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BULL MOUNTAINS COAL FIELD STUDY
Progress Report 1976
Research Conducted by:

MONTANA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME
Environment and Information Division

and

CONSOLIDATION COAL COMPANY

- - "

STATE DOCUMENTS COLL:

" ' -2003

MCNTAN'A STATE LIBRAF
1515 E. 6th AVE.

Prepared by: Gary L. Dusek, Biologist, Roundup, Montana

June 30, 1976

MONTANA STATE LIBRARY

3 0864 1002 4394 1

u ,'

't^F

Ifar

TABLE OF CONTENTS SEP 20 19/g

_ KSOURCES & CONSERVATION

List of Tables T. tii

List of Figures v

Introduction 1

Study Area 1

Location 1

Climate 3

Vegetation 3

Phases of Study 3

General Wildlife Ecology Study 3

Mule Deer 5

Distribution and Range Use 5

Distribution and Movements 5

Group Characteristics 6

Use of Vegetati on Types 10

Relation to Timber. 12

Use of Slopes 13

Use of Exposures 14

Fall Food Habits 15

Population Characteristics 15

Elk 18

Distribution and Range Use 18

Distribution and Movements 18

Group Characteristics 27

Use of Vegetation Types 28

Relation to Timber 28

Use of SI opes 30

Use of Exposures 31

Fall Food Habits 32

Population Characteristics 32

Turkeys 36

Distribution and Range Use 36

Flocking Characteristics 36

Use of Vegetation Types 36

Relation to Timber 39

Use of Slopes 39

Fal 1 Foods 39

Population Characteristics 41

Other Game Species 42

Antel ope 42

White-tailed Deer 42

Sharp-tailed Grouse 42

Revegetation Studies 42

Consol's Test Pit 43

Vegetational Analysis 43

Soil Mixture 43

Gradient 46

Exposure 46

Use by Wildlife 46

Square Deal Mine 49

Vegetational Analysis 49

Summary and Discussion. 51

Literature Cited 53

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, . , ....... . ■ ■

3HR ■■ ■■ m

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LIST OF TABLES
Table Pa9e

1. Climatological data for Roundup, Montana, covering the

period of January 1972 through February 1976 4

2. Capture and movement data for 14 individually marked mule
deer that were observed during the report period ending
February 29, 1976 7

3. Frequency among group sizes and average group size of mule

deer by season during the report period 10

4. Seasonal use of vegetational types by mule deer as deter-
mined by 1677 observations during the report period 11

5. Occurrence of mule deer at various distances from the
nearest stand of timber, determined from 1677 ground and

aerial observations 13

6. Seasonal use of various topographical features by mule deer
as determined from 1677 ground and aerial observations dur-
ing the report period 13

7. Seasonal use of gradients by mule deer during the report

period 14

8. Seasonal use of eight exposures by mule deer as deter-
mined from 734 observations during the report period 15

9. Fall food habits of mule deer as determined from examina-
tion of rumen contents of three hunter-killed mule deer... 16

10. Population characteristics of mule deer as determined
from 1675 ground and aerial observations from March 1975
through February 1976 17

11. Capture and movement data for seven adult cow elk captured
and individually marked during the winters of 1974 and

1975 19

12. Seasonal radius of activity, distances between consecu-
tive observations, mean maximum distances between observa-
tions, and distances between centers of activity of seven
individually marked adult cow elk in the Bull Mountains... 26

13. Frequency among group sizes and average group sizes of elk

by season during the report period 27

14. Seasonal use of vegetation types by elk as determined from

1426 observations during the report period 29

15. Occurrence of elk at various distances from the nearest
stand of timber as determined from 1426 observations

during the report period 30

16. Seasonal use of various topographical features by elk as
determined from 1426 observations during the report

period 31

17. Seasonal use of gradients by elk during the report

period 31

18. Seasonal use of each of eight exposures by elk as deter-
mined from 568 observations during the report period 32

19. Fall food habits of elk as determined from examination of

rumen contents of four el k 33

20. Population characteristics of elk as determined from 938
observations during summer and fall 1975 and winter 1975-

76 34

21. Seasonal flocking characteristics of turkeys based on 712
observations during the report period 37

Table

Page

22. Seasonal use of vegetation types by turkeys as deter-
mined from 712 observations during the report period 38

23. Occurrence of turkeys at various distances from the
nearest stand of timber as determined from 712 observa-
tions during the report period 40

24. Seasonal use of the various topographical features by
turkeys as determined from 712 observations during the

report peri od 40

25. Seasonal use of gradients by turkeys during the report

period 40

26. Fall foods of turkeys as determined from analysis of crops

from two hunter-killed turkeys 41

27. Population characteristics of turkeys during the period
August-October based on 251 observations 41

28. Constancy, canopy coverage and frequency of low-growing
vegetation on various types of soil on spoils material as
determined by examination of 20 2x5 decimeter plots on each

of 19 sites at Consol's test pit 44

29. Constancy, canopy coverage, and frequency of low-growing
vegetation on various classes of gradient on spoils
material as determined by examination of 20 2x5 decimeter

plots on each of 19 sites at Consol's test pit 47

30. Constancy, canopy coverage, and frequency of low-growing
vegetation on northerly and southerly exposures on spoils
material as determined by examination of 20 2x5 decimeter

plots on each of 14 sites at Consol's test pit 48

31. Constancy, canopy coverage and frequency of low-growing
vegetation on a gently sloping southeast exposure as
determined by examination of 20 2x5 decimeter plots on each

of three sites at the Square Deal Mine 50

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

1 Mountains study area

Seasonal distribution and movements of an adult male mule
deer captured during February 1975 and an adult female
captured during January 1973 in the Fattig Creek drainage.
Seasonal distribution and movements of two adult female
mule deer captured during December 1974 and January 1975

in the Halfbreed Creek drainage

Seasonal distribution and movements of cow elk No. 1 from

February 1974 through February 1976

Seasonal distribution and movements of cow elk No. 2 from

February 1974 through February 1976

Seasonal distribution and movements of cow elk No. 3 during
the period of January 8, 1975 through February 29, 1976...
Seasonal distribution and movements of cow elk No. 4 during
the period of January 8, 1975 through February 29, 1976...
Seasonal distribution and movements of cow elk No. 6 during
the period of January 10, 1975 through February 29, 1976..
Map of Consol's test pit showing respective areas, soil mix-
tures and location of 19 permanent vegetational analysis
sites

Page

20
21
22
23
24

INTRODUCTION

This study was the first of several coal /energy-related planning
inventories to assess the potential impact of such development on wildlife
in Montana. These studies resulted from a concern by resource managers
during the early 1970's about the impact of large-scale surface mining
for coal and associated on-site conversion plants on eastern Montana's
wildlife resource. Before the inception of this study, large-scale mining
and exporting of coal from the Bull Mountains appeared imminent. The
threat of such an operation has diminished somewhat, due, at least in part,
to a stricter federal leasing policy and a strict state mining and reclama-
tion law. The two active surface mines in the Bull Mountains affect small
acreages and supply a local market. A possibility does exist that the two
companies may merge in the future and apply for a permit to expand the
operation and mine coal for export.

This study was initiated with the following overall objectives:

(1) to determine the impact, or potential impact, of surface
mining upon the wildlife resource in this area;

(2) to ensure that wildlife habitat values receive full recogni-
tion in any mining or reclamation effort; and,

(3) to investigate possible modifications or innovations in the
reclamation process to avoid unnecessary loss of wildlife
habitat.

This is the fourth interim report since inception of the project
during January 1972. It covers the period beginning March 1, 1975 and
ending February 29, 1976. As during previous years, major emphasis was
placed on baseline data such as distribution and movements, range use, food
habits, and population trends of the principal game species. Vegetational
development was monitored on small acreages that had undergone mining and
a reclamation attempt.

This study is scheduled for completion by June 30, 1976, and a final
report will follow.

STUDY AREA

Location

The study area includes that part of Musselshell County which lies
south of the Musselshell River as well as a portion of northern Yellowstone
County (Figure 1). The area appears to be representative of the Bull
Mountains ecosystem, and includes the entire Mammoth-Rehder coal seam.
Livestock production is the principal industry, while some of the more
gentle terrain is under cultivation. Other land uses include logging and
homesite development. Underground mining for coal was an important part
of the local economy in the past. The physiography of the study area was
described previously (Dusek and McCann 1973 and 1974).

' (

£,

Climate

Climatological data were taken from that recorded at Roundup (U. S.
Dept. of Comm. 1972, 1973, 1974, 1975 and 1976) located on the northern
edge of the study area. Monthly data appear in Table 1. The warmest
monthly temperature normally occurs during July and the coldest during
January. Annual precipitation averages nearly 11 inches, of which approxi-
mately half is received during May, June and July.

Total annual precipitation for 1975 was 18.48 inches. The May-July
period accounted for 52 percent of the total. September was the only
month during 1975 characterized by below normal precipitation.

January and February 1976 were characterized by above normal temper-
atures and monthly precipitation was nearly .2 inches below normal during
that period (Table 1). These conditions were similar to those of the
same period during 1974.

Vegetation

Six vegetation types were identified on the study area as follows:
grassland, agricultural, sagebrush-grassland, deciduous shrub, ponderosa
pine-grassland and ponderosa pine. Within each vegetation type, except
for the ponderosa pine, two or three subtypes were identified. A quanti-
tative or qualitative description of each type and subtype appeared in a
previous report (Dusek and McCann 1974).

PHASES OF STUDY

The project was initially divided into four separate parts. This
report is concerned only with the general wildlife ecology study and the
revegetation study. The nongame mammal inventory was concluded during
1975 and the rest-rotation grazing study on the ranch owned by the
Consolidation Coal Company (Consol) was discontinued because the company
felt that improved grazing management would not bring in a desirable monetary
return (pers. comm.).

General Wildlife Ecology Study

The purpose of this phase was to conduct an inventory of game animals
in the Bull Mountains ecosystem and gather baseline data related to distribu-
tion and range use, food habits, and population characteristics of those
species that appeared to be most abundant in the area. Such information
will be used to identify potential conflicts between wildlife and coal
development and help determine what reclamation procedures will best meet
habitat requirements of wildlife.

Observations of game animals were facilitated by surveys from fixed-
wing aircraft, by vehicle, or on foot. When practicable, observed animals
were classified as to age and sex. Vegetation type and subtype, class of
slope, gradient and exposure of each observed animal were noted. The
estimated distance from the animal to the nearest stand of timber was also

■3-

Table 1

Climatological
February 1976.

data for Roundup, Montana, covering the period of January 1972 through

Temperature

Prec

ipitation

Temp

erature
Dep. from

Precipitation

Dep. from

Month

Ave.

Normal

Total

Normal

Month

Ave.

