Full text of "Butterflies and moths (British)"

See other formats

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

(BRITISH)

JUH 2 3 1987

OUT- DOOR WORLD LIBRARY.

THE OUT-DOOE WORLD ; or, Yoixng Collec-
tor's Handbook. By W. Furneaux, F.R.G.S. \Y\th 18
Plates, 16 of which are coloured, and 549 Illustrations in
the Text. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6J.

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS (British).

By W. FUBNEAUX, F.R.G.S. With 12 coloured Plates ami
241 Illustrations in the Text. 10s. 6(7. net.

To be followed by

BRITISH BIRDS. By W. H. Hudson, F.Z.S.

With a Chapter on Structure and Classification by Frank
E. Beddard, F.R.S.

LIFE IN PONDS AND STREAI\IS. By

W. Furneaux, F.R.G.S.

BRITISH MAMMALS AND REPTILES.

AND OTHER VOLUMES.

London : LONGMANS, GREEN, it CO.

New York : 15 East le"- Street.

Plate I

Danitlsson <5- Co., tiel. ad. Xaf. (t ChremoHOt.

'^'SUTTERFLIES

AND MOTHS

;bkitish)

W. FUENEAUX, F.E.G.S.

AUTHOR OF 'J HE OUT-DOUU WOULD, OH YOU.VG CoLLECTOK'S HANDBOOK

WITH TWELVE COLOURED

AND NUMEROUS ILLUSTRAT

U JAN 27 1938 ^

LONDON
LONGMANS, GEE EN, AND CO.

AND NEW YORK 15 EAST 1(5"' STREET

1894

All rights resfri-eJ

PREFACE

The favourable reception with which the ' Out-door World '
has been greeted has encouraged the publishers to issue
a series of volumes dealing in fuller detail Avith the various
branches of Natural History treated of in that work.
Necessarily each subject was only briefly touched upon, but
the study is of so enticing a character that ' appetite grows
by feeding,' and the students of the ' Out-door World,'
having tasted the sweetness of companionship with Nature,
will not rest satisfied with the help afforded by that handbook.
Each one will want to go deeper into that particular depart-
ment which most appeals to his own inclinations.

The present volume is written expressly for those who
desire to extend their knowledge of the British Lepidoptera,
or, to use the more popular names, ' Butterflies and Moths.'

The general characteristics of this interesting order of
insects are described somewhat fully, but, of course, it would
be impossible to give an individual account of all the British
Lepidoptera in a work of this size, so a selection has been
made such as will satisfy the requirements of the great ma-
jority of those who intend to take up tliis particular branch

vi P BE FACE

of entomology. The number of British Butterflies, however, is
so iiiiiited that a place has been found for a figure and a de-
scription of every species ; and, of the larger moths, many
of the common and typical kinds have been included. An
introduction to the study of the Micro-lepidoptera has also
been added.

No trouble has been spared to render this work thoroughly
practical. In addition to the verbal descriptions of so many
species, twelve coloured plates and a large number of wood-
cuts have been specially prepared to help the student in his
work. It is believed that the extreme care with which these
have been produced will render them of the greatest assist-
ance to the collector in the recognition of his specimens.

But he has not only to recognise his specimens-- he nmst
first catch them ; and here full directions have been given to
insure success in this part of his work, as well as in the
management, preservation, and arrangement of his captures.

The Author hopes that this volume may be the means of
adding many happy hours — hours of the purest enjoyment —
to the lives of those whom he has succeeded in luring into
the fields and lanes and woods of the Out-door World.

CONTENTS

PART I

STBUCTUBE AND LIFE HIS TOBY OF THE
LEPIDOPTEBA

CHAV. PAGE

I. GENIiKAL CHARACTERS 1

II. THE EGG ........... 16

III. THE LAKVA 22

IV. THE rUI'A OK CHRYSALIS ........ 40

V. CL.1SSIFICATI0X 01' THE LEPIDOl'TEKA 55

PART II

WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

VI. CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS . . . . . . 6.3

VII COLLECTING OVA, LARV^, AND PUP.E 08

VIII. REARING LEPIDOPTERA 112

IX. SETTING AND PRESERVING 122

X. PRESERVING OVA, LARVAE AND PVPM 130

XI. THE CABINET - ARRANGEMENT OF SPECIMENS .... 134

PART III

BBITISH BUTTEBFLIES

XII. THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE ' WHITES ' . . .

XIII. THE FRITILL.ARIES, VANESSAS, AND THE PURPLE EMPEROR

XIV. THE SROWNS AND HEATHS

XV. THE HAIRSTREAKS, COPPERS AND BLUES

SVI. THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY AND THE SKIPPERS .

130

154
173
183
196

Viii CONTENTS

PART IV

COMMON BlUTISH MOTHS

CllAV. PAGE

XVII. SPHINGES 203

XVIII. BOMBYCES 217

XIX. THE NOCTU.-E ......... '239

XX. GEOMETB.E .......... 268

XXI. THE JIICKO-LEl'IDOPTEKA 290

APPENDICES

I. COMPLETE CLAS8IEIE1) LIST OF BRITISH MACltO LEPIDOrTEBA . 309

II. THE LEPIDOPTERISt's CALENDAR . . . . . . 326

References to Coloured Plates ....... 347

Index ............ 351

LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS

COLOUBED PLATES

1-7. British Butterflies

8. Lauv.e and Pup.-f; of Buitisu Buttekflies

9. Sphinges ......

10. eombyces ..... . -

11. Noctu.e I

12. NOCTUA AND GeoMETK.E . . . . '

Full references accompany the Flutes.

Frontispiece
. At end

ILLUSTBATIOXS IN THE TEXT

FIG. I'AGE

1. Scales fbom the Wings of Butterflies .... 1

2. Pobtion of the Wing of a Buttebfly fbom which some of

THE Scales have been eemoved . . . . . 2

o. Body of a Buttekfly — Under Side .... 8

4. Section of the Eye of an Insect . . . . 4

.5. Antenn.e of Buttebflies ...... 5

G. Antenn.e of Moths . . . . . . . 5

7. Section of the Pboboscis of a Butterfly . . .7

8. Di.iGBAM of the Wings of a Buttebfly . . . . 9

9. The Undeveloped Fore Leg of a Butterfly . . .10

10. The Foub Stages of the L.uige White Butterfly (Picria

Bra-ssicce) . . ■ ■ ■ ■ . . 14

11. Egg of the Me^vdow Bbown Butterfly . . . .20

12. Egg of the Speckled Wood Butterfly . . . . 20

13. Egg of the Vapoubeb Moth . . . . .20
' 14. The Caterpill.vr of the Clouded Yellow Butterfly . . 22

1.5. The C'.vterpill.vr of the D.uik Green Fritill.vby Butterfly 23

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

84.
35.
oG.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.

r<o.
r,i.

5'2.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.

The C.nEHPiLL.ui of the Purple E:\ii'ekok Butterfly . . 24

An Ichneumon Fly {Cryptus Migratur) . . . .25

Another Ichneumon Fly {Pimpla Instigator) . . . 25
The C.vtebpill.\b of the Angle Sh.^des Moth {Metieulosa) . 26

W.\LKiNG Leg of a C.4.terpillak . . . . . 28

L.\RVA OF the Yellow Underwing Moth (Prouuba) . . 28

L.uivA OF the Crimson Speckled Moth (P.idchellu) . . 28

Larva of the Lobster Moth {Fagi) . . . .28

Catebpill.vr of the Iron Prominent Moth [Droinedariun) . 29

Larva of the Brimstone Moth (Luteolata) . ■ .29

The Claspers of a Caterpillar . . . . . 80

The Homes of Leaf Miners and Leaf Piollebs . . 33

The Cocoon of the Emperor Moth . . . . . 40

The Cocoon of the Six-Spotted Burnet [Filipendulcc) . 40

The Pupa of the Prfv^et Hawk (Ligustri) . . . • 14
The Chrysalis of the Large White Buttebfly {Bnisstcu} . 44

The Pupa of the Dabk Gbeen Fbitill.vby (Aglaia) . . 45
The Pupa of the Black-veined White Butterfly (Crufcrgi) 45

The Pupa of the Cubbant Moth . . . . . 45

Pupa of the Pale Tussock Moth {Padibnuila) . . . 45

A Butterfly, just after Emerginc; . . . . . 50

A Butterfly .\t Rest (Large Copper) . . . .57

A Moth at Best (Gothic) . . . . . . 57

A Wire Frame foe a Butterfly Net . . . .65

Stick for the Net . . . . . . . 65

The Metal Y . . . . . . . .66

P.\TTEEN for the NeT . . . . . . . 67

The Cyanide Bottle . ..... 68

Section of the L.\urel Bo.k . . . . . . 70

The Chloroform Bottle . . . . . .72

-Fittings for the Collecting Bo.x . . . . . 75

Fkame (IF Net fob Collecting Insects on Lamp

i>ows .....
A Trap for Catching Moths
Metal Joint fob Lantern and Net .

Net and Lantern for T.u<ing Moths from High Blossoms
Frame fob the Sugaring Net .
Cage for Decoy Females
A Sugar Trap ....
A Larva Glass ....

A Larva Glass ....
A Larv.v Cage .....
Section of a Setting Bo.uiD .
Sections of Setting Boards

AND Win

.OSSOMS

9()

114

115

123

LIST OF ILLUSTBATIOXS

Flrt.

62.
63.
64.
65.
60.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
70.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83
84
85.
86,

89.

90.

91.

92.

93.

94.

95.

97.

98.

99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.
107.
108.

V.\i:v.

A Butterfly ox the Setting Bo.\rd . . . . . 124

Another Method of Setting Butterflies asv Moths 12*)

A Blowpipe for L.^rv.e . . . . . . . 131

The Bath White — Under Side . . . . .147

The Clouded Yellow — Fem.\le . . . . 151

The Small Pe.\rl-bordered Fritill.\ry — Under Side . . 155

The Pearl-bordered Fritillary— Under Side . . . 150

The Queen of Spain Fritill.\ry- — Under Side . . . 157

The Dark-green Fritillary — Under Side . . . . 158

The High-brown Fritillary . . . . .159

The SIL^^;R-WASHED Fritillary- — Under Side . 100

The Greasy Fritillary— Under Side . . . IIU

The Glanville Fritill.\ry-— Under Side . . . li'.'i

The Comma — Under Side ...... 104

The Purple Emperor — Under Side . . . . 172

The Marbled White— Under Side .174

The Wood Aegus— Under Side . . . . 170

The Gr.\yling — Under Side ..... 178

The Large Heath— Under Side . . . . . 179

The Ringlet— Upper Side ...... 180

The M.vrsh Ringlet — Under Side . . . 181

The Brown HAiRSTRE.iK— Male ..... 184

The White letter H.urstreak . . 184

The Purple H.urstreak — Male ..... 180

The Green Hairstreak . . . . . . ISG

The Tailed Blue— Under Side . . . . .188

The Silver-studded Blue — Under Side . . . 189

The Common Blue — Under Side ..... 191

The Clifden Blue — Under Side . . . . . 191

The Ch.\lk-hill Blue— Under Side .... 192

The Holly Blue — Under Side . . . . . 193

The Mazarine Blue — Under Side ..... 194

The Sm.\ll Blue— Under Side . . . . . . 194

The Large Blue — Under Side ..... 195

The Silver-spotted Skipper — Under Side . . . . 201

The Death's-head H.^wk Moth ..... 205

The Larva of Atropos . . . . . . . 200

The Caterpill.^r of Euphorbi.e ..... 207

The Small Elephant Hawk Moth . . . . . 208

The Popl.\r Hawk ....... 209

The Bro.u)-bordered Bee H.vwk . . . . 212

The Hornet Clearwing of the Popl.vr .... 213

The Currant Clearwing . . . . . . 213

The Forester . . . . . . . .214

The Six-spotted Burnet . . . . . . 215

The Larva of Filipendul.e ..... 215

The Green Silver-lined . . , , . . 217

LIST OF ILLUSTBATIONS

Fill.

109. The Short-cloaked Moth

110. The MasLiN Moth

111. The Common Footh.\n

112. The L.\rva or Jacob.e.e .

113. The Scarlet Tiger .

114. The Buff Ermine

115. The White Ermine .

116. The Ghost Swift — Female

117. The Common Swift

118. The Goat Moth . .

119. The L.\rva of Ligniperda (less than half full size)

120. The Leop.\rd Moth .....

121. The L.a.rva of Pyrina (only partly grown)

122. The Brown Tail .....

123. The Gipsy— Male .....

124. The Black Abches — Male ....
12.5. The Vapourer Moth — M.^le

126. The Female Vapourer .....

127. Larva of the Vapourer Moth

128. The Drinker— Male .....

129. The Oak Hook Tip .

130. The Chinese Ch.\racter

131. The Poplar Kitten .

132. The Puss Moth .

133. The Coxcomb Prominent

134. The L.\rva of Bucephala

135. The Chocolate Tip .

136. The Peach Blossom

137. The Yellow Horned .

138. The Marbled Beauty

139. The Grey Dagger

140. The Popl.ui Grey

141. The Figure of Eight

142. The Brown-line Bright-eyt.

143. The Smoky Wainscot

144. The Common Wainscot .

145. The Bullrush .

146. The Frosted Orange

147. The Flame

148. The Light Arches

149. The Flounced Rustic

150. The Cabbage Moth

151. The Dot

152. The Eustic Shoulder-knot

153. The Marbled Minor .

154. The Mottled Rustic

155. The Turnip Moth

page

218

219

220

222

223

224

225

226

227

228

229

230

233

283

234

235

236

, 237

, 238

, 240

241

, 241

242

. 243

, 243

, 244

. 245

. 246

. 247

. 248

. 249

, 250

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

xiu

FIG.

150.

The

157.

The

158.

The

159.

The

160.

The,

101.

The

102.

The

103.

The

104.

The

105.

The

100.

The

107.

The

lOS.

The

109.

The

170.

The

171.

The

172.

The

173.

The

174.

The

175

The

170.

The

177,

■ The

178,

The

179.

The

180.

The

181.

The

182.

The

183.

The

184.

The

185.

The

180.

The

187.

The

188.

The

189.

The

190

The

191

The

192

The

193

The

194

The

195

The

190

The

197

The

198

The

199

The

200

The

201

The

Heart .and D.vkt

g.uiden d.\rt

FL.A.ME Shoulder

Lesser Brc^d Border

Lesser Yellow Underwing

Gothic

Old Lady

Common Quaker

Chestnut

PlNK-B.\RRED SaLI.OW

Dunbar

Broad -BARRED White

Angle Shades

Grev Arches

She.\rs

Bright-line Brown-eye

Early Grey .

Shark

Burnished Brass

Silver Y .

Red UNDERV,^NG

Light E.merald .

August Thorn

Peppered Moth

Willow Beauty

Large Emer.\ld

Common Emerald

Lace Border

Riband Wave

Blood- vein

Common W.we

Clouded Silver

V Moth

Common He.\th

Bordered White— M.\le

Currant Moth

Sprin(; Usher

March Moth

November Moth

Twin- SPOT Carpet

Grass Rivulet

Netted Pug

Narrow-winged Pug

Brindled Pug

Small Seraphim

Blue-bordered Carpet

PACE

251

252

253

254

2.') 5

250

257

258

259

260

261

262

263

204

260

270

. 271

, 272

, 273

, 274

, 275

270

, 270

. 277

. 278

. 279

. 280

. 281

, 282

. 282

. 283

. 284

. 285

, 285

LIST OF ILLUSTBATIONS

Fia.

page

202. The Beautiful Carpet ....

. . 286

203 The Common Carpet . . - .

. 286

204. The Silver Ground Carpet

. . 287

205. The Garden Carpet ....

. 287

206. The Yellow Shell

. . 288

207. The Small Phcenix ....

. 288

208. The Small Mallow ....

. . 289

209. The Tabby or Grease Moth

. 291

210. The Meal Moth .....

. . 292

211. The Small Magpie .....

. 292

212. The Mother-of-Pearl ....

. . 293

213. The Garden Pebble ....

. 293

214. The Beautiful China Mark

. . 294

215. Gonodactyla ......

. 295

210. Osteodactylus .....

. . 295

217. Pent.\dactyla ......

. 295

218. Hexadacty'la — Enlarged

. . 296

219. Phragmitellus— Enlarged one-half

. 297

220. Hamellus— Slightly Enlarged

. . 297

221. Tristellus. ......

. 297

222. Hortuellus .....

. 298

223. Mellonella ......

. 298

224. Xylosteana with wings closed

. . 299

225. ViRIDANA

. 300

226. Cristana — Enlarged ....

. . 800

227. Leche.\na ......

. 300

228. Pruniana ......

. 300

229. S.iLICELLA ......

. 301

230. Octomaculana— Enlarged

. . 301

231. Cirsiana — Enlarged . . . . .

. 302

232. Pomonella ......

. . 302

233. Zoegan.\— Enl.\rged . . . . .

. 302

234. Fagella ......

. . 803

235. CUPRELLA ......

. 304

236. P.^DELLUS ......

. 304

237. Nervosa — Twice Natural Size

. 304

238. Geoffrella .....

. . 305

239. Ibipennella — Enlarged . . . .

. 805

240. COMPLANELLA — ENLARGED . .

. 306

241. AuRELLA — Enlarged . , . , .

. 307

PART I

STRUCTURE AND LIFE-HISTORY
OF THE LEPIDOPTERA

CHAPTER I

GENERAL CHARACTERS

The word Lcpidoptera, which you see at the head of this page, is
the name of the order of insects to which this vohime is to be
devoted. It is formed from two Greek woi'ds, one {lejns) signif}--
ing a scale, and the other ipteron) denoting a wing; and was
apphed bj' the great natiirali^t Linnseus to the scaly-wmged insects
popularly known as Buttertlies
and Moths.

Ever^' one of vay readers
has nndonbtedly handled some
of the interesting creatures of
this group — having been led
to do so either by the extreme
beauty of their clothing, or,
perhaps, from a murderous
intent in order to protect his
own garments from the ravages

of a supposed marauder. A light mealy powder will probably have
been observed afterwards on the fingers that have touched the
victim's wings.

This powder, although it sometimes presents a beautiful glossy
surface Avhen spread over the skin, does not exhibit any definite
form or structure without a more minute exj^mination. Yet these

Fifi. 1.

-Scales feom the
Butterflies.

Wings ok

ST BUG TUBE OF THE LEPIDOPTEBA

are the scales that led the immortal naturalist to invent the some-
what long but useful term Lcijldoptcra.

The very next time the opportunity offers itself, dust off a little
of the mealy powder with a small and very soft brush on to a
strip of white paper or a slip of glass, and examine it with a
powerful lens or the low power of a compound microscope. "What
a sight you will then behold ! Each little particle of dust is a
beautifully formed scale, stamped with a number of minute
rounded projections, and often displaying the most gorgeous colours.
A great variety of designs and tmts are often exhibited by the
' dust ' from a single wing. Take, for instance, for your inspection,
scales from the wing of one of our commonest insects, the Small

Tortoiseshell Butterfly (Plate
III), and you will be surprised
at the pleasing contrasts. But
when your curiosity leads you
to deal with others in the same
manner, the varied display of
forms and colours is simply
amazing.

In order that we m&y learn
still more of the structure of
the wings of the Lepidojitera,
we will examine a portion of
one from which some of the
scales have been removed,
again bringing the lens or the
microscope into our service.
We now see that the scales
are arranged in rows with great regularity on a thin and trans-
parent membrane, which is supported by a system of branching
rays. And the membrane itself, in parts which have been laid
bare, is marked with regular rows of dots — the points at which
the scales were originally attached by means of short hollow
rods.

The framework that supports the thin membrane we have
spoken of as consisting of a system of rays, but to these the terms
veins, nerves, ncrvures, or nervnlcs are more commonly applied by
various naturalists. We cannot do bettor, however, than adhere
to the name originally used, for the structures in question do not
perform the functions of veins, though at first they contain blood,

Fig. 2. — Portion of the Wing of a
Butterfly from which some of
the scales have been removed.

GENERAL CHARACTERS

nor are they themselves parts of the nervous systems of the insects
to which they belong.

The result of our examination of the wings of buttertlies ami
moths has been to justify ihe application of the term Lcpidoptera ;
but we must now study other equally important and interestirii,'
features of the structure of these insects. First, let us note the
general form of the bodj'.

A cursory glance at this portion of the
creature's anatomy will show that it con-
sists of three distinct and well-defined
parts. In front there is the head, the size
of which is somewhat small in proportion.
Two very large ej-es make up the greater
portion of its bulk. It is remarkable, too,
that butterflies possess eyes proportion-
ately much larger than those of moths.
Now, since butterflies always fly by day,
and moths are, generally speaking, noc-
turnal insects, we might be led to suppose
that the reverse of this arrangement would
have suited the creatures better ; for a
small eye, we should think, would be able
to collect sufficient light in the daytime
to form a bright image, and a larger light-
receiving area would be necessary dm-ing
the darker hours for the same purpose.
But it is evident that the sense of vision
must depend on other conditions besides
the size of the eye ; and as these condi-
tions are not understood in relation to the
eyes of insects, any attempt at an explana-
tion would be (piite useless.

The eye of a butterfly or moth is worthy
of a closer examination, for it is a most beautiful and marvellous
structure. The outer globular transparent membrane — the cornea
— is divided into a large number of minute polygonal facets, each
one of which admits light into a small conical compartment sur-
rounded by a coloured membrane, and supplied with a flbre of the
nerve of vision (the optic nerve). Hence the ej-e is often spoken of
as com]]oun<l.

If you look closely into the eyes of various butterflies and moths

Fig. 3. — Body of a But-
terfly— Undeb Side.

1-7, segments of the abdomen ;
8, anal extremity ; a, antennis ;
b, tarsus : c, tiljia ; d. femur ;
p, palpi ; /, head ; (j, tliorax.

4 STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTERA

yon v.'ill generally see a ground colour of grey, blue, brown, or
black ; but when viewed at certain angles in a strong light the
most gorgeous hues of metallic brilliancy— gold, copper, and bronze
—are to be observed. All such coloiu-s are due to the reflection of
light from the colouring matter that lies between the numerous
conical compartments.

A glance at the section of a compound eye will show
you that all the little cones radiate from a common centre.
And, as each little compartment is surrounded by opatiue
colouring matter, it is clear that perpendicular rays only are
capable of penetrating to its base and exciting the nerve fibre that
lies there. Thus each little division of a compound eye forms its
own image of the object that happens to be exactly opposite its
facet. But how many facets do we find in a single eye ? Some-
times only a few hundreds, but some-
times as many as seventeen or eighteen
thousand ! We must not, however,
conclude that the nature of the vision
of butterflies and moths is necessarily
very different from our own. We have
two eyes, but the images formed by them
are both blended, so that we do not see
double. We can imderstand, therefore.
Fig. 4.- Section of the ^^^^^ ^^^^ thousands of images formed in
Eye of an Insect. a single eye may be blended together so

as to form one continuous picture. Still
there remains this difference : while in our own case the two images
formed by the two eyes are practically the same, in the case of
insects every one of the little conical tubes of a compound exe
forms an image of an object that cannot possibly be formed by any
one of the others. Thus, if the lepidopterous insect sees a continuous
picture of its surroundings, such a picture is produced by the over-
lapping and blending, at their edges, of hundreds or thousands of
distinct parts.

There is yet another interesting difference between the vision
of these insects and that of oiu'selves. As already stated, oiu- two
eyes are both tmnied toward the same point at the same time.
But look at the butterfly's eyes. Here are no movable eyeballs,
and the two e^'es, placed as they are at the sides of the head, are
always turned in opposite direc^tions. The cornese, too, are very
convex ; and consecjuently the range of vision is vastly wider than

GENE HA L CHABA CTERS

ours. A boy is often easily surprised bv a playmate who a.pproaches
him stealthily from behind, but did you ever try the same game
with a butterfly ? I have, many a time. After getting cautiously
so near to a butterfly at rest as to be able to distinguish between
its head and its hinder extremity, I have quietly circled round it so
as to approach it from behind, being at the time under the impres-
sion that it wouldn't see me under those circumstances. But not
the slightest advantage did I derive from this stratagem, for the
position and construction of its eyes enabled it to see almost all
ways at once.

In addition to the two compound eyes, the Lcpidoptera, or at
least most of them, are provided with two small simple eyes ;

IFiG. .5.— Antenn.*; of

BUTTEKFLIES.

Fig. 6. — Antenn.e of
Moths.

but these are generally so hidden among the closely set hair that
covers the head, that it is doubtful whether they are of mucli
service as organs of vision.

The antennse proceed from two points close to the upper
borders of the eyes. They are jointed organs, and are of very
different forms in the various species of Lcpidoptera. They are
generally long, slender, and clul)bed at the extremity in butterflies,
but exhibit several minor points of difference which we shall have to
note later on. In moths the antenna^ are sometimes long, slender,
and pointed. Some are thick, and more or less prismatic in form ;
while others are slightly or deeply- pectinated or comb -like. The

6 STBUCTUEE OF THE LEPIDOPTEHA

antennae of butterflies are alwaj's straight, or only slightly curved ;
and, although the insects can sway them bodily, they have no
power to bend them, or to stow them away in any place of shelter.
Moths, on the other hand, when at rest, are almost invariably found
to have their antennae snugly tucked under the wings, and brought
so closely against the side of the head for this purpose that even
the uncovered portion is often difficult to find.

There are two other prominent appendages belonging to the
heads of the Lepidoptera. These are the labial palpi or feelers of
the lips. They are generally easily seen, projecting forward on the
under side of the head, sometimes so long and conspicuous as to
give one the idea of a snout or long nose. The palpi are jointed —
usually in three parts — are covered with scales, and often furnished
with hairs or bristles.

If you watch a moth or butterfly when it is feeding on the
sweet juices of a flower, or on some kind of artificial sweet with
which you have provided it, you will observe its long trunk or _pro-
boscis, by which food is sucked up. This instrument is so long and
slender that it seems almost impossible that it can be a tube
through which a liquid freely passes. But a careful exammation
will show that this is the case. It is composed of two separate
pieces — two half tubes, which, when closely- applied to each other,
form a very thin and flexible pipe, perfectly air-tight and adapted
for suction. Sometimes you can see a butterfly or moth manipu-
lating with its proboscis as if it required readjustment in some waj'
or other. It has split the tube throughout its length, so that it now
looks like two exceedingly fine hairs. Then, after a short time, the
two halves are put together again, and immediately, as if by magic,
become a single tube in which no kind of seam is to be observed
without a powerful magnifier.

In order to observe the nature of such a wonderful arrangement
we must have recourse to the aid of a good microscojje. Thus
assisted, we can see at once how the junction of the two sides of
the proboscis is brought about so quickly and so perfectly. The
inner edges of each half arc very regularly fringed with lines of
closely set hairs— so regular, in fact, are they, that they give one
the idea of long yet minute beautifully formed combs. ^Yhen the
two jjarts are brought together, the liairs of two opposite edges
interlock, those on one side exactly filling the spaces between those
of the otlier.

Tlic microscope also reveals another interesting fact, viz. that

GENERAL CHABACTEBS

the proboscis is not a single tnbe, but, although so reniarkablv thin,
is really a set of three distinct pipes, one lying on each side of the
central one. It is said that the central tube only is used for suck-
ing up the liquid food, and there seems to be some doubt as to the
uses of the other two. Some naturalists are of opinion that the
latter are air tubes, and are connected with the respiration of the
insect; while others say that through these the insects eject a thin
watery fluid with which to dissolve or dilute those sweetmeats
that are not sufficiently liquid to be readily sucked up. But possi-
bly both these opinions are correct, the proboscis serving all three
of the purposes here named. The only observation of my own
bearing on the subject is this. While a moth was feeding on a
drop of syrup in a strong light, a powerful lens revealed drops
of liquid, mingled with bi;bbles of air, passing
alternatelj' up and down the two lateral tubes of
the proboscis. At the same time the upward
cm'rent of syrup in the central tube was by no
means steady and continuous.

AYhen this oi'gan is not in use, it is beautifully
coiled into a close spiral which lies between the
labial palpi. The length varies considerably in
different insects, and consequently the number of
tm'ns in the spiral must differ also. Sometimes
there are less than two turns, while some of the
longer ones form spirals of from six to ten turns.

In concluding our brief accoimt of the head
of lepidopterous insects it is, I suj^pose, hardly
necessary to add that there is no kind of chewing
apparatus to be described ; all the members of tliis order, at least in
the perfect state, deriving the whole of the little nourishment they
require entirely by suction through the proboscis or ' trtmk.'

The second division of the body is the tliovar. This is much
larger than the head, and consists of three ring-like segments,
joined one behind the other so intimately that the lines of junction
are hardly visible, even after the thick clothing of tine hair has been
brushed off. Behind the thorax is the abdomen, which is composed
of several segments, the junctions between the rings often being
most distinct.

From the sides of the thorax proceed the two pairs of wings, the
general structure of which we have already to a certain extent
examined. But when we are a little farther advanced in oiu:

Fig. 7.— Section

OF THE PllO-
HOSCIS OF A
BUTTEKFLY.

8 STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTERA

insect studies, we shall have to become acquainted with detailed
descriptions given as aids to the identification of species. Now,
such descriptions cannot be satisfactory, either to the one who
gives or to him who receives, unless expressed in such definite
terms as render a misunderstanding impossible. A botanist cannot
give an accurate and concise description of a flower without the use
of certain names and expressions which have gradually become an
almost necessary part of his vocabulary ; neither can an entomo-
logist give a really useful, and, at the same time, a succinct
description of an insect unless he is acquainted with the names of its
parts. Therefore, seeing that we distinguish the various species of
butterflies and moths mainly by the arrangement and colour of the
markings of their wings, it is really necessary that we should know
the names of the different parts of these oi'gans. For this reason I
have inserted drawings of a fore and of a hind wing of a butterflj-,
together with the names of the various parts of the wings, and also
the names of the principal rays or nervures. Yet I would not
advise any young entomologist to attempt to commit to memory
all the names given. Eather iise the diagram for reference when
occasion requires, more particularly when you have an insect in
your possession that you desire to study. In ordinary descriptions
of butterflies and moths the names of the nervures are not so
generally used as those of the parts of the wing. Consequently it
is exceedingly useful to know what is meant by the terms base,
costal margin, apex, hind margin, anal angle, inner margin,
discoidal cell &c. as applied to the wing.

The two pairs of wings are attached to the second and third
segments of the thorax ; but of the three pairs of legs, which we
have next to consider, one pair arises from each of the three
segments. The arrangement of these limbs is well shown in the
sketch on page 3, as are also the names of the different i^arts of
the limb, the latter being given for reference by the reader when
the need arises.

All insects, in their perfect state, we are told, have three pairs
of legs ; but if you examine the under surface of certain butterflies,
such as the Marbled "White, or any of the Vanessas, Browns, or
Heatlis, it is quite likely that you will raise objection to such a
statement ; for in these you may possibly see only four legs. But this
is the result of a too cursory observation. Look a little moi'e closely
at your specimen, and you will sec a i)air of smaller legs folded
up under the fore part of the thorax. By meims of a blunt needle

GENERAL CHARACTEBS 9

you can straighten out these hmbs, and tlien the difference in
length to be observed between them and the other four is very
striking indeed. They are also thinner than the middle and hind
legs ; and, unlike these, are not provided with claws.

Fig. 8.— I>ia(u;am of the Wixgs of a Butterfly.

I. Fore wing. — 1-5, subcostal iiervules ; 6, 7, disooidal nervules ; 8-10, mediiiii
nervules ; 11, submedian iiervure ; 12, internal nervure ; 13-15, disco-cellular
nervules ; IC, interno-median nervule ; 17, median nervure ; 18, subcostal
nervure ; a, costal nervure ; b, costa or anterior margin ; c, apex or anterior
angle ; d, posterior or hind margin ; e, posterior or anal angle ; /, interior or
inner margin ; g, base ; h. discoidal cell.

II. Hind wing. — 1, 2, subcostal nervules ; 3, discoidal nervule : 4-6, median
nervules ; 7, snbme<lian nervure : 8, precostal nervure ; 9, subcostal nervure ; l(i,
nietlian nervure; 11, 12, disco-cellular nervules; n. costal nervure: 6, costa or
anterior margin ; c, ape.K or anterior angle ; d, hind margin ; e, tail or caudal
appendage ; /, anal angle ; rj. alidominal or inner margin ; //, Iiase.

These imperfectly developed legs are, of course, quite useless as
far as walking is concerned ; indeed, it is extremely doubtful as to
whether they are of any service whatever to the owner. On one

10 STBUCTVBE OF THE LEPIDOPTEEA

occasion, however, while watching a Peacock Butterfly apparently
engaged in cleaning its divided proboscis, I observed that this organ
was frequentl}' passed under the thorax, and that the front pair of
legs were pressed against it on each side, while it was being drawn
outward between them. It is probable, therefore, that these limbs
constitute a pan- of brushes by means of which the fine grooves of
the divided trunk are cleared of any solid or sticky matter that may-
lodge therein. It is certain that moths, and those butterflies that
possess six equal legs, use the front pair for this same purpose. The
former, also, employ them for brushing their antennae, which seem
to be, by the way, particular^ sensitive to different kinds of
irritation.

It is a well-known fact that tobacco smoke has a powerful
influence on certain stnall insects ; and even though it can hardly
be regarded as a perfect all-round insecticide, it is certainly more
or less objectionable to the larger and hardier species. A short time
since, while watching a number of newly
emerged moths of the Sjihinx group, and at
the same time enjoying the solace afforded by
the luxurious weed, a puff of the smoke was

accidentally allowed to play into the box in
Fig. 9.— The Unde- , . , , e U \- ■ ■ i

VELOPED Fore Leg ^^l^^^h my pets were for the tnne miprisoned.

OF A Butterfly. Immediately they rubbed their front legs

vigorousl}' over the antennae, as if to remove

the obnoxious irritant that had thus intruded on then- presence.

Similar observations have led many naturalists to suppose that the

antennae are the seat of various senses, such as those of touch,

hearing, and smell. Seeing that insects do not, as far as we know,

possess special organs for all the five senses which we enjoy (and it

is interesting to note here that some insects certainlj'^ experience

other sensations which are quite beyond our ken), we can quite

understand the common vtendency to locate the seats of certain of

the senses in such easily affected parts as the antennae. But little,

I believe, has been definitely proved save that the antennie are

sensitive to touch and to irritants generally.

While speaking of the senses of insects, I cannot refrain from

mentioning a most remarkable example of a peculiar sensitiveness

that has been observed in certain moths of the family Bombi/ces

(page 217) —notably the Oak Eggar, the Emperor, and the Kentish

Glory. Take a newly emerged female of either of these species,

shut her up in a small box, conceal the box in yoiir pocket, and then

GENEBAL CHARACTEBS 11

walk about in some country spot known to you as being one of
the haunts of that species of moth. Then, if any of the males of
the same species happen to be in the neighbourhood, they will
settle or hover about close to the female which, although still
concealed and quite out of their reach, has attracted them to the
spot.

What a marvellously acute sense this must be, that thus enables
the insects to scent out, as it were, their mates at considerable
distances, even when doubly surrounded by a wooden box and the
material of a coat pocket ! You would naturally expect that
entomologists have turned this wonderful power to account. Many
a box has been filled with the beautiful Kentish Glories of the male
kind, who had been led into the snare by the attractions of a vii'gin
Glory that they v/ere never to behold. Many an Emperor has also
been decoyed fi'om his throne to the place of liis execution, beguiled
by the imaginary charms of an Empress on whom he was never to
cast one passing glance. And these and other similar captiures
have been made in places where, without the employment of the
innocent enchantress, perhaps not a single male could have been
found, even after the most diligent search.

Speaking of this surprising sense, I am again tempted to revert
to the antennie ; for it is a remarkable fact that the males of those
species of moths which exhibit the power of thus searching out their
mates, are just those that are also reinarkable for their very broad
and deeplj^ pectinated antennae — a fact that has led to the supposi-
tion that the power in question is located in the antennae, and is
also proportional to the amount of surface displayed by these organs.

Up to the present time we have been considering the butterfly
and moth in their perfect forms, but everybody knows that
the former is not always a butterfly, nor is the latter always a
moth ; but that they both pass through certain preparatory stages
before they attain their final winged state.

\\Q shall now notice briefl}' what these earlier stages are, leaving
the detailed descriptions of each for the following chapters.

The life of the perfect butterfly or moth is of very short
duration, often only a few days, nearly the whole of its existence
having been spent in preparing itself for the brief term to be enjoyed

in fields of light.

And where the flowers of Paradise unfold.

It may be interesting to consider of what use the metamorphoses

12 STRUCTURE OF THE LEFIDOPTEBA

of insects are, and to what extent these metamorphoses render them
fit for the work they have to do.

It is certain that the chief work of insects, taken as a whole, is
to remove from the earth the excess of animal and vegetable matter.
If they are to do this work elfectually, it is clear that they mi;st
be very voracious feeders, and also be cax)able of multiplying their
species prodigiously. Now each of these powers requires the special
development of a certain set of organs, and an abnormal develop-
ment of one set must necessarily be produced at the expense of the
other. Hence we find insects existing in two distinct stages, with
or without an intermediate ql^iescent state, during the first of which
the digestive apparatus is enormously developed, while the rejiro-
ductive organs occupy but very little space ; then, during the other
stage, the digestive apparatus is of the simplest possible de-
scription, and the organs of reproduction are in a perfect state of
development.

Allowing, then, that the chief work of the insect is the removal
of surplus organic matter, we can see that a large share of its life
should be spent in the larval or grub stage, and that the perfect
state need not occupy any more time than is necessary for the
fertilisation of the eggs that almost completely fill the body of the
female at the time of her emergence from the chrysalis shell.

Many insects undergo their metamorphoses by slow degrees,
but the Lcpidoptera, after existing for some considerable period
without any important visible change in structure, pass by a rapid
transition into the next state. Thus, a caterpillar, that has not
altered in general form for several weeks, changes into a chrysalis
within the course of a few days ; and again, after a period of quies-
cence that may extend throughout the whole of the colder months,
becomes a perfect butterfly or moth witliin twenty minutes of the
moment of its emergence.

But this suddenness is more apparent than real, as may easily be
proved by internal examinations of the insect at various stages of
growth; showing that we are led astray by the rapidity oi external
changes — the mere moultings or castings of the skin — while the
gradual transformations proceeding within are not so readily
observed.

We have already said that the life of the perfect butterfly or
moth is sliort. A few days after emergence from the chr\salis case,
the female deposits her eggs on tlie leaves or stems of the plant
that is to sustain the larvae. Her work is now accomplis-lied, and

GENEBAL CHARACTERS 13

the few days more allowed her are spent in frolicking' among tlie
flowers, and sncking the sweet juices they provide. But males
and females alike— bedecked with the most gorgeous colours and
overflowing with sportive mirth when first they take to the wing-
soon show the symptoms of a fast approaching end. Their colours
begin to fade, and the beauty-making scales of the wings gradually
disappear through friction against the petals of hundreds of flowers
visited and the merry dances with scores and scores of playful
companions. At last, one bright afternoon, while the sun is still
high in the heavens, a butterfly, more weary than usual, with heavy
and laborious flight, seeks a place of rest for the approaching
night. Here, on a waving stalk, it is soon lulled to sleep by a gentle
breeze.

Next morning, a few hours before noon, the blazing sun calls
it out for its usual frolics. But its body now seems too heavy to
be supported by the feeble and ragged wings, and, after one or two
weak attempts at pla^', incited by the approach of a younger and
merrier companion, it settles down in its final resting place. On
the following morning a dead butterfly is seen, still clinging liy its
claws to a swinging stem, from wliich it is eventually thrown during
a storm.

The tale of the perfect moth is very similar to the above, except
that it is generally summoned to activity hy the approach of
darkness.

We see, then, that butterflies and moths exhibit none of that
quality which we term parental affection. Their duty ends with
the deposition of the eggs, and the parents are dead before the
young larvae have penetrated the sheil that siu'rounds them.

Yet it is wonderful to see how unmistakably the females
generally lay their eggs on the very plants that provide the
necessary food foi their progeny, as if they were not only conscious
of and careful concerning the exact requirements of their offspring,
but also possessed such a knowledge of botanical science as
enabled them to discriminate between the plant required and all
others.

Has the perfect insect any selfish motive in this apparently
careful selection of a plant on which to lay its eggs ? Does the
female herself derive any benefit from the particular plant chosen
for this purpose ? In most cases, certainly not. For it often
happens that the blo^om of this plant is not by any means one of
those that siijiplj' the sweets which insects love, and still more

STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTERA

freqtiently does it occur that the eggs are deposited either before
the tlowers have appeared or after they have faded.

Neither can we easily impute to the insect an acfpiired know-
ledge of the nature and wants of her offspring, or an acquaint-
ance with botany sufficient to enable her to distingiush plant
forms. Our only solution of the problem (which is really no solu-
tion at all) is to attribute the
whole thing to that inexplicable
(juality which we are pleased
to term natural instinct. It
is to be observed, however, that
it is not all butterflies and
moths that display this unerr-
ing power. Some few seem to
deposit their eggs indiscrimi-
nately on all kinds of herbage.
But, I believe, the larvae of
these species are generally
grass feeders, and would sel-
dom have to travel far from
any spot without meeting with
an acceptable morsel.

But we must now pass on
to a brief consideration of the
other stages of the insect's
existence. A fter a time, vary-
ing from a few days to several
months, the j'oung caterpillars
or larvae make their appear-
ance. They soon commence
feeding in right earnest. Their
period of existence in this state
varies from a few ■\\'eeks to
several months, and even, in
some cases, to years. During this time their growth is generallj^
very rapid, and they undergo a series of moults or changes of skin,
of which we shall have more to say in a future chapter. Tlien,
when fully grown, they prepare for an apparently quiescent form,
which we speak of as the p?/^)« or chrysalis, and in wliich tliey
again spend a very variable period, extending over a few days,
weeks, or months. Now, inclosed in a protective case, each pupa

Fig. 10.— The Four Stages of the
Lakge White Butterfly (Pieris
Brassica).
a, larva ; h, pupa ; c, imago ; d, egg.

GENERAL CHAR AC TEES 15

is underjj^oing a remarkable change. Some of its old organs are
disappearing, and others are developing ; and, after all the parts of
the future insect have been developed as far as its narrow shell will
permit, it bm-sts forth into the woi'ld as a perfect insect or imago.

Its wings at first are small, shapeless, and crumpled in a most
unsightly fashion ; but it is not long before they assume their full
size, beautiful form, and gorgeous colouring. Then, in about
another hour or two, the wings, at first soft and flaccid, have
become sufficiently dry and stiff to bear their owner rapidly
through the air.

We have thus ol)served some of the more striking features in
the structi;re of the butterfly and moth in its most perfect state ;
and alluded in a very brief manner to the various stages through
which these creatures must necessarily pass before finally reaching
this stage. But now we must study these earlier stages more
closely, and watch the insects during the marvellous transitions
they are destined to undergo. This we shall do m the following
chapters.

16 STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOFTERA

CHAPTER II

THE EGG

I SUPPOSE yon are all acquainted with the general strnctnre of the
hen's egg, having dissected several, in yonr own way, many a time.

Its outer covering, which j-ou speak of as the ' shell,' yon have
observed is hard and brittle. It is composed of a calcareous or limj'
substance, known chemically as carbonate of lime. If you put
some pieces of it into an egg cup, and throw over them a little
vinegar or any other liquid acid, you will see them gradually
dissolve away, and small bubbles of carbonic acid gas will rise mto
the air. Then again, if you take a long and narrow strip of the
shell, and hold one end of it in a gas or lamp flame, after a short
time that end will become softer, and will glow brightly m the
flame, for it is converted into lime— the same substance that is
used by the builders for making their mortar—and the bright glow
is really a miniature lime light, such as is always produced when a
piece of lime is made intensely hot.

Just inside this shell yon have seen a thin membrane or skin
that is easily peeled off the substance of the egg itself. Next to
this comes the ' white ' of the egg, which is really colourless while
licpiid, but turns white and more or less solid in the cooking. Last
of all, in the centre of this, you have noticed the oval yellow mass
that is termed the ' yoke ' or ' yolk,' and which contains tlio
embi'yo of the future chick.

Now if you imagine tliis egg to be reduced in size till two or
thx-ee dozen of them would be required to form a single line about
one uach long, the outer calcareous shell to be entirely removed, the
skin or membrane to be converted into a firmer substance. of a
horny nature, and, finally, the yolk to be absent and the whole
internal space to be filled with the ' white,' you will then have some
idea of the nature of the egg of a butterfly or moth.

THE EGG 17

To put the matter more briefly, then, we will say that the eggs
of these insects are simply little liquid masses, usually of a colour-
less substance, sm'rounded by a horny and flexible covering.

Such a description may certainly give you some idea of
the nature of the eggs of insects, but no amount of book reading
will ser\ e the pm'pose so well or be so pleasant as the exami-
nation of the eggs themselves. During the summer months
very little difficulty will be experienced in finding some eggs
in your own garden. Turn over some leaves and examine their
imder sm-faces, choosing especially those plants which show, by
their partially eaten leaves, that they are favourites with the insect
world. Or you may amuse yoiu'self by catching a nundjer of butter-
flies— common ' Whites ' are as good for the purpose as axiy — and
temporarily confine them in a wooden or cardboard box, containing
a number of leaves from various plants, and covered with gauze.
In this way you are sure to obtain a few females that have not jet
laid all their eggs ; and if you watch your prisoners you will soon
see them carefully depositing the eggs on the under surfaces of
leaves, bendmg their abdomens round the edges if there is not suffi-
cient room to get themselves completely under. And then, when
you are satisfied with the number of eggs thus obtained for your
examination, you can have the pleasure of seeing all jour liberated
captives flying joyfully in the free aij'.

In giving these simple instructions I have assumed that the
reader has not yet learnt any of the characters by which female
butterflies are to be distinguished fi'om their lords and masters ; but
I hope that he will know soon, at least with regard to a good many
species, from which individuals he may most reasonably ex^ject to
obtain eggs, and so be able to avoid the imprisonment, even though
only temporary, of insects which cannot satisfy his wants.

Again, it is not necessary, after all, that biitterflies should be
captured for the purpose of obtaining eggs. Watch them as they
hover about among your flowers. Some, j-ou wiU observe, are intent
on nothing but idle frolicking ; and you may conclude at once that
these have no immediate duty to perform. Others are flying with-
out hesitation from flower to flower, gorging themselves with the
sweets of life : these are not the objects of yoiu- search. But you
will descrj' certain others, flying round about the beds and borders
with a steadier and more matronly air, taking little or no notice of
their more frivolous companions, and ]iaying not the slightest heed
to the bright nectar-produciug cups of the numerous flowers. These

18 STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTERA

are seriously engaged with family affairs onlj-. Watch one of them
carefully, and as soon as she has settled herself on a leaf, walk steadily
towards her till you are near enough to observe her movements.
She will not move unless you approach too closely, for, like busy
folk generally, she has no time to worry about petty annoyances.
You will now actually witness the deposition of the eggs exactly as
caiTied on in the perfect freedom of nature ; and the eggs them-
selves may be taken either for examination or for the rearing of the
caterpillars.

Some species of Lejndojjtera lay some hundreds of eggs, and it
is seldom that the nundjer laid by one female is much below a
hundred.

As already stated, the under surfaces of leaves are generally
chosen for the deposit of eggs, but a few of the insects we are con-
sidering always select the upper surface for this piu'pose. Thus
the Puss Moth (page 235), and two or three others resembling it,
though much smaller, known as the Kittens (page 234), invariably
lay them on the upper surface. And this is the more surprising
since the eggs of these moths are brown or black, and consequently
so conspicuous on the green leaves as to be in danger of being
sighted by the numerous enemies of insects.

The Hairstreak Butterflies (page 183) afford another exception to
the general rule, for their eggs are deposited on the barkoi the trees
and shrubs (birch, sloe, elm, oak, and bramble) on which their
larv;e feed.

At the moment each egg is laid it is covered with a h'lpiid
sticky substance, so that it is immediately glued to the leaf or stem
as soon as it is deposited. The sticky substance soon dries, causing
the egg to be so firady fastened in its place that it is often impossi-
ble to force it offwithout destroying it completely.

Some of the LejndojJtera deposit their eggs singly, or in small
irregular clusters ; but by far the larger number set them very
regularlj' side by side, in so compact a mass that it would be
impossible to place them on a smaller area without piling one on
top of another. This is not accomplished with the aid of the sight,
for the insect performing her task with such precision often hasher
head on one side of a leaf or stem while arranging her eggs on the
other. If you take the trouble to watch her, you will see that she
carefully /ceZs out a place for each egg by means of the tip of her
abdomen immediately before laying it.

The eggs are laid by motlis .and butterflies at various seasons

THE EGG 19

of the year. In sonie eases they are deposited eariy in the sjirin^',
even before the buds of the food plants have burst ; and the young
larviB, hatched a few weeks later, couimence to feed on the young
and tender leaves. Then, throughout the late spring, the whole of
the summer and autumn, and even till the winter frosts set in, the
eggs of various species are being laid.

Those deposited during the warm weather are often hatched in
a few days, but those laid toward the autiuun remain unchanged
until the following spring.

In this latter case the frosts of the most severe ^\'intcr are not
capable of destroying the vitality of the eggs. In many instances
the j)erfect insect or the larva would be killed by the temperature
of an average winter day, but the vitality of the eggs is such that
they have been subjected to a temperature, artificially produced, of
fift^f degrees below the freezing point, and even after this the \ ouiig
larvae walked out of their cradles at their appointed time just as if
nothing unusual had occurred.

Experiments have also been performed on tlie eggs with a view
of determining how far their vitality is inlluenced by high tempera-
tures. "We know that the scorching midsummer sun has no
destructive inHuence on them, but these experiments jirove that
thej' are not influenced by a temperature only twenty degrees behiw
the boiling point — actually a considerably liigher temperature than
is yiccciadri/ to properly cook a hen's egg.

Let xis now examine a number of eggs of different species, that
we maj' note some of the many variations in form and colour.

With regard to colour, we have already observed that the eggs
of a few species are black ; but uiore commonly thej- are much
lighter — pearly white, green, yellow, and grey being of fre<p:ent
occurrence.

The great variety of form, however, will provide a ^ ast amount
of enjoyment to anyone who possesses a good magnifxing lens or
a small compound microscope. Some are globular, others oval ;
while many others represent cups, basins, and domes. Then we
have miniature vases, flasks, bottles with short necks, and nume-
rous tigiu'es that must remind a juvenile admirer of the sweet
cakes and ornamental jellies that have so often gladdened his
longing eyes.

