8 feet) or more seedlings should be planted, but
not necessarily all ash. 5
Another important thing to be done at the time or within five
years (the sooner the better) of the final cutting of the remaining
mature stand is disengagement work. This consists in freeing the
crowns of a certain number of well-distributed and vigorous ash seed-
lings (and desirable seedlings of other species) from injurious crowding
on the sides and from overhead suppression by lopping off the less
desirable seedlings with a corn knife or brush axe. At least one well-
freed, vigorous seedling should be left on every square rod, and
preferably three or four seedlings of desirable species. One man
should be able to cover one or two acres a day in this kind of work.
REFORESTING BY ARTIFICIAL MEANS.
Artificial reforestation of ash is expensive, and should be limited
to cleared fields and pastures and to the choicer forest sites in the
natural habitat of the particular species to be grown.
There are three general classes of artificial reforesting advisable for
ash: (1) Planting on cut-over forest areas (including fail-spot planting
in naturally reproduced stands); (2) dibbling in or sowing of ash seed
under cover of mature stands (with good soil moisture conditions) to
be removed the following year, or sowing immediately after clean
cutting of stands on moist, fertile, loamy sites free from undergrowth;
(3) planting or sowing of cleared areas, including chiefly old fields
and pastures. Underplanting of areas to be cut over later will
seldom if ever be advisable. .
In regard to the question of planting versus sowing, the former is
of much more general application and more certain of success; while
the latter is much the cheaper, and under some conditions has good
possibilities of success.
PLANTING.
Seedlings for planting should be nursery grown, as a rule, since
they are cheaper and much more likely to survive than wild stock.
Wild stock seedlings might be used locally to a very limited extent
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 45
for filling in spots, when it is not convenient to get nursery stock,
and when it is possible to dig them up from near-by spots where they
are unnecessarily thick, and to transplant with great care. Wild
stock seedlings to be planted in comparatively open spots must be
taken from situations with similar shade conditions. Young (1 to
3 years old), vigorous, straight seedlings, under 2 feet in height,
should be secured if possible. For nursery-grown stock 1 to 2 year
seedlings, 6 inches to 2 feet high, are preferable because cheaper,
more easily planted, and usually more likely to succeed than older
and larger stock.
The general spacing for plants on cut-over areas has already been
referred to (see p. 41). In general, 8 by 8 feet each way will be all
right, with every other tree an ash, although on drier and poorer sites
6 by 6 feet should be used. Where there is danger of suppression
by undergrowth or natural growth of any kind, vigorous plants 2 to 4
feet high (2 to 3 years old) should be used, but otherwise piants
one-half to 2 feet in height (1 to 2 years old) will be sufficient.
In planting fields and pastures the spacing should be 8 by 8 feet
where it is possible to cultivate and to grow field crops several seasons
between the rows; where not cultivated, 6 by 6 fect spacing (or 5 by 5
if soil is dry) should be used, except on unusually moist fertile soil,
where 7 by 7 or 8 by Sis all right. Itis possible to plant as few as
one-quarter of the trees ash, and by subsequent favoring to make
them form practically a pure stand. In this case every other row |
could be of another species, and the remaining rows of ash alternating
with another species, which would result in the following number of
ash trees for the different spacings:
Ash plants
Total per acre
Spacing. | plants per (one-
acre. quarter of
the total.
Feet.
5 by 5 1,743 436
6 by 6 1, 210 303
7 by 7 889 222
8by 8 681 170
Table 19 gives the species suitable for planting with ash.
46 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE 19.—Species for planting in mixture with ash.
Species of ash to be planted.
Sit White ash. Green ash.
18. Biltmore ash. Red ash. Black ash.
Best species to plant in mixture.
resht Ord Lyic-. sie \-leis 325 Hard maple.! | White pine.
. White pine.? Silver maple.
Black locust.1 Russian mulberry.1
Red oak.? Red oak.?
Beech.! European larch.
European larch.2
Moist to wet....--.----- White pine. Cottonwood. White pine.
Silver maple.4 Willow. Spruce.
Cottonwood.? Red maple. Larch.
Yellow poplar.’ Loblolly pine.2 Elm.
Cypress.?
Yellow poplar.?
Pin oak.?
Sigil pene Se sece moose prccode doce coaSeceurtcnAOanard lorscdspcducsendccesncretuoacd ss Spruce.?
American larch.?
| | ire
1 Secondary tree; not liable to overcrowd ash.
2 Principal tree; not liable to overcrowd ash.
3 Principal tree; liable to overcrowd ash, and should be sparingly planted and given plenty of room in
mixture with ash.
4 Secondary tree; liable to overcrowd ash and should be thinned out subsequently where necessary, or
cut back and allowed to sprout up again.
The general rule should be to cultivate the planted ash stands
twice a season for two or three seasons wherever practicable (PI. XY),
except, perhaps, on the best moist, fairly well drained, permeable
loamy sites, such as fertile alluvial river bottoms, where the trees
will take hold and grow well without cultivation.
COST OF PLANTING.
The cost of planting on unprepared sites, where plowing or culti-
vation of any kind is impracticable, will range about as follows:
Cost of seedlings (delivered at the site).......-.-....-- $2 to $6, average $4 per 1,000
Cost ofsetting sa year yy ec cita ets ont weer rs 3 to 9, average 6 per 1,000
Motal sos. 22 Lede: ae haemo) Mabasic. 5 to 15, average 10 per 1,000
This is figuring that one man at $1.25 to $2 per day will plant 200
to 400 seedlings per day. Home-grown seedlings could often be
produced for less than $2 per 1,000, so $4 for average cost per
1,000 of seedlings is conservative.
Using $10 per 1,000 (a very liberal amount to allow even for cut-
over forest land) for cost of plantations, their cost per acre for
different spacings would be as given in Table 20.
TaBLe 20.—Cost per acre of establishing ash plantations on unprepared ground with cost
of plants $4 per 1,000 and cost of setting at $6 per 1,000.
SpAcin ess Sane pk. Tee aces. ee ee Se See feet..| 8 by 8. 7 by 7. 6 by 7. 6 by 6. | 5 by 5.
Numb erof;plantst ses o2 ee eee science enon Rees 681 889 1,038 1,210 | 1, 743
Y ae Sar 5 = Se eee ay | -
(Ces MO OEE SARA BR Ee poten an seasena abo seceeeean.: $2. 72 $3. 56 $4.15 $4. 84 $6. 97
Costrolisetting S22 esse. eae cetera 4.09 5. 33 6. 23 7. 26 11. 46
otal SRE AN ECC Ny Sie Win 7.81 8.s0| 10.38/ 1210] 17.48
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 47
Wherever possible it is advisable to prepare the land by plowing.
The cost of setting the seedlings on prepared ground will be much
less—not over $2 to $3 per 1,000—while the growth of the seedlings
will be much increased and the number of failures much reduced.
The total per acre cost of plantations of different spacings on prepared
ground, allowing $2.50 per 1,000 for cost of setting, $4 per 1,000 for
the plants, and $1 to $6 for cost of preparation and subsequent culti-
vations, is shown in Table 21.
TasiE 21.—Cost per acre of establishing ash plantations on prepared ground with subse-
quent cultivations, seedlings to cost $4 per 1,000 and $2.50 per 1,000 for setting.
Cost per acre of preparation and cultivation.
Spacing. Pee $1 $2 $3 | $4 | $5 | 36
Total cost of plantation per acre in dollars.
Feet
8 by 8 681 $5. 42 $6. 42 $7. 42 $8. 42 $9. 42 $10. 42
iby 7 889 6. 78 7. 78 8. 78 9. 78 10. 78 11. 78
6 by 7 1,038 7.75 8.75 9.75 10. 75 11.75 12. 75
6 by 6 1,210 8. 87 9. 87 10. 87 11. 87 12. 87 13. 87
5 by 5 1, 743 12. 31 13. 31 14. 31 14.31 15. 31 16. 31
The cost of preparation varies from $1 to $3, depending on the care
with which it is done and the cost of labor and animals; plowing of
wide-spaced furrows without subsequent cultivation can be done for
$1 an acre or less,
Two cultivations a season for two seasons will cost 50 cents to $1
per cultivation, or $2 to $4 for the two seasons. All cultivations
should be given before the Ist of June, as ash does practically all its
growing before the middle of June or the 1st of July. Where the
stand is to be cultivated, wider spacing can be used (6 by 6 to 8 by 8)
on sites where the dryness of the soil might require closer spacing if
not cultivated, a saving in plants and cost of setting which would
much more than pay for the costs of cultivation. On the heavy soils
of the treeless and hardwood regions cultivation is almost a necessity
to keep down grass and conserve moisture.
PLANTING WITH FIELD CROPS.
This is the best of all methods of establishing ash plantations on
fields, as it will often be possible, by growing field crops the first two
seasons, to pay for the cost of establishing the stand and having it
cultivated four or five times in a season. Corn will be the usual crop
to grow. The field, after being plowed (preferably the fall before),
should be disked and marked off 4 by 4 in early spring, and ash
seedlings planted in alternate rows spaced 8 feet apart in the row, and
corn planted 4 feet apart in rows with no ash and 8 feet apart in the
48 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
rows which contain ash. About four cultivations a year will usually
be necessary for growing corn. Instead of planting ash seedlings,
seed spotting may sometimes be used on better sites im connection
with field crops.
On the Indiana State Forest, a 3-year plantation of green ash on
upland, in which corn was grown the first two seasons, averaged a foot
higher and was in much thriftier condition for more rapid growth
than a 6-year old plantation on slightly better soil but not cultivated.
DIRECT SOWING.
The comparative cheapness of direct sowing makes it sometimes
advisable, instead of planting, where there are good chances of suc-
cess. The seed-spot method is the one to use: (1) For dibbling m
seed under the broken cover of a mature stand to be cut in a year or
two, with fair soil moisture conditions; (2) for sowing on cut-over
areas free from undergrowth immediately following clean cutting of
the mature stand, on good moist loamy soil; and (3) for sowing on -
cleared land, such as pastures, which it is not possible to prepare by
ploughing. A pound to two pounds of seed will easily sow an acre,
allowing 5 to 10 seed per spot and a close 4 by 4-foot spacing of spots,
which is advisable in direct sowing. The holes should be dug 8 to
12 inches square and 3 to 4 inches deep (with a mattock or heavy
turfing hoe), the soil broken up fine and lightly tamped down, the
seed put in and half an inch of fine earth sprinkled over it. If there
is any sod this can be placed, grass side down, around the edge of the
hole so as form a sort of trench to hold moisture. The cost of seed-
spotting, including seed, should not average over $4 per 1,000 spots,
which is equivalent to $10.89 per acre for 4 by 4 spacing, $6.97 for
5 by 5 spacing, $4.84 for 6 by 6 spacing, $3. 56 for 7 by 7 spacing, and
$2.72 for 8 by 8 spacing.
Methods to use on prepared ground are: (1) Ploughing area,
broadcasting 3 to 4 pounds of seed per acre, and harrowing it in;
(2) seed-spotting at 4 to 6 foot intervals in ploughed furrows 4 to 6
feet apart. The total per acre cost would be about the same in both
cases, $5 to $10 per acre.
THINNINGS.
Thinnings in crowded stands should be made an important feature
in the management of ash (Pl. XIII). It is an intolerant but per-
sistent tree, developing very rapidly in height, when crowded, at
expense of diameter growth, resulting in spindling trees with short
narrow crowns and long slim boles (Pl. VIII, fig. 2). It is, however,
very responsive to thinnings made to increase its diameter growth
(Pl. XI, fig. 1).
Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIV.
FII240A
Fic. 1.—Dense natural reproduction of white ash in a 60-year-old white pine stand heavily
thinned 3 years ago, in which there was a slight admixture of white ash seed trees. There
was also abundant white pine reproduction, but this has been outgrown by theash. In
removal of the mature stand the ash reproduction should be preserved and the pines,
which survive the suppression, allowed to continue as an understory till the ash becomes
merchantable and is removed, when the pine will form a second crop.
FI3351A
Fig. 2.—Black ash sprouts, northern Michigan, 16 feet tall, 8 years
old, from stump 230 yearsold. Some sprouts from above and
below the root-collar; the former should be cut.
REPRODUCTION OF ASH.
Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XV,
FI3352A
Fic. 1.—Green and red ash, 8 to 20 feet, average 13 feet high; planted 5 seasons ago,
spaced 5 by 5 feet; one-year seedlings used and cultivated 2 seasons. The tallest trees
With stoutest twigs are red ash, which bore seed the fourth season after planting.
FIS354A
Fic. 2.—Green ash 2 to 6 feet, average 314 feet high, near those in figure 1.
VTC eee planted with iron spud 6 seasons ago but not
cultivated,
ASH PLANTATIONS IN THE INDIANA STATE FOREST.
Bul. 299, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, PLATE XVI
FI2817A
FI2813A
Fic. 2.-After thinning, crowns were free. Crowns should be at least this distance
apart after thinning to secure good development of the trees left.
LOOKING UP INTO THE CROWNS OF A TWENTY-YEAR-OLD
WHITE ASH STAND.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 49
The comparative growth of trees with varying amounts of growing
space is shown in Table 22, giving the growth in 10 years of different
crown classes;! predominant, dominant, codominant, intermediate,
and suppressed. By thinning it is possible to make dominant trees
out of desirable codominant and intermediate ones which are being
crowded by less desirable trees, especially of other species. :
By thinnings it should be possible in some cases to secure the
board-feet yields indicated in Table 18 from 5 to 10 years earlier,
and increase accordingly the possible interest rate on the money
invested, provided the thinnings can be made to pay for themselves.
Very slight crowding of ash when comparatively young will develop
long, straight, clear boles. As soon as these are established it is
best, in order to get the most valuable development of the stand,
to thin out so that each tree which is to form a part of the final crop
will have its crown practically free on all sides (Pl. XVI). It will
usually be sufficient for purposes of heavy thinning if the boles are
clear for 25 feet or more from the ground, or if the branches are all
dead up to that height.
TaBLE 22.—Relation of crown class, age and size of trees, and size of crown, to rate of
growth in diameter and volume of white ash in New York, growing in comparatively
even-aged dense stands.
TREES ON SANDY LOAM SOIL, OSWEGO COUNTY, NEW YORK.
f Growth in last
Average. Average crown. 10 years.
Branch- In vol-
Crown class. Diam- wood ae Take
eter . - inches 1- stem- :
Age. breast- Height. | Length. | Width. or more | ameter. wood Basis.
high. in di- inside
ameter. bark.
Years.| Inches. Feet. Feet. Feet. Cu. ft. Inches. Cu. ft. Trees.
Suppressed ...- -- 32 4.1 45.1 17.2 ORGS Eee fee 1.1 1.02
Dominant.....-- 41 eS 67.1 28.1 19.8 2.16 3.2 10.00 31
Codominant...-.- Al 9.2 65.9 23.8 16.3 shies 2.3 6.31 41
Intermediate. -.. 40 7.0 57.9 22.8 13.4 -05 1.3 2.65 16
Predominant... - 60 17.4 68.7 40.1 20.2 10.88 Dall 15.41 7
Dominant....... 60 15.7 77.9 33. 7 23.2 4.72 2.7 14.76 17
Codominant..... 60 12.4 74.9 27.9 Ws GY/ 1.8 7.94 15
Intermediate. ... 60 9.1 69.3 24.6 16.0 77 1.3 3.98 6
Predominant. .-. 85 19.1 90.9 33.7 30.3 8.78 4.5 30.30 3
1 Under predominant, dominant, and codominant are included all trees which go to form the upper or
main crown cover: (1) predominant, trees with crowns well above those of other trees; (2) dominant, trees
with well-formed crowns, receiving light on allsides; (3) codominant, trees vith uneven crowns and crowded
on the sides. The intermediate and suppressed classes include overtopped trees below the upper crown
cover; (4) intermediate, receiving some direct sunlight on tips of crowns; (5) suppressed, with tips of crowns
shaded.
6023°—Bull. 299—15——4
50 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TasLE 22.—Relation of crown class, age and_ size of trees, and size of crown, to rate of
growth in diameter and volume of white ash in New York, growing in comparatively
even-aged dense stands—Continued.
TREES ON CLAY SOIL, OTSEGO COUNTY, NEW YORE.
Average. Average crown. aires
a Branch- -| In vol-
Crown class. Dinar wood ae THAD Gi
eter . - 2 inches i- stem- =
INE) Gane Height. | Length. | Width. Seimionel|tarierans wood Basis.
high. in di- inside
ameter. bark.
Years.| Inches. Feet. Feet. Feet. Cu. ft. | Inches. Cu. ft. | Trees.
Suppressed... ...- 66 7.0 68.1 12.0 T3202 | pee aes 152 2.62 1
Dominant.....-- 75 13.6 83.6 29.3 20.1 2.57 2.0 9.68 7
Codominant...-- 76 12.5 85.5 24.4 15.7 1.83 1.3 6.96 8
Intermediate. ... 76 9.7 77.9 22,1 12.4 -54 1.0 4.09 4
Predominant. . 105 19.7 94.6 40.0 24.0 9.50 2.1 16.33 1
Dominant......- 105 15.8 89.9 28.7 18.7 4.32 1.4 9.44 10
Codominant...-. 105 12.5 83. 4 20.1 14.2 1.44 Sil 3.95 8
Intermediate. ... 104 11.6 80.3 26.5 14.5 1.50 1.0 4.38 2
Suppressed....-- 106 9.6 78.3 30.5 13.0 38 1.2 4.24 2
Liberal growing space for crowns is especially important for ash
over 35 years old, to enable it to lay on diameter growth. In general,
however, trees in stands under 35 years of age should be kept slightly
crowded, being given a medium to heavy underthinning every five
to ten years, preferably commencing when the stand is 15 to 20 years
old. When 35 to 40 years old the stand should be heavily thinned,
amounting to a partial clearance on good sites, and the crowns of the
remaining trees left free on all sides.
Ash on poorer sites is more intolerant and natural thinning more
rapid than on good sites; so that the better the site the more impor-
tant it is to thin and the greater the yield from thinnings. Figures
on the rate of growth of individual trees on sandy and clay soils in
New York (see Table 7) show faster growth in diameter and volume
during youth on the poorer sandy site, while the reverse would have
been the case if the stand on the better clay site had been thinned.
In unthinned stands of ash under 50 years of age, the board foot
yield and stumpage value per acre may be actually greater on a poorer
site because of more rapid natural thinning and higher average
diameters, although the total yield in cubic feet, number of trees
per acre and height of stand is always greater on the better sites;
this emphasizes the importance of thinnings in ash stands on good
sites to concentrate the diameter growth into a smaller number of
trees. :
Money returns from thinning ash stands are already a possibility
in some parts of the country, and as the supply of ash decreases thin-
nings will become more and more profitable. The yield from thin-
nings in some cases can be expected to equal 20 per cent or more of
the returns from final cuttings of mature stands.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 5l
SUMMARY OF SPECIES OF ASH FOR MANAGEMENT.
The species of ash suited for forest management on different sites
and in different regions of the United States and methods of reforesta-
tion to be used are summarized in Table 23.
TABLE 23.—Summary of species for management in different regions.
Species to use in | Possibility and
Region and character of site.
order of pref-
erence.
method of natu-
ral reproduction.
Artificial reforestation.
(1) New England, Middle,
and Lake States: _
Dry upland (especial-
ly south and west
slopes).
Fresh to moist upland
(especially north
ral east slopes).
Bottomland with fair
Blue ash, on rich
soils only; ex-
perimental.
White ash, and ex-
perimentally
Biltmore ash.
White ash, red
ash, black ash.
iBlackiashees: 5...
Poor; shelterwood
system; dibbling
in seed.
Fair; shelterwood
system; dib-
bling in seed.
Good; clear cutting;
seed dibbling.
Fair; clear cutting;
seed dibbling.
Planting of 2foot seedlings,
spaced 4 by 4 to6 by 6 feet; cul-
tivation for 2 years essential;
preferably mixed plantations.
Planting 6 by 6, or 8 by 8 if culti-
vated two seasons; cultivation
advisable.
Planting 8 by 8, or seed spots.
Subsequent thinnings.
Planting of seedlings 6 by 6 feet.
(2) Central States, Southern
Appalachians and Pied-
mont regions:
Dry upland (especial- | Blue and Biltmore! Poor; shelterwood | Planting 2-foot seedlings, 4 by 4
ly south and west ashes; on rich | System; dib- to 6 by 6 feet; 2 years cultiva-
slopes). soils only. bling in seed. tion; mixed plantations best.
Fresh tomoist upland | White and Bilt- | Fair.........: eAsaed Planting 6 by 6 or 8 by 8 if culti-
(especially north more ashes. vated two seasons; cultivation
and east slopes). advisable.
Bottomland with fair | White and green | Good; clear cut- | Planting, 8 by 8, or seed spots.
ashes. ting. Subsequent thinnings.
(3) Atlantic and Gulf Coastal
Plain region:
Fair surface or sub-
surface drainage.
(4) Erainie and Plains States:
pland.
Bottom land: --22..-- -
(5) Pacific Coast region:
IVT natsese: sssse cee
(6) Southwest:
Sseee do
Black, pumpkin,
and green ashes.
Green and pump-
kin ashes.
Pumpkin and
green ashes.
ashes.
red
Leatherleaf ashes
(F. velutina and
coriacea. )
Fair to poor; clear
cutting; seed
dibbling.
Good; shelterwood
and clear-cut-
ting methods;
seed dibbling.
Fair to poor; clean
cutting; seed
dibbling.
Fair; clear cutting
and shelterwood.
systems.
Poor; shelterwood
system.
Planting of seedlings 6 by 6 feet.
Planting 6 by 6 to 8 by 8 or seed ~
spots. Subsequent thinnings.
Planting 6 by 6.
Planting 6 by 6 and cultivated
two to four seasons.
Planting 6 by 6 to 8 by 8 and cul-
tivated.
Planting 6 by 6.
Planting 6 by 6. Hardly to be
advised.
Planting, irrigation, and cultiva-
tion four seasons. For shade
trees and windbreaks only.
APPENDIX. |
TABLES.
BARK TABLE.
Table 24—Double width of bark of white, green, and black ash.
FORM TABLES.
Tables 25 and 26—White ash form tables:
Table 25—For trees under 75 years in age.
Table 26—For trees over 75 years in age.
Tables 27 to 29—Green ash form tables: _
Table 27—For trees under 75 years in age.
Table 28—For trees over 75 years in age.
Table 29—Clear and used lengths of trees of different diameters and heights.
Table 30—Black ash form table for trees over 75 years in age.
VOLUME TABLES.
[Based on Form Tables 25-30.]
Tables 31 to 37—White ash volume tables:
Table 31—Volume in cubic feet, peeled, for trees under 75 years in age.
Table 32—Volume in cubic feet, peeled, for trees over 75 years in age. z
Table 33—Volume in cords, and per cent of bark, for trees under 75 years in age.
Table 34—Volume in cords, and per cent of bark, for trees over 75 years in age.
Table 35—Volume and per cent of branch wood.
Table 36—Volume table in board feet for trees of varying diameters and numbers
of logs under 75 years in age. p
Table 37—Volume table in board feet for trees of varying diameters and numbers
of logs over 75 years in age.
Tables 38 to 483—Green ash volume tables:
Table 88—Volume in cubic feet, peeled, for trees under 75 years in age.
Table 39—Volume in cubic feet, peeled, for trees over 75 years in age.
Table 40—Volume in cords, and per cent of bark, for trees under 75 years in age.
Table 41—Volume in cords, and per cent of bark, for trees over 75 years in age.
Table 42—Volume table in board feet for trees of varying diameters and numbers
of logs under 75 years in age.
Table 43—Volume table in board feet for trees of varying diameters and numbers
5 of logs over 75 years in age.
Tables 44 to 46—Black ash volume tables:
Table 44—Volume in cubic feet, peeled, for trees over 75 years in age.
Table 45—Volume in cords, and per cent of bark, for trees over 75 yearsin age.
Table 46—Volume table in board feet for trees of varying diameters and numbers
of logs over 75 years in age.
YIELD TABLES.
Tables 47 to 49—Yield of planted groves of green ash in the Plains States:
Table 47—Yield of green ash in South Dakota.
Table 48—Yield of green ash in Nebraska.
Table 49—Yield of green ash in the Plains region.
52
THE ACHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 58
TasBiE 24.—Double width of bark at breastheight for trees of different diameters and
species.
Green ash. White ash. Black ash.
Diameter j
breast- Trees Trees Trees Trees Trees
high. under 75 to aa under 75 to a See 75 to ase
75 years | 149 years | Bis. | 75 years | 149 years| BSiS- | 300 years | Basis:
old. old. old. old. old.