Normal

Total

Normal

January:

July:

1972

17.3

- 6.4

.58

.29

1972

68.0

- 4.1

1.50

.29

1973

26.7

.06

- .26

1973

71.1

- 1.0

.62

- .59

1974

24.9

1.7

trl/

- .35

1974

.22

-1.04

1975

24.8

1.6

.72

.37

1975

2.51

1.25

1976

29.6

6.4

.12

- .23

August:

February:

1972

71.4

1.6

3.07

2.09

1972

29.5

3.0

.27

- .05

1973

71.9

2.1

1.73

.76

1973

26.7

- .32

1974

65.1

- 5.0

3.00

1.91

1974

35.8

6.6

- .30

1975

65.5

- 4.6

.66

- .43

1975

17.4

-11.8

.30

.00

1976

35.2

6.0

.13

- .17

September:

1972

52.3

- 7.3

.81

- .15

March:

1973

1.86

.90

1972

43.0

9.3

.29

- .27

1974

57.0

- 2.1

2.22

1.11

1973

36.4

2.7

.29

- .27

1975

58.3

- .8

.26

- .85

1974

.17

- .29

1975

31.0

- 2.6

.24

- .22

October:

1972

41.8

- 7.4

.91

.09

April :

1973

49.3

2.06

1.24

1972

46.3

1.64

.89

1974

51.3

1.6

1.18

.57

1973

42.4

- 3.3

1.18

.43

1975

48.8

- .9

4.35

3.74

1974

50.6

4.7

1.40

.57

1975

39.5

- 6.4

1.37

.54

November:

1972

31.7

- 4.4

- .36

May:

1973

30.1

- 6.0

.46

.10

1972

56.0

3.00

1.20

1974

35.0

- 1.1

.14

- .22

1973

55.7

- .1

1.65

- .15

1975

33.9

- 2.2

.44

.08

1974

2.65

.55

1975

52.8

- 2.6

3.98

1.88

December:

1972

15.8

-13.2

.53

.17

June:

1973

32.2

3.2

.93

.57

1972

68.4

5.2

.61

-1.92

1974

„

.08

- .25

1973

66.3

3.1

2.19

- .34

1975

—

.51

.14

1974

67.5

4.6

1.13

-1.71

1975

60.5

- 2.4

3.14

.30

JT tr - Trace (aJT amount tooTmall to measure)

■ C

recorded. Observations of individually marked big game animals were plotted
on a map to the nearest quarter section, or if possible, to the nearest
40 acres. All unmarked animals were located to the nearest section. Fall
food habits of big game animals were estimated by rumen analysis, and foods
eaten by turkeys were determined by crop analysis. Data from ground and
aerial surveys were combined in the following analysis.

Mule Deer

Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) inhabit the entire study area. A total
of 1,677 observations of individual deer was made during the report period,
including 411 and 1,266 observations from ground and aerial surveys,
respectively.

Distribution and Range Use

Distribution and Movements

Since January 1973, 32 mule deer were captured and fitted with color-
coded collars. Included were three adult females marked during January 1976,

-5-

but none of these were observed before the end of the report period. Methods
of trapping and marking appeared in a previous report (Dusek and McCann
1975). Data for individually marked deer that were relocated one or more
times during the report period appear in Table 2.

A home range is defined as the area over which an animal travels
while engaged in its daily activities (Dice 1952). A minimum home range
(Mohr 1947) was calculated for each animal observed five or more times sub-
sequent to its capture. This was facilitated by connecting the outermost
observation points, thus forming a polygon, and calculating the area inside.
The average annual home range for six adult females (Table 2) was 619 acres
(.97 sq. mi.). An annual home range of 709 acres (1.11 sq. mi.) was cal-
culated for the adult male.

A geometric center of activity was determined for each of the seven
deer (Hayne 1949). The distance to each relocation from the center of
activity was measured, including the distance to the capture site. The
average of these distances is known as the average radius of activity.
The average radius of activity for each of the seven deer appears in Table 2.
When data from six adult females were pooled, the average radius of activity
for all of these animals was .55 miles. Robinette (1966) reported that
the proportion of activity of mule deer decreases as the distance from the
center of activity increases. Sixty-four percent of all observations of
the six adult females occurred within one standard radius while 98 percent
occurred within two. An average radius of activity for the adult male was
.67 miles. Dasman and Taber (1956) and Robinette (op. cit.) reported that
mule deer males exhibited greater mobility than females.

Seasonal movements of a deer within its home range were perhaps related
to changes in forage preference as suggested by Mackie (1970). For example,
some individually marked deer were observed in the agricultural type along
major drainage bottoms during spring and/or fall, but were observed in native
vegetation types in the side drainages during the remainder of the year.
Some marked deer were never observed in the agricultural type or along major
drainages. It was assumed that such areas did not occur within their annual
home range. Seasonal movements of individually marked deer are represented
in Figures 2 and 3.

Group Characteristics

Group sizes during the report period were smallest during summer, with
a mean of 2.0 deer per group. Fifty- two percent of the groups observed
during summer were those varying from 2-5 deer per group (Table 3). This
category accounted for 70 percent of the total deer observed during summer.
Solitary animals were commonly observed during early summer. This was
perhaps related to fawning activity during June and July. Group sizes
started to increase during August.

During fall and winter, group sizes continued to increase with
seasonal means of 3.2 and 5.2, respectively. During fall most observed
groups varied in size from 2-5 deer (Table 3). This category again accounted
for 70 percent of the deer observed.

(

Table 2.

Capture and movement data for 14 individually marked mule deer that were observed during
the report period ending February 29, 1976.

Age & Sex

Date
Marked

Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult

Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult
Adult

F (D-
F (A-

F*(A-

(A
(A
(A
(A-
(A-
(A-
(A-
(A.
(A
(A.
(A-

■1629)1/ 1/31/73

■1714)

■1715)

•1717)

■1718)

•1719)

•1720)

■1721)

1722)

■1723)

■1724)

■1729)

■1733)

■1735)

12/18/74
12/18/74
12/31/74
1/ 2/75
1/ 9/75
1/10/75
1/10/75
1/17/75
1/27/75
2/ 4/75
2/ 5/75
2/10/75
2/16/75

Drainage

Fattig Cr.
Halfbreed Cr.
Halfbreed Cr.
Fattig Cr.
Fattig Cr.
Fattig Cr.
Halfbreed Cr.
Halfbreed Cr.
Halfbreed C.
Halfbreed Cr.
Fattig Cr.
Fattig Cr.
Halfbreed Cr.
Fattig Cr.

Date of
last Obser-
vation

2/ 4/76

2/ 5/76

2/ 5/76
10/29/75

1/ 8/76

1/14/76

3/18/75

2/ 5/76

2/19/76

2/ 5/76
12/30/75

9/23/75

4/19/75

2/ 4/76

No. of
Reloca-
tions

82/

2
3
2
2

9
11

3
5
4
3

Annual
Home Range
(acres)

550 (0.9)1/
533 (0.8)
581 (0.9)

Radius of
Activity (mi . )

.56
.59
.58

578 (0.9)

.50

952 (1.5)
522 (0.8)

.54

.52

709 (1.1)

.67

]_/ Number on metal ear tag.

2/ Capture not included.

3/ Home range in square miles.

* The animal was a yearling when marked.

Adult Male
(A-1729)

r*\.

Adult Female
(D-1629)

LEGEND:

PAVED ROAD

INTERMITTENT STREAMS

RELOCATIONS OF ADULT MULE DEER:

SPRING

SUMMER

FALL

WINTER

Scale

CAPTURE SITE

0 12 3 Miles

Figure 2. Seasonal distribution and movements of an adult male mule deer
captured during February 1975 and an adult female captured
during January 1973 in the Fattig Creek drainage.

Adult Female \ \

(A-1715) :'

s' o4-;

v r) ^

/ ' r

r-T

Adult Female
(A-1722)

LEGEND:

Paunri Road

■c/

Intermittent Streams

Relocations Of Adult Mule
Spring

Deer:

^timmpr

- — ■ ♦

Fall

Scale

Winter

|—

-I I I

Captlira Sit"

1 2 3

Figure 3. Seasonal distribution and movements of two adult female mule
deer captured during December 1974 and January 1975 in the
Halfbreed Creek drainage.

Table 3. Frequency among group sizes and average group size of mule
deer by season during the report period.

Groups

of Mule Deer

Number per

1 Group

Ave.

Season

2-5 6-10

11-15

16 Plus

Size

Spring 1975

3/ll/

51/29 32/37

9/15

5/18

6.5

Summer 1975

46/23

52/70 2/ 7

-/-

2.0

Fall 1975

20/ 6

69/70 11/24

-/-

3.2

Winter 1975-76 8/ 1

57/35 25/36

6/15

4/12

5.2

1/ Percent of
total deer

total groups observed during
observed during a respective

a respective
season.

season/Percent of

During spring 1975, an average group size of 6.5 animals was recorded.
The largest groups observed throughout the year were observed during spring.
This is perhaps at least partly related to the concentration of deer on
open vegetation types, particularly the agricultural type. Such areas
appeared to green-up earlier than other vegetation types.

Although the size and composition of groups of mule deer change
seasonally, the yearlong distribution of deer throughout the study area
appeared to change very little, if at all (Dusek and McCann 1975). This,
together with movement data from individually marked deer, tends to sub-
stantiate the conclusion that mule deer in the Bull Mountains ecosystem
are nonmigra to ry.

Use of Vegetation Types

Observations of mule deer were facilitated by periods of activity
such as feeding. Following these periods, or when alarmed, mule deer
used stands of timber for escape cover. Since only the vegetation type
and subtype that deer occupied when first observed were recorded, the
actual importance of timbered types to deer was perhaps underestimated.
Seasonal changes in relative use of vegetation types during this report
period (Table 4) generally followed a pattern similar to that of previous
years unless otherwise noted (Dusek and McCann 1973, 1974 and 1975).

Spring: The grassland and agricultural types, combined, accounted
for 78 percent of the use during spring 1975. The grassland park and
hay meadow subtypes received most of the use within their respective
types (Table 4) during 1975, as opposed to the drainageway and cropland
subtypes during 1974. During spring 1975 the agricultural type received
its greatest seasonal use between April 21 and May 18, perhaps due to an
earlier "green-up" on that type than on nonagri cultural types. As
succulent growth became abundant on the nonagri cultural types, an abrupt
shift to these types occurred. This pattern of use occurred approximately
1 month earlier during 1974, perhaps due to climatological differences
between the 2 years (Table 1).

-10-

Table 4. Seasonal use of vegetational types by mule deer as determined by 1677 observations during
the report period.

ason

Vegetation Type

Spring 1975
(600)1/

162/
11

Summer
(277)

8
6

1975

Fall 1975
(386)

22
11

Winter 1975-76
(414)

Grassland Type:
Grassland Park Subtype
Drainageway Subtype
Burn Subtype

11
6
8

TOTAL

Agricultural Type:
Cropland
Hay Meadow

15
24

8
21

28
14

27
6

TOTAL

Sagebrush-Grassland Type:
Silver Sagebrush-Grassland !
Big Sagebrush-Grassland Sub

Subtype
type

39
5

2
5

33
2

TOTAL

Deciduous Shrub Type:
Skunkbush-Grassland Subtype
Snowberry Subtype

1
6

5
3

2
trl/

TOTAL

Ponderosa Pine-Grassland Type:
Ponderosa Pine-Bunchgrass Subtype
Ponderosa Pine-Juniper Subtype

2
15

24
2

34
2

TOTAL

Ponderosa Pine Type:

36
1

]_/ Sample size for a respective season.

2/ Percent of seasonal observations.

3/ Trace - a value less than 1 percent of seasonal observations,

Summer: Summer 1975 was characterized by decreased use of the
grassland and agricultural types and increased use of the ponderosa
pine-grassland type as compared to spring (Table 4). The grassland
park, hay meadow and ponderosa pine-bunchgrass subtypes received the
greatest use in the respective types. The combined use of the grass-
land and agricultural types accounted for 60 percent of the seasonal
observations.