Again, the beautifully sculptured surfaces of a large number are
even more striking than their general shapes. Some are regularly
ribbed fi-om top to bottom with parallel or radiating ridges, and at

STBUCTUBE OF THE LEPlDOPTEliA

the same time marked with dehcate transverse hues. Others are
beautifull}' pitted or honeycombed, some ornamented with the
most faitliful representation of tine wicker-work, while a few are
provided with a cap, more or less ornamental, that is raised by the
young larva when about to see the world for the first time. A few
of these beautiful forms are here illustrated and named, and another
has already appeared on page 14, but an enthusiastic young
naturalist may easily secure a variety of others for his own
examination.

It maj' be surmised from the accompanying illustrations that
the form of the egg is always the same for any one species.
This is really the case, and conseqi;ently an experienced entomo-
logist can often decide on the name of the butterfly or moth that
deposited a cluster of eggs he happens to find in his rambles and
searehings ; but in such decisions he is always greatly assisted by a

Fig. 11. — Egg of
THE Meat aw
Brown Butter-
fly.

Fig. 12. — Egg of
THE Speckled
Wood Butter-
fly.

Fig. 13.— Egg of

THE VaPOUREK

Moth.

knowledge of the food plants of the various insects, and sometimes
also by the manner in which the eggs are arranged.

We have seen that the period during which the Lepidoptcra
remain in the egg stage is very variable, and depends largely on
the season in which they were laid ; but it is often possible to tell
when to expect the young larvie by certain changes which take
place in the appearance of the e^<i,. As the hornj- covering of
the egg is transparent, the gradual development of the cater-
pillar from the clear fluid can be watched to a certain extent ; but
if you have a microscope, and would like to v.itness this develop-
ment to perfection, proceed as follows.

Arrange that some butterflies and moths shall lay their eggs on
strips of glass of convenient dimensions for microscopic work — three
inches long by one wide is the usual size for this kind of work.
This is easily accomplished by placing a proper selection of female
insects in a rather small box temporarily lined with such ' slips.'
When a few eggs have thus been secm-od, all you have to do is

THE EGG 21

to examine iheni at intervals with your microscope, always using
the reflector so as to direct a strong light fJinnti/Ji the eggs
from below.

But even without such an arrangement some interesting
changes are to be observed. As a rule, the colour of the egg
turns darker as the time for the arri^■al of the infant larva ap-
proaches, and you will often be able to see a little brown or
black head moving slightly within the ' shell.' You may know-
then that the hatching is close at hand, and the movements of
the tiny creature are well worth careful watching. Soon a small
hole appears in the side of the case, and a little green or dark
cap begins to show itself. Then, with a magnifier of some kind,
you ma}' see a pair of tiny jaws, working horizontally, and not
with an up-and-down motion like our own, gradually gnawing
away at the cradle, till at last the little creature is perfectly free to
ramble in search of food.

StrangB to say, the young larva does not waste a particle of
the horny substance that must necessarily be removed in securing
its liberty, but devours it with an apparent relish. Indeed, it ajipre-
ciates the flavour of this viand so highly that it often disposes
of the whole of its little home, with the exception of the small
cii'cular patch by which it was cemented to the plant. ^Yhen the
whole brood have thus dispensed with their empty cradles, there
remains on the stem or leaf a glittering patch of little pearly
plates.

After the performance of this feat the young caterpillar starts
off in life on its own account with as much briskness and confidence
as if it had previously spent a term in the world under the same
conditions ; bi;t we must reserve an account of its doings and suf-
ferings for our next chapter.

STBUCTUBE OF THE LEPIDOPTEBA

CHAPTER III
THE LARVA

In almost every case the young caterpillav, on quitting the ' shell '
of the egg, finds itself standing on and surrounded by its natural
food, and immediately commences to do justice to the abundant
supply. It will either nibble away at the surface of the leaf, removing
the soft cellular substance, so that the leaf exhibits a number of
semi-transparent patches when held up to the light, or it will
make straight for the edge, and, closing its hori-
zontal jaws on either side, bite the leaf completely
through, and thus remove a small piece each time.
Several naturalists have amused themselves by
performing experiments and making calculations
on the etliciency of the masticating and digesting
powers of the caterpillar. The illustrious Kc'aumur,
for example, proved that some of the cabbage
eaters disposed of more than twice their own
weight of food in twenty-four hours, during which
time their weight increased one-tenth. Let us see
what this would be equivalent to in human beings :

Fig. 14. The A man weighing eleven stone would devour over

Caterpillar of three hundred pounds of food in a day, and at the
THE CLOUDEn gj^^^ q|- ^j^g^^ ^ weigh about fifteen pounds more
Yellow But- ^, , -,■-,,.•, i • • i
^^„„^^. than he did at the beginning !

TERFLl. '^ . "

So the j'oung caterpillar eats, and rests, and
grows, till, while still young, its body has become too large for the
already tightened skin. It evidently feels very uncomfortable. Its
appetite fails, and it remains for a tune perfectly quiet in one spot,
having previously spun a little carpet of silk to form a firm foot-
hold during its temporary indisposition. Its colours have also
become dingy, and anyone, not understanding the character of its

THE LABVA

growth, might easily be led to suppose that the poor creature was
displaying the earlier symptoms of a serious and perhaps fatal
illness.

But soon an encouraging symptom is observed. The caterpillar
begins to get restless. Its front segments are turned alternately
right and left, and are also made to swell out much beyond their
normal size. Then in a \ery short time — often less than a minute
from the first appearances of restlessness — the skin, which has
become somewhat dry and brittle, splits along the back over the
second, third and fourth segments, revealing a new and bright coat
beneath. The caterpillar continues its struggles and, in addition
to the previous movements, causes the swelling to move backward
along the body. This, acting like a
wedge, causes the rent in the old coat
to extend in that direction.

The caterpillar now draws its head
backward, and, with a few convulsive
struggles, pulls the front segments
out of their old skin, and passes its
head out of the rent in the back.
With its foremost segments thus
rendered perfectly free, it walks
straight out of the old garment,
which is left still fixed by the legs to
the silken carpet.

The larva, although now fresh and smart in its appearance, is
exhausted by these struggles and its prolonged fast. The new skin,
moreover, is very soft and tender, even to the cases of the head
and legs, which are normally very hard. But a short period of
rest suffices to dry its skin and sharpen its appetite, and then it
eats more vigorously than ever.

^Ye will now leave the caterpillar for a moment while we look
at its cast-off clothes. They are still clinging to a stem so firmly
that they can scarcely be removed without injury. The hard shell
that covered the head and jaws is perfect in form, and so are the
claws and cases of the legs. All the hairs or spines that happened
to adorn the previous owner still retain their positions ; and the
whole skin, although always more or less shrivelled, is sometimes
so sHghtly altered in form that it might be mistaken for a living
caterpillar if not closely examined.

But this is not all. For, according to the accounts of some

Fig. 15, — Tiik Caterpillar of
THE Dakic Green rRiTiL-
LARY Butterfly.

STBVCTVBE OF THE LEPIDOPTEBA

authoritative observers, the lining of the digestive organs, which is
really a continuation of the outer skin, is cast off (or rather cast
out) at the same time, as are also the linings of the larger breathing
tubes which are presently to be described.

We have seen that some caterpillars, on quitting their egg cases
(which may really be regarded as the first moult), make their first
meal of the old covering. 80 also some of them, in their future
moultings, exhibit an apparently useless economy (seeing that they
are surrounded by an abundance of their
natiu'al vegetable diet) by devouring their
old coats ! In the face of this fact -we can
hardly describe them as strict vegetarians.

Having thus passed through its first hard-
ship, the caterpillar has by no means seen
the end of the troubles and dangers that beset
it ; for, during its existence in the larval state,
it has to go through a series of three, four, five,
or even six moults, all of which are periods
of considerable inconvenience, and perhaps
even pain, and frecjuently prove fatal. And
it is by no means an uncommon thing to
meet with the lifeless body of an unfortunate
individual who, as shown by its shabby
appearance and the silken carpet under its
feet, has evidently fallen a ^ictim to the
dangerous process of ridding itself of an old garment.

But this is only one of the many dangers to which caterpillars
are exposed. Throughout ever3' hour of the day the sharp and
hungry eyes of the numerous insect-eating birds are searching the
leaves for such delicacies to satisfy the wants of themselves and
their broods. The lively little lizards, too, during the sunny
hours are busily engaged in searching them out among the foliage
of heaths and banks.

Very formidable enemies also exist in the form of Ichneumon
and other species of fiies, which pierce the skins of caterpillars witli
their sharp ovipositors, and lay their eggs within the bodies of
the unfortunate victims. As soon as the young larvfe are hatched
from these eggs, they commence feeding on the fatty siibstance
stored beneath the caterpillar's skin. They carefully avoid, at
first, attacking the vital organs of their host's body, and in this
way secure for themselves a more lasting supply of fresh food.

Fig. 16.— The Cater-
pillar OF THE
Purple Emperor
Butterfly.

THE LARVA

When the fattj' substance is nearly all gone, they eat their way
into the more important structures, of course steadily growing all
the time ; and so, even though the body of the caterpillar is rapidly
diminishing, the total bulli shows often no very appreciable decrease
in size. When the larvic of the flies are fully fed, they either
change to the pupa within the carcase of their host, or eat their
way out of its body and construct for themselves a cocoon in which
to undergo the transformation.

As for the caterpillar itself, it sometimes dies before the tune
for its metamorphosis has arrived ; but it often changes to the
chrj'salis before its fate is sealed. In this latter case, a number of
flies, having undergone their final transformation within the

o% ro

Fig. 17. — An Ichneumon Flt

{Cnjj)tus Migrator).

Fig. 18. — Another Ichneu-
mon Fly (Pimjjla Jjisti-
fjator).

chrysalis shell (there being but little else than shell remaining
of the victim's body), break forth from the remains of the carcase
somewhere about the time at which the buttertly or moth should
have appeared.

Caterpillars have also their noctiu'nal enemies and devourers,
among which may be mentioned frogs, toads, newts, and insect-
eatmg mainmals.

We must now learn something of the structure of caterpillars ;
and then become acquainted with their habits, and the change to
the chrysalis or pupa.

Take a caterpillar from your garden, preferably a full-grown
one of a rather lai-ge species, that is not very densely covered with
hair, and examine it carefully as we note the main points in its

20 STRUCTUBE OF THE LEPIDOPTERA

stractuve. The first point that strikes oar notice is the division of
its body into segments or rings, separated from each other by a
more or less distinct Hne or shght constriction of the body.

There are tliirteen of these segments, reckoning, as is usual, the
head as the first.

The head is usually very hard, and often of a much darker
colour than the rest of the body. It is also frequently divided into
two lobes by a couple of oblique lines, between which the parts of
the mouth are situated. The two powerful horizontal jaws, to
which we have already referred, are very hard and sharp, and
curved like a sickle, and therefore splendidly adapted for biting from
the edges of leaves. The head is also provided with a pair of
antennse, usually very short and inconspicuous and protected by a
horny covering.

Unlike the perfect insect, the caterpillar has no large compound
eyes, but twelve very small simple eyes, situated on the cheeks,

very near the mouth — six on each
side.

If you examine them with a mag-
nifier, you see that each one is pro-

-r. in rn n x,„^^t,t, ^x, vidcd witli a Small and very convex
Fig. 19. — The Caterpillak of , ,. t r

THE Angle Shades Moth lens— a lens of very s/iori^/ociis, siich
'Meticulosa). as would be used for the examination

of small objects held very near to
the eye. From this arrangement we should be inclined to con-
clude that the caterpillar can see only those objects that are
close to its mouth ; and this idea is strengthened if you place
one in a box containing a number of leaves, one of which is
that of its own food plant. It will wander about the box, appa-
rently loolcing at everv' part of every leaf it passes, after the
manner of a very short-sighted individual, and never taking a
general look round. A buttertlv or a moth can see a flower in
the distance, for it flies unhesitatingly from one to another in
the straightest and shortest path, but if you place a caterpillar
in the centre of a ring composed of a leaf of its food plant and
nine others from other plants, the chances are (nine to one) that it
will not walk towards what it would like to have.

Again, the eyes are situated on the loiver part of the check,
directed slightly downward, and are therefore adapted for seeing
what is just under its jaws as it walks along. Had we no knowledge
whatever of the caterpillar's twelve little eyes, we should probably

THE LABVA 27

have thought that it sought out its food l>y some sense other than
that of vision.

x'^nother important and interesting featiu-e of the head is the
silk-spinning apparatus, situated mider cover of the lower lip. This
consists of two tubular glands, corresponding to our own salivary
glands, the special purpose of which is to secrete a viscid fluid that
solidifies on exposure to air. The opening by which the tluid
escapes is so situated that the caterpillar can easily apply it to the
surface of any object over which it is walking, and tlien, by draw-
ing or turning away its head, cause a silken fibre to be produced.

Some caterpillars make use of this spinning apparatus only on
a few special occasions, but others, more especially some of the
smaller species, seem to have it always in T>se, so that if at any
time you suddenly start them into the air I)}' giving a smart tap to
the plant or twig on whieh the^' rest, they invariably fall slowly on
the end of a growing web, the spinning of which they stop as soon
as they consider they have fallen far enough. Sometimes, as you
are walking through a wood, you will see hundreds, nay, thou-
sands of little caterpillars thus suspended, swinging gently in the
breeze. Not long since, after only a few minutes' walk among the
trees of Epping Forest, I found I was decorated with several dozens
of these swingers with which I had come into collision — in this
case consisting chiefly of the larvte of the Green Tortrix Moth
{Tortrix viridana).

Now let us examine the caterpillar's limbs. Attached to each
of the second, third, and fourth segments is a pair of true walking
legs, corresponding with tliose of the perfect insect. These are
covered with a hard and shining substance, and are also each
jjrovided with a hook. The fifth and sixth segineiits have no lindjs
at all, nor have the ele\enth and twelfth, but some or all of the
others (seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, and thirteenth) are furnished
w ith a pair of claspers which we shall presently' describe.

First, as regards the number of claspers, it will be seen from
•what has just been said that this is not always the same. Some
caterpillars possess five pairs, thus making up the total number of
walking appendages to sixteen. In fact, we must regard this as the
usxial number. But there are at least a few hundred exceptions to
the rule. Many of the Bomhyccs (page 217), for example, have only
four pairs of claspers ; and in others of the same group the fifth
pair is present, but only partially developed, and quite iiseless for
walking.

STIWCTUBE OF THE LEPIDOPTEBA

Look at the peculiar caterpillar of the Lobster Moth (lig. 28) —
a creature tliat differs from most other caterpillars not only in its
claspers, but in many other respects too. Observe its long and
slender legs, its humped middle segments, and its upturned hinder-
most segment, of enormous size and mounted with a pair of

Fig. '21 Larva of the Yellow Under-

wiNG Moth (Promtba).

Fig. 20. — Walking Leg
of a Caterpillar.

Fig. 22. — Larva of the
Crimson Speckled
Moth (Pulchella).

Fig. 23.— Larva of the Lobster Moth

{Fagi).

clubbed 'horns.' This last segment, you will observe, has no
claspers.

Another allied caterpillar is that of the Iron Prominent ]\roth
(fig. 24). This one also has humped segments, and the claspers of
the thirteenth segment are imperfectly developed.

A large number of other exceptions to the general rule are to be
foimd in the caterpillars of the Geometer Moths (page 268), one of
which is here represented. These have generally only two pairs of

THE LABVA

claspers, one pair on each of the tenth and last segments, so that
there is a distance equal to the combined length of six segments
between the hindermost true leg and the first pair of claspers. But
even among the Geometers there are variations to be observed in
the number of claspers, and some of these will be pointed out in our
brief descriptions of the commoner species.

These limbs which we have been calling claspers are known by
several other names. Thus they are termed ' pro-legs,' ' tempo-
rary legs,' 'false legs,' and ' abdominal legs ; ' but if you watch a
caterpillar as it walks up a stalk or along the edge of a leaf,
you will certainly agree that the term ' clasper ' is everj'thing that
could be desired. But why not call them legs, seeing that they
are used in walking '? The reason is that they differ in many
respects from the three foremost pairs of
limbs as regards structure, persistency, and
function. The true legs, as we have called

Fig. 24. - C.vTEEPiLLi'vrv of
THE Ikon Proiminent
Moth [Droniedarius).

Fig. 2.T.— Larva of the Buimstone
Moth (Lutcolata).

them, continue to exist, though concealed, in the chrysalis state,
and again appear, far more perfectly developed, in the butter-
fly or moth, but the claspers are no more to be seen after the
caterpillar has passed into the quiescent stage. AYe have noticed,
too, that the true legs are pointed and clawed, also that they are pro-
tected by a hard and horny covering ; but examine a large cater-
pillar, holding it between the fingers and thumb with its under side
upjiermost, and you will soon see that the claspers are not at all hard,
but soft and fleshy ; not pointed, but often terminating in a broad
flat circular surface. You will also observe, as the creature struggles
to escape from your gi'asp, and tries to get a hold on something with
its claspers, that these limbs, if we may so call them, are retrac-
tile, and are sometimes completely drawn into the body. Finally,
examine the broad end of a clasper with a magnifier, and you will

STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTERA

see it siuTounded bj' a circle of little liooks, turning in all directions.
You will no longer wonder how it is that a caterpillar can hold so
tenaciously to a jiiece of twig that it is often aliuost impossible
to I'eniove it without injur}'.

Now put your caterpillar down, so that you may observe its gait.
If it happens to be one with the full complement of sixteen limbs,
you see that at each stride it makes but little progress. The
segments contract and relax alternately and in succession, thus
sending a series of wave-like motions along the body, and urging
onward the front segments while the claspers keep the hinder
portion firmly fixed.

But if your caterpillar is one of the Geometers, with only two,
or perhaps three, pairs of claspers, the mode of procedure is very
different. The creature stretches its body out at full length, often
raising its head high in the air, and swing-
ing its long body right and left with a most
furious motion, as if to hastily scan the
neighbourhood. Then, having satisfied
itself as to the direction of its proposed
course (which, by the way, is often changed
considerably at almost every stride), it
holds on by the true legs and pulls its
hinder (juarters forward till the body forms
almost a closed loop, with the fourth seg-
ment nearly touching the ninth. The
claspers now become the holdfasts. The
little hooks with which they are provided
are firmly fixed to the surface on which it is walking ; and the
body being again straightened out to its utmost length, the same
nianieuvre is repeated. So, you see, the insect progresses by
strides equal in length to about six segments of the body, and
these the longest segments generally ; and the rate at which the
strides succeed each other, especially in some of the smaller species,
is really astonishing.

We have seen the caterpillar in the act of taking its walk, and
now we will give it a twig of its food plant so that we may see it
feed. It walks up the twig without hesitation — for caterpillars
(excepting those which feed on roots) always seem to move upward
A\ hen in search of food — and soon finds itself on a leaf. Over this
it walks till it reaches the edge ; and, grasping the edge firmly
betvv een the claspers, so as to give perfectly free play to its l(>gs and

,— The Claspeks
Catekmllar.

THE LARVA 31

head, it stretches its body at lull length, and takes a series of bites
as it brings its liead backward in a curve. When the head has
thus been brouglit close to its fore legs, the body is again extended,
and the same ground is gone over again.

If the caterpillar is a fairly large and hardj" one, it will bite
through the smaller veins, and perhaps even the larger ones ; but
the smaller species often change their position on reaching a
moderatelj- thick vein, and so devour little else than the soft cellular
substance of the leaf. In any case, it is astonishing to see how
rapidly the leaf disappears under the influence of the powerful jaws
and marvellous digestive apparatus of the hungry grub.

Those who take a delight in watching the movements of cater-
pillars are sure to be interested in observing them when at rest ;
for at such times the various attitudes assumed are as pleasmg
and instructive as are their active moments. And these attitudes
are all the more interesting on account of the mimicry by which
the creatures often baffle their numerous enemies. We may
profitably spend a little time in studying a few cases in point.

Many species, when at rest, fix themselves by means of their
claspers to a small twig or leaf stalk, or on the midrib of the leaf
itself. Here they remain perfectly still, with their bodies perfectly
straight or with head slightly raised. I need hardly say that these
generally fix themselves on the under side of the leaves and stalks,
thus securing themselves against the attacks of the feathered foes
above. But some birds are equal to the caterpillars in this matter ;
and it is really amusing to see them hopping about beneath the
leaves in oiu* gardens, every now and again slyly turning one
eye upwavtl, and smartly plucking an unwary grub from its resting
place.

The precautions of the caterpillar, however, do not end merely
with the selection of an under surface. You will find that the
bright green species invariably settle on a leaf or a green stalk,
while the darkly coloured insects often choose a twig covered with
a brownish bark. Some even make for the trunJc of the tree on
which they feed, and here remain quite still in a vertical positi(.n,
so that they look just like a ridge in the bark, the colour of which
is faithfully imitated by their skin. Further, manj- of the cater-
pillars that resort to this stratagem have bodies that are notched
or knotted and spotted in such a manner that the resemblance to
their surroundings is so perfect as to defy any but the most
experienced eye. And even this is not all, for a number of these

32 BTRUCTUBE OF THE LEFIDOPTEBA

mimics of the insect world never venture to feed by day, but take
in their quantum of provisions during the dark liours, and practise
their deceptions throughout the day.

Most of the Geometer caterpillars, of which we have already
spoken, are well trained in the art of deception. You are out
on a caterpillar hunt, and engaged in carefully turning over the
twigs of the hazel or some other shrub, so that you may the more
readily examine the under surfaces of the leaves. At last you lay
hold of a small broken twig for this very purpose. To yoixr
astonishment it is very soft, and readily bends between your
fingers. You look more closely at this peculiar piece of stick, and
find, to your surprise, that you have grasped a looper caterpillar
that was standing out at an angle just like a broken twig,
supported by its two pairs of claspers, and coloiired and knotted
exactly like the little branch on which it rested.

At other times you meet with little green caterpillars of the
same group, supporting themselves in exactly the same maimer on
a small twig, and looking just like a leaf stalk from which the
blade had fallen or been devoured.

\Vhat a wonderful power is exhibited in the grasp of the
claspers and the tension of the muscles, enabling the caterpillar to
fix itself and retain its position for so long a time ! Imagine an
acrobat fixing himself by his hands on an upright pole, throwing
out his body at an angle, and without an}' further support retain-
ing his position motionless for several hours !

Other experiences of the larva hunter are e(|ually interesting
and, perhaps, even more tantalising. He is engaged in very
cautiously turning over the leaves of a certain food plant from
which he hopes to obtain the larva of a much-coveted species.
Then, just as his eye catches a glimpse of the very object of his
search, down falls the caterpillar, rolled up into a little ball, among
the herbage below. This latter is diligently and patiently exa-
mined. But no, the anticipated prize is nowhere to be seen.
It is probably a green one, and this adds to the difiiculty of the
patient entomologist. Then, as he carefully separates the low
herbs, hoping to find the spot where the larva had fallen, the
insect, rolled up into a compact little ball, only sinks deeper and
deeper into the maze.

Many caterpillars avoid capture in tliis manner, ^^llile others
seek to avoid detection by remaining perfectly motionless, even
when roughly handled. They allow themselves to drop from their

THE LARVA

resting place on the slightest sign of danger, and, when the alarm
is over and all is quiet again, they ascend the food plant and
resiime their position.

Some caterpihars not only rest, bnt even feed mider cover,
quite secure from most, if not all, of tiieir enemies. Several of
them feed on roots, and many a farmer can relate sad experiences
of the havoc committed by these caterpillars on his turnips and
other crops. Then there are those which feed on flowers and buds,
completely burying themselves in the dense mass of food.

FiCr. 27. — The Homes of Leaf Mixers and Leaf Eollees.

We must conclude this brief account of resting and hiding
places and attitudes of caterpillars by a few observations on the
leaf miners and leaf rollers.

The former are very small caterpillars —the larvas of certain
small moths — that eat burrows into leaves without doing any con-
siderable injury to the outer epidermis, and thus prepare a safe
resting place within the substance of their food.

The latter, also mostly of small size, make themselves secure
by curling a leaf or a portion of a leaf into a cylinder, and holding
it in position by means of a number of silken threads.

If you examine a leaf thus curled you will soon be convinced

34 STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTEBA

that a considerable number of the extremely delicate threads must
be necessary to hold it in position ; but, if you would like to know
how a very small and feeble caterpillar can manage to roll up a
comparatively large and rigid leaf, you must watch the little crea-
ture at its work.

You need have but little difficulty in finding a willing worker,
for such caterpillars are extremely numerous. Take a few out of
their self-made homes, place them on a sprig of the food plant,
and you will soon have the pleasure of seeing one start its extra-
ordinary work.

At first it spins a number of threads stretching from the edge of
a leaf to about the middle of the surface. These threads are not
tight by any means, and the leaf is, as yet, unchanged in position.
But now the little mechanic exhibits a tact that almost seems to
prove a knowledge of the principles of its art. Each thread in turn
is pulled at right angles at its middle, and then fastened by means
of the creature's spinneret. Each time this is done the edge of
the leaf is bent round a. tittle ; and when at last the cylinder is
completed, a number of other threads are stretched across from the
scroll to the flat part of the leaf to secure it firmly in its place.

Many caterpillars are solitary in their habits : that is, they are
always found singly, whether walking, resting, or feeding. But a
large number of species are gregarious, living in dense clusters
either throughout their larval state or, perhaps, only while young.
In many such cases it is difficult or even impossible to find any
reason for this gregarious tendency — to discover any advantage
that the insects may derive from the habit. Many species, how-
ever, are true co-operators in the defence of their communities.
The caterpillars of such live in clusters, sometimes several scores
in each, and all help in the spinning of a complicated mass of silk
fibres, which, with the leaves and twigs they join together, form a
safe home in which they can rest, feed, or change to the chrysalis
state. In early summer hundreds of such caterpillar ' nests ' are
to be seen in many of our hawthorn and other hedgerows.

Before closing our general account of the caterpillar we must
have a word to say about the breathing appai'atus, more especially
as in our future descriptions we shall freijuently have to mention
the colours and markings which surround the openings in its body
through which the air supply is admitted.

If you examine the sides of the segments of a caterpillar, using
a lens if the insect is a small one, you will observe some little

THE LARVA

round holes, often inclosed in a ring or a patch of some prominent
colour. These are the sx>iracles or openings of a series of air tubes
called trachece. These latter divide and subdivide within the body
of the caterpillar, the branches of one often uniting with those of
another, thus forming a really complicated arrangement of air pipes
by which the supply of oxygen is distributed.

A microscopic examination of a portion of one of the tracheae
will show that its walls are supported by an elastic spiral of a firm
substance. This arrangement serves to keep the air passages open,
and seciu'es for the caterpillar a free supply of air at times when a
contraction of the segments would otherwise cause the tubes to
collapse.

There are nine spiracles on each side of the caterpillar's body,
and never more than one in the side of the same segment. The
head, which we have been regarding as the first segment, has no
spiracles. The second segment has a pair — one on each side.
There are none in the third and fourth ; but all the segments, from
the fifth to the twelfth inclusive, have each a pair ; the last
(thirteenth) segment has none.

"We have already observed the general arrangement of the cater-
pillar's limbs ; but perhaps it may be interesting and even con-
venient to the reader to give here a little table that will show at a
glance the disposition of both limbs and spiracles.

First seRment— head.

Second

Third

Fourth

Fifth

Sixth

Seventh

Eighth

Ninth

Tenth

Eleventh

Twelfth

Thirteenth

Two short antennse, two jaws,

and twelve eyes.
Legs and spiracles.
Legs only.
Legs only.
Spiracles only.
Spiracles only.
Spiracles, and sometimes

claspers.
Spiracles, and sometimes

claspers.
Si^iracles, and generally

claspers.
Spiracles only.
Spiracles only.
Claspers only, and these

occasionally absent.

36 STEUCTUBE OF THE LEPIDOPTEBA

^Ye must now watch the caterpillar through its later clays, to
see how it prepares for pasFing into the pupal stage, and to
witness the various interesting clianges that take place at this
period.

When fully grown, it ceases to eat, and begins to wander about
in search of a convenient spot for the coming event. Its coloiu's
fade, and the body becomes appreciably smaller, especially in length,
as it ejects the whole contents of its digestive apparatus. Accord-
ing to some accounts, it even evacuates the lining of the intestines
with their contents.

A great variety of situations are chosen by the different species
at this time. Some will fix themselves on their own food plant,
and there remain till they finally emerge in the perfect state,
suspending themselves from a silken carpet, hiding themselves
in a rolled leaf, or constructing a cocoon of some kind. A large
number walk down the food plants, and undergo their changes
in moss that happens to lie at the foot ; or construct a cocoon
on the surface of the ground, utilising for the purpose any decayed
leaves, fragments of vegetable matter, or pieces of earth or small
stones. Many seek a further protection than this, and burrow
into the soil, where they either lie in a little oval cell that they pre-
pare, or in a cocoon constructed by spinning together some particles
of earth. Again, there are those caterpillars, chiefly of butterflies
that frequent our gardens, which find their way to the nearest wall
or fence, and there secure themselves in a sheltered nook. We
will watch a few of these varied methods of procedure, taking as
our first instance the caterpillar of the connnon Large White or
Cabbage Butterfly.

When fully fed, this larva seeks out a sheltered spot, generally
selecting the under surface of some object, or of the ledge of a
wall or fence. Sometimes it will not even leave its food plant,
though it generally walks some considerable distance before a suit-
able shelter is found. Having satisfied itself as to the site of the
temporary abode, it sets to work at spinning a silken carpet. At
first the threads spread over a rather wide area, and seem to be
laid in a somewhat irregular and aimless manner ; but after a little
time its labours are concentrated on one small spot, where it spins
several layers of silk fibres.

This done, it fixes the little liooks of tlie claspers firmly in its
carpet bed, and then proceeds with a highly interesting movement.
It is not satisfied with only the one mode of suspension. In fact,

THE LABVA 37

this alone would hardly be safe, for when it casts its skin, as it is
shortly about to do, its claspers will all disappear ; and although it
afterwards secures itself by the ' tail,' it would be dangling in such
a manner as to swing with every breeze —a very unsatisfactory
state of affairs, especially with those that pupate late in the sunnner
and x'emain in the pupal state throughout the winter storms.

Its next procedure, then, is to make a strong silk band round the
middle of its body, so as to keep it close to the surface against which
it rests. But how is this to be done ? It bends its head roiuid till
the spinning organ can be applied to a point close beside the middle
of its body. Here it fixes one end of a thread ; and then, gradually
twisting its body, brings its head round to the other side, still keep-
ing it close to the same segment, and fastens the other end of the
thread exactly opposite the point at which it started.

The head is now brought back to its former position, thus
adding another thread to the band ; and the process is repeated
several times, till at last tlie caterpillar is satisfied with the thick-
ness and strength of the cord formed.

Now it straightens out its body as if to rest from its labours ;
but the work is not yet complete. Soon it exhibits much restless-
ness. Its foremost segments are seen to shorten, and consequently
become thicker. Then the skin splits, and the last moult of the
caterpillar commences. The movements that follow are exactly
similar to those we have already described in connection with one
of the earlier moults : the alternate and successive contractions of
all the segments gradually force back the old coat, and this is
finally thrown entirely off by a somewhat vigorous wriggling of the
' tail.'

Then, for a moment, the creatiu'e is supported only by its silken
cord. But this lasts oiihj for a moment. For, as soon as it is
quite free from the old garment, it applies its tail to the densest
part of the carpet it had prepared at the start, and secures its hinder
extremity by means of little hooks.

But what a change has now come over the creature ! It is no
longer a caterpillar. Its head is no longer distinct, although wo
can readily make out the positions of the eyes. Its mouth and
jaws have quite disappeared, and the legs and claspers are apparently
gone. The three segments that bore the legs are no longer distinctly
separable, thoiigh in reality they still exist. The head and thorax
are peculiarly shaped ; and, instead of being cylindrical, are angled
and ridged ; but, beneath the soft greenish skin— the new garment —

88 ST BUG TUBE OF THE LEPIDOPTEBA

we can discern the outline of a pair of small wings, and see a
proboscis and a pair of long antennae. Also the six long legs of the
future butterfly can be traced with care.

The abdomen is conical in form, coming to a sharp point at
the end, and its segments are quite distinct.

No stranger to the metamorphoses of insects would connect
the present form with that of a caterpillar ; they are so very
unlike. And yet the time occupied in the whole change, from the
spinning of the carpet, does not occupy more than about thirty or
thirty -five hours.

The apparent suddenness of this change is really sm'prising, but
in reality the transformation is not nearly so sudden as it appears.
Dissection of a caterpillar a few days before the final moult is due
will show that the changes are already going on. In fact, a
simple removal of the skin will prove that the organs of the
future butterfly are developing. Still, in proportion to the short
time occupied, the change is extremely great ; and it may reason-
ably be inquired. Why so great a change within so short a space of
time ? — why is not the change continued steadily and equally
tlurough the larval existence ? The reason has already been hinted
at. Caterpillars are living eating machines, whose oflSce is to
remove excess of vegetable matter. Consequently they must have
their jaws and bulky digestive apparatus in full development to the
end. If these organs were to graduaJly disappear as the caterpillar
reaches its non- eating stages, it would simjaly be starved to death.
So the change from the larval to the pupal state, which we may
regard as the final moult of the caterpillar, is a far greater change
than any of the preceding ones, and occupies a proportionately
longer time, although it is principally confined to the last few days
of the caterpillar life.

A number of caterpillars, and especially those of the butterflies,
suspend themselves when about to change ; and the peculiarities of
the modes adopted must be left for our descriptions of species in a
future chapter ; but we will find room here for one more interesting
example, taking this time the larva of one of the connuonest of the
Vanessas (page 166) — the Small Tortoiseshell Butterfly.

The caterpillars of this insect are gregarious when young ; and
if ever you meet with one, you are almost sure to be able to obtain
a hundred or so without much searching. But as they grow older
they feed singly, yet generally without straymg very far from their
birthplace.

THE LARVA 39

When full ^'own they sometimes stray to a nei,£;hboniing plant
or fence to undergo the change to a chrysalis, but more commonly
they are perfectly satisfied with the protection afforded by the leaves
of their food plant. We will now watch one of these as we did the
larva of the Large White Butterfly.

Of course the under side of the leaf is chosen. Here a silken
carpet is spun as before described ; but the caterpillar, instead of
clinging with all its claspers, suspends itself in a vertical position
by its hindermost pair only.

Here it hangs, head downwards, awaiting the coming events.
The splitting and casting of the skin goes on just as in the case of
the Large White, but there is this puzzle to be solved : how
can the insect shufHe itself out of its old coat without falling to the
ground, leaving the cast-off garments still hanging by the hooks
of the claspers ? This really seems a matter of impossibility, since
the little hooks which alone suspend the insect are thrown off with
the skin of the claspers.

The thing is managed in this way. As the skin slowly splits
through the wrigglings of the apparently' uncomfortable occupant,
it is gradually pushed backward — that is, upward — till it is in a
shrivelled condition, and the body of the insect is nearly free. But
the chrysalis thus brought to light is provided with little hooks on
the end of its ' tail ' by which it can attach itself to the irregularities
of the crumpled coat. Its conical abdomen is also very flexible,
and it can, by bending this, seize hold of a ridge in the skin,
holding it between the segments. Thus, although practically quite
fi-ee from the old garb, it never falls to the ground.

There is now, however, another point to be attended to. The
newly formed chrysalis desires to be entnely independent of its
cast-off skin, and to suspend itself directly from the silky carpet it
has prepared. To this end it works steadily for a time, alternately
bending its supple abdomen fr'om side to side, gripping the folds of
the skin between the segments, pulling its body a little higher at
each movement, and securing itself at each step by the little hooks
at its extremity.

So it climbs, and at last it reaches the network of silk fibres, and
thrusts the tip of its abdomen among them till some of the hooks
have taken hold. Not satisfied with this, it turns its body round
and round to get the little hooks so entangled between the silk
fibres that a fall is impossible, and in so doing it freijuently pushes
the old skin out of its place so that it falls to the ground.

ST BUG TUBE OF THE LEPIDOPTEBA

Alchough the caterpillars of this species do not show any great
gregarious tendency when nearly full fed, yet it is not an un-
common thing to find several hanging from the under surface of
one leaf, all being attached to the one common carpet at which all
had worked. And when bred in confinement, a number will often
spin in company in a corner of their cage. I have thus obtained a
cluster of thirty-seven pupie, all hanging by the ' tails ' to the
same mass of silk, which was so small that they formed quite a
compact mass of beings with their tails close
together.

We have seen that the Large White Butter-
fly makes itself secure by a silk band round its
middle, while the ' Tortoiseshell ' is fixed only
by its tail. But the extra provision for the safety
of the former is not so necessary in the case of
the latter, as it never spends more than two or

Fig. 28.— The Cocoon of the Fig. 29.— The Cocoon

Emperor Moth. of the Six-spotted

Bdenet {Filipendidai).

three weeks in the pupal state. Here it is the perfect insect that
braves the winter, and not the chrysalis.

There is a great variety in the means taken by the caterpillars
of moths to protect themselves during their metamorphoses, but we
shall have space for only a few illustrations.

A clever cocoon is spun by the larva of the Emperor Moth
(Pavonia). It is pear-shaped, and composed of a brownish sillv ;
and is so constructed that the newly emerged moth can easily walk
out of the small end without breaking a fibre, while the entiy of an
insect enemy from without is impossible.

This is managed as follows. A number of rather stifl" threads
are made to project from the small end of the cocoon, and these
converge as they pass outward so that the ends are all near

THE LARVA 41

together. The other portions of the cocoon are of compact silk,
and anj' insect intruder that ventiu'es to enter b^' what we may
ahnost term the open end is met by a number of spikes, as it were,
that play on it at every attempt. Many of these wonderful cocoons
may be found during the winter months attached to the food plants
of this insect.

Of the silken cocoons spun by various caterpillars some are so
thin and light that the chrysalis can easily be seen through them,
and others are so densely woven as to be quite opaque. A
great difference is also to be observed in the adhesive power of the
silk fibres. In some cases little threads of silk can be pulled off
the cocoon ; but some of them, that of the Oak Eggar (page 229) for
example, look as if they had been constructed of paper rather than
of silk, because, at the time of spinning, the moist silk fibres stuck
so closely together.

An extreme case of this character is to be met with in the
cocoon of the Puss Moth (page 235) ; for here the fluid from the
spinneret of the caterpillar does not harden at once on exposm'e to
air, and so the threads become thoroughly united together, thus
forming a solid gluey cocoon.

When the Puss caterpillar is about to change, it descends the
tree (poplar, willow, or sallow) till it is within a few feet of the
ground. Then it commences gnawing away at the bark, at the
same time cementmg all the pieces together with the gluey sub-
stance from its spinning glands. In this way it surrounds itself
with a very hard cocoon, which so closely resembles the surround-
ing bark in coloiu" that detection is difficult indeed.

But how will the caterpillar proceed if it is removed from its
native tree and has no bark to gnaw ? That you can easily answer
for yourself, or rather Puss will answer it for you. Go and search
among the poplars, willows and sallows in the month of July. You
may possiblj^ come across a caterpillar that is just in the act of
creeping down the bark in search of a resting ])lace ; but if not you
may be successful in obtaining a few either by examining the twigs,
or you may start them from their hiding places by smartly tapping
the smaller branches with a strong stick.

Having secured one or more larvae, take them home, and they
will give some rather novel performances. If they are not fully
grown, you nmst supply them with fresh leaves every day till they
refuse to eat ; and then is the time for your experiments. Shut one
in a little wooden box, and vou will have the pleasure of watching it

42 STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTEBA

construct a cocoon of chips of wood that it has bitten ont with its
powerful jaws, all joined together into a hard shell by means of
transparent glne. Shut another Puss in a glass vessel — a tumbler,
for instance — either by placing it under the inverted vessel, or by
covering over the top. Perhaps it will not be superfluous to men-
tion that, should you place it under an inverted vessel, this vessel
should not stand on a polished table, for, whatever be the material,
unless extremeljj hard, it is sure to be utilised in the manufacture
of the cocoon.

Let us suppose, then, that the caterpillar is under an inverted
tumbler that stands on a plate or saucer. Now it is for you to
decide what material shall be used in the construction of the new
home. Give Puss some fine strips of brightly coloured ribbon,
and it will construct a very gaudy house by gluing them together.
Or, provide it with sawdust, pieces of rag, glass beads, sand, paper,
anj-tliing in fact ; and the material will be ' made up ' into a
cocoon more or less ornamental according to the nature of the supply.

But what if you give it nothing with which to work, and so
inclose it that nothing its jaws can pierce is within its reach ?
For instance, shut it in with tumbler and saucer as before, invert-
ing the former on the latter, and give it no material whatever.
What will it do now ? We will watch and see.

At first it is very restless, and walks round and round the edge
of the tumbler, evidently a little dissatisfied with the prospects.
Then, after a little while, the events of nature transpiring in their
fixed order regardless of trivial mishaps, the glutinous fluid begins
to flow from the creature's spinning glands, and it moves about in
a somewhat aimless fashion, applying the traiisparent adhesive
matter both to tumbler and saucer.

It seems now to become a little raore reconciled to its unnatural
surroundings ; and, making the best of bad matters, keeps itg
body in one place, and starts the construction of a ridge or barrier
all round itself. By the continued application of the creature's
spinneret this barrier is made gradually thicker and higher, till at
last tlie overhanging sides meet and the caterpillar is inclosed in
its self-constructed prison. But the walls of this prison are so
transparent that every movement can be watched ; and, after the
insect has spent a few days in completing the cocoon, we can see
it cast off its old skin, and appear in the new garb of a fine
greenish chrysalis.

Its soft "reen skin soon hardens and turns to a rich dark brown

THE LARVA 43

colour, and it settles down for a long rest lasting till the following
May or June,

When the whole operation of building is completed, lift up the
tumbler, and up will come the saucer too. The two are firmly
glued together by the substance secreted; and tlie power of this as
a cementing material will be well illustrated if you eiideavoxu" bj^
mere pulling force to separate the two articles.

The Puss is not the only caterpillar that works up a foreign
material with the contents of the spinning organs. There are
several others, in fact, that use for this purpose fragments of wood
or other parts of the food plants ; and a still larger number bind
together lea\es, fresh or dead, or particles of earth or other matter.
Several such cocoons will be described in our accounts of
individual species in another chapter. We shall now devote a
little space to a few general remarks on the chrysalides and the
final metamorphosis of buttertlies and moths.

STBUCTUBE OF THE LEPIDOPTEBA

CHAPTER ly

THE PUPA OR CHRYSALIS

As soon as the last moult of the caterpillar is over, the chrysalis
that had already been developing under the cover of the old skin
is exposed to full view ; and although the perfect insect is not to

be liberated for some time to
come, yet some of its parts are
apparently fully formed.

The newly exposed skin of
the chrysalis is very soft and
moist, but as it hardens it forms
a membranous or horny cover-
ing tliat protects and holds
firndy in place the trunk and
the various limbs and appen-
dages that are distinctly' to be
traced on the under surface.

If, however, you examine a
chrysalis directly after the moult
is over, you will often find that
the wings, antennae, proboscis,
and legs of the future butterHy
can be easily separated from
the trunk of the body on which
they lie by means of a blunt needle, and can be spread out so as to
be quite free from that surface.

In form the chrysalides of butterflies and moths are as variable
as the caterijillars. Many of the former are sharply angular like
that of the ' Small Tortoiseshell ' already mentioned ; but some of
the butterflies — the Skippers (page 197) — have smooth and tapering
chrysalides, and so have most of tlie moths.

Fig. 30. — The
Pupa of the
Privet Hawk
(Ligustri).

Fig. 31. — The
Chrysalis of
THE Large
White But-'
TERFLY (Bi-as-
sicce).

THE PUPA OB CHPYSALIS

Fig. :i2. The
pui'a of the
Dark Geeen

FlUTILLAEY (.4-

glaia).

Fig. 33. — The
Pita of the
Black - veined
White But-
TEEFLY [Cra-
tcegi).

In colour they are equally variable. Some are beaiitifullj-
tinted with delicate shades of green, some spotted on a light groiuid,
some striped with bands more or less gaudy and distinct, but
the prevailing tint, especially
among the moths, is a reddish
brown, often so deep that it is
almost a black.

As a rule there is no
marked resemblance between
the ditferent stages of the
same insect. Thus, a bril-
liantly coloured caterpillar
may change to a dull and
unattractive chrysalis, from
which may emerge a butteri3y
or moth that partakes of the
colours of neither. But in a
few cases there ore colours
or other features that remain
persistent throughout the three stages, or show themselves pro-
minently in two.

An interesting example in point is that of the Magpie or Currant
Moth (page 279). The caterpillar of this moth is cream-coloured,
with orange stripes along the sides, and very bold black markings
down the back. The chrysalis, which is at first entirely yellow,
afterwards turns black with the exception of some yellow trans-
verse bands. Then, the moth exhibits the same coloiu's as these
two earlier stages, with the
same degree of bolchiess ;
for its pale cream- colom'ed
wings, tinted with patches
of yellow, are marked with
numerous deep black spots.
Thus, in this case, we find
the same general character
of the colouring throughout
the insect's existence.

Another interesting ex-
ample, though not so striking as the last, is to be found in the case
of a group of moths known as the Liparidcc. The caterpillars of
these are remarkable for their very hairy bodies, often ornamented

Fig. 34. — The
Pcpa of the
CuKRAXT Moth.

Fig. 35. -

OF THE

Tdssock

- Pupa
Pale
Moth

{Pudibunda).

46 STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTERA

by several bold brush-like tufts. The chrysalides are also hairy ;
and several of the moths themselves are not only thickly clad with
shaggy hair, but a bold tuft often tips the abdomen.

We must not leave these few remarks on the characters of
chrysalides without a mention of the brilliant spots of burnished
gold that decorate the pupae of certain butterflies. This is the
feature that led to the invention of the term chrysalis, which is
derived from the Greek word chrysos, meaning gold. For the
same reason the term aurelia has been applied to the pupte of
Lepidoptera, this being derived from aurum— the Latin name for
gold.

Strictly, then, these two terms apply only to the pupae of a
certain number of the butterflies ; but the former is now generally
used to designate the pupae of all the Lcpidoptera, and is even ex-
tended to the corresponding stages of insects of other onlers.

If you examine one of these gold-speckled chrysalides, the
brilliant metallic lustre seems to belong to the outer surface, jvist
as if certain spots had been tipped with real gold ; but after the
butterfly has quitted its case the beautiful golden spots are gone.
This proves that the metallic appearance is not due to reflection
from the outer surface of the chrysalis, but to a reflection from some
sti-ucture beneath it. This latter is a very thin membrane which
lies just under the outer transparent covering of the chrj'salis.

The period during which the Lcpidoptera remain m the chry-
salis state varies very considerably in different species, and also
depends more or less on the temperature. As a rule, when a cater-
pillar pupates before the end of the summer, it remains dormant
in the pupal condition for only a few weeks ; but, if late in the
summer or in the autumn, it remains in this condition throughout
the winter, and emerges in the follo\:ing spring or early summer.

Both these conditions are illustrated in the life history of the
Large White or Cabbage Butterfly — an insect with which we have
already become acquainted. We get two distinct broods of this
butterfly every year, the first appearing in Maj' and the second in
August. The eggs of the first brood hatch in about a fortnight, and
the larvie are full grown about four weeks later. These then change
to chrysalides, from which the perfect insects (the second l)rood)
emerge in a few weeks— the period varying slightly with the tem-
perature of the season. From the eggs of this second brood we
get another invading army of cabbage eaters that change to pupiE
late in the summer. These remain dormant till the following

THE PUPA OB CHRYSALIS 47

April, and may be found in numbers throughout the winter, at-
tached to the walls and fences of kitchen and market gardens.

If, then, the pupae of the same species are so influenced by the
temperatures of the seasons, can we limit or prolong the period
of quiescence by subjecting them to high or low temperatures
artificially produced "? Most certainly we can ; and every practical
entomologist knows how to obtain the perfect butterflies and
moths of certain species long before their appointed times, or,
if he desires it, to compel them to remain in their dormant stage
long after the natural period has terminated.

Sometimes an enthusiastic insect hunter obtains a large nuujber
of what we may term ' winter pupae,' by collecting and breeding
various species. He also anticipates a number of successful captures
of perfect insects during the following summer. Thus, fi-om two
distinct sources, he obtains a goodly assortment of butterflies and
moths, the setting, preserving, and arranging of which entails an
immense amount of home work.

Under such circiimstances he will sometunes endeavour to cause
some of his pupae to emerge before their accustomed time, so that he
may get some of his insects ' on the boards ' before his field work
is in firll swing, and so avoid a rush, or prevent the loss of insects
that will be spoiled before he has time to take them in hand.

This process of hurrying up his pupae he calls ' forcing,' and
simply consists in keeping them for a time in a warm room or hot-
house where the high temperature is pretty constant.

On the other hand, the entomologist may desire to try the effect
of a continued loiv temperature on his pupae. This he can do by
placing his pupte in an ice house. Such experiments have often
been performed, and the results are very interesting. In some
cases the emergence of the perfect insect has been delayed for many
months, and even 3-ears ; and then, after an exposure to a normal
temperature lasting only a week or two, the winged insect has
made its appearance just as if nothing unusual had happened.

Such are the effects of extreme temperatures on the duration
of the chrvi-alis state ; and we naturally infer, from such results,
that the pupa under natural conditions is influenced, though in a
lesser degree, by the variations experienced with the seasons,
especially in such a fickle climate as our own.

The msect hunter has always to bear this in mind, and particu-
larly so when he sets out on a search for certain desired species.
Suppose, for example, he has set his mind on the capture of a

48 STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTERA

certain buttertly that usuaUij appears in the first week in May.
Before finally naming the day, he has to consider what the weather
has been during the last few weeks, and if he finds that this has
been much warmer than the average for the corresponding periods
in the past, he selects a day in April, eai'lier or later according to
the difference between the present season and the average.

If he does not pay due attention to such considerations, he will
sometimes find that all the insects netted are shabby and much
worn, even though, under average conditions, he would be catching
newlj' emerged and brilliant specimens. This, then, will explain
how it is that we so often see in entomologists' periodicals startling
accounts of ' early captures,' and of the appearance of certain insects
late in the season that ougJif not to have emerged till the following
sunnuer.

I will give just one ilhistration of these variations. The beautiful
Orange Tip Butterfly (Plate I, fig. 7) generally appears about the
middle of May in the southern counties. Farther north it is of
course a little later. In the north of England it has been taken in
June ; and in Scotland as late as July. On the other hand, I have
taken it in Gloucestershire as early as March, on a rather bleak
day with a cold east wind ; and, withal, in a field on the slope of the
Cotswolds fidly exposed to the unfavourable breeze ; but it was
evident that, in this case, the butterfly had been enticed from
its winter quarters by the milder weather of the few previous
weeks.