Inches. Inches. Inches. Trecs. | Inches. Inches. Trees. | Inches. Trees.
0
Nn | Re Rerers trons esaystetcretelaye!|tetcis e/ciciers Oni |etstertatar Tse sce anim cl Sie cte sical e [erciaie Maas
3 gf. |Isqoqacadod Ssaudaoe Ge) \sedcceosae Bes ee eee el aes
4 SOM seer lsecis cise Osh neoaeoeeae We Pliemacam seca se ceuere
5 6Q"|\Gencaseace 5 a) | Baduosease GIS | Renee seme ae aeeese 5
6 oll -8 10 -6 -8 19 Ole posciece
U “idl of) 18 08) .8 19 a) 2
8 -8 at!) 18 ati .9 15 -6 4
9 .8 ag) 11 8 1.0 23 ail 6
10 ao, 1.0 19 of) ipa 20 -8 8
11 oY) 1.0 24 of) 1.2 32 8 5
12 1.0 1.0 30 1.0 1.3 29 8 10
13 1.0 1.0 51 1.1 1.3 34 at) 16
14 1.0 ileal 67 1.2 1.4 21 1.0 4
15 1.0 Neal 45 1.2 1.5 28 Gal 9
16 1.0 1.1 52 1.3 1.6 20 1.2 12
17 alba sal 48 1.4 ev 21 1.2 4
18 1.1 1.1 47 1.5 1.8 9 1.3 7
19 1.1 1.1 40 1.6 1.9 14 1.3 5
20 1.1 1.1 42 1.6 9) ) 1.3 3
21 ileal 1.2 41 Ie 2.0 4 1.3 8
22 ial 1.2 42 1.8 2.1 6 1.3 2
23 Bal 1.2 32 1.9 2.2 4 1.4 2
24 1.1 1.2 30 2.0 2.3 1 1.5 1
25 1.1 1.2 Doin |srrateie eae 2.4 2 1.5 2
26 ial 1.5 21 PB): Vadeacyene 1.5 | 1
27 1.3 18 2a) |loceensee 1.6 2
28 1.3 18 2.6 1 1.6 1
29 1.3 10 th Ul sonesase Ue 1
30 1.4 11 2.8 1 1.8 1
31 1.4 By SRE aBOOS S| oes ac5ei5e 4 KOCSUR es OSes Em AOR nee ansee
32 1.4 Lem ERE RBe roe c= 5 cael Sooeedee| EDEMncoebal Soaoseue
33 1.5 DN oto atase cte ete Ree | lave fore siete |aielete eteteeral eee res
34 1.5 GJ VSP SESS cl 2 eV a A a
oh) |Eoeieceadas 1.5 PA hishaapbcec| secs. oclbopeseas|Honedeabed|inos6oed-
Sol eda GAGBSBe 1.5 ta Rerodeaeoc|lacoochccoq bavasbis|aosbeecurelseoseerc
BUS llbecceussoe 1.6 We SSpaspeocd|ccoccccenc|beposeuellsesedbgnedlscodneas
Bie" llocecdoadas 1.6 Til PRB aRGe ba jo60505 5Sue be ebaecal lapse dees aececerc
gi lactaeboccs Aa sore ren Spo cabo cool cc 7osS550el bosesene |dacsandona ae aapee:
dt). ||paeeseaces IGG NWN See maRincos|jaco-c coeos| Sonacese|lnoobat socellb>co anon.
795 375 116
TABLE 25.—Form or taper for WHITE ASH trees of different diameters and heights
under 75 years of age, giving diameters inside bark at different heights above the ground.
20-FOOT TREES.
Height above ground—feet..
Diameter
breast- i 2 3 4.5 | 9.15 | 17.3 | 25.45 | 33.6 | 41.75] 49.9 | 58.05 | 66.2 | 74.35 |Basis.
high.
Diameter inside bark—inches.
Inches. Trees
2 DEAD sD le (Dp Ne Des eel Bly |: 2 eee ps | a pee es | ae a (Re 53
3 B50 (es ie ed [ek ea 0) 77 F'n Ee a ene eee ee ee ee SS oceroal memes 5
4 4.6| 4.3] 4.0 3.6 DD oie. k Se Rese ee | eee RE Ps eae Aged eS RUE OE Al ey sa esa
5 E37 fad | eaka tes hee: 2) bv: aay Fae Peepers LER PONT 2 oe ac al eee aellagoeae
6 CHO ee GaSeline De OBE at |i aol | cto. o:k: cls eeaeyerarey meena pe Ia sn IIR Veo a (OI sa aes | Pa a
es of different diameters and heights
bark at different heights above the
rey , Tae
aide ' (i 90
Ontnes INMONAAMRA He
N oo oO HERES SS O00 S
Ono 0 ' see te
Ged 0 ’ peta
Cem UNSe Onin a Oa OnOmnncees0
00 60D, 0-0 th 0. 0 0 eevee t. 0
Ooo oO Od Of. o--n neo t Ody ire0
Of oo 0) c=)" ,O OPO 00 OD neon Oro0
Veo 0 “Oni 0% OY Cert 0) 0 Oo 0600
C2080 020 30 5 CO Oni Ce Dene ete Kp
(a On aCe ea) iE isi Onan Uma
Civ Cis = GeeOmOe eg rl sop Seow SOD
0 <0. fr 10 Oe Q ear Carre Ci arte Oe Get 0
Oy senile tent it Jao) Apel Ontol be af be ienst Ore Ores
OD aOo eo a0. ech tho anal Sty)
Que ndte th SNe) (Wicca emcee teste ae
Umleneaee le yenare Cation aan a eel Pet cnet a
' Cente eet) ty OO Wee) Seneca te
. Gite atiuD apttey ej sig) Mie} sei 0) a) a seco
' Tact epi bod Oo epn 0 OO ale 0re0-40
= OL th Che thet D) @) se) <0) ta! Sel Mer eie) We) cele, 6
CX Se Gee som eteiabe] fet“ |RSS rey iat. eh Oere tie
POU a tie fo tee tr
he OR era Sree Tio cth) ele Ore ed ot) ¢ teat, ae
Oy. Op cu a a) afl OTe eR CHAO) Spelt ee kT De ae
peyerie inet alte Tate tar net eeaae oo
Oo i vo ' Of aii ieat erento 60
De eee) Teepe eeaen rts ty eee Peree careers € ' oo
tiepmewe O20 Peal nian ano .
Oo On 6 fp Cero 0 Ue Deroy oD a aye
5 0) oe Chae KY cated YoU Si hat salts
ret thy tha ‘ Phy ithe Poti @reatiotr tt er dad
' om Oty eaten reer eh te Teer)
Outer une tres rc elaine eieats <0] 8 moe
Kame CO eee (rate heaaCan nan vena
Sirti ere 0. tes) aeons, fa Oi cate
ousn ‘ iieen ie AG) 40, 0) ney ee ne
' econ Dette 0800 0
Cet healt nt Phat Liesl) Yh Oa ea eeClan 0 age
Ca Tat Peek ical ok st euemnine|| | oka Pl PP Srp reore 9? -O (yew ti ises0
Coat) (ra)
open nos DOMADCOHWRMON
Patent Che De 20 INN OD 00 OD SH SHAD
30-FOOT TREES.
Height above ground—feet.
tiameters inside
, ging a
Diameter inside bark—inches.
1 2 | 3° | 4.5 | 9.15 | 17.3 25 33.6 1.35 49.9 58.05 66.2 74. Basis.
BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
MN OD Hig oh
SOSTAMAN
olive, Sete lesen gs)
ofine leis theses olive
under 75 years of age
high.
ground—Continued.
Diameter
breast-
54
TABLE 25.—Form or taper for WHITE ASH tre
40-FOOT TREES.
.
’
GOES IGN REL COICNIEN CN relies ‘
Anne ‘
'
. Ga thats oO i Ses
Ge a0 O20. DP G0 Fb ec
' O10 080° .0 eo) Te Oe
uet; sere on sc O00
core CO. % Ot 090 0
' tae GO tee i en ’
Dak 0 wihal i mein), fi Ot od
OOO Oe oe oO” oO 0
Dea Deo Ce oOod O10 OD
De eno erC Cin er Que OC Oo
CeO Ue O OG theis0 G-.00-%
OMCAtae ate 0 0 0 0 peo. 6.0
ann Dann Umeo nO
CeO 0 Ne CO Oe 0-6 10).
(eG) sr tise 0 te 0) Oo 2p Op
One On Oe) Oh O08 Nesye000, 0
Dae OD. 0 OF 0 Os ap 0" Ooi
Peete ats 0) 0 S00 en GEA
(ae st nea eLInnD SL
DORMO OT DRO er e020 08.0
' Ce woe 0 O20 Oso
C0 sc) Ap eae Dwr 0
Ooo UD Oe Oi, 1D Oo Oa
. Cent) B00 30 imine
are iD aaa
Pet orto ee theo . .
‘ este: 0. 0) 0 BO) OO
. OOo Oe OO Ono ay
05-0) “\8yda) awry oxemefane Ge 0 .
ide ee nL ene seca) Ame Ore
TAN AN 09 09 SHH HH 1919 OO
ADWDARBIQVDOONA~MHDAHH
AN 09 oD SHAD 19 CO OE POCO
NO19 OM MDI oD
MN OD oO SH Hig OOD
1D OD A PS 1D OD A DE SH
AND OD Hig Or OD
re ononttaarnnnAo
MANO HID Or~oNRor
are
SOOA3AAAAAWAH
Nod SHIN OLD OMOr
retinal
SMA AANA 09 09 09 09 St St et 1 LD
DOS MONOMUMDASOSHDMONAING
TAN AN 69 09 09 SH SH 19 CO OI I OO
ARAN MOMOHRNHORERANDOH
ANAM tds isSSMHAHDASSSHA
ans
DO AIDHOHOOMAOGMONMOMt
Ades His is Serr dada Snide
De Oh oe Bh oe Oh oe Oe Oh oe
ets DWIIAMDMIMOOMOD
NOD HHI OOM ORDMOO
Vr She |
AH DOINAROMDHOINMONMINMHAOH
SOOM IG ISSN HORSHAAAG Hdd S
Se Oe Be Oe Be Oe Oo oe |
50-FOOT TREES.
AAOMIOANNOOMM MH
otitis Sr adaascrne
Sea
C1 SH HOD AN HH OO 00 COL
OHidSrwosscrtiaadd
AAAs
AN 69 09 09 SH 1D 19 CO EP 00
apuieyeetuane ona R OR AG
Nod Hig iS featioy
SHIDONOONHTNROAH
Addis sdaciad
Saeaeir
NAMWi9 OM DRDOTMN
wane
DAARARMAAROSOOH
HxdtiSSrHASSHSHISS
means
6 69 69 HID IN OM COONAN
WG SNRASBSHAANTISSH
be Oo oe Be Oe
OMRONMH AHN O00
Wid CARB SHATIDSH
bee re Os Do he he |
HiQDO Mm WOMWONNAM WINS
MANA
60-FOOT TREES.
HAHONMMACDONMACONnt
HUD GSM ABSSHAG TINH Sr
Sessa Ses Set
OIDHMHAMAAHORODrOMNMHMA
GOA SKAHBSOHHAANHMINSKRAAS
SAAS RASA
DAMARARAARBOOCOCHAANAN MCD
MW PISSrAABSHAHAISSMDASASAN
Se Oe OB ee DB oe Ee | NN
69 69 69 HIDIN OM OOHAMHNOSOrOD
Hid Or OS SHAT SOKRBSSHANG
Meee ee et Na etetiecl GUCTONCS
OMAONMMH-MAMNOWDONMINOD
H 1 06 OD SHAN IS Sr HSHAGTD
a a ST ea ae OU CUEN CRON CR
59
THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT.
THE ASHES
ghts
f different diameters and hei
, guing diameters inside bark at different heights above the
o
S
S38
ae
Sq
9
(®)
© |
os
Ss
se:
sb
TaBLe 25.—Form or taper for WHITE ASH trees o
70-FOOT TREES.
Height above ground—feet.
Trees.
(=n WiLL Un Una UnGOaLDn US UneLin Oy Ul tn OO
eo O08 0-0 0 060 0 Do 0 5G o-oo 0.0
189
O20 SO.0: TD Ulteo Ole OU Gxt “oc oe oS 60
Det 0a (WO) sie Ou Uovtbeth-t.O- OOO 0
0 fe OS 0s snid 20. 90 wo 0 Sor OOo oO Fen Mo
re i 0-0 Uo Ou ete GU U0 Td 060 s0=0
(aalinsD bani On SOD LnnOs (mal wO ss maki LO
O00 iO ito 70 D0 C0. 0 ato Fao 08d
C080 Sos eo Toes Look On a 20 20. 0:
Os) Ot (Diente O2eQve sulle Ceelee( ent. Os O°
OCs Om 0 0r OseCeid-60 SOFC Oeil 00? oD
O60 50 200 20800" 0 OO Oo EOS 0206 0-0
TaN AN 09 09 09 SH HD 19 19) CO COE Pe EP CO
CMAN HOnMHONR EAE HONORM
AA MotitisisSSorrndaacon
rine
DAK MOMAr MAMAN MANAN OD
AGA HT HSSRKABASSHAA CS
SB eB os Oe Eh |
DOARPOMDOOMOnMOnMOn HH
Ao tidi sor nr dasa scdidadoed tis
Se ee ee Be
1 | 2 | 3 | 4.5 | 01 17.3 25.45 33.6 /4.75| 49.9 5805] 66.2 [74.39 Basis.
Diameter
breast-
high
Diameter inside bark—inches.
ADM ANO~MANMYANDOMAMr19
MOAMIGSSrMOHBHBSAAAM HIN ISS
ha
INMABOMMIANAOCMBNOTNCOrMON
HIG ISOM AOABSSHAGMHiSINSN
Se eB oe Oe Be Oo | ri
3
2
COrigwdtonAdead OOO Oh 019 HH
3 | 20
0
9
9
9
9
9)
9
9
9
0
0
0
1
1
2
2
2
3
7 | 20
8 | 21
9 | 22
5
6
69 09 69 HID INO OOH ACD tH
WIGSHRABSHAH DSR ADSHASG
Se ce Oe Oe On oe Oe Be Oh |
a
6
7
9.
0
2
4
7
9
1
3
5
8
0
HMIGDSOHBSHAH OSH ASHAD Hid
Se OO oe OO oe Boe oe a
20
21
22
23
80-FOOT TREES.
NAIA 09 09 09 SH XH 1D 19 109 6 6 P= P= = 00
OD P= NI B= 09 00 019 00 69 00 6) 80 OF) CO 61 00
HOMANRMAMNDOnNMATHRHD
OH Hig PSSM HSDASBSOHAANAN
Sn hs he
SOMMINNDINN D191 O1IN NID
Hiss Sr rsdaacndinadedd
De Ms oe he ho |
HARMOMDOM HHOHNRMOMAIN
Tad GSK HOKDABSSHAN SG Hdd
Se ee Oe Oe Boe Eo De |
DOHHROWNRDOTHOOOON
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107
90-FOOT TREES.
TAIN NANO) 09 9 SH SH SH 19 19
OOP AID DOD OI ANM-NONS
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BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
6
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57
THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT.
THE ASHES
| |
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58
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90-FOOT TREES.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT.
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9 years in age, givin
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above the ground—Continued.
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TasieE 26.—Form or taper for WHITE ASH trees of different d
100-FOOT TREES.
BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
SOOM BN MAN OOHN
Trees.
Height above ground—feet.
'
’
‘
.
.
.
. .
. .
. .
90. 65
82.5
74.35
58. 05 66. 2
49.9
41.75
33. 6
4.5
nN
Diameter,
breast-
igh.
Diameter inside bark—inches.
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[48
110-FOOT TREES.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT.
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BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
62
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63
THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT.
THE ASHES
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(eee)
19 SO
anc
CD eeeee
AB usioa cs
Le eens
LO eased
ie Siar
Le esis
TB ecto
WAS eas
BO se
34.....
Rh eae sone
BO Sores
Blinn
Oe asdacae
BO Nereis
70
ide bark at
ameters insi
d
in age, giving
.
hts, 75 to 149 years
Ug:
different heights above the ground—Continued.
TABLE 28.—Form or taper table for GREEN ASH trees of different diameters and he
110-FOOT TREES.
Basis.
BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
(ND HE CDOAMBONMAHOMMDOMOW MO
mre Mitt rt rs
181
Trees.
Height above ground—feet.
106.95
58.05 66. 2 74.35 82.5 | 90.65 98.8
49.9
de bark—inches.
insi
Diameter
.
'
.
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73
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 71
OOM OO HINOIQDQOAN HAO sri ca
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120-FOOT TREES.
27.
28.
29.
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40. esis ce
43 cesses
72 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
}
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THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 73
TaBLe 29.—Average total height, clear length, and used length, of GREEN ASH of
different diameters of a large number of trees cut in South Carolina and Arkansas in
1905.
7 South Carolina. Arkansas,
Diam-
eter,
pee Total | Clear | Used | Total | Clear Used
ign. height. | length. | length. | height. | length. | length.
Inches Feet Feet Feet Ree Feet Feet.
U5 Seles bi ee eee el nl PL Obed le) aime Ola ep rer Bon
2 25 (a SAAS cood 22 101s S35 Rees:
3 35 1 aon soos 30 Oa Rear aes
4 44 4 ie eee 38 TSie Sacer cre.
5 51 yes eee sase 46 D2 oe Re eo
6 58 20 Were: Serpe 54 25 Ss eee
u 63 23) ans eeee 61 PAU ts Bateretes ates
8 68 26 25 68 32 35
9 73 28 28 75 35 43
10 76 30 30 81 38 47
11 79 33 33 86 40 50
12 82 34 35 90 42 52
13 85 36 38 94 43 53
14 87 37 40 96 44 54
15 89 39 42 98 45 55
16 91 40 44 100 46 56
17 92 40 45 102 47 56
18 94 Al 46 104 48 56
19 95 42 47 105 48 57
20 96 42 47 106 49 57
21 97 43 48 107 49 57
22 98 43 48 109 50 57
23 99 43 48 110 50 57
24 100 44 49 111 50 57
25 101 44 49 112 51 57
26 101 44 49 113 OF 57
27 102 44 49 113 51 57
28 103 44 49 114 51 57
29 104 44 50 115 52 57
30 104 45 50 116 52 57
31 105 45 bil Sascecoos| basecareod Lear ace ass
32 106 45 Gy Reseaccose Gaeet eee aq eee ses
33 106 45 5S) oSSoorced Se ee Seen Capers sae
34 107 45 7) Ui Biciesecisoad beeceme ctl eecere ee
35 108 45 HUE ABS SoAca6a| boSeHB be Sel Hee ae ee
36 108 45 3 eh Hecesucesal PESOS oee Il ere eae aes
37 109 45 DO! | ee yeteereeell ae rays ete el | are See ay
38 110 45 HV seo Sore beat oES or DaeEee ace
39 110 45 BO atl Bee Reece eee Cy ek em ee
40 111 45 SOE RS ENS rc oRatereresel| 2 osc oben
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ters inside bark at different
iame
d
years in age, giving
ameters and heights, 75 to 3800
‘i
d
heights above the ground—Continued.
TaBLE 30.—Form or taper table for BLACK ASH trees of different
90-FOOT TREES.
Diameter
breast-
high.
BULLETIN 299, U.
= SOOM ONNM OMAN tet el
a 2 ‘ deo ate
ond o C
B md : sian :
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De
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1622222422
Qables scsi
DA eae trices
100-FOOT TREES.
S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
COnEANDON
OSrKDDS
CONDMOW
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THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT.
WNOOMAONID
SCHKHHHDAS
DAMADOMNM
acsnnaan
renseae es
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ce
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wii Hi 15 1915 1555S
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e
17
78 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE 31.— Volume in cubic feet of stem wood, exclusive of bark, of WHITE ASH trees
of different diameters and heights, under 75 years in age; and factors to multiply by to
reduce to cubic feet including bark.
Total height of tree—feet.
Diameter
breast- 20 | 30 | 40 50 | 60 | 70
high. :
Peeled volume—cubic feet.
Inches.
0.2 0.3
.6 RS e EAMntseciey Penmaes
ipal 1.4 1.8 PAal 255
16 2.2 227 one 3.8
2.3 3.1 3.9 4.7 apis)
3.2 4,2 Bud 6.3 7.4
4.1 55. 6.8 8.2 9.6
Dal 6.9 8.6 10.3 12.0
pa 8.6 10.7 12.9 15.0
10.3 12.9 15.4 18.0
eee ce 1253 L5s4 18.5 22.0
Beet Seal esa 17.9 22.0 25.0
So ecto | she eitete 21.0 25.0 29.0
wfslaepes a c\| Sacer 24.0 29.0 34.0
ebdaemellaeceeee 27.0 33.0 38.0
ee Mie elie easy Be aise 37.0 43.0
Se Bi eae ere caccce |aeciomee 41.0 48.0
Meee nn Rene al Pees iie 46.0 54.0
ye Se crore (va eerie a ers LESS 51.0 60.0
Sle AN VN Abn DT i 56.0 66.0
SCAG Beene Meese 62.0 72.0
kos | sci eet
ia | heen ae
10.9 12.3
13.7 15.4
17.2 19.3
21.0 23.0
25.0 28.0
29.0 32.0
33.0 38.0
38.0 43.0
44. 0 49.0
49.0 55.0
55.0 62.0
61.0 69.0
68.0 77.0
75.0 85.0
82.0 93.0
Factors to
multiply
by to
reduce to | Basis.
cubic feet
including
bark.
Trees
1. 23 65
1.22 70
22 81
1.21 57
1,21 80
1.20 57
1.20 63
1.20 54
1.19 45
1.19 33
1.18 28
1.18 19
1,18 14
1.17 10
LE7, 6
1.17 6
1.16 3
1.16 4
1.16 1
806
TABLE 32.— Volume in cubic feet of stem wood, exclusive of bark, of WHITE ASH trees
of different diameters and heights, 75 to 149 years in age; and factors to multiply by to
reduce to cubic feet including bark.
Total height of tree—feet.
Diameter
breast- 50 60 70 80 90 100
high. 4
Peeled volume—cubic feet.
Inches
Grete yeceos 4.0 4.8 ESL] SSosotae Sosostos tocsraeses
lerenroecce 5.4 6.5 TEGH| See cae Se ae eee
Seis semaine 7.0 8.4 9.8 LD in| Sh ae yell aa aS
aS BABocES 8.8 10.6 12.3 LAR Ae Sarat omeereae
LOS ee oi 11.0 1352 15.4 17.6 LOB aS eee ene
1 Pe ae 1342 15.8 18.5 21.0 DAS ON | Saceeseee
MC e as Meisinne 15.8 19.0 22.0 25.0 28.0 32
1 Pee 18.4 22.0 26.0 29.0 33.0 37
VCS Somers 21.0 26.0 30.0 34.0 39.0 43
UD BRS eeobe 25.0 30.0 34.0 39.0 44.0 49
i eeseecear 28.0 34.0 39.0 45.0 50. 0 56
dy fee Beetle 32.0 38.0 44.0 51.0 57.0 63
Bois Ree ene 35.0 42.0 50. 0 57.0 64.0 val
1h! Ste 39.0 47.9 55.0 63.0 71.0 79
7 SS eee 44.0 52.0 61.0 70.0 78.0 87
VAS Seen 48.0 58. 0 67.0 77.0 87.0 96
Dae zieus 53.0 63.0 74.0 84.0 95.0 106
69. 0 81.0 92.0 104.0 116
75.0 88.0 100. 0 113.0 126
82.0 95.0 109. 0 123.0 136
89.0 103.0 118.0 133.0 148
stomps 111.0 127.0 143.0 159
is aps 120.0 137.0 154.0 171
K (mi nigherey ct 129.0 147.0 165.0 184
erciontls ie 137.0 157.0 177.0 196
BOR rd ere asec 168.0 189.0 210
Bike cite SANE 179.0 | 201.0 204
He Aaco NOMCcose 190. 0 214.0 238
Lartete sion mieniciee ome 202.0 22740, 252
Beetle fail cin ateteterore 214.0 240. 0 267
wb ees Pa ONOoee 226.0 255.0 283
| 110 | 120
ATE) sate etre
OL hosoGacccr
62 67
70 76
78 85
87 95
96 105
106 116
116 127
127 139
138 151
150 164
162 177
175 191
188 205
202 220
216 236
231 252
246 268
261 285
278 303
294 321
31) 339
reduce to | Basis.
cubic feet
including
bark.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 19
Taste 33.— Volume of stem in cords,‘ including bark, of WHITE ASH under 75 years
in age, for trees of different diameters and heights, and per cent of bark in trees of different
diameters. 4
[Based on taper table.]