„

Fall : During fall 1975 the grassland and agricultural types re-
their greatest yearlong use, each accounting for 42 percent of
observations. The grassland park and cropland subtypes

The

cei ved
the seasonal

received most of the use within the respective types (Table 4).
ponderosa pine-grassland type received its lowest observed yearlong
use during fall. Fall 1975 was characterized by cooler and wetter
conditions than normally prevail during this time of year (Table 1).
Resulting "green-ups" may have induced greater use by deer of the grass-
land and agricultural types, particularly the cropland subtype.

Winter: Winter 1975-76 was characterized by comparatively mild
climatological conditions, similar to those of the winters of 1972-73
and 1973-74 (Dusek and McCann 1973 and 1974). The ponderosa pine-
grassland type, which accounted for 36 percent of the seasonal ob-
servations, received the greatest seasonal usage. The grassland type
received its lowest yearlong usage. The relatively high use of the
agricultural type during this season reflected an increase in observa-
tions on that type during late February. Abnormally warm temperatures
prior to and during that period caused a noticeable "green-up" in the
cropland subtype and may have influenced the heavy use of the agricultural
type during this winter. The sagebrush-grassland received abnormally low
use during this winter as compared to other years.

Relation to Timber

Most of the deer observed occurred within 0-100 feet of the nearest
stand of timber throughout the report period (Table 5). More than 60
percent occurred within 300 feet of the nearest stand of timber. During
spring 60 percent of the observations were evenly distributed between
the 100-300, 300-600 and 600 plus classes. This perhaps reflected seasonal
preference for vegetation types. During summer, fall and winter, 8 percent
of the seasonal observations occurred at
while 50 percent or more occurred within
of timber. Generally these data reflect
previous year (Dusek and McCann 1975).

distances greater than 600 feet,
0-100 feet of the nearest stand
the same trend observed the

S^'

•12-

Table 5. Occurrence of mule deer at various distances from the nearest
stand of timber, determined from 1677 ground and aerial
observations.

Distance Class

Spring 1975
(600)1/

Summer
(277)

1975

Fall 1975
(386)

Winter 1975-76
(414)

0-100 ft.

422/

100-300 ft.

300-600 ft.

Over 600 ft.

1/ Sample size for a respective season.
2/ Percent of seasonal observations.

Use of Slopes

Seasonal use of six classes of topographical features by mule deer
appears in Table 6. Coulee and creek bottoms, ridges and plateaus were
collectively termed flatlands, while sidehills and coulee heads were
separated into three classes based on degree of slope (Table 7).

Table 6, Seasonal use of various topographical features by mule deer as
determined from 1677 ground and aerial observations during the
report period.

Season

Spring 1975 (600)1/
Summer 1975 (277)
Fall 1975 (386)
Winter 1975-76 (414)

Sidehill

Topographical
Coulee Creek
Bottom Bottom

Feature
Ri dge

Pla

teau

Coulee
Head

39i/

V Sample size for a respective season.
2/ Percent of seasonal observations.

-13-

Table 7. Seasonal use of gradients by mule deer during the report period.

Gradient

Spring
(600),

1975
1/

Summer
(277)

1975

Fall 1975
(386)

Winter 1975-76
(414)

Flat?./

521/

Gentle (0-15°)

Medium 16-30°)

Steep (31-450)

y Seasonal sample size.

2/ Includes coulee bottoms, creek bottoms, ridges and plateaus

3/ Percent of seasonal observations.

Flatlands accounted for more than 50 percent of the deer observed
during each season throughout the report period with the greatest usage
occurring during fall (Table 7). During spring 1975 creek bottoms received
their greatest yearlong usage (Table 6). Plateaus accounted for the
greatest usage among flatlands during the remainder of the year, but re-
ceived their greatest use during fall.

Steep slopes received only minor use throughout the report period.
Use of gentle and medium slopes combined was greatest during spring and
winter (Table 7). Forty-six percent of the observations occurred on these
two classes of gradient during spring and winter. Sidehills accounted
for more than one-third of the total usage during all seasons except fall
(Table 6). The overall trend is similar to that observed during the pre-
vious year (Dusek and McCann 1975).

Use of Exposures

During winter 1975-76, 53 percent of the observations of mule deer
associated with some degree of slope occurred on southerly exposures
(Table 8). Those exposures also received considerable use during spring.
During summer, no definite trend was apparent. Northerly and easterly
exposures received considerable use during fall.

^^^z

-14-

Table 8. Seasonal use of eight exposures by mule deer as determined from
734 observations during the report period.

l^ ■

Season

North

East

Sou

West

Spring 1975
(290)1/

121/

Summer 1975
(128)

Fall 1975
(120)

Winter 1975-
(196)

V Sample size occurring on some degree of slope during a respective season.
2/ Percent of seasonal observations associated with some degree of slope.

Fall Food Habits

Food habits for fall 1975 were estimated from rumen samples from three
deer taken by hunters during October and November (Table 9). Browse,
forbs and grasses constituted 56, 41 and 1 percent, respectively, by volume
Snowberry ( Symphoriaarpos spp.J, which occurred in all three samples and
averaged 41 percent by volume, was the most important single item used.
Other browse included Oregon grape (Berberis repens) _, wild rose (Rosa spp.J
and silver sagebrush (Artemisia oana) {7db\& 9). Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) ,
which occurred almost exclusively in the agricultural type, averaged 35
percent and was the most abundant forb in the samples. Other forbs included
aster (Aster Spp.J and common salsify (Tragopogon dubius) .

Population Characteristics

During spring 1975, a fawn:adult ratio of 24:100 was calculated. This
compared closely with data collected during the previous winter (Dusek
and McCann 1975).

Fawn: doe and fawn: adult ratios were not calculated from summer ob-
servations, since fawns were not readily observed until August. The buck:
doe ratio of 70:100 calculated during summer 1975 was considerably higher
than during the following fall and winter (Table 10), and may reflect an
observability bias. One reason for this may be a differential use of
vegetation types by bucks and does during summer. For example, the buck:doe
ratio calculated from observations in the ponderosa pine-grassland type
was 33:100, while that from deer observed in open vegetation types, com-
bined, was 86:100. Many does were observed as solitary animals, especially

15-

Table 9. Fall food habits of mule deer as determined from examination
of rumen contents of three hunter-killed mule deer.

Taxa

Browse:

Artemisia carta
Berberis repens
Pinus ponder osa
Rhus trilobata
Rosa spp.

Symphoricarpos spp.
Unidentified Browse

Total Browse

Forbs:

Aster spp.
Medicago sativa
Tragopogon dubius
Unidentified Forbs

Total Forbs

Grasses:

Tritiaum spp.
Unidentified Grasses

Total Grasses

October-November
1975
3 Rumens

67/ ll/

33/ 6

33/trU

67/tr
100/ 4
100/41
100/ 4

100/56

67/ 1

67/35

33/ 1

100/ 4

100/41

33/ tr
100/ 1

100/ 1

1/ Frequency (percent occurrence among rumens )/percent of diet.
2/ tr - Trace (a value less than .5 percent).

during June and July, while bucks were often observed in groups of two or
more. Solitary animals were sometimes more difficult to spot, especially
from aerial surveys, than were groups of two or more animals.

During fall, fawn:doe and fawn:adult ratios were 38:100 and 29:100,
respectively (Table 10). The observed buck:doe ratio during this period
was 33:100. The same ratio calculated for adult deer observed in open
vegetation types was 35:100. Only 15 adult deer were observed in the
ponderosa pine-grassland type during fall and all were does. Most fall
observations were made prior to the hunting season.

There was no
winter (Table 10).
The buck: doe ratio
during fal 1 . Duri
use of timbered an
proportion of unci
Based on fall obse
of the population
observations, the

observed chan
The fawn: ad
of 19:100 wa
ng winter the
d nontimbered
assified adul
rvations, the
consisting of
increment was

ge in the fawn: doe ratio between fall and
ult ratio increased slightly to 30:100.
s considerably less than that observed
re did not appear to be any differential

types by bucks and does. Perhaps a larger
ts and unclassified deer were adult bucks.

calculated annual increment, or proportion

fawns, was 22 percent. Based on winter

23 percent.

■16-

Table 10. Population characteristics of mule deer as determined from 1675 ground and aerial observa-
tions from March 1975 through February 1976.

Adults

Fawns
87

Unci.
Sex &
Age

153

Total
600

Fawns :
100 Does

Fawns :
100 Adults

Bucks:

Season

Does
26

Bucks

Unci.
328

Total
360

100 Does

Spring 1975

Summer 1975

140

240

275

Fall 1975

225

300

386

Winter 1975-

208

259

414

-^1

Elk

Prior to 1973, there had been no hunting season on elk (Cervus
canadensis) in the Bull Mountains. Five archery permits were issued
during fall 1973 for a portion of hunting district 590 which consisted
of surface owned or leased by Consol. During 1974, the Consol property
was again open to archers, and five rifle permits were also issued
during the general big game season. No elk were reported killed during
either year. Ten rifle permits were issued for the general season during
1975 for the same portion of hunting district 590. Three elk were taken,
which included two bulls and one cow.

Distribution and Range Use

A total of 1,426 observations of individual elk were made during
the report period. Most of these were obtained from aerial surveys.

Distribution and Movements

Elk occupy a portion of the Bull Mountains west of U. S. 87 which
includes the upper portions of Pompey's Pillar, Railroad, Hawk, Fattig,
Parrot and Halfbreed Creeks (Dusek and McCann 1975).

Seven adult cows were captured and equipped with individually
identifiable collars during the winters of 1974 and 1975. Methods of
capturing and marking were discussed in a previous report (Dusek and
McCann 1975). Capture, relocation and home range data appear in Table 11.
One hundred fifty-nine relocations were obtained subsequent to the
capture of the seven animals.

Annual home ranges were calculated for five of the seven elk
(Table 11) in the same manner as those of mule deer. The average annual
home range for those animals was 35.4 square miles, which was comparable
with that reported for adult cow elk in the Missouri breaks (Knowles 1975).

The portion of the Bull Mountains occupied by elk, as well as annual
home ranges of individually marked adult cows, were differentially
utilized throughout the year. It was also apparent that some portions
of annual home ranges of adult cows were used wery little, if at all
(Figures 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8). The summer home range of adult cows was con-
sidered the portion of the annual home range where the animal was ob-
served from June through mid-October (Table 11). Two adult cows (Nos. 1
and 2) occupied the same portion of their annual home range during that
period of two consecutive years (Figures 4 and 5). The average summer
home range size for five adult cows was 5.2 square miles.

Marked adult cows were generally observed on what was considered
the winter home range from December through mid-April. Size of the
winter home range varied considerably between the seven animals (Table 11),
but averaged 11.5 square miles. Nos. 6 and 7, both marked in upper
Pompey's Pillar Creek during January 1975, were observed in the same

■18-

r c

Table 11. Capture and movement data for seven adult cow elk captured and individually marked during
the winters of 1974 and 1975.

Ear Tag

Number

Date

Marked

Drainage

Where

Marked

Date of Last
Observation

Number
Relocat

of
ions

Home

Range (sq.

mi . )

No.

Annual

Summer

W i n te r

2/ 4/74

Fattig Cr.

2/ 5/76

29.9

6.2

11.4

A- 1709

2/ 6/74

Fattig Cr.

11/ 4/75

35.2

3.5

23.0

A- 1708

1/ 8/75

Fattig Cr.

2/19/76

33.2

6.5

8.2

A-1707

1/ 8/75

Hawk Cr.