It may be as well, in passing, to observe that it is not only the
pupa that is influenced by temperature. The hatching of eggs may
be forced by high temperatures, or be retarded by exposure to cold ;
and in nature the period of incubation varies with the seasons.
The larvaj, too, grow faster or more slowly, or pupate earlier or
later from similar causes. And so no ver^^ definite date or period
can be assigned to any one stage of any insect.

Now let us retvirn to one of the chrysalides that we have already
watched through the earlier stages of its existence, and follow it in
its future development.

It is now, as we say, in its quiescent or dormant condition, but
we must not siippose that it is always in a profound sleep, nor can
we say that it is insensible to its surroundings. Touch it gently or
surprise it with a puff of air from your mouth, and it will begin to
wag its jiointed tail, sometimes witli such vigour as to send tlie
body rolling round and round in its box. Lay it on a bed of cocoa-

THE PUPA OB CHEYSALIS 49

nut fibre or finely sifted soil and let it remain quite undisturbed tor
a few hours or days, and you will probably find that, by occasional
movements of its body, it has made a slight depression in its bed,
and lies partly submerged. I have known some chrysalides to
completely bury themselves in this way during the course of a day
or two, and others to partly expose themselves after having been
lightly covered. Others again, I have observed, will move smartly
if a strong light is suddenly turned on them. Many, too, certainly
appear to have a strong objection to exposure to the direct rays
of a hot sun ; for, when thus exposed, they will struggle per-
sistently, as if to work their bodies into some shady corner. I
would not advise a young entomologist to try this experiment,
however, if he values the pupai he possesses, for direct sunlight
is midoubtedly very harmful to many species, and perhaps it is
to all.

Some chrysalides are not nearly so active as has just been
represented ; in fact, there are many which seem to show no signs
of life dm'ing the greater part of the time spent in that state. But
in all, whether apparently active or not, certain important internal
changes are at work. We have already noticed that, even in the
last days of the larval existence, some of the oi'gans of the future
imago are to be traced. But these are as yet imperfectly develoijed.
We have also observed that a continuation of these changes,
gradually carried on, would be impossible in a voracious feeder ; so
the insect, now fully grown, and no longer requiring a suppty of
food, settles down in perfect quiet, submitting itself quite passively
to any further changes that nature may demand.

It has already suffered the loss of its claspers. Its wonderful
jaws that did so much damage (for good or evil as the case maybe)
to the vegetable world are now gone, and the bulky digestive
apparatus has rapidly dwindled to useless dimensions. These and
other changes, already in progi-ess, have to be perfected while the
creature is in a restful and helpless condition, though they may
often be retarded or even suspended during cold weatjier when
progress would certainly bring it to an untimely end.

But now the grandest of all these transformation scenes is
nigh at hand. The protective skin is already loosening from the
almost perfect imago, and consequently feels softer and far more
yielding than it did when in close contact with the body : the
swaddled butterfly or moth (for such the pupa is) is slowly pre-
paring to throw off its imprisoning garb. The wings and large

60 STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTERA

compound eyes are assuming their final colours, which now begin
to show themselves through the more or less transparent skin,
and the long legs, the perfectly formed antennae, and the slender
proboscis, all of which are folded closely under the creature's thorax,
now begin to move within their loosened sheaths.

Now let us watch it closely, for one of the most wonderful sights
ever witnessed by a natm-alist is about to be presented to our view.
We think we can observe slight movements ; and, it may be, we can
actually see the struggling insect endeavouring to set itself free. The
legs and proboscis are moving within the loosened skin ; and lo ! as
we watch these motions, the prison wall bursts with a slif,dit snap-
ping noise (at least, such is the case with some of the larger species),
and in a moment out pop a few long legs which immediately
struggle for a foothold. The proboscis also appears, alternately
lengthening itself out and coiling into a spiral, as if impatient to
reach the sweet nectar from the bottom of
some fragi'ant flower cup.

All this takes place in less time than one

requires to describe it ; and, before manj^

seconds have passed, the struggling insect

has (piite completed its last moult, and is

Fig. 36.— a Butter- bidding good-bye to the rent garment that

FLY JUST AFTEB ^^^^ doue it good scrvice for so long a time.

Emerging. But how dreadfully disappointing ! Did

we not say only a few minutes since, that a

beautiful butterfly or moth was about to emerge ? How, then, is

this? Here is an odd-looking creature, such as we have never seen

before ! True, it has the right kind of body, though even that is so

soft and heavy that it is fairly dragged along as the insect walks.

Its antennte, too, seem to be just the right thing — that is, just

what we were expecting to see. But oh ! the wdngs ! Ai-e we

looking at a deformity ? — a failure on the part of Natiure to produce

what she ought ?

We will not judge hastily, but continue to watch it a little
longer. It seems very restless at first, and, with the fluttering
apologies for wings, drags its heavy body along till it reaches some
surface up which it can climb. If nothing of the kind is close at
hand you may place a rough upright stick in its path, and it
will immediately begin to ascend. Its motto is now ' Excelsior I '
and its ambition to rise may be so great tliat, on reaching the very
top of the stick provided for it, it struggles for a still higher position

THE PUPA OR CHRYSALIS 51

in life tUl, tailing to get a foothold in the air itself, it falls to the
ground and has to retrace its steps.

I once thought I would like to test the perseverance of a large
moth in performing its first upward journey ; and as it was one
from a chrysalis to be found in nature at the foot of a tree that
attains some considerable height, I was, of com'se, prepared to
exercise a little patience myself.

As soon as the moth had emerged, I placed it at the bottom of
a window curtain that hung from about eight feet high to the
floor. In less than half a minute it had reached the top, and was
struggling hard to get still higher. I took it down, and again
placed it at the bottom. Up it went as fost as before ; and this
was repeated nine times with exactly the same result. For the
tenth time I placed the persevering creature at the bottom of
the curtain ; and, after it had walked about halfway up, it suddenly
stopped, apparently (juite satisfied with having travelled a distance
of over seventy feet in an upward du-ection. Its six legs were
immediately arranged symmetrically in a buciness-like manner,
and there it settled q[uite still, as if it had some definite object in
stopping just exactly in that spot.

But we mi;st now return to our own insect, which has by this
time settled itself in a similar manner on the stick we provided
for it. The peculiar organs which represent the wings, though so
very small, show distinctly, in miniature, the colour and pattern of
the fully developed wings of the species. An interesting change is
just now commencing. These wings are apparently growing larger,
but the dcvelo]3ment is very unequal, so that they become curled and
crumpled till they are even more unsightly than before. All seems
to be going amiss. But this lasts only for a short time. The
fluid from the bod}' steadUy rushes into the nervures, causing the
wings to expand, and in a few minutes the beautiful pinions are
stretched to the full extent, assume their normal shape, and expose
the full glory of their brilliant colours.

It may be interesting if I give an example showing the exact
time taken for the full development of the wings of a certain
insect. So I will here quote an entry from my note book ; and, by
the way, let me strongly advise all my young readers who follow
up this subject to habitually enter in a book kept specially for the
purpose all facts which strike them as they pursue their study of
nature. The note to which I refer runs as follows :

' Early on the evening of the 22nd [April] I selected a few

52 ST2WCTUBE OF THE LEPIDOPTEBA

chrysalides of Populi [the Poplar Hawk Moth, page 209] which,
from the looseness of their cases, were thought to be just on the
point of emerging. At 8.46 one of them showed signs of restless-
ness ; and, after a few vigorous movements, during which it rolled
itself over on the glass [I had placed the pnpse on a piece of plate
glass so that slight movements might be more easily detected], the
front of its case was suddenly thrust off with considerable force ;
and in less tlian four seconds the imago was quite free and
crawling on the table. After trying hard to reach a higher point
than was provided for about foui- minutes, it rested to expand its
wings — now about seven-sixteenths of an inch long, or one-third
the total length of the body. At 9 o'clock the wings reached
half the length of the body, and were much curled. At 9.12 they
were fully expanded and straightened out.'

From this extract we see that the whole period from the
bursting of the case to the full expansion of the wings was only
twenty- six minutes ; and it will be well to remind the reader that
the process occupies even a much shorter time than this with
many species, both of butterflies and moths. It will be observed,
also, that the evening was chosen as the time for the observation.
There was a reason for this. The Poplar Hawk Moth, as is the case
with many others, almost invariably emerges from the chrysalis in
the evening — usually after dark. But it may be mentioned in
passing that a far larger number of the Le]}ido2)tera as invariably
emerge in the morning.

Again we will return to our newly emerged insect, for there are
still one or two interesting points to observe. The wings have
fuUy expanded, it is true, but how very limp they are ! Take the
creature on the tip of your finger and hold it so that its body is
in a horizontal position. Immediately the wings bend downward
with their own weight, so soft and flexible are they. The body, too,
is still very soft, and apparently much too heavy for flight. Then,
if you place it on a flat surface, it will immediately try to find
some perpendicular or overhanging surface from which it can
suspend itself by means of its legs, so that the pendant and
straightened wings are in the best possible position for drying. As
the insect walks away in search of such a resting place, the body
still drags as it did before, and the wings bend over, either both on
one side or one on each side of tlie body.

It is some time before the wings are sufficiently dry and rigid
for flight, but the period varies greatly with difl'erent species.

THE PUPA OR CHRYSALIS 53

Some of the small butterflies and moths take to flight long before
an hour has passed, but in many cases several hoxu's elapse before
the creature starts from its first resting place. Butterflies that
emerge in the morning spend their first day actively on the wing ;
but the nocturnal moths that emerge early in the day do not fly till
evening twilight. When, however, the time arrives, the insect
flutters its wings as if to test their power before committing itself
to the air ; and frequently, after only a few seconds spent in this
preparatory exercise, off it darts with astonisliing rapidit^y. But
others seem far more cautious. They vibrate their wings, some-
times with such rapidity that they are lost in a kind of mist, and
with such power that their bodies would be carried suddenly into
the air were they not firmly anchored by three pairs of hooked
claws. Then, continuing the rapid vibration, they move slowly
along, always holding on firmly by one or more legs, as if to still
further satisfy themselves concerning the efficiency of their wings.
Then they ventvu^e on a few short trial trips fi-om one neighbouring
object to another, and at last gain svifticient confidence for a long
voyage.

How strange must be the feelings of a winged insect during its
first flight ! After a long period during which it was a helpless,
crawling grub, and this followed by a term of imprisonment during
which it was almost or quite shut off from the woi4d, it now sud-
denly' acquires such great powers of locomotion that it is often a
match for ourselves.

But, alas ! this life is short. A few days spent in sporting with
those it meets and in sucking the sweet juices of many flowers ;
then a day or two during which the female deposits its eggs ; again
a few days employed in j^leasures that become less and less attrac-
tive, till, at last, the creatiu*e becomes weary of life and settles
down to die.

We have now traced the complete life history of the Lepido-
jjtcra from the egg to the perfect insect, avoiding descriptions that
apply only to certain species as far as possible, excepting where
such are useful as illustrations.

Only one thing more remains to be done before we start in real
earnest with our practical work. We shall shortly be giving hints
on the modes of capture, the ' setting ' and the preservation of
butterflies and moths. And in so doing we shall often liave to
observe important points in which our dealings with these two
great divisions of the order will differ very materially. Hence we

54 STBUCTUBE OF THE LEPIDOPTEBA

must not consider onrselves ready to proceed with the practical
portion of the entomologist's labours till we are perfectly satished
that we know the main features that enable us to distinguish
between the butterflies and the moths, and also know just a little
concerning the siibdivisions on each side.

This, then, shall form the subject of the next short chapter.

CHAPTER V

CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTEEA

The Lcpidoptcra are divided into two very luiequal groups, to
which we have so frequently alluded as ' Butterflies ' and ' Moths.'
And, although these two terms are popularly applied in a fairly
accurate manner, yet, strange to say, very few persons indeed have
any definite knowledge of the differences that entomologists recog-
nise between the two gi-onps.

Every entomologist has his circle of sympathetic and, perhaps,
even admiring friends. Consetjuently, many a little package is
sent round to his abode ' with great care,' accompanied by a note
or a message concerning the fine ' butterfly I have just caught, and
thought you would like to add to your collection.'

The ' butterflies ' that so frequently reach us through these
channels nearly always turn out to be hriglitly coloured moths,
and this naturally gives one the idea that the popular notion as to
the classification of the Lepido2)tera is based on colour or brilliancy
of design, the term ' butterfly ' being applied to the gayer species,
and ' moth ' to the more dingy members of the race.

There is really some shadow of a reason in this method of
nomenclature, for butterflies are usually more brightly clad than
moths ; but the scientific classification, at least as far as the main
divisions and si;bdivisions are concerned, has nothing whatever to
do with colour or design ; and we must at once acquaint ourselves
with the fact that there are very dingy butterflies, and most
beautiful and highly coloured moths.

How shall we account for the fact that the specimens so kindly
sent us by our friends are generally moths ? Is it because moths
are more numerous and more frequently seen ? They are certainly
more numerous ; for, while our butterflies do not number seventy

56 STRUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTERA

species, the other division contains about two thonsancl. Yet, in
spite of this fact, luotlis are not generally observed as much as
butterflies, for the former are nearly all night-fliers, and the latter
always fly by da}' and rest by night.

Still our question remains unanswered. The reason is this.
The captives sent us are seldom caught on the wing. Most of our
grown-up friends, even though they admire our own pluck and
general carelessness concerning the remarks of the spectators of
our entomological antics, would not themselves like to be seen, hat
in hand, chasing a butterfly ; and the night-flying moths are, of
course, less frequently observed. Bi;t they often, in the course of
their daily employments, meet with a large moth fast asleep
in some corner of a dwelling house, workshop, or outhouse. Such
moths are easily caught while in the midst of their slumbers,
and, as they often make no attempt to fly by day, are as easily
transferred to a box suitable for transmission by messenger or by
post.

In the above few remarks we have alluded to some features by
which the two great groups of the Lepido^Jtera may be dis-
tinguished ; but we have already referred (page 5) to a far more
important one in our description of the various forms of antennae.
All butterflies— at least all British butterflies — have knobbed or
clubbed antennae, while the corresponding organs of all our moths
terminate in a sharp point.

This distinction obtains in all British Le2ndo2-)tera, and is so far
regarded as the most important basis of classification that natural-
ists have derived from it the two Greek terms tliat are synonymous
with our two popiilar names — butterflies and moths. The scientific
name for the former group is Rhopalocera — a term derived from
two Greek words, one signifying a horn, and the other a club, and
thus meaning ' club-horned.' The corresponding name for moths
is Heterocera, derived from the same source, and meaning ' vari-
ously horned.'

But, although we find embodied in these two long and formid-
able names an unerring mark of distinction between British
butterflies and moths, we must not neglect other less important
facts which, though less distinctive, are not without interest.

Observe a butterfly at rest. Its wings are turned vertically
over its back, and brought so closely together that they often
touch. In this position the ' upper ' surfaces of the ' upper ' wings
are completely hidden from view, and the ' under ' surfaces are

CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTEBA

exposed on the two sides, except that those of the ' upper ' pair are
partly hidden by the other pair.

Now look at a moth tinder the same circumstances, and you
will generally find the wings lying over its body, which is almost or
completely hidden l)eneath them. As a rule the upper pair together
form a triangular figure, and entirely cover the second pair ; but
in some cases a portion of each of the under wings extends beyond
the margin of those above them, and in others the upper pair
extend so far forward that nearly the whole of the under wings is
exposed behind them.

Again, the wings of butterflies are so rigid that they can never
be folded ; but 3'ou will observe that the under wings of moths are
generally very thin, soft, and pliant,
and are neatly pleated lengthwise when
not in use.

Another feature deserving notice is

Fig. 37. — A Butterfly at Best
(L.uiGE Copper).

38. - A Moth at Rest
(Gothic).

a slight difference to be often observed in the form of the body.
The butterfly, which generally has a slender body, has a distinct
constriction or waist between the thorax and abdomen. This is
not so apparent with moths, and especially with the thick-bodied
species.

The Bliopaloccra or Butterflies are divided into Families, each
of which contains insects that possess certain features in common
by which they may all be distinguished from the members of any
other family.

The British species represent eight families. They are as
follows :

1. Papilioniilce. — Containing only one British species — the
beautiful Swallow-tail (Plate I, fig. 1).

68 STEUCTUBE OF THE LEPIDOPTEBA

2. Pieridcp. — Containing ten species. These are often kno'mi
collectively as the ' Whites,' but include four butterflies that are
distinguished by beautiful shades of yellow and orange.

3. Nymphalidce. — This family contains seventeen insects,
among them being sevei'al splendid species. It includes the
Fritillaries and Vanessas.

4. Apaturidce. — Oi this we have only one representative — the
Purple Emperor (Plate V, fig. 1).

5. Batijridm. — Including the ' Browns ' and ' Heaths,' and
nmnbering eleven species.

6. LyccenidcB. — Including the Hairstreaks, ' Coppers,' and
' Blues,' in all seventeen species.

7. Erycinidce. — Containing only the ' Duke of Burgundy.'

8. Hesperiidce. — This family contains seven British butterflies
commonly known as the ' Skippers.'

Although all the members of the same family resemble each other
in certain points of structure, or in their habits, yet we can often find
among them a smaller group differing from all the others in one or
two minor particulars. Such smaller groups are called Genera.

To make this all quite clear we will take an example.

The Brimstone Butterfly (Plate II, fig. 4) belongs to the second
family — Pieridce, all the members of which are distinguished
from those of the other families by the characteristics mentioned
on page 141.

But our Brimstone Butterfly possesses another very prominent
feature in which it differs from all the other British Pieridce, and
that is the conspicuous projecting angles of both fore and hind
wings. Among the foreign s))ecies of the family we are consider-
ing there are several that possess these angles ; but as there are no
others among our own members, the ' Brimstone ' is placed by
itself in the list of British Leindojitera as the only member of the
genus Gonopteryx or ' angle-winged ' butterflies.

Thus the full relationship of this buttei'fly to other insects may
be shown in the following manner :

The Brimstone Butterjly.

ORDER. — Lep)idoptera
Section. — Bliopalocera
Family. — Pieridce
Oenus. — Gonop teryx
S'pecies.—BJiamni

CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTEEA 59

Now, every butterfly has a Latin or Greek name in addition to
that by which it is popular!}' known. I sboukl have said tivo Latin
or Greek names. The first of these is always the generic name,
and the second is the one by which we denote the particular
member or species of that genus. Thus, the scientific name of the
Brimstone Butterfly is Gonojjteryx Rliamni.

' But,' the reader may be inclined to ask, ' why should we not
be satisfied with the one popular name only ? ' And, ' If we must
have a separate scientific name, could we not find suitable terms
aiBong our English words to build up such a name— one that
might express the principal characteristics of the insect, and also
serve all the purposes of classification ? '

Such questions sound very reasonable, and so they are. But
the entomologist's answer is this. We ourselves may get on well
without the help of the dead languages, but we have brother
natriralists all over the world, speaking a great variety of different
languages. We endeavour to help one another— to exchange notes
and generally to assist one another in oiu' laboui's ; and this can be
greatly facilitated if we all adopt the same system of nomenclature.
The educated of most of the great nations generally know some-
thing of Latin and Greek, and consequently the adoption of these
languages is generally acceptable to all.

This soimds well, but for my own part I believe that if we are
to make any branch of natural history a popular study, especially
with the young, we must to a certain extent avoid anything that
may prove distasteful. There is no doubt whatever that many a
youngster has been turned away from the pursuit of the study of
nature by the formidable array of almost unpronounceable names
that stretch nearly halfway across a page ; and those who desire
to make such a study pleasant to beginners should be very cautious
with the use of these necessary evils. One would think, on glan-
cing over some of the scientific manuals that are written ' especially
for the young,' that the authors considered our own too mean a
language for so exalted a purpose, for in such works we find all or
nearly all the popular names by which the schoolboy knows certain
creatures he has seen entirely omitted, and the description of a
species appended to a long Latin term that conveys no idea what-
ever to the reader, who is studying the description of a well-known
animal or plant and doesn't know it.

_ Our plan will be to give the popular names throughout, except
in uhe case of those few species that are not so well known as to

60 STBUCTURE OF THE LEPIDOPTEBA

have received one ; but the scientific names will always be given
as well for the benefit of those readers who would like to know
them. And the short description of the method of classification
just given will enable the more ambitious of my readers to tho-
roughly understand the table of British butterflies and moths
toward the end of the book.

This table includes all the British species of butterflies and of
the larger moths ; and the arrangement is such as to show clearly
the divisions into sections, families, &c. It will therefore be of
great value for reference, and as a guide for the arrangement of
the specimens in the cabinet.

In the foregoing description of the method of classification
butterflies only are mentioned ; but the division and arrangement
of moths is carried out in just the same manner except that the
system is a little more complicated. The number of moths is so
large in comparison, that we are able to select from them some
very large groixps the species of which possess features in common.
These groups are termed tribes, and are again divided into families
just like the butterflies. Thus the arrangement of moths includes
tribes, families, genera and species. We will take an example by
way of illustration as we did before, and ask the reader to verify
the same by comparison with our table :

Example.— The. ' Conmion Tiger ' (Plate X, fig. 3).

ORDER. — Lepidoptera

Section. — Heterocera

TniBE.—Boiiibyces

Family. — CheloniidcB

Genus. — Arctia

Species. — Caia

Scientific Name. — Arctia Caia.

I have already said that the Latin and Greek names of butter-
flies and moths are not at all necessary to the young entomologist.
It is quite possible to be well acquainted with the natural history
of these creatures, and to derive all the pleasure and benefits that
the study of them can afford without the knowledge of such names ;
but most entomologists go in for them, often to the entire exclusion
of the popiilar English terms.

There are those who consider themselves (or would have us
consider them) expert entomologists because they have the power

CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEPIDOPTEBA Gl

to vomit forth a long list of scientific names of butterflies and
moths which (to them) have no meaning whatever ; and it is asto-
nishing that we meet with so many yomigsters who can rattle
away such terms, and, at the same time, are totally ignorant of
the real nature of the creatures they name.

If you wish to be a natiu-alist in the true sense of the term, study
3'our specimens, and take but little pains to commit their hard
names to memory ; and you will then find that the latter will
graduallj' become your own property without anj' special effort on
your part. Your continued reference to illustrated works and
museum collections will bring them to you almost unconsciously,
and you will generally find your entomological vocabiilary extend-
ing as rapidly as your cabinet becomes filled.

Again, with regard to the meanings of the scientific terms, don't
trouble much about them. It unfortunately happens that in a very
large number of cases these names are ill chosen, and do not in any
way refer to the distinguishing characteristics of the species to
which they are applied. You wiU observe, too, if you look at the
table, that many insects have two scientific names applied to the
species, one being placed in brackets after the other. In such
cases both these names are in common use, having both been
apjjlied by independent authorities, and the insertion of the
two will prove an assistance at times.

It is a common practice with entomologists, in their commimi-
cations, to use onlj^ the second or specific name of insects. Thus,
they would speak of the Brimstone Butterfly as Bhamni, and not
Gonopteryx Bhamni. When turiting a communication, however,
they very commonly place in front of the specific name the initial
letter of the first or generic name. Thus the full title of the
butterfly just mentioned would be abbreviated to G. Bhamni.

Having said so much concerning the principles of classification
and nomenclature, we will pass on to the practical portion of the
entomologist's work.

PAET II
WORK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

CHArTER YI

CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

It is not at all surprising that entomology should prove such a
fascinating study to the young, and more especially that portion
which deals with the department we are now considering. Butter-
flies and moths are among the most beautiful and most interesting
of living creatures. The study of their life history is enchanting,
and the creatures themselves are of such a size as to be con-
veniently handled and preserved, and withal occupy so little space
that anyone with only moderate accommodation may possess a
fairly typical collection.

Compare the work of the entomologist with that of one whose
hobby is the study of mammals. The latter has to deal with large
and cumbersome objects, a collection of which requires an enor-
mous amount of space ; and, unless he has the time and means to
travel in foreign countries, he cannot get together a good typical
collection of specimens representing his particular branch, for the
few British mammals contain no representatives of several of the
orders into which the class is divided.

Entomology is undoubtedly, ^3ar excellence, the study for
youngsters. It is equally siiited to the studious and to those of an
adventurous turn of mind. It leads its follower into the bright sun-
shine and the flowery meadows; and with body and mind pleasantly
occupied, the joy of living is deeply felt. The necessary apparatus
can be made by anyone. No dangerous gun is required, and there
are no precipitous rocks to scale. When the autumn flowers fade
the year's work of the entomologist is not done, for the arranging

64 WORK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

of his cabinet and the demands of his living specimens keep him
more or less actively engaged until the flowers of the following
spring call both him and the insects he loves once more into the
field. And so, season after season, and year after year, he finds
himself engrossed in labours so fascinating that idleness — the curse
of so many of our youths — is with him an impossibility.

I assume that the readers of this book have a desire to take up
the study of one branch of entomology— that of butterflies and
moths— in real earnest ; that they intend not only to read about
these interesting insects, but to k7iow them. And there is only oae
way in which one may really get to know living creatures ; that
is by searching them out in their haunts, observing their growth
and habits, and by an occasional close examination in order to
become acquainted with their structure.

Hence I shall in this, the practical portion of the work, give
such information as will assist the beginner in catching, preserving,
rearing, breeding, and arranging the specimens that are to form his
collection.

Catching Butterflies

There was a time when we would try to capture a butterfly at
rest on a flower by a quick sweep of the hand, or, more commonly,
by a sharp downward stroke of the cap. We were led to this action
by a mere childish love of sport, or by a desire to possess an insect
simply because it was pretty. When we succeeded in securing our
prize, we handled it somewhat carelessly, often passing it from one
hand to the other, or boxing it in our closed and perspiring fist till
our fingers were dusted with the pretty microscopic scales of tlie
creature's wings, and the wings themselves, stripped of all their
beautiful clothing, were merely transparent and veined membranes.
Having thus carelessly but unintentionally deprived the creature of
its greatest beauty, we set it free, often in such a damaged or
exhausted condition that the poor thing could scarcely fly.

But our childish ideas and inclinations have vanished. Now
we would rather watch the insect than catch it, for we find nuich
pleasure and interest in its varied movements. And if for piirposes
of study we occasionally require to make one captive, we proceed
in such a manner as to preserve its beauty unimpaired. The cap
now gives place to a well-made and suitable net ; and we are
careful to provide ourselves with sutticient and proper acconmio-
dation for our captives.

CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS G:>

It is probable that many of my readers are as j-et unacquainted
witli the nature of an entomologist's requirements for held work,
so we shall describe them, confining ourselves at first to those that
are required for a butterfly hunt.

First and foremost comes the net. This essential portion of your
equipment may be either purchased or constructed by yourself.
Very little skill is required to enable you to do the former. Pro-
vided your pocket is well charged, you may start off at once to the
dealer in naturalists' appliances, and treat yourself to a complete
outfit. But even in this case a little advice may not be out of
place. See that what you purchase is very stromjlij made. You can
get nicely finished nets constructed on the most convenient prin-
ciples, made to fold and go in an ordinary coat pocket, but with
toeak joints. See tliat you have the most convenient form of net
by all means, but do not
go in for convenience and
appearance at the expense
of strength and durability.
Nothing is more annoying
than to find your net give
way just when you are in
the midst of a good day's
sport. ^■"»-*-, ,.^--^ Fig. 40.

The folding net is cer-
tainly very convenient, for Fig. 39.— A Wire Frame
you can conceal it in your ^'^^ ^ Butterfly Net.
pocket while you are walk-
ing through town or travelling in a railway carriage, and thus avoid
that contemptuous gaze which certain of the public are prone to
cast on a poor ' bug hunter.' And although such nets are generally
purchased, yet they may be constructed by anyone who has had
experience in the working of metals. But other forms of nets,
equally useful and even stronger, can be made by anybody ; and I
will give a few hints on two or three different ways of putting
them together.

A very simple and strong frame for a net may be made as
follows : bet a piece of stout iron or brass wire about forty inches
in length, and bend it into a circle with the two ends, turned out
about two inches each, at right angles to the circumference as
shown in the accompanying sketch.

Now take a good tough stick, the length of an ordinary walking

66 WORK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

stick, and cut out two grooves opposite eacli other at the end, pist
large enough to take the straight ends of the wire. The end of the
stick will now resemble fig. 40 in shape. Place the ends in their
grooves, and bind them tightly to the stick by a good many turns
of rather fine wire.

A frame well made after this fashion is as strong as anything
you could desire, but it has the disadvantage of being always fixed
to the handle, thus preventing the use of the latter as a walliing
stick when you are not directly engaged in your entomological
work.

A much more convenient frame may be made by thrusting the
ends of a piece of cane into the two narrow arms of a metal Y.
You may purchase the Y at any of the naturalists' stores, or you
can make one yourself if you know how to perform the operation of
soldering. I have always made mine with odds and ends of brass
tnbing such as old gas pipes. One piece must be just the size to
fix on the stick ; and the other two invast fit the cane
tightly. The three pieces must be filed off at the
proper angles, and the doubly bevelled end of the
wider tube must then be flattened down to the
width of the smaller ones before soldering. If you
decide to buy one, give the preference to strong
Fig. 41. brass rather than the cheaper and more fragile ones

The Metal y. made of tinned iron.

The advantage of such an arrangement over the
last frame is evident at once. The cane, with net attached, can
be pulled out of the Y when not in use, and bent small enough to
go in the pocket or a satchel ; and the Y can also be separated
from the stick, thus allowing the latter to be nsed as a walking
stick.

Some entomologists speak very favourably of what is known
as the ' umbrella net ' — a large and light net that will shut up like
an umbrella, and may even be made to look very much like this
useful protector, but the possession of such an imitation is some-
what tantalising in a pelting shower. The ring of this net consists
of two steel springs attached to a couple of bi-ass hinges, one of
which is fixed near one end of the handle, while the other slides up
and down in the gamp fashion.

One other form of net— ' the clap net ' — although still occasion-
ally seen, has had its best days. Two sticks are provided to this
one, so that the two sides of the net may be brought together on

CATCHING BUTTEBFLIES AND MOTHS 67

the insect ; but as both hands are required to manage it, it is almost
siu'prising that it ever had any advocates at all.

When your frame is completed, sew round it a strip of strong-
calico, to which the net itself may be afterwards sewn, for the lighter
material of the net is too delicate to stand the constant friction
against the metal or cane frame.

The material usually employed in making the ' bag ' is called
leno. It can be purchased at most of the drapers' shops, and three
colom's — white, yellow and green — are usually kept in stock
Measure the circumference of your net frame, and see that you get
sufficient leno to make a good full net. Suppose, for instance, that
the circle of your frame measures thirty-six inches round, then your
leno should be at least forty inches in length. Fold this double,
and then cut out two pieces of the shape shown in fig. 42, letting
the depth of the net be nearly or quite equal to the width of the
material. There is nothing to be done now but to
stitch the bag together and sew it to the calico on
the ring.

At first you will find the leno rather stifi' and
harsh, but a damping and good rubbing between
the hands will soften it down ; or, if you prefer it,
you may soften the material by a slight washing
before cutting out the net. The latter is perhaps
the better plan, for the washing will remove the
objectionable 'dressing' that renders the material
rather hard and stiff.

Of the three colours mentioned above, green is the one most
generally chosen, because it is more in harmony with the sur-
roundings of a butterfly catcher ; but many prefer the white leno
to the green, as the insects are more easily seen in a net of this
colour. Yellow is certainly not a desirable tint.

As a rule it will be necessary to kill an insect as soon as it is
captured. This is alwajs the case with butterflies unless you
require to keep them alive either to watch their movements or to
obtain eggs. For this purpose you wiU require a killing bottle or
box containing some volatile substance.

The selection of this necessary piece of apparatus is a point
deserving of much consideration, for so many different forms are in
use by different entomologists, and so many advocates each declare
that his own plan is far superior to that of any of the others, that
the final decision is not to be worked out in a moment. The best

F 2

WORK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

thiiif^ for a beginner is to try as many as he can, and then, after
some considerable experience of his own, he will be able to decide
which apparatus suits himself best.

I recommend this because it is impossible to say of any one
plan that it is the best, for that which gives perfect satisfaction to
one individual will often fail to give anything but annoyance in
the hands of another.

To enable my young readers to follow the advice I have just
given, I will describe some of the commonly used killing arrange-
ments and show how they should be used.

I will take first the ' cyanide bottle.' This is a wide-mouthed
bottle, containing a very poisonous substance called cyanide of
potassium. It is fitted with a good sound
cork. The ' cyanide ' is a solid substance, and
miist be fixed in some way or other at the
bottom of the bottle so that it cannot shake
about and damage the butterfiies.

A cyanide bottle can be purchased ready
for use at the cost of a shilling or thereabouts ;
but if you are old enough to be trusted with
deadly poisons, you may buy the ' cv'anide ' of
a chemist who knows you well and is satisfied
as to your intentions, and then prepare your
own. Every entomologist should know how
to do this, for the poison loses its power after
some time, and it is not always convenient to
leave j^our bottle in the hands of a chemist or
a ' naturalist ' to have it recharged. This will
cost you more than it would to do it 3'ourself,
but that is nothing compared with the anno.yance that may result
when, the night before an anticipated butterfly hunt, you are calmly
told that ' your bottle will be readj' in a few days.' You can charge it
yourself in a few minutes if you can manage to keep a small supply
of • cyanide ' in stock, and it is ready for use very shortly after.

Here is the modus operandi. — Purchase an ounce or two of the
cyanide of potassium, and immediately put it into a stoppered or
well-corked bottle. Label it at once, not only with the name,
but also with the word Poison in ver}^ large and conspicuous
letters. This dangerous chemical is often sold in sticks that look
much like certain ' sugar sticks' I was acquainted with in my
younger days ; but whether this is or is not the case witli your

Fio. 4d:- -The Cya-
nide Bottle.

CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS 69

cyanide, see that the bottle is kept (]uite out of the reach of the
iiKjuisitive and sugar-loving juveniles of the hox;se.

The quantity abo\e mentioned is more than you will require for
the first ' charge,' but you will soon experience the convenience of
having a supply always at hand for recharging when your cyanide
bottle fails to do its work expeditiously, or when an accident calls
for the somewhat sudden appearance of a new one.

Now procure a bottle for your work. Its mouth must be wide
enough to take the largest insect you hope to catch, and the widest
part of the bottle need not be much larger. Get a perfectly sound
cork to fit it tightly ; and, to insure the more perfect exclusion of
air, paint over the top of the cork with melted paraffin wax.

Dissolve a few drams of the cyanide in a little water, using a
glass rod to stir up the mixture till the solid has all disappeared ;
and be careful tliat neither the solid nor the solution touches
the skin if it should be in the slightest degree scratched or
broken. Now sprinkle plaster of Paris into the solution, a little
at a time, and stir all the while. As soon as the mixture begins
to set, povir it into your bottle as cleanly as you can — that is, with-
out touching the sides— and press it down with the fiat end of a
stick if it is not level. Now cork it, and put the bottle away in a
cool place till required for use.

This is, I think, the best way of charging the bottle ; but there
are two other common methods that may, perhaps, be regarded as a
little more simple. One is this : put a few small lumps of the
' cyanide ' into your bottle, and then cover them with a stiff mixtiire
of plaster of Paris and water, and press down as before. The other
plan is to cover the ' cyanide ' A^ith a few thicknesses of blotting
paper, cut just a little larger than the inside of the bottle. The first
of these two methods is fairly satisfactory, but I have always found
that the charge, ^^■llen made in this way, has a tendency to become
wet and pasty, in which condition it will spoil the wings of the
insects. The other is very objectionable, especially for field work,
for the blotting paper fails to keep its place while you are on the
chase. If the plaster is used, the mixing must be done qxiickly and
without hesitation, or the mixture will become solid before you can
press it into \'our bottle.

We will not enter now into the j^i'os and cons of the cyanide
bottle, but will consider the advantages and disadvantages of the
various methods oi killing the insects after we have noticed a few
more.

WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

The ' laurel box ' has had many devoted advocates, although it
does not seem to be much in iise now. It is a very good arrange-
ment, however, but is a little more troublesome than the cyanide
bottle, as it requires frequent replenishing.

A very good laurel box may be prepared as follows. Get a
small tin box of cylindrical form, measuring about five inches by
two, and cut a circle of perforated zinc or wood just the size to
fit it snugly as a false bottom without any danger of falling out of
its place. Now gather some of the young leaves of the green laurel
bush, and beat them almost to a pulp with a mallet or hammer.
Place this in your tin box, and press down the perforated false
bottom on it. The bruised laurel leaves give off
a very powerful odour, which stupefies butter-
flies immediately.

Of course the reader may be able to think
of various other ways in which the laiu-el box
may be made. Any arrangement will do pro-
viding the vapour can come to the insects with-
out allowing the leaves to touch their wings ;
and any ingenious youth could manufacture a
more satisfactory article than the one I have
mentioned. My desire is, as far as possible, to
give instructions that may easily be carried out
by anyone, even if he has not the slightest
mechanical skill, leaving the clever 3'outh, some-
times, the opportunity of displaying his own in-
ventive power. But in this case I will give a
few suggestions concerning other ways in which
a laurel killer may be constructed. A firm and ^fixcd false bottom
is a decided advantage. This is easily managed by fixing a circular
piece of perforated zinc or ' tin ' by means of a little solder ; or even
a wood partition may be used, fixed with a few brads, driven into
it from the outside. AVith the fixed partition, however, you nm.st
have a lid at each end of the box. This is easily managed if you
get two tins of the same size, knock out the bottom of one, and fit
the lid of the other in its place.

I have heard of laiirel boxes without any partition save a piece
of rag in which the bruised leaves are wrapped. The whole is
pressed into the box so firmly that it is not likely to be displaced
while you are on the chase. I do not recommend this, for in addi-
tion to the chance of its slipping there is a danger of the sap of the

Fig. 44. — Skction
OF THE Laurel
Box.

a, space for insects ;
6, perforated par-
tition ; c, bruised
laurel leaves.

CATCHING BUTTKBFLIES AND MOTHS 71

leaves exuding through the rag and spoihng the insects' wings.
But if the reader should prefer to try this on account of its simpli-
city, it will probably occur to liiin that a bottle may be used instead
of a tin box.

A well-made laurel box, with a fixed metal partition, is a piece
of apparatus strongly to be recommended to all young entomo-
logists who desire to test the relative value of the various poisons
that are used by the different experts ; for with it any one of these
substances can be used. In the poison compartment you can place
pieces of ' cyanide ' wrapped in blotting paper, or any kind of
porous substance moistened with liquid ammonia, chloroform,
benzole, or any other volatile liquid insecticide. All the above-
named substances are declared to be ' the best,' so they must all
be worth the trial.

' Cyanide ' is valued on account of its lasting powers. A cyanide
bottle well charged will retain its efficiency throughout a whole
season. I always recharge two in the spring, one for active service
in the field and the other as a reserve force ; and these kept in a
cool place do good execution throughout the year. If they should
exhibit a slight failing, a few minutes' warming before a fire will
improve them ; but for field work it is better to recharge. At
the same time see that the corks are in good condition.

Next to the ' cyanide,' the bruised laurel takes the first rank for
permanency ; but you must not expect this to last many days.
For a few days' continuous work one charge will suffice, but if the
laiirel box has not been in use for some time you must have a fi-esh
supply.

The liipiid poisons, such as ammonia, chloroform, and benzole,
are so volatile that they are very powerful for a short time, but so
much vapour is lost each time the box is opened that it is absolutely
necessary to carry a bottle of the one you use into the field with
you. Also see that you have sufficient of the blotting paper or
other absorbent to prevent the liquid from leaking through the
perforations of the partition.

If you choose ammonia — a substance that is not regarded as a
poison, and is therefore easily obtained from any chemist — always
get the strongest, and see that it is labelled ' Liq. Ammonia, S.G.
•880 ' as a guarantee. A small bottle such as you can conveniently
carry in the waistcoat pocket will contain sufficient for a day's
work. Use only a few drops at a time, but renew frequently.
Although the ammonia corrodes cork- yet a good cork is far prefer-

72 WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

able for the pocket to a glass stopper, for its elasticity prevents
it from losing its hold, and the liquid from saturating your pocket
and its surroundings ; but a glass stopper is certainly better for the
stock solution kept at home.

Most of the above remarks apply equally well to benzole and to
chloroform, but the latter is so powerful a poison that a very little
is required for a day's work, and consequently a very small
bottle is more convenient. The dealers in naturalist's appliances
supply metal ' chloroform bottles ' with screw stoppers and a small
nozzle that will allow the liquid to run out only in di'ops. This is
a very good arrangement, since it enables you to avoid the ' drop
too much ' which is not only xmnecessary and therefore wasteful,
but saves you from experiencing the disappointment
of an empty bottle before j'our work is half done.

Some entomologists recommend the solid carbonate
of ammonium instead of liquid ammonia, but this is
not so powerful. It must be remembered that wo
have the butterflies to consider, as well as our own
convenience, in the selection of the poisons we use.
It is the opinion of many well-known entomologists
that ' insects cannot feel pain,' and that we are there-
fore at liberty to deal with them in any way we please.

^ W Still it is as well to save all possible suffering, and be

Fig. 45. — The satisfied with no killing box that is not practically
BoTTLr"'''' instantaneous in its effects.

Among other poisons used by entomologists I may
mention sulphur fumes and tobacco smoke. The former may be
obtained by burning a little sulphur or a sulphured lucifer matcli
under the perforations of a killing box of the pattern described, and
the latter — well, every smoker knows that. I should at once con-
demn the former method, at least for field work, as troublesome
and inconvenient ; and as to the other, I have tried the effect of a
puff (and many puffs) of tobacco smoke on an imprisoned insect,
but was so dissatisfied with the result that I am not likely to do so
again.

We have now considered a good many insecticides more or less
suitable to our purpose, but there still remains the unsolved problem
as to which is the best. Eacli one has its ad\\antagos. For
convenience nothing beats the cyanide bottle. It is very speedy in
its action, and the use of a bottle is a little preferable to a metal
box, for you can always satisfy yourself as to its efficiency witliout

CATCHING BUTTEBFLIES AND MOTHS 73

opening it. Cj'anide, cliloroforni, benzole, and some others render
the insects more or less brittle and stiff, so that it is not so easy to
' set ' them for the cabinet. Perhaps, if 3'ou happen to have a
supply of growing laurel close at hand, you cannot do better than
stick to the laurel box. The time taken in bruising up a few leaves
is inconsiderable, and the moisture given off from them will keep
your insects moist and supi)le, or will even ' relax ' them if the}
have become rigid. But try various plans for yourself, and you
will be able to settle a question which all the entomologists in the
world cannot answer for you — which method answers best in your
hands.

The next item for our consideration is the ' collecting box.'
This is merely a box in which the butterflies are pinned as soon as
they are dead. Here, again, we shall note a few variations from
which a selection can be made according to the means or the
ingenuity of the reader. For a couple of shillings you can obtain
a good zinc collecting box, lined with cork, of oval form (a most
convenient shape for the pocket), and quite large enough for one
day's captures ; and half that modest sum will piux-hase a wooden
box, also lined with cork, adapted to the same purpose.

As with many other things, so with collecting boxes, the cheapest
is often the dearest in the end. You may feel inclined to save a
shilling by buying a wooden box, biTt you are sure to discard it after
a little practical experience for a metal one. We shall speak a little
later on concerning the advisability of ' setting ' the butterflies as
soon as possible after capture ; but this is not always practicable,
especially after a good day's catch. Now, if the insects are pinned
in a wooden box, they soon become dry and rigid, and consequently
cannot be ' set ' till they ha^•e been put through the more or less
tedious process of ' relaxing.' If you use a wooden collecting box
you will often find, on a hot and dry day, that all or nearly all j'our
butterflies are rigid before you arrive home ; but a metal box will
keep them moist and supple, so that you can even put off the
setting till the following day if you are unable to do it immediately
after your return.

Another point worth considering is the best economy of space. If
your collecting box is only about one inch deep inside, you have
room for only one layer of pinned insects ; but a l)ox only a little
deeper may be lined with cork both at top and bottom, and thus be
made to accommodate double the number. The zinc boxes sold by
the dealers are generally lined witli cork in this manner, and are,

74 WOliK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

of course, deep enough for the double layer of specimens ; but the
wooden boxes are sometimes lined on the bottom only. After these
few remai'ks you will at once see the economy of expending the
extra shilling on the former.

Although the prices of collecting boxes are low, yet there are
many who would prefer making their own, and there is much to be
said in favour of this. A great deal of pleasure is to be derived
from the construction of your own apparatus, especially when that
apparatus is afterwards to be lased in the pursuit of a delightful
hobby. During the whole of the time thus engaged, you are look-
ing forward with the most pleasurable feelings to the glorious treat
before you, and every joint you make seems to bring you nearer to
the realisation of your joys. During the bleak winter months there
is no better employment for an entomologist who has a little spare
time than the preparation for the next outing. It is just one of
those artful schemes by which he seeks to get as much pleasure out
of life as it is capable of affording. How manj' there are who,
for the lack of a pleasant and instructive hobby, find their leisure
hours the most dismal of all, and who complain of the toil and
wearisomeness of their lot ! The mournftd thought with them is,
' Is life worth living? ' but who ever heard such an expression from
the lips of an active entomologist '?

But I must have done with moralising and proceed to business.
The question is — How shall we set to work about the construction
of a collecting box ? If it is to be a wooden one, select or make a
box of such a size as to suit your pocket or satchel, and cover the
bottom, and lid too if the depth allows of it, with sheet cork or
slices of good wine corks, about one-eighth of an inch thick, fixed
on with glue.

The metal box is not cpiite so easy, but even here >ou may
save yourself much work by keeping your eyes open. Verj- neat
little collecting boxes can be made out of the flat metal boxes in
which are sold certain favoi;rite brands of tobacco. Some of these
are just the right depth, and also of a very convenient size for the
coat pocket. Beg one of these boxes from a smoking friend, and if
the lid is not held by a hinge (a great advantage, by the way), 3'ou
can easily solder on a brass one.

All that remains now is the fixing of the cork. Buy a sheet
of cork at a naturalist's shop, this being a commodity always in
stock, and cut out two pieces just the size to cover the bottom
and the lid.

CATCHISG BUTTEBFLIES AXD MOTHS 75

Glim and glue are not very satisfactory as fixing agents, for, as
you will presently learn, there are times when it will be necessary
to keep the box moist, and moisture softens both these substances.
The cork vanst be fixed by means of little strips of metal. Here
are two ways of doing this :

First. — Cut a few little strips of sheet tin, each about two inches
long and one-eighth wide. Double and bend them as shown in
fig. 46, and solder them to the surfaces w'hich the cork is to
cover (fig. 47). As the cork is pushed m its place, these little
slips are allowed to force themselves through slits in it made by
means of a penknife, and then the ends are bent over as shown in
fig. 48. Two or three such fasteners will be qiiite st;fticient to hold
down each sheet of cork.

Second. — Put the sheets of cork in their places first, then
make a few little sUts through both metal and cork with the

Fig. 46.

Fig. 47.

Fig. 48.

Fig. 40.

point of a penknife, and then bind the two together with a
few ordinary paper fasteners. This arrangement is shown in
section in fig. 49.

Just one point more concerning the metal collecting box. You
will often call moisture to yom' aid in keeping the butterflies
flexible and soft. This wdll have but little action on zinc, but will
sooner or later cause the ' tin ' (really tinned iron) box to rust.
Here, then, is a point in favour of zinc, but still a home-made ' tin '
collector will last a long time if kept dry when not in use.

As already hinted, there are times when it is desirable to take
home certain butterflies alive, either for a study of their movements
or for the purpose of securing eggs for breeding. To this end j-ou
must provide yourself either with a numl)er of ' chip boxes ' with a
few small holes pricked in the cover, or with some metal boxes
with perforations for the admission of air. If the latter, you will

76 WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

have no difficulty in seciu-ing a few ' tin ' boxes of suitable size,
but, as the surface of the metal is very smooth, you should always
introduce a few leaves or something else that will provide a foot-
hold for the inmates.

The last item of the outfit is the pins. Ordinary draper's pins
are quite out of the question. They are far too thick and clumsy for
the collector's work. If you are not already acquainted with the
' entomological pins,' you had better ask a dealer to give you a
sample card. This will be very useful for reference until you
become well acquainted with the various lengths, thicknesses,
numbers and prices. The card will contain one of each kind, with
price and number attached.

If you fix a butterfly with the ordinary pin, you may find the
latter partly covered over with verdigris after a time. This bright
green substance is formed by the action of decomposing animal
matter on the copper of the pin, and gives a very unsightly appear-
ance to the specimen. To avoid this the entomological pins are
either silvered, blackened or gilded. The silvered pins tarnish
after a time, but the two other kinds keep their colour well, and
are therefore better. The gilded ones are rather expensive and un-
necessary, and perhaps the black ones are to be preferred to the
silvered, although they are rather more costly.

Most dealers will sujiply you with a box of mixed pins, each box
containing about six different sizes. This is very convenient for
those who work in a rather small way ; but if 3'ou intend to make
entomology a prolonged study jou had better get an ounce or so of
each of the more useful sizes.

Butterflies vary much in size, and Nos. 8 to 8 are the most
useful sizes of pins to fix them ; No. 3 being for the largest, and 8
for the smallest.

Supposing all the foregoing requisites to be quite ready, still you
are really by no means prepared for all your work. The butterflies
captured should be set as soon as possible after your return, and
everything required for this part of the work must be in perfect
trim. Yet I think it will be moi'e convenient just now to confine
our attention to the subject of ' Catching Butterflies,' leaving all
the indoor work to form tlie substance of another chapter. Our
next point, then, sliall be tlie consideration of seasons, times, and
localities.

The earliest of the butterflies make tlieir appearance on the
wing in April, or, if the weather is mild, towards the end of March ;

CATCHING BVTTEEFLIES AND MOTHS 77

and from this time you can find employment up to the end of
September or the be^nnning of October— a period of about seven
months. But it must not be supposed that all parts of this long
season are equally prohfic, and wiU yield equally valuable catches.
Remember the short term of a butterfly's life, and bear in mind
that each one has its own regular season in which to spend the
winged state ; you will then see that anyone who wishes to • work '
as many species as possible must arrange his outings in accordance
with the insects' own times.

Some butterflies are double-brooded, and the two broods may
not come forth at certain fixed times. Hence they seem to be on
the wing almost without cessation for several months together, and
therefore need not have a special day set apart for them. But
others are more uniform in their date of appearance, and die off at
about the same time. To catch such as these you must be careful
to watch the weather, make allowance for any severities that may
tend to cause a delay, or an unusually high temperature that may
hasten their emergence, and then select a day in which you may
expect to find them fi-esh and unworn. A week too early, and none
are to be seen ; a week too late, and nearly all you catch are worn
and worthless.