Total height of tree—feet.
Diameter te
breast- 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Bark. Basis.
high.
Volume—cords.
i
Inches. { Percent. | Trees.
fae Heer 0.009 | 0.014 | 0.017 0.022 | 0.026 OKOB IR ese eens i Ai aig ce 18.6 65
DWassumnent 013 . 020 . 027 . 033 . 040 - 046 OF O05 40) 2 sees: 18.3 70
(Dee 5 a ayers - 020 . 028 - 038 . 048 . 057 . 067 HOMO Araceae 17.9 81
Ylgels sb SOU OO eae - 039 . 051 . 064 . 076 . 090 . 102 0.115 17.6 57
(cl ao Ses Pesce . 050 . 067 . 082 - 099 - 116 . 132 . 149 L723 80
OC) ee eA eee . 061 - 083 . 103 124 144 . 164 . 185 17.0 57
IQ Reioteic ocala eel Peart . 103 . 128 EDD . 180 . 206 e2d2 16.7 63
tO Oboe S6c| Ae a Oo BE eae ean . 124 palate) . 185 . 216 . 247 . 278 16.4 54
hae eC Orel oO OG UGE BOSC EEe - 146 . 183 . 220 . 257 . 293 . 330 16.1 45
BSS Go eedodIIce Nese Eee peers ~ 213 . 256 . 299 . 342 - 884 15.8 33
Teas Repu A RNogat ie SALMON KNOG . 247 . 295 345 . 394 444 L555) 28
TR oe oe cle Sal OSeoe Cun RoC OS bes) Bae ooeE . 283 . 340 . 396 - 453 .d10 19.2 19
TR sega cE C EO Ee eee Obes merrier 7 O22 . 387 451 . 516 . 579 15.0 14
Is coetcrbrlPate soba RSsb re BoE Onsenes Eemmooee . 433 - 504 577 . 649 14.7 10
SEs semana ts dee os oo eee els - 484 . 565 . 646 e127 14,4 6
LO ee Goce ollGS ESE SESE eel Heise eiel pace smeere - 539 . 629 . 720 . 808 14.2 6
BO coco bod Soe Obes Speco Gen cial eects . 592 . 690 . 789 . 887 13.9 3
DO ee co od GEE OSC OCS GEE GG eI eeel Praensereere . 654 . 763 . 872 . 981 13.7 4
Dates eae ecard ee ei aedeagal Say . 836 . 956 1.075 13.5 1
696
1 To reduce to cubic feet, including stump, multiply the number of cords in each case by 100.
TABLE 34.— Volume of stem in cords, including bark, of WHITE ASH 75 to 149 years
in age, for trees of different diameters and heights, and per cent of bark in trees of different
diameters.
[Based on taper table.]
Total height of tree—feet.
Diameter
breast- 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 Bark. Basis.
high.
Volume—cords.
Inches Percent. | Trees.
Baap yt tye OU OS Ss | OSOGG ONO Zim aes yey rear ool epee me Mom Reaches) HUGO ep La Bs 2s 5
Meas 073 . 088 . 103 QL Te eis B/S ose ee cael at a G3 ee 26.3 8
Sor aneeaaet 094 palit} allt na al eee meets |e, Seti Seam soe 25.4 13
Sirs Heine 116 . 140 . 162 ATs (GWG Mae OFA 0s) es exegesis Beal seas eres (OAs Ba ek 24.5 23
TOM eee 144 BS . 202 231 aU NE eee cents eae NIC Rees oe ty al Nas Un aN . 23.6 28
aN ence. 172 . 205 . 240 274 309 QRS Ao in tere teceene a ieee Senet 22.8 42
1) ae Oe ae 202 . 243 . 283 324 . 364 AA Ea asa aguilera 22.0 49
es seseres 234 . 281 328 ROMS . 420 467 Oeil 4 eer ney 212 46
Ae eet ae 270 324 378 431 . 485 539 SOU BH eo acet tee 20.5 51
Vay gies aha 308 . 369 430 . 492 . 554 615 . 676 0. 738 19.8 32
Ges eousees 347 Malia 486 . 556 . 625 . 694 . 764 . 833 19.1 51
RS Sues 389 . 466 544 622) . 700 5 ee . 855 . 932 18.4 30
Uae ameersey 432 -518 . 605 . 691 2117 . 864 ~950 1.037 17.7 24
They OS aaa 477 Bae) . 668 . 762 . 858 . 953 1.049 1.145 lyfe i 21
DO Rous 523 . 628 Eon . 838 . 942 1.046 1.151 1.255 16.5 17
PHILS aie 574 . 688 . 803 .917 | 1.033 1.147 1.261 1.377 15.9 10
SN ie ase 623 . 748 . 872 .997 | 1.121 1.246 1.371 1.495 15.3 11
PE RARC Poni ie elena eS . 812 TO Aa wes OS2 Mi Lor 13853 1. 488 1.623 14.8 7
pA eh atc .882 | 1.028} 1.176] 1.322 1.470 1.617 1.763 14.3 iL
Bas Sete Suellen 949 | 1.108] 1.266] 1.424 1. 582 1.740 1.899 13.8 5
OX eo en el eae POLO Ele SSH msl 5 Salle 2:7 1.697 1. 868 2.037 13.3 2
a ae eed ee reed mene 1.281 | 1.465 | 1.648 1.831 2.014 2.196 12.9 2
OS eta SO oe ee Ge aes GEeoeaee 1.366 1.562 1.757 1, 952 2.147 2.342 12.5 2
DO bye eienaiie|| Ae Sra AU epee 1.465 | 1.675; 1.883 2.093 2.303 2.511 12.1 3
BD) Sects eee ee ees [akan 1.554 | 1.775 | 1.998 2.219} 2.441 2.663 11.7 1
a AS Grr lice Osan [ese Meson Kae may 1.895 } 2.131 2.368 2.606 2. 842 11.4 2
BOS echt coca Rua aS FG a (peed aes ees 2.004 | 2.253 2.504 2.755 3.005 11.0 1
487
1 To reduce to cubic feet, including stump, multiply the number of cords in each case by 100.
80 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TaBLE 35.—Average amount of branch wood 2 inches and over in diameter, in second-
growth WHITE ASH trees of different diameters in New York, and the per cent which
it forms of the total stem volume without the branches.
Diameter | Volume! Fer Cenk Diameter | Volume? Foca |
breast- of branch- Sere Basis. breast- of branch- stem; Basis.
; high. wood. high. wood.
f volume. volume.
Inches. Cubic feet. | Per cent. Trees. Inches. Cubic feet. | Per cent. Trees.
8 0.2 2 16 16 5. 11 10
2) -5 4 11 17/ 7.0 12 re)
10 1.0 6 20 18 8.4 13 5
11 15) 7 18 19 10.0 14 -|.. 3323.2
12 2.1 8 21 20 11.6 -14 5
13 2.8 9 15
14 3.6 9 9 144
H 15 4.6 10 12
1 To reduce to cords divide by 100.
TaBLE 36.— Volume in board feet of WHITE ASH, under 75 years in age, for trees of
different diameters and number of logs, scaled by the Scribner log rule.
[Based on taper curves; scaled mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Height
ofstump, 1 foot. Measurements taken in Vermont, New York, Michigan, Indiana, and Tennessee.]
Number of 16-foot logs.
Diameter Diane
breast- 4 2, 24 3 34 4 44 5 packiot Basis.
high. top.
Volume—board feet.
Inches. Inches. |. Trees.
eee 25 38 BOM sac srelersic|® cise nee acimecibee | sacews eats Saves 6 80
eee 27 41 54 MD eee Seere' |e ee eee leer oe san eemec seems 6 57
LOR Sees 30 44 60 79 LOO} eet cal Soee eee aeons 6 63
te 32 48 67 88 MAQUI See saseeel soee cee ome lo ete coe 6 54
Dee eetia 35 54 75 100 120 L5ON | tasekeeeo=| seeteecece 6 45
1B esa aSo5 Sanooeos 62 85 110 140 OS See sores | Sees 6 33
1 ee ena eee 70 95 120 150 190 2208 tec ne cet 6 28
1b ene sh eaSseeeee 80 110 140 170 210 ZAQ cc odeaetee 6 19
Gti ee ese 92 120 150 190 230 DLONaskiee eee 6 14
UE eon eiia| Raaaae esl SESE Beas 140 170 210 250 SOOM Some scmees 6 10
TESS Ae | Pease erael ee meena t 150 190 230 280 330 380 6 6
LO MESS aaa aac resect cee 170 220 260 310 370 420 6 6
YA) Sdogosel Beasties. Se eseeee 200 240 290 350- 410 470 6 3
Lee treet es shee ys | Peo A ome 220 270 320 390 450 520 7 4
FORE SSA Pes a ate oh Lae Ae 240 300 360 430 490 570 7 1
2B paGONGo| bE pSo aoa bemaneee 270 330 390 470 540 620 dH Eee ae
PDS Pe MO] CEE ae ed ae me 300 370 430 2 510 580 670 8)) eee
423
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 81
TaBLE 37.— Volume in board feet of WHITE ASH, 75 to 149 years in age, for trees of
different diameters and number of logs, scaled by the Scribner log rule.
[Based on taper curves; scaled mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Height.
of stump, 1 foot. Measurements taken in New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, Indiana, Tennessee,
West Virginia, and North Carolina. |
Number of 16-foot logs. Di
Dianeter | S aaenet
breast- 2 | 2h | 3 | 3h 4 | 43 | 5 | 5h Gel aeacecr ) Basis:
ee | eres eee Eee ee ee
Volume—board feet. top.
Inches. | Trees.
tl BESS oeooood |Gcacoacs lShasaces seme tere 6 13
SO el eee ee eel eee oe ae 6 23
Qe Via eR a ree ll Sa ace oS 6 28
100) 2 eS a Seer oeetee tte litte ck cise |[eieiaenee 6 42
120 L401 ee ea eternal eee ers cis clio seeieistsic e010) 49
130 UE Scpecce lssoocond beeodeee paecosse 6 46
150 180 200 281i |BeSdeees beusceae 6 51
170 200 230 200M eee os osha 6 32
190 220 260 290 330 | 370 6 51
210 250 290 330 370 | 410 6 30
240 280 320 370 410 460 6 24
270 320 360 420 460 520 6 21
300 360 410 470 520 590 6 Hy
340 400 460 520 590 660 7 10
380 450 510 590 660 750 uf il
420 500 580 660 750 840 8 7
460 550 650 740 840 940 9 1
510 610 730 830 940 | 1,050 9 5
570 680 810 920 | 1,050| 1,170 10 2
630 760 890 | 1,020| 1,160] 1,300 10 2
690 840 980} 1,130} 1,280 1,440 11 2
760 920 | 1,070] 1,240] 1,410] 1,590 11 3
830 | 1,010] 1,170| 1,360{ 1,550] 1,750 12 1
900 | 1,100} 1,280] 1,490! 1,690] 1,910 13 2
990 | 1,190| 1,390] 1,620| 1,850| 2,080 13 1
1,070 | 1,290] 1,510] 1,760] 2,020] 2,260 14h a eran
1,160 | 1,400] 1,640] 1,910] 2,200] 2,470 ries 2
1,250| 1,500] 1,760| 2,050| 2,380] 2,600 15 1
1,340 | 1,610] 1,890] 2,210] 2,560] 2,90 16;||eucos
1,440 | 1,720] 2,020] 23360] 2,740] 3,120 16\9G heme
1,540 | 1,830] 2,160| 2,520] 2,930] 3,350 17% Stee
1,650 | 1,950] 2,310] 2'690| 3,130] 3,620 1:72) cee
1,760 | 2,060) 2,470| 2,870) 3,340] 3,900 1 BS oie sy
475
TABLE 38.— Volume in cubic feet of stem wood, exclusive of bark, of GREEN ASH trees
of different diameters and heights, under 75 years in age, and factors to multiply by to
reduce to cubic feet, including bark.
Total height of tree—feet. Factors to
Die — ——— a) inl
ime | Oe | SOA aneoman |e 70" [SoS geo | 100 | toreduce to | Basis
ge Hnaaatine
Peeled volume—cubic feet. bark. 6
Inches. Trees
Leelee am 1.4 Oa Been caress RGR orencee ate ceceene ecsacacane Menaacanad 1.29
Deemer eas 2.0 PASTA ABO OCE dnc |GESCBR Ree once cnOna ae cacqn cool bapseceaee 1.28 12
Geet ce 2.8 3.7 4.6 53/5) | voce arenes | Saceeecies olaaseeeeene 11622 14
ecassteae 3.7 4.8 6.0 hee BS Bakara) Booscosace teecaseoss 1525 24
SHC Aneel 4.6 6.0 7.6 9.1 Ae ees oececad EeSseaease 1.24 13
0) Sa Aaeee 5.7 7.4 9.2 ileal TCH eee senna Beoacetaue 1.23 15
IO) Sas eaeae 7.0 9.1 LAD 13.5 16.3 19.3 22 1.22 21
ill Saou bede Neceaeae 10.7 13.3 15.9 19.3 23.0 26 iL zal 25
1 eee | aermeiceress 12.6 15.6 18.8 23.0 27.0 32 1.20 24
135s Goeaan sosessds 14.5 17.9 22.0 26.0 31.0 37 1.19 23
ARS ee enree loin iste 16.6 21.0 25.0 30.0 37.0 43 1.18 28
1535 5aa|eadeosuallanoonaasr 23.0 28.0 34.0 42.0 49 1.17 19
119s soosqed aoseasaalseocoeese 26.0 32.0 39.0 48.0 56 Ue il 17
Wiesoossea boenescaidosogasse 29.0 36.0 44.0 53.0 63 1.16 9
14 SoaSballoncoddeallspooosuD. 32.0 40.0 50. 0 59.0 val 1.15 7
19), See4555||Sn6o5acaleeooooaos 35.0 44.0 55.0 66. 0 79 1.15 9
20. 38.0 49.0 61.0 73.0 87 1.14 3
Oh AG 6bdee Beene Seonsecta secs 53.0 67.0 80.0 96 1.14 2
ore ee |e orsiese 57.0 72.0 88.0 106 1.13 2
DBE Meecha |eeicaclee clemeccemes| oases 63.0 79.0 96. 0 116 1.13 3
Da epee recall ie eteteicion| Metres tase eerie 68. 0 85.0 105. 0 126 1.12 1
278
6023°—Bull. 299—15——6
82 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TABLE 39.— Volume in cubic feet of stem wood, exclusive of bark, of GREEN ASH trees
of different diameters and heights, 75 to 149 years in age, and factors to multiply by to
reduce to cubic feet, including bark.
i Total height of tree—feet.
i valeiple ie
ty Diameter a AYA
i megs 7 to reduce to
mah 60 | 70 | 80 90 | 100 110 | 120 | 130 cubic feet, Basis.
| : including
Peeled volume—cubic feet. Bark:
|
He Inches. Trees
be Bees 2 8.6 10.0 LL 1! I ees Beers ee aanis octisccccc 1.27
{ Ome cee 10.7 12.5 14.3 1GS08| Saareees See cce see aeseee se Titccree anes 1.26 14
; ORs aoe 13.2 15.4 17.6 19.8 22) |S fens eel Sees cee leneeeete 1.25 14
t sh eee ae 15.8 18.5 21.0 24.0 262 | Gee eee ater [i etc ase 1.24 25
LD aeee oes 19.0 22.0 25.0 28.0 32 BL ey eee ae ee sees 22, 29
oho se 22.0] 26.0] 29.0] 33.0 37 AO) ee tee |e eae oes 121 34
af eee 26.0 30.0 34.0 39.0 43 47 9 Lg eset aes A a 1.20 40
BI eee aes ie 29.0 34.0 39.0 44.0 49 53 58 Niscseet cane 1.19 47
1622.52 <j55 33.0 38.0 44.0 49.0 55 60 66 71 1.19 57
1 See eee 37.0 43.0 49.0 55.0 62 68 74 80 1.18 54
Pees ces 41.0 48.0 55.0 62.0 69 76 83 90 iealy 58
192 225.2:2 46.0 53.0 61.0 68.0 76 83 91 99 1.16 69
20 stot ee 50.0 58.0 66.0 75.0 83 91 99 108 1.15 53
7) ee 54.0 63.0 72.0 81.0 90 99 108 117 1.15 52
Vy pee | 59.0 68.0 78.0 88.0 98 107 117 127 1.14 49
DB es aa 64.0 75.0 86.0 96.0 107 118 128 139 1.14 47
| pee | 70.0 81.0 93.0 105.0 116 128 139 151 Tats 52
Cy ee ee 75.0 87.0 100.0 112.0 124 137 149 162 013 f} 30
268 ccaoese 80.0 93.0 | 106.0 120.0 133 146 159 173 1.13 35
(ee cots eee | Rereaeaee 100.0 115.0 129.0 143 158 172 186 1.12 32
DA ees ee eA 108.0} 123.0) 139.0 154 169 185 200 1.12 29
20 ence Viste a5 eeewtcl 114.0 130.0 147.0 163 179 196 212 1.12 18
SO SMe ee tet He sais yee 120.0 137.0 155.0 172 189 206 223 Tol?) 19
oi eee ae [eeweceters 128.0 | 147.0 165.0 183 202 220 238 LAD 20
SQeaess Vie en 137.0 | 157.0] 176.0 196 215 235 254 Tei 7
Bose asease {sc Seteeece. | ee J | 166.0 187.0 208 229 249 270 1.11 9
Beene see re eee! [eet 177.0} 199.0 221 243 265 287 gies tl 3
SOs eres eepresisege A lene 184.0} 207.0 230 254 277 300 1.11 2
Bl beeerses He Serene tb BE 192.0 | 216.0 240 264 288 312 1.11 4
Oy aeeeonad eeorse tseae ate 203.0] 229.0 254 279 305 330 1.11 4
S8o ces ale eee aes ; 214.0} 241.0 268 295 322 348 ii lil 3
5 SORE Seem cre cs aecne PAS ease 254.0 282 310 339 367 Bh Bees
AQ eo Sate | eed eee Sal ete Sore ats 267.0 297 327 356 386 eu: 1
Ci ee) Pere ai | Wh eee eSaeecce 281.0 312 343 374 405 Ueibb| Ease ese
CD Hig arses P| neatly nc a [aly ee [eres ed 294.0 327 360 392 425 1.11 1
VC vars aire Vaemerys nites Paleo | Ve bAheee 308. 0 343 377 411 446 STEPS Seen A ae
44 ete esek,| os Bowey ine te yee | Namen 323.0 359 395 431 467 1.11 1
| 918
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 83
TaBLE 40.— Volume of stem in cords,! including bark, of GREEN ASH, under 75 years
in age, for trees of different diameters and heights, and per cent of bark in trees of different
diameters.
[Based on taper table.]
Total height of tree—feet.
Diameter
breast- 40 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 Bark. Basis.
high,
Volume—cords.
Inches. Per cent. Trees.
AEN ee feos 0.018 ORO ZAG | ereteatsteteceis | ecavcleic'eieiea | cPeeeeloe Grete laareicte toe ietbes'| sierra ate crete 22.4
Depa mies 026 SUR) Beeson Ces) ACSBHEHEEG Booncoedsc | Secceoccse Seeapccecs 21.7 12
Ome ese 2 Se . 036 - 047 0.058 05070) | eee etta ee eee eal Narciso a niere 21.0 14
Unser eoe . 046 . 060 07 OQ Ob | Sees eis | Ce Se ee Re 20. 2 24
ec ocesee 057 074 .094 113 OFTSa A eee crcl cence 19.4 13
OE. aaa 070 091 113 137 BG Sees case Seeeeeees 18.6 15
NO; Seaeaees 085 111 137 165 .199 0. 235 0. 268 17.9 21
Deo Sascs al lbSaseeeeee 129 161 192 . 234 SONIC 319 iNeP4 25
TO eossen| Hoe eeetae 151 187 226 . 274 -324 379 16.5 24
1B Ga ocooed |\HoneeaEes 173 213 257 dll .375 438 15.8 23
Tl eo Bacal eee ee 196 242 291 . 304 . 4382 505 15.3 28
Ib, 6 Soocdllooedoecoso SBEreacere 27 332 - 402 . 493 576 14.8 19
Geeta | ere leictecicrall icieersiesaieinia = 304 378 . 459 - 560 655 14.3 17
Wise ccocnl Saoses FOnn CeSeeae eee 335 416 .513 618 733 13.8 9
Io occacdl Senne Beees| GEeee ese 367 455 .570 .677 814 13.4 7
Ie no bo cadllo Opa CUC CS] See eee 401 507 - 635 . 754 906 13.0 9
DORR pee chee cle ecccesaiss 432 556 -695 - 828 994 12.6 3
PAR eo onde WooSOnOned Bens recedes eee seer 605 . 758 -915 1.099 12.2 2
OP) Socaad DOGS EEeeed Seen Soeaes Se eee 647 811 - 993 1.193 11.8 2
DS eel nee ele e acta ae ie t= alent yesaeics wieres 709 888 1. 087 1.306 11.4 3
Aer ieee et yee etal cctarsieiele cjcceille np siajcis.< 3 ays 763 956 1.172 1. 407 Glan 1
278°
1 To reduce to cubic feet, including stump, multiply the number of cords in each case by 100.
TaBiE 41.— Volume of stem in cords,' including bark, of GREEN ASH, 75 to 149 years
in age, for trees of different diameters and heights, and per cent of bark in trees of different
diameters.
[Based on taper table.]
Total height of tree—feet.
Diameter :
breast- 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 Bark. | Basis.
high.
Volume—cords.
Inches. Percent.| Trees.
8 0. 146 03.1644 3... ee Base emieios | sereis eie'e reall Hreveterw oceans 21.5 6
-180 . 202 ONZ24m |b See ETN ae ya We ee 20. 7 14
220 . 248 EO ace caaae| Hae boedaes Beeaeesooe 19.9 14
262 . 295 . 327 023600 |e Ses en eesa ek acceeye= 19.1 25
309 346 . 386 60 05)5| FH ages Sees ae 18.3 29
356 -401 - 445 - 490 ON535i|Baeeeeeeee 17.6 34
410 - 462 514 - 565 GI Aaeee cease 16.9 40
463 - 520 -578 635 694 0. 752 16.3 47
520 - 584 - 650 -715 779 - 845 15.7 57
582 - 655 SPL - 800 872 -945 15. . 64
646 . 727 . 807 - 888 969 1.049 14.5 58
704 . 792 . 879 . 967 1.056 1.144 14.0 69
762 . 858 -952 1.048 1.143 1. 239 13. 4 53
831 - 935 1.040 1.143 1. 247 1.351 12.9 52
890 1.002 1.114 1.224 1.336 1. 448 12.5 49
975 1.097 1.219 1.341 1. 463 1.585 12.1 47
1.050 1.182 1.313 1. 444 1.575 1. 706 11.7 52
1.125 1. 266 1.407 1.547 1. 688 1.828 11.4 30
1.201 1.351 1.501 1.651 1.801 1.952 11.2 35
1. 284 1.445 1.605 1.765 1.925 2.087 10.9 32
1.381 1.553 1.726 1.898 2.071 2.243 10.8 29
1. 460 1.643 1.824 2.007 2.190 2.372 10. 6 18
1.540 1. 733 1.924 Pa Ally) 2.309 2.502 10.5 19
1. 643 1. 849 2.054 2.259 2. 465 2.670 10. 4 20
73% 1.955 PA U7/il 2.389 2.606 2. 823 10.3 7
1 To reduce to cubic feet, including stump, multiply the number of cords in each case by 100.
84 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TaBLe 41.—Volume of stem in cords, including bark, vi GREEN ASH, 75 to 149 years
in age, etc.—Continued.
Total height of tree—feet.
Diameter
breast- 60 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | 110 | 120 | 130 Bark. | Basis.
high.
Volume—cords.
Percent.| Trees.
2.077 2.308 2.539 2.769 3.000 10.2 9
2.207 2. 452 2.696 2.942 3.187 10.1 3
2.302 2.559 2.814 3.070 3.326 10.1 2
2.401 2.668 2.935 3.202 3.469 10.1 4
2.537 2.819 3.101 3.383 3.665 10.0 4
2.676 2.974 3.271 3.569 3. 866 10.0 3
2.819 3.132 3.445 3.758 4.073 LOXON| See eeeee
2.965 3.294 3.624 3.954 4. 283 10.0 if
Salil5 3. 461 3.807 4.153 4.499 LOO} | eeeeeee
3. 268 3.631 3.994 4.357 4.720 10.0 1
3. 423 3. 804 4.185 4.565 4.945 10201) |Seeceeee
3.586 3.985 4.383 4.782 5.181 10.0 1
918
TaBLE 42.— Volume in board feet of GREEN ASH, under 75 years in age, for trees of
different diameters, and number of logs, scaled by the Scribner log rule.