2/24/76

38.7

3.9

10.7

D-1635

1/ 9/75

Railroad Cr

2/10/76

13.0

A-1711

1/10/75

Pompey's Pi

Cr.

2/24/76

40.0

6.1

7.4

A-1712

1/10/76

Pompey's Pi

Cr.

2/19/76

6.5

.^J

LEGEND=
PAVED ROAD

INTERMITTENT STREAM

RELOCATIONS OF AN ADULT COW ELK:

SPRING

SUMMER

FALL

WINTER

CAPTURE SITE

Scale

0 12 3 Miles

Figure 4. Seasonal distribution and movements of cow elk No, 1 from
February 1974 through February 1976t

-20-

..... A

3 J

<y "X

LEGEND=

PAVED ROAD

INTERMITTENT STREAM

RELOCATIONS OF AN ADULT COW ELK:

SPRING

SUMMER

FALL

WINTER

Scale

^ I— I

0 12 3 Miles

CAPTURE SITE

Figure 5, Seasonal distribution and movements of cow elk No. 2 from
February 1974 through February 1976.

-21-

\ 1

■,

^ .

1 1

LEGEND^

PAVED ROAD

Scale

INTERMITTENT STREAM

OBSERVATIONS OF COW ELK #3:

SPRING

MAY

0 12 3 Miles

SUMMER
FALL

NOVEMBER
WINTER

■^J

CAPTURE SITE

Figure 6. Seasonal distribution and movements of cow elk No. 3 during
the period of January 8, 1975 through February 29, 1976.

-22-

*!s

/ 1

i /

\ r
\

\ "V

-V. '

LEGEND^

PAVED ROAD

INTERMITTENT STREAM

OBSERVATIONS OF COW ELK #4:
SPRING

MAY

SUMMER

FALL

NOVEMBER
WINTER

r\., r

Scale

0 12 3 Miles

CAPTURE SITE

Figure 7. Seasonal distribution and movements of cow elk No, 4 during the
period of January 8, 1975 through February 29, 1976,

iC.r

o- .

i <&'\ /

) x

J$> \ ;

/' ''

.-A

rr i

,.x^1-'

>' -^ '

'jf\ " O'.U^ N HAWK

i BjirSSEbSHELl COUNT*

>} ^

LEGEND:

PAVED ROAD

INTERMITTENT STREAM

OBSERVATIONS OF COW ELK #6^

SPRING

MAY

SUMMER-
FALL

NOVEMBER
WINTER

CAPTURE SITE-

Scale
0 12 3 Miles

Figure 8. Seasonal distribution and movements of cow elk No, 6 during the
period of January 10, 1975 through February 29, 1976,

■24-

general area, which also included Railroad Creek, during that and the
following winter (Figure 8). Those marked on Consol's property (Nos. 1
through 5) had larger winter home ranges and their use appeared more
variable. Marked cows occurred almost anywhere within their annual home
range during May and November. These appeared to be periods of movement
between summer and winter home ranges.

Centers of activity (Hayne 1949) were calculated for summer and/or
winter home ranges of the seven marked cows. May and November data were
not used for these calculations. The average distance traveled between
summer and winter home ranges, expressed as the average straight line
distance between the two centers of activity for each of five cows, was
6.1 miles (Table 12).

The average radius of activity for five and seven cows during the
June-October and December-April periods, respectively, appears in Table 12.
During the June-October period, 76 percent of the observed activity
occurred within 1.5 miles of the center of activity of each animal,
while 96 percent occurred within 3.0 miles. Fifty-eight percent of the
observed activity occurred within 2.1 miles of centers of activity during
the December-April period, while 91 percent occurred within 4.2 miles.
This also suggested that adult cow elk exhibited greater mobility and
areas of activity were greater during winter and early spring than during
summer and early fall. The fact that mean consecutive distances as well
as mean maximum distances between observations of individual animals
were smallest during summer and fall and greatest during winter and spring
further substantiates that conclusion (Table 12). These data compare
closely to that of Mackie (1970), Knowles (1975) and Komberec (1976) for
the Missouri breaks.

It was previously determined that two distinct elk summer ranges
occurred in the Bull Mountains (Dusek and McCann 1975). Based on sightings
of both marked and unmarked elk during the report period, it is my opinion
that these summer ranges are occupied by two separate segments of the
population. One, including at least four marked adult cows (Nos. 1, 2,
3 and 4), occurred on the upper east side of Hawk Creek during the June-
October period (Figures 4, 5, 6 and 7). No. 5 is perhaps part of this
segment, but summer data for that animal were lacking and fall data were
sparse. The other segment, which included Nos. 6 and 7, occupied upper
Halfbreed and Parrot Creeks as well as the upper west side of Fattig
Creek (Figure 8). No. 7 was only observed once during the summer- fall
period, but it occurred in Halfbreed Creek.

During the December-April period, the situation was more complex.
As mentioned previously, Nos. 6 and 7 were observed exclusively in upper
Pompey's Pillar and Railroad Creeks in northern Yellowstone County during
the winters of 1975 and 1975-76. On several occasions during those
winters, between 40 and 60 head of elk were observed in that area. Nos. 1,
2, 3 and 4, which represented the Hawk Creek segment, were all marked in
the Fattig and Hawk Creek drainages on Consol's property (Figure 1). All
were observed in the Railroad Creek drainage several times between February
and April, 1975 and No. 3 was observed several times in Pompey's Pillar
Creek. No. 5 was marked along the divide between Fattig and Railroad Creeks,
and observed in that area until mid-February 1975. It then moved further

■25-

ro
1

Table 12. Seasonal radius of activity, distances between consecutive observations, mean maximum
distances between observations, and distances between centers of activity of seven
individually marked adult cow elk in the Bull Mountains.

Radius of
Activity (mi.)

Consecutive Distances
Between Observations (mi. )
Spr. Sum. Fall Win.

1.6 2.4 1.7 3.3

Maximum Distances
Between 0bservations(
Spr. Sum. Fall

3.50 6.25 4.00

mi . )
Win.

8.50

Distance Between
Centers of Activity

No.

Jun.-Oct.
1.2 (11)1/

Dec. -Apr.
2.5 (14)

Miles

5.3

1.0 (22)

3.0 (11)

2.9

1.0

1.9 2.2

10.25

1.75

4.50

6.50

4.0

1.6 ( 6)

1.4 (16)

3.5

1.3

3.2 1.6

8.00

1.75

5.50

6.00

9.0

1.1 (12)

3.6 ( 7)

4.6

1.6

.8 2.8

7.00

4.00

1.75

5.00

4.6

1.8 (15)

2.4

2.0

5.00

6.00

2.4 ( 4)

1.3 (16)

1.2

3.2*

1.6 3.2

2.75

3.25*

2.50

7.00

7.4

1.2 (12)

1.6

3.7*

1.8

3.00

3.75*

3.25

Ave.

1.5

2.1

2.5

2.2

1.8 2.4

5.6

3.5

3.6

6.00

6.1

V Number of relocations during a respective period.
* Only one measurement was available.

C O ' O

\m*

south into Railroad Creek. During the winter of 1975-76 (Dec. -Feb.):
No. 1 was observed in both the Fattig and Railroad Creek drainages, No. 2
was not observed at all, Nos. 3 and 5 spent the entire winter in Railroad
and Pompey's Pillar Creeks with Nos. 6 and 7, and No. 4 remained in the
Fattig and Hawk Creek drainages.

Specific sites where elk were observed throughout the year were
those where cattle were few in number or absent. When large groups of
cattle were turned into areas that elk had previously occupied, especially
during fall, elk were no longer observed in such areas.

Consol's property, in the Fattig and Hawk Creek drainages, re-
ceived rather heavy use by livestock during the winter of 1974-75, but
this usage was much lighter during the following winter of 1975-76. The
portions of Pompey's Pillar and Railroad Creeks, were elk occurred, re-
ceived little or no use by livestock during either winter. This may
partially explain differences in winter home range size and movements
between elk marked in Pompey's Pillar Creek and those marked on Consol's
property (Tables 11 and 12). Knowles (1975) and Komberec (1976) reported
livestock distribution to be a major factor influencing elk distribution
within a rest-rotation grazing system in the Missouri breaks. The
mobility of elk appeared to allow them to seek out the most favorable
range and forage conditions.

Group Characteristics

Average group sizes were largest during fall and winter and smallest
during spring and summer (Table 13). This trend was similar to that ob-
served during previous years (Dusek and McCann 1974 and 1975). Elk
were quite gregarious throughout the year, although a greater proportion
of solitary animals was observed during spring and summer than during
fall or winter (Table 13). This was largely influenced by observations
of adult cows during May and June and was perhaps related to calving.
Calves were first observed on June 12.

Table 13. Frequency among group sizes and average group sizes of elk
by season during the report period.

Groups

of Elk

Season

1
27/ 51/

2-5
43/29

6-10
20/30

n-15

4/10

16-20
3/10

21 +
3/16

Average
Size

Spring 1975

5.0

Summer 1975

22/ 4

49/30

18/25

4/ 9

4/14

3/17

5.1

Fall 1975

15/ 2

40/18

13/13

15/23

13/28

4/16

8.0

Winter 1975-

10/ 2

45/27

31/37

12/25

-/-

2/ 8

6.0

]_/ Percent c
of total

)f total groups observed durin
elk observed during a respect

g a respective
ive season.

season/Percent

•27-

Yearling, or "spike," bulls were often observed with cow/calf groups
throughout the summer, but older bulls were not observed accompanying
these groups until the last week of August. Mature bulls were observed
with cow/calf groups throughout fall and were observed showing aggressive
behavior toward other bulls during September. During winter 1975-76 bulls
were generally not observed with cow/calf groups.

Based on observations of groups containing one or more individually
marked cows, composition of individuals within groups appeared to change
quite often. Cow/calf groups were generally closely associated on seasonal
herd ranges.

Use of Vegetation Types

Relative use among vegetation types throughout the report period was
similar to that observed during the previous year (Dusek and McCann 1975).
Results appear in Table 14.

Spring: The grassland type accounted for 59 percent of the observed
use among vegetation types during spring 1975. This was confined almost
exclusively to the grassland park subtype. The agricultural type received
only 8 percent of the seasonal use as compared to 27 percent during the
previous year. Elk were not observed using that type until about mid-May
1975 as compared to early April 1974. Abnormally cool and wet climatological
conditions during spring 1975 perhaps retarded growth of succulent vegeta-
tion and such areas were not attractive to elk until mid-May 1975. The
ponderosa pine-grassland type also received considerable use, all of which
was observed in the ponderosa pine-bunchgrass subtype (Table 14).

Summer: The agricultural type, which accounted for 42 percent of the
seasonal observations, received its greatest yearlong use during summer 1975.
This was followed by the grassland and ponderosa pine-grassland types
(Table 14).

Fal 1 : Seventy-two percent of the seasonal use was quite evenly
distributed among the grassland and agricultural types (Table 14). The
grassland park and cropland subtypes received most of the use within the
respective types. Use of the deciduous shrub type increased over spring
and summer, all of which occurred in the snowberry subtype.

Winter: The grassland type accounted for its greatest yearlong use
during winter 1975-76, accounting for 66 percent of the seasonal observations.
The grassland park subtype accounted for most of this use. The only other
types where use was observed during this winter were the ponderosa pine-
grassland and sagebrush-grassland types (Table 14). This was the only
season when elk were not observed in the agricultural type.