A glanc* at our Calendar (Appendix II) will give you a few
ilhistrations in point. Thus you will observe that May is a month
for the ' Whites,' early ' Blues ' and certain of the Fritillaries ;
July for most of the Hairstreaks and Browns, and so on. Before
you have been long collecting you wiU have captured the very
common species, and then you will find that your butterfly hunts
are very improductive unless you make it a pomt to try for certain
species at the proper times.

Time, however, is not the only thing to take into account when
preparing for a day with the butterflies. It is equally important
that we should carefully select our locality in accordance with the
known haunts of the various species. As long as you are simply
working up the common kinds, you may wander almost at random
in waste places, flowery meadows, corn fields, railway banks, &c. ;
but when you have secured a few specimens of each of these, you
miist search out the favoured resorts of the more local and the
rarer species. For instance, wooded spots must be visited if you
are to take certain of the Fritillaries, oak woods for the Purple
Emperor and the Piu-ple Hairstreak, fenny districts for the beau-
tiful Swallow-tail, and so forth. In some cases the butterflies arc

■78 WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE EIELl)

closely restricted to certain isolated localities, to which you must
travel if determined to obtain them.

There yet remains another important matter to consider, and
that is the kind of day you shall select for your outing. Butterflies
are not only strictly day-fliers, but most of them venture out only
on bright days. Always choose as hot a day as possible, with a
very bright sun. If yoii are to be out for a full day's collecting,
manage to be on the hunting ground at about ten o'clock in the
morning. As a rule there are not many out before this time, and
some do not appear to stir till an hour later : still there are a few
' early birds ' among them, one of which — the Wall Butterfly — I
have seen on the wing before eight.

If your season, your day, and your locality are all weU chosen,
you may reckon on a good sis hours' work. At about fom' the
butterflies begin to lag, and then drop into their hiding places, one
by one, till only a few of the late stragglers remain on the wing.

So far I have fmiiished some general instructions that vaa,j be
regarded as preparatory to the start ; but I will now give a few
hints as to the mode of procedure when the day for field work has
come.

First, see that you have secured all your apparatus, and that it
is in perfect condition. What is more annoying than to find, after
you have travelled some miles to get to your hunting ground, that
you have left your screw ferrule at home, or that the soldering of
your metal Y is just giving ^\&y ? If j'ou are troubled with a short
memory, it will be advisable to make out a list of every requisite
for yoiir field work, and keep this for reference on all field days.

Here is a list of your equipment for a day with the butterflies.
Net, ferrule or Y, stick, collecting box (the cork of which should be
damped if the box is a metal one), a few ' chip boxes ' for live
insects, killing apparatus, a good supply of pins of several sizes, a
piece of string, needle and cotton, and your penknife.

You observe in this list one or two items not previously men-
tioned, since they hardly come under the category of apparatus,
but a moment's thought will convince you of their usefulness, espe-
cially in the case of a breakdown. If yom* net catches in a thorn —
a very common occurrence— and a big rent is made, the needle and
cotton will save you a deal of agony, and perhaps loss of temper.
If your stick breaks iinder yom- exertions, the knife or the string
may prove a most valuable companion. Your pins may be stuck
in the cork of your collecting box, certainly the most convenient

CATCHING BCTTEFFLIES AND MOTHS 79

spot for immediate use ; but you may also have a reserve store in
a small pocket cushion, or arranged neatly on a sti^ip of flannel
which can be rolled up in the waistcoat pocket.

At last you are on the hunting ground, fully equipped but in-
experienced, and at first find yourself just a little awkward in the
use of your new gear. Your experience with the cap has been a
very wide one, and j'ou are possibly an expert at knocking down
' Whites ' in the streets and in your neighbour's kitchen gardens.
Now you have to wield the net, and coax your captives into your
killing bottle ; hence a slight feeling of incompetence at first.

You soon get over this, however, and within five minutes you
may be seen furiously slashing away at all the poor butterflies that
come within range, common ' Whites ' and dingy ' Browns ' re-
ceiving as much attention at j-our hands as any rare gem that
may happen to cross yoiu* path.

How different are the movements of an experienced collector !
He walks stealthily along the route he has chosen, apparently
taking but little notice of the majority of butterflies that approach
and pass him. He has already secured his ' series ' of nearly all
the species, and is carefiiUy on the watch for the geixis that are
required to complete his cabinet. His actions are slow and deli-
berate rather than rash ; and he tn;sts more to his eyes than his
legs.

The beginner may take to his field wt>rk quite to his own satis-
faction, and may travel homeward with a feelingof great pride over
his first da3''s catch ; but yet there are a few points in which a little
advice may not be cpiite out of place, particulaiiy so with regard to
the management of the net, and the killing and pinning of the
insects.

Most of the bi;tterflies may be caught on the wing, and it is far
better to net them in the air than to sweep them ofi" the herbage
and flowers. If these are rather low, you should strike the net
smartly uptoards from below them, but of course this movement is
impossible with insects that happen to be almost above your reach.
If a butterfly is busily engaged in searching out its sweet food,
flying from flower to flower, don't think of giving chase, but follow
it up stealthily, and you will sooner or later get an opportunity of
striking at it while in the air. Sometimes, however, you will see a
powerful flier making a straight dash across your field, taking no
notice whatever of the fragrant blossoms, but evidently engaged on
some important errand. If such happens to be a species you

80 WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

require, then yoii must run for it, but you will probably be satisfied
with only a few chases of this kind, particularly if the sun is very
hot, and the ^'ound diversified with clumps of furze, heather,
' molehills,' and ditches.

There are times when your only plan of netting a buttei'fly is
to sweep it from a flower or leaf on which it has settled. If the
vegetation is very low, you have simply to bring the net down upon
it, and then, holding up the apex of the net with the other hand so
as to give it room to fly, you can inclose it by grasping the lower
part of the net as soon as the butterfly has fluttered upward. If
the herbage is tall it is advisable to strike either upward or sideways
at the insect, starting it from the leaf or flower on which it rests ;
for if you bring doivn the net you will have to inclose the whole or
part of the plant on which the butterfly has settled — a procedure
that often ends in a torn net, or in the insect becoming damaged
through being rubbed against the plant.

Whenever you capture a butterfly by a sweep of the net
through the air, you immediately turn the ring into a horizontal
position, so that the bag of the net closes itself as it falls over the
edge. This gives you an opportunity of examining the insect before
you introduce your killing bottle. This is a very necessary precau-
tion, for you are generally unable to judge of the condition of a
butterfly while on the wing, and in some cases you cannot even be
certain of the species. If, then, you were to call the killing bottle
into requisition for every capture you make, you would certainly
find yourself taking the life of many an insect that is of no use
whatever to you. Always examine your specmiens at the moment
they have been secured, at least as far as it is possible to do so, by
looking through the gauze ; and let your examination be as brief as
possible, or some of the butterflies that were at first in splendid
condition will render themselves iiseless to you during their
struggles to get away.

When satisfied that an insect is likely to be of value to you, keep
it in the apex of the net by grasping the bag beneath it with the
left hand, and then introduce the opened killing bottle with the
other hand. As a rule you will experience not the slightest diffi-
culty in coaxiiig it into its trap, and then you quickly cover the
mouth of the killing bottle with the gauze, then apply your left
hand, using it as a temporary stopper for a few seconds, and now,
the insect having been quieted, replace the cork.

A good killing bottle is almost mstantaneous in its action, not

CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS 81

only stupefying, but immediately killing the insects ; and as soon as
you are sure that each specimen is quite dead, you may pin it in
your collecting box.

You must be cautious, however, on the one hand, that you do
not take it out too soon. If you do you may find that it recovers
from the mere stupefying effect of the poison, even after it has been
pinned, and when you open your collecting box for the next butter-
fly, you are horrified at the sight of the poor victim struggling to
free itself.

On the other hand, don't keep the insects in the killing bottle
too long. If you' do you will soon have a number, one lying on
another, and all tumbled about together while you are on the chase.
Of course, under such circumstances you are sure to damage them
more or less.

Many collectors, although they may always use a killing bottle for
moths, never employ one for butterfiies, but kill them by pinching
the thorax. It is well to know how to do this, for it sometimes
turns out to be a really quicker process than that we have just been
considering ; and, more than this, you can resort to it should you
break or lose your bottle while in the field. It is done in this
manner : Brmg the two opposite sides of the net together, closing
them on the insect so that it cannot flutter. If now the wings are
brought together over the back, all is right, but if not, give it just
a little room to flutter till you have the opportunity of closing the
gauze upon it with the wings in the desu'ed position. Now pinch
the thorax smartly between the finger and the thumb, applying the
pressure outside the net, but be careful not to squeeze the abdomen.
In a moment you will find the insect quite dead, and not in the
least damaged unless you performed the operation clumsily.

Now as to pinning. Hold the dead butterfly between the finger
and thumb of the left hand, and pass a pin of convenient size through
the centre of the thorax above, and push it through so that the point
appears centrally on the under surface. It is now ready for your
collecting box.

So you work on till the sun begins to get low, and the butterflies
become fewer and fewer, till only a few stragglers of common species
are to be seen. Still there are a few hours of daylight and perhaps
even of bright sunshine before you, and if you are not weary with
the work done, you may very profitably spend these hours in the
collection and study of the habits of moths.

82 WOEK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

Catching Moths by Day

The reason fov choosing the sunny hours for butterfly collecting
is obvious, all these lovers of brightness being then actively on
the wing ; and although many may be driven out of their hiding
places by beating the herbage with the handle of yoiu- net, or even
be searched out as they rest on stalks and leaves during dull days
or at morning and evening twilight, yet such methods are com-
parativelj' tedious and vmproductive.

Some moths also are lovers of sunshine, and while engaged in
butterfly hunting you will often meet with a moth flying briskly
from flower to flower and taking its fill of both sweetness and
brightness. Again, as you wade among flowery herbs in quest of
butterflies you will certainly disturb a number of moths, causing
them to take a short flight in search of a safer spot. Thus you will
almost invariably find a few moths among the contents of your
collecting box even though you made no special effort to seek
them out. But we shall now see how we may set to work to
obtain a successful catch of moths at times when butterflies are
not so much in demand, or dmnng the less brilliant hours of the
day, when butterflies are at rest.

The apparatus required for this work need not differ in any impor-
tant respect from that recommended for butterflies. The same net is
used, any reliable killing bottle will do, and tlie pins and collecting
box used for butterflies are equally serviceable. But your mode
of procedure is very different.

As you walk towards your proposed hunting ground you will
do well to examine the trunks of trees, old walls, and wooden fences.
In this way you will meet with moths fast asleep, which are
consequently easily taken. All you have to do is to hold the open
killing bottle obliquely just below the insect, and then push it
gently downward with a small twig or stalk. As a riile the moth
will drop direct into the bottle and make no attempt to fly away ;
but some are very light sleepers, ready to take flight at the slightest
disturbance ; and when dealing with these you must be careful to
bring the mouth of the killing bottle so closely round them that
there is no room for flight except into the bottle itself. It is well,
however, not to take long at this kind of searching, but to reserve
as much as possible of your time for what you consider to be a
very favourable locality.

iSpeaking generally, a good locality for butterflies is a favourable

CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS 83

one also for moths, and you will do well to give special attention
to well-grown hedges, especially those that surround clover fields ;
also overgrown banks, the borders of woods, open spaces in woods,
the trunks of isolated trees, gravel pits, and old chalk quarries.

Walk beside or among the undergrowth of woods, or among the
tall herbage of waste places, tapping the branches and twigs with
the handle of your net as you go. Then, if yoiu' locality is well
selected, yoii will rouse moths to flight at almost every stroke.
Some of these will shoot upward among the lofty branches and
disappear quite beyond your reach ; others will tly rather low and
somewhat heavily, giving j^ou favourable opportunities to try your
skill with the net ; others, again, will fly only a j'ard or so, and
alight on a neighbouring leaf, often remainmg so quiet that the
killing bottle is easily made to inclose them.

There are moths that show a decided preference for large trees.
These may be seen hovering about high branches during the even-
ing twilight, and sometimes even in sunshine. In many such
cases the chance of a capture seems hopeless, but occasionally one
will descend so low that a watchful collector is able to secure it by a
sweep of the net.

If at any time you are in a locality by day where you suspect
the presence of certain species of moths at rest among the upper
branches of trees, such branches should be beaten if possible to dis-
lodge the insects they may shelter. A long stick will often serve
this purpose well, and, failing this, a few stones thrown among
the branches may prove effectual. In the case of small and rather
slender trees, a kick against the trunk will set the whole in vibra-
tion sufficient to surprise all the lodgers ; and the same effect may
be produced with larger trees by giving each a good sound blow
with a mallet or some other suitable implement.

This or any other plan of ' beating ' for moths is much more
conveniently worked by two collectors together than by one alone ;
for one engaged in beating the herbage cannot be at the same
time fully on the alert with the net. If two persons are together,
one may take the lead, armed with the beating stick only, while
the other, only very slightly in the rear, is always read\' to
strike.

We have said that butterflies should always be killed in the
field, but this plan is not so imiversally adopted with moths. Many
collectors carry a large supply of pill boxes when going out for the
latter and then take as many as they possibly can by boxing them

84 WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

direct in these. This method of ' pill-boxing ' is very simple in
the case of the lazy and soundly sleeping moths. It is only
necessary to hold the open box below the insect, and then cause
it to fall by pressing the lid down gently on it from above.

Many of the moths so caught will remain quiet in the boxes
and can be taken home alive without much fear of damage. All
may then be killed at the same time by packing all the pill
boxes in some vessel of sufficient accommodation, and shutting
them in with a little chloroform, ammonia, benzole, or other
suitable poison. The vapour will soon find its way through the
pores of the pill boxes, biit, in order to make its action speedy,
each one should have a few perforations in the lid.

"Whatever advantages this method may give to the collector
who works at night, when the process of pinning would be more
or less tedioiis, there is no necessity for its adoption during the
day. The large number of pill boxes required is certainly far
more bulky than the single collecting box that would accommodate
all the day's captures ; and although most of the insects boxed
alive may be none the worse for the shaking they get, and may not
damage themselves by fluttering in their small prisons, jet there is
often a little loss on this score.

If you do adopt the pill-boxing method, be very careful
that you do not mix the occupied boxes with the empties ; and un-
less you fix on some definite plan for the prevention of such an
occurrence, you will often find yourself releasing a prisoner from a
box you have just opened to receive a new-comer.

Suppose that j'ou start with all your empties in your right
pocket. Then each one, as soon as it is tenanted, might be placed
in the left, with the name of the insect, or any particular concern-
ing it you would wish to note, pencilled on the lid.

When examining the trunks of trees you will be continually
meeting with specimens of very small Moths — Fyralides, Crambi,
Torfrices, and Tincce — and at first may find some difficulty in
boxing or bottling such small and delicate creatures. A grass
stalk will enable you to tip some of them into your killing bottle,
but some are so snugly packed in crevices of the bark that it is
almost impossible to get them out without damage, even with a
thin and slender stalk. But a sudden puff of wind from your
mouth will often be sufficient to dislodge them and blow them
into your net, and from this they are easily transferred to a box or
bottle.

CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS 85

These few hints will prove sufficient to start you on moth-
hunting expeditions during the daytime, and will enable you to
make good use of the dull daj-s and cloudy hours when the butter-
flies are quiet; biit we naust now turn our attention to the night
work of the entomologist, and see how we may attract and catch
moths during their hours of work and play.

SearcliUKj for Moths at Night.

It is a ^\•ell-known fact that the night-flying moths are attracted
by lights, a characteristic of these msects that it is difficult to
explain. Their love of darkness is in many instances so decided
that they absolutely refuse to take flight while the fading light of
daj' still lingers on the horizon, and even display a great aversion
to the rays of the moon ; and yet these very same species will
often rush madly into the fierce glare of a naked artificial light, or
fly with an energy almost amounting to fury against the glass of a
street lamp or lighted window.

Puzzling as this peculiar tendency is, we can profitably tmri
it to our own account by making it a means of luring a number of
moths into our presence.

The simplest way of putting this mode of capture into effect is
to post yourself at your open window, with net and cyanide bottle
at hand, while the brightest light you can command casts its rays
as far and as wide as possible into darknesp outside. If you use
an oil lamp for the purpose, let it stand just inside the window
frame, or, if a jointed gas bracket happens to be situated beside the
window, bend it round so that the rays may pass over a wide area
outside.

Two such lights are sometimes a very decided advantage— one
quite outside the window to attract the moths from all possible
points, and then another near the middle of the room to invite
them inside. Whether you use either one or two lights, always
see that it or they are so surrounded by a screen that the moths
cannot by any possibility rush into the flame. There is nothing
better for this purpose than a covering of light gauze, for this is
not only a barrier for the prevention of the siiicidal tendencies of
the insects, but it also gives a good foothold to those who would
like to rest and enjoy the luminous feast.

You will soon begin to learn that moths, like ourselves, exhibit
great differences in their ways of enjoying their festal moments.

86 WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

Some will satisfy themselves by flyin<T; near the li^ht in almost a
straight course, hardly slackening their speed as they pass ; or will,
perhaps, make a hurried cm-ve roinid the light and then pass on at
once abont other business. To catch these you must be always on
the alert, with net in hand, ready to make a dash at the right
moment. I>ut many will make straight for the flame, and then,
finding a barrier in the form of gauze or glass, will either flutter
round and round as if dissatisfied with j'our attempt to save them
from an untimely end, or else settle quietly on the screen to enjoy
the brightness for a long period. The flutterers are usually easily
covered by a glass or the open cyanide bottle, and as for those that
settle down quietly, you can take them at your leisure.

It will not do for a collector to depend solely on this method of
obtaining moths, but at times when either his duties or the bad
weather keeps him at home it affords hhn a means of capturing a
few specimens that otherwise would have been missed. He may
be even so busily engaged in other matters that he cannot afford
the time to stand and watch with net in hand, but the insects that
fly into his room and dance round the gas jet or inquisitively
examine the white surface of the ceiling are easily netted or boxed
without much loss of time.

The chances of success at this kind of work will vary consider-
ably with the aspect, the season, and the weather. If your
window opens on a large flower or fruit garden, on a patch of
wooded country with plenty of underwood, a piece of waste ground
overgi'own with rank vegetation, or a stretch of heath or moor,
then you may expect a very large number of visitors ; but if you
are situated on a level and barren country, or in the dense
atmosphere of a thickly populated district, you must not reckon on
many intruders.

As regards the season, this is more extended than that of the
butterflies. A few species of moths may give you a call during
the bleak nights of October and November, and also during the
somewhat less dismal nights of February and March; but from
April to September you may rely on a goodly number of captures.
Of course you will not expect many of the ' rarities ' and ' gems '
to find you out ; these are to be searched for in the open field in
the manner to be presently described ; but your lights will attract a
large mmiber of the commoner species of Geometrcr and Nocfncp,
the former chiejiy during the earl 3- smnmer, and the latter more
or less throughout the season.

CATCHING BUTTEBFLIES AND MOTHS

A little experience will show yoii that the atmospheric con-
ditions form a very important consideration. The dark and \\arm
nights are the most productive. Very little Inck is to be anticipated
when the full moon is throwing down her silvery rays from a clear
sky ; nor will you see many while a cold east or north-east wind is
blowing. Under these conditions many moths prefer to keep in the
sheltered nooks where they slept away the sunny hours of the day.
They love a warm and moist air such as calls forth the odours of
the fragrant blossoms that provide their sweets, and show no dislike
to a line drizzling rain that you yourself would prefer to avoid. A
pelting shower will generally keep them luider cover, but they
delight in the fi'esh and moist air that imme-
diately succeeds the passing storm.

If you reside on the oiitskirts of a town an
occasional tour of inspection of street lamps
may add a few specimens to your collection, and
some entomologists attach so much importance
to the value of these luminaries that they provide
themselves with a special net for the removal of
moths from the glass and rails (fig. 50). The
straight side marked a is applied to the panes
of glass when flutterers or settlers are to be
taken, and the bend on the opposite side is to
secure those that rest on the rail. Such a fi'ame
is easily made by bending a piece of stout wire
to the required shape, and then soldering it to a
ferrule to receive a long stick. The net itself
should not be deep.

Many different forms of traps are now made for catching
moths, and these are deservedly coming rapidly into favour. They
are generally constructed on a ' catch-'em-alive-oh ' principle, and
have the advantage that, after having been set, they may be left alone
all night withoiit any watching, and give an ambitious collector the
opportunity of taking insects in his garden and searching in the
open field both at the same time.

One of these traps may be constructed as follows at the cost
of only a few pence over the price of a small paraftin lamp. Piit
together a square box, the sides about two feet and the front open,
or procure a suitable one from your grocer. Place a paraffin lamp
with a bright tin reflector at the back of this, and make a hole in
the top just over the chimney to allow the heated air to pass out

Fig. 50. — Frame
OF Net for Col-
lecting Insects
ON Lamps and
Windows.

WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

freely. Three sheets of glass are now to be placed as sliown m the
sketch (fig. 51), one upright piece completel}' shutting off the lamp,
and two others placed obliquely' with a space between them just
large enough to allow admission. These must be exactly the
width of the box, and should not be permanently fixed, but simply
resting on small wooden supports nailed on to the sides. "When re-
quired for use, it is only necessary to light up the lamp, strew some
dead leaves on the bottom of the box, and put the sheets in their
places. It will be seen at once that the angles at which they are
placed will direct all light-seekers into the lower comjjartment,
whence they are not at all likely to find their way out again ; and
after vain endeavours to reach the light they finally settle down on
the sides of the box or seek shelter among the dead leaves.

Occasionally it hap-
pens that an entomologist,
is lucky enough to claim
the friendship of a person
who, from the nature of
his calling, is peculiarly'
well qualified to render
him great assistance.
Thus a friendly lamp-
lighter, expert and patient
in the use of the cyanide
bottle or pill box, is capable
of giving valuable aid at
times ; and the keeper of a
lighthouse has it in his power to capture many a gem that is seldom
seen on the wing ; but, although mitch may be done by means of
these and other stationary lights, this kind of work does not com-
pare favourably with the night rambles of a naturalist in the xevy
hatints of the objects of his search.

For such otitdoor work in search of moths a good lantern is
essential. An ordinary ' bull's-eye ' is almost useless, for, although
it concentrates a good light on certain objects, the narrow range of
its rays constitutes a strong objection to its use for entomological
work. For this purpose it is necessary that the rays of light not
only pass in front of 3'ou, but also shoot off right and left to warn you
of the approach of a moth before it is too late to wield the net.
This wide range maybe obtained by means of tliree flat glass sides,
or, better still, by a bent plate glass front.

Fig

Teap foe Catching Moths.

CATCHING BUTTEBFLTES AND MOTHS 89

In addition to this ,yoii nmst go out pi'ovided witli yonr net,
killing bottle, and a nnniber of pill boxes. Choose your night
according to the hints already given, and if you are on the look-out
for any particular species, be careful that the date of your outing is
well timed, making any necessary allowances for the forwardness
or backwardness of the season, for a moth that is generallj^ due on
a certain average time of the year may appear some weeks sooner
if the preceding weeks have been unusually warm, or its emer-
gence may be delayed considerably by the prevalence of cold east
winds or a late frost.

Make up your mind as to the field of your operations before you
start, and if possible choose a route that will carry you through a
variety of situations, so that you may pass the favourite haunts of
a number of different species. Clearings in woods with an abundant
undergrowth, waste places with plenty of tall and rank vegetation,
overgrown railway banks, clover fields, the flowery borders of corn
fields, plantations in parks, heaths and moors, sheltered and over-
grown hollows such as chalk pits and old disused quarries, reed and
marsh land, all these are good localities, each one inhabited by its
own peculiar species, and if your route runs through a fair variety
of such places you may, other things being equally favourable,
depend on a good catch.

See that your time also is well chosen. Of coiu'se you cannot
say exactly what the night will be till it actuall}' comes, and, as
you have to start off before it is dark, you must consider the
probabilities of the future from the present condition of the air. Let
it be a night when a bright moon is not due, and if it follow a
warm and moist day with a south or south-west wind, or if drizzly,
so much the better ; but let j'our feet be shod with boots that will
permit j-ou to wade through moist herbage without danger, and
take a waterproof if necessary.

It is always advisable to be oir your hunting ground before
twilight sets in, as a number of moths venture out before the sun
has disappeared ; and then you can work on till midnight if you
feel inclined, or even extend yoiu' labours till the earl^- hours of the
morning.

Before dusk you will meet with many of the little Torfrices
(page 298) in sheltered spots, and a little later the Geometrce and
Hawks will be on the wing. Thus, before dark, you may make
good use of your net, dealing with your captures just in the same
wav as recommended in the case of butterflies.

90 ]VOBK AT HOME AND IN THE EIELD

After a time, however, the lantern will have to be bron.efht to
yonr assistance in making known the whereabouts of the later
species, consisting chiefly of the Noctiice, many of which do not
make their appearance till it is quite dark. If now you carry your
lantern in your left hand, your work will be rendered somewhat
difficult and tedious, for, although one hand is sufficient to manage
the net properly, joii are compelled to rest your light on the ground
every time you make a capture, as it is impossible to box your
specimens unless both hands are quite free. This difficulty is easily
overcome by suspending the lantern by means of a string or strap
placed round your neck, allowing it to hang on your chest ; and a
further advantage is gained by having a second strap round your
chest to prevent it from swaying about with every movement of
yovir body. This arrangement gives you both hands perfectly free
during the whole time, and also prevents the necessity of con-
tinually bringing yourself into a stooping or kneeling posture
while you are examining or boxing the specimens you have
netted.

There are now two courses open to you. Either yon can kill
and pin the moths as you catch them, fixing each one securely in
the collecting box, or you may simply shut each one in a separate
pill box and leave the remainder of the work to be done at home.
If the ordinary collecting box only is used, a little of your time is
necessarily occupied in pinning and transferring, and if many
insects are about such an occupation may appear to you to be a
waste of valuable time. But this is not all. Often and often will
you find that while thus engaged a splendid moth will come and
flutter round your light ; and, before you have time to drop your
collecting box and pick lap the net, the fine creature you would
have prized has darted off again. This certainly seems to speak in
favour of the pill-boxing method, but it must be remembered that
a few of the moths will continue to flutter after they have been
boxed, so that when you arrive home they are more or less
damaged, a large number of the scales that once adorned the wings
now lying on the sides and bottom of the boxes. Perhaps the best
plan is to take both the collecting box and also a quantity of pill
boxes, and a little experience will soon show you which is the
better accommodation for certain kinds.

Particular attention nnist be paid to flowers, some of wliich are
very attractive to the Noctuce especially-. Sallow blossom in spring
and ivy bloom in autumn should be carefully and frequently

CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

watched, and at other times the blossoms of heather, ragwort,
bramble, clover, and various other flowers miist be searched.

As you cast the rays of the lantern on the feasting moths some
will prove themselves very wary, and dart away at your approach ;
but others will take but little notice of your ad\ance. and will
continue to suck the sweet nectar, their eyes glaring like living
sparks.

As a rule the NoctucB thus engaged are easily pill-boxed or
caught direct in the cyanide bottle ; but a few of the more restless
species are to be made siu-e of only by a sweep of the net. Some
will feign death as soon as disturbed, and allow themselves to drop
among the foliage, where further search is generally fruitless.

Another common difficulty arises
from the inconvenient height of many
of the attractive blossoms — often so
great that it is impossible to reac
them with the net, and very difficult
to direct the rays of your lantern on
them. This is particularly the case
with sallow and ivy, the
flowers of which are two
rich sources of supply
to the entomologist.

Those who intend
giving special attention
to these blossoms should
be provided with some
form of apparatus that

will enable them to extend their operations as high as possible.
Perhaps the most effective arrangement is the well-known combina-
tion here figured. It consists of a long and stout stick, at the top of
which is a tubular joint (fig. 52) that might be termed a T-piece
were it not that the smaller part does not stand out at right angles
to the other. In this is fixed, in a straight line with the stick, a
short rod on which hangs a lantern — an ordinary bull's-eye answers
well here ; and in the smaller tube is anotlier short rod carrying a
shallow basin-shaped net, and of such a length that the net is just
in advance of the lantern.

At first sight this arrangement will strike you as being very
unsatisfactory, there being no kind of trap to prevent the escape of
the insects. But it must be remembered that moths are more or

Fig.

Fig. 5.S.- Net ani> Lakti;k\
loK Taking Moths fkoji
High Blossoiis.

92 WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

less addicted to habits of intenipevance— that they will hold on to
the supply of the sweet fluid tliey enjoy till they are ready to di'op
with intoxication. This being the case, some will fall into your
net as soon as they are startled by the sudden and near approach
of the glare of your lamp, and others are easily made to fall therein
by gently tapping the flower-bearing stems from below with the
edge of the ring.

Having become acipiainted with tliis very sad propensity, which
thus brings ruin to so many unfortunate moths, can we not yet
further turn their evil doings to our own profit in our endeavours
to become acquainted with their structure and history ? Most
certainly we can. All we have to do is to distribute in their haunts
a bountiful supply of some artificial intoxicant such as they love,
and then He in wait for the victims that fall a prey to our snare.
This process is known to entomologists as ' sugaring,' and is a
splendid means of securing an abundance of species, often including
some rare ones that are scarcely to be obtained by any other plan.
Let us now inquire into the modus operandi of this interesting
operation.

The first thing to do is to prepare the luring sweetmeat. Supply
yourself with a quantity of strong, dark treacle, and also some dark
brown sugar ; always remembering, in the selection of these viands,
that odour rather than purity is to be the guide. The best kinds of
sugar are those very dark and moist brands imported in a raw state
from the West Indies, nothing being better than that known as
' Jamaica Foots.'

Mix about equal quantities of these with a little stale beer, and
boil and stir till all the sugar is dissolved. The consistency of the
mixture should be such that it will work well with a brush when
used as a paint — not too thick, nor so thin that it is easily
absorbed by the substance on which it is ' painted,' nor must it be
in such a fluid condition that it easily runs.

When satisfied on these points, transfer the mixture to a tin
canister, see it properly covered, and set it aside as your ' stock '
from which you can draw supplies as required. Now secure an
ordinary painter's brush of convenient size, and a number of strips
of linen or other rag, each one of which is fastened to a hook formed
of bent wire. These items, together with the usual lantern, collect-
ing box, pill boxes, and killing bottle, complete your outfit for the
sugaring expedition.

When the selected time for operations has arrived, take siif-

CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS 98

ficient ' sugar ' for your night's work, mix it well with sufficient
strong rum to give it a very decided odom-, and start oti' at dusk
with this and the other requisites just mentioned.

The night chosen should be warm and calm, with a rather damp
atmosphere, and no moon preferred. Let your locality be a well-
wooded one ; abounding, if possible, with giant oaks and other trees,
and containing open spaces with plenty of underwood and rank
herbage. Such localities are to be met with at their best in forest
lands, and if you would do wonders at sugaring you cannot do better
than arrange for spending your holidays in such a spot as the New
Forest, taking with you sufficient ' sugar ' for several nights' work.

Having reached a likely spot of no very great extent, you pre-
pare for real work. Light up the lamp, and get out your sugaring
tin and brush ready for action. Take your course along some
definite track that you are sure to remember, painting vertical strips
of sugar, about a foot long, on the trunks of trees or on palings,
and hanging strips of rag that have just been steeped in the sugar
on the branches of small trees and shrubs where you do not find
good siu-faces for the brush.

After satisfying yom'self concerning the amount of sugar dis-
tributed, retrace your steps, examining every patch of sugar as you
go. It will not be long before signs of life appear. Earwigs, spiders,
centipedes and slugs will soon search out the luscious feast, but
imless the time and the locality are ill chosen, the lantern will soon
reveal a goodly number of moths, with eyes glaring like little balls
of fire, greedily devouring the bounteous re2:)ast. These will consist
chiefly of Noctuce, but S^iliiiigrs, Geometra', and numerous small
species also join the company.

Some will exhibit a restless disposition, either darting off before
you make a close approach, or keeping their wings in rapid vibration
as if to be fully prepared for a hasty retreat when occasion demands.
These must receive your attention first ; and, having secured them,
proceed to box as many as you require of the more lazy and
gluttonous species.

As a rule, moths thus engaged are easily pill-boxed, but the
livelier ones will not submit to such treatment withoi;t attempting
to escape. The best way to secure these is either to cover them
with the opened cyanide bottle (or its substitute), and replace the
cork as soon as a favourable opportunity occurs ; or to perform the
same feat with a glass-bottomed pill box.

The advantage of the latter over the ordinarv boxes will be

94 WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

seen at once- After the insect is covered, its movements can be
watched, and so a favourable opportunity can be seized for snap-
ping on the lid.

As already stated, some moths feign death when in danger,
allowing themselves to fall in places where they are often quite safe
from captmre. Others allow themselves to fall simply because they
have so gorged themselves with the intoxicating sweet that they
can no longer maintain their hold. Both these classes of sugar
seekers may easily be secured by means of a net coniuionly known
as the ' sugaring net.'

This implement is so simple in its construction that anyone can
easily make his own. Tlie frame maj^ consist of two straight
wires or canes fixed in a metal Y, and the other ends joined by a
piece of strong string or catgut as shown in fig. 54. The net itself need
not be deep. As soon as you reach a tree where moths are feeding
on the sugar, press the string of the net against
the bark just below them. The string at once
assumes the form of the trunk so well that you
may be sure of every insect that falls while you
are boxing.

For this work both hands must be free, and
this is easily managed in spite of the nmiiber of
appliances called into service. The lantern is

Fig. 54. Fk.\5ie slung round your neck and secured by a strap

FOR THE SuG.uiiNG rouud the chest. The ' sugaring net ' has a very
■'^^'^' short stick, and ji:st while you are engaged in

boxing specimens, it may be gently held against the trunk by a
slight pressure of the body. But such precautions as these are
necessary only when the nighf worker is out alone. There are
many circumstances, however, that render the work of two or more
in company much more enjoyable than that of a single-handed
entomologist. The labours are considerably expedited where a
division enables each one of the night ramblers to take a particular
portion of the work ; and if there is such a person as a nervous
entomologist, that individual should on no account go a sugaring in
lonely spots on dark nights. Every rustling leaf gives such a one
a start; all footsteps are those of approaching disturbers of the
peace ; and when at last the invisible landowner or his keeper,
attracted by the mysterious movements of the lamp, greets him
with his gruff ' What's your business here ? ' then for the moment
he forgets his enchanting hobby and wishes he were safelv at home.

CATCHING BVTTEBFLIES AND MOTHS 95

It is certainly advisable to take a friend, whether an entomologist
or not, on such expeditions ; and it' you intend working on private
grounds, always make previous arrangements wdth the property
owner, that you may fear no foes and dread no svu'prises ; for a
sugarer is far more sure of success in his work if he keeps a cool
head and has nothing to think about for the time being but his
moths and his boxes.

A few hours at this interesting employment pass away very
rapidly, and when midnight arrives there is often no great desire to
leave off, especially when it is known that some species of moths
are not very busy till very late at night. Still it is not advisable
to surfeit oneself with even the sweets of life. Perhaps it is better
as a rule to work the early species only on one night, and reserve
another for the later ones. The searchings are then always carried
on with vigour throughout, and the labours that are thus never
made laborious ever retain their attractiveness in the future.

It has often been observed tliat, when sugaring has been carried
on for a few successive nights in the same locality, the success is
greater each night than on the one preceding it. Hence it is a
common practice to work a chosen ' run ' for two, three, or more
nights in succession ; and some collectors even go so far as to lay on
the bait for a night or two previous to starting work. For the same
reason it is often advisable to continue the use of a fairly productive
beat rather than to wander in search of a new one.

In the neighbourhood of large towns one may often meet with
patches of sugared bark that mark the course and extent of a
brother entomologist's beat, and such are valuable to an inex-
perienced amateur in that they give him some idea of the nature of
the localities that are chosen by more expert collectors. But it
must be remembered that each entomologist has a moral right to a
run he has baited, and that it is considered ungentlemanlj^, if not
unjust, to take insects from sugar laid by another. I have sometimes
seen cards, bearing the names of the collectors and the date of
working, tacked on to baited trees and fences, thus establishing
their temporary exclusive rights to the use of their runs. Such
precautions are not necessary in large tracts of forest land, where
the choice of runs is practically unlimited.

There are two other modes of capture available to the moth
collector — the use of decoy females, and the employment of sugar
traps' — and both these may be used on the sugaring run, or at other
times either in the woods or in yoiu- own garden.

WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

The wonderful acnteness of the sense by which the males of
certain species are enabled to seek out the females has already been
alluded to, and the possession of a suitable decoy will often bring
you a number of beautiful admirers without the least trouble, except
that taken in securing the decoy and preparing her temporary abode.
It is absolutely necessary that the female moth be one that has
recently emerged, and consequently you had better secure her in
one of her earlier stages, either by previoiis rearing or by collecting
tlie pupie.

A little cage composed of a framework of wire covered with gauze
must now be made. Perhaps the simplest pattern is that illustrated.
Here the gauze is attached to two wire rings, only a few inches in
diameter, and suspended by a string. Such a cage answers every

Fig. 55.— Cage for
Decoy Females.

Fig.

56.— A Sugar
Trap.

purpose in the field, and has the advantage of folding into an
exceedingly small space when not in use. It may be suspended in
yonr garden or taken into the field whenever you have a suitable
decoy at your disposal.

The sugar trap may be of much the same pattern as that in
which a light is used, but if intended for field work it should be of a
convenient size for portability. A lighter and far more convenient
form may be constructed as follows :

Procure a large cylindrical tin box, and cut a circular piece of
perforated zinc just small enough to drop into it. Then make two
wire rings, one a little larger than the top of the tin, and the other
only about an inch in diameter. Next make a conical net of leno,
open at both ends, and of such a size that the two rings may form
the frames of its two extremities. When the trap is required for

CATCHING BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS 97

use, cut a circular piece of flannel or other absorbent, steep it in
sugar that has just been flavoured with ruui, and place it in the
bottom of the tin. Then place a few pebbles of equal size around
the sides to support the zinc partition, drop in the partition, and
then allow the net to hang on the riin as sho^\■n in the sketch.

This arrangement will explain itself. The moths, attracted by
the sweet perfume, flutter about in the net till at last they find their
way through the small ring. Once in, they make further attempts
to reach the siigar ; and, at last, finding all efforts fruitless,
and, like Paddy at the fair, not bemg able to dicover the ' entrance
out,' they finally settle down in a disappointed mood awaiting your
pleasure.

Perhai:)S another word of explanation is necessary here. Why
not allow the poor creatures to reach the sugar that attracted them
to the spot '? The reason is this. They sometimes gorge themselves
to such an extent that their bodies, dilated to the fidlest capacity
with syru}), are a bit troiiblesome when the insects are placed in the
cabinet. It is therefore advisable to see that the zinc is so far above
the sugar that the moths are iinable to reach the latter by thrusting
theii- extended proboscides through the perforations. A few dead
leaves scattered on the zinc is also a useful addition, since it affords
shelter to such of the insects as prefer it.

This is a very useful trap to keep in one's gordeu throughout the
season. It may not attract large nimibers, but it has the advantage
that it requires no watching. It is simply necessary to set it at
dusk, and remove the captives in the morning or at yoiu' leisure.

98 WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

CHAPTER VII

COLLECTING OVA, LARV^, AND PUP.¥]

We have already observed that insects should, as a rule, be set as
soon as possible after their capture ; and it would therefore seem
that this is the proper place for instructions in this part of the work.
But it so happens that butterflies and moths are to be obtained by
means other than those already described, and we shall therefore
consider these previous to the study of the various processes
connected with the setting and preserving of ovir specimens.

Were we to confine our attention to the capture of the perfect
forms only, our knowledge of the Lepidoj^tera would be scanty
indeed, for we should then be ignorant of the earlier stages of the
creatm'es' lives, and have no opportunitj' of witnessing the wonderful
transformations through whicli they have to pass.

Such an imperfect acquaintance with butterflies and moths will,
I hope, not satisfy the readers of these pages ; so it is intended, in
the next two chapters, to give a little assistance to those who would
like to know how to set to work at the collection of their eggs and
larvie, how to search for the pupae, and how to rear the insects
from the stage at which they are acquired till they finally emerge
in the perfect form.

These portions of an entomologist's work certainly take up a
great deal of his time, and also require much patience and perse-
verance ; but the advantages derived cannot be over-estimated, for
in addition to the knowledge gained of the early stages of insect
life, this kind of work will enable him to place in his cabinet a
number of gems he would otherwise have not and probably know
not. Occasionally a prize may be obtained in the form of a cluster
of eggs (ova) of a rare species, in many instances the larvae are to
be obtained with comparative ease, while the perfect insects of the
same species are not often seen or not easily captured, and many a

COLLECTING OVA. LARV.E, AM) PUP.E 99

rare pnpa has been dug out of its hiding place during a season

when the entomologist had but little other work to occuiiy his time.

These and other similar subjects we shall now consider in turn.

Collfctiiuj Ova

The collection of ova may be carried on more or less through-
out the year. A number of moths are out in February, and even
in January if the weather is mild. These soon lay their eggs,
which are hatched about the time that the buds of the food plant
are breaking. From this time till late in the summer the ova of
various species are being deposited, the average period from laying
to hatching being from two to three weeks. Then, during the
autumn, when the leaves of food plants are tiu'ning brown and
crisp, ova are still being laid, but these remain unchanged till the
new buds of the following spring are bursting.

Of course if yoTi intend searching for the ova of particular species
you must pre^ iously ascertain the faA ourite haunts of those species,
become acquainted with their food plants, and also with the season
or seasons during which the eggs are laid. But the few following
hints will sutiice as general instructions for the search.

In neai'ly all cases we must expect to find ova on the food plants
of the respective species, but at times, especially with certain
moths, we may come across them in the most unlikely spots.
Thus, it sometimes happens that a moth settles on a street lamp
and lays her eggs on the framework round the glass, or even on
the glass itself. The same thing may take place on the sash or
glass of a brightly lighted window.

Hucli occurrences, however, we must regard as accidental and
comparatively rare, and therefore we confine our searchings for ova
to the food plants of the species we require.

As a rule the under sides of the leaves will yield the most, but
we have already noticed (page 18) that some moths leave their eggs
exposed on the upper surface. Again, some larvae feed on flowers
and seeds and fruit, and the eggs of such are dej)osited on these
parts. Those insects which feed on the leaves of shrubs and trees
often lay their eggs on trunks, branches and twigs. Sometimes
these are laid singly, sometimes in dense clusters ; and it is not
i;nusual to find them arranged in rings or spirals with great regu.
larity. When examining the trunks of trees for o\sl it is necessary
to look \\ ell into the crevices of the bark, for some insects take

u -1

100 WOEK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

particular care to lay tliein in deep .sheltered chinks ; but others
take no such precautions, and deposit them on exposed ridges or
plain surfaces where they are easily discovered.

One difficulty of the ova collector lies in the fact that many
insects lay on the upper branches of large trees. Of coiu'se a search
for these is out of the question ; but in places where the trees have
been cut down a few years previously, and where a consequent
undergrowth has developed, there are considerable chances of
success with these species. Young saplings of trees often yield
well, especially in places where tall trees of the same species are
absent. It may be mentioned, too, that some moths (page 2'J4)
actually lay their eggs beneatli the surface of water, depositing
them on the under surfaces of floating pond weeds ; and others
(page 298) even enter the nests of wasps and bees for the same pur-
l)ose. It is clear, then, from these few remarks, that the work of
an ambitious collector of insects' eggs is by no means a monoto-
nous task ; for his employment takes him uito the meadows and
woods, leads him to the banks of ponds, and even compels him to
tear down banks and hedges for the nests of Hyme)wptera at the
risk of a sting or two.

One of the most productive sources of eggs is undoubtedly the
possession of captured females. AVhen you are oiit netting butter-
flies you often see a female that is evidently engaged in her
matronly duties. Instead of seeking food from the various flowers
in her path, she pavs attention only to the foliage, looking out a
suitable leaf on which to deposit her eggs. Should you meet with
an insect thus engaged which you would like to rear at home, or of
which you would like to know the egg, secure it in a perforated
pill box with a leaf of the proper plant ; and it will often supply
you ^vith abundance of eggs for your purpose, in many cases de-
positing them in the box before you arrive home. The eggs of
numerous species of moths are also to be easily obtained from
captured females.

Some insects do not seem inclined to deposit their eggs in cap-
tivity as freely as when at large, and in order to induce them to do
so we must, as far as possible, put them in their natural conditions.
Let them have plenty of room, and supply them with fresh twigs
of their food plants, kept green by standing them in vessels of
water. It is also advisable, supposing you are not well acquainted
with the dispositions of the species you have, to keep a portion of the
box well shaded from direct sunlight, and allow another part to be

COLLECTiyG OTVl, LAnV.T^. AND PUP.F. 101

as bright as possible ; for some species will not lay in a bright lisht,
wliile others will not do so without it.

Again, while some deposit tlieir eggs within a few hours of
quitting the pupa case, others do not lay for several days. With
regard to the latter, it is frecpiently necessary to feed them while
in captivit}', by placing in the box a piece of rag or sponge that has
been dipped in honey or syrup.

Each batch of ova should be carefully examined with a view to
knowing them by sight on a future occasion. A sketch should be
made in your note book, showing every detail that you can make
out with the aid of a good lens. Then observations concerning the
season, colour of the eggs, the situation in which deposited, arrange-
ment, and any other useful particulars, should be entered.

In the next chapter some hints will be given concerning the
management of ova and the rearing of the larvse from the time of
hatching.

Collect iiir/ Larvcr

This occupation is generally far more productive to tlie
entomologist than searching for ova. The latter are very small,
usually well concealed, and to be detected only by a careful
scrutinising use of the eyes ; but the superior size of the larva",
the frequent bright colouring, and the f^ict that they are easily
beaten from tlieir hold, render the searchings of their hunters
comparatively easy and fruitful.

Before setting out on a larva-hunting expedition, there are a few
requisites to prepare. These include not only the implements for
your work in the field, but also the cages in which you intend to
rear your little captives. The latter are described a little later on
under the head 'Rearing Lepidoptera,' and the former we will now
briefly summarise.

The outfit must consist of a quantity of suitable boxes, a stout
hooked stick, a strong net, and a white material to place under the
herbage while you are ' beating.'

' Larva boxes ' are lasually made of zinc, and have little sliding
doors in the lids, so that the lids need not be removed while out of
doors after the fragment of the required food plant has been
inserted. Such boxes are not by any means essential. Small tin
boxes w'ill answer all purposes nearly as well, providing a number
of small holes be made in them for the admission of air. Chip
boxes are also fairly satisfactory, biit these also should be per-

102 TrOi?iv AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

forated. The best way to do this is to push a red-liot iron wire
through the chip, making about half a dozen small holes in each
box. This method will give you clean holes of a uniform size
without otherwise injuring the boxes.

Metal boxes possess the advantage that they keep the food
plants moist for a long time, while chip boxes allow them to dry
rather rapidly. Yet there are some larvte that do far l)etter in the
latter, since such a quantity of moisture exiides through their skins
that they soon become uncomfortably wet if their apartment is not
well ventilated. Under these circumstances perhaps it is better to
take a supply of both, so that changes may be made as found
necessary.

One gi'ave objection to chip boxes, however, is the weakness of
the material. They are easily crushed by pressure, and a bottom
or a top disc of wood often falls out ; but this is easily overcome by
gluing narrow strips of calico round the toj) and bottom edges.
Chip boxes should always be treated in this way, and they will
then last five or six times as long.

Your supjjly of boxes should always include one large one of
metal in which to bring home a supply of food for the larvte. If
you have a botanist's vasculum, by all means take it, for nothing
can serve this purpose better. If not, any rather large square tin
box will do, and this may be cai-ried in your satchel, or a couple of
hooks may be soldered to it so that a leather strap can be fixed for
slinging it over j'our shoulder.

The net required is tliat commonly known as the ' sweep net.'
It must be very strong, for it has to submit to i-ather rough usage.
The frame must be made of thick wire ; and the bag, which need
not be more than a foot deep, should be of strong calico or holland.

Now with regard to the white material previously mentioned.
This may be a square of calico, hemmed round the edges. Nothing
is more convenient than this, as it occupies biit little room in the
pocket when not in use, if neatly folded. The material need not
be thick, but the larger it is the better. Many prefer a white
umbrella or an ordinary umbrella with a white lining, but as this
is only a matter of taste and convenience you must decide for your-
self as to which you will use.

If your field of operations is only a little way from your head
quarters, and quantity of luggage therefore not a seriov;s considera-
tion, you may provide yourself with a heavy mallet, loaded if
necessary with a pound or two of lead. This will prove very useful

COLLECTING OVA, LABV.E, AND PUP.E 103

in shaking larva? from trees and large branches. Lastly, take a
pencil and a note book or writing paper for your observations in
the field.

Now for the choice of the season. Larv* are to be found all
the year round. Earh' in the spring, as soon as the buds are
bursting, some break out of the eggs recently laid by the moths
that appear in February and March. Later on, during April and
May, a host of both butterflies and moths are busy arranging for
their broods. Then, throughout the whole of the summer, thou-
sands of caterpillars of all sorts and sizes are to be met with ever}'-
where. And finally, during the bleak winter months, you may
amuse yourself bj' digging the hybernators out of their hiding
places where they rest themselves till the spring sun again calls them
out to refresh them with the young and tender leaves of a new
j-ear. Tims, unless you are mex'ely intending to search out certain
species you happen to require, there is not much diHiculty in
settling on the season.

The day selected should be dry, for your work lies among the
herbage of banks, meadows, and woods, and nothing is more un-
pleasant than wading throiigh a wet and dense vegetation, or beat-
ing down on yourself a shower of large drops from the branches of
trees and shrubs.

Having reached the hunting ground, the first thing to do is to
look out for sigtjs of the presence of larvae rather than for the
larvae themselves. Healthy vegetation with sound leaves must be
passed by as untenanted ; but the presence of partly eaten foliage
immediately arouses suspicion.

A little experience will soon enable you to distinguish between
the ravages of larvae and of slugs, snails, w'asps, &c. Some of
the smaller larvae certainly eat out clean holes like those cut by
Hi/menopterous insects, but as a rule they bite away at the edges,
leaving the midrib and the larger veins standing out almost naked.

By looking well into the edges of the eaten leaves, it is easy to
see whether the marauders have been recently at work. If they
are dried up and discoloured, it is not of much use to search ; but if
still green and moist, you may feel almost sure that the hungry
larvae are not far off.