[Based on taper curves; scaled mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Height
Y of stump, 1 foot. Measurements taken in South Carolina and Arkansas. ]
Number of 16-foot logs.
Diameter ae z
breast- 1 14 2 24 3 34 4 4k | 5 barkiot Basis.
high. top.
Volume—board feet.
Inches. | Inches. | Trees.
Beeb eco 15 24 SON Siac hal Secs cull coats ateaalecieerseete [snsisis eet neice ere 6 13
Out tee 16 26 38 Boece Sees ee ec sceca| Selce'es ae [Dees 6 16
1Oec eae 17 27 41 56 (60 PASS Sess Seeececs) Germecrcl pareccce 6 21
LT eee 18 29 44 62 82 WU ee SSS Ae ue ctieie lOisterseerses 6 25
a Ba eee eet 20 31 47 67 90 120 1503|8. 2e82 4/5 ee 6 24
ih Saeeeaee 22 33 50 72 100 130 160 200) Seeseeee 6 23
eS Beane 23 35 54 78 110 140 180 210 250 6 28
Teac eee ee he 38 58 86 120 150 190 230 270 6 19
1G ee ee erecrs ees 42 63 95 130 170 210 260 300 6 17
1 A (ES Se De ae | (a 69 100 140 190 230 280 330 6 9
TR OS eSe esos eee 75 110 160 200 250 310 360 6 Us
DS areca | Reeorcichecc| sie niarctesais | otere carers 120 170 220 280 340 410 6 9
17: | ROS SL oo) (8 Ve ra ie Pree PB Hee Get 130 180 250 310 380 460 6 3
Dots aires Sei | Weayeta es cccee | eccrates aeicail eersveratavacs 140 200 270 350 430 510 7 2
DE See] LES Penal a en eer Ieee 150 220 300 390 490 580 7 2
8 a So (ch ee es el (Eee PE ee Dee Or 240 340 440 550 650 8 3
DE a eloc cleicte |e einicie shaale ciate a) etetemetls cl lemetoaaee 260 370 490 610 730 8 1
DD Io Brareclaibs Ve ered icleleraleieae otis cll ebee cee |suemeeec 280 410 550 680 810 9 1
DG oa sata abiia c ce apie cleats oe leloeamera leanne 300 450 600 750 900 10) leSanace=
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 85
TABLE 43.— Volume in board feet of GREEN ASH, 75 to 149 years in age, for trees of
different diameters and number of logs, scaled by the Scribner log rule.
[Based on taper curves; scaled mostly in 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Height
of stump, 1 foot. Measurements taken in South Carolina and Arkansas.]
Number of 16-foot logs.
Diameter Danecers
breast- 2 24 3 3h 4 43 5 54 6 Darker Basis.
high. top.
Volume—board feet.
Inches. | Trees.
b ja aimed [etal oie otras die eis. «|leisterele cutie 6 6
S000. 2d ‘cdusacad acauqeon dacbacee 6 14
SE eee eres See 6 14
SSE aen eke Sere, 6 25
Eye a ete ey eee 6 29
Sion aeee| earees eee 6 34
270 300 6 40
300 340 6 47
340 380 6 57
380 420 6 54
420 470 6 58
460 520 6 69
510 580 6 53
570 640 7 52
630 710 7 49
690 780 8 47
770 860 8 52
850 940 9 30
930} 1,030 10 35
1,020 1,120 10 32
1,110] 1,220 11 29
1,210 | 1,330 11 18
1,330] 1,460 12 19
1,450} 1,620 13 20
1,600} 1,800 13 7
1, 750 1, 980 14 9
1,900} 2,150 14 3
2,050} 2,320 15 2
2,200} 2,490 16 4
2,350} 2,650 16 4
2,500] 2,820 17 3°
2,650} 3,000 LW AE Aaa
2,810} 3,180 18 1
2,990 | 3,370 TO Aes es
3,170 | 3,570 19 1
3,380 | 3,790 20 eee
3,610 | 4,000 20 1
918
TaBLE 44.— Volume in cubic feet of stem wood, exclusive of bark, of BLACK ASH
trees of different diameters and heights, 75 to 300 years in age; and factors to multiply
by to reduce to cubic feet, including bark.
Total height of tree—feet. Factors to
Diameter UB Oy BR)
breast- 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | 110). | Oeereee, |) Basis:
high. including
ark.
Peeled volume—cubic feet.
SCOoCCoCOoOmMOOoRWH
b
ocooocooowneonw
—
we
Ree)
ee
Om OO O10 MD > tO
b eo bon sabe sub in BIGY
NWN ee
SSSR TES on
He 09 GO DD DODD eS et
_
i
J
_
bo
a
86 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
Taste 44.—Volume in cubic feet of stem wood, exclusive of bark, of BLACK ASH
trees of different diameters and height, 75 to 300 years in age, etc.—Continued.
Total height of tree—feet. Factors to
. multiply by
Diameter
breast- 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 - | 110 to recuceltom is iiasis,
] ?
high. a includin:
Peeled volume—cubic feet. es
Trees.
50. 0 57.20 64 CAN Sec cons 1.16 4
56. 0 64.0 12 80. Soeheee te 1.16 if
62.0 71.0 80 804 he ae 5) 55
69. 0 78.0 88 98 108 5 3
76.0 87.0 98 108 119 1.14 8
83.0 95. 0 107 119 131 1.14 2
91.0 104. 0 117 130 143 via i} 2
99.0 113.0 127 141 155 1.13 1
wenasamiteied lao seeeee nee 123.0 138 153 169 1.12 2
ek acaisrate a Ae SMe retee 13350 149 166 183 1.12 1
eisiset hee mae asics hee ee 143.0 161 179 197 aay 2
ected ath Seteicic oe 154.0 173 193 212 nears 1
Exe atcy ee 165. 0 186 207 221 ieabl 1
wise odioe ries |Site entemer e 17750 199 221 243 yal 1
aor
TasueE 45.— Volume of stem in cords,! including bark, of BLACK ASH 75 to 300 years
in age, for trees of different diameters and heights, and per cent of bark in trees of differ-
ent diameters.
{Based on taper table.]
Total height of tree—feet.
Diameter i
breast- 60 70 80 90 100 110 Bark. Basis.
high.
Volume—cords.
Inches. Percent. | Trees.
Gee zl SONOGG a OSOFT ebay GOsOSSul Rees Stes ceo Eten a a Be eens ecysiete 850i) eee
Tete ec Rs 17.6 2
Le Aad 17.2 4
QS oe HM LEB [io che RL OM SAL OOH ES Sted he ehyal ae Seer ameter | kee ess yepsrecctoere 16.8 6
Oe re OU STO = MAR SQOB The RSQ B AL erat ermal Me cite ctctsie£ | alist eteveeraistele 16. 4 8
He cep tee) AP oAL2h|) covebere cae athce i NORE he ee eal eet ct nyee| Sea Soe eenee 16.0 5
ee Se QDS came Hee OOR hon ta tOOS) |e eee OOO Maleate ys Aerie all Sic cles eer UG 7/ 10
eee eceelia oa Lino! |e) Oa aa te a clre OO UN imme (etek et obtarcte </ccto se ||| o 6 mnclsfarmer ere ieee 1533 16
Le ere Oaks! Aches COON Cee Mme4OSUl ih uk nO nec tcrtec evs erineeyemicear 14.9 4
Laat aie cola te ye COOUI Ks Ul ee tOO Me ie ot LGE Lis ReMi OOO Hl Pte raretapaiateye etal clo tatere tei stietaie 14.5 9
TGS ce ee ct AE - ot | Bee L OU tug ereteOOULs en at al te, OOS a Mammen Oat des dia| stpatetate meats eters 14.2 12
Wee ceeely. wA9D5 US 578H 8) PS660K ) sie 420 cleo keaozod| «anaes 13.8 4
1 eeeeeee 3 : 23.3| asec 1355 7
it he Seed eceatocoder . UAC ES eeconneeece Beal 5
DOE Eee ee ee ae - 903 1.015 1.128 1.241 12.8 3
DI her eee eae (2h UE Seas See . 990 Tova} 1. 236 1.360 12.4 8
QO cele aoe 1. 083 1.219 1.354 1. 490 12.1 2
PE RS ee) (Rae nets hha 1.175 S22 1. 469 1.617 11.8 2
QA Ghee S| MER Gee a BOYES 1. 437 1.597 1. 756 11.4 1
PESOS Sec latdce suing 1B75 1.547 1.718 1. 891 11.1 2
DOE Ns RGA] Se ORE Fe 1. 487 1. 673 1. 859 2. 046 10.8 1
Ds aga eS 1. 605 1. 805 2. 006 2. 206 10.5 2
29 Secale ce Sel epecieisacicictns 1.711 1.924 2.138 2. 352 10.2 1
D9 ese) alatantene 1. 834 2. 063 2.293 2. 582 9.9 1
BOLE esc acl acs cee 1. 962 2.208 2. 453 2. 697 9.6 1
116
| To reduce to cubic feet, including stump, multiply the number of cords in each ease by 100.
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT. 87
TaBLE 46.— Volume, in board feet, of BLACK ASH, 75 to 300 years in age, for trees of
different diameters, and number of logs, scaled by the Scribner log rule.
(Based on taper curves; scaled mostly as 16.3-foot logs, with a few shorter logs where necessary. Height
of stump, 1 foot. Measurements taken in New Hampshire, New York, Michigan, and Indiana.]
Number of 16-foot logs.
Diam- Dim:
brant: 2 | 23 3 | 33 4 | 43 | 5 | 53 | 6 inside | Basis
high bark
oan of top
Volume—hboard feet.
Inches. | Trees.
=
—
RRR Dr br ht COW Cr RN OR DOOD
1
SO OD OC AIA D HD DD DAHA HH HDHD HD
ry
=
a
TABLE 47.— Yield of planted groves of GREEN ASH in South Dakota.’
Estimate of posts, potaies, and fuel
ws Reve wood.
Aver- um- i
Ago | “age | Area | berof | Total | age.
Locality. of | height of trees | ¥ an ield First- | Second- Fuel
grove of plot abet pee aeae class class Stakes, end
trees. . 5 osts, osts, inch to |; -
acre. | inch to | 3-inch to| sinch. |2addi
6-inch. | 6-inch. ;
Years.| Feet. | Acres. Cords.
TDWae Me, 5 poseae 8 16} 0.1} 1,020} 2.24
Wentworth... 14 16 a5 508 | 2.18
Lake Preston... 14 20 3 730 4, 43
Hamlin 22.222. 14 22 3.5 | 1,160] 6.58
Olivet emcee 18 25 -1} 1,200] 9.90
Sioux Falls... 19 33 5 238 9. 62
DOE Psa: 20 30 ol 824 7. 28
Waborsmnee seer 20 26 -1{ 1,140 7. 50
Hartman...... 20 33 5% 400 6. 55
Lake Preston. 20 26 5fi) 942 9. 52
Dell Rapids. .. 20 27 ail 680 7. 90
Hooker....... 22 27 .2| 1,665] 12.20
Misleetesacs te: 23 24 -2}) 1,010 5. 30
Canastata..... 23 18 nik 2h GS) 7.00
phabiseauodsoe 25 - 23 be 940 3. 80
Blackmer..... 25 29 el 830 | 10.40
Cottonwood... 34 47 og 495 | 23. 55
1 Based on average Measurements taken in 1904 by Fetherolf.
i 88 BULLETIN 299, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE,
HH
TABLE 48.— Yield of planted groves of GREEN ASH in Nebraska.*
; Dominant trees. Yield per acre.
i}
f Fuel wood. Posts
j Area of| Age of
it County. Average | Number
i STONE ences diameter | of trees
j breast per Aver-
high. acre. Total. age Firsts. | Seconds.| Total.
annual.
+ Acres. | Years.| Inches. Cords. | Cords. | Number. | Number. | Number.
ty HefleESON---neseee oe 1.30 i Bea 540 3.2 O02" | Secn. seme 35 35
Washington. .....- 2.50 17 4.7 1, 083 15.4 9 310 430 740
j Nema ais oenasaace 1.00 18 3.7 1,054 18.4 1.0 442 494 936
Polk. gens cere: .92 19 4.2 965 9.8 i) 130 365 495
Colfaxt ce he st 1.50 19 2.9 844 6.1 3 28 172 200
Hae. Secee oes 2.50 20 2.4 1,304 8.4 .4 20 28 48
Claystehicscsossace 3.43 20 4.2 1, 446 11.2 .6 30 232 262
OGG esrst ee es 3.00 21 4.5 744 11.8 .6 290 464 754
Hamilton...... Z 2.50 21 4,2 932 11.8 .6 167 312 488
WViOL KS eset es eres 7.00 21 4,2 714 a EY / 6 288 502 790
Fillmore... -<% .99 21 3.7 928 11.3 -O 218 294 512
Pollet assicaeee set 1.20 21 4.9 725 14.7 aif 300 317 617
IKCATNG Yio s eee 1.04 21 6.2 805 18.7 9 702 504 1, 206
Richardson:.>-.5.2 . 80 21 4.3 1,192 24.0 1.1 1,072 584 1, 656
Johnsons ees sate 95 22 hil 492 7.4 -3 228 312 540
Saundersen 225-200 156 22 4.8 446 7.5 +0 138 188 326
Hamiltons<-.---'-_* 1.10 23 5.3 496 15.6 SY 294 280 574
SViOKCs aes eee 1.70 23 4.7 835 17.3 8 425 410 835
WWiebDSler-as.c2 5212 6.60 25 3.8 517 4.0 ae 51 155 206
Willmore. so. -225) 4.24 25 5.7 345 12.4 Pz) 190 111 301
ancaster aeccsse -48 25 5.3 497 14.8 ati) 327 240 567
Polke S52 js sak 3.10 27. 6.2 309 11.6 4 441 208 649
Butlers se feiss se .38 29 4.9 950 20.1 suf 490 480 970
Clava esos ee 5.30 30 5.8 352 10.0 3 246 184 430
Saunders..2 2.222 1.50 30 6.1 368 19.3 .6 1, 068 370 1, 438
Doak Faeaes aoe 1.10 30 7.4 236 26.4 9 1,162 486 1, 648
DOA eee 1.50 32 4.6 553 12.9 4 343 330 673
Cuminge = B25, 33 4.6 530 14.8 2D 465 420 885
Saundérss-2sbaee. 3.10 33 7.0 383 18.9 6 1,040 420 1, 640
1 From Circular 45 of the Forest Service.
TanLe 49.— Yield of GREEN ASH plantations in the Plains States.'
Value of post per acre
per annum.
Total ; .
Age. A Firsts and Trees
e Height. value. of Without | 4 percent | seconds. | per acre.
IES interest interest
on the on the
investment.|investment.
Years Feet Per cent. Number.
TO aE Se oe ena ere Rs Benes cd Aes 8 $147.10 $7.74 $5.32 a
75 CERCA ASE Ee aA SERRA Re eas 3 272.50 11.85 7.44 39.3 1,274
Deen clean eect nari aoe 22 137. 20 5.97 3.75 41.6 908,
DNS SSeS SSS EEE Gee SEO a 49 270. 90 10. 84 6.51 49.7 680
aoe renee een eisicloere ie cle eee 25 135. 00 3.86 1.82 42.7 436
Al ee ee eee sons renee nie nce ee 53 240. 45 6.01 2.53 67.5 500
1 OE CBOE HERES ae GAS ila nt 45 250. 60 6. 26 2.64 70.5 535
1 From Bulletin 86 of the Forest Service, by Carlos G. Bates.
Notre.—The following conclusions were drawn from the above table: (1) Highest financial returns in
25 years. (2) Ash posts of best quality only at much greater age. (3) Best posts with closest spacing;
without this, trees crooked, branchy, and knotty. (4) Should not be planted on dry sites, as the
growth is too retarded.
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Y ; BULLETIN No. 300
Contribution from the Office of Public Roads
and Rural Engineering
LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER November 10, 1915
EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND
DRAINAGE.
By D. L. Yarne.t, Drainage Engineer.
CONTENTS.
Page Page
EMUTO CU CLIOM syater-ee eta =/a/-(ahaieie slerwterciaistci= dior ce el~'s 1 | The dry-land grab-bucket excavator. ........ 28
Development of excavating machinery.....- 2 | Theitempletiexcayvator. -.-5-- 2... 5-2-1 28
The floating dipper dredge.............-..-- : 3 | The wheel type of excavator.........---..--- 30
The floating grab-bucket dredge..-..-.-...-. 17,.| The hy dranlieldredgessss 22-22 he. sc cee see 33
The drag-line scraper excavator...........--. 18 | Machines for cleaning old ditches..........-- 35
The dry-land dipper excavator............-- 2) ||/; SUNN ay aeepem erate tayecisnics( ceiciesiere ats cere 37
INTRODUCTION.
The excavation of nearly all dramage ditches, other than mere
field drains, and a large part of the levee work are now done by
power machinery. In the carrymg out of community drainage
projects in agricultural districts it is often the case that persons upon
whom must devolve the ultimate responsibility for the correct
design and proper prosecution of the work are but little experienced
in the applicability of the different types of excavating machines,
and have little practical knowledge of the methods and cost of
operation of such machinery. This is frequently true of county
drainage commissioners, drainage district commissioners, and of local
engineers who, though of limited experience in the technicalities of
ditch and levee construction on a large scale, are nevertheless, by
virtue of their office, called upon to origmate or pass upon plans for
drainage improvements, draw up specifications, and award contracts.
It is for the purpose of supplying information that would be useful
in such cases that this bulletin has been prepared.
In obtaining the information embodied in this bulletin the writer has
been aided materially by data furnished by private engineers in charge
of improvements and by various contractors and manufacturers.
Note.—This bulletin is of interest to those who have to do with the installation of systems of drainage;
it is suitable for distribution in the eastern part of the United States,
4908°—Bull. 300—15——1
2 BULLETIN 300, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
The various publications of the different manufacturers of exca-
vating machinery have also been freely consulted, and a number of
projects under construction have been inspected.
DEVELOPMENT OF EXCAVATING MACHINERY.
Open drains were no doubt dug on wet agricultural lands during
the early settlement of this country. Smee only hand tools were then
in use, the ditches were small. If the channel was too large to permit
the material to be dug and thrown out im one operation, it was neces-
sary to rehandle the dirt with shovels or to carry it out in baskets or
wheelbarrows. These methods were very slow and expensive. Al-
though the ditches then constructed served their purpose for the
small agricultural tracts which were generally on high ground, the
increase in population and the resulting spread of agricultural opera-
tions to the lower lands soon demanded the construction of larger
channels. Teams and scrapers were then used where conditions per-
mitted. If the material was hard it was first loosened with a plow
and then removed by means of slip or wheel scrapers. This method,
however, became too expensive as larger ditches were required.
Moreover, drainage channels must frequently be constructed on
lands so wet and soft as to preclude the use of teams. The increasing
demand for suitable excavating machinery has engaged the atten-
tion of many men of mechanical bent, and the result has been the
invention of modern types of machinery, the development of which
has been rapid. By the use of modern machinery the cost of drainage
work has been so reduced as now seldom to afford valid excuse for
failure to drain. “4
Perhaps the first successful use of power machinery in drainage
work was on a project in Illinois in 1882 when a floating dredge was
used for digging the channels. During the early development manu-
facturers entered their machines in contests for medals offeved for
the best diggmg machines. Thus in 1886, three dredging concerns
entered their mince in such a contest before the ‘Tlinois State
Board of Agriculture. ae
The early, type of dipper dredge was equipped with the old-fash-
ioned vertical spuds, and the hull was built wide to prevent tipping.
The ditches desired at that time were usually small and owing to the
width of hull the operator was nearly always compelled to excavate
more material than he was paid for. The bank spud, which runs
directly from the side of the machine to the bank, was invented to do
away with this unnecessary width of hull and the consequent useless
excavation. Although many delays and difficulties were encountered
in the early stages of development, the cost of excavation by machin-
ery was soon reduced far below that by hand labor. This period
marks an epoch in the progress of drainage in this country.
EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE, 33
In late years the so-called dry-land excavators of various types have
been developed and have reduced the cost of excavation under con-
ditions to which floating dredges are not adapted. The growth of
the drag-line scraper excavator has been especially prominent. At
present this machine probably has a wider field of usefulness than any
other type of excavator made.
The cost of all kinds of excavation has now reached a very low
figure as compared to the prices prevailing for work by machinery
only a few years ago. This has mainly been brought about by the
entrance into the contracting field of many men equipped with
modern machinery who, through the keen competition, have taken
contracts at prices permitting only a small margin of profit.
THE FLOATING DIPPER DREDGE.
The floating dipper dredge is probably the oldest and most widely
used type of machine for the excavation of drainage ditches. The
essential parts are the hull, engines, boiler, A-frame, swinging circle,
spuds, boom, and dipper. Withthe exception of the dipper theseparts
appear in some form on every type of floating dredge used for ditching.
Various manufacturers have different patented details of construction,
but the general principles of construction and operation are the same
on all floating dipper dredges.
ESSENTIAL FEATURES OF CONSTRUCTION.
HULL.
The hull may be either of wood or of steel; the use of the latter
material will undoubtedly constantly increase in the future owing to
the ever-increasing cost of timber that is suitable for building hulls.
The many difficulties met with in the operation of the earlier machines
have taught manufacturers that certain fixed relations exist between
the dimensions of the hull and the positions and weights of the other
parts of the dredge. Unless these relations are considered in the
design of the hull much trouble will result in the operation of the
dredge. The smaller dredged ditches are generally constructed by
machines with from 1 to 14 yard dippers. The machinery necessary
for operating these sizes being comparatively light, the hulls are
of such dimensions that they can easily be floated in the smaller
channels, although the width of hull used for a machine of given
capacity varies somewhat with the different manufacturers. Some
dredges are so designed that the thrust of the dipper, when digging,
is carried directly from the A-frame through the spud arm to the
spud shoe and the bank of the ditch. By this arrangement aslightly
narrower hull can be used than is necessary where the machine is
differently designed.
4 BULLETIN 300, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
A dipper dredge to withstand the severe stresses due to the con-
stantly changing loads must be very strongly built. If the hull is of
wood it is made up of a strong frame work of timbers planked on the
sides and bottom with 3-inch (or heavier) planks. It is always
strengthened with numerous cross trusses inside, to prevent buckling.
The front end of the hull should always be of double thickness to pre-
vent damage and possible smking through the dipper striking the
hull.
In the larger sizes of dredge built at the present time the common
practice is to make the hull of the same width, top and bottom. On
some of the smaller machines, especially those with steel hulls, the
top is made wider than the bottom. Hulls must be very carefully
caulked, since in operating the dredge the strain on the hull will
tend to loosen any poor caulking.
Tt often becomes necessary to dismantle a dredge in order to move
it from one project to another. Wooden hulls, because of the
necessity of their bemg so strongly built, are practically destroyed
by bemg taken down, and it is in many instances cheaper to build
a new hull than to move and rebuild the old one. To save this
expense steel hulls are used to some extent on the smallest-sized
machines, although they have not been generally favored for the
larger dredges. On some of the small one-half yard or three-fourths
yard dredges the hull has been made in sections, which can be taken
apart and hauled or shipped to another project. This method,
however, is not adapted to the larger machines.
The machinery of a dredge is ordinarily placed on the deck of the
hull. It is, however, sometimes placed below the deck in order to
gain head room, Sometimes the boiler and coal bins are placed on
a deck from 1 to 3 feet lower than the main deck.
ENGINES AND BOILER.
The power most commonly used on dipper dredges is steam,
although a number of machines are now in operation which are
equipped with internal-combustion engines or electric motors.
The majority of dredge operators are more familiar with steam plants
than with oil engines. Also, steam power has the advantage of
being good for from 50 to 100 per cent increase over its rated capacity.
Internal-combustion engines are generally run on either gasoline,
kerosene, naphtha, or distillate oil. Practically all of the dredges
equipped with this type of engine are of the one-half yard or i-yard
size, although it has been used in at least one instance on a 3-yard
machine. An internal-combustion engine is usually rated at its
actual capacity. Therefore, when replacing a steam engine with a
gas engine, it is a good plan to put in a plant with from 50 to 75 per
cent greater power than the rating of the steam engine which it is to
replace. Contractors as a rule do not consider internal-combustion
EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE. 5
engines as suitable for operating machines which have such constantly
changing loads as is the case with dipper dredges.