Relation to Timber

More than half the elk observed occurred within 0-100 feet of the
nearest stand of timber during all seasons (Table 15). The greatest use
within this class occurred during winter, when it accounted for 83 percent

•28-

Table 14. Seasonal use of vegetation types by elk as determined from 1426 observations during the
report period.

Season

Vegetation Type

Grassland Type:

Grassland Park Subtype
Drainageway Subtype
Burn Subtype

TOTAL

Spring 1975
(372)1/

592/
tr3/

Summer 1975
(372)

21
8

Fall 1975
(375)

29
10

Winter 1975-76
(307)

65
1

Agricultural
Cropland
Hay Meadow

Type:

3
5

24
9

TOTAL

o
i

Sagebrush-Grassland Type:
Silver Sagebrush-Grassland Subtype 12

Big Sagebrush-Grassland Subtype tr

TOTAL

Deciduous Shrub Type:
Skunkbush-Grassland Subtype
Snowberry Subtype

TOTAL

Ponderosa Pine-Grassland Type:
Ponderosa Pine-Bunchgrass Subtype
Ponderosa Pine-Juniper Subtype

21
1

TOTAL

Ponderosa Pine Type:

V Sample size for a respective season.

2/ Percent of seasonal observations.

3/ Trace - a value less than 1 percent of seasonal observations,

of the observations. A greater proportion of seasonal elk observations
occurred in the 300-600 and 600 feet plus classes during fall than
during other seasons. This was perhaps related to use by elk of large
open areas such as the agricultural type. This trend was similar to
that observed during the previous year (Dusek and McCann 1975).

Table 15. Occurrence of elk at various distances from the nearest stand
of timber as determined from 1426 observations during the
report period.

Distance Class

Spring 1975
(372)1/

Summer
(372)

1975

Fall 1975
(375)

Winter 1975-76
(307)

0-100 ft.

512/

100-300 ft.

300-600 ft.

Over 600 ft.

]J Sample size for a respective season.
2/ Percent of seasonal observations.

Use of Slopes

Seasonal use by elk of six classes of topographical features appears
in Table 16. More than 50 percent of the elk observations occurred on
flatlands during all seasons, but the greatest yearlong use occurred
during fall (Table 17). This was influenced largely by use of plateaus,
coulees and creek bottoms which was apparently related to use by elk of
the agricultural type. Plateaus received considerable use during all
seasons except winter, but the heaviest use occurred there during fall
(Table 16). Creek bottoms received their only significant use during fall.
Coulee bottoms received their greatest use during spring and summer,
while ridges were most important during winter. This was similar to the
trend of the previous year (Dusek and McCann 1975).

Gentle slopes received the greatest use of all three classes throughout
the report period with the greatest use occurring during spring and winter
(Table 17). The only use observed on steep slopes occurred during summer.
Sidehills received greater use than coulee heads during all seasons, although
their greatest use occurred during spring and winter. Coulee heads received
their greatest use during summer and fall.

-30-

Sl^^^

Table 16. Seasonal use of various topographical features by elk as

determined from 1426 observations during the report period.

Season

Spring 1975 (372)1/
Summer 1975 (372)
Fall 1975 (375)
Winter 1975-76 (307)

Topographical Features

Coulee

Creek

Coulee

Sidehill

Bottom

Ridge

Plateau

Head

322/

]_/ Sample size for a respective season.
2/ Percent of seasonal observations.

Table 17. Seasonal use of gradients by elk during the report period.

Spring 1975

Summer

1975

Fall 1975

Winter 1975-76

Gradient

(372)1/

(372)

(375)

(307)

Flat2./

611/

Gentle (0-15°)

Medium (16-30°)

Steep (31-45°)

1/ Sample size for a respective season.

2/ Includes coulee bottoms, creek bottoms, ridges and plateaus.

3/ Percent of seasonal observations

Use of Exposures

During winter 1975-76, 86 percent of elk observations associated with
some degree of slope occurred on southerly exposures (Table 18). Those
exposures also received most of the observed use during spring and fall.
During summer, northerly exposures received 65 percent of the observed use.

•31-

Table 18. Seasonal use of each of eight exposures by elk as determined
from 568 observations during the report period.

Season

North

East

South

West

Spring 1975
(141)1/

32/

Summer 1975
(158)

Fall 1975
(125)

Winter 1975-
(144)

y Sample size occurring on some degree of slope during a respective

season.
2/ Percent of seasonal observations associated with some degree of slope.

Fall Food Habits

Food habits of elk during October and November 1975 were determined
by analysis of four rumen samples: three from hunter-killed elk in the
Hawk and Fattig Creek drainages and one from an animal killed illegally
in Halfbreed Creek.

Grasses, browse and forbs accounted for 61, 25 and 11 percent, by
volume, of the four rumens (Table 19). Most grass material in the rumens
was not identifiable, but wheat (Triticwv sppj accounted for most of that
which was. Wheat and western wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii) constituted
22 and 4 percent of the diet, respectively.

Snowberry occurred in all four samples and accounted for 18 percent
of the seasonal diet. Other important browse included silver sagebrush,
wild rose and rubber rabbi tbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus) . Ponderosa
pine (Pinus ponderosa) in the diet during fall consisted of dried needles,
perhaps picked up incidentally while elk were feeding on other plants.
Important forbs included cud-leaf sagewort (Artemisia ludoviciana) and
fringed sagewort (A. frigida) .

Population Characteristics

Calfrcow ratios for summer and fall 1975 were 53:100 and 52:100,
respectively. The same ratio was 55:100 during winter 1975-76 (Table 20).

■32-

Table 19. Fall food habits of elk as determined from examination of
rumen contents of four elk.

Taxa

Browse:

Artemisia aana
Chrysothamnus nauseosus
Pinus ponderosa
Rhus tvi loba ta
Rosa spp.

Symphoricarpos spp.
Unidentified Browse

Oct. -Nov. 1975
4 rumens

75/ 31/
25/ 1
75/ 2
25/trl/
50/ 1
100/18
75/ tr

Total Browse

100/25

Forbs :

Artemisia frigida
Artemisia ludovioiana
Aster spp.
Tragopogon dubius
Yucca glauca
Unidentified Forbs

Total Forbs

75/ 1
25/ 2
50/tr
25/tr
25/tr
100/ 8

100/11

Grasses:

Agropyron smithii
Andropogon scopavious
Koeleria cristata
Triticum spp.
Unidentified Grass

50/ 4
25/tr
25/tr
75/22
100/35

Total Grass

100/61

1/ Frequency (percent occurrence among rumens) /percent of diet.
2/ tr - trace (a value less than .5 percent).

"Spike" bulls were observed with cow/ calf groups throughout summer and
fall 1975, but older bulls were rarely observed with these groups except
during fall. For this reason, the calf:adult ratio of 37:100, calculated
for fall observations, was perhaps the most accurate. The ratio of
older bulls:cow, which was 21:100, was also most accurate during fall
(Table 20).

-33-

Table 20. Population characteristics of elk as determined from 938 observations during summer
and fall 1975 and winter 1975-76.

Unci. Calves: Older

"Spike" Older Sex & Calves: 100 Spikes: Bulls:

Season Cows Bulls Bulls Total Calves Age Total 100 Cows Adults 100 Cows 100 Cows

Summer 1975
(Jul. -Aug.)

144

180

256

Fall 1975
(Sept. -Nov.)

176

243

375

Winter 1975-76
(Dec. -Feb. )

175

188

307

(

' ' '• ;'.-

The annual increment, calculated from fall observations, was 27 percent.
Production data during this report period were similar to that of the
past 2 years (Dusek and McCann 1974 and 1975).

Various observability bias' precluded an estimate of a total
elk population by direct count. An estimate of the cow segment (yearlings
and older) was computed from ratios of marked to unmarked cows. This
was accomplished by use of a modified Lincoln Index ( Marti nka 1969) as
f ol 1 ows :

PE = M/PM

where PE is the estimated cow population, M is the number of marked
cows present, and PM is the percent of the cows that were marked. A
total population was estimated from this, as well as summer calf:cow
and "spike":cow ratios and fall older bull:cow ratio.

All seven marked cows were observed during the summer- fall period
during 1975. The estimated cow segment was 67 animals. From this the
estimated numbers of calves, "spike" bulls, and older bulls were 36,
13 and 14, respectively. Thus, the estimated population of elk in the
Bull Mountains during the summer- fall period of 1975 was 130 animals.

-35-

Turkeys

Merriam's turkeys (Meleagvis gallopavo merriami) were introduced
in the Bull Mountains in 1958 using wild trapped stock from the Long
Pines area of southeastern Montana (Greene and Ellis 1971). Annual
fall hunting seasons for turkeys in the Bull Mountains were initiated
in 1962. The area has subsequently provided the greatest turkey
hunting potential in Department of Fish and Game administrative region 5
in terms of numbers of hunters afield and birds harvested (Compton 1975).

Distribution and Range Use

The following analysis resulted from 712 observations of turkeys
during the report period, including 326 and 386 ground and aerial ob-
servations, respectively. Trends in range use were similar to those
of previous years (Dusek and McCann 1973, 1974 and 1975) unless other-
wise noted. Most of the observations during the report period occurred
in southern Musselshell County.

Flocking Characteristics

Gobbler flocks were prevalent throughout the year, but were
largest in number during spring and winter (Table 21). Flocks con-
sisting only of hens were rarely observed. Hens were generally associated
with some other type of flock.

During April, mixed flocks gave way to courtship flocks consisting
of several displaying males accompanied by hens and averaging 4.2 birds/
flock. Brood flocks, consisting of one to three hens with poults,
were observed during summer and fall. The mixed flocks observed during
late fall and winter perhaps resulted from aggregation of brood flocks
during fall.

Use of Vegetation Types

Spring: The grassland type, which accounted for 57 percent of
observations, received the greatest use during spring 1975. The grass-
land park and drainageway subtypes received considerable use during
this season (Table 22). The ponderosa pine-grassland type also received
considerable use during spring. The agricultural type received only
minor use which was in contrast to other years.

Summer: As during spring, the grassland type received the greatest
seasonal use accounting for 59 percent of the observations. Nearly all
of this occurred in the grassland park subtype (Table 22). The ponderosa
pine-grassland and agricultural types were also important during summer.

Fall : Use of the grassland type decreased slightly from summer,
but still received the greatest seasonal usage (Table 22). Use of the
drainageway subtype increased from summer. The agricultural type
accounted for 45 percent of fall observations, representing a marked
increase over summer. Most of this usage occurred in the cropland subtype.

-36-

Table 21. Seasonal flocking characteristics of turkeys based on 712 observations during the report
period.

Spring 1975 (121)1/ Sumner 1975 (114)
No. Fl Avg. No. Fl . Avg.

No.

Fl.

Avg.

Gobbler

6.8

Hen

2.0

Brood

„

Mixed

11.7

Courtship

4.2

80 17 4.7

1/ Sample size for a respective season.

Fall 1975 (220)
No. Fl. Ave

67 12 5.6

4 8.0 II

7 14.3
2 26.5

Winter 1975-76 (241)
No. Fl. Avg.

71
21

149

11
2

6.5
10.5

8 18.6

Table 22. Seasonal use of vegetation types by turkeys as determined from 712 observations during
the report period.