In this ease you will carefully turn over the leaves to examine
the under sides, and also the leaf stalks and branches or stems ;
but you must be prepared for aU kinds of protective mimicry.
Little green caterpillars will be seen lying on the midrib or

104 WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE EIELD

veins, so straight and so still that they are scarcely perceptible.
Others are snugly tucked in a depression of a leaf with the same
result. Then we must also be prepared for the artful little tricks
of the larvae of Geometius (p. 268), by which they imitate stalks
and twigs so closely that a sharp eye is necessary to discriminate
between the two.

While thus searching we may meet with the cast skin of a cater-
pillar. This gives us fresh hopes, and so we continue our careful
examination. At last, on grasping a leaf in order to turn it over for
inspection, we feel something hairy or something soft and smooth.
But lo ! it is gone. It is one of those numerous caterpillars that
feign death and di'Oj) to the ground on the slightest sign of danger.
We search below for it, but the density of the vegetation renders
this hope^-ess, and we are just about to start off in search of a more
productive locality when we espy a quantity of the excrement of
larvae lying on a little bare patch of ground close l)y. This gives
us a new idea. Here is another indication of the presence of the
creatures we require, one that we can put into practice ; and by-
and-by we learn that in many cases this is really the surest sign
of their whereabouts.

We look at these little pellets of excrement, and gain at once
some idea of the si^e of the larvae that produce them. Then we
observe whether they are fresh and moist, or dry and stale. If the
latter, it is not of much xise to examine the leaves above ; but if
otherwise, there is little doubt of our meeting with larvae, as the
present position they oecupj' is so truly marked. The leaves just
over them are carefully examined, either by turning them over as
before described, or, if the height of the foliage admits of it,
by placing our heads below and looking upward.

If we find that the larvae are some of those that endeavour to
escape by feigning death and allowing themselves to drop at the
slightest disturbance, the net is always kept beneath the leaves we
are touching in order to intercept them in their downward journey.

Continuing the search, we meet with leaves that are rolled up
and bound with silk threads, and others that are drawn together
and similarly bound. These are carefully uncurled and pulled
asunder with the result that active little larvae are exposed to view,
or, it may be, pupae' are discovered. In some cases flowers are
drawn together in just the same way, and an examination reveals
one or more of the species that prefer petals and other parts of
flowers to the green leaves.

COLLECTING OVA, LABV.E, AND rri\¥. 10')

Sillven threads always arouse our suspicions. These may be seen
l3'ing on tlie surfaces of leaves, and passing from one leaf to another,
or they may be hanging perpendicularly from the branches of trees
above. In the latter case a larva may be frequently seen on the
lower extremity of the fibre, swinging gently in the breeze, and,
should we require it, we have only to place the open l)ox below for
its recejition.

Hawthorn and other trees are sometimes seen almost devoid of
leaves, nearly every bit of green having been greedily devoured by
a host of small larvae. In such cases we often meet with dense
clusters of silk fibres that may easily be mistaken for spiders' nests.
Biit when we look more closely into the structure we observe that
we have discovered instead nests of gregarious larvae, such a large
number being in each little community that the deploi'able appear-
ance of the tree is at once explained.

A little fai'ther on we meet with a sickly-looking plant in the
midst of a number of flourishing indi\'iduals of the same species,
and stop to make inquiries into the cause of this strange occurrence.
Is it due to a poorness of the soil? No, this cannot be the case;
for intermingled with its roots are those of its flourishing com-
panions. We pluck a stunted and half shrivelled leaf and examine
it. At first we do not notice the cause of its peculiar condition ;
but, holding it up to the light, and looking ilirongli it, we see a
number of little galleries that have been eaten out of its internal
soft substance, leaving the thin skin (epidermis) almost entirely
intact. But nothing more is to be seen. Another leaf is examined
in exactly the same way ; and here we see the little destroyer, lying
motionless in its burrow till a gentle pressure applied against it
from outside causes it to wriggle along its narrow passage. This is
the larva of one of the little leaf miners mentioned again on
page 303.

Reaching a little marshy spot we see a number of water-loving
reeds, most of them beautifully green and in a flourishing condition,
but here and there in their midst is a poor stunted specimen —
another result of the ravages of the larvae of one or more moths.
An examination of the blades reveals nothing; but on splitting
open the stalk we discover some larvie that have already devoured
a quantity of the internal pith, and thus endangered the life of the
plant. On inspecting other similar reeds we are at first puzzled as
to how the larvae could get inside the stems without damaging the
outer portion ; but at last we see in each one a little discoloured

100 WOEK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

hole tliat was eaten out by the young caterpillarjust after its escape
from the egg. Once within the reed, it found a plentiful supply of
food, and there grew at the expense of the plant without doing any
further external damage save by causing a stunted growth.

It may be that the stem eaters we have found are just about
full grown. If so we examine a number of the stems with a hope
that we may find one or two that are just about to change to the
chrysalis state, or even a pupa already formed. By this means we
may secure one of the perfect insects without the necessity of feed-
ing larvae at home. Such a consideration becomes a most important
one when it happens that the required food plant is one that cannot
be easily obtained.

Close by the reeds is another water-loving plant in the form of
an old willow tree. This is always an attractive object to the
entomologist, so it comes in for a share of our inspection. On its
leaves we may find several species of tlie larvas of Lepidoptcra,
including those of some of our largest insects. But a strange feature
catches our eyes as we happen to glance at the bai'k of the tree.
Here we see a few holes of different sizes, about which are a number
of little fragments of wood that remind us of ' sawdust ; " and,
examining the ground below, we see quite a little heap of this
dust, looking just as if a carpenter had been at woi'k on the spot.

This is not the effect of a saw, however ; it is a sui'e sign of the
ravages of wood-eating larv* (p. 224), whose powerful jaws gain
them admittance into the very hearts of trees, and the application
of the nose to one of the larger holes leaves no doubt of the pre-
sence of the large and beautiful caterpillar of the Goat Moth
(p. 224).

If we require any of these wood-eaters, either for rearing or for
preservation, we must be prepared for a little rather heavy work.
A strong pocket knife is not sufficient, but with a good chisel the
wood can be gradually cut away, and the galleries traced, till at
last we come to the larvte snugly resting in their burrows.

It often happens that the tree thus tenanted is half decayed, and
consequently the work is rendered much easier. Also, while tear-
ing away the wood, we often meet with a number of cocoons that
have been constructed by the caterpillars for their winter qua,rters,
or as a resting place while undergoing tlieir transfoi'niations. These
are composed of the wood dust bound together by strong silk fibres,
and are often in such a good state of preservation that the}' form
useful illustrations for the cabinet.

COLLECTING OVA, LABV.E, AND rUP.E 107

As further aids to larviT searching; we may mention that many
species — chiefly of the Noctii ce — hide under the surface of the ground
or among dense and low herbage during the day, and come out to
feed only by night ; that many others feed on roots, and are there-
fore seldom seen above the surface of the soil ; also that a good
number burrow into fruits, in the interior of which they spend the
whole of their larval stage. The best way to seciue the latter is to
examine the ' windfalls ' that lie scattered on orchard lands, for it
is a well-known fact that the fruits that are infested with larvte
generally fall earlier than others — a result that nmst be attributed
to the damaging work of the larva" themselves.

All the larvae collected should be carefully boxed at once, a
separate compartment being used for each species, and a few frag-
ments of the food plant being introduced in each case. It is also a
good plan to have each box previously lined with moss as a further
addition to the comfort of the captives. \Yithout such a precaution
some of the more delicate species are liable to injury during tlieir
transmission from field to home.

Hitherto v,e have obtained our larva" by searching only, but
there are times and occasions when our boxes may be far more
rapidly filled by methods that are not such a tax on our time and
patience. Suppose, for instance, that we reach a bush, the nmti-
la-ted leaves of which seem to show that larvae are present on its
branches. We spread our \^hite cloth or open out the white-
lined lunbrella just inider a selected brancli, and then tap that
branch very smartly with our stick.

Dowii comes a host of living creatures ! Spiders, larvae, beetles,
aphides, earwigs, and what not, struggling and running about on
our white fabric in all directions, and all mingled with bits of stick,
leaves, and fragments of all kinds. We leave the cloth or the um-
brella, as the case may be, quite still for a few seconds to allow all
the living creatures to get a good foothold, and then, raising it into
a vertical position, allow all the rubbish to drop off.

We can now put the cloth down again, and select as many of
the larvae as we require, giving our first attention to the nimble
mnners and loopers that are already near the edge and just on the
point of making their escape. This productive method of larva
hunting is known as ' beating,' and is particularly applicable to tall
herbs and the lower branches of trees and shrubs.

The same principle may be employed in the case of branches
that are Cjuite out of the reach of the stick, but the blows are here

108 WOBK AT HOME AND TN THE FIELD

applied to the trunk, a mallet or some other I'ather heavj- imple-
ment takinsf the place of the stick.

Another splendid method of secin-ing larvte where mere search-
ing would be tedious and unproductive, lies in the use of the sweep
net described on page 102. This implement comes into service in
waste places that are covered with rank vegetation, in clover and
hayfields, and in all spots covered with low herbs.

Walking among the vegetation, the net is swept \-vj}\i and left
before you, and the contents examined at frequent intervals. It is
advisable to work the different species of herbs separately as far as
possible, otherwise there may be some difficulty in the deter-
mination of the food plants of the mixed larv?e that the net will
contain. If, however, this plan is impracticable, you may save
time by tiirning out all the ' sweepings ' into one large box, leaving
the sorting to be done at home in leisure hours.

Collecting Pupa'

We have seen that ova and larvae may be obtained in greater or
less abixndance at all times of the year, so variable are the seasons
of the different butterflies and moths. The same remark applies
equally well to pupae ; but so many of the Lepidoptera spend the
winter months in the chrysalis state that this period may be
regarded as the harvest time of the pupa hunter.

A large number of caterpillars undergo their change to the
quiescent state during the months of August and September, and,
of course, remain in this state until the warm days of the followiuij
spring or summer. And as insects even in the pupal stage have a
nimiber of enemies and dangers to contend with, it is advisable to
start your search for them as soon as possible after they have
changed.

If you set your mind on searching for particular species, you
should endeavour to ascertain the usual time at which such species
pupate ; make any necessary allowances for the forwardness or
backwardness of the season, and tlien allow a week or two for the
change to be completed, for insects should never bo disturbed at
times when their metamorphoses are in progress.

For general pupa hunting the best season is undoubtedly from
the end of August to the end of October, but there is no reason
why the work should not be carried on throughout the winter. If,
however, you continue your work so late, you miist not expect

COLLECTING 0]'A, LARVAE. AXD PUP.E 109

nearly as uiucli success as time advances. You must remember
that entomologists are not the only pu})a hunters. ]\Iany hungr\-
birds are always on the look-out lor insects, and seem to enjoy
them equally well in all their stages. Those that hybernate on or
under the ground are liable to fall a prey to moles and beetles. In
addition to these dangers, all i)Upi£ are subject to the etiects of
extreme cold, dampness, or floods.

As regards the choice of a day, very little need be said. Any
day that is suflicientl}' genial for yourself will do for your work,
except that periods of hard frost render the ground too hard for
digging — the most profitable part of the pupa hunter's task.

The apparatus required is extremely simple : A satchel or
lai'ge pockets full of small metal or chip boxes, a small garden
trowel, and a strong chisel.

If metal boxes are used they should be perforated ; in fact,
nothing is better than the ordinary larva boxes of the dealers.
All the boxes, of Ashatever kind, should be lined with moss p're-
aIous to starting work.

The trowel and chisel do not pack well w ith a number of small
boxes, therefore it is a good plan to fix them in a couple of
leather sheaths attached to yoiu' belt. In this position they are far
more handy for use, and the boxes are also in less danger of being
crushed or damaged, as they probably would be if in contact with
hard and heavy tools.

A note book is also a valuable addition to your outfit, as it
enables you to make memoranda concerning the trees and locali-
ties from which you obtain yom- pup*.

The best localities for pupa hunting are clearings in woods,
parks with numerous large timber trees, and meadows in which
large isolated trees are scattered ; and the best trees include willows,
poplars, oaks, beeches, birches, elms, and hawthorns.

The best thing you can do on arriving at the selected hunting
ground is to make at once for isolated trees of large size, and work
each one as follows :

First examine well the crevices of the bark, for many cater-
pillars descend the tree to within a short distance of the ground,
and then seek out a snug little crevice in which to spend the
winter, often protecting themselves with silken cocoons, or con-
structing a neat httle shelter of gnawed fragments of the wood
cemented together.

If there is any loose bark, very carefully force it out with your

no WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

chisel, aud exauiine both its innei" surface and the wood froiu which
it was removed. The wood thus exposed may reveal openings
of the galleries of wood-eating larvte, in which case, unless the
material is too hard to be broken up with the chisel, you may be
able to trace out a few pxipte. Where these exist, they are usually
to be found very near the entrance, sometimes even protruding
slightly from the opening, for the larv?e generally place themselves
in this position of easy escape when about to change.

Next give your attention to the moss, if any, covering the lower
portion of the trunk. This affords a very favourite shelter to
pjany species. Tear it off very carefully, beginning at the top, and
watch for loose pupae and cocoons as you do so. Then hold the
clumps you have removed over a patch of bare ground or over a
spread handkerchief, and pull it to pieces, in order that any pupae
it contains maj' fall out ; also examine the fragments carefully for
others that may remain attached.

This done, the surface of the ground must be examined.
Remove all dead leaves, and watch for pup* that may be sheltered
beneath them. If any loose stones lie on the ground, turn them
over. Search well into the angles between the roots, and if there
tire any holes or hollows beneath them or in the trunk itself, pull
out all loose matter within, and feel gently above and around for
cocoons.

After all loose matter has been removed, there still remains the
soil for examination. If this is very hard and clayey, it is proba-
bly useless to carry the search any farther ; also if very wet you
need not expect much ; but if comparatively dry and friable there
are more hopes of success.

As a general rule the north and east sides of the trunk are
drier than those which are exposed to the heavy rains brought
by the south and south-west winds, and are consequently more
favoured by larvae that are seeking a resting place for the winter.

Most larva; seek shelter in the angles between the roots of the
trees on which they fed, but a few species seem to prefer the
edges rather than the corners ; and in cases where no such angles
are formed at the siirface, you will do well to examine the earth
and turf all round the tnink ; but it is generally useless to extend
the search more than a few inches from the tree.

After having searched every available nook and corner as far
as possible without digging, thrust the trowel obliquely into the
soil a few inches from the tree, turn over the sod, and then exa-

COLLECTING OVA, LARV.E, AND PUF.E 111

mine the spot from which it was removed. Now give your atten-
tion to the sod itself. If loose and friable, break it up gently,
keeping a sharp eye for falling pu[)ce, and also for earthen cocoons
that are easily mistaken for little lumps of soil.

If the soil is held together by roots, it must be pulled to pieces,
and the fragments shaken over a bare piece of ground where the
fall of a pupa or cocoon could be easily seen ; and if you have
removed a grassy turf, it will be necessary to look between the bases
of the blades as well as among the roots.

In this way you may search round tree after tree, wherever the
soil is of such a character as to allow of the admittance and shelter
of larvae. But the variability of your success will be quite beyond
your comprehension. Sometimes you will sight a gi-and old oak
with the most favourable anticipations, and consider yourself quite
certain of a good tind when you discover, on a nearer approach,
the liberal coating of moss that clothes its trunk and the dry sandy
soil at its foot ; and yet the uaost careful search ends in nothing
but disappointment. At other times you try yom' luck at tree
after tree without ever seeing a single pupa or even a cast-off case,
and then, when just on the point of despairing, you search round
another that is apparently much less promising, and, to your great
surprise and delight, a dozen or two are turned out in a few minutes.
Such an occurrence as this is not at all uncommon, and cannot be
satisfactorily explained, but we must take things as tliey come and
make the best of them, remembering that pupa searching is one of
the best of aU entomological operations wherewith to test one's
perseverance and patience.

It may be mentioned, in conclusion, that the pupae ofLcjndoptera
are never to be found far below the surface of the soil. Generally'
they exist, if buried at all, only an i)K'h or two down, and very
rarely at a greater depth than four inches.

In our next chapter we shall learn how to rear the perfect
insects from the earlier stages we have been considering.

112 WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

CHAPTER VIII
REARING LEPIDOPTERA

Managemoit of Oca

In the management of insects in all stages the strictest attention
must always be paid to one general rule on which the success of
the work almost entirely depends ; and that is — keep every specimen
as far as possible under the same conditions as those in which you
find it in nature.

Applying this principle to ova, we store them in airy and li^lit
places, protected from the direct rays of the sun. and avoid handling
and rough treatment of any kind. It is also advisable in most
cases to maintain a slight amount of dampness corresponding with
that of the open air at the particular season of the year.

They do not require much space, and it is certainly desii'able
not to give much, otherwise the newly hatched lar^•^^e, when their
time arrives, will actively' wander all round their premises in search
of food, and give you no end of trouble in gathering them up.

Chip boxes are, as a rule, very good and very convenient
receptacles for ova. After placing the eggs in these, cover them
over with very fine muslin, held in place by elastic bands; and label
each as far as you can with the name of the species contained, and
other particulars worth remembering. The boxes may then be
put in front of a window facing north, or in any situation within
or out of doors where rain and sun cannot reach them. A green-
house is an admirable place in which to keep them, the natural
dampness of the atmosphere being apparently a considerable
assistance to the tiny larvge just as they are striving to escape from
their shell.

Whatever place is selected, it is absolutely necessary that the
ova be carefully watched, so that each brood may be sui)plied with
the required food plant within a few hours of quitting the shells.

BEARING LEPIDOPTERA 113

When ova are kept in a warm room, verj' great inconvenience
and even loss is sometimes caused bj the appearance of larvae before
the necessary' food plant shows its buds. Yet, on the other hand,
it is sometimes a great gain to the entomologist to get certain
broods off early in the season, providing the food is at hand ; for
in this way he can not only get some of his work oxev during a
slack season, but also, if he desires it, secure an additional brood ;
that is, one brood more than the usual number. Thi;s, supposing
a certain species he is rearing is naturally double-brooded, he can,
by judicious management, secure three successive broods before the
food plant casts its last leaves.

This hastening of the natural events of insect life is known as
forcing, and merelj' consists in subjecting the species concerned to
a reasonable amount of artificial heat, such as that of a room in
which a fire is alwaj's kept, or of a hothouse.

It is interesting at all times to note the dates on which eggs are
laid or collected, and the times at \\-hich the young larvae appear.
In addition to this all changes that take place in the colours or
forms of eggs should be carefully observed ; for such changes will
assist you in distinguishing between fertile and sterile ova, and
also enable j'ou to judge approximately as to the date of the
appearance of future broods.

Rearing Larvce

The main pomt in connection with the rearing of larvae is cer-
tainly the selection and construction of the cages or their substitutes.
For newly hatched and all very small caterpillars a small bottle
with a wide mouth makes a very fair abode. Put a layer of sand
or sifted soil in the bottom, fix in this a small twig of the food plant
or lay a few leaves on the top, and then, after the larvae have been
introduced, cover the top with a piece of muslin, held in place by an
elastic band.

The great drawback with this arrangement is the lack of any
provision for keeping the food moist and fresh, thus rendering a
change necessary at very frequent intervals ; but this may be
obviated by using damp sand as a foundation for the little twig
of food plant. With this improvement, if you cover the top of the
bottle with apiece of glass, a saucer, or any impermeable substance,
you may keep the twig fi-esh for several days, generally until the
disappearance of the last leaf calls for a fresh supply ; but it is

114

TT'0i?7v AT HOMK AND IN THE FIELD

very doubtful whether the clamp atmosphere resi;ltm<>' from this
inclosure is not injurious to the larvae. It certainly does not seem
to have much influence on some, but the unhealthy conditions that
result must be detrimental to the inmates. It must also be remem-
bered that many species require a drtj soil in which to burrow
when about to change.

When the time comes for the change of food, great care must be
taken not to injure young and small larvae. In many cases they
need never be touched, for if a fresh twig be placed beside the stale
one, they will readily find their way to it ; and to facilitate this, and
also to afford a convenient foothold to those larvae that accidentally
fall from the twig, the layer of sand at the bottom of the bottle
should be covered with moss or cocoa-nut fibre.

If you find it necessary to
move the larvae yoiirself from
the stale food, never touch

,.r=%.

Fic. 57. — A Larva Glass.

Fir,. 58.- A Larva Glass.

them with your fingers, but lift them gently by means of a small
camel-hair brush. Larger larvae need never be moved at all. They
will always search out fresh food for themselves, and the stale may
be removed after they have quitted it.

For rearing larger species ordinary bottles are hardly satisfactory,
and we must either use large jars or construct cages of some land.

An ordinary bell jar such as is used for covering ferns or for
aquaria makes a very iiseful ' larva glass.' Place a small bottle of
water at the bottom, and then introduce sufficient drj' clean sand or
sifted soil to reach up to its neck. On the top of this place a layer
of moss or cocoa-nut fibre. Next introduce the food plant, fixing it
firmly in the bottle of water, and plugging up the space between

REARING LEPIDOPTERA

115

the stem and the riiu with cotton wool. This precaution is to
prevent the larvae from falling into the water as they attempt to
pass up or clown the stem, and the wool also helps to keep the
twig in a vei'tical position. The glass is now read}' for the cater-
pillars, but it is advisable to keep a covering of muslin or gauze
over the top in all cases even though the larvae contained are unable
to creep up the surface of glass, for the great enemies of caterpillars
— the ichneumon flies — are always on the alert, and will often take
advantage of an open window to 'sting ' the larva rearer's pets.

Another form of larva glass can easily be made out of a large
glass jar if you know how to cut off the bottom, or of a chemist's bell
jar which is open both at top and bottom. In this case the bottle
of water and the soil are arranged as
before in a pan of unglazed earthen-
ware, and then covered over with the
glass. This is shown in tig. 58, and is
an exceedingly convenient larva house,
since the lifting of the glass enables
you to get at the insects without anv
trouble.

Wood larva cages are ver}' com-
monly used for the larger species after
they have attained a fair size and re-
quire more food than can be stocked
in bottles and glasses. These cages
have glass fronts, either sliding or in
the form of a hinged door, and sides
of perforated zinc. They are kept in

stock by all dealers in entomologists' requisites, but equally useful
ones are easily constructed. If you select a box of suitable size at
the grocer's, cut out large pieces from the lid and sides with a fret
saw, and fix in the glass and zinc, you will have a cage that will
answer all purposes.

The internal arrangements consist of a shallow tray tilled with
soil, in which stands the bottle of water for the food, and a layer of
moss sufficiently high to cover the bottle completely.

A series of such boxes standing on end on a shelf, or hanging on
a wall, wiU form a very satisfactory nursery for your i)ets, and will
occupy but Little space.

We have already observed that some larvae burrow into soil
when about to change, while others creep to a sheltered corner, or

Fig. 5'.). — a Larva Cage.

116 WORK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

siTspencl themselves from the food plant itself. It will be seen tliat the
larva cage just described supplies all these demands, and care must be
taken not to disturb the occupants while they are undergoing their
metamorphoses. Those that suspend themselves on the food plant
should be allowed to remam where they have fixed themselves, and
when it is necessary to remove the stale food in order to give a fresh
supply to the later larvse, let it be fixed in an airy place where it can
be watched till the perfect insects emerge. Those which suspend
themselves on the sides or top of the cage, or spin cocoons in the
corners, should never be disturbed unless you are greatly in want of
the same cage for the accommodation of another brood ; and even
then it is possible that their presence will not in any way interfere
with the new species. But if their removal becomes a necessit}-, let
it be carried out as carefully as possible, and not until the change
to the pupal stage is known to be complete.

The species that burrow into the soil or bury themselves in the
moss need never be disturbed till the rearing season is quite o\er,
and then they may be transferred to a box specially kept for the
accommodation of pupae.

There is yet another method of rearing larvie to which we must
refer— a method known as ' sleeving ' — particularly useful when
you happen to have the required food plants in your own garden.
The ova or larvae are placed on the plant, the whole or part of
which is then covered with a bag or ' sleeve ' of gauze. The larvae
thus imprisoned have the full benefit of fresh air and light, and
are also free from the attacks of ichneiimon flies. They have a
fair amount of liberty, and yet cannot get beyond your reach ;
also abundance of fresh food without further trouble on the part of
the rearer.

But even this arrangement is not perfection. It will not suit
the night feeders that like to hide beneath the soil during the da,y,
and it interferes somewhat with the burrowing tendencies of those
which pupate underground. These little difficulties, however, can
be overcome by placing the food plants in large pots or tubs of
soil, and tying the mouth of the ' sleeve ' round the outside of this
utensil. If this cannot be done, those insects that pupate under-
ground nuist be removed from the plant when their restless
disposition shows that the changing time has arrived, and then be
transferi-ed to a box of soil where tliey can find the seclusion they
seek.

The larvie that hvbernate throughout the winter are rather

HEARING LEPtDOPTERA 117

more troublesome, especially those which are inclined to take a
ramble on certain mild days in search of food when none is at
hand. Still there is no reason why even a beginner should not
attempt the rearing of these. They will require food in the
autumii until the cold weather sets in, and again early in spring
as soon as the new leaves api)ear ; but this is not of much
consequence to those who reside in districts where the re(juired
food plants abound.

Wood feeders also require some special treatment and precau-
tions, and the successful rearing of some is a matter of no little
dil'ftculty. A wooden cage is, of course, (piite out of the question
with tliese, unless you wish to test the ptnver of their jaws. They
must be kept in large pots or jars, covered over with wire gauze or
perforated zinc, and supplied with fresh stems or logs of wood, or
with moist sawdust fresh from their favourite tree. A few of them
— the ' Goat ' (page 224), for example — will eat dead and rotting
wood, and may be fed on old palings and other waste pro\'iding the
right kind is selected.

The troubles and disajipointments of larva rearers are mimerous
and varied, and commence with the earliest moments of the
^•oung insects. Even the hatching period sometimes proves a
trial, for it occasionally happens that the >oung larva has not
sufficient strength to bite its wa^' through the shell that surrounds
it, and dies with nothing but the surface of its head exposed to
view. This may be the I'esult of keeping the ova in too di-y a sjiot,
the shell having l)ecome too hard and horn^- for the little creatiu'e's
jaws.

Then the niuultiug seasons are always periods of trial to the
law*, and often of loss to the rearer. Some of the hardier species
may pass through all their moults without appearing to suffer any-
thing more than a slight inconvenience at each, but in other cases
the greater part of a brood may fall victims to these ailments of
the growing stage.

Apart from these soui'ces of loss, however, larv* are subject to
numerous diseases, infectious and otherwise, about which we know
but little. A fever may rage in one of our cages ; a fungoid growth
may establish itself on the bodies of our pets, or we may see them
cut down, one by one, through a fatal attack of diarrhoea.

In many such cases we are at a loss as to what to do. Blue'
pills and black draughts are not to be prescribed, and the modern
practices of surgery and inoculation have not yet been applied to

118 WORK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

insect patients with very great success; but we must do our best
to adopt hygienic principles, paying the gi'eatest attention to
proper means of ventilation and to a regular and wholesome diet-
ing. In the case of diarrhcea — a very common insect malady — the
best we can do is to avoid the young and jixicy leaves of the food
plant, and substitute the older and drier foliage.

Ichneumon flies have already been mentioned as great enemies
of larvte. These flies either deposit their eggs on the skins of
caterpillars, or thrust their sharp ovipositors into the creatm'e's
flesh and la\' their eggs beneath the skin. When the yoimg
ichneumons are hatched, they immediately begin to feed on the
fatty matter that is usually stored in comparative abundance under
the skin of the caterpillar, and thus they grow at the expense of
their host, within whose body they lie completely hidden from
view.

The poor caterpillar, though being eaten ali\e, often shows no
external signs of the mischief wrought within, and, e\en though
its substance is really decreased by the hungry internal parasites,
yet the rapid growth of these robbers maintains the general plump-
ness of a healthy larva. But the ichneumons, having at last
devom'ed the store of fat, and avoided the vital organs of the
caterpillar, as if with a view to preserve their living home to the
latest moment, now commence to attack the latter, speedily
reducing the vitality of their host to the lowest ebb, and finally
causing its death.

This imtimelyend may come before the caterpillar is full grown,
or the insect may change to the pupa before the ichneumons have
done their worst, but it rarely occurs that the unfortunate creature
has sufficient strength to carry it on to the final stage.

A large number of the collected larvae will have been ' stung,'
much to the disgust and disappointment of the rearer ; and hence
the advantage of rearing your specimens from ova wherever possible,
providing you keep them so well under cover that the ichneumons
cannot visit your broods.

The Manage))ient of Papce

The disappointments connected with ihe resiv'mg oi Lcpidopttra
are by no means at an end when all have passed successfully into
the pupal condition, and the nximber of perfect insects obtained
will often fall far short of the number of pupte in your boxes ; but

REABING LEPIDOPTERA 119

■\ve must uow see what can be done to minimise the death rate of
the captives.

One or more suitable boxes must be prepared for the recep-
tion of the pup*, and the following suggestion will answer all
purjDoses :

Get a wooden box, quite rough and unplaned inside, large enough
to accommodate your pupie with ease, and not less than eight
inches deep. Make several holes in the bottom, or else knock the
bottom completely out, and nail in its place a sheet of perforated
zinc. Also make a lid consisting of gauze attached to a light wood
frame.

Place a hner of clean gravel, aboxit an inch deep, in the bottom,
and over this a few inches of sifted soil or cocoa-nut fibre.

Now take all the pupie that are 'earthed' in yoxvc cages, and
arrange them on the prepared bed; also add to them the pupte
you may have dug out during your various excursions. Cover all
with a layer of the material selected for the bed, and then add a
layer of moss.

Next come the pup* that are suspended by silky fibres, or are
mclosed in cocoons. These should be fixed with pins around
the sides of the box, running the pins either through the tuft of
silk at the ' tail,' or the outer layer of the cocoon, or through the
portion of the dried food plant to which they are attached.

Here your pupae will remain till they emerge, and the box may
be kept in any airy place where it is not likely to be forgotten, for
it is essential that the perfect insects should be removed as soon
as possible after qiiitting their cases. It does not matter much
whether the pupte be kept in or out of doors, pro\iding they are
sheltered from rain and very severe frosts ; but of course, if the
former, the imagines will emerge a little earlier, even if the room
in which your specimens are stored has no fire.

Even when protected in boxes such as that described the pupie
are subject to enemies and dangers. The soil and moss employed
may contain slugs, mites, or other creatures whicli prey on insects,
and the amount of moisture present in these matei'ials and in the
atmosphere may prove too little for some species or too much for
others.

The remedy for the fornaer evil is a simple one. Bake the soil
or fibre well before fitting up the box, and boil and afterwards dry
the moss. You may then be sure that all life previously contained
is quite destroyed.

120 WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

But the degree of humidity is a point not so easily settled, and
so variable are the experiences and opinions of different entomo-
logists that it is difticult to advise a beginner on the subject. The
fact that some strongly advise a perennial dampness, while others
recommend no attempt at the application of water, would seem
to show that there are probably important points to be lu'ged on
both sides.

Nothing can be better than a very careful observation of pupae
in their natural conditions. When engaged in pupa digging you
will observe that the larger number are to be found on the east and
north sides of trees where the soil is protected from the heaviest
rains ; on the other hand a good many are certainly found in very
moist and sometimes even in wet situations.

Particular notice should be taken of such experiences, making
every allowance for the exceptions that prove the rule, and then let
the natural conditions be maintained in your nurseries at home.
To carry this out two pupa boxes should be kept, one for those
species that seem to require dry situations, and the other for the
species that apparently do best with moist surroundings.

But when it is desired to maintain the pupae in a moist condi-
tion, great care must be taken not to allow any accumulation of
stagnant water. The box we have described, with its bottom of
perforated zinc, is well adapted for this purpose. Let it stand on
a couple of strips of wood, so that any excess of moisture may
readily drain through. The perforated bottom will also allow of a
free circulation of air, thus securing the Aentilation that is de-
sirable in all boxes, whether wet or dry.

If you have any insects that have pupated witliin moist stems,
they should be kept in a moist condition till they enjerge. The
simplest way of doing this is to support the stems in a layer of
wetted but well-drained silver sand.

Forcing may be resorted to when it is required to obtain the
imagines for early setting in order to get them in the cabinet before
the busy season begins. The method is simple. Place the pupa
box on a shelf in a room where a fire is kept every day. By this
means you may get all your specimens out within a few weeks,
even when you start the forcing at the beginning or middle of the
winter. If, however, you require the imagines for breeding, you
nuist be careful that the eggs are not laid long before the buds of
the necessary food plants are due.

When you are expecting the appearance of perfect insects, the

BEARING LEPIDOPTEBA I2l

pupa boxes should be examined every day. A niurning visit to
your pup* (for most insects emerge in the morning) may reward
you with the sight of a newlj' emerged imago, cHnging to the
rough surface of the box, thus affording you an opportiinity of
observing the wonderful expansion of the wings. But the greeting
is not always of such a pleasant character, for your disappointed
eyes will sometimes be cast on a host of horrid ichneumons that
have just quitted a shell from which \o\\ were expecting a prize
of some specially valued species.

122 WORK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

CHAPTER IX

SETTING AND PEE SE EYING

Setting ami Preserving Butterjiien and Moths

Up to the present we have been dealing only with living l(5rins —
learning how to catch and rear the Lepidoptera that fall to om-
lot ; but now we have to become acqiiainted with the methods of
preparing our dead specimens in such a way that they may form a
useful collection for future study and reference. Our first attention
shall be gi\'en to the apparatus necessary for this work.

The most important requirement is the setting boards, of \vliich
several are necessary, the sizes varying according to the dimensions
of the different insects to be ' set.' The lengths of all the boards
should be the same, not only for the convenience of packing when
not in use, but also in order that they may, if required, be arranged
neatly in the ' drying house ' to be presently described. The widths
only will vary, and in this respect the boards must be adapted
to the measurements of the insects from tip to tip when the
wiiags are fidly expanded. Thus, a set of a dozen boards, ten
or twelve inches long, and from one to five inches wide, will do
for a good start. Of course you may commence with a smaller
number than twelve, but if you really mean to do the thing \\ell,
you will eventually require a good stock of boards.

Here, again, it may be mentioned that all the necessary' requi-
sites may be purchased ready for use, a set of boards and a drying
house complete costing from ten to twenty shillings according to
size and qualitj^ ; but as the reader, like myself, may prefer to con-
struct his own, I will supply him with hints and suggestions sufii-
cient for the work.

Each board is constructed in this way. Cut out and plane up
a piece of wood of the required length and breadth, and about one-
eighth of an inch thick. Glue on the top of this a layer of cork

SETTING AND PBESEEVING

123

* ^•

' - ■ , ■

I--

■: - ■

, -.

.•

- -

■ ,

•

m^m^^

MV^

^^^

about half an inch in thiclaaess, leaving the whole under a moderate
pressure until the glue is quite hard. The sheets of cork for this
purpose may be bought at any naturaHst's stores ; but slices cut
from good large bottle corks may be made to ans\Aer equally well
if you don't mind tlie extra time expended in cutting and hxmg.

When the glue has well set, triuj off the edges of the cork flush
with the sides of the wood,
and then cut out a groove
down the whole length of
the cork, of course m the
middle, and of such a size
that it will just contain
the bodies of the insects for which it is intended.

The satisfactory cutting of this groove is not a very easy matter,
but if its position is first carefully marked, a long rat-tail file may
be made to plough it out neatly and regularly. As an alternati\e
the following plan is good. First cover the wood with a la^| er of
cork about a qiiaricr of an inch thick, and then glue on the top of
this two narrower strips, about as thick as the bodies of the insects
for which the board is intended,

Fi<;. (JO. — Section of a Settixg Buaud.

leaving a space of the required
size between them, as shown in
fig. 60. In this way you get a
groove of square section, that is
in some respects preferable to
the round one cut out by means
of the rat-tail file.

Now comes a question about
which there is a difference in the
tastes or fancies of entomologists.
Shall the boards be perfectly
flat on the top, or shall the sides
slope from the groove, or shall
the surface be rounded '? A
glance at the three sections of

setting boards will show clearly what is meant. The rounded board
is most commonly used, and the graceful curve thus given to a
butterfly or moth set on such is certainly attractive ; but it is not
natural. The wings of these insects are rigid, and are never seen
bent into such curves in a living spechnen. For this reason I
much prefer a perfectly plane surface on each side of the groove.

Fui. 01.

-Sections of Setting

BOAF.DS.

124

WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

Then, as to whether there shall be a slope or not, this is a matter
of less imi)ortance. A very decided sloping of the wings is certainly
not so convenient for futnre examination ; nor does it, to my mind,
look nearly so well as both sides in the same plane, or at a very
gentle inclination. But perhaps this subject had better be left to
the taste of the reader, remembering, however, that, whatever plan
be adopted, all the boards should be alike in this respect, so that
there may be a degree of uniformity in the cabinet.

The surface of the cork must, in all cases, be nicely smoothed
down with glass paper, and then covered with thin white paper,
fixed to its surface with ordinary paste.

When insects are on the boards, they should be placed in an
airy spot, as free as possible from dust, while they are drying.
Hence the advisability of some form of ' drying house.' This is

simply a box, standing on end,
and provided with a hinged door
consisting of a sheet of per-
forated zinc in a wooden frame.
The boards may slide in this on
little slips of wood nailed or
glued on to the sides, or the
wooden bases of the boards may
project beyond the cork at the
ends, and slide into gTOOves in
the side of the house.

Beyond thes^e requirements
nothing is wanted save a good
stock of pins, thin card or ordi-
nary writing paper, and a ' setting needle.' The last named item
is simply a needle mounted in a handle, and a good one may be
made by thrusting the head of a darning neec'le into a piece of twig.
The pins used for setting — that is, for fixing the pieces of paper or
card to keep the parts in position — may be of the ordinary kind ;
but entomological pins are far preferable, even for this purpose ;
for, being much thinner, they do not damage and disfigure the
setting boards so mucli.

Now as to the setting. First see that the pin with ^\•hich you
are to fix yoiu* dead insect parses centrally through the thorax.
Then fix it firmly on the setting board, its body lying neatly in the
groove of the cork. Cut out some little pointed strips of card or
paper, and, after bringing the wings into position with the setting

Fig. 02. — a Butterfly on the
Setting Boakd.

SETTING AND PEESERVIXG

125

needle, fix each one by a pinned strip. In spreadin;:^ out the win^^s,
care must he taken not to pierce them at all, but simply to push
them into their place by pressinor the needle at their bases, or by
putting the needle beneath and lifting them out.

Instead of pointed pieces of card, uniform strips of paper may
be used, as shown in fig. 63, each strip passing over both wings.

After the four wings have been proi^erly arranged, a few extra
pins may be used to keep other pai*ts in position. Thus, the
antennae may be placed at equal angles, the proboscis may be ex-
tended, and a couple of pins may be used to support the abdomen
if it is inclined to bend downward.

As before men-
tioned, insects should
be set soon after they
are dead, while the
parts are still soft and
supple. But where
this cannot be done,
and the specimens have
become stiff, brittle,
and rigid, thej' must be
' relaxed ' before any
attempt is made at
setting them out.

This process of re-
laxing consists in plac-
ing the specimens in a
very moist atmosphere
for a few days. There
are several simple

ways of doing this, many of which will I'eadily suggest themselves
to the reader. Your collecting box, if a zinc one, may also be
used as a relaxer. Pin j^our stiff insects in it, after well moistening
the cork, and simply shut them up for a day or two. Any metal box
will serve the same purpose providing you put into it a piece of
sheet cork on which to fix the insects, and this cork may rest on a
bed of moist sand.

Another plan is to float the pinned specimens on corks in a
shallow vessel of water, and cover them over with a bell glass.

Insects that are being relaxed should be examined from time
to time, and the degree of flexibility acquired tested \jy a gentle

Fig. 63.~-ANOTnF.R Mkthod of Setting
Butterflies anp Moths.

126 WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

pressure of the setting needle or by blowing on them. If not
sufficiently supple, give another day in the damp cell, but never
allow them to be forgotten till they are covered with mildew.

The time occupied in thoroughly drying butterflies and moths
will vary considerably according to their sizes and the condition of
the atmosphere. In hot and dry summer weather four or five days
will prove quite sufticient for the verTj small and thin-bodied species.
From one to two weeks, however, may be looked upon as the
average period ; but the large and thick-bodied moths may reqi;ire
more than this.

Perhaps the best test of their condition is the gentle pressing of
the setting needle against the abdomen — the last part of the body
to become dry and stiff. If the abdomen seems quite firm and
rigid, you are pretty safe in removing the speciinen from the
board; but if it bends at all under a slight pressure of the needle
let it remain for a day or two longer.

If your cabinet is quite ready for the reception of new-comers,
the insects may be put in their proper places immediately after
their removal from the setting boards ; but if not, they may
be pinned temporarily in a ' store box ' till the time comes when
you have proper accommodation provided. The full consideration
of these matters will be dealt with in another chapter.

It is possible that the setting of some of jonv specimens will not
exactly please you. If such is the case, put them in a relaxing box
for a day or two, and tlien reset them more to your fancy.

"We have now to deal with a matter that applies more
particularly to moths, especially the very large and thick-bodied
sjiecies. The abdomens of these become more or less contracted
and shrivelled on drying, sometimes to such an extent as to look
most unsightly.

There is a remedj' for this, and the time and patience required
in working it out will be well repaid by tlie superior results
obtained.

While the abdomen is still in a soft condition, maive a slit
throughout its length with a very sharp knife or a sharp-pointed
pair of scissors. This slit should be made down the centre of the
under surface, or, if the insect is to be placed in the cabinet with
the under side exposed, down the middle line of the back. Then
remove all the contents of the abdomen, sci'aping them out with a
piece of hooked Avire, or removing them with a fine pair of forceps,
and leaving the skin as clean as possible both within and without.

SETTING AND PRESERVING 1'27

Now introduce a packing of cotton wool, just sufficient in qi;antity
to maintain the natural form of the body as the specimen
dries.

There is another good method of stuffing moths that possesses
a decided advantage over the one just described, since it leaves the
specimen in such a perfect condition that it shows no appearance
of having been stutfed when viewed from either side. This consists
in snipping off the abdomen at the waist, clearing out the contents
with a hooked wire, lightly stuffing it with cotton wool pushed in
at tlie waist, and then setting it aside to dry, while the other part
of the insect is iindergoing the same process on the setting board.
^Yhen both parts of the moth are thoroughly drj% the stiiffed
abdomen is easily fixed in its place with a little coaguline ; and this,
if neatly done, will not show the slightest sign of the treatment to
which the insect has been submitted.

Even after your insects are finally housed in the cabinet, they
are subject to two other dangers, both of which are more de-
structive to moths than to butterflies. One is technically known
as ' grease,' and the other is the invasion of certain museum pests
that feed on the specimens, causing them to fall to pieces.

Examine the moths that have been for a time in the cabinet,
and some are sure to exhibit an oily or greasj' appearance, the hairs
of the abdomen, and perhaps also of the thorax, being clogged
together just as if the specimen had been dipped in oil, the
same miserable condition perhaps being shared also by parts of
the wings.

This is due to the gradiial oozing out of the fatty matter that
is always present to a greater or less extent in the bodies of the
insects, and which must necessarily show itself more sparingly in
specimens that have been carefully stuffed.

The old saying, ' Prevention is better than cure,' applies well in
the present case ; but as there are times when a knowledge of the
' cure ' is the only means of saving a valuable specimen from
destruction, we will study both.

To deal with the two in the order of the well-worn proverb, we
will consider the prevention first. Always carefully clean out and
stuff the abdomens of large-bodied insects ; and as a rule, treat them
with some substance that will either absorb or dissolve out all oily
matter. I think the best plan is to remove the abdomen, clean it
out if its size permits of such an operation, and then, after labelling
it to prevent its futitre application to the wrong body, either let it

128 WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

remain in a bottle of magnesia for several weeks, or soak it in benzole
or ether for a few hours or longer.

If magnesia has been employed as an absorbent, you have
simjily to blow or lightly brush off the loose powder that clings to the
body, and then fix it in its place with coaguline. A body dipped in
ether or benzole will look as if completelj' spoilt at first, for the furry
coat that clothes it will lie matted and almost entirely robbed of its
beautiful colours, reminding one forcibly of the proverbial ' drowned
rat.' But take no notice of this change. Let the body have at
least a few hours in the liquid, extending the time to a day or two
in the case of very lai'ge ones and those which experience has
proved to be particularly liable to ' grease ; ' and, immediately on
withdrawing it, fix it with a pin in a good strong draught, siich as
you may obtain by opening a window about an inch, or, if a breezy
daj', in the open air.

These liquids are so volatile (and for that reason should never
be left exposed in an open vessel) that they rapidly evaporate,
leaving the dry hair to be loosened by the breeze, thus bringing
back the natural appearance almost perfectly.

It is probable that many of the smaller insects that were not
considered to require the stuffing or grease-removing operations
will sooner or later exhibit a greasy tendency in the cabinet. At
first the abdomen is affected, and tlie oily matter then gradually
creeps over the rest of the body, finally spreading o\er the wings,
and giving the insect a most deplorable aspect. But these are not
irreparably lost, and the following cure will often bring them back
to their former beauty.

If the abdomen only shows signs of grease, cut it off and soak
it in one of the above-named liquids for a day or so, replacing it as
above after the dr^-ing operation. If, however, the oily matter
has spread to the thorax and the bases of the wings, the whole
sjiecimen must be soaked, using a basin or jar of suitable size,
covered with a plate of glass. A good draught during the drying
operation will do much to prevent the hair from sticking in matted
tufts close against the surface of the body and wings, and a gentle
brushing with a very soft camel-hair brush will loosen and reset
the fur.

The other danger to which we have referred is the invasion of
certain ' mites ' and other museum pests that pay periodical visits
to our cabinet drawers and store boxes, often committing such
havoc as to severely try the patience of an interested naturalist.

SETTING AND PEE SERVING 129

The way to prevent such intrusions is to make the atmospliere
of the compartments so obnoxious (to them) that they dare not
enter ; and, further, to so spice up your specimens that they are
no longer safely edible to the invaders.

The first object can be attained by always keeping camphor or
naphthaline (albo-carbon) in each division. A lump of either sub-
stance may be secured by pins or a little perforated cell in the
corner of each drawer or box, or the bottom of each may be dusted
with finely powdered naphthaline ; but as both these solids are
volatile, care must be taken to renew the supply as occasion
requires.

Then, with regard to the second precaution, perliaps nothing
is more effectual than corrosive sublimate. A little of this may be
dissolved in a small bottle of alcohol (spirits of wine), labelled with
the name and the word Poison, and kept ready for use. All the
skins of stuffed specimens should be painted with this solution, and
the stuffing itself may be moistened with it before insertion.

There is yet another circumstance that renders a watchful care
of your cabinet specimens necessary, if you happen to possess
many that were captured ' at sugar.' Some of these will have so
gorged themselves with syrup that they are literally full of it, and
this will sometimes find its way to the outside, often dropping on
the surface beneath. In such cases the sugar should be removed
as completely as possible, and the bodies stuffed, before they are
quite dry ; but if the specimens have been in the cabinet so long
that they are stiff and hard, the under sides of the abdomens may
be completely cut out with a very sharp knife and thrown away,
and then the sugar cleaned out from the upper shell as neatly as
possible.

130 WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

CHAPTER X

PRESEEVING OVA, LARVAE AND PUPA^

Many young entomologists give their attention almost solely to the
perfect forms of insects, often collecting and studying a very large
number of species without regard to their earlier stages and meta-
morphoses. This is decidedly a very great mistake. Although
the lifeless form pinned in a cabinet may be a most beavitiful object
in itself, j^et a study of this alone is uninteresting compared with
that of the wonderful changes it has undergone since the time it
was a very young larva.

The different stages of the insects should be known as far as
possible, and these, as well as the perfect forms, should be included
in the collection for future study and reference. A good cabinet,
according to my own opinion, is one that possesses, among other
good features, a number of complete sets illustrative of the life
history of at least the more typical forms ; and as it is not a
difficult matter to preserve the earlier stages, there is really no
excuse for their omission from the collection.

The empty shells of ova are in themselves sometimes interest-
ing objects, especially when they illusti^ate some peculiar instinct
on the part of the parent. Sterile eggs, also, often fall into the
hands of breeders and rearers, and these, though in other respects
unprofitable, are useful in the cabinet.

If fertile eggs are to be prepared for a collection, thej^ must be
killed. This is easily done by thrusting into each one the point of
a very fine needle, or by immersing them for a moment in boiling
water, or by shutting them up in a bottle with camphor. In drying
they often contract more or less, and frequently change their
colour ; still these are useful, providing notes have been taken of
the characters thus lost. The larger eggs are capable of special
treatment where the owner has the necessary time and patience,
and where the highest results are desired. By means of a surgeon's

PBESERVING OVA, LABVJE AND PUP.E 131

injector of small size the contents of the eggs can be removed ; and
then, by the same mstrnnient, a warm solution of gelatine, coloured
in such a way as to restore the natural tint, may be forced into the
empty shell. As the gelatine cools and hardens, it prevents any
shrinking of the shell, and thus both form and colour are well
preserved.

For the preservation of larvae you will require one or two
simple appliances.

The first of these is a suitable glass blowpipe, one form of which
is here illustrated. It consists of a glass tube, one end of which
has been drawn out very fine ; a piece of watch spring tied to it in
such a manner that it will hold the skin of a larva at the small end,
and a piece of india-rubber tubing at the other end, pressed by
means of a brass spring clip.

A little drying oven is also very iiseful, but not absolutely neces-
sary. If you decide to have one, any square box of sheet U'on (not

A Blowpipe for Laev.^.

soldered tinned iron) may be readily converted into one. It must
be provided with a hinged door in the front with a ventilator at the
bottom, a hole for the escape of hot air at the top, and a tripod wire
stand inside on which to rest the specimens while drying. The
whole should be supported on a wire stand, so that heat may be
applied below.

Each larva to be preserved should be dealt with in this way.
Fn-st kill it by means of any one of the killing bottles or boxes already
described, or by immersion in spirit of wine. When quite dead,
enlarge the anal orifice by thrusting a needle into it, and then lay
it on a piece of blotting paper with its head toward you. Now
take a round ruler, previously covered with blotting paper, and roll
the larva gently from head to tail till all the contents of the skin
have been expelled. Kext fix the skin on the fine end of the blow-
pipe, by thrusting the point of the latter into the opening, and
allowing the spring to press gently on its edge. Gentlj' blow into
the skin till it is inflated just to a little below natural size, then

132 WOBK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

either hold it near a fire or rest it in the drying oven till it is quite
dry and rigid.