Owing to the constant jar and pound on the hull the vertical engine
is not so well adapted to excavating machinery as the horizontal
type. On a large dredge an independent engine unit is used for
each of the operations of swinging, hoisting, and handling spuds.
The hoisting and swinging engines are generally of the horizontal,
double-cylinder type and must be self-contained on a cast-iron or
structural-steel bed plate. Steam engines are generally designated
by the dimensions of their cylinders rather than by the horsepower
they develop.
Owing to the cost of fuel, the expense of transporting it to the
dredge, and the impure and muddy water that must be used in some
cases, the size and type of boiler must be selected with great care.
The boiler commonly used is the locomotive type with either open
or water bottom. Vertical boilers have been used in dredges of the
smallest sizes, but are not economical in the consumption of fuel.
The grate area of the locomotive-type boilers is ordinarily less than
that for the same size of Scotch marine boiler. The return-flue
‘Scotch marine boiler is used on many dredges and meets with great
favor. The earlier boilers were designed for a pressure of 100 pounds.
Later this was increased to 150 pounds and the boiler was worked at
100 pounds or more pressure. The size of boiler should be at least
25 per cent greater than that theoretically required to operate the
engines. Owing to the foul character of the water that must often
be used, the boiler should have two separate and distinct boiler feeds,
either injectors or pumps. A great saving of fuel can be effected by
covering the boiler and steam pipes with asbestos. Hither wood or
coal is used for fuel.
A-FRAME.
The A-frame is a tower composed of timber or steel members
securely anchored on the deck of the hull near the front and joined at
the top by a cast-steel head or yoke. (See Pl. I.) The A-frame
may have either two or four legs. In the latter case the two front
or main legs are set in a vertical plane. If only two legs are used
they are inclined slightly forward. The A-frame must be strongly
guyed and held rigidly in position, as the severe stresses from the
outer and loaded end of the boom are carried by the top of this
tower. Failure of any part of the A-frame may result im serious
damage to the dredge and even in loss of life. The height is governed
by the required elevation of the end of the boom, which in turn is
determined by the depth of excavation and the distance at which the
excavated material must be placed. On the top of the head block is
a large pin on which the yoke revolves, this latter being a short beam
to the ends of which are attached the cables which support the outer
end of the boom. |
6 BULLETIN 300, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
SWINGING DEVICE.
The swinging device used on the different makes of dredge varies
greatly. In some cases it consists of a circular, double-channel frame,
firmly anchored to the deck, with several sheaves bolted at intervals
in the circumference of the frame to carry the cable that travels over
them in swinging the boom. In this fixed type of swinging device a
large diameter of circle can be used. There is also the movable type
of swinging circle. This generally consists of a solid iron circle
mounted on a pivot. The heel of the boom is over the point of the
pivot and the boom is braced to the circle. This type requires more
deck room than does the first named type. The turntable may be
placed on deck (PI. I, fig. 1) or overhead (PI. I, fig. 2), but the deck
plan is generally used.
Independent engines may be used for swinging the boom or power
may be obtained from the main engine to drive the swinging drums.
If this latter plan is followed two independent friction drums are
attached to the bed plate of the engine and geared so as to be driven
by it. If internal-combustion engines are used, independent friction
drums are necessary for the various operations of the dredge. The
common practice on large steam-operated machines is to have inde-
pendent swinging engines.
SPUDS.
Spuds are heavy timber or steel members, the purpose of which is
to hold the dredge in position while operating. One is placed on
each side near the front and the third in the center line of the boat
at the stern. Vertical spuds extend directly downward at the side
of the hull and rest on the bottom of the excavated channel. They
are used on deep-water dredges or for excavating large channels.
For a dredge with a narrow hull bank spuds, which extend outward
and rest on the ground surface, are preferable, since they give a large
bearing surface and the footing is usually on solid ground. These
are important features, as a longer boom and a larger bucket can then
be used on a narrow hall.
There are various patented types of bank spuds. One is the con-
vertible bank-and-vertical power spud. This type can easily be
changed from a bank into a vertical spud and is most convenient in
crossing old channels, digging cut-offs, or making a double cut.
Another type is the telescopic bank spud, so designed that the spud
is either lengthened or shortened by means of a telescopic device.
There are other styles of bank spuds, which, although they possibly
do not have as wide arange as the telescopic type, can, nevertheless,
be operated successfully several feet above or below the water surface.
Plate I, figure 1, shows a dipper dredge equipped with telescopic bank
spuds.
EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE. 7
The vertical spuds of various makes are more nearly alike. The
rear spud is always of the vertical type and is used to keep the stern
of the boat from swinging from side to side as the dredge is operated.
The spuds are usually raised and lowered by steel cables connected
with the engine. On large machines they are sometimes operated by
means of asteam cylinder placed in front of each spud, with a movable
clamp or shoe encircling the spud and attached to the piston of the
cylinder; this method is, however, wasteful of steam and expensive.
Sometimes compressed air is used to aid in releasing the foot of the
spud from the mud; less power is thus required to raise the spud.
All types of spuds must be equipped with a strong locking device;
they must also be so designed that little time is lost in raising or low-
ering them. <A dipper dredge with vertical spuds is illustrated in
Plate I, figure 2.
BOOM.
The boom is built either of steel or of wood. In the former case it is
made of standard structural sections strongly riveted together. If of
wood, it is generally of the ‘‘fish-bellied” shape. Some types of long
booms are of the open or ‘‘knee”’ build, with a solid filler at the lower
end and the chords sprung over posts and cross bulkheads (Plate I,
fig. 1). This construction reduces the wind pressure when swinging.
Practice has taught that the length of boom must bear a definite
relation to the width of the hull. Even on a large dredge it is not
advisable to have a boom longer than 80 to 90 feet, although the
manufacturers will build them 100 feet long if desired. Large
dredges with long booms are much slower in operating than are the
smaller-sized dredges. The same number of men are required in
either case.
The lower end of the boom is pivoted. The upper and outer end is
connected to the yoke at the top of the A-frame by means of adjust-
able wire cables. A sheave placed at the outer end of the boom
carries the cable leading from the dipper through the fair-lead sheaves
at the lower end of the boom and thence to the hoisting drum.
On the early type of dipper dredge, chains were used for hoisting
and backing. These were hard to install and would break without
warning. Steel cable has entirely replaced the old chain since it is
less expensive, easier to install, clean, and noiseless; also its weak-
ening, due to wear, is more apparent and accidents are therefore less
likely.
DIPPER AND DIPPER HANDLE.
The dipper handle which carries the dipper at its lower end is made
either of steel or of wood. On its under side is a cog rack which moves
Over pinions mounted on the upper side of the boom. It must be
made of sufficient stiffness to prevent bending when the dipper is being
filled.
8 BULLETIN. 300, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
On dredges such as are ordinarily used in drainage work, the dipper
or bucket varies in size from one-half cubic yard to 4 or 5 cubic yards.
The dipper varies considerably in shape with the different manufac-
turers. For work in ordinary material the cutting edge is made of a
single steel plate, preferably of manganese steel, but if the material is
hard large steel teeth are used to remforce the cutting edge. The
bottom of the dipper is a heavy steel plate which is hinged to the back
and is held in place by aspring latch on the front of the dipper. The
latch is operated by the craneman, who thus dumps the contents of
the dipper. As the latter is lowered into the ditch the weight of the
bottom causes it to close and latch automatically.
The larger the dipper used, the larger must be the engine and boiler,
and, in fact, all of the parts, including the hull. Thus the size of a
dipper dredge is determined by the capacity of its dipper.
COST.
The cost of dredges advances rapidly as the size and capacity are
increased. Dredges of the same rated capacity also vary somewhat
in cost with the different manufacturers. All of the machinery is
usually made at the shops of the manufacturer. The material
for the hulls may also be supplied by the manufacturer, but usually
the purchaser obtains lumber in the open market and builds the hull
in the field. The cost of hauling the material and machinery from
the railroad to the place of erection, the local price of labor, and the
conveniences for housing and feeding the workmen are factors which
wil enter into the cost of a machine of any type. It requires at least
two cars to transport the material for a small dipper dredge, while for
a machine of large size from four to six cars are required.
The following table gives the approximate costs of the various sizes
of dredges ready for operation, though these would be largely
affected by the difficulties and expense of transporting the material
and assembling the machine:
Approximate costs of dipper dredges.
Cost of | Cost of
Size. machin- | wood Total.
ery. hull.
F eid) eee ie Aer a ee ie eee ee | 5 On EEN 2s eee ee oie ea ra de ea a $3, 700 $1, 800 $5,500
iyard Ase Si Soe eng Olin A A irea ey pepe ce wees os 5, 400 2,200 7, 600
TRV ALCS Se siyere Sea te Cte a eet a ets aa a a UMN Sane Week eee 6, 100 2,250 8,350
1B S62) 6 [eget ae eee aR ee Ere ry eel EN i a ca ce ag Se Ee Ok 7,100 4, 500 11,600
DheV Olds hiss ad ee Sa Re ee ak eS oe eee an es 14, 000 9, 000 23,000
It requires practically a month for ten men to erect a l-yard dredge,
6 weeks to erect a 14-yard or 13-yard dredge, and 8 weeks to construct
a 2-yard or 24-yard machine. It requires less than one-half the time
given above to dismantle a machine. A 1-yard dredge whicn cost
Bul, 300, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I.
DI4421a
Fic. 1.—DREDGE EQUIPPED WITH BANK SPUDS.
Fic. 2.—DREDGE EQUIPPED WITH VERTICAL SPUDS.
TYPES OF FLOATING DIPPER DREDGES.
Bul, 300, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
FiG. 1.—MACHINE IN POSITION FOR DIGGING.
FIG. 2.—MACHINE IN THE ACT OF MoviNa.
A WALKING SCRAPER EXCAVATOR OF THE ROTARY
PLATE II.
D12391
D12392
NAPE:
EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE. 9
$8,000 was shipped about 400 miles and hauled by wagon 18 miles.
The dismantling cost about $490; the freight charges were about
$700; hauling, $360; and rebuilding about $670. ‘These costs are
fairly representative for this size of machine.
METHOD OF OPERATING.
With a floating dredge the construction should, where practicable,
begin at the upper end of the ditch and proceed downstream. Some-
times it is not feasible to transport the machinery and material to
the upper end of the ditch and the dredge must then work upstream.
This is undesirable, unless the fall be slight, since in working upstream -
dams must be built behind the boat to maintain the necessary water
level. In working downstream the ditch remains full and the dredge,
floating high, can dig a much narrower bottom than if working
upstream in shallow water. Moreover, when floating low, the
dipper may not properly clear the spoil bank. Again, in working
downstream, any material dropping from the dipper into the ditch
will be taken out in the next shovelful; whereas if working upstream
any material dropped or any silt washed behind the dredge is left to
settle in the bottom of the ditch. If work is begun on the natural
eround surface a pit must be dug to launch the boat; or if in a stream,
it may be necessary to build a temporary dam in the channel to
raise the water high enough to float the boat. The depth of water
required varies from 2 feet upward depending on the size of machine.
The floating dipper dredge moves itself ahead by means of the -
dipper. The spuds are first loosened from their bearings and the
dipper is run ahead of the machine and rested on the natural ground
surface in front of the ditch. The spuds are then raised and the
engines operating the backing drum are started; the dredge, being
free, is thus pulled ahead. ‘The spuds are then lowered and excava-
tion continued.
In timbered country the right of way must be cleared. In many
cases the timber cut will supply sufficient fuel for the dredge. It is
poor policy to fall the trees and leave them on the. ground to be
removed by the dredge. The stumps should always be shattered
with dynamite, as the strain on the machinery is thus rendered much
less and the life of the dredge increased.
An engineer, a craneman, a fireman, and a deckhand are required
to operate a dipper dredge. The output, loss of time due to break-
downs, and the cost of repairs, depend almost wholly upon their
skill and efficiency. The engineer should be an all-around mechanic
as well as experienced in dredging.
The amount of fuel consumed depends upon the size and type of
boiler used, and upon the burning and heating qualities of the fuel.
4908°—Bull. 300—15——2
10 BULLETIN 300, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
A very great saving can be effected by covering the boiler with an
asbestos coat. Ordinarily, about 25 pounds of coal per horsepower-
hour are consumed on dredges. The cost of repairs depends largely
upon the operator; a careless operator will cause many unnecessary
breakdowns. It is not only the high cost of repairs for machinery
but also the time lost which aids in increasing the actual cost of the
output. It is a well-established fact that it is not the initial cost of a
dredge or of any machine, but the operating and overhead expenses,
that reduce the profits.
COST OF OPERATION.
The cost of dredge work depends upon a number of factors. The
locality of the work, the kind of soil, repairs, delays, labor, etc.,
greatly influence the actual cost of any work. If the water level can
naturally be maintained within a foot or so of the surface of the
ground, the cost of excavation can be reduced very low with this type
of machine. The data given in the following pages were obtained
from the actual cost records of the various projects. Unfortunately,
the figures are not always strictly comparable, one project with
another, owing to variations in the items of cost included. Unless
otherwise stated, interest is taken at 6 per cent and depreciation at
35 per cent per annum on the cost of the dredging outfit. Interest
and depreciation are, however, charged only for the interval of time
upon which the unit cost is based. This is not strictly correct, as a
certain amount of time consumed in getting the machine on and off
the work should be charged to each project. In most cases it was
impossible to ascertain the time that should be charged to moving,
building, etc., and therefore the item has been ignored in all cases, for
the sake of uniformity. On some projects figures for operation over an
extended period were not obtainable. In such cases the unit cost is
based upon the daily cost of operation and the average amount of ditch
dug per day, no allowance being made for interest and depreciation.
In the construction of a ditch in North Carolina a new 14-yard
dipper dredge was employed. This dredge had a 5 by 20 by 70 foot
hull and was equipped with 83 by 10 inch double-cylinder hoisting
engines; 7 by 7 inch double cylinder, reversible swinging engines;
a 50-horsepower Scotch marine return-flue boiler; a 14-yard dipper,
31-foot dipper handle, and 45-foot boom. The spuds were converti-
ble to bank or vertical and were operated by the hoisting engines.
The cost of this dredge, erected, was $10,342.19. The dredge was
operated continuously, each shift working 11 hours per day. The
men were paid at the following rates per month: Superintendent in
charge, $110; engineers, $100; cranemen, $60; firemen, $48; deck-
hands, $36. The men furnished their own subsistence. The ditch
EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE, 11
was 94 miles long and ranged from 22 to 30 feet wide on top and from
8 to 10 feet deep; it had side slopes of 4 to 1 and a berm 8 feet wide.
The water level was easily maintained near the ground surface. Very
little right-of-way clearing was required. In the construction of this
ditch the dredge excavated 350,720 cubic yards of earth. One year
was required for the dredge to complete this work. The following
cost data were taken from the records of the drainage district which
owned and operated the dredge:
Costrouoperations including labor and tueliets2 22222. 2225-22222 222-22 $15, 889. 01
ING@IORIES , .cooco dela aula oad ee DOO BEBE BREE Soo E Dao Oo oe coco cue eS i aerneenres 1, 948. 24
mLenestranlcleCepreclatlOmy teres. 2.2.55. o/s aicjan ears resales. tae) ae eae 4, 240. 22
22, O77. 47
Cost per cubic yard, $0.0629.
A new dredge of the same size and type as the one just described
was used in the excavation of a drainage ditch in the same locality
as the foregoing project. The ditch followed an old creek channel
for the greater part of its length. The cost of the dredge, erected,
was $9,365.34. It was operated in one shift of 11 hours; the actual
time of operation was not recorded. ‘The crew and the rates of pay
were the same as in the foregoing example. The ditch was 3? miles
long and ranged in top width from 22 to 26 feet and in depth from 6
to 10 feet. The side slopes were 4 to 1; the berm was 8 feet wide.
The dredge worked downstream and the water level was easily held
near the ground surface. Practically no right-of-way clearing was
done. The material excavated was a loam top soil underlain by stiff
clay; very little rock was encountered. The cost of the work was
considerably affected by the expense ($1,459) of passing three bridges.
The total amount excavated in a period of about 10 months was
121,200 cubic yards. The dredge was owned and operated by the
drainage district. The following costs were recorded:
Cost of operation, including labor and fuel........-. BUEN a oe Pe eee irae $5, 921. 05
BEG ls epee fesse fae ola) 2 Sela Si 2m noi 0 2 =) 8 este ays at 1, 028: 73
LNCIC CUE) he ee MABE Nec 3. 525 os be ues ee ree na ebs 117. 95
Interesiqamdn depreciation \.8/ 6.6... o <i: 72 eee ne eerste as toy 3, 199. 80
10, 267. 53
Cost per cubic yard, $0.0847.
A dipper dredge with a 54 by 16 by 60 foot hull, 7 by 8 inch
double-cylinder hoisting engines, friction swing, l-yard dipper, —
35-foot boom, and telescopic bank spuds was used in the construction
of about 5 miles of ditch in western North Carolina. No reliable
information was available as to the amount of material moved; but
the following figures as to the cost of installing the dredge are of
interest:
| 4 1 BULLETIN 300, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
|
Hull: Labor and materials. 22 <..-2) 5222 essere eee a eee $1, 803. 23
Machinery:
i Material. .- 22.5.0. .3 223) Pes 4, 800. 00
I! Preigbtis st aia < secs Se 2-1 le aarp eee ee 379. 10
i] DTA DO MeN eee a2 apts ete rm min ee 72. 60
f| Installing 22.2 (eA wees: Lock Ee eee 810. 60
Extra equipment (forge tools; jetc:)-.2 <2. 4. 4 te c)o-e- - - 80. 00
Lighting equipment (engine and dynamo and wiring).....-...--..---- 207. 00
7, 652. 53
In Colorado, a dipper dredge having a 24 by 75 foot hull, 14-yard
dipper, and 50-foot boom, was used in cleaning out and enlarging
about 20 miles of canal. The equipment, complete, including cook
and bunk boats, cost $16,500. Two shifts of 11 hours each were run.
During the year for which the data are given the dredge was actually
im operation but 187 days, or 58 per cent of the total working days.
The following crew were paid the given rates per month, mcluding
board: Head runner, $120; 1 runner, $110; 2 cranemen at $55; 2
firemen at $45; 2 deckhands at $40; 1 teamster, $40; 1 cook, $50.
No right-of-way clearmg was required. The water for the boiler was
taken from the canal, and as a result considerable trouble was
experienced from mud and scale. The cost data below are based on
the amount of material moved from inside the grade stakes during
the year, amounting to 394,387 cubic yards. It was estimated that
an excess of 25 per cent was actually moved. The following was the
cost of the work for one year:
)
e)
Operation:
Labor, operating dredgve: 225: <..)ao,s- cesta icra tales alee apa ee $6, 243. 70
Coal; including freight. 1276.65 tons, at $2:35. 22.2 22-0 Sos ce 3, 000. 13
Hauling coal276:6o\tons, at 822 cents. = 25 waee ae se. 5 ee 1, 053. 24
Oil, waste, and miscellaneous supplies: . 2. . 222 ---:-- 22. 5-222 ee 692. 80
Cost of controlling water to float dredge... {42.22 ...----- 222-2 eee 369. 24
Repairs; labor, and materiale: eine 2a se pyre S sss 22 3 | eee 3, 894. 67
Removing; and replacing, bridges wi: =... <2:/ja Sts eieyeiaie(aialoln ns sei) eee 837. 78
Interest'and depreciation. coos. 22 en Leis ee ee ace eee ee 6, 765. 00
22, 856. 56
Cost. per cubic yard, $0.058.
Miscellaneous expenses:
Hneineering and supervision. :j2s2sinsace ee tcee sce nice ce oe ee eee $1, 856. 10
Building up ditch bank and making road on top..-....-------------- 4,721.75
Right of way andelegal expenses: =4: 20 de4- +e. ore eee eee 190. 42
6, 768. 27
The cost of the dredging outfit was as follows:
Hull:
Material: 2aveiteto. 2a ee ky ee $1, 960. 83
Labor; including hauling: 2-22 8! each see ce ene ee 1, 959. 99
Machinery:
Cost; inchiding freight... .c.<.- ss. alee eee eee 9, 997. 72
Haitling and installing: |. 23 ccc 2. cue eee Ce eee eee 817. 55
EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE. 13
Cook and bunk boats:
IWleviasealll . « 8 GORE eta meg epee ye ae ait to: TUTE 2 ae me er Ge a ae cee Oe $663. 90
WMO seb SSS Ae ee ee Eee ee Dene cRQR ELL eA eet eat ae mans eee 453. 66
Mo tale sas eo: Es, MPM SCS 2 wo os Sane AR sea 16, 500. 00
In connection with a drainage project in southwest Louisiana a
steam-operated, floating dipper dredge, equipped with a 1l-yard
dipper, 40-foot boom, and convertible power spuds was employed in
the excavation of about 10 miles of ditch which varied in width from
18 to 50 feet and in depth from 4 to 6-feet; 15-foot berms were speci-
fied. The cost of the dredge on the work is said to have been $10,000.
Two shifts of 10 hours each were run, but the actual number of days of
operation was not recorded. The crew and monthly rates of pay,
including subsistence, were as follows: Two runners, at $100; 2
cranemen, at $60; 2 firemen, at $60; 1 deckhand, $40; 1 cook, $30,
The material excavated was a hard, stiff clay. The total amount
excavated in about 8 months was 147,000 cubic yards. The average
cost, per month, of operation was as follows:
ILAIDOR. 5 no oh boa SO Le DUES EEE Ea IE eer ts ote Ate eee ee eee $510
BORIC leis ode So Goa ea SOE eI eee aE Ds Sie ies fees Eee OD HO ON Fe 100
Cpls o SbocacécGadeens Ge be Eee Sees oe 5S r.O oe Mee CRA ake Siew 262
TORIES. acco GRE Se ORS See AS, See 6 eee ae | SAE 200
(Oil eine! SUPT OUGT ERAS See ae me Soa eee APA Gr 50
Mie hesiga Ged CDEC CIA TON: 2. Mys,2:5) «6,cie'= 4). <1 cle eee Seer eee sees ae eee 342
1, 464
Cost per cubic yard, $0.0796.
On another project in southern Louisiana there was employed a
floating dipper dredge with a 5 by 22 by 73 foot hull; 8 by 10 inch
double-cylinder hoisting engine; 6 by 8 inch, double-cylinder reversi-
ble swinging engines; 14-yard dipper, and 40-foot boom. The ma-
chine was equipped with bank spuds. The cost of the dredge,
ready to operate, was $13,000. The ditches averaged about 30 feet
wide and were from 5 to 6 feet deep. The land was nearly level and
the water surface was easily kept within a foot of the ground surface.
The material was a top muck underlain by an alluvial mud which was
hardly solid enough to hold its shape when dropped from the dipper.
There were few submerged logs or stumps. The dredge was operated
the year around for 2 years. No record was kept of the actual time
of operation. The average output per shift (12 hours) on a 30-foot
ditch 5 feet deep was 1,200 cubic yards, at a cost as follows:
FLaarare (ZL itavesii) ga ece nA Re ces RE Sor TRON abn et Bea ee $10. 50
uelmosbarrels‘oile at. pill 7o2 ei 320. 2 ae ene ee toe ar ky See eee ae 10. 50
Hepa moll, rand sereasens chen 28. <0 ese Se ER ee tee A Sec BSS haces 5. 50
Cost per cubic yard, exclusive of interest and depreciation, $0.0221.
14 BULLETIN 300, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
In the same general locality as the foregoing case, and under the
same soil conditions, a 1-yard dredge which was, except in respect to
capacity, equipped similarly to the above-described machine, was
operated in the construction of ditches which averaged 30 feet wide
and 5 feet deep. The cost of the dredge, erected, was $11,000. The
average output per 12-hour shift during a 2-years’ run was 1,000
cubic yards. The cost per shift was as follows:
Labor (fmien) os. ese fsb a ee ce Ave RA SES 2a RE PCR Ne Oe 2 $10. 00
Fuel, 5 batrels oil, ati $L-75:s.02020 esse ice alte 1 a oe 8.75
Repairs, oil, and srease.......2!2-.5 2: wife ik Sh aoe eles Sate les 3 5. 50
24, 25
Cost per cubic yard, exclusive of interest and depreciation, $0.0242.