Vegetation Type

Grassland Type:
Grassland Park Subtype
Drainageway Subtype
Burn Subtype

Spring 1975
(137)1/

371/
20

Summer 1975
(114)

Fall 1975
(220)

31
20

Winter 1975-75
(241)

2
1

TOTAL

co
I

Agricultural
Cropland

Hay Meadows

Type

4
2

TOTAL

Sagebrush-Grassland Type:
Silver Sagebrush-Grassland Subtype
Big Sagebrush-Grassland Subtype

TOTAL

17
4

42
3

54
17

Deciduous Shrub Type:

Skunkbush Subtype

Snowberry Subtype

TOTAL

Ponderosa Pine-Grassland Type:
Ponderosa Pine-Bunchgrass Subtype
Ponderosa Pine-Juniper Subtype

31
2

TOTAL

Ponderosa Pine Type:
Feedlots and Farms:

]J Sample size for a respective season
2/ Percent of seasonal observations.

(

Table 21. Seasonal flocking characteristics of turkeys based on 712 observations during the report
period.

Spring 1975 (121)1/ Summer 1975 (114)

No. FT ~ Avg.

No.
75

Fl.

Avg.

Gobbler

6.8

Hen

2.0

Brood

Mixed

11.7

Courtship

4.2

80 17 4.7

8.0

Fall 1975 (220) Winter 1975-76 (241)
No. Fl. Avg. No. Fl. Avg.

67 12 5.6

100
53

14.3
26.5

71
21

6.5
10.5

149 8 18.6

]J Sample size for a respective season.

co
i

Table 22. Seasonal use of vegetation types
the report period.

by turkeys as determined from 712 observations during

Vegetation Type

Grassland Type:
Grassland Park Subtype
Drainageway Subtype
Burn Subtype

TOTAL

Agricultural Type:

Cropland

Hay Meadows
TOTAL

Spring 1975
(137)1/

371/
20

Sagebrush-Grassland Type:
Silver Sagebrush-Grassland Subtype
Big Sagebrush-Grassland Subtype

4
2

Summer 1975
(114)

Fall 1975
(220)

31
20

42
3

Winter 1975-76
(241)

2
1

54
17

TOTAL

Deciduous Shrub Type:

Skunkbush Subtype

Snowberry Subtype

TOTAL

Ponderosa Pine-Grassland Type:
Ponderosa Pine-Bunchgrass Subtype
Ponderosa Pine- Juniper Subtype

TOTAL

Ponderosa Pine Type:
Feedlots and Farms:

31
2

1/ Sample size for a respective season,
2/ Percent of seasonal observations.

(

Winter: During winter 1975-76 the agricultural type received the
greatest use, accounting for 71 percent of the observations. This
pattern was in contrast to that of the previous winter (Dusek and
McCann 1975) when most of the observed use occurred in the ponderosa
pine-grassland type. Use of farmsteads and feedlots by turkeys during
winter 1975-76 was minor (Table 22).

Relation to Timber

During spring, summer and fall of 1975, two-thirds or more of the
turkeys observed occurred within 0-100 feet of the nearest stand of
timber (Table 23). All observations were within 300 feet of the
nearest stand of timber during spring and summer. Only during winter
were turkeys observed at a distance from timber of greater than 600
feet. Throughout the report period the proportion of turkeys observed
at distances greater than 100 feet increased as use of the agricultural
type increased.

Use of Slopes

Seasonal use by turkeys of the six classes of topographical
features appears in Table 24. More than 75 percent of the observations
occurred on flatlands during all seasons except summer (Table 25).
Coulee bottoms and plateaus accounted for the greatest use of flatlands
during spring and fall, while creek bottoms received the heaviest use
during winter. The greatest use of sidehills by turkeys occurred
during summer. Turkeys were not observed on steep slopes during the
report period.

Fall Foods

Turkeys are omnivorous feeders and demonstrate distinct food pref-
erences (Edminster 1954). Animal foods eaten by turkeys include a variety
of arthropods, while plant material includes mainly fruits and seeds with
some minor use of leaves (Martin et at. 1951).

Crop contents were examined from two turkeys killed by hunters during
fall 1975 (Table 26). The most abundant item used was barley seeds
(Eovdeum vulgar <e) , but occurred in only one sample. Seeds from prairie
coneflower (Ratibida oolwmifera) were abundant in both samples. Fruits
from shrubs included those from wild rose, skunkbush sumac (Rhus trilobata)
and snowberry. Animal matter in the diet consisted of insects and in-
cluded grasshoppers (Orthoptera) and beetles (Coleoptera). These findings
are similar to those of Jonas (1966) in the Long Pines. The absence of
ponderosa pine seeds in the two crops may indicate poor pine mast produc-
tion in the Bull Mountains during 1975, since that item, when available,
was found to be preferred by turkeys during the study in the Long Pines.
This might explain the heavy use of the agricultural type during fall
and winter of this report period.

•39-

Table 23. Occurrence of turkeys at various distances from the nearest
stand of timber as determined from 712 observations during
the report period.

Spring 1975

Summer 1975

Fall 1975

Winter 1975-76

Distance Class

(137)1/
642/

(114)

(220)
70

(241)

0-100 ft.

100-300 ft.

300-600 ft.

Over 600 ft.

1/ Sample size for a respective season,
2/ Percent of seasonal observations

Table 24. Seasonal use of the various topographical features by turkeys
as determined from 712 observations during the report period.

Coulee

Creek

Coulee

Season

Sideh-

Bottom

Ridge

Plateau Head

Spring 1975 (137)1/

11 2/

30 13

Summer 1975 (114)

23 11

Fall 1975 (220)

Winter 1975-76 (241)

y Sample size for a respective season,
2/ Percent of seasonal observations.

Table 25. Seasonal use of gradients by turkeys during the report
period.

Spring 1975 Summer 1975 Fall 1975 Winter 1975-76

Gradient (137)1/ (114) (220) (220)

Flat?/ 761/ 55 go 80

Gentle (0-15°) 24 39 2 17

Medium (16-30°) - 5 8 3
Steep (31-450) -

Sample size for a respective season.

Includes coulee and creek bottoms, ridges and plateaus.

Percent of seasonal observations.

■40-

Table 26. Fall foods of turkeys as determined from analysis of crops
from two hunter-killed turkeys.

October 1975
Taxa 2 Crops

Shrubs: ,

Rhus trilobata 50/ 41/

Rosa spp. 50/ 9

Symphorioarpos spp. 100/ 2

Total Shrubs 100/15

Forbs:

Carnelina dentata 50/ 1

Ratibida eolwmifeva 100/17

Tragopogon dubius 50/ 2

Total Forbs 100/20

Grasses:

Hordeum vulgave 50/43

Unidentified Grasses 50/ 1

Total Grasses 50/44

Insects:

Orthoptera 50/15

Coleoptera 50/ 4

Total Insects 50/19

1/ Frequency (percent occurrence among crop samples )/Percent of diet.

Population Characteristics

Twenty- three broods, including 108 poults, were observed from
August through early October 1975. The average brood size, or poults/
adult hen, was 4.7 (Table 27). The number of poults/adult was .8.
Except during winter, the number of males occurring in seasonal observa-
tions exceeded females. For this reason the poult: adult ratio may have
been underestimated.

Table 27

Population characteristics of turkeys
August-October based on 251 observatii

during the period
)ns.

Period
Covered

August-
October

No. No. Avg.Br. Adults
Broods Young Size M F Total

1975 23 108 4.7 120 23 143

Young: Young:
Adult F. Adult

4.7 .8

•41-

Other Game Species

Antelope

Only during spring and summer were antelope ( Antilocapra amerioana)
distributed throughout the entire study area. During fall and winter
they occurred primarily in portions of the study area lying in northern
Yellowstone County and at the west end of southern Musselshell County in
the vicinity of Dewey Creek. Such areas are characterized by extensive
stands of big sagebrush-grassland whereas big sagebrush is rare throughout
much of southern Musselshell County. Results from studies in central and
southeastern Montana indicated big sagebrush to be the mainstay of the
winter diet of antelope (Bayless 1969 and Freeman 1971).

Portions of hunting districts 540 and 550 occur within the study
area. During July 1975, 121 antelope were classified in hunting district
540. Fawn:doe and fawn:adult ratios were 23:100 and 19:100, respectively,
and compared closely with those from the previous year (Dusek and McCann
1975).

White- tailed Deer

White- tailed deer (Odocoileus vivginiana) were observed primarily in
the deciduous tree/shrub and agricultural areas associated with the
Musselshell River floodplain which is typical of whitetail habitat in
eastern Montana (Allen 1971). They were occasionally observed in the
Bull Mountains ecosystem just adjacent to the floodplain. Several sightings
were also made in a portion of the Hawk Creek drainage approximately 20
miles south of the river. Observations of white-tailed deer in the study
area were not numerous enough to provide meaningful range use and popula-
tion data.

Sharp-tailed Grouse

Sharp- tailed grouse (Pedioeoetes phasianellus) were rarely sighted
in the Bull Mountains during the report period, or, for that matter, since
initiation of the study. Optimum sharptail habitat includes open and
brushy areas and not the forest proper (Edminster Op. ait.). The absence
of a deciduous tree/shrub habitat type in the Bull Mountains may serve
as a limiting factor. Intensive grazing may also be limiting, since
standing grasses provide shelter and night roosting sites for sharptails
(Brown 1971).

Revegetation Studies

The purpose of this phase was to monitor development of vegetational
cover on areas that were recently mined, graded and reseeded to assess
their value as wildlife habitat. Included are two areas: Consol 's test
pit and the Square Deal Mine (Figure 1). The two areas affect 12 and 7
acres, respectively.

-42-

Consol 's Test Pit

Mining and grading of the site (Figure 9) were completed during 1971
and the entire area was seeded during May 1972. Approximately half of
the disturbed area was reworked, refertilized and reseeded where the
initial seeding attempt had failed (Consol pers. cornm.) during November

1974. This included the entire portion of the south spoils ridge covered
with shale, the level portion and steep south exposure of the north spoils
ridge covered with the sandstone-shale mixture, and the south exposure

of the north spoils ridge covered with sandstone (Figure 9). The steep
slopes were mulched with straw and covered with netting. Vegetational
analysis sites affected are those circled in Figure 9. During late April

1975, 2,500 ponderosa pine seedlings were planted by hand on the reworked
steep slopes. By early fall 1975 no live seedlings were observed.

Vegetational Analysis

Vegetational cover was evaluated during early July 1975. This was
facilitated by a canopy coverage method (Daubenmire 1959) whereby 20 2x5
decimeter plots were sampled along a 100-foot transect line at each of
19 permanent sites (Figure 9). Lines were placed parallel to the contour
where practicable and the site marker was used as a midpoint. Seven
coverage classes were used to estimate the percent of bare ground, litter
and canopy coverage of vegetation by forage class and species. Unless
otherwise noted, trends observed during 1975 were similar to those of
previous years (Dusek and McCann 1973, 1974 and 1975).

Soil Mixture

The following analysis compares data by soil mixture, regardless
of slope or exposure. Data for 1975 appear in Table 28.

Topsoiled portions exhibited the greatest canopy of grasses and
residual vegetation and the smallest percentage of bare ground of all
soil mixtures (Table 28). The canopy of grasses increased on all soil
mixtures from 1974 to 1975, but the greatest increase occurred on sand-
stone-shale and shale portions. This was attributed to the reseeding and
mulching work done during fall 1974 on those sites.

Crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatwn) was by far the most
abundant grass on both topsoil and sandstone sites, but the greatest
increase in canopy from 1974 to 1975 occurred on topsoil. Orchard grass
(Dactylis glomerata) and ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) were the most
abundant grasses on sandstone-shale sites, whereas smooth brome (Bromus
inevmis) was the most abundant on shale sites (Table 28).