If you have done your work neatly, the skin and hlowjiipe will
both he quite air-tight when the clip is closed ; and the air, finding
no outlet, will still further inflate the skin when it expands on
exposure to heat. This is the reason why you are directed to blow
it out to something short of the natural dimensions. If you find
that this expansion causes the skin to stretch beyond its normal
size, a little of the air must be allowed to escape while it is yet soft
and flexible.

The front of the larva is generally the last })ortion to become
dry, and when this is (juite rigid the skin may be removed from
the blowpipe. This is a matter that requires the greatest care ; for
the skin is so very thin and brittle that a little rough handling will
break it to pieces. As a rule it may be ea?ily pushed off the pipe
b^v a slight pressure behind, or a gentle twisting motion will loosen
its hold ; but this latter method can hardly be applied to hairy
larvae without breaking off the hairs, now rendered very brittle b^'
the heat.

If you find the slightest difficulty in detaching the skin of a
valuable specimen, it is far better to damage the blowpipe than to
risk spoiling the skin. Supposing your blowpipe is a glass one,
you can easily break off the end of it after making a cut with a very
small triangular file, and the portion thus removed may be left
attached to the skin. Then, after softening the glass blowpipe in a
gas flame or the flame of a spirit lamp, it can be drawn out thin
again for futin-e work. Those who can manipulate glass tubing in
this way will find it far better to lay in a stock of suitable material,
drawing it out when required, than to purchase blowpipes ready
made at the naturalist's shop.

Very fine hollow stems, such as those of the bamboo cane, may
be Tised instead of glass ; and these possess the advantage of being
easily cut with a sharp knife when there is any difficulty in remov-
ing the skin. Again, whether glass or fine stems are used, a little
grease of any kind placed previously on the end will allow the dried
skin to be slid off with less difficulty.

Preserved larvae should preferably be mounted on small tN\igs
or artificial imitations of the leaves of the proper food plants. A
little coaguline applied to the claspers will fix them very firmly on
these twigs or leaves, which are then secured in the cabinet by
means of one or two small pins.

PRESERVING OVA, LARV.E AND PVPyE 133

It is much to be regretterl that the natural colours of many
caterpillars cannot be preserved in the blown skins. Some are
rendered much lighter in colour on account of the withdrawal of
the contents, while others turn dark dm'ing the drying. In the
smootii-skinned species the natural tints may be restored by paint-
ing or by staining with suitable aniline dyes, but these artificial imi-
tations of the natural colours are always far less beautiful than the
hues of the Jiving larvae.

Very few words need be said on the preservation of pup*.
Many of them do not alter much in form and colour, and therefore
they reciuire no special preparation.

If a pupa has to be killed for the purpose of adding to the value
of the collection, simply plunge it into boiling water, and it is ready
to be fixed in the cabinet as soon as it is quite dry.

The empty pupa cases, too, from which the perfect insects have
emerged, are often worth preserving, especially if the damage done
by the imago on forcing its way out is repaired with the aid of a little
coaguline.

Let all larvae and pupae be preserved in their characteristic atti-
tudes and positions as far as possible, so that each one tells some
interesting feature of the life history of the living being it repre-
sents. Further, enrich your collection by numerous specimens of
the various kinds of cocoons constructed by the larvie, pinning each
one beside its proper species ; and never refuse a place to any
object that relates something of the life history of the creatiu-es
3'ou are studying.

134 WORK AT HOME AND IN THE FIELD

CHAPTER XI

THE CABINET^ARRANGEMENT OF SPECIMENS

The selection of a cabinet or other storehouse for the rapidly
increasing specimens of insect forms is often a matter of no small
difticulty to a youthful entomologist. Indeed, there are very many
points of considerable importance to be considered before any final
decision is made. Freedom from dust, the exclusion of pests, the
convenience of the collector, the depth of his pocket, and the
general appearance of the storehouse must be considered, and it is
impossible, therefore, to describe a form that is e(jually suitable
to all.

If it is absolutely necessary that the cabinet (or its substitute)
be of a vei'}' inexpensive character, and if, at the same time, the
collector has not the mechanical skill necessary for its construction,
then perhaps the best thing he can do is to procure a number of
shallow (about an inch and a half deep) cardboard, glass-topped
boxes, such as are to be obtained at drapers' shops. For the sake
of uniformity and convenience in packing, have thein all of one
size. Glue in small slices of cork just where the insects are to be
pinned, and see that each box is supplied with either camphor or
naphthaline. All the boxes may be packed in a cupboard or in a
case made specially to contain them ; and a label on the front of
each will enable you to select any one when required without dis-
turbing the others.

It may be mentioned here that glass is not necessary, tliougli it
is certainly convenient at times, especially when you are exhibiting
your specimens to admiring non-entomological friends, who have
almost always a most alarming way of bringing the tip of the first
finger dangerously near as they are pointing out their favourite
colours. ' Isn't that one a beauty ? ' is a common remark, and

THE CABINET— ARRANGEMENT OF SPECIMENS 135

therewith off snaps a wing of one of your clioicest insects. When
glass is used, however, see that the specimens are exchided from
Ught, or the colours will soon lose their natural brilliancy.

Anyone Avho has a set of carpenter's tools and the ability to use
them well will be able to construct for himself either a set of store
boxes or a cabinet of many drawers in which to keep his natural
treasures. In this case a few considerations are necessary before
deciding on the form which the storehouse is to take.

A cabinet, if nicel}' made, forms a very sightly article of furni-
ture ; and, if space can be found for it, is the best and most con-
venient receptacle. One of about twelve to twenty drawers will be
quite sufticient for a time ; and the few following hints and sugges-
tions may be useful.

The wood used should be well seasoned, and free from resin.
The drawers should fit well, and slide without the least danger of
shaking. Each one should be lined with sheet cork, about one-
eighth of an inch thick, glued to the bottom, nicely levelled with
sand paper, and then covered with thin, pm-e white paper, laid on
with thin paste. It is also advisable to cover each with glass,
inclosed in a light wood frame that fits so closely as to prevent, the
intrusion of mites.

The drawers may be arranged in a single vertical tier if the
cabinet is to stand on the floor, or in tw'o tiers if it is to be shorter
for placing on the top of another piece of fiu'niture ; and glass doors,
fastened by a lock and key, may be made to cover the front if such
are desired as a matter of fancy, or as a precaution against the
meddlesome habits of juvenile fingers.

Store boxes are sometimes chosen in preference to cabinets
because they are more portable, and because they can be arranged
on shelves — an important consideration when floor space is not
available.

These boxes should be cork-lined and glazed like the cabinet
drawers ; and if they are made in two equal portions, hned with
cork on both sides, and closing up like a book, they may be arranged
on shelves like books, in which position they will collect but little
dust.

Both store boxes and cabinets are always kept in stock by the
dealers, the former ranging from a few shillings each, and the latter
from fifteen shiUings to a guinea per drawer. Knowing this, you
can decide for yom-self between the two alternatives — making and
purchasing.

136

WORK AT HOME AND TN THE FIELD

We have now to consider the manner in which our specimens
should be arranged and labelled.

The table forming Appendix I contains the names of all the
British butterflies and larger moths, and shows their division
into Sections, Tribes, Families, and Genera. This table is the
result of most careful study on the part of leading entomologists,
and shows how, in their opinion, the insects can best be arranged
to show their relation to one another ; and you cannot do better
than adopt the same order in your collection.

KHOrALOCERA

i'Al'ILIONID.E

I'apilio

o
o

Machaoii

PIERID.55

Aporia

o
o

Cratoggi

O
O
O
O

BrassiciE

Rapa;

o.
o
o
o

Napi

(_)

Dapliilice

o
o
o
o

C'ardauiiue.-;
Li'invp/i'isia

Siiiaiiis
Coliiis

o
o
o

Uvalo

o
o
o
o

Ediisa

V. Htlioe
donoptenix

o
o

Rliamni

Xy.MrHALID.E

Aniynnis

o
o

Selene

C)
(J

L)
(J

EuiiUrosyiie

(J
Latoua

Complete label lists can be purchased, printed on one side of
the paper only. These, when cut up, supply you wilh neat labels
for your specimens.

If you intend to study the British Lcpidoptcra as completelv
as possible, you may as well start at once with a sufficiently exten-
sive cabinet, and arrange all the labels of your list before you intro-
duce the insects. You will thus have a place provided ready for
each specimen as you acquire it, and the introduction of species

THE CABINET— ARRANGEMENT OF SPECIMENS 137

obtained later on will not compel yon to be continually moving' and
rearranging the drawers.

Probably the number of blank spaces will at tirst suggest an
almost hopeless task, but a few years of careful searching and
rearing will give you heart to continue your interesting work.

Arrange all the insects in perpendicular rows. I'ut the names
of each section, tribe, family, and genus at the head of their
respective divisions, and the names of the species below each insect
or series of insects. The opposite plan, in which the circles
represent the insects themselves, Avill make this clear.

Three or four specimens of each species are general]}' sufficient,
except where variations in colouring are to be exhibited. ^Vherever
differences exist in the form or markings of the sexes, both should
appear ; and one specimen of each species should be pimied so as
to exhibit the under side.

Finally, each drawer or box should have a neat label outside
giving the name or names of the divisions of insects that are
represented within. This will enable you to find anything you
may require without the necessity of opening drawer after drawer
or box after box.

PAET TIT
BRITISH BUTTERFLIES

"We have now treated in detail of tlie changes tlirough which
butterflies and moths have to jmss, and have studied the methods
by which we may obtain and preserve the insects in their different
stages. I shall now give such a brief description of individual
species as will enable the reader to recognise them readily. "We
will begin with the butterflies.

CHAPTER XII

THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE 'WHITES'

Family — Papilionid.i;
TJie Sioallow-tail (Pajnlio Machaon)

Om' first family {Papilionidcc) contains only one British species —
the beautiful Swallow-tail {Pa2^ilio Tlfac/tao?;), distinguished at once
from all other British butterflies by its superior size and the ' tails '
projecting from the liind margin of the hind wings.

This beautiful insect is figured on Plate I, where its bold black
markings on a yellow ground are so conspicuous as to render a
written description superfluous. Attention may be called, however,
to the yellow scales that dot the dark bands and blotches, making
them look as if they had been powdered ; also to the blue clouds
that relieve the black bands of the hind wings, and the round red-
dish orange spot at the anal angle of each of the same wings.

It appears that this butterfly was once widely distributed
throughout England, having been recorded as common in various
counties, and has also been taken in Scotland and Ireland ; but it
is now ahnost exclusively confined to the fens of Cambridgeshire,

140 BRITISH BUTTERFLIES

Huntingdonshire, and Norfolk. Occasional!}' we hear of the capture
of single specimens quite outside these localities, sometimes even
in most unlikely spots, where its food plant does not abound. But
we know that Machaon is a general favourite with entomologists,
and that it is sent in the pupal state, by post, to all parts of the
kingdom ; so that the occasional capture of the insect far bej'ond
the borders of its hamits is probably the outcome of an escape from
prison, or of the tender-heartedness of some lover of nature who
could not bear to see such a beautiful creature deprived of its short
but joyous, sunny flight.

You cannot hope to see this splendid butterfly on the wing unless
you visit its haunts during its season — May to August; but the
pupae may be purchased for a few pence each from most of the
entomological dealers ; and if you obtain a few of these and watch
them closely, you may be fortunate enough to see the perfect insect
emerge from its case, and witness the gradual expansion of its
beautiful wings.

The pupa (Plate VIII, fig. 7) itself is a most beautiful object.
Its colour is a pale green, and it is fixed to its support by the tail,
and farther secured by a very strong silk band.

The larva (Plate VIII, fig. 1), too, is exceedingly beautiful. Its
ground colour is a lovely green, and twelve velvety black rings
mark the divisions between the segments. Between these are a,lso
black bars, all spotted with bright orange except the one on the
second segment.

A remarkable feature of this larva is the possession of a forked,
Y-shaped 'horn,' that is jH-ojected from the back, just behind the
head, when the creature is alarmed. If it is gently pressed or
irritated in any way, this horn is thrust out just as if it were an
important weapon of defence. And perhaps it is, for it is the source
of a powerful odoiu- of fennel — one of the food plants of the cater-
pillar— that may possibly prove objectionable to some of its numer-
ous enemies.

The food plants of Machaon are the milk parsley or hog's
fennel {Pcuccdanum i^alustre), cow-parsnip (Hcracleuni bpJioii-
dyUiivi), and the wild angelica {Angelica sylvestris) ; but in con-
finement it will also partake of rue and carrot leaves.

The caterpillar of this species may bo found in the fens during
the greater part of the summer. It turns to a chrysalis in the
autumn, and remains in this state throughout the winter, attached
to the stems of reeds in the vicinity of its food plants. The perfect

THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE 'WHITES' 141

insect is first seen in May, and is more or less abundant from this
time to the month of August.

Family — Pierid.e

This family, though known commonly as the ' Whites,' contains
four British species that display beautiful tints of bright yellow or
orange.

In many respects the Plcridcc resemble the last species. Thus
the perfect insects have six fully developed legs ; the caterpillars
are devoid of bristles or spines ; and the chrysalides are attached
by means of silky webs at the ' tails,' and strong cords of the same
material round the middle.

AH the larvae are also cylindrical or wormlike in shape ; and
their skins are either quite smooth, or are covered with very short
and tine hairs, that sometimes imjiart a soft, velvety appearance.

The members of this family are remarkable for their partiality
for certain of our cultivated plants and trees ; and are, in some
cases, so abundant and so voracious, that they are exceedingly
destructive to certain crops.

The Black-veined Wliite [Aporia Cratcegi)

This butterfly may now be regarded as one of our rarities. At
one time it was rather abundant in certain localities in England,
among which may be mentioned the neighbourhoods of Cardiff and
Stroud, also parts of Kent, Sussex, Hampshire, Huntingdonshire, and
the Isle of Thanet ; but it is to be feared that this species is nearly
or quite extinct in this country. It is well, however, not to give up
the search for it, and if you happen to be in one of its favoured
localities of former days, you might net all the doubtful ' Whites '
of large size that arouse your suspicions, liberating them again if,
on inspection, they do not answer to the description of the species
' wanted.' This course becomes absolutely necessary, since the
Black-veined White is hardly to be distinguished from the Common
Large White while on the wing.

If you examine a number of British butterflies you will observe
that in nearly all species the wings are bordered by a fringe of hair,
more or less distinct. But the case is different with Cratcegi. Here
they are bordered by a black nervure, without any trace of fringe,
thus giving an amoi;nt of rigidity to the edges (see Plate I, fig. 2).

The wing ra3-s. or nervures, are very distinct — a feature that

142 BBITISH BUTTEEFLIES

gave rise to the popular name of the butterfly. In the male they
are quite or nearly black, but those of the fore wings of the female
are decidedly brown in colour. At the terminations of the wing
rays there are triangular patches of dark scales, the bases of which
unite on the outer margins of the wings.

Another peculiar feature of this insect is the scanty distribution
of scales on the wings. This is particularly so in the case of the
female, whose wings are semi-transparent in consequence.

The butterfly is on the wing during June and July, at which
time its eggs are laid on the hawthorn {Cratccfjus Oxijacantha)
or on fruit trees— apple, pear and plum.

A vigorous search of these trees in the proper localities »/«//
reveal to you a nest of the gregarious larvis, all resting under the
cover of a common web of silk. These remain thus under their
silken tent throughout the hottest hours of the day, and venture out
to feed only during the early morning and in the evening.

When the leaves begin to fall in the autumn, they construct a
more substantial web to protect themselves from the dangers of the
winter, and in this they hybernate till the buds burst in the
following spring. They now venture out, at first during the mildest
days onW, and feed voraciously on the j'oung leaves, returning to
their homes to rest. Soon, however, they gradually lose their
social tendencies, till at last, when about half or three-quarters
fed, they become quite solitary in their habits.

In May they are fully grown, and change to the chrysalis state
on the twigs of their food trees.

The larva is black above, with two reddish stripes. The sides
and under surface are grey, the former being relieved by black
spiracles.

The pupa (page 4.5) is gi'eenish or yellowish white, striped with
bright yellow, and spotted with black.

It is probable that the reader will never meet with this insect in
an^' of its stages. But, though it may have left us, it is still very
abundant on the Continent, where it does great damage to fruit
trees ; and the foreign pupaj may be purchased of English
dealers.

The Large White {Pier is Brassico')

We pass now from one of the rarest to one of the most abundant
of British butterflies. Everybody has seen the ' Large White,'
though we doubt whether everybody knows that this insect is not

THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE 'WHITES' 143

of the same species as the two other very common ' Whites.' The
three — Large, Small, and Green-veined — are so much alike in
general colour and markings, and so similar in their habits and in
the selection of their food plants, that the non-entomological, not
knowing that insects do not grow in their perfect state, may
perhaps regard the larger and the smaller as older and younger
members of the same species. But no — they are three distinct
species, exhibiting to a careful observer many important marks by
which each may be known from the other two.

On Plate I (fig. 8) will be seen a picture of the female Brassiccr,
in which the following markings are depicted : On each fore wing
— a blotch at the tip, a round spot near the centre, another roxmd
one nearer the inner margin, and a tapering spot on the inner margin
with its point toward the base of the wing. On the hind wings
there is onh' one spot, situated near the middle of the costal
margin.

The male may be readily distinguished by the absence of the
black markings on the fore wings, with the exception of tliose
at the tips. He is also a trifle smaller than his mate.

This butterfly is double-brooded. The first brood appears in
April and Maj^ the second in July and August; and the former —
the spring brood— which emerges from the chrysalides that have
hybernated during the winter, have grey rather than black tips to
the front wings.

The ova oi Brassicce may be found on the leaves of cabbages in
every kitchen garden, also on the nasturtium, diu'ing May and
July. They are pretty objects (see fig. 10), something like little
bottles or sculptured vases standing on end, and are arranged
either singly or in little groups.

As soon as the young larvae are out — from ten to fifteen daj-s
after the eggs are deposited — having devoured their shells, they
start feeding on the selfsame spot, and afterwards wander about,
dealmg out destruction as they go, till little remains of their
food plant save the mere stumps and skeletons of the leaves.

The groimd colour of the caterpillar is bluish green. It has a
narrow yellow stripe down the middle of the back, and two similar
but wider stripes along the sides ; and the surface of the body is
rendered somewhat rough by a nimiber of small black warty pro-
jections, from each of which arises a short hair.

When fully grown, it creeps to some neighbouring wall or
fence, up which it climbs till it reaches a sheltering ledge. Here

144 BRITISH BUTTEEFLIES

it constructs its web and silken cord as already described (page 3G),
and then changes to a bluish-white chrj'salis, dotted with black.
The butterflies of the summer brood emerge shortly after, but
the chrysalides of the next brood hybernate till tjie following
spring.

It is remarkable that we are so plagued with ' Whites ' seeing
that they have so many enemies. Many of the insect-feeding birds
commit fearful havoc among their larvae, and often chase the
perfect insects on the wing, but perhaps their greatest enemy is the
ichneumon fly.

Look under the ledges of a wall of any kitchen garden, and you
will see little clusters of oval bodies of a bright yellow colour.
Most gardeners know that these are in some way or other
connected with the caterpillars that do so much damage to their
vegetables. They are often considered to be eggs laid by the
larvae, and are consequently killed out of pure revenge, or
with a desire to save the crops from the future marauders.

No greater mistake could be made. These yellow bodies are
the silken cocoons of the caterpillar's own foes. They contain the
pupae of the little flies whose larvae have lived within the body of
an unfortunate grub, and, having flourished to perfection at the
expense of their host, left its almost empty and nearly lifeless
carcase to die and drop to the groiuid jv;st at the time when it
ought to be working out its final changes. Often you may see the
dying grub beside the cluster of cocoons just constructed by its
deadly enemies. Should j'ou wish to test the extent of the
destructive work of these busy flies, go into your garden and collect
a m;mber of larvae, and endeavour to rear them under cover. The
probabilitj' is that only a small proportion will ever reach the
final state, the others having been fatally ' stung ' before you took
them.

The Small WMte (P. Bapcv)

This butterfly closely resembles the last species except in point
of size. Tlie male, represented on Plate I (fig. 4), has a dark grey
blotch at the tip of each fore wing, a round spot of the same colour
beyond the centre of that wing, and another on the costal margin
of the hind wing. The female may be distinguished by an
additional spot near the anal angle of the fore wing.

Although this and the two other common butterflies [Brassicce
and Nain) that frequent om- kitchen gardens are usually spoken of

THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE 'WHITES' 145

as ' Whites,' a glance at a few specimens will show that they are
not really white at all, but exhibit delicate shades of cream and
yellow, inclining sometimes to buff. The under surfaces are par-
ticularly noticeable in this respect, for here the hind wings and the
tips of the fore wings display a very rich yellow.

The species we are now considering is also very variable both in
its ground colour and the markings of the wings. The former is in
some cases a really brilliant yellow ; and the latter are in some
cases entirely wanting.

Bapce is double-brooded, the first brood appearing in April and
May, and the other in July and August.

During these months the eggs may be seen in plenty on its
numerous food plants, which include the cabbages and horse-radish
of our gardens, also water-cress (Nasturtuim officinale), rape
{Brassica Na2)i(s), wild nmstard {B. Sina2>is), wild mignonette
{Bescda lutca), and nasturtium {Tropcrolnxi majiia).

The eggs are conical in form — something like a sugar loaf, witli
ridges running from apex to base, and very delicate hues from
ridge to ridge transversely.

The young larviP often make their first meal of the shell, and
then attack the food plant so voraciously that they are fully grown
in about three or four weeks. In colour they are of a beautiful
glaucous green, hardly distinguishable at times from the leaves on
which they rest. A jellow stripe runs along the middle of the
back, and lines of yellow spots adorn the sides ; and the whole body
is covered with very short hairs, each one arising from a minute
warty projection.

The pupse may be found during the same seasons and in the
same situations as those of Brassicce. Thej' are very variable in
colour. Some are of a very pale grey or putty colour, some are
decidedly brown, and others of a greenish tinge ; and they are
often spotted and striped with dark grey or black.

Tlie Grccn-veincd White (P. Napi)

A non-observant beginner at entomological work may easily
mistake this insect for the last species, for the ground colour and
markings are very similar, even to the features by which the sexes
are distingviished from each other ; but an inspection of the under
surface will give s. readj' means of identification, for here the wing
rays are border-ed A\-ith black scales which, by contrast with the

14G BRITISH BUTTERFLIES

rich yellow around them, often appear of a greenish hue. The
butterfly receives its j)opular name from this circumstance.

A careful observer, however, will readily find distinguishing
marks on the ujjper side, for here also the chief ' veins ' are more
or less accompanied with black scales, especially the extremities of
those of the fore wings, where little triangular blotches are often
distinctly formed ; and the dark veining of the under surface of the
hind wings frequently shows through. The under side of this
insect is shown on Plate I (fig. 5).

This butterfly is not so abundant as the two preceding, but is
widely distributed throughout England, and is in most parts
decidedly plentiful.

The first brood (for it also is double-brooded) appears during
April and May, and the second in Jiily and August.

The eggs are very similar to those of RajJO', resembling ribbed
and striated sugar loaves ; and the larvae are of the same rich glaucous
green, but may be identified by the black spiracles surrounded by
yellow rings. In our gardens we may find both eggs and larvse on
mignonette and horse-radish ; the other food plants of this species
include the water-cress {Nasturtium officinale), winter cress
{Barharea vulgaris), rape {Brassica Na^Jus), cuckoo-flower
{Cardamine ^jrrtie«sis), and Jack-by-the-hedge {Sisymbrium
Alliaria).

The pupa is greenish, and marked with small black dots.

The Bath or Green-chequered White {P. Daplidice)

There is no doubt that many butterflies migrate from one coun-
try to another across the seas ; and as the Bath White is very
common on the other side of tiie Channel, and has been taken very
sparingly in England almost exclusively in the south-east, it is
highly probable that the majority of those that have been captured
here are specimens that have taken a voluntary trip across the
water, or have been blown over during rough weather.

This butterfly is one of our greatest rarities, and the capture of a
specimen in England is an event that must necessarily be recorded
in our entomological literature. It seenas that Daplidice has bred
in England, for its caterpillars have been found at large on one or
two occasions, so I will give a short description of the ^•arious
stages of the insect, with a hope that some of my readers may be
fortimate enough to meet with it.

THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE 'WHITES' 147

The female butterflj' is shown on Ph^te I, fig. 0. From this it
■will be observed that each of the fore wings is tipped with a rather
large smokv-black blotch, in which are four white spots. A double
spot of the same colour also occupies a place near the centre of the
wing, and another smaller and round one lies near the anal angle.
The hind wings are clouded with grey, and bordered along the
hind margin with distinct smoky-black spots.

The male may be distinguished from the female by the absence
of the spot near the anal angle of the fore W'ings, and of all the
clouds and spots of the hind wings. Nevertheless the latter have
a decidedlj- clouded appearance, but this is due to the markings of
the under surface showing through them.

The under side of both sexes is most beautifully marked —the
fore wings resembling the upper sides, but the hind pair chequered
with a beautiful soft green on a
pale yellow ground.

The eggs of this insect are
deposited during April and May,
and again in August or Sep-
tember— for it is, like the other
' Whites,' doulde - brooded — on
two species of Wild ^Mignonette
{Reseda liitea and i?. luteoht).

Tlie caterpillars, which are
of a bluish colour, with two
yellow stripes down the back, and

two others along the sides, maybe loolicd for in June and Sep-
tember. TJiose of the first brood only have been taken in this
country, while the others on the Continent change to the chrysalis
in tlie autumn, and hybernate in this state throughout the winter.

The chrysalis is of a brownish colour, and closely resembles that
of the Small White in form.

Those in search of this rare British insect should wander along
the south-east coast, and net all the doubtful slow-flying small
Wliites {Daplidice is rather slow and heavy on the wing), and
their perseverance may be rewarded with a prize that will ever be
a reminder of a glorious catch and an eventful day. If you fail in
this, and most probably you will, rather than remain a stranger to
this beautiful and interesting insect, fill up the blank in your
cabinet with a foreign specimen, which can be obtained at any time
for a few pence, but be careful to label it ' not British,' in order

Fig. G;'

—The Bath White
Under Side.

148 " BBITISH BUTTEBFLIES

that your brofher collectors may not be deceived, or be led to make
any unnecessary inquiries.

Tlie Orange Tip {Euchloe Carda mines)

No one could possibly mistake the male of this species for any
other British butterfly, the popular name alone givi)i^ quite
sufficient information for its identification, but the female Orange
Tip is not tipped with orange, and its markings, both above and
beneath, resemble those of Daplidice so nearly that the same
written description might apply almost equally well to both.

On Plate I (fig. 7) is shown the upper side of the male, and
jiist opposite it (fig. 8) the under surface of the same. The female
is usually a little larger than her mate, and is marked similarly on
both sides except that the bright orange blotch is entirely wanting.
She may always be distinguished from Daplidice by the smaller
size of the white spots that break the dark blotch at the tip of the
fore wing ; also by the very small size of the dark spot in the
centre of the same wing. The green chequerings of the under side
of the hind wings are also more sharply defined, and the insect is
generally of a lighter build.

Like many other butterflies, the Orange Tip is subject to varia-
tions in colouring. Sometimes a pale but bright yellow takes ths
place of the white ground, and the orange blotch of the male is
occasionally present on the upper or lower surface only.

Cardamincs is a single-brooded insect, and is essentially a
creature of the spring, at which time it may be foimd in abundance
in lanes, meadows, and clearings in woods thi'oughout the British
Isles. Its flight is so light and airy that even the female may
easily be distinguished from other Whites when on the wing, while
the brilliant orange of the male, intensified by the briglit rays of
the spring sun, may be identified at some considerable distance.

The food plants of Card'imines include the cuckoo-flower
{Cardamine pratensis) and the bitter cress {C. iynpatiens), after
which the insect is named, also water-cress {Nasturtium officinale),
winter cress {Barharea vulgaris), rock cress {Arabis perfoliata),
liedge mustard {Sisymhrium officinale), Jack-bj'-the-hedge (S.
Alliaria), wild mustard {Brassica Sinapis), &c., and the eggs of
the butterfly may be found on these during May and June.

The catei-pillar (Plate VIII, fig. 2) is green, with a white stripe
on each side, and its body is covered with short liair. In July it is

THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE ^WHITES' UO

fully grown, and ascends a stem of the food plant to prepai'e itself
for its long winter sleep.

The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 8) is a very pecnliar object. Both
ends are much elongated and sharply pointed ; and the foremost
extremity stands out at an angle with the stem to which it is
attached.

This butterfly should be looked for during April and May, but in
mild seasons it may often be met with in March.

The M'uod White {Lcucophasia Suuipis)

The distinguishing feature of this butterfly (see Plate II, fig. 1)
is the extreme lightness and delicacy of its build. Its wings are
narrow, and rounded at the tips ; and the only mark to relieve the
white ground of the upper side is a squarish blotch at the tip of the
fore wing, and even this is either very indistinct or entirely absent
in the female. The under surface is clouded with a pale greenish
tint.

This insect may be looked for in May and again in August, in
paths and clearings in woods, where it moves along with a slow but
steady flight, hardly ever seeming to rest for a naoment. It is not
by any means a common butterfly, but is very widely distributed,
and sometimes appears in considerable numbers in certain favoured
spots. Anaong the localities recorded may be mentioned Torquay,
Exeter, Plymouth, South Dorset, New Forest, Keading, Darent
Woods, Morecambe'Bay, Hasleujere, Windermere, &c.

The caterpillar is of a beautiful gi-een colour, and is covered with
short whitish hairs. A darker green stripe runs down the middle
of the back, and a bright yellow stripe along each side. Its food
plants are the tufted vetch (Vicia Cracca), bird's-foot trefoil {Lotus
corniculatus and L. jnlosus), bitter vetch {Lathyrus tuhcrosus),
and the everlasting pea (L. sylvestris).

The chrysalis is a very beautiful object. Its colour is a delicate
green, tinged with pink; and the wing-cases project in beautiful
cm'ves much beyond the general sitrface.

The Pale Clouded Yellow {Colias Hijale)

The ground colour of this butterfly (Plate II, fig. 2) is very vari-
able. It is usually a sulphury yellow, and on this account the insect
is commonly known as the Clouded Brimstone ; but sonietimes tlie
yellow is exceedingly pale — almost white — and tinged with gi-een.

150 BBITISH BUTTERFLIES

A very large black blotch, broken by indefinite patches of the
ground colour, fills up the tip of each fore wing, and extends to the
anal angle, becoming narrower as it approaches this point. A black
oval spot lies just above the middle of this wing.

The hind wings are bordered with black, and a conspicuous spot
of deep yellow lies very near the centre of each.

The antennae are rather short, compared with those of the pre-
ceding members of this family, and are distinguished by their
reddish-brown colour.

The male and female of this species are similarly marked, but
the gromid colour of the latter is commonly paler.

This is not by any means a very common buttertiy with us,
though it is very plentiful on the other side of the Channel ; but it
has a way of taking us by surprise in certain seasons, and then
almost neglecting us for several years together.

Its head quarters are certainly the coasts of Kent and Sussex,
but it has been taken in considerable nmnbers as far west as Corn-
wall, and also to a less extent in some of the midland and northern
counties. It is particularly fond of lucerne and clover fields,
especially those that are situated close to the sea cliffs ; and often
it may be seen flying over the beach, sometimes even flitting over
the breakers away from land till at last it disappears in the dis-
tance. This maritime tendency of HijaJc makes it probable that a
large number of those that are seen on our south-east coasts have
made a passage across the narrow end of the Channel.

The eggs are laid in spring, by females that have hybernated
throughout the winter, on various leguminous plants, including the
lucerne {Medicago sativa), black medick {M. hq^uUna), purple and
Dutch clovers {Trifolium liratense and T. rejicns), and the bird's-
foot trefoil {Lotua corniculatus), and on these plants youma^- searcli
for the larva, though it can scarcely bcisaid that you are likely to
find it.

The caterpillar is green, with black dots, and a yellowish stripe
on each side. "When fully grown it ascends a stem of its food plant
and changes to a green chrysalis with yellow stripes.

Hyale is single-brooded in England, although two broods
regularly appear on the Continent. In our country the perfect in-
sects emei'ge during July and August. Many of these die before
the approach of winter ; but, as we have already observed, some
hybernate and deposit their eggs in the following spring.

THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE 'WHITES' 151

The Clouded Yellow (Colitis Ediisd)

Not oiily are this and the hist species simihxiiy named, but a
glance at the figures will show that they much resemble each other
in appearance ; and we shall also learn presently that in their habits
and life history they have much in common.

The male Edusa is shown on Plate II (hg. 3), and when we
compare it with its relative on the opposite side, we are at once struck
with the superior richness of the brilliant orange or satfron of the
ground colour. The black border of both fore and hind wings is also
denser, wider, and more esteusi\e. The whole of the yellow area
of the hind wings is dusted more or less with black scales, with the
exception of a round central spot of deep orange, corresponding with
the orange spots on the hind wings of Hyalc.

The female, which is shown in the accompanying woodcut, is
generally larger than the mile, and is further distinguished by the
\erv pale yellow spots

tliat break the black
border of both pairs of
wings.

Edusa fiu'ther resem-
bles Hijnle in the reddish
colour of the antennae ;
and, in both the species,
the red legs form a
pleasing contrast with the
yellow furry surface of the
under side of the thorax.

There is a variety of the female of this butterfly, in which the
ground colour is a very ■pale yellow, almost white. The hind wings
are more thickly dusted with black scales than in the normal insect,
and the orange spots of these wings show up much more conspicu-
ously from the contrast with their surroundings.

It is usual to applj' distinct names to constant varieties of species
— names that are to be added to the ordinary title. In this particu-
lar case the distinguishing name is Helice, so that we should speak
of tlie variety of Edusa above mentioned as :

Colias Edusa, var. Helice

Like Hijale, Edusa is particiilarly capricious in its appearance.
In certain summers it absolutely s^\■arms in favourite localities,

Fig. Gfi. — The Clouded Yellow — Female.

152 BBITISH BUTTERFLIES

while during the intervals between such remarkable appearances —
usually several years — it is positively scarce. The last la-\'oured
season was the summer of '92, during which (from the beginning of
August to the end of the summer) dozens might easily have been
caught in an hour or two ; in fact, so plentiful were they in many
places, that they were continuously in sight, often several at one time.

Those in search of this insect should repair to the south coast,
especially the south-east, and where lucerne and clover fields are
in flower. It has very decided maritime tendencies, and may often
be seen flying over the cHffs and beaches, and even skipping over the
breakers ; but, at the same time, it is more or less plentiful in many
inland districts. It has been taken in many parts of Ireland and
Scotland, particularly along the southern coasts of these countries;
but its head quarters are undoubtedly the southern cliffs of England,
from Cornwall to Kent, and also the hilly inland districts of the
south-eastern counties.

Edtisa catching is very lively sport, and is likely to prove
sufhcient for any lover of outdoor exercise under a scorching sun ;
for this butterfly is not only very powerful on the wing, but its
flights are usually long, so that a good run is often absolutely
necessary in order to capture it. On very hilly ground, such as
Edusa loves, chase is often hopeless, and then it is necessary to
resort to stratagem. In such a case the best plan is to make a
very cautious approach when the insect has been observed to settle,
and then secure it with a sudden down-stroke of the net.

The eggs are laid during May and June by a few females that
have survived the winter.

The caterpillar may be found in June and July on its food
plants, the chief of which are the bird's-foot trefoil {Lotus cornicu-
latt(s), and the purple and Dutch clovers (Trifoliiiiu jjratcnse and
T. 7\'pens). Itscolour is grass-green, and it is marked with a narro^v
whitish stripe on each side, which is broken by the yellow of the
spiracles.

The chrysalis is of a pale yellowish green, and is marked with
yellow stripes and reddish-brown dots.

Th.c Brimstone {Gono'pterijx lihamni)

This, the last member of the present family, is remarkable for
the graceful outline of its wings. The costal margins of the fore
pair are most beautifully arched, and both pairs are sharply angled
on the hind mai^gins. This latter characteristic is quite unique

THE SWALLOW-TAIL AND THE 'WHITES' 153

among British butteriiies, though we shall presently lueet with
instances of angular projections on hind wings only.

The ground colour of the male (Plate II, fig. 4) is a rich sul-
phury yellow, with a greenish tinge. That of the female is a very
pale greenish yellow. The only conspicuous markings are small
sali'ron spots, one near the centre of each wing. The antenme are
red, short, and beautifully curved ; but, unlike the two preceding
species, the legs are almost white.

The eggs of this butterfly are laid in April on the two species of
buckthorn {liJiainnus catharticus and B. Frangula) bj' tlie females
that have successfully weathered the winter. They are of a bright
yellow colour, and are usually hatched in about a fortnight.

The body of the caterpillar is green, and it is tliickly covered
with little black wart-like projections. A pale stripe also runs
along each side. During May and June it may be found on its
food plants, and toward the end of the latter month it attaches itself
by a silken carpet and belt to the imder side of one of the leaves.

The chr^'f-alis is of a very peculiar shape, the body being curved,
and the wing cases standing out prominently beyond the general
surface. Its colour is a bright apple green marked with yellow,
and it is so transparent that certain of the structures can be seen
through its skin.

The perfect insect emerges in about three weeks after the change
to the chrysalis ; and may be looked for from July to tlie end of the
summer. This period may be regarded as the best time in which
to hunt for Bhanini, bi;t it is to be noted that this butterfly makes
its appearance during all months of the year, even though it is single-
brooded.

A large number seem to hybernate, and their winter sleep is so
light that the welcome rays of the sun on a mild day, even during
the bleak months of November to February, will often call them out
from their hiding places. Then, as a rule, the hybernating butter-
flies do not live long after depositing their eggs for the future
brood ; but the Brimstone often li\es on till its offspring have them-
selves attained the perfect state, so that it is possible to capture the
insects of two different years both on the same day. In sx;ch a case
it is generally easy to distinguish between the two, for the newly
emerged specimens are beautifully bright and fresh in colour,
Avhile those of the previous year are more or less faded and worn,
tlieir wings being often semi-transparent through the loss of scales,
and frequently disfigured by the stains of mildew.

154 BlUTISH BUTTERFLIBS

CHAPTER XIII

THE FRITILLARIES, VANES S AS, AND THE PURPLE
EMPEROR

Fauiil.v — Nymphalid.e

We now come to a rather large family, which contains some of om'
largest and most brilliant butterflies. Some of them display the
most gaudy colours, and others exhibit patches of a beautiful metal-
lic lustre.

If you were to see all the members of this family side by side,
they might strike you as being so varied in their appearance that
you would wonder why they ore all jilaced in one family groujj.
But, were you to see, in addition to the perfect insects, all their
larvie and chrysalides, the reason would be made clear at once, for
these earlier stages are seen to resemble each other in certain points
at the very first glance. The former are all provided with peculiar
spines, and the latter are all more or less angular, and are all sus-
lisnded to a silken carpet by means of hooks at the tip of the abdo-
men, and have no belt as we have observed in the case of the
Pieridce.

The perfect insects, too, although so varied in colouring, are
alike in that they have only four walking legs, the first pair being
so imperfectly developed as to be iiseless for this purpose.

This family includes the Fritillaries and the Vanessas.

The Small Pearl-bordered FritiUarij {Argijnnis Selene)

The interesting group of butterflies known as the Fritillaries
vary considerably in size, but are remarkably uniform in the
ground colour of the wings, which, in all cases, is a rich golden or
sienna brown ; and this ground is chequered with darker colours in
such a manner as to remind one of the petals of the wild flower

FRITILLARIES. VAN ESS AS. PURPLE EMPEROR loo

known as the Snake's Head or Fritillarv — hence the popular name
of the group.

The Small Pearl-bordered, our tirst example, is one of the lesser
Fritillaries, and is shown in Plate II (fig. 5).

The arrangement of the black markings on the upper sm^face
will be readilj' made out from the colom-ed plate, but the pattern
of the under side will require a little special notice, for it is here,
as with the other Fritillaries, that we find the chief marks by
which we identify the species. On this side (6g. G7) the fore wings
are light orange brown, with a patch of darker brown near the tips,
and spotted with a dull black. The hind wmgs have the light
brown disjjlaced by a very warui chestnut tint, some yellow, and
bright silvery spots.

Seven silvery spots of triangular form border the hind margin.
A large one occupies the centre . .

of the wing, and ten others are _^^__ .^

somewhat irregularly scattered ^J^",*"^ 5^^^ j/L _^<cs^ '''»^^P
over other parts of the wing— ^^** V^^'Vf^" ^ ^^
five between the central spot and "^^^^^C!^/ i?^*^ ^^^

the hind margin, and five between ^'^'H-s^ "^

it and the costa. '^,n^^M»j'

All the spots on these wings,
whether yellow, chestnut, or silver, Fk;. ()7.— The Small Pearl-
are bordered by a narrow black bordered Fkitillary-

,. Lnder Side.

Jme.

Sclciic is not a very abimdant butterfly, but is widely distributed
in England, and is also found in parts of Scotland. Its favourite
resorts are clearings in woods, especially those of Kent and other
southern counties.

It appears in May and June, in which latter month it deposits
its eggs on the dog violet {Viola canina).

The caterpillar is not fully grown at the end of the summer,
and hybernates during the winter among the roots of its food
plant. In the following spring it emerges again, and feeds till
May, when it changes to the chrj'salis on a stem. It is less than
an inch long when fully grown, and is of a dark-brown colour.
Six rows of hairy sjoines are arranged longitudinally on its
body.

The chrysalis is gre.\ ish brown, and has a mnnber of \ ery short
projections correspontling with the spines of the caterpillar.

156

BRITISH BUTTERFLIES

The PearJ -bordered Fritillarij [Argynnis Euphrosijne)

There is ver}' little difference in the size of this and that of the
last species, but Enphrosyne (Plate II, hg. 6) is generally a trifle
larger. The two butterflies are also very similar in appearance ;
indeed, they are so much alike on the upper side that it is impos-
sible to decide on the name of either without an examination of the
lender surface.

Eujphrosyne has a border of seven triangular silver spots on
each hind wing, exactly corresponding with those of Selene. It
has also the large central spot of silver. But, beside these, there is
only one other, and that is situated in the basal angle. Thus there

are only nine sihery or pearly

spots on each hind wing of
Euphrosyne, while there are
seventeen on Selene. This
will form a ready means of
distinguishing between the two
species.

The seasons and localities
of this butterfly correspond
very closely with those of the

last species, but it is much more common, and may be found in

abundance in nearly all our southern woods during May and

June.

The caterx)iUar, also, feeds on the same plant (dog violet) as

Selene. It is black, with whitish lines along the sides ; and is

provided with a number of bristly spines.

The chrysalis is of a grey-brown colour, with small dots of a

paler tint on the wing cases ; and its body has a number of short

conical projections exactly corresponding with the spmes of the

caterpillar.

Tlie Queen of Spain Friiillary {Argynnis Latona)

We now pass from the commonest to the rarest and most
prized of our wood butterflies— The Queen of Spain (Plate II,
fig. 7). This royal personage is not easily mistake)! for any of the
meaner Fritillaries even when the upper surface only is examined,
as the concave hind margins of the fore wings serve as an almost
conclusive mark of distinction. The rich tawny bro^^•n of this side

Fig. 68. — The Pearl-boedehed
Fr^iTiLLAKY — Under Side.

FBITILLABIES, VANESSAS, PUEPLE EMPEBOB 157

is boldly marked with black, and the long hairs and scales of the
bases of the wings are tinged with green.

The imder side presents a most beautiful appearance. Here the
ground colour is paler than that of the upper side. The fore wings
ere spotted with black, and have a few small patches of silver at the
tips. Each hind wing has no fewer than twenty-four bright silvery
spots. Seven of these, mostly of large size, adorn the hind margin,
and above each of these is a small one in the middle of a little patch
of dark brown. The arrangement of the others is not rpiite so
easily described, but may be readily made out from our illustration.

This rare gem among British buttertiies has been taken in
many localities, but in ver}- small numbers. Seeing that it is a
common insect on the other side of the Channel, and that the
British captures have been made chiefly in the Isle of Wight and
on the south coast, I am
inclined to believe that
man}' of the highly valued
genuine Britisliers have no
right to their title, biit are
visitors that have spent
only a few days within our
shores, having flown or been
blown across the sea.

It is not likely that
many of my readers will
ever meet with Lafonn
during their rambles in our

own country, and if they are anxious to have the species represented
in their collections, they will probably have to piirchase either a
British or a foreign specimen, the former of which will command
a very high price, while the latter may be obtained for three or four
pence.

The perfect insect may be looked for in August and September,
cliiring which time the eggs are laid on the leaves of violets and tho
heartsease (Viola canina, V. odorata, and V. tricolor-).

The caterpillar is brown, with numerous yellowish spines, and
has three whitish or yellowish stripes — one down the middle of the
back and one along each side. It hybernates during the winter,
and is fully grown in the following June or July. I hope that my
reader will be so fortunate as to secure either this or some other
stage of this rare and beautiful insect. The chances are decidedlv

The Qdeen of Spain
Fritillary — Under Side.

158

BRITTSH BUTTERFLIES

against him, luit that is no reason why he should abstain from a
vigorous searcli when he happens to be ' doing ' the soiithern
coiinties.

The Darl-grecn FrifiJlari/ {Argijnnis Agla'ui)

This butterfly is larger than Latona, as will be seen by reference
to Plate II, fig. 8. Its colour is, as i;sual with the Fritillaries, a
tawny brown with black markings. The female is usuall}' larger
than the male, and she is fm-ther distinguished by the ground
colour being darker and the black markings larger.

The under side of the fore wings is very similar in colour and
markings to the upper, but there are silvery spots near the tips.

The hind wings are beau-
tifully tinted with olive
green and brown, and
studded witli silver. The
arrangement of the latter
is not easily described, but
is accurately represented
in the accompanying
woodcut.

Tlie favourite resorts
of this insect are wooded
spots, and also heaths and
downs clad with heather
or ferns, where its food
plant (the dog violet) lies scattered ; but it seems to be less partial
to woods than the other Fritillaries. It is very widely distributed
throughout England, and is common in parts of Scotland and
Ireland.

The perfect insect is on the wing in -Tuly and early August.
The caterpillar first appears toward the end of August, and
commences its period of hybernation among the roots of its food
plant before it has grown to any considerable size. It comes out
again in the spring, and continues to feed till the beginning or
middle of July, and then changes to the chrysalis state, after pro-
tecting itself by binding three or four leaves together.

Its colour is a velvety black, with dark and glossy grey between
the segments. There is a double yellow line along the back, and a
thin line of orange yellow on each side below the spiracles. It has
a number of black hairy spines, arranged in six longitudinal rows.

Fia. 70.-

-The Daek-greex Fritillary
Under Side.

FBITILLAEIES, VANESSAS, PUBPLE EMPEPOB 159

The clirysalis is of a sliiny black colour, with livownish abdomen ;
and the conical projections are black with yellow tips.

The Hif/Ji-brown FrifiUari/ (Ar[/i/inus Adippi')

The upper side of this butterfly is so much like that of Aglaia
that it would be difficult indeed to give a written description of
one that did not almost equally well apply to the other ; so we look
to the under surface for the chief marks by which we can distinguish
between them.

On this side (Plate III, fig. 1) the fore wings are much the same
as those oi Aglaia. The hind wings, too, are very similarly coloured
and marked, but here we have a distinguisliing feature in a row of
rust-red spots with sil-
very centres, just inside m^ • ^^ n^
the silver border of the
hind margin.

This butterfly' is com-
mon in open spaces of
woods in many parts of
England, more particu-
larly in the south, and
seems to be also fond of
hilly heaths and moors.

It is on the wing in
Julj', and, towards the end of this month and in tlie beginning of
August, the eggs are laid on the leaves of the dog violet {Viola
canina) and heartsease (F. tricolor).

The young caterpillar emerges about two weeks later, and feeds
onl}- for a short time before it seeks out its winter quarters among
the dead leaves at the root of its food plant. The feeding is resumed
in the spring, and continued till the month of June, when it is fully
grown. At this time it is about an inch and a half long. Its head
is black, and its body pinkish brown. A white line extends down
the back, but is interrupted by several black marks. The spines,
of which there are six rows, are white, with pinkish tips.

Fig. 71.— 1'iie High-biiowx Fritillaey.

TJte Silvcr-ivashed Fritillarij {Arc/ynnis Papliia)

This beautiful and noble butterfly is the largest of the Fritillaries,
and the most powerful on the wing. During the latter part of June

ICO

BRITISH BUTTERFLIES

and throughout July it may be seen .f(racefully sweeping through
the trees and undergrowth of woods, often setthng down on a
favourite flower for a short time. So strong is its flight that it is
useless to attempt to pursue it for any distance. Sometimes it will
sail along a wooded path, followed at short intervals by others of
its species, and may be taken in the net as it passes. But perhaps
the most successful method of netting Paj^hia is to wait till it
has settled, and then secure it by a quick upwaixl or side stroke
of the net. If then you miss your aim, off it will dart, sailing
over the tree tops till, in a very short time, it is quite out of
sight.

The upper side of this butterfly is shown in Plate III, fig. 2,
where the general arrangement of the black spots on the rich

Fig. 72. —The Silver-washed Fritillaby —Under Side.

orange-brown ground is carefully marked. There is a considerable
difference between the male and female of this species. The figure
on Plate III represents the male. The female does not possess
the broad black lines that follow the course of the veins of the fore
wings ; the basal portions of all four wings are also tinged with a
rich olive -brown colour, often with a decided tendency' to green ;
and the black spots of all the wings are larger.

The under side is pai'ticularly rich in its decorations. The front
wings are of the usual orange brown, chequered with black. The
hind wings are partly brown and partly- orange, and exhibit beautiful
greenish reflections. They have also two bars of silver, and a silvery
spot in the basal angle, all with rather indefinite outlines.

FBITILLARIES. VANESSAS. rVRPLE EMPEBOR IGl

The female lays her eggs late in July on the food plants {Viola
canina and V. odorata) or on the moss that surrounds them.

About two weeks later the young caterpillar is out and feeding ;
and tlien, after a few more weeks, while it is yet very small, it hides
among the dead leaves at the roots. Early in the spring it resumes
its feeding, and is full grown at the end of Maj-.

The colour of the caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 3) is black, and
there are two yeUow lines along the back, separated by a black stripe,
also one yellowish line on each side. Its body is adorned with
reddish-brown spines, two of which, situated just behind tlie head,
are longer than the others.

The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 9) is greyish, marked with
metallic spots, and has a number of angular projections representing
the spines of the larva.

Paphia is to be met with in woods in all parts of England and
Wales. It has also been observed in Ireland, but is rarely seen
in Scotland.