In another drainage project in southern Louisiana several ditches,
each 3 miles long, were constructed by a dipper dredge installed on a
54 by 18 by 70 foot hull. The power was obtained from a 60-horse-
power internal-combustion engine. The dredge had a 14-yard dipper,
40-foot boom, and convertible power spuds. The total cost of the
outfit, including house-boats and small towboats, was $12,000. Two
shifts of 10 hours each were run for 26 days in each month. The
crew were furnished subsistence, and each shift consisted of: One
runner, at $125; 1 craneman, at $65; and 1 engine tender, at $40
‘per month. One cook, at $35, and one general utility man, at $60,
were also employed, making a total labor cost of $555 per month.
The average dimensions of the ditch were: Top width, 25 feet; bot-
tom width, 18 feet; and depth, 8 feet. The ground was nearly level
and the water stood about 3 feet below the ground surface. The
excavated material was a stiff, sandy clay. About 3.4 miles of the
work consisted in cleaning old channel, which required frequent moy-
ing and gave small yardage. The total excavation in five months was
about 216,000 cubic yards. The cost was as follows:
Maborian dy boards es se oie oy wot iol ee a i $3, 555
Bye aia AO Tem isk Tas eo SUNG age ds, EA ae es Nd oe oo oe 2, 300
1592) 0,2) bi: bya ape iO pain Rape ead is pana Snare Mt ade RRMA ASE O'S o).5.5.- 980
Interest'and) depreciations: 0 PUNE Sa ee See ee 2, 050
Cost per cubic yard, $0.411.
A steam-operated floating dipper dredge, mounted on a 5 by 15
by 60 foot hull and equipped with a 1-yard dipper, 38-foot boom,
and inclined telescopic bank spuds, was used in the excavation of
about 10% miles of ditch in North Carolina. The cost of the dredge
is stated to have been $6,613.82. One shift of 10 hours per day was
run. The actual number of days of operation was not recorded.
The crew and rates of pay were as follows: One engineer, $125 per
month; 1 craneman, $2 per day; 1 fireman, $1.25 per day; 1 watch-
man, $1.50 per day. The crew furnished their own subsistence.
EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE. 1,6)
The ditch was about 18 feet in top width, 12 feet deep, and had
4 to 1 slopes. It followed an’ old creek bed for a large part of the
distance. The material excavated was a clay, though some rock was
also encountered. Based upon the given dimensions of the ditch, the
total excavation amounted to 295,000 cubic yards. Eighteen months
were required to complete the work. The cost was as follows:
Operation:
PED OTERO RR ky we ea NE 0h AN PENNS ERIE GRY tee ee oT $6, 310. 94
TPS acc ot ae MOOS ore PR Beem” 0h, Teh SY a ee EST Ne 2, 210. 30
Repairs
IBV OPe o's SEs A RS RS Sao MS CE ere nine ee 1, 380. 12
Ju essere 2 hes ee a Mt OL RS eh iat el Se a ie a I STO All
iiterestraudedeprectatlon. 2 452.006 0. sos. eerie cits 5 fot B SE Cam 4, 067. 00
15, 105. 07
Cost per cubic yard, $0.0512.
Miscellaneous expenses:
JE EYS TOSS C1 GY 2A eR a a ER DSA RN ote RG ae $164. 83
Cleanineyroltroliway 2.2.5.0... SU ae eee eee ee). SCTE "Leth SUE 282. 70
ve unlcime brid es -8 y= -/52)- Sy. cies 2 os See ots © ak pe ees % 104. 96
Imerdemtalsmen se. S22 ht Ss bla, el Re A pee eto Ae Mae 48.77
Nelimaimistratlonees hes. Ls se Sar ose EAN ae ee een ae re 618. 00
1, 219. 26
SELECTION OF DREDGE.
The floating dipper dredge is admirably adapted to the excavation
of drainage ditches having sufficient width and depth and the neces-
sary supply of water for floating the machine, and especially where
the ground is swampy or covered with trees or stumps, rendering .
impracticable the use of teams or of so-called dry-land machinery.
No other type of excavator is so well fitted for digging ditches in a
timbered country or where large stumps will be encountered. The
dipper dredge, however, is not well adapted to digging channels of
less than 100 square feet cross section. Standard types of dipper
dredges are not adapted to digging ditches more than 1,200 square
feet in cross section, although most makers will build special machines
for larger ditches. As ordinarily operated, the dipper dredge con-
structs a more or less ragged and irregular ditch, but in the hands
of a skilled operator very good results can be obtained.
_ The size of dredge that should be used depends upon various fac-
tors. Not only the greatest and least, but also the intermediate
cross-sectional dimensions of the proposed ditch should be known,
and the relative amount of each class. The specified width of berm
and the side slopes should also be known. The total amount of exca-
vation, the nature of the material, and whether the dirt is to be
dumped on one or both sides, are factors that must be considered.
A knowledge of the depth of water which can be maintained at a
minimum expense is also necessary, and information as to the num-
4
16 BULLETIN 300, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
ber and size of stumps to be encountered is of the highest importance.
Owing to the expense of knocking down, transporting, and setting
up a dredge, it is necessary to select or use one of the size that will
do the most work at one building. This requires an intimate knowl-
edge of the layout of the proposed work, and of the accessibility of
the different portions.
It is the opinion of many contractors that the use of dredges with
narrow hulls, say less than 18 feet, is to be avoided except where
the ground is so hard that the bank spuds rest firmly and bear the
weight of the swinging load; in soft ground it may be cheaper to
use a wider hull, even though it be necessary to make the ditch wider
than is specified.
The various makers of dredges have compiled and made available
to prospective purchasers tables, giving full descriptions of their ma-
chines. These tables give for each of the numerous dipper capacities
such data as the following: Length of boom and dipper handle; dis-
tances machines will dig below water line and dump above water line;
distance from center of hull to center of dump; dimensions of hull
and amount of lumber required to build; sizes of hoisting and swing-
ing engines; and daily digging capacity of machine. With the aid
of these data, and having in mind the ditch specifications and the
factors enumerated in the preceding paragraph, the proper size of
dredge for a particular ditch may be determined.
Where it will be necessary to cope with stumps, this factor will
often be the ruling one in determining the capacity of machine
needed.
When designing a ditch, the engineer should always have in mind
the type and size of machine to which the work is adapted. So far
as is consistent with other considerations a ditch system should be
so designed as to give the contractor the greatest amount of exca-
vation for a given size of dredge. This point can best be illustrated
by a practical example. A certain ditch was designed with a bottom
width varying from 16 to 46 feet, and with a cut of about 7 feet
throughout the entire length of 15 miles. The ditch as planned was
too wide at its lower end to be constructed by an ordinary-sized
dredge, unless equipped with the telescopic or the convertible power
spuds. By making the cut deeper at the lower end, the width of
the ditch could have been made considerably less and an ordinary
dredge could have dug the ditch throughout. The necessity of using
two dredges of different sizes on such a comparatively small job
of course tended to increase the unit cost of the work. Conditions
may, it is true, be such as to make a deeper ditch impracticable, as,
for instance, scour due to too great a velocity, the lack of a free
outlet, the presence of rock, and other conditions.
? EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE. 14
In planning drainage for a small area which can be drained by one
dredged ditch from 6 to about 12 miles in length, the engineer will
frequently make the above-mentioned mistake of designing his ditch
too wide at the outlet. On large projects, where the amount of
excavation is great, this condition will not occur so often, since there
is usually sufficient yardage to warrant the installation of two or
more plants. The engineer should remember that if the ditches are
so planned that one machine can do all the work, even though the
yardage is sufficient to justify two dredges, the cost of construction
will be reduced. However, the time required to do the work with
one machine may be so great that the district would rather pay the
additional cost involved in installing two plants.
A contract may consist of a number of ditches all but one of which
are suited to a given size of machine. This ditch is too wide to be
cut by the dredge at one cutting, and the yardage is insufficient to
justify the installation of another dredge. The difficulty may be
overcome by making a double cut. This, however, requires the use
of either vertical or the convertible type of spuds.
If the best prices are to be obtained, each 14-yard dredge on a
project should have a minimum of 250,000 cubic yards and each
3-yard dredge not less than 500,000 cubic yards.
THE FLOATING GRAB-BUCKET DREDGE.
In construction the floating grab-bucket dredge differs from the
dipper type only in the appliances for handling the material. In-
stead of using a dipper and dipper handle, an orange-peel or a clam-
shell bucket is suspended from the end of the boom. The bucket of
the orange-peel type is the one more generally used for drainage work.
A much longer boom can be used with the grab-bucket dredge
than with the dipper dredge. From 75 to 85 feet is about the maxi-
mum length of boom that can be successfully operated on a dipper
dredge, while booms as long as 240 feet have been used on grab-
bucket dredges. This feature is of especial importance in levee con-
struction, as it is desired to deposit the material as far from the
stream as possible.
While the dipper dredge pulls itself ahead by means of the dipper,
with a grab-bucket dredge some type of ‘‘pull-ahead”’ line is neces-
sary. Generally three auxiliary drums are provided, which are used
for operating the two spuds and for overhauling the pull-ahead line,
which is securely fastened to the bucket. The bucket is dropped
into the material, the hoisting line is slackened, and the pull-ahead
line is drawn taut, thus pulling the dredge ahead. In other cases
the pull-ahead line may be anchored to a ‘‘dead man”’ buried some
distance ahead of the machine.
4908°—Bull. 300—15——3
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18 BULLETIN 300, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Owing to its long reach, the grab-bucket dredge is often used for
levee construction. It, however, is not very extensively used for
the excavation of drainage channels, although there are certain con-
ditions under which it can be used to greater advantage than can
the dipper dredge. It excels in handling the muck found on the
prairie lands of southern Louisiana and in certain other localities,
and under such conditions is better adapted to ditch and levee con-
struction than is the dipper type. The latter, however, is preferable
for digging hard soil and stumps.
THE DRAG-LINE SCRAPER EXCAVATOR.
The drag-line scraper excavator is a type of dry-land machine that
has come into prominence only within the last few years. It has
made feasible the cheap construction of much larger ditches and
levees than is possible by the use of any other type of machine.
In the type most commonly used, the engine platform, engine
house, and boom are connected and revolve on a turntable which
is secured to a lower platform built up of structural steel sections.
This is known as the revolving or rotary type and is illustrated in
Plate IIT. Upon the upper surface of the lower platform is riveted
the track upon which the swinging circle revolves, and in its center
is the pivot bearing. The turntable is a steel-frame circle supported
by several wheels which rest upon the track. The upper platform,
which is also built up of standard steel sections, is held to the lower
platform by means of a central pivot.
In the stationary type the engine platform is fixed; the boom is
pivoted at its lower end and is the only part of the machine which
swings. This type is illustrated in Plate IV, figure 2.
The power equipment of the drag-line excavator may be either
steam, gasoline, or electric. Unlike the floating dipper dredge, the
internal combustion engine has been used with success on drag-line
excavators and meets with favor among contractors. For the steam
plant the boiler most commonly used is either the locomotive or the
Scotch marine return-flue type. On the smaller machines vertical
boilers are sometimes employed. The engines used consist of two
sets, the main engines and the swinging engines. The former are
set in front and are of the horizontal double-cylinder type, with
engines and drums self-contained on a single cast-iron or steel bed
plate.
Sometimes the swinging is done by a mechanism attached to the
main engine. Ordinarily, however, separate swinging engines are
provided. In the rotary type these engines drive, through a series
of gears, a pinion which engages the circular rack on the lower frame.
Where electricity can be secured cheaply the machines can be operated
very economically by this power.
—--
al
| EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE. 19
In the smaller drag-line machines the boom is generally constructed
of two channels with cross bracing, while for the larger machines two
cross-braced lattice girders are used. The lower ends of the two
main members of the boom are spread apart to give stability, while
at the upper end the two members are joined, at which point one or
more sheaves are placed. The top of the boom is guyed to the top
of the A frame which is located near the front of the main engine.
The lower ends of the A frame are bolted to the platform while the
upper end is guyed to the rear corners of the platform.
The bucket most frequently used on drag-line excavators is of the
scraper type, although the clam-shell and orange-peel buckets are
sometimes used for special work. The scraper bucket is connected
to the main engine by two steel cables called respectively the hoist-
ing and drag-line cables. The bucket is filled by being pulled toward
the machine, and when full is raised by the hoisting cable which
passes from the bucket over the sheaves in the end of the boom and
down to the hoisting drum. There are many patented devices for
quickly dumping the bucket, a feature that is important in digging
sticky material. The capacity of the scraper buckets range from
about five-eighths cubic yard to 3 cubic yards. 5
The crew necessary to operate this type of machine consists of two
men, an operator and a fireman on the steam machine, or an operator
and an oiler on the gasoline or electrically-driven machines. In
addition to these, two or more trackmen are required, except in the
case of the so-called walking type.
For movement over the ground the drag-line excavator may be
mounted on either wheels, rollers, caterpillar tractors, trucks, or
walking shoes.
Where the ground is uneven or cut up with old channels and sur-
face ditches, it is necessary in the case of all traction or roller exca-
vators which are not of the rotary type to block or bridge across the
depressions and to lay heavy timbers on which to move the machine.
Where the machine weighs 25 tons or more the expense of providing
a solid foundation becomes quite great. In the rotary type of exca-
vator the machine can be revolved and can build its own foundation
of earth.
Drag-line excavators vary greatly in weight, not only with the
capacity of the machine but with the manufacturer. Some of the
five-eighths-yard stationary types weigh no more than 12 tons.
There are a few standard makes of drag-line excavators which,
although they may differ in details of construction, are operated in
the same manner. They vary in weight from 25 tons to about. 110
tons. It is especially noteworthy that in all makes ‘the heavier
machines are mounted on wooden rollers or on trucks to run ona
track. Wheels and caterpillar traction are used only on the lighter
'
‘
20 BULLETIN 300, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
machines. Although caterpillar tractors require no track, they have
not given complete satisfaction when working under all the different
conditions usually met with in operation. The wear on the chains
is very great in sandy soil, and the expense of repairs and the time
lost through breakdowns are likely to be considerable.
VARIATIONS IN ROTARY TYPE.
For the purpose of eliminating some of the weaknesses in the ordi-
nary moving devices a novel design of walking scraper excavator of
the rotary type has been put on the market. (See Pl. II.) Attached
to the upper platform and extending through the machine in a direc-
tion at right angles to that of the boom is a heavy steel shaft, on each
end of which is a wheel segment. The shaft also carries a large gear
wheel, which meshes with a pinion on the loading-drum shaft of the
main engine. Suspended from the middle arm of each segment by
means of a carrying beam and chains is a long shoe which affords a
bearing for the segment as it rotates and propels the machine for-
ward. The machine can be made to move in any desired direction
by first swinging the upper platform. The excavator is moved
ahead 8 feet during each complete revolution of the segment. The
creat advantage of this type of machine, as well as of the excavator
mounted on caterpillar tractors, is the reduction in the necessary
working force from four to two men, the trackmen being unnecessary.
It is claimed that five men can take this type of machine down in a
week and erect it in about two weeks. The machine weighs about
60 tons and costs $7,000. Three cars are required for shipping it.
Another form of the rotary type is the so-called boom-guided
bucket excavator. The entire machine rests on two steel rails spaced
12 feet apart and laid on short wooden ties. Either steam or gaso-
line may be used as power. The unique feature of this machine is
the boom on which the scraper bucket travels. (Pl. III, fig.1.) Itis
the purpose of this guide boom to overcome the difficulty of holding
the ordinary bucket in place in passing from stiff to loose material.
The bucket, which is a rectangular steel box open at the end
toward the machine, travels upon the guide boom on steel rollers.
To fill, the bucket is first pulled outward by the back-haul cable,
which leads from the bucket to the head of the main boom and back
to the engine. The guide boom is then lowered and the bucket pulled
toward the machine. The bucket is dumped by being pulled up on
the vertical end of the guide boom, the boom having first been swung
around to the location at which the material is to be deposited.
This machine is made with three different lengths of boom, a 30-
foot adjustable boom which can be increased to 40 feet, a 40-foot,
and a 65-foot boom. Buckets of 14, 14, and 2 cubic yards are used
on these machines. It is claimed that 5 men can take down the
Bul. 300, U. S. Dept. of Agricuiture. PLATE III.
DI4118a
Fic. 1.—BUCKET AND GUIDE OF THE BOOM-GUIDED
BUCKET EXCAVATOR.
D12393
Fig. 2.—A LIGHT STEEL SCRAPER EXCAVATOR MOUNTED UPON WHEELS.
Bul. 300, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV.
DI4175a
Fic. 1.—A LIGHT WOODEN SCRAPER EXCAVATOR CLEANING A DITCH.
D12394
Fia. 2.—A SCRAPER EXCAVATOR WITH TWO BUCKETS AND MOUNTED UPON RUNNERS.
Bul. 300, U, S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V.
D12395
Fic. 1.—A 1-YARD Dry-LAND DipPER EXCAVATOR MOUNTED UPON CATERPILLAR
TRACTORS.
D12396
Fia. 2.—A. 1-YARD DrRY-LAND DIPPER EXCAVATOR MOUNTED UPON TRUCKS.
Bul. 300, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI.
Fic. 1.—A DRY-LAND ORANGE-PEEL EXCAVATOR.
Fia. 2.—FRONT VIEW OF A TEMPLET EXCAVATOR.
EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE. Pall
machine of the smaller size in from 2 to 3 days and easily put it up
ma week. It makes 13 loads on a wagon and can easily be loaded
on a flat car.
COST OF ROTARY TYPE.
The cost of revolving drag-line excavators runs from about $6,000
to about $25,000. A steam-operated excavator equipped with a
40-foot boom and a 14-yard bucket costs about $6,500 if mounted on
skids and rollers, and $10,000 if mounted on caterpillar traction.
A steam-operated excavator equipped with a 60-foot boom and
2-yard bucket costs $9,000 if mounted on skids and rollers, and about
$13,000 if mounted on caterpillar traction. If operated by internal
combustion engines, this last-named machine would cost about
$17,000. A steam excavator with a 125-foot boom costs approxi-
mately $27,000.
VARIATIONS IN STATIONARY TYPE.
A number of different forms of the stationary type of drag-line
excavator are on the market. <A light machine of this type has been
put out recently which is being used quite extensively (Plate III,
fig. 2). The machine is built entirely of steel. The main frame is
24 by 24 feet and can easily be made -wider or narrower if desired.
The platform is 12 by 30 feet. The frame is mounted on four steel
wheels, each 5 feet high and 2 feet wide. The boom is 40 feet long
and can be extended an additional 10 feet if it is desired to use the
machine for tile trenching or lowering large tile into place. A
40-horsepower, 4-cycle gasoline engine is used for power. The bucket
has a capacity of five-eighths cubic yard. The machine complete
weighs 12 tons. When dismantled it can be loaded on one flat car,
or if transported by team will make 7 wagon loads. One man is
required to operate the machine and one man to handle the track in
soft ground. From 20 to 25 gallons of gasoline are required per
10-hour day. The machine can be moved ahead without interrupting
its operation by means of a cable attached to a “‘dead man” or to
stakes. The large wheels will travel over reasonably firm ground
without track and no trackman is therefore needed except in ex-
tremely soft ground or swamp. The machine costs approximately
$4,500.
This same type of machine, made entirely of wood, is convenient
for light work such as cleaning ditches, etc. Such a machine is illus-
trated in Plate IV, figure 1. It is equipped with two 12-horsepower,
air-cooled gasoline engines, 50-foot boom, and 4 cubic yard bucket,
and has been used in cleaning out old ditches in Iowa. The
machine weighs about 12 tons and cost $3,000. Four men are
required in using it, two operators and two trackmen. About 20
gallons of gasoline are required per 10-hour day. Four men can set
such a machine up in 3 days and can take it down in 2 days. The
22, BULLETIN 300, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
maximum width of ditch a machine of the above size can dig is
50 feet and the greatest depth is 22 feet. It has excavated 500
cubic yards in 10 hours. The machine is supported on 4 wheels, and
is moved on the work in advance of the excavation by cable and
‘“‘dead man.”
Another drag-lne machine of the stationary type has been designed
to meet the demand for a light excavator that can be economically
and quickly moved-across country from one job to another. The
power consists simply of a steam or oil traction engine which forms the
rear of the machine as shown in figure 1. The front end is carried on
two wide wheels. It is claimed that this excavator can be moved over
ordinary country roads, or even across fields, at the speed of an ordi-
nary large traction engine, and that it can be quickly taken apart and
reassembled if shipment is desired. For work on soft ground a heavy
timber pad is provided for each wheel. These are shifted by engine
Fig. 1.—Drag-line scraper excavator of the stationary type.
power; in doing this one side of the machine at a time is raised on
power jacks.
A drag-lme machine with two buckets has been used to some
extent in the excavation of drainage channels. This machine, illus-
trated in Plate IV, figure 2, is mounted either on runners or on cater-
pillar tractors. The two booms, which are separated at the foot
according to the width of the ditch to be cut, swing from the center
of the ditch outward. The operations are so timed that one bucket
is being emptied while the other is being filled. This feature greatly
increases the output of the machine. The excavator can be dis-
mantled for shipping in about 2 weeks and can be assembled in about
1 month by a crew of 5 men. Under favorable conditions this
machine has excavated 1,500 cubic yards in 15 hours. Such a
machine, equipped with 42-foot booms, can dig a ditch with a 46-foot
top, 25-foot bottom, and 12-foot depth.
EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE. De
COST OF OPERATION.
A drag-line excavator of the rotary type, having a 2-yard scraper
bucket and a 60-foot boom, was used in the construction of some
drainage ditches in southern Texas. It was built mostly of wood and
moved on rollers. Power was derived from an 80-horsepower internal-
combustion engine, burning oil. The cost of the excavator, ready to
operate, was $12,000. It was operated about 10 months in two daily
shifts of 10 hours each, a shift consisting of 10 men. The actual
working time was not recorded. The ditch ranged from 4 to 22 feet
in bottom width, from 3 to 12 feet in depth, and had 1 to 1 side
slopes. The soil varied from a stiff, heavy clay to a fine sand. The
excavation amounted to 230,000 cubic yards; the cost was as follows:
OPAMP CUSCS em aim = a afm a al= =~ = om m= ef oie eaten eite clea eiaieie = Sim reine = $22, 313. 36
Rubestoe MDE OUI IER CDSCS! = 2/2).)2 5 = a'zicc soi = Se ee ett tane Oat oct baioielar aie el sicle 374. 70
er eOS AMOI ePFCCIALION. <o.2 isc = = 2 = ic sferaraapeinereterttete eis ake = a sfala hosel ss 4, 100. 00
Cost per cubic yard, $0.1164. 26, 788. 06
On another drainage project in southern Texas, a 2-yard rotary
excavator was used. The machine was of steel throughout, had a
60-foot boom, and was mounted on caterpillar traction. The crew
consisted of a foreman, operator, engineman, oiler, and two laborers.
The machine was operated by a 110-horsepower internal-combustion
engine, with oil as fuel. The total cost of the machine was about
$17,500. The cost of erection was $509. During the four months of
operation two 10-hour shifts were run. The ditches ranged from 4 to
22 feet in bottom width and from 3 to 12 feet in depth, with 1 to 1
side slopes and 8-foot berms. The material excavated was a stiff,
heavy clay. The excavation amounted to 91,400 cubic yards; the
cost was as follows:
COSINE Cag ree HARE See sods Eee MOREE ean A 2056 So oR ae AMOe <b $8, 873. 82
MUS@@ll DECOR 6 cdRHBetor Ss Oe OBS SOAPAPBEPR EE eres oS och ass aU ea ate 371. 00
inipevestmidndeprecia tions 4... -- 5220s seeps ee see eet oO),
Cost per cubic yard, $0.1273. 11, 685. 82
In the same general locality as the last example a 14-yard rotary
drag-line excavator, operated by a 50-horsepower internal-combustion
engine and mounted on caterpillar traction, was used in the con-
struction of some ditches in soil ranging from stiff, heavy clay to fine
sand. The ditches were of the same dimensions as in the foregoing
example. The machine was rebuilt from an old dipper dredge at a
cost of about $1,200. It was operated in two daily shifts of 10 hours
each. The crew for each shift consisted of from 5 to6 men. During
the five months of operation the machine moved 59,014 cubic yards
at an expense, exclusive of interest and depreciation, of $8,921, or
$0.1512 per cubic yard.
Hl 94 BULLETIN 300, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
A rotary drag-line excavator with a 24-yard bucket and 65-foot
boom, mounted on skids and rollers, was used in the excavation of
| 222,500 cubic yards in South Dakota. The power was obtained from
a 50-horsepower internal-combustion engine, using gasoline. The
| cost of the machine, complete, was $10,500. The total time of con-
struction was 148 working days, or approximately 6 months, of which
23 days were occupied in making repairs. Two shifts of 11 hours each
were run. The soil was a loam underlain by clay. The crew and
rates per month were as follows: One superintendent, $125; 2 crane-
men, at $100; 4 trackmen, at $50; 1 teamster, $45; 1 cook, $40.