Topsoil sites exhibited the least canopy of forbs of all soil
mixtures (Table 28) which was in contrast to data from previous years.
The canopy of yellow sweetclover (Melilotus officinalis) increased from
1974 to 1975 on all soil mixtures and accounted for the bulk of the forb
canopy on topsoil and sandstone sites. Russian thistle (Salsola kali)

-43-

Table 28. Constancy, canopy coverage and frequency of low-growing
vegetation on various types of soil on spoils material as
determined by examination of 20 2x5 decimeter plots on each
of 19 sites at Consol's test pit.

Soil

Sandstone

Topsoil

Sandstone

& Shale

Shale

Taxa

7 Sites

3 Sites

2 Sites

GRASSES:

99-/

Agropyron cristatum*

100/63/

100/26/

67/ 8/

100/ 6/ 22

Agropyron elongata*

71/ 3/

100/ 7/

100/ 2/

50/ 4/ 22

Agropyron smith-Li*

57/ 1/

?!/

86/ 1/

100/ 3/

100/ 1/ 20

Agropyron spicatwn

14/tr/

Agropyron s pp . *

14/tr/

100/ 1/

67/ 5/

100/ 2/ 75

Bromus inermis *

100/16/

100/14/

100/ 8/

100/ 9/ 52

Bromus tec torum

100/ 8/

100/10/

100/ 5/

100/ 3/ 27

Dactylis glomerata*

43/ 4/

86/ 4/

100/10/

50/ 1/ 2

Lolium multiflorurn*

14/tr/

57/tr/

67/ 9/

Poa eompressa*

86/ 1/

43/tr/

67/ 1/

100/ 2/ 15

Sporobolis airoides*

29/tr/

33/tr/

50/ 1/ 7

Stipa viridula*

57/tr/

14/tr/

Triticum spp. *

33/ 1/

50/ 2/ 25

Unidentified Grasses

14/tr/ 1
100/86/100

29/tr/
100/55/

1
99

TOTAL GRASSES

100/45/

100/25/ 97

FORBS :

Achillea millefolium

14/tr/

Artemisia frigida

29/tr/

Artemisia ludoviciana

14/tr/

As tragalus S pp . *

43/tr/

14/tr/

Atriplex spp.*

14/ 1/

43/ 1/

33/ 1/

50/tr/ 2

CHENOPODIACEAE

33/tr/

Cirsium arvense

14/tr/

CMJCIFERAE

29/ 1/

14/tr/

67/tr/

100/ 1/ 15

Kochia scoparia

29/tr/

33/tr/

100/36/ 95

Lactuca serriola.

14/tr/

50/ 1/ 7

Me li to tus officinalis *

100/17/

100/12/

100/ 7/

100/ 4/ 55

Salsola kali

57/ 8/

67/13/

100/15/ 50

Taraxicwn officinale

43/tr/
100/22/

3
84

TOTAL FORBS

100/19/

100/20/

100/55/100

TREES AND SHRUBS:

Pinus ponder osa[ 1 i ve )

14/tr/

33/tr/

Pinus ponderosai dead)

14/tr/

Symphoricarpos spp.

43/tr/
43/tr/

2
2

" TOTAL SHRUBS

14/tr/

33/tr/

Bare Ground

100/12/

100/47/

100/50/100

100/34/ 92

Rock

100/ 4/

100/24/

100/15/

100/ 6/ 77

Lying Litter

100/69/

100/33/

100/25/100

100/28/ 67

Standing Litter

86/26/

100/20/

33/ 3/

50/ 1/ 7

\j t-uiib lchilj v 1-"=' <-cii l ullui [tiin-t ainuiiy i> i Le;> j / ucuiu|jy Luvcr ay1

area covered)/frequency (percent occurrence among plots).
2/ tr - trace (a value less than .5 percent).
* Included in the seed mixture used at the test pit.

-44-

(

AREA:

A SPOILS RIDGES

B PIT AREA

C HIGHWALL

TRANSECT LOCATION
ELEVATION IN FEET

SOILS:

TOPSOIL

SANDSTONE

SANDSTONE-SHALE
SHALE

TION COAL COMPANY'S
TEST PIT

Figure 9. Map of Consol's test pit showing respective areas, soil mixtures and location of 19
permanent vegetational analysis sites.

an annual, was the most abundant forb on sandstone-shale sites. On shale
sites, where forbs were the dominant forage class, summer cypress (Koohia
saoparia) was the most abundant forb, followed by Russian thistle.
Saltbush (Atriplex sppj occurred on more sites and in a greater percent
of the plots on sandstone and sandstone-shale than on other soil mixtures.

Ponderosa pine seedlings occurring in plots on sandstone and sandstone-
shale sites resulted from the planting during April 1975. Snowberry, a
native shrub, occurred only on topsoiled sites.

Gradient

When the 1975 data were evaluated by gradient, regardless of soil
mixture or exposure, sites varying from 2.5:1 to 3:1 (medium) exhibited
the greatest canopy of grasses and residual vegetation, whereas sites
varying from 1.25:1 to 2:1 (steep) exhibited the lowest (Table 29). Crested
wheatgrass was the most abundant grass on all classes of gradient, followed
by smooth brome. Ryegrass exhibited a decrease in canopy on steep slopes
from 1974 to 1975.

Yellow sweetclover was by far the most abundant forb on medium and
nearly level gradients. Russian thistle and summer cypress, both annuals,
were the most abundant forbs on steep slopes. Saltbush was abundant on
medium slopes.

Exposure

Slopes having a northerly exposure exhibited a greater canopy of
grasses and residual vegetation and a lesser canopy of forbs than did
southerly exposures (Table 30). Both yellow sweetclover and Russian thistle
were more abundant on southerly exposures than on northerly exposures. All
of this perhaps reflects more xeric conditions on southerly exposures
resulting from longer periods of direct sunlight throughout the year.

Use by Wildlife

Mule deer were the only game species known to have used the disturbed
site to any extent since it was seeded during 1972. Deer were not actually
observed within the enclosure during the report period, although tracks and
pellet groups indicated their presence. Yellow sweetclover, an important
item in the summer diet of deer, was abundant on the site during summer 1975,
although not as abundant as it was during summer 1973. During winter 1975-76,
saltbushes which occurred primarily on sandstone and sandstone-shale sites
appeared to be the major item on the disturbed site used by mule deer.
Nearly all the annual leader growth was utilized on some plants. During
late January and February 1976 there was no evidence of deer using the site
following fresh snowfall, suggesting that the area may not have been used
by deer during late winter. Little or no evidence of deer was observed on
topsoiled sites.

-46-

Table 29. Constancy, canopy coverage, and frequency of low-growing

vegetation on various classes of gradient on spoils material
as determined by examination of 20 2x5 decimeter plots on
each of 19 sites at Consol 's test pit.

Slope

1 .25:1-2

!:1

2.5:1-3:

Nearly Level

Taxa

6 Site<

7 Sites

6 Sites

GRASSES:

Agropyron cristatum*

83/14/

481/

100/47/

100/41/ 77

Agropyron elongata*

83/ 2/

71/ 6/

100/ 5/ 20

Agropyron srnithii*

100/ 1/

57/ 1/

83/ 2/ 23

Agropyron spicatum

17/tr/

Agropyron spp. *

67/ 3/

71/ 1/

50/ 1/ 14

Bromus inermis*

100/10/

100/19/

100/ 9/ 53

Bromus teotorvm

100/ 11

100/12/

100/ 3/ 18

Dactylis glomerata*

100/ 6/

43/tr/

67/ 8/ 33

Lolium multiflorwn*

67/ 3/

14/tr/

33/ 1/ 12

Poa compressa*

67/ 1/

57/tr/

83/ 1/ 11

Sporobolis airoides*

33/ 1/

14/tr/

17/tr/ 1

Stipa viridula*

43/tr/

33/ tr/ 2

Triticum spp. *

33/ 1/

Unidentified Grasses

17/tr/

29/tr/

17/tr/ 2

TOTAL GRASSES

100/44/

100/76/100

100/62/100

FORBS:

Achillea millefolium

17/tr/ 1

Artemisia frigida

17/tr/

17/tr/ 2

Artemisia lucoviciana

14/tr/

As traga lus S p p . *

14/tr/

50/ 1/ 2

A triplex spp.*

17/tr/

43/ 2/

33/tr/ 2

CHENOPODIACEAE

17/tr/ 1

Cirsium arvense

14/tr/

CRUCIFERAE

67/ 1/

14/tr/

33/tr/ 3

Koohia sooparia

33/ 9/

50/ 4/ 17

Lactuca serriola

17/tr/

29/tr/

Melilotus officinalis*

100/ 6/

100/15/

100/16/ 90

Salsola kali

50/13/

29/tr/

50/ 7/ 28

Taraxicum officinale

17/tr/
100/29/

1
75

29/tr/
100/18/

2
91

TOTAL FORBS

100/26/ 97

TREES AND SHRUBS:

Pinus ponderosa (live)

33/ tr/

Pinua ponderosa (dead)

17/tr/

Symphoricarpos spp.

14/tr/
14/tr/

1
1

33/tr/ 2

TOTAL

33/ tr/

33/tr/ 2

Bare Ground

100/45/

100/27/

100/29/ 85

Rock

100/21/

100/14/

100/ 5/ 45

Lying Litter

100/30/

100/54/

100/47/ 86

Standing Litter

83/ 6/

86/25/

67/20/ 54

]_/ Constancy (percent occurrence among sites)/canopy coverage (percent

of area covered)/frequency (percent occurrence among plots)
2/ tr - trace (a value less than .5 percent).
* Included in the seed mixture used at the test pit.

-47-

Table 30. Constancy, canopy coverage, and frequency of low-growing
vegetation on northerly and southerly exposures on spoils
material as determined by examination of 20 2x5 decimeter
plots on each of 14 sites at Consol's test pit.

Exposure

Taxa

GRASSES:

Agropyron oris tectum*
Agropyron elongata*
Agropyron smithii*
Agropyron spicatum
Agropyron spp.
Brornus inermis *
Bromus teotorum
Dccc ty lis glomevata*
Lolium multiflorum*
Poa compressa*
Sporobolis airoides*
Stipa viridula*
Tritioum Spp. *
Unidentified Grasses
TOTAL GRASSES

FORBS:

Achillea millefolium
Artemisia frigida
Artemisia lueoviciana
As traga lus spp.*
Atriplex spp. *
CHENOPODIACEAE
Cirsium arvense
CRUCIFERAE
Kochia scoparia
Laetuaa serriola
Me I ilo bus officinalis *
Salsola kali
Taraxicwn officinale
TOTAL FORBS

TREES AND SHRUBS:

Pinus ponderosa (live)
Pinus ponderosa (dead)
Symphoricarpos spp.