The Greasy FritiUarij {McUtcea Aurinia)

Unlike the other Fritillaries, this species (Plate III, fig. 3)
exhibits a variety of shades on the upper surface. A broad band of
sienna brown stretches across each wing, near to and parallel with
the hind margin. The other parts of the wings are marked with
patches of sienna, orange, and yellow, separated by black lines and
bands. The margins are all black, and inside the broader margin
of the hind wing is a row of six very
pale yellow spots. The broad sienna
band of the hind wing is also
divided by narrow black lines into
seven parts, six of which have black
centres.

The under surface of tlie fore _,

1 ■ ^ c -^ 11-1 T FiG- 73. -The Gkeasy Fritil-
wmgs has mdefimte yellowish and lary-Undee Side.

tawny patches, which look as if they

had been greased and smeared. The hind wings are marked with
pale yellow and deep orange ; a broad band of the latter, near the
hind margin, is divided into segments, each of which has a yellow
spot with black in the centre.

This is a very local insect, although it is widely distriliuted
throughout England and Wales. It also occurs sparingly in Scot-
land and Ireland. Its food plants are the honeysuckle {Loniccra

162 BIUTISH BVTTEBFLIES

PericJymenum), tlevil's-bit scabious {Scahiosa siiccisa), and the
plantain {Plantago); and its chief resorts are damp meadows
and marshy places, where these plants (more especially the
scabious) abound.

The butterfly appears aboixt the end of April or in June.

The caterpillars emerge from the eggs towards the end of the
latter month, and always feed in groups imder the cover of a silken
web. Like the preceding species they hybernate during the winter,
and commence feeding again in the spring. They are fully grown
about the end of April.

In colour the caterpillar is velvet^' black, dotted with white, and
its body is covered with short bristly spines. When fully fed it
seeks the shelter of a curled leaf or dense herbage, suspends itself
by the hind claspers to a silken carpet, and then changes to a creamj^
white cln-ysalis with black dots.

The Glanville FriHllarij {Mclltcva Cinxia)

The pattern of the upper side of this Fritillary (Plate III,
fig. 4) is very similar to that of Aurinirt, but the ground colour
is a uniform tawny brown, and the fringes of the wings are of a
very pale straw colour, barred with black.

The under side of the fore wings is tawny brown, with straw-
coloured tips bearing black markings. The hind wings have four
alternate bands of brown and straw
colour, and a patch of straw colour at
the base. The mai'ginal yellow band has
-V r - L -^. 1 ^ ' '^ix or seven black siiots. The brown
^vt'^j'^'c^V •^'~>;yCV' band next to it is divided into six seg-
'^-^^^a^^'» Vii!y/y/> ments with black borders, each with a
^? '■"'"i^^?^ black spot. The next yellow band has

^ „ , m ^ also a row of black spots. The inner

Fig. 74. — The Glanville „ , ■, -, ■ . ■, -, ■

Fritillaey-Under Side. f"lvous band is very UTegular ; and m-

side this is the j'ellowbase with six spots.

This is another local insect— verj' local indeed, for it seems to

have been found only in a few spots outside its head quarters, the

Isle of Wight. Those in search of it should carefully scan the

rough cliffy parts of the island, wherever the species of plantain

{PlantacjO Corono2)us and P. mnritima) are plentiful, these being

the food plants of the larvfe. It first appears on the wing in May,

but may be found till the end of June.

FIUTILLAIUES. VANESSAS, PUBPLE EMPEBOR ms

The caterpillars, whicli are black and spiny, with reddish head and
legs, begin to feed in August, and as soon as the chilly weather sets
in they hybernate in groups under the co\er of a tent constructed
by binding together leaves or blades of grass. In the spring they
start out again, and feed till the end of April, at which time they
change to dark brownish and smooth chrysalides.

The Heath FriiiUarii {MeVdcra Afltalia)

Botli the upper and under sides of tliis butterfly are sliown on
Plate III (figs. 5 and 6), and it will be observed from these that its
general appearance is very similar to that of Cinxia.

The upper surface is of the same tawny brown, barred and striped
with black, and the fringes of the wings are pale yellow, inter-
rupted by small patches of black.

The under surface of the fore wings has the same grciuid colour
with the exception of the lips, which are yellow; and tlie whole is
marked with black, as in the illustration. The hind wings are pale
yellow, with two broad bands of brown corresponding with those of
Cinxia ; but a series of black double arches along the hind margin
and the ahsence of rows of black spots serve to distinguish this
species from the last.

AtJialia is another local butterfly, but is sometimes fnund in
abundance in the spots which it frec^uents. It is met with chiefly
in the open spaces of woods along the south coast and for some
distance inland. Devon, Cornwall, Sussex, and Kent seem to be
the most favoured counties ; and London entomologists would do
well to search for it in Epping Forest.

The butterfly deposits its eggs during .lune and July, on several
different food plants, the chief of which are the greater and narrow-
leaved plantains (Plantago major and P. Janceolata), foxglove
{Digitalis pi/jy^rcrt), two species of cow-wheat {Metavipyrjun
jn-atense and M. sylvaticurn), wood sage [Tcucrinm. Scorodonia),
and the germander speedwell {Veronica^ Cham c? dry s), and the
young caterpillars, after feeding for only a week or two, commence
their period of hybernation. They resume their feeding in April,
and change to the pupal state about the end of May.

The colour of the caterpillar is velvety black, finely dotted
with wliite, and tlie spines are yellow or orange, tipped with
white.

The chrysalis is creamy white, banded and patched with

184

BRITISH BUTTERFLIES

orange and black, and is suspended by anal hooks from a silken
carpet which the caterpillar had spun on the leaf of the food
plant.

The Comma {Vanessa C -Album)

Leaving the Fritillaries, we now come to a genus (Vanessa)
that includes seven most beautiful buttertiies, some of which are
so common as to be known to almost everybody.

It will be observed that this genus belongs to the same family
as the Fritillaries, and we may therefore expect to tiud that
the two groups possess features in common. A slight exami-
nation of a few in their different stages will show that this is so.
Thus, the perfect insects have only four walking legs, the cater-
pillars are all spiny, and the chrysalides are angular.

There is another feature concerning the chrysalides worth}- of
note. Like some ©f the pupse of the Fritillaries, they are adorned more

or less with brilliant me-
tallic spots, sometimes of
a rich golden hue, and
sometimes resembling
burnished silver. Now
the word ' chrysalis,'
which, as we have already-
seen, is derived from a
Greek word meaning
' gold,' was originally ap-
plied to the pupae of some
of the Vanessas, on ac-
count of their metallic decorations, but it has since been extended
to the pupae of all the Lepidoptera, and also to other orders of
insects, even though the greater number of them display no tints
of the precious metal.

Tjie first member for our consideration is the Comma Butterfly,
of which an illustration is given in Plate III, fig. 7. No one could
mistake this beautiful butterfly for any other British species, for
its wings of rich orange brown, with black and dark-brown mark-
ings, are so irregularly scalloped on the hind margins that they
present a somewhat ragged appearance. Its name is derived
from the fact that a white mark something like the letter C, or,
as some have it, like a comma, is distinctly painted on the dark
brown of the imder side.

Fig. 75. — The Comma — Under Side.

FRITILLARIES, VANESSAS, PURPLE EMPEROR 165

This butterriy generally emerges from the chrysalis late in the
summer — August and September, but it is often seen earlier, and
frequenth- as late as October. It is a great lover of sweets, and
may be fomid settled on various flowers and fruits. Its chief food
plants are the hop [Humulus Lajnclus), red currant (Eihes
rubrmn), stinging nettle {Urtica dioica), and the Elm {Uhiius
cainpestris).

It is very abundant in certain districts wliere liops are grown,
but seems to avoid those counties that border the sea. It is widely
distributed in the midland counties, and extends to the north of
England and into Scotland, but is very capricious in its appearance
in many parts.

The eggs are laid in May by females that have liybernated
through the winter, and the caterpillars may be found feeding
during July and August.

The catei'pillar is coloured grey and brown, with a black head,
and a broad white stripe down the back of the hindermost segments.
The body is armed with a number of spines, some of which arc
white, and others pale brown.

The chrysalis is a very peculiar object, having two ear-like pro-
jections extending forwards from the sides of the head. It has a
number of angular projections, and is of an umber-brown colour,
finely netted with black lines, and having several spots of a brilliant
metallic lustre.

The Large Tortoiseshell (Vanessa PoIycJtIoros)

Our two tortoiseshells — large and small— are very similar in
their colour and markings, and moreover are not always to be
distinguished by their size, for specimens of the larger species are
sometimes even inferior in this respect to the largest of the smaller
species ; so, to avoid all risks of mistaken identity, we nuist look for
more reliable marks of distinction between them.

The present species is figured on Plate III (fig. 8), where it will
be seen that the ground colour of dark tawny brown is spotted and
bordered with black. The border of the hind wings contains a row
of crescent-shaped blue spots. The costal margin of the fore wings,
between the black patches, is decidedly lighter than the general
ground, and is yellow rather than brown. It will be noticed,
too, that a black spot lies very near the anal angle of these
wings.

166 BBITISH BUTTERFLIES

The unde-r surface, though by no means brilHant, exhibits a rich
blending of various shades of brown.

Tliis butterfly is not known to occur in either Scotland or
Ireland, and is by no means common in England. Its chief loca-
lities are in the midland and eastern counties.

The perfect insect generally appears about the middle of July,
and after spending a month or six weeks on the wing, seeks out a
sheltered spot in which to spend the winter. In the spring — April
or May — it again takes to tlight, and during the latter month the
females are busily engaged in the deposition of their eggs.

The caterpillar feeds on the two species of elm (Ulmus cmn-
pestris and XJ. moiitana), willow {Salix alba), sallow {S. Ca^rrca),
osier {S. viminalis), aspen {Pojndiis tremuJa), and certain fruit
trees ; and is full grown about midsummer. It is of a tawny grey
colour, with a black stripe on each side, and is covered with very
small wart-like projections, and the spines are branched.

The chrysalis is of a dull pinkish colour, and may be found on
tree trunks, palings, and walls, about the end of June, suspended
from a silken carpet by means of its anal hooks.

The Small Tortuiseshcll {Vanessa Urticec)

Urticce (Plate III, fig. 9) may be distinguished from Po///c7;Zoros
by the absence of the black spot in the anal angle of the fore wings
of the latter. It has also a white spot near the tip of each fore
wing —between the black border and the first black costal patch.
The whole of the base of the hind wing is also black, and the ground
colour is decidedly brighter.

It is one of the commonest of all British butterflies, and is to be
found more or less abundantly in nearly all parts of the British
Isles.

The hybernated perfect insects come out early in the spring, and
lay their eggs in close irregular clusters on nettles (Urtica dioica,
and U. iirens). Shortly after the gregarious caterpillars may be
found on these plants m dense masses. They change to tlie
chrj'salis state about the end of May, and from this time there is a
continuous succession of butterflies till the end of the summer.

The later specimens, which do not emerge till September or
October, spend only a short time on the wing, and then hybernate
till the spring, giving rise to the first brood of the following season.

The caterpillar of this species is black above and greyish beneath.

FRITILLAIUES, VANES 8 AS, PURPLE EMPEROE 1G7

It is thickly covered with yellow dots, which are so close together
on the back as to form two j'ellowish stripes, separated only b}- a
fine black line. There are also two yellowish stripes along each
side ; and the body, as with the rest of this genus, is spiny, the
spines in this case being black or very dark green.

The chrysalis is brownish, and spotted with burnished gold in
variable quantity — sometimes so plentifully as to cover the greater
part of the surface.

Tlie Peacock (Vanessa lo)

This is another of our commonest and most beautiful butterllies.
Its general appearance is such that it cannot possibly be mistaken
for any other. The upper side (Plate IV, fig. 1) is rendered con-
spicuous by the beautiful eye-like marks at the costal angles of all
four wings ; and the under siu'face is very riclily decorated with a
fine arrangement of black and dark-brown patches and streaks.

lo is very abundant in all parts of England, and is well known
in many parts of Scotland and Ireland, but seems to be rare in the
extreme north of both of these countries.

Its food plant is the stinging nettle (Urtica dioica), and on this
the eggs are laid in April by females that have Ir/bernatcd during
the winter.

The caterpillar is full grown at the end of June or beginning of
July. It is black, with numerous minute white wart-like projec-
tions. Its spines also are black, and its claspers brown.

The chrysalis ma,y be found suspended by the tail on some
object in the neighbourhood of the food plant, or sometimes on the
food plant itself. It is of a greenish colour, with yellowish patches,
but turns darker as the time approaches for the emerging of the
perfect insect.

This event takes place in August, and the butterfi y, after a brief
period on the wing, seeks out a sheltered spot for its winter nap.

The Caniberivell Beauty (Vanessa Antiopa)

The reader will be fortunate if he succeeds in netting a specimen
of this highly prized British butterfly. It derives its popular name
from the fact that a few were taken in Camberwell about a hundred
and fifty years ago ; and since that time it has been seen and tcxken
in vaiiable numbers in several parts of England. So widely dis-

168 BRITISH BUTTERFLIES

tributed, indeeel, are its localities, and so few, comparative!}', its
appearances, that it would be useless to attempt to give any hints
as to where it may be looked for. It is, however, a very common
butterfly in«many continental countries, and foreign specimens may
be obtained from any dealer in entomological wares for a few pence
each.

This rare British gem is illustrated in fig. 2 of Plate IV. Here
it will be seen that nearly the whole of the surface is covered with
a rich velvety purple brown, bordered with a black band containing
blue spots ; and outside this is a border of white, finely dotted and
streaked with black. The continental specimens may be easily dis-
tinguished from the genuine Britishers by a darker border with a
decidedly yellow tinge.

The eggs of this species are generally laid on the young leaves of
the willow {Salix alba), in the spring, by females that have hyber-
nated, but sometimes the nettle (Urtica dioica) and the birch
{Betula alba) are selected for the food of the larvae.

The caterpillar is black and spiny, and has a row of seven rather
large reddish-brown spots on the back, commencing at the fifth
segment.

The chrysalis, like those of the other members of this family,
is angular and suspended by the ' tail.' The perfect insect appears
in August, and may be seen from that month till October.

The Red Admiral {Vanessa Atalanta)

There seems to be a tendency with many to under-estimate the
beauty of certain natural objecrs because they happen to be so very
common, and this is particularly the case with some of our most
familiar butterflies. The beautiful Red Admiral (Plate IV, fig. 3)
may possibly suffer in this respect ; for, not only is it one of the
commonest of our biitterflies, but it fearlessly hovers among the
flowers of our gardens, often venturing into the very heart of thickly
populated towns.

The bright scarlet bands and white blotches of this gorgeous
insect stand out boldly on the rich velvety black ground of the
wings, and the additional touches of blue in the anal angles of the
hind wings add to the effect. The under side of the fore wings is
somewhat similar to the upper surface, but is relieved by, brown
and blue ; and this side of the hind wings presents most beautiful
and indescribable blendings of various shades of brown, grey, and

FEIT ILL ARIES, VANE SS AS, PVRFLE EMPEBOE 169

pink. The female ma^' be distiuguisheJ by the )>resence of a small
white spot on the scarlet band of the fore wing.

The eggs are deposited singly on the nettle {Urfica dioica) in
spring by females that have hybernated through the winter.

The caterpillar always feeds under the cover of a tent made by
drawing leaves together. It is spiny, and its colour is usually a
greenish or yellowish grey, spotted with black, and striped along
the sides with white or yellow. When fully grown it bites the stem
of the nettle nearly through a few inches from the top, so that the
upper part of the plant bends over the withers. It then constructs
a commodious tent by binding the leaves of this drooping portion
together, and suspends itself from the roof of this strange home to
undergo its metamorphoses.

The change to the chrysalis state takes place in -Tuly or August,
and the perfect insect may be seen during August, September,
and October in almost every part of the British Isles.

The Fainted Lady {Vanessa Cardiii)

Although the time of appearance of this buttertly generally
corresponds with that of the last species, yet it is exceedingly
variable, so much so that it is impossible to give any fixed period
as its season. It is, moreover, very capricious with regard to its
localities and its numbers. Sometimes it will turn up un-
expectedly in positive abundance in certain localities where
previously it had been a mere straggler ; and then, for some
unaccountable reason, become comparatively scarce for seAeral
successive seasons.

The upper surl'ace of this beaiity (Plate IV, fig. 4) is adorned
with pale red, orange, and black, and with five white spots near
the tip of each fore wing. The under side of the fore wings is
marked something like the upper, but much of the black is replaced
by shades of brown. The hind wings are beautifully variegated
beneath with greys and browns, and have a row of eye-like spots
near the hind margin.

The eggs of this butterfly are laid singly on various species of
thistles, particularly the common field thistle {C)iicns arvcnsis),
generally in the month of June.

The caterpillar, which is black above and red beneath, with
yellowish stripes along the back and sides, feeds under the cover of a
silken web which it constructs among the leaves. It is full grown

170 BBITISH BUTTEEFLIES

in July or x\ugust, when it suspends itself after the manner of the
other Vanessas previous to undergoing its changes,

The chrysalis is angular, coloured with brown and grey, and
adorned with brilliant gold spots.

The perfect insect may be seen at large throughout late summer
and the autumn, and the eggs are laid by females that survive the
winter.

The White Admiral {Limeniiis Sihijlla)

The White Admiral (Plate IV, fig. 5) is neither so pretty nor so
common as its red namesake, but it is nevertheless a fine insect,
although the chief beauty is reserved for the under surface. Above,
the ground colour is a very dark rusty brown, relieved by bands
and spots of white. The under surface is beautifully marked with
silvery blue, bright orange brown, and white, the latter being
arranged just like the corresponding colour on the upper side.

It will be obser^■ed that this butterfly does not belong to the
Vanessa gitnwa; so, while we may look iov Jamil ij resemblances,
we shall observe a few features in which it differs from the preced-
ing species.

It is not by any means abundant, being unknown in Scotland
and Ireland, and confined in England almost exclusively to the
oak woods of the south, where its food plant — the honeysuckle
{Lonicera Perichjmenum) — abounds. Here it may be seen during
July, gracefully sailing among the trees and across the open spaces.

The caterpillar is very different from those of the Vanessas.
Its colour is dark green, with a narrow white stripe along each
side. There are very conspicuous branched spines on the third and
two following segments, also on the eleventh and twelfth ; and
smaller spines on most of the others. All the spines are of a
brownish colour, with pink tips. AYhile it is yet very small it pre-
pares its winter quarters by bending round the remains of a leaf on
which it has been feeding, securing the edges by silken threads,
and then binding it to the stem of the plant. Soon after, the petiole
becomes detached from the stem, and the little caterpillar then
rests suspended in its snug swinging cradle, where it remains
perfectly secure till the following April, when the warm sun calls
it out to feed on the opening leaves. It continues at this till about
the beginning of June, and then changes to a beautiful angular and
eared chrysalis, of a bright green colour, marked with brown, and
having brilliant silvery sjiots and streaks.

FinTILLAIUES, VANE SS AS, FUEPLE EMPEEOli 171

Family — Apaturid.i:
Tlie Purple Emperor (Apatitra Iris)

This grand insect is tlie only British member of its family, and
richly deserves its popular title. The male, ^\■hich is figured on
Plate V (hg. 1), exhibits a most gorgeous imperial purple, which is
reflected at certain angles only fi'oin the upper surface of his large
and powerful wings. His flight is loftj' and vigorous, and among
the topmost branches of majestic oaks, where he defies the efforts
of would-be capturers. Unlike our other butterflies, he is also a
very quarrelsome creature, and will not hesitate to fiercely attack
a brother Emperor who dares ajipvoach the branch he has selected
for his throne.

Many attempts have been made to ca[)ture this prized creature
by means of a large net mounted on the end of a pole twenty or
thirty feet in length, but the wielding of such a cumbersome imple-
ment against so powerful an insect is no mean task, and but few
fall a prey to such a snare. But it so happens that this imperial
personage has a very depraved appetite, the indulgence in which
has often brought him to ruin. Instead of searching out the sweets
so bounteously siipplied by the blo.-soms that are so attractive to
other lepidopterous insects, lie delights in sipping the waters of the
filthiest puddles, and imbibing the odoriferoits moisture of dung and
the decomposing carcases of animals. So deeply seated is this de-
pravity of taste that the Emperor may be netted with ease while
indulging in his sumptuous feast, and is even to be taken at times
with the fingers.

The knowledge of this peculiarity of the imperial palate has led
entomologists to abandon the awkward net, and to bait the woods
with viands that alone can entice his highness from his lofty seat ;
and many a splendid specimen has been easily' captured while
enjoying the luxurious juice of a dead cat, stoat, or rabbit, or of a
seething mass of pig's dung.

The female is larger than her mate, and does not display the
beautiful purple reflections that adorn the male. She is very
different, too, in her habits, for she sits nearly all day on high
branches of trees, giving her attention to the graver duties of an
imperial mother, and is consequently but seldom seem. She lays
her eggs in July on the sallow {Salix Caprea)ox the poplar (Po^j;t-
lus), and in less than a fortnight the young caterpillars are hatched.

172

BBITISH BUTTEBFLIES

They feed on till the leaves are falling, and then fix themselves by
their claspers to a silken carpet which they construct on a twif,^ Here
they remain, exposed to all the wintrj^ blasts and frosts, till the new
leaves are ont in the spring, when they again commence feeding, and
continue to do so till they are full grown— in May or June.

The under side of this species is shown in fig. 7G, in which will
also be observed the eye-like spots of the fore wings which have
given rise to its specific name (Iris).

The caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 5j is a very peculiar creature.

Fi<;. 76. — The Purple Emperor— Undek Side.

Its body is green, with seven oblique yellowish stripes on each
side, and it has a pair of horns attached to its head.

The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 10) may be found in June, sus-
pended to the imder side of a leaf. It is of an apple-green colour,
and still exhilnts the oblique stripes which we observed in the
caterpillar.

This insect is not to be found in either Scotland or Ireland, but
is more or less abundant in many of the oak woods of the midland
and southern counties of England. Among the numerous favoured
localities, we may mention Colchester., Forest of Dean, Northamp-
tonshire, Ipswich, Huntingdonshire, Buckinghamshu'e, Epping,
Lyndhurst, and the Isle of Wight.

173

CHAPTER XIV

THE BROWNS A^'D HEATHS
Fauiilj' — Satyrid.^

This family contains eleven British species, often spoken of
collectively as the ' Browns,' since in most of them the prevailing
tmts are various shades of brown. They are decidedly dingy in
comparison with the beantifnl butterflies we have been previously'
observing ; but to this statement we must allow one marked
exception, for the family includes the beautiful Marbled White,
which stands out prominently among its fellows for brilliancy and
boldness of colour.

The caterpillars of the ' Satyrs ' have no spines, but their bodies
are covei*ed with very minute hair-bearing warts that give them a
soft velvety appearance. The hinder extremity tapers off con-
siderably, and terminates in two points.

The chrysalides are not angular like those of the preceding
species, and though generally suspended by the tail, are sometimes
found quite free among leaves and grasses on the ground.

The perfect insects are rather feeble fliers, and generally take so
little notice of intruders that they are easily caught in the hand.
Their wings are devoid of angles, and they have only four perfectly
developed legs.

The Marbled White {Melanargia Galatea)

Oiu- first member of this family is the exception to which we
have already alluded as a relief to the general dinginess of the
'Browns.' Its colours above are cream and black, arranged
as shown in Plate V, fig. 2. The imder side (fig. 77) is marked
with white, black, and greenish grey, with a row of eye-like
spots parallel with the hind margin of the hind wings.

174

BRITISH BVTTEEFLIES

This butterfly is not known in Scotland or Ireland, nor is it to
be found in several of the northern counties of England. Its chief
haunts are the waste cliffy grounds of the southern and some of
the midland counties of England, where it is usually restricted to cer-
tain small districts. In some places it is really a common insect,
and among these may be mentioned Brighton, Horsham, Dover,

Folkestone, Margate,

Gravesend, New Forest,
parts of Gloucestershire,
Cambridgeshire, and

Devonshire, also in the
Isle of Wight and South
Wales.

The perfect insect is
out in July, during which
month the eggs are de-
posited on various grasses,
or indiscriminately on
leaves and stems in grassy
spots.
The caterpillar feeds on grasses ; and, being still small at the
end of the autumn, hj-bernates during the winter among the stems of
grass. It feeds again in April, and is fully grown hy the end of IMay.
Its coloiu' is a dull green or brownish, with a darker stripe down
the back, and lighter stripes along the sides. Its spiracles are black.
The chrysalis is pale brown, marked with lines of a slightly
darker shade. It may be found among grass stems, without any
attachment, during the month of June.

Fifi. 77.

-The M.uir.LEi) White
Unl'EK Side.

The Small Ruujlet {Erebia Epipliyon)

On account of the very limited range of this butterfly, only those
who have the opportunity of visiting its haunts can have any
practical acquaintance with its natural history. It is almost
exclusively confined to the lake district in England, to a few
mountainous localities in Scotland, and to one or two similar
localities in Ireland. Its strong partiality for elevated situations
has earned for it the popular name of Mountain Ringlet.

The colour of the upper surface (Plate V, fig. 3) is a dark
brown, with a broad band of rusty brown, parallel with the liind
margin of each wing, and broken by the wing rays. Each di\ision

THE BEOWXS AND HEATHS 175

of these bands has often a black central spot, biit frequently these
are entireh' absent. The colonrino; of the nnder side is very
similar but less defined, and the rusty spots of the hind wings are
very small.

The butterfly is out in June and July. The caterpillars, which
are green, with white stripes along the sides, feed on various
grasses. Thej' hybernate during the winter, and change to the
chrysalis state in the following ^lay or June.

TJic NortJieru Brown {Erchia ^EtJilojJs)

The colour of this species (Plate V, fig. 4) is a rich dark brown,
with rust-coloured and black spotted bands arranged something
like those of the last. The markings, however, are very variable.
There are usually four black spots on the band of the fore wings,
but the first two of these are alwa^'s united, and centred with
white. The third is often very small or entirely wanting.

The nnder side of the fore wings is marked something like the
upper, but the hind wings on this side are grey, with two broad
bands of a darker colour.

As its popi;lar name implies, this butterfly is a northerner. It
is common in Scotland, where it flies in elevated spots. In
England it is confined to the mountainous districts of the
north.

The perfect insect is at large in July and August, during which
time the eggs are deposited on various grasses or on low-growing
herbage in grassy spots.

Tlie caterpillar is of a brown colour, and has a narrow black
stripe down the middle of the back, and two other stripes, lighter
than the ground colour, one on each side. At about the end of
June it tiirns to a chrysalis of a brownish colour.

The food plants of this species include a number of common
grasses.

TJie SpecMed Wood or Wood Argus {Pararge Egeria)

Most of our butterflies delight in the hot sun, and are to be
seen on the wing only when it is shining brightly. This fact is
particularly noticeable on a bright day with occasional heavy
clouds. While the sun's rays are pouring uninterruptedly on the
landscape, numbers of these light-lo%'ers are to be observed flitting

176 BIUTISH BUTTEBFLIES

about ; but when the dense shadow of a passing cloud creeps over
the ground they rapidly disappear from view, having settled down
to rest on leaves and stems. Tlien, as soon as the shadow passes
away, the air is again enlivened with their si)orts and tlittings.

The Wood Argus is a marked exception to this rule. It
delights in the cool shade of the narrow paths of woods, where it
slowly ilies up and down the lonely footpath, taking but little heed
of strangers that intrude on its haunts, and seldom venturing into
the full blaze of the sun unless pursued. Even on dull days it
continues its solitary flight, and may even be seen on the wing
while a soft rain is bathing the dripping foliage.

The upper surface of this prettj' butterfly is shown on Plate V,
fig. 5, and the under side in the accompanying woodcut. Both
sides are prettily marked with various shades of brown and buff,

and adorned with white-centred
dark eyesj)ots which have earned
for it the name of Argus.

It first appears on the wing in
April, and may be seen from this
month continuonslj' to the end of
August.

The food plants probably consist

of manj' species of grasses, the

Fig. 78. — The Wood AbctUS— cock's-foot {Dactylis glomerata)

Under Side. ^nd couch grass {Agropyron rejyens)

being among the number, and the

eggs are laid on or in the neighbourhood of these during the summer

months.

The caterpillar of this species is of a dull greenish or brownish
colour, and it has two whitish stripes (sometimes three) down the
middle of the back, and similar stripes along each side. It
hybernates during the winter, and is full grown in IMarch, when it
changes to a dull green or brownish chrysalis, which is streaked
with black, and has a few white dots on the back.

It has been stated that the butterfly is on the wing from April
to August, and, according to some authorities, there are no less
than three broods during this time, following each other in rapid
succession. It is common throughout England and Ireland, and is
known in parts of Scotland.

THE BROWNS AND HEATHS 177

The Wall Butterfly {Parargc Megccra)

Belonging to the same genus is another very I'amiHar buttertly
—the Wall— which receives its popular title from its peculiar habit
of frequently resting on walls and stony banks. It is one of the
iirst, if not the first, to take to the wing in the morning, and is
generally the last to seek its hiding place in the evening. I have
seen it actively tiying about during August, as early as 7.30 in the
morning, and found it still flitting from one spot to another along
the western side of a wall as late as 8 in the evening, as if in search
of a convenient shelter for the fast approaching night.

This pretty ' Brown ' must be familiar to the reader, and the
coloured drawing on Plate V (fig. G) will at once serve for purposes
of identification without the necessity of a wordy description. It
may be mentioned, however, that the male (the sex figured) is
smaller than the female, and is further distingaished by a broad dark
oblique band passing across each fore wing.

The Wall is a double-brooded butterfly, the first brood appearing
in May, and the second in August. The caterpillars which produce
the latter may be found on the cock's foot [Dactylis glomerata)
and other grasses in June, while those of the former are hyber-
nators; and the chrysalides of the two broods maybe found in April
and July respectiveh'.

The coloixr of the caterpillar is green, with a slightly darker
stripe down the middle of the back, a pale stripe along each side,
and another similar stripe about midway between these two.

The chrysalis is green with the exception of the more prominent
parts of its surface, which are almost white.

This species is very common in almost every localit}' in Britain.

The Grayling {Satyrus Seinele)

The Grayling is the largest of om: ' Browns,' and, although a
powerful flier, it seldom takes long flights. The female, which is
shown in fig. 7, Plate V, is really a beautiful creature, the light
markings of which stand out in bold contrast with the deep brown
groundcolour; but the male is comparatively dingy, there being
much less contrast between the ground and the markings. He is
also smaller than his mate.

The under side of both sexes is similar (fig. 79), the pattern of
the fore wings being much like that of the other side, but consider-

178

BEITISH B IJT TERFLIES

ably lighter, and the land wmgs are beautifullj' marbled with various

greys and browns.

This species is not nearly so common as the two preceding, but

it is very widely distributed, and is exceedingly abundant in some

parts. On some of the heathery cliffs and downs of the south and

south-west coasts it is so
plentiful that the butterflies
are started into the air at
almost every step, for it
seldom flies except when dis-
tm'bed. It is a common
insect in Ireland, and also in
parts of Scotland.

The caterpillar is a hy-
bernator, and may be found
feeding on grasses in the
autumn and the spring. It

changes to the chrysalis in June, and the perfect insect is on the

wing from June to the beginning of September.

The colour of the caterpillar is pinkish drab above, and gi'eenish

drab beneath. A dark brown stripe, edged with a lighter colour,

passes down the middle of the back, and a dark line on each side.

It changes to a dark reddish-brown chrysalis on the surface of the

ground, or, according to some observers, a little beneath the surface.

Fi((. 79. -The GitAVLixG — Under Side.

The Meadow Brown. {Epinephele Janira)

Although this very common butterfly is usually considered to be
the dingiest of its family, yet it must be admitted that the colotir of
a freshly emerged specimen is really very rich.

The male is of a dark brown colour, with an indistinct patch of
a lighter tawny brown near the outer margin of the fore wings, and
a white-centred black eye-spot near the costal angle of the same
wings. The female (Plate V, fig. 8) is of a lighter colour, the eye-
spot on her ore wings is larger and far more conspicuous, and an
irregular patch of light orange brown occupies a lai*ge area of each
of the same wings. She is, moreover, larger than her mate, and in
every way a more attractive insect.

The Meadow Brown abounds everywhere, from June to Sep-
tember, and may be seen on grass land and waste grounds where
other butterflies are seldom found.

THE BEOWNS AND HEATHS

179

The caterpillar is green, and is rendered slightly rough by a
nnuil>er of minute warts. There is also a white stripe on each side.
It feeds on \arious grasses in the autumn, hybernates during the
winter, and is full grown in May.

The chrysalis is apple green, spotted with a lighter green, and
has several black markings.

TJie Large Heath {Ejunejjhele TitJuDiiis)

This butterfly is sometimes called the ' Small IMeadow l:>ro^\•n,'
and is certainly much like the last species, both in colouring and
habits.

The fore wings of the male (Plate Y, fig. 9) are liglit orange
brown, bordered with dark bi'own, and having a broad patch of the
same across the middle ; and near the costal angle is a round black
spot with two wdiite dots.
The hind wrings are dark
brown with a patch of light
orange brown near the centre,
and a small eye-spot near the
anal angle. The female is
exactly similar, except that
she does not possess the broad
bar on the fore wings.

The iinder side is shown
in fig. 80, and is coloured
with various shades of brown.

This is a very common butterfly, and may be seen during .July
in most English counties, also in the south of Scotland, and in a
few localities in the south of Ireland. It fre(|uents meadows,
heaths, downs, and lanes, like Janira, but is not nearly so abundant
as that species.

The yoimg caterpillar is hatched in August, and is still very
small when it seeks its winter shelter among the stems of grasses.
It resumes feeding in the following May, and is full grown towards
the end of June. Its colour is very variable— pale green, olive
green, or dull brown, with five longitudinal stripes at about ec^ual
distances from each other. These consist of a dark one down the
middle of the back, a pale line along each side, and another pale
line midway between these.

The chrysalis may be found at the end of .June, attached by

X 2

Fig. 80.-

-The Lakge Heath -
I^XDEK Side.

180

BRITISH BUTTEBFLIES

the tail to blades of grass. It is of a very light colour, almoat
white, but adorned with numerous black lines and patches.

TIte liiiiglct {Eii'nieplide Hyperanthiis)

This is another rather plainly dressed insect, though somewhat
prettily adorned on the under side. The upper surface is of a very
deep sepia brown, almost black, with a few indistinct black eye-like
spots near the margins. The under side (Plate V, fig. 10) is of a lighter
umber brown, with corresponding e^'e-spots generally very con-
spicuous. These spots are black, with white centres, and generally
surrounded by light rings. They are subject, however, to consider-
able variation. Those on the upper surface are sometimes quite
absent in the male, but are nearly always readily perceptible in the
female. On the under side, too, they are occasionally quite absent,

while in other varieties they
are minute white-centred
dots, without any surround-
ing light ring. Our coloured
drawing represents the most
usual form.

The favourite haunts of
the Ringlet are the borders
of woods, and the sheltered
sides of flowery hedgerows.
It is not so widely distri-
buted as some of the common
' Browns,' but is usually very abundant where it occurs, sometimes
appearing in such numbers that several may be taken with a single
stroke of the net. It does not seem to be a frequenter of Scotland,
and is known in Ireland only in the south. Its head quarters are
the southern and south-midland counties of England.

The eggs are laid in July on various grasses, on which the young
caterpillars feed from about the middle of August till the cold weather
sets in. They hybernate at the roots of the grasses till the begin-
ning of the following May, and change to the chrysalis state about
the middle of June, suspending themselves to grass blades by
ixieans of their anal hooks.

The colour of the caterpillar is dull green or brown, and is
marked with five longitudinal stripes nnich like those of the
Large Heath.

Fig. si. — The Ringlet — Upper Siue.

THE BBOWNS AND HEATHS

LSI

The chrysalis is pale brown, spotted and striped witli a darker
hade of the same colour.

The MarsJi Ringlet {Ccenonymi^lia Ttjplwn)

The upper surface of this buttertlv is shown in the first fip^ii'e
of Plate V'l, and the under. side in tlie accompanyin<i; woodcut;
but it must be reniemliered that the species is a very variable one.
so much so that it is almost impossible to give anything like a short
and, at the same time, a satisfactory description. The female may
usually be distinguished by a pale patch across the middle of the fore
wings ; and the eye spots of the same wings, always more or less
indistinct when present, are sometimes entirely wanting. The
markings of the under side are even more variable, the transverse
Ijars and the eye spots being often
particularly conspicuous, and at
other times hardly discernible.

This is generally spoken of as a
northerner, its chief localities being
in the mountainous parts of Scot-
land and the elevated districts of
the north of England, but in Ire-
land it extends to the southern
ranges. Its haiints are elevated
moors and marshy heaths, where

its food plant — the beak-rush {lihijncospora alha)— aho\\\'\(\.s, and it
is on the wing from the end of June to August or September.

The caterpillar is green, with five longitudinal stripes — one dark
one, bordered with yellow, tlown the middle of the back, and two
pale yellow ones on each side. It is a hybernator, and is fall grown
about the end of May, when it suspends itself by the hindmost
claspers to a silken carpet, and clianges to a green chr^'salis with
pale brown wing cases.

82.— The Maesh Rinolet—
Under Side.

The Small Heath (Cfenomjmpha Pa)ii.pJiili(fi)

The last member of the family Satyrida is the well-known Small
Heath, that maybe seen almost all over the British Isles on heaths,
meadows and moors, from May to September.

The upper surface of this butterfly (Plate VI, fig. 2) is a tawny
yellow, with a dark brown border, and a spot of the same dark tint

182 BBITISH BVTTEBFLIES

near the tip of each fore wing. The luider side is much hke that
of the hxst species, but there are no eye spots on the hind wings.

The eggs of the first brood are laid during May and .June on the
various grasses on which the caterpillar feeds.

The caterpillars that emerge from these are fully grown in July or
eaxly August, and go through their changes during the latter month ;
but the later ones hybernate during the winter, and are not full
fed till the following May.

The colour of the larva is pale apple green, with a wide darker
stripe down the back, two others along the sides, and two more
between the latter and the dorsal stripe. All these five stripes are
bordered with a whitisli colour.

The chrysalis is bright apple green, dotted with white, and the
wing cases are striped with a purple-brown line edged with white.

183

CHAPTER XV

THE HAIRSTBEAKS, COPPEBS AND BLUES
Family — Lyc.enid.e

This is a lar^e family, inclnding as it does no less than nineteen
of the British species. These are all of small size, and are charac-
terised by their short and jerky flights. They seldom rise much
above the ground, and are consequently very easily caught.

The caterpillars of this family' have all short and rather thick
bodies, shaped very much like that of the wood louse — flattened
beneath and very convex above.

The chrysalides are generally attached by the ' tail,' and further
secured by a sillien cord round the body, as we have akeady observed
in the case of the Pieridcc.

The perfect insects ditfer from the preceding species in that all
six legs are perfectly developed and adapted for walking.

There are only three genera in this large family :

1. TJiecla — The Hairstreaks, with ' tailed ' wings.

2. Pohjommatus — The 'Coppers.'

3. LyccFiia — The ' Blues,' with wings either blue or brown.

Tlie Brown Hairstreah (Tlicdu Bctidcr)

The five Hairstreaks which constitute the genus Tliecla are all
pretty insects, characterised by hair-like streaks on the under
surface.

Bet'ulcB is the largest of these. Its upper surface is of a deep
brown colour, with orange-brown marks at the anal angles of the
hind wings, and, in the female, a large patch of orange on the fore
wings. The under side (Plate VI, fig. 3) is orange brown, much
lighter in the male than in the female. On the fore wings are two

184

BRITISH BUTTEBFLIES

Fig. 83.— The Brown Hair
STREAK — Male.

white lines, the inner one of which is indistinct ; and on the hind

wings are two others, the outer one being longer and more distinct

than the inner.

This biitterflv is hj no means an abundant insect, though it is
widely distributed, and in some places
plentiful. Its chief haunts are woods,
and we ma;) mention among its
favoured localities Epping Forest,
Monk's Wood in Cambridgeshire, the
wooded parts of South De^on and
Dorset, New Forest, ('olche.ster, and
Peterborough.

The perfect insect is on the wing
from July to October, and the eggs are
deposited in the autumn on the twigs
of its food plant — the l)lackthorn

{Pnimis spinosa). Tliese do not hatch till the following spring.

Toward the end of June the caterpillar is fully fed.

The colour of the caterpillar is light green, with two white stripes

down the back, and two others along the sides. There are also two

small oblique whitish lines on each side of each segment.
The chrysalis is smooth, and of a pale brown colour.

The Black Hairstreali-, or White-letter Hairstreah
{Thecla W- album)

The first of the above two popular names has been applied to
this species on account of the very deep brown colour of the upper
side, which colour is often a near approach
to black. The second is due to the W-shaped
bend of the white streak of the hind wings.
I'he gromid colour ot the under side (Plate
\'I, fig. 4) is grej-ish brown, with a bright
orange band, spotted with black near the
hind margin of the hind wings.

W-albiim is a somewhat rare insect, but
is occasionally seen in plenty in a few loca-
lities, Cambridgeshire, Berkshire, Epping,
Colchester and Suffolk being among its chief resoi'ts. It is out
on the wing in July, and should be looked for in wooded country
where the common elm {Ulmns camijestris) and the wych elm
(U. montana), its food plants, exist.

Fig. 84.— The Whitk-
letter Hairstreak.

THE HATBSTBFAKS. COrPEBS AND BLUES 185

The eggs are laid on the twi^s of these trees late in the summer,
and the j'onng caterpillars do not appear till the following spring.
The chrysalis may be found attached to an elm twig or leaf about
the end of June.

The caterpillar is pale green. The ridges along the back are
tinged with yellow, and there are two fine oblique white lines on each
side of each segment.

The Dark Hairstrcal: (Thccla Pnini)

The upper side of this butterfly is xexy much like that of
W-alb'iiin, but it may be distinguished by the presence of a few
orange spots near the anal angle of the hind wings. The colouring
of ihe under side (Plate VI, fig. 5) is also verj- similar, except that
the white lines of the wings are thinner and less distinct than in the
last species, and do not exhibit the W-shaped bend. The orange
band of this surface is bordered on each side with a row of black
spots, each of which is touched with a bluish white or a metallic
blue.

This insect is not by any means common, but has been seen in
considerable numbers in certain localities. It is not found in
either Scotland or Ireland, and its chief haunts in England seem
to be in Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire and Northamptonshire.
It frequents wooded country, and flies during .June and July.

The eggs are laid late in the summer on the twigs of the black-
thorn {Prunus spinosa), and are not hatched till the following
spring.

The caterpillar, which is pale green, with rows of yellow spots.
may be found in May.

The Purple Hairst reah {TJiecla Quercus-)

This pretty butterfly, by far the commonest of the Hairstreaks,
though comparatively very small, reminds one forcibly of the noble
Purple Emperor. Its hamits are the same oak woods, and its upper
surface, though only a dull dark brown in certain lights, exhibits
the same imperial purple reflections w'hen viewed at certain angles.
The purple of the male extends over the whole of the wings, but
that of the female is confined to a V-shaped patch at the base of
the fore wings. In the latter case, however, tlie purple is much
richer than in the male sex.

186 BBITISH BUTTEBFLIES

The under side (Plate VI, tig. 6) is coloured with a delicate
grey ground, adorned with a white streak on each wing, and a
coxiple of orange spots near the anal angle of the hind wings.

This species is very widely dis-
trihuted, being common in oak woods
: in most parts of England, and also in
many parts of Scotland and Ireland,
ft files around the branches of the
trees, and often disappoints the col-
lector by keeping far beyond the reach
^'*'^^ of his net.

Fig. 8.5. The Purple Those in search of this pretty insect

Haibstreak — M.ALE. sliould ramble in oak woods, preferably

in the south of England, during July

and August The eggs may be found glued to the twigs throughout

the winter, and the larvic may be beaten from the branches of the

oak in June.

The colour of the caterpillar is brownish or pinkish green, with
a row of V-shaped marks down the back.

The chrysalis is of a brown colour, short and thick, and may be
found either attached to oak leaves, or under the surface of the
earth at the foot of the tree on which tlie caterpillar fed.

The Green Hairstreah {Thecla Bubi)

Next to QuercHS, this is the most plentiful of the genus. It

freqi;ents woods and heaths in nearly every county in England, and

is also found in parts of Scotland and Ireland. It is peculiar

among British butterflies as being the only

one that exhibits a bright green coloiir. It

also differs from the other Hairstreaks in two

important particulars, for the hind wings,

though angled at the hind margin, are not

' tailed,' and the characteristic hairstreak

Fig 8() —The Green wliich gives the popular name to the genus is

Hairstreak. here represented onl}' by a series of white

dots across the wings, or, in some cases, by

one or two dots on the hind wings only.

The upper side is dark brown, displaying metallic reflections
when viewed in a strong light. The under side is represented in
fi". 7 of Plate VI.

THE HAIESTREAKS. COFFEES AND BLUES 1S7

The chief food plants of this species are the bramble {Riihiis
fruticosufi), the birch [Befitla alba), ami the broom (Ciii'mus
scox>arius).

The perfect insect flies in May and June, and the eg.sjs are
deposited dining the latter month on the above plants. The
caterpillars are full fed in Jnly, and change to the chrysalis st.He
towards the end of the snmmer.

The colour of the caterpillar is pale green, with a yellow stripe
and several white oblique hues along the sides, also a yellowish
stripe down the back.

The chrysalis is short and thick, and of a dark brown
colour.

The Large Cojyper {PohjomtnatuH Dispar)

Our next genus contains only two British species. The first of
these — the Large Copper — was once a common insect at Whittlesea
in Cambridgeshire, and in some of the fens of Huntingdonshire,
but is now feared to be quite extinct, as none have been seen for
many years. The last capture was made in 1847 in Huntingdonshire.
However, it may tiirn up again ; and e\ en if it does not, it would
be a pity to allow the memory of so fine an insect to die out ; so
we find room to figure it (Plate YI, fig. 8), and append a few
remarks.

There is a very great difference between the male and the
female. The former is of a brilliant copper hue, and all the wings
have a black margin and a black streak near the middle. The female
is larger; and the coppery colour is much redder. The black border
of the fore wings is wider, and there are also several large black
spots on these wings. The hind wings are almost entirely covered
with black, with the exception of a broad co^ipery band near the
hind margin.

The food plant of the caterpillar appears to have been the water
dock {Bnmex Hydrola-pathuvi), on which the eggs were laid late
in the summer. It is probable that the caterpillar was a hyber-
nator, seeking its winter shelter while still very young ; and it was
full fed in .June.

Its colour was green, with a darker stripe of the same colour on
the back ; and the chrysalis was attached by anal hooks and a cord
round the body.

188 BBITISH BUTTEBFLIES

The Small Caliper {Bolyommatas BhlcroR)

The only other British member of the £?enus Bohjommatus — the
Small Copper — is one of the commonest of our butterflies. It may
be found in nearly all parts of the British Isles from April to Sep-
tember, more particularly in April, June, and Augiist, for it is
apparently triple brooded.

This brilliant and lively little insect is shown on Plate VI
(fig. 9), and, being so very familiar, needs no description.

The caterpillar feeds on different species of dock— the broad-
leaved dock {Rmnex obtiisifoUiis), the fiddle dock {R. indchcr),
the sorrel {B. acetosa), and the sheep sorrel {B. acetosella) ; also on
the ragwort {Senecio Jacobcea). It is full fed about three weeks
after hatching, and then changes to a small and stout chrysalis, of
a pale brown colour, on the leaf of its food plant.

The caterpillar itself is green, Avith a reddish line on the back
and on each side ; and it glides over the surface of the leaves some-
thing after the manner of a slug, without exhil)iting any very
apparent motion of its short legs and claspers.

TJic Tailed Blue {Lijccrna Bo'tica)

We now come to a genus containing no less than ten species of
beautiful little butterflies, known commonlj- as the ' Blues ; ' but
one of them exhibits no trace of the colour so characteristic of the
group, although it resembles tlie others in structure and habits.

Our first example is the Tailed Blue,
^^'s^ -5^ known also as the Pea-pod Argus. The upper

L ■'' side of this insect (Plate YI, fig. 10) is of a

'.■j"; dull smoke colour, exhibiting purple -bh;e re-

M flections, which are, in the female, confined

1 , to distinct blotches on the bases of the wings,

"■ *^\ but in the male are less noticeable, and

Fig. 87. —The Tailed extend oxer the whole si;rface. The hind
Blue — Under Side, margin of the hind wings has a row of spots,
more or less distinct, and much more promi-
nent in the female than in the male. The under side is beautifully
marked with bands of fawn and grey, and with two spots of brilliant
metallic green in the anal angle of the hind wings.

This lintterfly abounds in the countries of South Europe, where
the caterpillar feeds on the pods of certain leguminous plants ; l)ut

THE HAIBSTIiEAKS, COPPERS AND BLUES 189

only a few stragglers h-Axe been taken in England, so that its repu-
tation as a true Britisher is very uncertain. It is higlily probable
that the two or three specimens caught on oi;r south coast were
blown over from the Continent, and that the insect has never bred
on this side of the Channel.

The Silver-studded Blue {Lyccena ^Ego7i)

The upper surface of the male (Plate YI, lig. 11) of this species
is purple blue, with a black border on the hind margins of all wings.
The female (tig. 12 of the same plate) is of a very dark smoky-brown
colour, often with a bluish tinge, and has generally a row of orange
spots near the hind margin of the hind wings.

The under side of both sexes is similar, and is illustrated in the
accompanying woodcut. The ground colour is bluish grey, and is
marked with a niimber of black spots
surrounded by light rings. Along the ^^»»^ \ - /
hind margin of the hind wings is a row

of orange spots, each bordered with black
on the inner side, and with a silvery
blue on the outer. 'X*r£2^

This insect appears in Julv, and is -r^ ^o

common m many dry, sandy, or chalky Xhe Silver - studded
spots in various parts of England, and Blue — Under Side.
also in a few localities in Scotland and

Ireland. It has been reported as abundant at Darlington and in
certain localities in Lancashire, but its head quarters are un-
doubtedly the chalk downs and dry gravelly banks of the southern
counties.

The caterpillar feeds on the bird's-foot (Oniitlioputi ^je/;^j»si7Z«i),
and is full grown towards the end of June. Its colour is yellow or
gi'ey, with a brown dorsal stripe, a white line on each side, and
pale oblique lines near the former. About the end of June it changes
to a dull green chrysalis, with projecting wing cases.