The operating expenses were as follows:
Gasoline, 15,444 gallons, :at $OL1240 4. tet Ny eee Sts. es ee $1, 915. 05
Labor c,. 2.10 e Ae ed See a 3, 060. 00
Subsistence.........-- ole Rite: 5 cuahs loess a ere chee ah ele 561. 81
Cables ss 3.373 /seesbe vey bos cies ee eS Se Das eee eo OY | 978. 87
Repairs.and rene wales: 2) S222 csseh oe Meet ie. wetques See 845. 93
Miscellaneous: i225. isos ck k es CN i ee ae et ta a MS ets 2, 078. 72
Interestiand depreciationeiin: 22g itis cia ee cee eee os Sac 2, 152. 50
11, 592. 88
Cost per cubic yard, $0.0521.
The following costs were secured on the operation of a rotary drag-
line excavator with an 85-foot boom, 2-vard bucket, and a 50-horse-
power engine. The work was done on the New York State Barge
Canal. The machine weighed 147 tons and cost $10,000. It exca-
vated earth 90 feet from center on one side and deposited it 100 feet
from center on the other. It dug a channel 25 feet deep and deposited
the material on waste bank 15 to 25 feet high. The material was a
stiff clay, with few stumps or bowlders. The following is a condensed
cost record for 5 months’ work:
Yards ex-
Total ex- : Average
Month. pense for eee cost per
month. month: yard.
UX) OD 010 eS Sai eh ee eee Se ore a nas io aS See SHOE EO Ee $1, 088. 21 5, 205 $0. 209
a Re Se AR OS 1 RN nk ig gen eR NGS Be 1,041, 53 18, 365 . 0568
Tune eGR an oe eae AA an Bere EON SERS Me ete Oot g ane 1, 152. 04 25,333 ~ 0455
Tay A See eD Sree te EE eens ft Oe mE PODS Meee oes cence cee 1,317. 61 33,055 - 0399
PATI pLIs Dus atire, cy, Watney et ek dey a RN ati oy cr 1, 535. 36 47,363 . 0324
Average cost per yard for 5 months, including all charges, $0.0474.
In May, items of cost were as follows:
Hugineer at $90 per Month: Moss cce oc use oscine gue tes estas $90. 00
Engineer ati $95tper month. (224 332s Se es. Se ee 84. 04
Fireman, pumpmen, watchmen, etc., at $1.75 per day..............--..- 363. 00
Coal,,at ($3 periton se aad.as ders Pb eee sete) Ase 3 ee cee em He 147. 00
Repairs, ncludine Jaborfand materiaihas. pee cs! Sop iaeeoctierne eee 15. 82
Interest:and:.depreciation 5 oo eh hose anak ERC eer see eee 341. 67
Total coves cee iwinin 2 bisiorule oie ere ltiereeieistowioe ecm. c]acj ne eee ee 1, 041. 53
EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE. 25
SELECTION OF SCRAPER EXCAVATOR.
In selecting a scraper excavator the purchaser, in addition to
choosing the most desirable kind of power and the best means of
moving over the ground in his particular case, must determine the
length of boom best suited to his needs.
Figure 2 is a diagram showing the relation between the length and
angle of elevation of boom and the effective reach of machine. In
this diagram all distances are referred to the heel of the boom. [If it
is desired to refer horizontal distances to the center of the machine,
the correction A must of course be added; this distance varies with
the different makes of machine. The distance, B, of the heel of the
boom above the ground, likewise varies slightly in different machines.
ID AIPMGNG PUe 1yB/9L) By44 OL, PP BUNOLO aAOGe JayING JO B2UCIOI/I PULY OL
“SITINY SNO/IAVA LY ONT WO0E SO YFLNTI FAOTY LIZA NI WOOG FIO LHIIFH
2S enkee 2 ee
—
— nz
10 18 20 2 sO 55 60 65 70 75 60 85 90 95 100 105 110 15 120 125
BA REACH OF BOOM IN FEET FROM CENTER OF BOOM LUG AT VARIOUS ANGLES.
*<—a—4 To This Distance add “A” when Distance trom Center of Machine 1s reguired.
a) ae
till
i
——_— eee 4S
iy
Fig. 2.—Diagram of scraper excavator, showing relation between the length and elevation of boom and
the effective reach of machine.
To determine the maximum clearance of the bucket above the ground
for different lengths and positions of boom, the distance B must be
added to the vertical heights given on the right-hand margin of the
diagram; and from this sum must be subtracted the distance C, which
will depend entirely upon the type of bucket used. Thus, for a
70-foot boom elevated at an angle of 35°, the horizontal distance
from the center of machine to the bucket would be 57+ A; and at
that position of the boom the bucket would just clear a waste bank of
a height 40+ B—C.
THE DRY-LAND DIPPER EXCAVATOR.
Excavating machines employing the same digging principle as used
on the floating dipper dredge, but moving on land, either over or in
26 BULLETIN 300, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
the ditch, are used to a considerable extent in drainage work. A
common form of this type straddles the ditch on cross-beams. The
straddle ditchers generally work upstream as do all dry-land exca-
vators.
A machine of this type often used is illustrated in Plate V, figure 1.
It has a 30-foot boom and a 1-yard dipper. The steam power used
is obtained through a 2-cylinder, 35-horsepower engine and a vertical
boiler. The machine rests on a platform which is mounted on two
steel beams, each 29 feet long, that straddle the ditch. It can be
mounted on either caterpillar tractors or wheeled trucks. In the
latter case, each end of the two beams is supported on a 2-wheeled
oscillating truck, the wheels being 2 feet high and 18 inches wide.
They run on a wooden track 6 inches thick and 3 feet wide, which is
built in 6 sections each 20 feet long. One section of the track on each
side is always unoccupied and these are lifted ahead by means of
cranes operated by power derived from the engines. This track will
support the machine in the softest ground. The excavator will dig
12 feet deep and 22 feet wideon firm ground; with an extension to the
dipper handle it can dig 18 feet deep. It will deposit the dirt on
either side at a distance of 32 feet from the center of the ditch. The
dipper will swing over a bank 14 feet high. Where track is used the
machine is pulled ahead by a cable from the engine which hooks to
the track on both sides; this is done without interrupting the work
of excavating. If desired, caterpillar tractors are furnished instead
of the wheeled trucks. The front tractors are 4 feet wide by 11 feet
long, and the rear tractors are 4 feet wide by 74 feet long. This exca-
vator has been known to dig as high as 1,500 cubic yards in 10 hours
in especially favorable material. It has dug through 12 inches of
frost. From 7 to 8 men can set up and take down the machine in
from 5 to 8 days.
Another machine of this type is illustrated in Plate V, figure 2.
The excavator is made in various sizes; that most commonly used has
a 38-foot boom and a l-yard dipper. Power issuppled by an internal-
combustion engine of 25 or 40 horsepower which burns kerosene,
gasoline, or distillate oil. The machine rests on a platform which is
mounted on two steel beams, whose standard span is 32 feet. Exten-
sion axles are provided which permit of a maximum increase of 3 feet
in the span. The front axle is mounted on a two-wheeled swiveling
truck with cast-steel double-flange wheels. The rear end is carried
by two heavy, wide-faced, double-flange steel wheels set loosely on
the axle. The shipping weight of this size of dredge, including
engine, dipper, and machinery, is approximately 38,000 pounds.
Perhaps the cheapest straddle-ditch excavator of the dipper type
that is in use is a homemade one which has been used to some extent
EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE. OG.
on small ditches in Iowa. The machine is of the revolving type. It
is equipped with a three-fourths-yard dipper and a 28-foot boom.
The power is derived from a 6-horsepower gasoline hoisting engine
geared to three hoisting drums, one of which hoists the end of the
dipper, one hoists the boom, and one pulls the machine ahead. The
machinery is mounted on a platform which revolves upon a turntable
supported on two wooden beams which straddle the ditch. The
beams rest on wooden wheels, the entire span being 22 feet. The
dipper handle, instead of moving forward and backward in the boom,
is pivoted. The entire machine weighs only about 17,000 pounds and
costs about $1,200.
This excavator has dug as high as 400 cubic yards a day, but aver-
ages about 200 cubic yards. It can excavate a ditch with a 20-foot top
and can dig 13 feet deep, but 6 or 7 feet is the best working depth. Two
men can erect the machine in 24 days and dismantle it in one-half
day; it makes about 7 wagon loads. The hoisting apparatus, which
is the heaviest part of the machine, weighs 4,100 pounds. The exca-
vator is moved ahead by means of a ‘‘dead man” and cable, and can
be moved across country at a speed of about 1 mile per day. The
machine can take out 5 shovel-loads in 2 minutes, and has dug
through 6 inches of frost. Only 2 men are required to operate it—
1 operator and 1 trackman.
A ditch constructed by this machine in Iowa had an 18-foot top,
4-foot bottom, and 64-foot depth. From 8 to 10 gallons of gasoline,
costing 164 cents at the works, were used per day. The material,
which was a loam underlain by a stiff gravelly subsoil, was excavated
at. the rate of about 200 cubic yards in 10 hours. The cost of opera-
tion per shift was as follows:
Omevap erations seeps Sty oi p2 5 ok sone cicay SER eee Se eer $4. 00
Omewirackmamy 22% 56-2 2 2 = e552, nin insaleypcat hd hha ot aha pe eae ee eg na ea 2. 00
henpoallons easoline. at POsG6s. 3.2... 2. ncn bes sei eee epee ee et 1. 65
7.65
The cost per cubic yard, exclusive of interest and depreciation,
was about 3.8 cents. The contract price on 5,000 cubic yards was
12 cents.
Such a machine as this would be well adapted to digging the small
ditches in the South that are almost universally put in by hand at a
cost of about 25 cents per cubic yard. Even in ground covered with
stumps, by using plenty of dynamite this type of excavator could be
used to advantage in reducing the cost of small ditches.
In general, it may be said that the dry-land dipper dredge, though
applicable to certain conditions, has no extensive use in drainage
work, as excavation that is suitable to this machine can usually be
handled to better advantage by the drag-line scraper excavator.
28 BULLETIN 300, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
THE DRY-LAND GRAB-BUCKET EXCAVATOR.
Dry-land grab-bucket excavators of both the rotary and stationary
types are in quite extensive use. A machine of the former type, hav-
ing an orange-peel bucket, is illustrated in Plate VI, figure 1. The
excavator either moves on wooden rollers resting on planks, or is
mounted on four trucks which move on a track built in sections so
that it can be taken up in front and relaid behind as the work pro-
gresses. In the revolving type this shifting of track is ordinarily
done by the machine itself.
A nonrevolving, orange-peel excavator with a 1-yard bucket was
used in building a levee 10 miles in length and inclosing about 2,500
acres of land. The excavator was mounted on four 4-wheel trucks
that ran on 4 lines of track. The machinery consisted of a 60-
horsepower boiler and a 30-horsepower double-cylinder hoisting
engine. The boom had a swing of 75 feet and arise of 20 feet. The
machine weighed about 50 tons and cost about $4,000. The levee
averaged 7 feet high and 6 feet wide on top; it had 2 to 1 slopes on
both sides. The material excavated amounted to about 270,000
cubic yards. The cost of labor, fuel, oil, and repairs amounted to
$19,989, making the cost of the levee about 7.4 cents per cubic yard,
exclusive of interest and depreciation.
THE TEMPLET EXCAVATOR.
All of the machines hitherto discussed cut ditches with more or
less rough and irregular slopes and bottoms. Although these features
are to a certain extent under the control of the operator, the com-
pleted work at best is not equal in appearance nor in hydraulic effi-
ciency to the results obtained by the templet excavators. In the
latter type of machine, excavation is aécomplished by one or more
buckets attached to an endless chain which travels over a guide
frame or templet and cuts successive slices of material from the peri-
meter of the ditch. Although the templet machine cuts a superior
ditch where soil conditions are favorable (see Plate VII, figure 2), it
can not, in its present development, cope with stumps, rocks, or
extremely hard earth.
A form of templet excavator is shown in Plate VI, figure 2. It has
a single bucket which moves along a guide frame shaped to the
desired cross-section of the ditch. The entire machine may be
mounted on caterpillar tractors or on wheels which run on a wooden
track.
The ditch section is dug by the excavation from its perimeter of
thin layers of material which the bucket carries to the outer ends of
the frame and dumps on the waste bank. This machine is made in
two sizes, for the construction of ditches with narrow and wide
bottoms, respectively. The narrow-templet machine will dig ditches
EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN. LAND DRAINAGE, 29
ranging in size from 3 feet wide and 23 feet deep up to 19 feet wide
and 8 feet deep; while the wide-templet machine will construct
channels varying in size from 6 feet wide and 6 feet 3 inches deep, to
324 feet wide and 12 feet deep.
The excavator is operated either by steam or gas engine. A 25
to 40 horsepower steam plant is necessary, depending on the size of
the excavator; or, if an internal-combustion engine is used, from 50
to 80 horsepower is required. The bucket varies in size from 4 cubic
yard to 2 cubic yards. An operator and 1 assistant are required
to operate the machine.
COST OF OPERATION.
A single-bucket templet excavator was used in southern Louisiana
on the construction of 7,825 feet of ditch having a 24-foot bottom
width and ranging in depth from 3.5 to 7 feet. The side slopes were
1 to 1, and the width of berm was 15 feet. The total excavation was
43,128 cubic yards. The total cost of this machine on the work was
$8,506.22. The soil was a yellow clay with a few spots of gravelly
clay, and the top soil was baked very hard. No special difficulties
were encountered except that considerable cribbing was necessary
to level up the track supporting the excavator when crossing natural
water courses; except for these streams the ground was level. Some
trouble was also experienced with the traction device, due to the fact
that the ditch was larger than that for which the machine was designed.
The actual number of working days was 128, 73 days of which were
spent in actual digging: The cost of operation per day was as
follows: One operator, $3.85; one fireman, $2.28; three deck hands,
$6.27; one team and teamster, $5.40. The total cost per day was $17.80.
The average daily excavation for the number of days worked was 337
cubic yards. The total cost of operation for 5 months was $3,500.58.
Interest and depreciation in that time, at 41 per cent per annum,
would amount to $1,452.82, making the total cost $4,953.40 and the
cost per cubic yard $0.1149. Table 1 is an itemized statement of
cost for the entire work.
TaBLE 1.—Cost of operation of single-bucket templet excavator on a ditch in Southern
Louisiana.
Labor. Material.
Month. Fuel. ze ve I
Opera- Re- | Opera-| Re- et
tion. pairs. | tion. | pairs.
Dollars. |Dollars.|Dollars .|Dollars.|Dollars.| Dollars.
55. 316
TIGIOO BIAS Go he Re OU Pee Saha 3 Ub ee LO es gota 170.00 | 26.00 | 45.00 | 20.00 39 . 39
WER oe Se ecco be SSA b ee a8 BL er seseee 6 WEE a 439.75 | 48.90 | 141.92 | 52.63 | 158.50 841.70
PANT erase ee rete te En VT By OPM INL 306. 59 | 116.31 | 122.05 | 91.34 | 100.00 736. 29
Va yee eee eee este oe ee RE lta Lb ocean 499.63 | 46.80 | 77.69 5.41 | 156. 92 786. 45
RUSLL TY OPayeretatey eta eet ee are ee oc eta CS ES 469.27 | 56.47 | 109.37 | 58.61 | 131.03. 819. 75
FINO bell Peers nen Nia ERE a LIN ee) 1,885. 24 | 294.48 | 496.03 | 222.99 | 601.84 | 3,500.58
30 BULLETIN 300, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
TasLeE 1.—Cost of operation of single-bucket templet excavator on a ditch in Southern
Louisiana—Continued.
A Maxi-
Cost Dis- Total Actual | Average :
Montt Exca- per tance | number | number | length lone Aver- | Maxi-
Dai vation. | cubic | exca- | days days | dug per ae ng dese Aeon
yard. | vated. | worked. | digging. day. Ce DE tS |) Clagett
Cubic
yards. | Cents.| Feet. Feet Feet. Feet. | Feet.
Mebruaryic-'-2-- == 4,175.9] 0.076 | 1,115 16 9. 45 120.5 195 3. 63 5.30
March:2<-scess 10, 559. 0 080 | 1,785 30 18.7 95. 4 140 5. 62 7.00
AnD re ee ice cee 7,303.0 101 1, 200 26 10.8 111.1 114 5257 6.70
IMayeoerccsesecssee 10, 151. 2 077 | 1,850 29 18.1 102.3 120 5.10 5.80
June.. 10, 938. 5 075 | 1,875 27 16.3 115. 03 135 5.38 6.10
Total or av’g) 43,127.6 O81 | 7,825 128 73.35 106. 60 195 | 5. 06 7.00
y i
THE WHEEL TYPE OF EXCAVATOR.
The wheel excavator consists of a steel frame mounted on wheels,
which supports on the front end an engine and boiler and on the rear
end a pivoted steel framework holding the digging wheel, as shown
in Plate VII, figure 1. This excavating wheel revolves upon anti-
friction wheels placed just outside the rim of the wheel. The exca-
vating scoops or buckets are placed on the circumference of this
wheel. The front of each scoop is provided with a cutting edge,
which slices a thin layer of earth from the trench as the wheel rotates.
When the bucket reaches the top of the wheel, the earth falls onto
a belt conveyor, which deposits it on the waste bank. The machine
can be mounted on caterpillar tractors for use in wet soil. It is
built in several sizes, so that ditches with top widths of from 23 to
12 feet and with smooth side slopes can be dug. The cost of the
excavator varies from $4,000 to $12,000, according to the size of
ditch it is desired to dig.
There is a wheel type of trench excavator so designed that by
adding side knives sloping sides can be dug. This machine is illus-
trated in Plate VII, figure 2. <A series of buckets attached to two
parallel chains travel over the circumference of a wheel mounted on
a frame, which is supported by a central shaft about which the wheel
revolves. The cutting knives slice the earth from the sides of the
ditch, the dirt fallig into the path of the buckets. The excavator
is made in two sizes. The smaller size will dig 5 feet deep, 90 inches
wide, and any side slope not flatter than 1 to 1. The larger size will
dig 6 feet deep and 10 feet wide. The machine may be mounted
on caterpillar tractors. For the small size 4 by 6 foot tractors are
used, while the large machine requires 44 by 11 foot tractors. Hither
steam or gasoline power is furnished. This wheel excavator is suit-
able for the construction of small open ditches. It works to the best
advantage in a soft, wet soil; under these conditions its average
daily output is about 300 cubic yards.
Experience has shown that it is a mistake for a maker to attempt
to build one machine of this type that is suitable for all classes of
EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE. 81
soil. Attempts to do this have, up to this time, met with doubtful
success.
COST OF OPERATION.
Two machines of the wheel type designed to cut a ditch 4 feet deep,
4 feet wide at the top, and 2 feet wide at the bottom, were used on
the excavation of some ditches in one of the Gulf States. Each
machine was driven by a 28-horsepower gasoline engine. The dig-
ging wheel was 15 feet in diameter and the 2 apron tractors each
5 feet by 12 feet. The weight of each excavator was about 30 tons.
The first cost of the machine was $5,500 and freight to the point of
use was $338.36, making the total cost of each machine $5,838.36.
The soil was a hard, yellow, sandy clay overlain by a turfy muck,
varying in depth up to 24 feet. The turf was easily cut, but the
hard clay caused excessive wearing on the bearings. A large part
of the work was done when water was from 2 to 3 feet deep on the
land. The total length of the ditches dug was 165 miles, the aver-
age length of ditch being 2,475 feet. The average depth of digging
was about 4 feet, with a 4-foot top and 2-foot bottom. The average
distance dug per shift of 10 hours of actual running time was 2,250
feet; the maximum distance dug in 10 hours was 6,600 feet. The
average yardages per month for the two machines were 13,245 and
13,180 cubic yards, respectively. The average daily outputs on the
basis of the actual running time were 1,000 and 1,126 cubic yards,
respectively. A part of the time the first machine ran a double shift,
which accounts for the higher monthly and less daily average. It
required 13 months to complete the work, the actual time of opera-
tion being about half this. On account of the excessive wearing on
the bearings, caused by the heavy sandy clay, it was necessary to
make frequent stops for rebuilding the machines, which operation
occupied an average of nearly two weeks. The total excavation was
317,162 cubic yards.
The daily operating expense per 10-hour shift for each machine was
about as follows:
Per day.
Onefoperatorsat.¢ 100 per months <2 5.2 2. Rear eee eae eae yey $4. 00
QMO QSSIE NT AE oe Ono ERD Sah Sh ae wie EE ae mae 2. 00
Umeallonscasoline: at 1 Green tye = 3.2. 5c es ae eee ee oO cig Ra a 8. 00
NTIS Eee a eras cesar vianate, stares reielal su 7a 6 opis 2 8 Sasa pee te nA ME ES 6. 00
@ihercharses: soos ec. ok ls Ne eee eke ea ae 12. 00
32. 00
The itemized cost for operation for the entire work was as follows:
IQ OOP 6 6 Se ao SRC SEE ae oes ecm a oN ae iS LISS ERE Me NS Sp nese 2 chen $5, 172. 11
ltmienestdiscoumt. andvexchanee jo: i. . ube cee sere Nate es epee te aie 202. 05
Marmtenancesamd Te pats sooo sec. 44/5 td seen Ie PS Ae aN 2, 860. 08
Geemeralbe mp eMse news os 22 2 aya) oe a arene Suan CIAL Lai 273. 10
ISLS ie eq T COV SS ON C2 ef OVS) OSCE ie ice nara eee ao Meet ele clean an = ae ee a 1, 600. 00
Provisions and cooking (cook's wages).......--.-2-22<-2--::t-s2-ere sees: 2, 245. 91
32 BULLETIN 300, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
Freight and: @xpress-o. - 2 ia. - -seese ce/ecle selseine 92 See ee ee $75. 74
TPOWINR2 + 2.2.23 3088 = 5 22 2 = 215 nice ceeers cilia ee eee ee 458. 19
Gasoline? so. oi.2.. st. os clei ce ciecn USER Rees ene eee =e ¥, 792. 22
OtheroulPe2222 sss 2 oftieie o/arots'etbye,cvs no ee estas es er 281. 49
Téeams:and livery... 5-25. 2- 222 sees s oe cones +2 oe ee 2 ee 932. 11
Telephone and telegraph.- 0... 2 Uo 2 Shee Se 25. 29
Motor-boat operation... ...22 22 sas tc ee sions eee 540. 96
Interest and depreciation on machinery..-.-.........--.-+-----.- seen 5, 185. 00
21, 644. 25
Cost per cubic yard, $0.0682.
Machine Machine
No. 2.
No. 1.
Machine running. 2225... eee ant eee $917.97 $1, 509. 66
Machine ‘repairing. 2220.2) less eet ee em alee ee 1, 431. 37 771. 96
Machine moving: Ss ssoe 2 SSA See eee sen ee a ee 105. 20 88. 51
Machine bogged iif 8555.5 se Ss ee eee rae eco ee eee 156. 90 190. 54
Total: 22 sc2e Sane oc cena tee Peis tees re eee ee 2,611.44 2,560. 67
The excessive cost of labor given for the machines when bogged
was due to the frequent crossings of a wide, muck-filled bayou which
ran the entire length of the district. This bayou was about 1,500 feet
wide; the muck ranged from 5 to 15 feet deep and was very soft. No
tree roots, submerged timber, or stumps were encountered. The
work covered an area of about 7,000 acres, approximately square,
which was traversed by parallel canals every half mile. The ditches
cut by the excavators were at right angles to these canals and were
spaced 330 feet apart. 1t was thus necessary to turn the machine
around and run it light 330 feet for each half mile of ditch cut. The
item “moving” is for taking the machine across the canals and for
moving from one part of the district to another; it does not refer to
the moving between adjacent ditches.