TOTAL SHRUBS AND TREES

Norther

Southerly

8 Site;

6 Sites

100/34/

8ll/

83/30/ 62

75/ 4/

100/ 5/ 28

75/ 1/

100/ 1/ 19

17/tr/ ll>

50/ 1/

67/ 3/ 18

100/17/

100/11/ 57

100/14/

100/ 3/ 29

62/ 6/

100/ 3/ 18

25/ 3/

50/ tr/ 2

87/ 1/

33/tr/ 5

25/tr/

1 7/tr/ 1

25/ tr/

17/tr/ 1

12/ 1/

17/ 1/ 6

25/tr/

17/tr/ 1

100/73/

100/49/ 97

17/tr/ 1

17/tr/ 2

25/tr/

17/tr/ 1

12/tr/

33/ 1/ 3

12/tr/

50/ 1/ 9

12/ 11

17/tr/ 2

12/tr/

17/tr/ 1

100/ 9/

100/15/ 84

12/ 1/

67/13/ 40

37/tr/

2
76

100/18/

100/30/ 98

33/tr/ 2

17/tr/ 1

25/tr/

25/tr/ 2

33/tr/ 2

Bare Ground 100/21/ 82 100/48/ 97

Rock 100/14/ 56 100/19/ 87

Lying Litter 100/59/ 97 100/30/ 96

Standing Litter 100/27/ 78 83/12/ 52

V Constancy (percent occurrence among sites)/canopy coverage (percent

of area covered)/frequency (percent occurrence among plots).
2/ tr - trace (a value less than .5 percent).
* Included in the seed mixture used at test pit.

•48-

Square Deal Mine

This site, a gentle southerly exposure, was seeded during the late
winter-early spring period of 1974. A layer of topsoil had been placed
over the spoils prior to seeding.

Vegetational Analysis

Vegetational cover was evaluated during July 1975 at each of three
permanent sites: one at the bottom of the slope, one at mid-slope and
one near the top. Each was evaluated by a canopy coverage method des-
cribed previously. Data from the three sites were averaged and appear
in Table 31.

Forbs and grasses exhibited a canopy of 58 and 46 percent, res-
pectively, during 1975. The canopy of both forage classes more than
doubled over the previous year (Table 31). Yellow sweetclover was by far
the most abundant forb. The canopy of annual forbs, which included
Russian thistle as well as other members of the goosefoot family
(CHENOPODIACEAE), decreased from 1974 to 1975. Western wheatgrass and
unidentified wheatgrasses showed a marked increase in canopy from 1974 to
1975 (Table 31). Both green needlegrass (Stipa viridula) and needle-
and-thread (S. oomata) occurred in plots on this disturbed site for the
first time during 1975.

■49-

Table 31. Constancy, canopy coverage and frequency of low-growing

vegetation on a gently sloping southeast exposure as determined

by examination of 20 2x5 decimeter plots on each of three sites
at the Square Deal Mine.

Taxa

GRASSES:

Agropyron smithii
Agropyron spp.
Stipa comata
Stipa viridula
TOTAL GRASSES

3 Topsoiled Sites

July 1974

100/13/921/
100/10/ 73

100/20/100

July 1975

100/24/100
100/14/ 67
67/ 2/ 7
100/ 3/ 27
100/46/100

F0RBS:

Atrip lex spp.
CHEN0P0DIACEAE
Kochia sooparia
Lappula red.owsk.ii
Mediaago sativa
Melilotus officinalis
Salsola kali
Unidentified Forbs
TOTAL FORBS

Bare Ground

Rock

Lying Litter

Standing Litter

67/ 1/ 12
100/ 4/ 17

33/tr/ 2

33/ 4/23

100/ 8/ 77

100/ 9/ 23

67/tr/ 5

100/24/ 98

100/81/100
100/ 2/ 12

100/ 5/ 28
67/ 1/ 7
33/tr/ 2£/

100/52/ 93
100/ 3/ 30

100/58/100

100/54/100
100/ 2/ 22
100/16/ 97
100/ 5/ 57

]_/ Constancy (percent occurrence among sites)/canopy coverage (percent

of area covered) /frequency (percent occurrence among plots).
2/ tr - trace (a value less than .5 percent).

■50-

SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION

1. Seasonal use by mule deer of the grassland and agricultural types,
combined, varied from 58 to 84 percent throughout the report period with
these extremes occurring during winter and fall, respectively. All sub-
types within the two types received considerable use. The ponderosa pine-
grassland type received its greatest use during winter and summer which
was confined to the ponderosa pine-bunchgrass subtype almost exclusively.
The sagebrush-grassland type received considerably less use during winter
1975-76 than during previous winters. Differences in relative use of
vegetation types between years appeared related to climatological differences
Relative use of the various topographical features appeared related to
preferences for vegetation types. Since most observations were made when
deer were active and feeding, it was assumed that these seasonal patterns
were related to changes in preference for forage.

Mule deer fawn production has been comparatively poor since the study
was initiated during 1972. Production during this report period was no
exception. Evaluation of winter browse species during previous years did
not indicate heavy use of silver sagebrush and skunkbush sumac, important
winter browse species. Rubber rabbitbrush showed extremely heavy use during
the past 3 years, but this species is not widely distributed in the Bull
Mountains. As compared to elk, mule deer have rather limited mobility and
are less able to avoid unfavorable habitat conditions. This may partially
explain low fawn production.

2. The grassland type received considerable use by elk throughout the
report period, but was by far the most important type during spring and
winter. Except during fall, the grassland park subtype accounted for nearly
all of the use within this type. The agricultural type was important
during summer and fall, but received no observed use during winter. The
heavy use of that type by elk during summer may have resulted from such
areas being devoid of livestock during that period. The ponderosa pine-
grassland type received considerable use during summer, fall and winter.
Over 90 percent of the elk observed throughout the report period, except
during fall, occurred within 300 feet of the nearest stand of timber, perhaps

-51-

reflecting the importance of timber as escape cover. As with mule deer,
the relative use of topographical features was related to seasonal
preferences for vegetation types.

Elk exhibited considerable mobility, moving an average of 6 miles
from summer to winter home ranges. Home ranges were larger during winter
than during summer. Livestock appeared to be a major factor influencing
distribution of elk within their seasonal herd ranges. The mobility of
cow elk perhaps allowed them to seek out the most favorable habitat con-
ditions. Evaluation of fall food habits suggested that elk forage among
a wider range of vegetation than do mule deer. The major difference was
reflected by the greater amount of grass in the fall diet of elk. This
would perhaps allow elk to be more adaptive in their feeding habits than
deer. This mobility and adaptability may account for the good calf
production of elk.

3. Over 50 percent of the seasonal use of vegetation types by
turkeys occurred on the grassland type during spring, summer and fall
of this report period. The grassland park and drainageway subtypes
accounted for all of the use in that type. Use of the agricultural type
increased throughout the report period and accounted for the greatest use
among types during winter 1975-76. The ponderosa pine-grassland received
considerable use during all seasons except fall. Except during winter,
nearly all observations of turkeys occurred within 300 feet of the nearest
stand of timber, reflecting the importance of timber as escape cover.
Seasonal use of topographical features also reflected seasonal preferences
for vegetation types.

4. The study area provided primarily spring and summer habitat for
antelope. During winter antelope were observed on the margins of the study
area where big sagebrush was abundant.

The Bull Mountains ecosystem appeared to provide only marginal habitat
for white-tailed deer and sharp- tailed grouse. One important limiting
factor may be the lack of suitable deciduous tree/shrub cover in the
drainages.

5. During 1975 at Consol's test pit, grasses exhibited an increase
in canopy over previous years, with crested wheatgrass showing the most
marked increase, followed by smooth brome. The forb cover appeared inversely
related to that of grasses when data were evaluated by soil mixture,
gradient and exposure. The canopy of yellow sweetclover increased from

1974 but did not occur in the abundance observed during 1973, especially
on topsoiled sites. As the canopy of grasses continues to increase while
that of forbs decreases, the habitat value, as it concerns mule deer, will
perhaps decrease also. Systematic grazing by livestock may reverse this
trend.

6. At the square Deal Mine, forbs were the most abundant forage
class during 1975. Yellow sweetclover was the most abundant forb as well
as the most abundant single species on the disturbed area. The relative

-52-

abundance of grasses and forbs during 1975 was similar to that exhibited
on topsoiled portions of Consol's test pit during summer 1973. The two
summers represented the second growing season following seeding on the
respective areas. Western wheatgrass and green needlegrass, important
range grasses in the Bull Mountains, were more abundant at the Square
Deal Mine during summer 1975 than they were at Consol's test pit during
summer 1973. Crested wheatgrass was not used in the seed mixture at the
Square Deal Mine.

LITERATURE CITED

Allen, E. 1971. White-tailed deer. Game management in Montana. Mussehl
and Howell, ed. Mont. Dept. of Fish & Game. pp. 69-79.

Bayless, S. R. 1969. Winter food habits, range use and home range of
antelope in Montana. J. Wildl. Manage. 33(3) :538-551.

Brown, R. L. Sharptailed grouse. Game management in Montana. Mussehl and
Howell, ed. Mont. Dept. of Fish & Game. pp. 129-133.

Compton, H. 0. 1975. Upland game bird survey and inventory, Region 5.
Prog. rept. No. W-130-R-6, Job No. 1 1-5. 22 pp.

Dasman, R. F. and R. D. Taber. 1956. Behavior of Columbian black-tailed
deer with reference to population ecology. J. Mamm. 37(2) : 1 43-1 64.

Daubenmire, R. F. 1959. A canopy coverage method of vegetational
analysis. N. W. Sci. 33(l):43-64.

Dice, L. R. 1952. Natural communities. Univ. Mich. Press, Ann Arbor.
547 pp.

Dusek, G. L. and S. A. McCann. 1973. Bull Mountains coal field study.
Mont. Dept. of Fish & Game & Consolidation Coal Co., Prog. rept.
53 pp.

1974. Bull Mountains coal field study. Mont. Dept. of Fish

& Game & Consolidation Coal Co., Prog. rept. 76 pp.

1975. Bull Mountains coal field study. Mont. Dept. of Fish

& Game & Consolidation Coal Co., Prog. rept. 85 pp.

Edminster, F. C. 1954. American game birds of field and forest. Castle
Books, New York. 490 pp.

Greene, R. and R. Ellis. 1971. Merriam's turkey. Game management in
Montana. Mussehl and Howell, ed. Montana Dept. of Fish & Game,
pp. 167-173.

Freeman, J. S. 1971. Pronghorn range use and relation to livestock in
southeastern Montana. M.S. Thesis, MSU, Bozeman. 45 pp.

Hayne, D. W. 1949. Calculation of size of home range. J. Mamm. 30:1-18.

■53-

Jonas, R. 1966. Merriam's turkey in southeastern Montana. Mont. Dept.
of Fish & Game. Tech. Bull. No. 3. 36 pp.

Knowles, C. J. 1975. Range relationships of mule deer, elk and cattle
in a rest-rotation grazing system during summer and fall. M.S.
Thesis, MSU, Bozeman. Ill pp.

Komberec, T. J. 1976. Range relationships of mule deer, elk and cattle
in a rest-rotation grazing system during winter and spring. M.S.
Thesis. MSU, Bozeman. 79 pp.

Mackie, R. J. 1970. Range ecology and relationships of mule deer, elk

and cattle in the Missouri River Breaks. Wildl. Monog. No. 20. 77 pp.

Martinka, C . J. 1969. Population ecology of summer resident elk in
Jackson Hole, Wyoming. J. Wildl. Manage. 33(3) :465-481.

Martin, A. C. , H. S. Zim and A. L. Nelson. 1951. American wildlife

and plants— a guide to wildlife food habits. Dover Press, New York.
500 pp.

Mohr, C. 0. 1947. Table of equivalent populations of North American
small mammals. American Midi. Nat. 37:223-249.

Robinette, W. L. 1966. Mule deer home range and dispersal in Utah.
J. Wildl. Manage. 30(2) : 335-349.

U. S. Dept. of Comm. 1972-76. Climatological data with comparative data
for Roundup, Montana.

■54-

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