On a project in southern Louisiana a wheel excavator, cutting a
ditch 44 feet deep with a top width of 44 feet and a bottom width of
about 20 inches, was used. The machine worked on comparatively
solid ground. Power was supplied by a 28-horsepower gasoline
engine. The first cost was $4,000, and freight charges from factory to
works were $350. After the machine had been operated for a short
time it became apparent that the excavating wheel was far too light
and a new wheel was substituted. The soil was a silt loam, firm and
uniform but not tenacious. No special difficulties due to soil condi-
tions were encountered in this work. The chief obstacles to rapid
progress were at first the weakness of the ight excavating wheel, and
afterwards the extra-heavy excavating wheel which unbalanced the
machine. The tractors were larger than necessary and often broke
down when turning on the hard ground. At the time the following
cost records terminated, the work had been carried on intermittently
for about 18 months; about one-half this time was occupied in
repairs. During this time the machine dug 117,000 feet of ditch 44
feet deep, 45,500 feet 34 feet deep, and 9,250 feet twice over, the
Bul. 300, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
Fic. 1.—A TRACTION DITCHER OF THE WHEEL TYPE.
Fia. 2.—CONVERTIBLE TRENCH AND OPEN DITCH EXCAVATOR.
PLATE VII.
D12399
Bul. 300, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII.
D12400
Fic. 1.—DREDGE AT WORK AND COMPLETED LEVEE.
D12401
Fic. 2.—CONSTRUCTION OF LEVEE SHOWING SLOPE BOARDS.
LEVEE CONSTRUCTION BY HYDRAULIC-FILL METHOD.
EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE. 33
machine making two 44-foot cuts side by side. The average length
of ditch cut per day was 800 feet, while the maximum was 1,950 feet.
The daily cost of operation was as follows:
IL@IOGR .. oon 6 6 HBS ORE ENE eS Eeaher marys eis sees bk Sty ee ee ee oa ea ee $5. 50
Ite ne een PRS Ry enyoer eae eh S02 RO em Bere Mare te) ORE ee 4. 20
TECH CISTEE IS os sR tS Oe EN pee EE as Re eeSTSL IOS Sa a ae ae eee ee 50
JESS [OB TE. w= 2K g hcl s ee ene ae RSS AA 8 ch eee ee ee 2. 40
12. 60
The average excavation per day was 410 cubic yards, based on the
average of 800 feet of ditch, 44 feet deep, 44 feet wide at the top, and
20 inches wide at the bottom. The machine excavated 82,330 cubic
yards in 18 months at the following itemized cost:
Gasoline based on 215 actual days’ operation (estimated). .............-.-- $903. 00
LBVSjOR TAS, BY CAHILL CYST TES Ss Bie ey Pep As Pte te ae a 860. 00
inteidentalsmato0! cents per day... 2... sees eee eeeeise oe ett stele ee: 120. 25
Labor of foreman, 18 months, at $75 per month....-..:-.-.....-.--.....--- 1, 350. 00
Other labor, two men, $2.50 per day for 250 days.....-...-----------.----- 625. 00
Reta oReSbEAM Gude PTC CIA LOM a. «sis 22, </5,.. 2%. sod ee ae ee eis 2 SS 2, 675. 25
SNOT coed Os Sie cA EIA ore et aeRO SES eh pa) Ca ee ee 6, 5388. 50
Cost per cubic yard, $0.0793.
THE HYDRAULIC DREDGE.
The hydraulic dredge has little application in the construction of
ditches for drainage purposes, due to the fact that nearly all the drain-
age ditches are of too small a cross section to be economically dug by
this method. This type of dredge probably is, however, the most
economical machine existing for excavating very large channels.
The essential parts of the hydraulic dredge are a centrifugal pump
and the power to drive it, the whole mounted on a barge. The
suction pipe is attached to the pump by a movable joint so that the
suction end can be raised or lowered. The material, mixed with
water, is drawn through the suction pipe and discharged where
- desired through a line of pipe sometimes several thousand feet long.
Coarse sand and gravel, muck, and silt are easily handled in this way,
and by the use of a rotary cutter on the end of the suction pipe, com-
paratively hard clay can be removed. The machine does not work
well, however, where there are stumps, logs, stones, or other such
obstructions.
Dredges of this type are suitable for digging ditches 800 or more
square feet in cross section, for building levees under favorable con-
ditions, and especially for building up tidal flats and low lands.
COST OF OPERATION.
The following table indicates the cost of operating a hydraulic
suction dredge on the New York Barge Canal in 1908. The dredge
in question is of modern construction, has a 20-inch discharge pipe,
84 BULLETIN 300, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
and cost $115,000. Once during this season the dredge was sunk to
the bottom of the canal; otherwise, the work was done under favor-
able conditions and the excavation made was representative of the
capacity of the machine in ordinary clay soil.
Cost of excavation by hydraulic suction dredge on the New York Barge Canal for the
a season 1908.
|
Total | Yards
Month. Labor. Plant.! | Material. for exca-
month. | vated.
Dollars. | Dollars. | Dollars. | Dollars.
PADI Sees Seen cee ce tae meee ce enaee aaaaeee 3,670. 95 408. 30 | 1,900.62 | 5,979. 87 120, 673
Maye ee arn tee Pipe SARA ee ae APES OnES 5,169.29 | 1,367.60 | 2,558. 88 | 9,095. 77 204, 838
SUNOS. Poe ee Tee Sees aie ete ore eee 5,615. 75 | 1,677.85 | 2,263.16 | 9,556. 76 203, 474
dul yse2 55. 82 a eat ena dance pao ce neh eeeaeeee 5, 835. 14 | 1,735.50 | 2,446.45 |10,017.09 207, 520
NUPUSEs oot 8 foes ene oe sor eee rie te ee et ae ieee eae 5, 985. 87 | 1,631.15 | 2,320.92 | 9,937.94 174,395
Septem beretec uss hate eae te aan See ecteme eer 4,993.11 | 1,692.85 | 2,430.05 | 9,116.01} 231,473
Octoberss asa ae a ee See ee eee seine 4,834.14 | 1,791.15 | 2,573.50 | 9,198.79 214, 438
1 Interest and depreciation at 15 per cent per annum.
Average cost for the season, $0.0464 per yard.
USE IN CONSTRUCTION OF LEVEES.
It formerly was considered that the hydraulic dredge was not
applicable to levee construction for the reason that the large amount
of water pumped made it difficult to keep the solid material from
spreading over a wider base than desired for the levee. It was gen-
erally thought necessary to build ridges to form the toes of the em-
bankment, with earth dry enough to hold the wet material within
the desired limits until the solid matter had been deposited; in this
manner one layer was added to another until the desired height of
levee was reached. The need of this dry material is avoided by
methods now in use by which the entire section of the levee is built
in one operation.
Plate VIII and Plate IX, figure 1, illustrate the method of forming
the desired slopes by means of steel boards about 18 inches wide and
10 feet long, made of No. 14-gauge steel with angle-iron top. These
boards are not too large nor too heavy to be easily moved by one man.
In Plate VIII, figure 2, the slope boards are easily seen; they are
placed at the intersection of the side slope with the natural slope of
the end of the fill under construction. Several men equipped with
shovels are necessary to distribute the material evenly and to move
the slope boards ahead as the levee is built up.
On a section of levee built along the Mississippi River near Bur-
lington, Iowa, a hydraulic dredge consisting of a hull 24 by 80 by
4} feet, upon which was mounted a centrifugal pump having a 12-inch
suction pipe, a 14-inch discharge pipe, a 200-horsepower engine, and
a boiler nominally rated at 150 horsepower, was used for the con-
struction. The discharge pipe was carried from the dredge to the
EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE. 35
top of the levee by small towers mounted on 14 by 40-foot barges.
A strip about 30 feet wide along the center of the site of the levee was
erubbed and ploughed. No muck ditch was prepared. The levee
was about 14 feet high with an 8-foot crown and 3 to 1 slopes on both
sides. The number of men usually employed was about 14, and the
fuel used was about 5 tons of good coal in each shift. Two 11-hour
shifts built 100 linear feet of completed levee, or 2,700 cubic yards.
A dredge of this type costs approximately $15,000, not including
the discharge pipe, the barges, and other necessary appurtenances
which will add about $5,000, making the total first cost about $20,000
for a plant to build levees by this method.
With hydraulic-fill levees a wide foreshore can be left. There are
no borrow pits to aid in probable seepage and consequent failure of
the levee. Any side slope wanted for a levee can be built. There
is no shrinkage after the embankment is first completed, for the
material is thoroughly compacted. The fine material is deposited
in the base of the levee where it is most needed to prevent seepage.
By using the hydraulic-fill method, a levee can be built across an old
bayou or lagoon with as little trouble as on dry ground, which can
be done by few machines. Wet, sog¢y ground gives no trouble in
construction. Hydraulic-fill levees, bemg composed mostly of sand,
are proof against damage by burrowing animals.
On the other hand, a 20-foot head with about 600 to 800 feet of
discharge pipe are the maximum conditions under which a plant de-
veloping only 200 horsepower can operate; greater heights and dis-
tances must be overcomé by a corresponding increase of power
equipment. The dredge must always be in about 8 feet of water to
prevent air from being drawn into the suction pipe. It would hardly
pay to put such an outfit on a project of less than 250,000 cubic yards.
It has been observed in hydraulic fills made with clay that the
tendency to settle is not so marked as when sand alone or sand
mixed with some silt is pumped. The tendency of the sand to settle
in the bottom of the discharge pipe permits the building of levees
having any slope between the natural slope assumed by moist sand
and that of asemifluid. By using the slope boards, however, a greater
. range of side slopes can be had.
MACHINES FOR CLEANING OLD DITCHES.
A floating dredge as a rule is unsuited to cleaning old ditches unless
the amount of material to be excavated is large. It is also imprac-
ticable to dam up the channel on account of possible damages to the
landowners. Moreover, all bridges must be removed if a machine
of this kind is used.
A type of the stationary scraper excavator which straddles the
ditch has been used quite successfully on the smaller ditches. On
86 BULLETIN 300, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
large ditches the top width is too great to permit the use of a ma-
chine of this type. The scraper machine of the rotary type, operat-
ing from the top of one waste bank, has also been used for cleaning
out old ditches. With this kind of machine the banks of the ditch
can be trimmed. However, the machine must first level down the
old waste bank sufficiently for it to travel over. An orange-peel
bucket, instead of the scraper bucket, has also been used on the drag-
line machine for cleaning ditches. With the drag-line excavator it
is unnecessary to remove bridges, which item effects a considerable
saving in cost of cleaning ditches on a large project. The rotary
type of scraper excavator is probably the most efficient machine for
cleaning ditches.
A small centrifugal pump operated by gasoline power and mounted
on a small hull has been used in cleaning out some ditches in Iowa.
This device is illustrated in Plate IX, figure 2. The pump, which
has a 5-inch suction pipe and two 5-inch discharge pipes, is operated
by a 48-horsepower internal-combustion engine which starts on motor
spirits and runs on kerosene. The whole equipment was mounted
on a hull 28 feet long, 5 feet wide at the bottom, 10 feet wide at the
top, and about 44 feet deep. Immediately in front of the hull were
placed five cutter wheels, each 3 feet in diameter and weighing 100
pounds. These cutter wheels were operated by power obtained
from the engme. The end of the suction pipe was 5 feet long and 2
inches wide and was placed about 2 feet behind the cutter wheels.
Half of the material was discharged on each side of the ditch, beyond
the waste bank. The dredge cleaned from 250 to 300 feet of ditch
in a day of 10 hours. The excavation amounted to about 14 cubic
yards of earth for every linear foot of ditch. Three men were required
to operate the dredge. By taking down one discharge pipe and turn-
ing the other lengthwise of the ditch the dredge could easily pass
under the bridges. Four men could dismantle the dredge in 2 days
and set it up in 5 days. The complete cost of the plant was $3,000.
For removing sand and silt from ditches this type of machine is
excellent. The dredge works downstream and must have consider-
able water. The average cost of operation per day was as follows:
One enoineer: . 2.62) 82. oS ES $3. 00
One: assistant ..00 2... .'2. SoS Lee ok ea) hae ak 2.50
One helpersss. 2.202 SSS RE? ORS ONT Ne 2.00
Twenty gallons kerosene, at 10\cents.t 25 o5. 02 ke eee ee eee Oa Saye 2. 00
Total cost :periday .::.22:|. ye. avs ve ROR A: AP TE ee 9. 50
Based on 200 feet of ditch cleaned, the excavation per day would
be 300 cubie yards, and cost per cubic yard about 3 cents, exclusive
of imterest and depreciation. The actual unit cost for the whole
job, however, would run very much higher than this, due to delays
and repairs.
PLATE |X.
Bul. 300, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.
D12402
Fic. 1.—HYDRAULIC-FILL LEVEE CONSTRUCTION SHOWING METHOD OF FORMING LEVEE
SLOPES.
DI4714a
Fic. 2.—SMALL HYDRAULIC DREDGE USED FOR CLEANING DITCHES.
+s 4
‘he
Do Pate oe ee
a ‘i a A
ie i‘ ee
EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE, 87
SUMMARY.
Power machinery is now available which will construct outlet
draimage ditches of all sizes, and under all conditions of soil and water,
cheaper than can be accomplished by any other method.
The floating dipper dredge is more widely used in drainage work
than is any other type of excavating machine. For work through
wet land no other excavator will equal it in cheapness of construction
of ditches having a cross section of from 100 square feet to 1,200
square feet. It is by far the most efficient machine to use where
many stumps will be encountered. Owing to its limited reach it is
not generally applicable to levee construction. Dipper dredges as
constructed for drainage work range in capacity from one-half
cubic yard to 4 or 5 cubic yards; the sizes most commonly used
vary from 1 to 2 cubic yards. The smallest dredge costs about
$5,000; the cost increases rapidly with the capacity of dipper. The
floating dipper dredge should be operated downstream, where
practicable.
In general, the clam-shell or orange-peel dredge is not well adapted
to ditch construction, especially if there are stumps to handle.
Certain types of soil, such as the muck of southern Louisiana, can,
however, be handled to advantage with this machine. It is also
suited to levee buildmg when equipped with a long boom.
The drag-line scraper excavator is constantly increasing in favor
in drainage work. It is especially suited to the construction of ditches
and levees of large cross section, where the ground is sufficiently
stable to support the machine. The scraper excavator is also suit-
able for ditch cleaning.
The various forms of so-called dry-land machines find quite exten-
sive use in drainage. The dipper and orange-peel dredges of the
dry-land type are suitable for use where sufficient water can not be
had to float a dredge. The templet and the wheel types of excavat-
ors are applicable to open land where the soil is neither too hard
nor too wet. The ditches cut by these latter machines are superior
in hydraulic efficiency to those of similar section cut by any other type
of excavator. The dry-land machines should be operated upstream.
The hydraulic dredge is not suited to ordinary drainage ditch
construction. It has been used to some extent in cleaning ditches,
and, with the use of slope boards, has in at least one instance made a
satisfactory record in levee construction.
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EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN LAND DRAINAGE. 39
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V
WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1915
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 276
Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology
L. O. HOWARD, Chief
Washington, D. C. September 29, 1915
PROFESSIONAL PAPER
THE PEA APHIS WITH RELATION TO
FORAGE CROPS
By
J. J. DAVIS, Entomological Assistant, Cereal and Forage
Insect Investigations
CONTENTS
Introduction
Synonymy ....
Identity of the species occurring in
ARNE KICHIUMaiiiiel)s!/i fells) Tel ese) veh Pern @
Past history of the pest and its injuries
Character of attack
Effects on cattle of feeding them in-
fested clover .
Field observations. . . . ». «+ «© =»
Generation experiments
Hatching oftheegg ..
Moolting o/)erteire ts \'e\Jaie! iteiial Welle
Age at which females begin reproducing
Reproductive period . . . . «= «
Longevityiecie) eh \elleyaeliial lst aiiielirs
Fecundity of viviparous females
Sexualforms . . ...e«e. =.
Fecundity of oviparous females .
Naturalcontrol . .... ;
Methods of artificial control . .
Distribution and origin
Foodplants ....
Description
Life history
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 277
Contribution from the Office of Markets and Rural Organization
CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief
Washington, D. C. Vv August 7, 1915
COTTON WAREHOUSE CONSTRUCTION
By
ROBERT L. NIXON, Assistant in Cotton Marketing
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction Types of Standard Warehouses. .. . 7
Importance of Storage Houses . .. . Miscellaneous Fire Insurance Schedules 27
Principles of Storage General Considerations Relating to Cot-
Explanation of the Term “‘ Standard” as ton Storage and Fire Insurance .. .
Applied to Cotton Warehouses .. . Conclusion
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915
ea BO
Gre INES VULNAITE VP EE} 1A
f "
Pee NOOR UA
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 278
Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology
L. O. HOWARD, Chief
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER October 5, 1915
MISCELLANEOUS INSECTICIDE
INVESTIGATIONS
By
E. W. SCOTT and E. H. SIEGLER, Entomological Assistants,
Deciduous-Fruit Insect Investigations
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1 | Field Experiments
Experiments, 1912 1 | Summarized Review .
Experiments, 1913 11 | Conclusions
Experiments, 1914 19 | Key to Tables
WASHINGTON
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1915
Le H, uy
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MW a SWORN
LONE
\
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Wor elt
EF Ae Mee nA Me CY, Ne WoT ARS ERO ie Bs tb RNC NAG TB
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 280
Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey
HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 27, 1915
FOOD HABITS OF THE THRUSHES
OF THE UNITED STATES
By
F, E. L. BEAL, Assistant Biologist
CONTENTS
Page | Page
Introduction . 1... ... 4... 1 | Gray-Cheeked and Bicknell’s Thrushes . 11
Townsend’s Solitaire . ....... 3 | Olive-Backed and Russet-Backed
VOGUE IEYSIS 60s) (a) eines ces lel ee 5 Thrushes...... a reM Nata alt ve 13
Veery and Willow Thrush . .... ; 9 | Hermit Thrushes. . . ......-. 18
WASHINGTON |
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 281
Contribution from the States Relations Service
A. C. TRUE, Director
Washington, D. C. August 12, 1915
CORRELATING AGRICULTURE WITH
THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SUBJECTS
IN THE NORTHERN STATES
By
C. H. LANE, Chief Specialist in Agricultural Education and
F. E. HEALD, Assistant in Agricultural Education
CONTENTS
Introduction November
The Plan December
How the Teacher May Organize a Club. -
Prizes
How to Keep up the Club Interest . . .
School-exhibit Day
September May and June
October Correlation Supplements
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 283
Contribution from the Bureau of Soils
MILTON WHITNEY, Chief
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 28, 1915
THE PRODUCTION OF SULPHURIC ACID
AND A PROPOSED NEW METHOD
OF MANUFACTURE
By
WILLIAM H. WAGGAMAN, Scientist in Fertilizer Investigations
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1 | New Modification of Chamber Process .
Methods of Manufacture 2 | Factory Considerations
Measurement of a Plani’s Efficiency . . 5
WASHINGTON j
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915
ee Puget
if oe hebicy ESok MOAR EAN ALD adie OLB ee
a / ; ’ we oy. 1, ‘ :
rae e% mit \ hy ag rhe
he CYROLE LN UROLAE S
ad, 6
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 284
Contribution from the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering
LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director
Washington, D. C. Vv September 17, 1915
CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE
OF ROADS AND BRIDGES
From July 1, 1913, to December 31, 1914
CONTENTS
Page
Introduction Work of the Division of National Parks
Work of the Division of Construction— and Forest Roads—
Object-Lesson Roads Work done in National Forests . . .
Superintendence of County Roads .. Survey Work
Experimental Road Work Construction Work
Post-road Work Work done in National Parks
Bridge Work 53 | Work of the Division of Maintenance. .
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915
i
\
=
=
=
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 285
Contribution from the Forest Service
HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER _ October 22, 1915
THE NORTHERN HARDWOOD FOREST:
ITS COMPOSITION, GROWTH, -
AND MANAGEMENT
By
E. H. FROTHINGHAM, Forest Examiner
CONTENTS
Introduction aie Economic Importance—Continued.
The Northern Hardwood Forest .. . Annual! Cut
Topography and Climate Present Supply
Composition Value of Standing Timber ... .
Management
Place of Northern Hardwoods in For-
Second Growth est Management
Economic Importance Species Mentioned inthis Bulletin . .
General Utility Appendix
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915
1 ti sl
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 289
Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 21, 1915.
RED-CLOVER SEED PRODUCTION:
POLLINATION STUDIES
By
J. M. WESTGATE, Agronomist, and H. S. COE, Scientific Assistant, Office
of Forage-Crop Investigations, in Collaboration with A. T. WIANCKO ;
and F. E. ROBBINS, of the Indiana Agricultural Experiment
Station, and H. D. HUGHES, L. H. PAMMEL, and
J. N. MARTIN, of the Iowa Agricultural
Experiment Station
CONTENTS
Introduction Cross-Pollination and Self-Pollination of
Previous Investigations on the Pollina- Red Clover
tion of Red Clover Artificial Manipulation of Clover Heads .
Outline of Pollinating Experiments . . Bumblebees as Cross-Pollinators of Red
Structure of the Red-Clover Flower . .
Length of the Corolla Tube of Red-Clover
Development of the Flowers of Red
Clover
Fertilization of Red-Clover Flowers
Potency of Pollen in Self-Pollination . .
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915
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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 292
Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey
HENRY W. HENSHAW, Chief
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER October 25, 1915
DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATION OF
NORTH AMERICAN GULLS
AND THEIR ALLIES
By
WELLS W. COOKE, Assistant Biologist
CONTENTS
Introduction Introduction—Continued
Economic Importance of Gulls. .. . Distribution—Continued
Page
Bird Refuges Forms Breeding and Wintering in the
Protection by Private Associations . . United States
Legal Protection Forms Breeding in the Arctic but Oc-
Distribution curring in the United States in Winter
Old World Forms Accidental in North or in Migration
America. 6. ss ee : Migration
Forms Breeding in the Arctic not Win- Annotated List of Species
tering in the United States .. . 4! Index silat ela
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915
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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 296
Contribution from the Bureau of Crop Estimates
LEON M. ESTABROOK, Chief
Washington, D. C. October 25, 1915
OUR FOREIGN TRADE IN FARM AND
FOREST PRODUCTS
Prepared under the Direction of
PERRY ELLIOTT, Division of Crop Records
CONTENTS
Summary. . . 6 »« « - Seeds ..
Live Animals .... -» SPICES Pages te) et)
Dairy Products ... . Vegetables. . ..
Packing-house Products . .
Other Animal Products. . Chere Vegetable Fibers ...
UGUONactel ois le as «6s - s Minor Agricultural Products
Grain and Grain Products . . : - Logs, Lumber, and Timber
UPAR elvetvan ss el © «)« = Naval Stores .
Coffee and Coffee Substitutes E Gums
Cocoa and Chocolate . Minor Forest Products
Tea ~ Reexports . ..2 « « « «
PROMACCO a) shes * «, 6s - Transportation . .. . . =. © »
Oil cake and Vegetable Oils Publications Relating to Exports
PNAS etch ec aS oe ce SEMports = aes gy Se ee Oe ole
Alcoholic Liquors ....
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE’
1915
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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 297
Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry
WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief
Washington, D. C. WV October 28, 1915
CEREAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE
BELLE FOURCHE EXPERIMENT FARM
By
CECIL SALMON, formerly Plant Physiologist,
Office of Cereal Investigations
- CONTENTS
Introduction Experiments with Oats
Description of the Field Station Cs Experiments with Barley
Experimental Methods Experiments with Minor Cereals .. .
Interpretation of Experimental Results . | Experiments with Flax
Experiments with Wheat Summary
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915
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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 299
Contribution from the Forest Service
HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER December 13, 1915
THE ASHES: THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
AND MANAGEMENT
By
W. D. STERRETT, Forest Examiner, Forest Service
Importance. . . . « » .
LumberCut ... RIE cei Value of Standing Timber . .
Use by Industries Forest Management ... .»
Groups and Species | Rotation. . . e
Silvicultural Significance Species for Timber Growing
Relative Importance of Species . . . . Natural v. Artificial Heforemation
Occurrence Reforesting by Natural Means
Soil, Moisture, and Light Requirements . Reforesting by Artificial Means .
Reproduction . . ~Chinnings: « «)</sic))0) e)) =) ellie
Injuries
Form and Development
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915
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UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
BULLETIN No. 300
Contribution from the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering
LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director
Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER November 10, 1915
EXCAVATING MACHINERY USED IN
LAND DRAINAGE
By
D. L. YARNELL, Drainage Engineer
CONTENTS
Introduction
Development of Excavating Machinery .
The Floating Dipper Dredge
The Floating Grab-bucket Dredge . . .
The Drag-line Scraper Excavator .. .
The Dry-land Dipper Excavator . .. .
The Dry-land Grab-bucket Excavator
The Templet Excavator
The Wheel Type of Excavator ... -
The Hydraulic Dredge
Machines for Cleaning Old Ditches
Summary .
WASHINGTON
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
1915
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