The Brown Arijiifs (Li/ctciia Aatrarche)

Neither male nor female of this species exhibits any trace of
blue. The upper surface, shown in fig. 13 of Plate VI, is coloured
with a warm brown, and all four wings have a row of orange spots
near the hind margin. The fore wings have also a central black

190 BBITISH BUTTERFLIES

spot. The under surface, drawn on the same plate (tig. 14), is
bluish grey, with a border of orange spots on each hind margin as
on the other side. There are also numerous black spots in light
rings, the arrangement of which will be seen in the figui-e.

Some species of butterflies and moths are so variable in their
colouring and markings that varieties have often been mistaken for
distinct species ; and, in other cases, distinct species are sometimes
so similar in character that they are looked upon as identical.

A butterfly that closelj' resembles the normal Brown Argus in
many points, and named Artaxerxes, has often been described as a
distinct species, but is now, I believe, recognised by most entomo-
logists as a constant variety of the present species.

It differs from the normal type in having a ivhitc instead of a
black spot in the centre of the fore wings, and the border of orange
spots is often very indistinct. On the under side, too, instead of
black spots in white rings, it has white spots, with little or no trace
of a black centre.

The ordinary Biown Argus is a southerner, and is particularly
abundant on the chalk downs of the south coast and the Isle of
AVight, but Artaxerxes is to be foiuid only in Scotland and the
north of England ; and it is interesting to note that, between these
northern and southern districts, intermediate varieties are to be met
with.

Again, AstrarcJte is a double-brooded butterfly, appearing on
the wing in May and August ; while Artaxerxes is smgle brooded,
flying at midsummer. This fact has lent support to the opinion
that the two are distinct species ; but it must be remembered that
several insects that are single brooded in one country are double
brooded in a warmer climate.

The caterpillar of Astrarche feeds on the hemlock stork's-bill
[Erodium cieutarini)t). It is of a pale yellow colour, with a
brownish line on the back ; and is full fed in April and July.

The Co)nvion Blue {hyccrna learns)

Although this pretty little butterfly is so common that it is
almost sure to be known to all who take any interest in insect life,
yet it is important to observe it carefully, since it is an easy matter
to confound it with other species of the same genus.

The upper surfaces of the two sexes are very different, that of
the male (Plate VI, fig. 15) being a beautiful lilac blue ; and tliat of

THE HAIIiSTBEAKS. COPFEBS, AND BLUES 191

i-:j-

^^^

the female (Plate VI, tig. IG) a dark brown, powdered with blue at
the bases of the wings, and having gcneralhj a border of orange
spots, more or less defined, on the hind margins of all wings.

The under side, shown in the accompanying woodcut, is ashy
brown ; warm in the female, but paler in the male. The hind
wings, and sometimes all four, are
bordered with orange spots ; and this
species may be distinguished from
Astrarche by the presence of two black
spots, in white rings, near the base of
the fore wings.

There will Ije no need to name locali-
ties for this insect, as it is abundant
everywhere, irequenting meadows,
heaths, and all waste places. It is

double brooded, and is on the wing continuously from May to
September, the tirst brood enduring from ]\Ia,\- to July, and the
second from July to the end of the warm weather.

The caterpillar is green, with a dorsal line of a darker tint, and
a row of white spots on each side. It feeds on clover (Trifolitim
■pratensc- and T. refens), bird's-foot {Onnthopnn 2)crpusiUHs),
bird's-foot trefoil [Lotus corniculatus), and the rest-harrow [Ononis
s])i)wsa).

The chrysalis is short and rounded, of a dull green colour, tinged
with brown on the under surface.

Fig. 89.

—The Common
UxDER Side.

The Clifden Blue [Lycccna BcIIargus)

Out coloured representations of this beautiful blue (Plate VI,
tigs. 17 and 18) show that here also
there is a great difference between
the male and female. The former is
a most lovely and brilliant sky blue,
bordered by a fme black line ; and the
latter is a dull dark brown, with a more
or less distinct border of orange spots,
and the bases of the wings are powdered
with scales of a tint corresponding with
those of the male. In both sexes the
frmge is very distinctly barred with dark brown.

The under side (fig. 90) is similar in both sexes — greyish brown,

Fig. 90. — The Clifden
Blue— Under Side.

192 BRITISH BVTTEEFLIES

with a border of reddish spots, and a niiuiber of black spots in white
rings, the arrangement of which is here represented.

The butterfly frequents challiy downs, chiefly in the south of
England, and seems to be im.known in Scotland and Ireland. The
Isle of Wight, and the chalky downs and banks of Sussex, Surrey,
and Kent, are its favourite localities ; and even in these it is generally
very local, sometimes swarming on a grassy bank of no great extent,
when the surrounding neighbourhood, though apparently equally
suitable to its requirements, does not harbour a single specimen.
It is on the wing in May and June, and again in August.

The caterpillar is green, with two rows of yellow streaks on the
back, and a yellow stripe on each side. It feeds on the Dutch clover
{Trifoliam repeiiis), horse-shoe vetch {Hippocrcpiti coiitosa), and
various other leguminoiis plants.

The Chalk-Hill Blue [LijCLcna Corijdon)

The male of this species (Plate VII, fig. 1) is readily to be dis-
tinguished from all other members of the genus by its pale glossy
blue, but the female (fig. 2 of Plate VII) so closely resembles that
of Bellargus that it is often a somewhat difficult matter to dis-
criminate between them. The following, however, are a few points

worthy of observation : The ujjper

side of the female Corydon has the

bases of tlie wings more or less

sprinkled with the pale sillcy blue that

characterises the male ; and the black

■ \' ^ '" ^ bars of the fringe are usmtdhj broader

-^•<* •, ; /■ ' - ' •',''- in C'or//(7on than in Bellarniis. The

i'i^l^ ;4^>' black-centred spots of the under side

Yio. 91. The Chalk Hill ^i'6 '^Iso usually more conspicuous in

Blue — Under Side. the former species than in the latter.

The difticulty of identification is
increased by the fact that both these butterflies frequent similar
localities, and are often on the wing at the same time ; but al-
though Corijdon is certainly a frequenter of chalky districts, yet it
is often found plentifully in districts far removed from the chalk,
notably at Arnside in Lancashire, and in Epping Forest.

The butterfly' is out in June and July. The caterpillar is green,
with two rows of short yellow streaks on the back, and a yellow
stripe on each side. It feeds on the purple and Dutch cloAcrs

THE HAinSTBFAKS. COPrFES A^D BLUES 198

{Trifoliion prntrnsc and T. repeiifi), bircVs-foot trefoil {Lotus
corniculatas), horse-shoe vetch {Hipi)ucrei)is comosa), and hidy's
fingers {AnthylUs vuhieraria).

The HoUy Blue {Lyccena Argiolus)

While all the otlier Blues delight to sport on low flowery banks
in the full blaze of the summer's sun, the Holly Blue prefers to flit
among the branches of trees, often many feet from the ground.
The larva feeds on the flowers of the holly {Ilex Aquifolium) in
the spring, and on those of the ivy {Hedera Helix) late in the
summer ; also on the alder buckthorn {BJiamnus Fraiic/ula) ; and it
is in localities where these grow that we may find this lovely Blue
sporting among the branches, or resting on a leaf with its wings
folded together, thus making itself conspicuous among the dark
foliage by exposing the pale silvei'y blue of its under surface.

The upper sides of both the male and female are shown on
Plate A^II (figs. 3 and 4 respectively), where the beautiful lilac
blue will be seen to have a border of black, wider in the lattei" than
in the former.

The under surface is spotted with _ ^ ^ ,

black, as shown in fig. 92, and has no ; " - ^ , v ;

border of orange spots. - ' . - it^^P?^ '

This is a double-brooded butterfly, • . ^-/hm^- ■

appearing first in April and May, and < '••'•.. " .

then again in August. It is not at all ■. ■■ ' '

uncommon in the south of England, Fig. 9*2.— The Holly

and extends northward as far as the Blue— IJndek Side.

Lake District, but is not found in
Scotland. It is generally distributed throughout Ireland.

The caterpillar may be looked for in June and October. It is
light green, with a line of dark green down the back.

The Mazarine Blue {Lyccrna Soniargus)

The male (Plate YII, fig. 5) is deep purple blue, with a narrow
dark-biown border, and the female (fig. 6 of the same plate) dark
brown. The under side of both sexes is light greyish-brown or
drab, with a row of black spots in white rings parallel with the
hind margin of each wing, and no reddish or orange spots.

194 BBITISH BVTTEBFLIES

This pretty butterfly seems to have been plentiful in several

localities some years since, but has not been seen for a long time ;

and it is probable that its reckless

slaughter bj' those who catch all

the pretty butterflies they can secure

either for ornament or for gain has

caused its name to be permanently

. ■ 'V- removed from our list of natives.

■ v.//<r H4>''''' It was formerly abundant in Dor-

FiG. 93. — The Mazarine set, Hereford, Glamorganshire, and

Blue Under Side. near Shirley, and was on the wing in

June and -Tuly, but it disappeared

from our view before a full accoiint of its life history had been

prejjared.

The SmaU Blue {Lyccena Minima)

AYe now come to the smallest of all British butterflies — a little
insect that measures less than one inch from tip to tip when its
wings 're expanded. Its upper surface is of a dull and dark-brown
colour, the bases of the wings being dusted with blue in the case of
the male. The under side is pale drab, tinged with greenisli blue
at the bases of tlie wings, and marked with black spots in light
rings as shown in the accompanying figure.
The upper side is represented in fig. 7 of
Plate VII.

This butterfly is on the wing in ]\Iay
■^^ '^W-^ and June, and during the latter montli

Fig. 94.— The Small the eggs are deposited on the flowers of
Blue— Under Side. the lady's fingers (AnthyUis vnlneraria).

The caterpillars are hatched in about a
week, and commence feeding on tlie calyx of the buds, and soon
burrow into them till they are quite concealed.

The colour of the caterpillar is brownish, with a darker stripe
on the back, and a row of oblique brown streaks on each side.

This species is widely distributed in England, and is plentiful
in most chalky and limestone districts. It is also found in parts of
Scotland and Ireland.

Tlie Large Blue {Lyccrna Arion)

Tlie last of our Blues is the largest of the genus, and is, witli
the exception of Scmiargus, the rarest. It is a very local insect.

THE HAIBSTREAKS. COPPERS AND BLUES 1U5

appearing in small numbers, during June and J^^ly, in parts of
South Devon, Gloiicestershire, Xorthamptonshire, and a few other
counties.

The colour of the upper side ^Qn.,^
is a dark and rich blue, with a ' "-^—'^
broad dark border on the hind
margins, and a group of black spots
near the centre of the fore wings.
The under side (lig. 95) is of a
pearly grey, without any red spots,
but liaving a double border of
black spots, and also an irregular
row of black spots in white rings
across the middle of each wing.

The caterpillar feeds on thyme [Thipnus Srrpj/Uuiii). on which
plant tlie eggs are laid singly, generally on the flower heads.

*f . J'-

^ " . • .i

.A ^ ».%

Fig. 'jr.. ^ The

Laege Blue

Undfk Side.

19C BRITISH BUTTERFLIES

CHAPTER XVI

THE DUKE OF BURGUNDY AND THE SKIPPERS

Family --E r ycinid.t:

Tlir Diilr of BiirgiDuhj (Nrnieohiiis Lncina)

The family Erycinidce, has only one British representative, com-
monly known as the Diike of Burgundy Fritillary, but although
this butterfly certainly resembles the Fritillaries in general appear-
ance (see figs. 9 and 10 of Plate VII), its liabits and life history
present many points of difference from these.

The upper side is chequered with black and tawny brown, the
fringe is white and barred with dark brown, and a row of tawny
spots with black centres border the hind margins. The under side
has two rows of white spots, one near the base, and the other across
the centre of each wing.

The male has only four legs adapted for walking, but the female
has six.

The butterfly' is oi^t in Maj^ and Jiine, and frequents the paths
and open spaces of woods, chiefly in the south of England, but it
has been taken in some of the noi'thern counties.

The caterpillar (Plate VIII, fig. 6) is not spiny like those of the
true Fritillaries, but more closely resembles tliose of the Blues,
being somewhat of the form of a woodlouse. It is reddish brown,
with tufts of hair, black spiracles, and a dark line down the ]>ack.
It feeds on the primrose {Primula acaiilis) and the cowslip
(P. vcris), and may be found during June, July and August.

When fully grown, the caterpillar secures itself to a leaf or stem
by means of its anal claspers and a silken cord roimd its body, and
changes to a short, thick, hairy and light-coloured chrysalis (Plate
VIII, fig. 11), which is marked with several black spots. In this state
it spends the winter, and emerges early in the following sunmier.

DUKE OF BUBGUNDY AND THE SKIPPEBS 197

Family- -Hesi'eriid.i; — The Skipi'ers

This iliuiily contains eight small s[)ecies, none of whicli are
remarkable for brilliancy of colour. They are, nevertlieless, very
interesting creatures, for they exhibit peculiarities of structare and
habit that rentier them singular among the butterflies, and seem to
show a sort of cousin relationship with the moths. They haA e
thick bodies that remind i;s somewhat of tlie Noctiiw. Their heads
are broad, so that the antenns', which are slightly hooked at the
tips, are rather wide apart at the bases. AVhen at rest, they
neither press their wings together over their back like the otlior
butterflies, nor do they set them horizontally after tlie manner of
the moths, but seem to lay claim to an intermediate position in the
scale of Lepidopterous insects by holding them in a half-elevated
position. Their Hight, too, is not graceful like that of most other
buttertlies, nor even so steady as that of the little Hitting blues, but
brisk and erratic, and resembling the fitful motions of moths dis-
tm-bed from their slumberings at unwonted hours. Thus they have
earned their popular title of skippers from their habit of skipping
rather than flying from flo-\ver to flower. All the three pairs of legs
of these butterflies are fully developed lur walking.

The caterpillars have rather large heads, and their bodies taper
from the middle toward botli extremities. Like the larvte of many
moths, they hide themselves in leaves whicli they have rolled and
secured with silken threads ; and when about to change to the
chrysalis state, they also spin sillien cocoons for their further
protection.

The Grizded Shipper [SyricJithus Malcce)

The ground colour of this species is a very dark brown, relieved
by a number of squarish white spots arranged as shown in flg. 11
of Plate YII. The fringe is wide, and barred with the same two
colom's, arranged alternately-. The pattern of the under side is
similar, but the dark brown of the upper surface is replaced by a
lighter olive tint.

The butterfly may be looked for in May in the open spaces of
woods, particularly in damp places. It is common all over England,
and is found also in the south of Scotland.

The caterpillar is either green or brownish, with a darker dorsal
stripe of the same colour, and two white lines on each side. It
feeds on the raspberry {Biibus idceus), the bramble (i?.//'it^icos ha).

198 BRITISH BUTTERFLIES

and the strawbeny-leaved cinqiiefoil (PotentiUa Fragariast rum) ,
and is foil fed about the end of June.

The chrj-salis is greyish, spotted with black. It is rather elon-
gated, and without angles, but has a short and sharp projection
extending backwards from the ' tail.'

Tlie Dingy Shipper {Nisoniades Tages)

Colour — a dingy brown, indistmctly barred and spotted with a
darker tint, and having a row of small white spots just inside the
fringe of the hind margins. Under side— a paler brown, with rows
of small white spots.

This butterfly is common in all parts of England, and is found
in a few localities in Scotland and Ireland. It frequents dry
banks, and is particularly partial to the chalky districts of the
south-eastern counties. It is on the wing in May, and a second
brood appears in lesser numbers in August.

The caterpillar is pale green, with two yellow stripes on each
side, and a row of black spots above each stripe. It feeds on the
bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatas), and may be found in June,
and again in September.

The chrysalis (Plate VIII, fig. 12) is shaped something like that
of the last species, and is coloured green on the front segments,
and a rose red on the abdomen.

The perfect insect is represented in fig. I'l of Plate Yll.

The Small Skipijer [Hesperia Tliauman)

In briefly describing the various British butterflies no mention
has besn made, except in a few cases, of the shape of the wings,
this matter having been left to the reader's own observations of
our illustrations. We will, however, call attention to the some-
what square-cut form of the wings of Thaumas and the following
species.

The above-named butterfly (Plate VII, fig. 13) is a lively-
looking little insect, its wings being of a bright tawny orange
colour, bordered with black, beyond which is a light fringe. The
male, which is the sex figured, is distinguished from the female by
an oblique black streak across the middle of the front wings.
The under side is orange, with a decidedly greenish tinge.

The butterfly is out in July, and is very abundant and widely
distributed. It lays its eggs on various grasses, particularly the
meadow soft-"rass [IIoIchh hnmlus).

DrKE OF BURGUNDY AND THE SKIPPERS 199

The caterpillar hybernates through the winter, and is full fed
in the following June, when it changes to a green chrysalis after
spinning a light silken cocoon among the blades of grass. The
colour of the caterpillar is green, with six longitudinal white
stripes — two on the back, and two on each side.

The New Sviall Skipper {Hesperia Lineola)

A few years since (1888) a butterfly was taken in one of our
south-eastern counties that closely resembled the well-known
Thaumas (or Lined), but which turned out to be a species not pre-
viously known in Britain. When, however, the distinguishing fea-
tures of the new butterfly were made known, several entomologists
discovered that they had already secured the new prize, but that,
being ignorant of its characteristics, they had placed it in their
series over the label Thaumas.

Since the above date, this new insect (Plate VII, fig. 18),
which is named Lineola, has been taken in considerable numbers
at Leigh, Harwich, Southend, and near Shoeburyness in Suffolk,
as well as in the Fens of Hxmtingdonshire ; and it is highly pro-
bable that it may turn up in various other localities where it has
not yet been observed.

It appears on the wing about the first week of July, a little
later than Thaumas, but tlie two kindred species are often found
flj'ing together.

The chief points by which we distinguish Lineola from the last
species are these : The general appearance of the wings is a bit
dingier than in Thaumas; the inner portion of the hind wings is
of a bright tawny colour in Thaumas but not in Lineola ; the tips
of the antennte are j-ellow beneath in Thaumas, but black in
Lineola; and tlie black streak across the fore wings of the latter*
species is short and generally broken.

The eggs of Lineola are laid at the end of July or beginning of
August on various grasses, chiefly the various species of Triticum,
but do not hatch till the following April.

The larva is full fed about the end of June or beginning of Juh ,
and then changes to a long yellowish-green chrysalis, from which
the perfect msect emerges in two or three weeks.

Tlie Lulworth Shipper {Hesperia Actcson)

Although this species is somewhat similar to the two preceding,
it may be readily distinguished by the heavy clouding of dull

200 BBITISH BUTTEBFLIES

greenish brown that ahiiost c•o^•ers the wings. The male, which is
shown iu hg. 14 of Plate VII, has a black streak across the fore
wings, and the female possesses a semicircular row of tawny
spots near the tip of the same wings, and also a tawny streak near
the centre.

This is a ^'ery local species, having been fomid only in a few
localities. At Lul worth Cove and ' Burning Clitf ' in Dorset it has
been met with in profusion. In Devon it frequents the rough
ground near the cliffs at Sitlmouth and Torquay ; and it has also
been reported as appearing at Stratford- on-Avon, Shenstone near
Lichfield, and the neighbourhoods of Swanage and Tyneham.

One can scarcely hope to see this insect at large without making
a special trip to one of its favourite haunts, in which case a day
should be chosen toward the end of July or early in August.

TJie Large Skipper {Hcapcria Si/Ivanus)

During May, June, and August this butterfly may be seen on
grassy banks in nearly every part of England, as well as in certain
localities of Scotland and Ireland.

The wings are all of a bright orange -brown colour. Avith a narrow
black border, inside which is a broad shading of brown. The latter
colour usually completely covers the hind wings with the exception
of about half a dozen squarish spots ; and the same colour, together
with the dark brown wing rays, breaks up the light ground of the
fore wings, often forming several squarish and triangular patches,
most distinct near the tips. The male (Plate VII, fig. 15) may be
readily distinguished from the female by the presence of a thick
dark brown streak across the fore v/ings.

The under side of both sexes is pale tawny brown, with a
greenish tinge ; and has several rather indistinct yellowish spots.

The larva is of a dull green colour, with a dark line on the back.
Its upper surface is dotted with black, and there are white spots on
the under side of the tenth and eleventh segments. It feeds on
several kinds of grasses, some of its favoiirites being the meadow
soft grass {Holms lanahis), the cock's-foot {Daciylis glomcrata),
and couch grass {Agrojjyron repots).

Tlie Silver-spotted S'kipp)er {Hesjjeria Comma)

This species is very similar on the upper side to the last, except
that the squarish spots of both fore and hind wings are much paler

DVKE OF BVBGrXDY AND THE SKIPPERS 201

}

and much more distinct; and here, too, the male iPlate YII, fig. 10)
is to be distinguished from the female by a black streak crossing
the front wings obliquely. The under surface has a greenish tinge,
more particularly on the hind wings ;
and this side is conspicuously marked
with a number of white square spots
with sharp outlines, arranged as shown
in fig. 96.

Although common in some locah-
ties, this butterfly is not widely distri-
buted. It is confined to some of the
southern and midland counties of Eng-
land, and is particularly partial to the

chalk districts of the south-east. On the chalk downs of Kent,
Surrey, and Sussex it is moderately common. It is on the wing
during Jul}' and August.

The caterpillar feeds on certain leguminous plants, among which
are the bird's-foot (Ornithopus iieriniisilUis) and the bird's-foot
trefoil {Lutan coniiculatas).

Fi(i. 9<J. - The Silvee-

si'uTTEii Skipper — Under

Side.

The CJieqiicrcd Skijijjcr (Carteyoeephalns Paheiiioii)

This is another local insect, more so even than the last, but
it sometimes appears in profusion in certain limited districts.
Kettering, Ouudle in Northamptonshire, and Monk's AVood in
Huntingdonshire are places where it has been taken freel}'. It
appears in June.

The wings are chei^uered with very dark brown and orange.
The fore wings are bordered with small rounded yellow spots, and
beside these there are about nine very conspicuous yellow spots on
the fore wing and three on the hind wing. The arrangement of
these markings may be seen in fig. 17 of Plate YII.

The caterpillar feeds on the greater plantain {Plantago major).

PAET lY
COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

CHArTEK XYII

SPHINGES

We have already obser\ed the chief I'eatures by which we are able
to distinguish between buttertlies and moths (page 56), so we shall
devote the present division to a description of the characteristics
and life histories of some of the latter insects.

The number of British butterflies is so limited that space could
be found for a brief description of every species, but with moths
the case is very different. There are about two thousand known
British species of this division of the Lepidoptera, and e\ery year
adds some newly discovered insects to this long list ; we shall
therefore have to content ourselves with making a selection of these
for individual mention.

In doing this I shall endeavour to provide the young entomo-
logist with a fairly representative list — one that will enable him to
become more or less intimately acquainted with all the principal
divisions of the Heterocera ; and his attention will be drawn
especially to many which may be described as ' connuon ' or
' generally distributed,' so that during his first few seasons at
collecting he inajr be enabled to identify and study a i'air
proportion of his captures. Occasionally, however, one of the
rarer species will be described in order to illustrate some striking
characteristic.

We shall connnencc with the tribe of Sj^jhingcis or Hawh
Moths.

204 COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

This ^a'oup consists of three families — the Spliingidie, iiK-hidiiiK
the largest of the ' Hawks,' and the ' Bee Hawks,' the Sesiidie or
' Clearwings,' and the Zij(i(C}ii(lie, including the * Foresters ' and the
' Burnets ' — numbering in all about forty species.

Family — Sphingid.i;

This family is named from a fancied resemblance of the larvte
to the celebrated Egyptian sphinx. The perfect insects have very
thick bodies, generally tapering toward the tail, and their wings are
rather narrow in proportion to the length, but are exceedingly
powerful, and the flight is, with one or two exceptions, very rapid.
The antenme terminate in a small and thin hook.

Most of these insects fly at dusk, but a few delight in the bright-
ness and heat of the midday sun. In either case the velocity of
their flight is generally so great that it is a diflicult matter to
follow them with the eye, and a still more difficult matter to secure
the insects in the net ; consequently, the best way to study them is
to search out the larvae on their food plants, and rear them till they
attain their perfect form.

The larva' of the Spliiiigidic are large and smooth, and most of
them have a liorn jtrojecting from the top of the last segment but
one. They all undergo their metamorphoses under the surface of
the ground.

The Death's-Hcad Hawlx (Achcroutia Ati'opos)

Our first example of the Sphinges is the beautiful Death's-Head
Hawk Moth — an insect that often attains a breadth of five inches
from tip to tip when the wings are fully expanded. Its popular
title has been applied on account of the peci;liar markings of the
thorax, which are said to resemble a human skull ; and this feature
has certainly some connection with the superstitious beliefs of
ignorant covmtry folk concerning this moth. But this character-
istic is probably not the only one that has caused the creature to
be regarded with superstitious alarm. Both its superior dimensions
and nocturnal habits serve to intensify the unfounded fear ; but,
what is particularly striking and unique about it is its power of
uttering a squeaking sound, which it does when disturbed. Even
the earlier stages of the insect possess this strange power. The
caterpillar makes a peculiar snapping noise \\heu irritated, and the

SPHINGES

205

chi'vsalis has been observed to sqneak shortly before tlie emergence
of the perfect fox'm.

The fore wings of this moth are of a very rich dark brown,
beautifiUlj- mottled with lighter tawny shades, and with a small
but conspicuous yellow dot near the centre. The hind wings are
yellow, with a black band and margin ; and the body is yellow,
with six broad black bands, and six large blue spots down the
middle.

The moth is rather widely distributed, and even common in

Fig. 97. — The Death's-Head Hawk Moth.

some parts, but is not nearly so often met with as the larva. It is
on the wing during August and September.

It is probable that the reader will never have an opportunity of
capturing the perfect form of this remarkable species, but he may
with a little perseverance obtain some caterpillars and rear them.
These larvae feed on the potato, the deadly nightshade {Atro2ia
Belladonna), and the woody nightshade [Solamim Dulcamara) ;
and they are well known to potato growers in some parts of the
country.

The colour of the caterpillar is generally pale j-ellow, with
numerous small black dots, and seven oblique violet stripes on each

208

COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

side. The horn is yellowish and rongh, and is bent downward, but
recurved again at the tip.

It feeds during the night, and remains hidden throughout the
daytime. In August it is fully grown, and then retires into the
ground to imdergo its transformations.

The Privet Haivh {Sphinx Ligustri)

This is another fine moth, measuring nearly four and a half
inches from tip to tip. It is represented in the centre of Plate IX
in its natural colours, so that it need not be described.

Fk;. 98. — Thk Lakva of AxRoros.

The perfect insect flies in June and July, and, although common,
is not frequently seen at large. The larvae, however, are to be met
with in abundance in privet hedges. Even in the centres of large
towns we may see them resting on the topmost twigs of a privet
hedge, their beautiful green tint closely resembling that of the
surrounding leaves. After a little experience they may be readily
discerned hj a careful observer, but there are certain signs by which
their presence may be proved before ih.ey have been actually
seen. Sometimes a number of the twigs ai'e completely stripped
of their leaves, even the midribs and the leaf stalks being almost

SPHINGES

207

or entirely devoured ; and beneath tlie Ijushes are the large black
masses of excrement that tell of the marauders above, AVheu
found, these larva? should always be removed on a piece of the
twig to which they are attached, for they hold on so firmly by
their claspers that it is sometimes almost impossible to remove
them from their hold without mjury.

These caterpillars may easily be distinguished from those of
the other ' hawks ' by the seven oblique stripes which adorn the
sides. These are each composed of two colours, white and lilac,
and form a pretty contrast with the bright green of the rest of the
body. The horn is smooth and curved, and is black with the
exception of part of the imder side, which is yellow.

They are fully grown in August, and from the end of this month
till the following .June the chrj^salides may be dug out from under
privet and lilac bushes, both of which are attacked by the larAa.

Fig. 99.

-The Cateepillar of
euphokbi,?-..

TJte Sjnirgc HaK'Jc {Deilepliila Eujihorhicp)

This is a very rare British species ; in fact, it has never been
seen in this country in its perfect state, but the larva has been found
plentifully at Appledore and
Braunton Burrows, in North
Devon, feeding on the sea
spurge {Euphorhia Para-
lias).

The perfect insect is shown
on Plate IX (fig. 2).

The caterpillar is black,
with a large number of small

yellowish white dots, and two rows of spots of the same colour on
each side. There is also a red line on each side, and another down
the middle of the back. The horn is rough and red with a black
tip. It feeds during August and September.

The Small Eleiihant Hawh {Choerocav^pa Porcellus)

This pretty insect is one of the smallest of our hawk moths.
It is widely distributed, being met with in many parts of England
and in the south of Scotland. It flies in June.

The fore wings are of a dull yellow coloiir, with rosy-red
hind margins, and a broad border of the same tint on the costal
margin. The hind wings have also a I'osy-red hind margin.

208

COMMON BBITISH MOTHS

Fici,

100.— The SaiiLL Elephant
Hawk Moth.

and are smoky black along the costae, and yellow in the anal
angle. The body is coloured with bright rose-red, tinged with
olive on the foremost and hindmost segments.

The popular name of this
and the following species has
been applied because of the
power which the caterpillar
has of extending and retract-
ing its front segments, a pecu-
liarity which has given the
idea of a semblance to the
elephant's proboscis. The
colour of the caterpillar is
light-brown or green, mottled
with dark-brown, dark-green, or black. It has a conspicuous eye-
like spot on each side of the fifth and sixth segments, and has no
horn.

This larva may be foimd in July and August, feeding on species
of hedstrfiw {Galium verum, G. MoUiigo,{indG. j^nlustre), willow
herb {Epilohium Jiirsutnm), or the purple loosestrife {Lijflinrm
Salicaria).

The Large Elei^liant (CJicrrocanipa Elpenor)

This species (Plate IX, fig. 3) is very similar to the last in
form and markings ; but is, as its name implies, larger.

The caterpillar, too. is \evy like that of the last species, but may
be distinguished from it by the possession of a short black horn,
tipped with white, on the ' tail.' Its coloiir is green or brown,
mottled and spotted with black. The eye-like spots on its fifth
and sixth segments are black, and each contains a brown spot
surrounded by a white line.

Its chief food plants are the hairy willow herb (Epilobium
hirsutum), three species of bedstraw {Galinm verxim, G. MoUugo
and G. palustre), the purple loosestrife {Lythrum Salicaria),
and the enchanter's nightshade {Circcea hdetiana). It will also
feed on the vine and the apple in confinement.

The Eyed Hawk {Smeriufhus Orellafus)

Our next genus (Smerinthi(s) contains three well-known moths,
all of which have the hind margin of the fore wings angulated or
indented.

SPHINGES 209

The first is the Eyed Hawk, represented in fig. 4 of Plate IX
and named after the beantiful and conspicuous eye-like spot near
the anal angle of each hind wing.

The caterpillar has a rough green skin, sprinkled witli white
dots, and marked with seven oblique white lines on each side, each
of which is bordered with dark green above. The spiracles are
pinkish, surrounded by violet rings ; and the horn is blue.

The~ moth flies during May, June, and July ; and the caterpilla,r
may be found in plenty during August, feeding on the apple, willow
{Salix alba), sallow {S. cinerca and S. Caprea), poplar [Populus alba
and P. nigra), aspen (P. tremula), and the blackthorn {Pninus
spinosa).

As with many other Sphinges, the larva3 are much more com-
monly seen than the perfect insects ; but the latter may often be
met with resting on tree trunks and fences in the neighbourhood of
their food plants.

Tlie Poplar Hawk {Smerinthus Populi)

This moth is very common and very widely distributed, and may
be easily found in any of its stages. The perfect insect flies during

Fig. 101.— The Poplar Hawk.

May, Jmie, and July : and being rather heavy on the wing, it is easily
taken with a net as it hovers round the branches of its favourite
trees or among the flowers of gardens at dusk. The larva may be
beaten ti'om the boughs of pof^lars and sallows during August and
September, and during the latter month may often be seen creeping
down and around the trunks of these trees, searching for a suitable
spot in which to undergo its changes. The pupa may be dug out

210 COMMON BlilTISH MOTHS

of the soil at the foot of the same trees diirmg the autuinn, winter,
and spring montlis.

The fore wings are ashy grey or greyish brown, marbled with
darker tints, with a conspicuous white spot near the centre. The
hind wings are similarly coloured except at the base, where there is
a large patch of brick-red.

The caterpillar is rough, of a pale green colour dotted with yel-
low, with seven oblique yellow stripes on each side. The spiracles
are white, edged witii red ; and the horn is yellow on the upper,
and reddish on the imder side. Its chief food plants are the
poplar, the Lombardy poplar {Pojntlus pyramidalis), aspen
(P. tremula), and sallow [Salix Cajjvea and S. clnerea).

The Lime Haivh {Smerinthus Tilue)

This beautiful moth (fig. 5, Plate IX) is easily identified by its
rich olive green and brown wings, the fore pair of which have very
conspicuous patches of deep olive, sometimes uniting to form a
continuous central bar. It flies in May and June.

The caterpillar is rough, of a pale gx'een colour, dotted with yel-
low, with seven oblique yellow stripes on each side. Thus it is very
hke the larva of Popali, but may be distinguished from that species
by the orange spiracles, and by the horn, which is rough, blue above,
and yellow beneath. Behind the horn, too, there is a fiat purple or
violet scale with an edging of orange.

The food plants of this species are the lime {Tilia vulgaris),
elm {Vhmts camjiestris), and the hazel {Corylus Avellana), ivom
which the larvae may be beaten in^ August and September, and
ffom under these the pupae may be dug out during the winter
months.

The Humming -Bird Hawk (Macroglosua StcUatariiiii)

The genus to which this insect belongs contains tlii'ee interest-
mg British species. Their antennae are thickened toward the end,
but terminate in a small curved bristle. Their wings are rather
short and broad ; their bodies are very thick, terminating in a broad
tuft of hair; and the perfect insects fly dm-ing the daytime,
delighting in the hottest sunshine. The larvae feed principally on
low-growing plants, and undergo their metamorphoses on the ground
among tlie foliage.

On Plate IX (,fig. 6) one of these pretty moths is shown. It is

SPHINGES 211

the Humming-bird Hawk, so called on account of its exceedin,i,'ly
rapid hunnxiing-bird-like tiight, accompanied by a soft liuunning
sound.

This insect is very common ; and, being very ptartial to the attrac-
tions ot!ered by many of our favourite garden liowers, it ought to
be well known to all observers of nature.

Take your stand near a bed of petunias or verbenas, or close to
a honeysuckle in bloom, on any hot summer's da\', and you are
almost sure to be rewarded by a peep at the wonderful flight and
interesting ways of this moth. It makes its appearance so suddenly
that you first view it as an apparently motionless insect, suspended
in the air, and thrusting its long proboscis into the tube of an attrac-
tive flower. Its wings ^•ibrate so rapidly that they are quite
invisible, and gi\e rise to the soft hum already mentioned. Then
it darts from one flower to another, making a similar brief stay
before each while it sucks the grateful sweets. Raise your hand as
if to strike, and suddenly it vanishes you know not where. But it
is as bold as it is wary, and will often return to the selfsame tlower
as if to defy your power. A sharp sweep of your net in a horizontal
direction, or a sudden downward stroke, inai/ secure it; but if you
miss it, as you probably will, it will disappear like a phantom, and
give you no opportunity of making a second attempt.

This moth is on the wing throughout the hottest months of the
year— May to September, and will often greet j'ou as you roam over
flowery banks in search of buttertiies.

The caterpillar feeds on the lady's bedstraw (Galium veruin),
hedge bedstraw [G. Mollugo), and the goose grass {G. Aparine),
and may be searched for in August and September. It is rough,
green or brownish, and dotted with white. Along each side are t\\o
light lines. The horn is thin and short, rough, and points upwards.

Tlw Bruad-burdcred Bee Hawk (Macrofjlossa Fuci/nrniit:)

The two other moths of this genus are called Bee Hawks from
their resemblance to the humble bee. They are very much alike,
but may be distinguished by a difference in the width of the dark
border of the wings ; and are named Broad-bordered and Narrow-
bordered respectively.

The former is illustrated in the woodcut appended. The fore
wings are transparent like those of bees, with a dark central spot
and a broad reddish-brown hind margin. The biise and costa are

212

COMMON BlilTISH MOTHS

black and tinged with green. The hind wings are similarly
coloured, but have no central spot. The body is olive-brown, with

a broad reddish belt, and behind
are tufts of hair, which are
spread out when the insect flies,
just after the manner of the tail
feathers of a bird. The moth
flies in May.

The larva resembles that of

Stellatarmn, but exhibits a

violet tint above the legs. Its

horn, too, is curved, and of a

reddish or brownish colour. It

feeds on the honeysuckle {Loiti-

cera PcriclyincniDu), ragged

robin [Lyelinis Flos-cucuU), evening campion (L. vesjjertina), red

campion {L. diarna), lady's bedstraw (G(xlin»i vcruin), and the

field scabious {Scahiona arvcnsia), during the month of July.

Fig. 102.— The Bkoad-bokueked
Bee Hawk.

Family SEsiiD.ii: —The Clearwings

This family contains fourteen very pretty British insects that
differ very much from other moths in many impoi'tant and interest-
ing particulars.

Their antenna', like those of the SpJiingidir, are thickest
beyond the middle, and those of the males are slightly ciliated or
hairy. Tlieir bodies are slender, and terminate behind in tufts of
hair. The hind wings in all cases are transparent, margined and
veined with black or brown ; and the fore wings also, in most
cases, have transparent bases.

These moths delight in the hottest sunshine, and may be seen
gracefully hovering over the flowers in our gardens, looking more
like gnats, bees, and wasps, than moths.

The larvte of these insects are all wood -eaters, and spend their
time within the stems of shrubs and trees, eating out galleries in
the material that forms both their food and their home. Within
these they also undergo their changes, and do not expose them-
selves to the free air and light till they reach their perfect
stage.

SPHINGES

213

Fig. 103.

—The Hornet Clearwixg
OF THE Poplar.

The Hornet Clearwing of the Poplar {Trochilium Apiformis)

We can find space for a mention of only two of the clears ings,
tlie first of which is an insect that closely resembles the dreadeil
hornet, and whose larva feeds in the steins of poplars — featnres
which will account for the above name.

The head of this species is
yellow, its thorax brown with a
large yellow patch on each side,
its abdomen yellow with two
brown belts, and its legs reddish
orange. The front wings are
transparent, with brown costse,
and all the wings are margined
with brown.

The caterpillar, when full
fed, makes a cocoon with silk
and the chips of wood that ifi
has bitten off; and in this under-
goes its metamorphoses. It is fully grown in April, and the moth
flies from the end of May to the end of July.

There is another ' Hornet Clearwing,' the larva of which feeds
on the stems of osiers. It may be distinguished from the species
just described by a yellow ' collar ' between the head and thorax,
both of which are blackish.

The Currant Cleanving {Sei^ia TipiiUformifi)

This is by far the commonest of all the Clearwings, and only too
well known to those who grow currants. Examine tlie shoots of
Bibes rubrum {red currant) and R. nigriim (black
currant), especially those that present a withered
or half- withered appearance, and you will almost
certainly meet with signs of the presence of this
intruder. Little wriggling larvae occupy the pith-
less stems throughout the winter and spring.
These are full grown in April, and in June the
pretty little moth emerges through a hole in
the side of a shoot, leaving the empty pupa case
within its former home.

The fore wings of this moth have black margins, and a black
transve^-se bar beyond the middle. The body is black, with three
pale yellow belts, and black tufts of hair at the tip.

Fig. 104.--- The

Currant

Clearwing.

214 COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

Family — Zyg.exid.e

The remaining family of the Sphinges — the Zi/r/trnida' — inchiJes
seven British species, three of which are known popularly as the
Foresters and the others as the Burnets.

Their antennae are thickest beyond the middle, but do not
terminate in a hook. Their wings are narrow and completely
covered with scales.

These moths are very sluggish ci'eatures, spending the greater
pai't of their time at rest on the stems of low-growing plants. When
they do fly, their flight is short and heavy, and their pretty wings
glisten in the sunshine (for they are lovers of the sun), giving them
the appearance of bees rather than of moths. On account of this
natm'al sluggishness, they are exceedingly local, for they never
move far from the spots where their food plants abound, and where
thej' had previously spent the earlier stages of their existence.
Thus we often come across a very limited piece of ground actually
alive with them, and outside which not a single specimen is to
l)e seen.

The larvae, too, are sluggish creatures, with soft and phmip
cylindrical bodies and no horns. I will briefly describe three
members of this family.

TJie Forester (Iiio Statices)

The fore wings of tliis species are serai-transparent, and of a
beautiful glossy green. The hind wings also are semi-transparent,
but of a dull smoky tint. The thorax and abdomen are both of a
brilliant metallic green colour. The tips of the
antennae are blunt, and the male may be distin-
guished from his mate by these organs being
slightly fringed or ciliated.

The caterpillar is dingy grey or greenish,

jPj,, 2Q- rp^j^, with a row of black spots down the back, and

Forester. a whitish stripe on each side. It feeds on the

common sorrel (Rumex acctosa) and the sheep
sorrel (R. acctoseUa), and when fully grown it spins a cocoon on
the stem of its food plant, and there changes to a chrysalis.

The larva may be found during May and early June. The
chrysalis state lasts only a few days, and the moth is on the wing
during June and July.

SPHINGES

215

The Broad-bordered Five-Spotted Burnet (Zijgcrna TrifoJii)

On Plate IX l^fig. 7) will be found a coloured representation of
this Burnet. The two crimson spots in the base of the fore wing
are very close together, and often touch. The same remark also
applies to the two spots on the middle of the wing. A glance at
the list of British Moths (Appendix I) will show that we have also a
A'rtcro^r-bordered Five-spotted Burnet. This insect is very similar
to the species now under consideration, but may he identified by
the narrower purplish margin on tlie hind wings, and also by the
shape of the antennae, which are not thickened so much near the
end as the^' are in TrifoJii.

The larva of the present species is yellowish or greenish, with a
row of black spots on the back and a row on each side. It feeds on
the bird's-foot trefoil {Lotus corniculatus), hop trefoil {Trifotium
jyrocumhens), and the horse-shoe vetch {Hippocrepis coniosa) in
May. Late in May or in early June the chrysalis may be found
in a silken cocoon attached to a stem or leaf; and the perfect
msect Hies during Ji;ne and Julv.

The Six-spotted Burnet {Zygcrna Filipendulce)

So common is this motli, and so conspicuoi;s when it flies in the
blazing sun, that it must be familiar to almost everybody. On a

Fig. 106. — The Six-spottep
Burnet.

Fig. 107.— The Lakva of

FiLIPENDUL.E.

bright midsummer day hmidreds may often be started from their
grassy beds from one little patch of ground.

The colouring of the wings is much the same as in the last
species, but there are two crimson spots instead of one near the
tips of the fore pair.

The larvae may be seen in vast numbers during May and .Tune,
feeding on clovers {Trifolium piratense and T. rcpens), and the

216 COMMON BBITISH MOTHS

bird's-foot trefoil {Lotus corniculatus) ; and in the latter month
thousands of the chrysalides, inclosed in shuttle-shaped cocoons on
grass stems, may be seen on downs and sunny banks in almost
every part of the country.

The caterpillar, which is yellow, may be known by the two
rows of black spots that adorn each segment of the body.

217

CHAPTER XVIII

BOMBYCES

This tribe is an important one, inasmuch as it contains those few
moths whose silk is of present or anticipated commercial vahie.
Many of the British members, even, make silken cocoons of mode-
rate compactness, but none of them yield a quantity and (]uality of
silk to justify any attempt to utilise it in the arts.

There are more than a hundred British species in this group,
and these represent no less than seventeen families, which exhibit a
great variety in their general ajipearance and habits.

Family — Nycteolid.e

The Green Silver-lined (Hylophila in-cifiinana)

This family, under the name of Chloejyhoridce, is included by
some authors among the Tortrices (page 298), which they some-
what resemble in habits. It contains
only four species, of which we will take
one example — the Green Silver-lined. _-^ \ j

The fore wings of this insect are pale ■ ^-

green, with three oblique silvery white '^ ') jr-

lines, the middle one of which is far more / v. ; %'

distinct than the other two. The hind . \d

wings are silvery white in the female, and ^^^^ 108. -The Gkeen
yellow in the male. It flies in May, and Silver -linkd.

is common in the wooded districts of the
south-eastern counties.

The caterpillar is pale green, dotted and striped with yellow,
and has a reddish transverse band on the second segment. It
feeds on oak {Quercits liobur), birch {Betula aiha), hazel {Corylits

218

COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

Fig. 109.— Thk
Short-cloaked
Moth.

Avellana), beech {Fngtis si/lvatica), and alder {Alnus glutinosa),
from which trees it may be beaten in July and August.

Familj' — Nolid^
The Short-cloal-ed Moth {Nola cucitllatella)

We select this common moth as a representative of tlie small
family Nolidcr, which coiitains only five British species. These are
all small insects. They are nocturnal in their habits, and may be
found at rest on tlie trunks of trees during the daytime. The cater-
pillars are hairy, and undergo their metamor-
phoses within silken cocoons.

The fore wings of CuciiJlatella are pearly
grey, with a dark patch at the base, a tri-
angular spot on the middle of the costal mar-
gin, and wavy lines beyond tliis, parallel with
the hind margin. Tlae liind wings are grey,
and devoid of any markings.
The caterpillar is of a brownish colour, with a line of lighter
patches down the back, and it is covered witli little tufts of hair.
It feeds on the blackthorn {Primus spinnsa), whitethorn {Cratce-
gus oxijacantha), and also on plum trees in our gardens during the
month of May. The moth is on the wing during June and July.

Family— Lithosiid.e
Tlic MiiftJiii Moth {Niidaria mundanci)

The family LitJiosiidce contains several small motlis, distin-
guished from the otlier Bomhrjces by the narrowness of tlieir fore
wings. When the insects are at rest, all the wings are wrapped
closely round the body. They fly at dusk on
summer evenings, but may be obtained during
the daytime by beating the boughs of trees. If
an open net be held under the boughs during
this operation, the moths will generally feign
death and allow themselves to fall into it when
they are disturbed.

Most of the larvfp of this family- feed on the
lichens that cover walls and the bark of trees, and they conceal
themselves s*^ artfully among this peculiar vegetation that it is no
easy matter to search them out ; probably many still remain un-
known to entomologists.

Fig. 110.~The
Muslin Moth.

BOMBYCES

219

Our first example — the jNInslin Moth — has h.^ht brownish-grey
and semi transparent wings, the front pair of which have darker
markings arranged as shown in the iUnstration. It is a common
moth, and may be met with in July and Angnst.

The caterpillar feeds on lichens in .Tmie. It is of a dnll grey
coloiu', with a yellow stripe down the back, and has nnmerons
little tufts of light hair.

Tlir Common Foofmnn (Lifhoaia hiridrola)

The fore wings of this species are of a leaden grey, with a
bright j^ellow costal stripe which dwin-
dles to a point just before it reaches the
tip. Tlie hind wings are very pale
yellow.

The larva is black, with a reddish
line on each side just above the feet.
It may be found dui'ing May and
June among the lichens of oaks, black-
thorns, and firs, especially in the woods
of the south of England.

The perfect insect flies during July and August.

Fig. 111.— The Common
Footman.

Familv— EucHFLiiD.E

The Ciiinnhar (Fiichelia Jacohcecr)

The family EucheJiidcr contains only four British species, two
of which nn;st receive a share of our attention. The first of these
is the Cinnabar Moth, which is
common in all localities where its
food plants— the groundsel [Seuc-
cio vidgaris) and the ragwort
(S. Jacohcpa) — abound.

Its colours are so striking that
a glance at its representation (fig. 1
of Plate X) will render a written
description quite unnecessary.

The caterpillar is a very familiar and conspicuous object. Its
colour is bright orange, broken by several broad black rmgs ; and
its body is thinly covered with hair. ^Yhen fully grown (July or

Fig. 112. — The L.\rva of
Jacob.i:a.

220

COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

August) it descends to tlie groimd, and there changes to a sniooth
and shining reddish-brown chrysahs.

The moth appears in June or early in July.

The Scarlet Tiger {Callimorpha Dominidn)

This is certainly one of the most beautiful of all our moths.
Its fore wings are dax'k olive green, with a lovely metallic lustre,
and boldly marked with large white and yellow spots. These sjDots
are arranged generally like those in the illustration, but are subject
to great variation. The hind wings are crimson, with large black

patches, chiefly distributed
near the hind margin. The
thorax is black, with two
white streaks ; and the ab-
domen crimson, with a
black line down the back.
This moth is a common
one. It may be taken in
June and July. I have
seen it flying somewhat
freely while the sun was still shining brightly.

The caterpillar is very dark lead colour, nearly black ; and is
covered with little wart-like projections, from each of which pro-
trudes a short black hair. There is a broad yellow broken line down
the back, and two others on the sides. It feeds on the hound's-
tongue {C ijnoglossum officinale) and many other low-growing
plants, hybernates through the winter, and is fully grown in May.
Like the other members of this familj^ it spins a light silken
cocoon, in which the hairs from its body are interwoven.

Fig. 113.- TiJK Scaklkt TuiEu.

Family — Cheloniid.e

The Wood Tiger {Nemeojjhila Plantagiins)

The Cheloniiihr are popularly known as the Tigers — a title
suggested by the tiger-like colouring of some of the prominent
species. They differ from the Scarlet Tiger and the other
members of the Eucheliiche in that the males have ciliated or
fringed antenna^. The larvit, too, are more densely covered with
hair.

The Wood Tiger (lig. 2, Plate X) is a beautiful insect, some-

BOMBYCES 221

what variable in its markings, but so conspicuously coloured that
oiu" illustration cannot fail to lead to its identification. It may be
found commonly among the undergrowth of our southern woods
during May and June.

The caterpillar is dark brown or brownish black, covered with
little hair-bearing warts. The liairs are long and black on the fore-
most and liind segments, but shorter and of a brown colour on the
middle of the body. It issues from the egg in September, feeds for
a week or two on the leaves of violets ( Viola caniiia and V. odorafa),
heartsease {V. tricolor), plantain {Plantago), or groundsel {Senccio
vidgaris), and then hybernates till the following March. It is
fully grown in May, and then spins a light cocoon, with which its
hairs are interwoven, among the leaves of its food plant.

The Tiger (Arctia caiti)

This sjjlendid moth is exceedingly variable in its colour and
markings, but its usual appearance corresponds closely with that of
the illustration on Plate X (fig. 3). In some specimens the cream
colour almost entirely covers the fore wings, while in others all four
of the wings are completely covered with shades of brown. This
insect is probably known to all my readers, for it is abundant every-
where.

The larva is as well known as the perfect insect. It is a kind
of universal feeder, partaking readily of almost every low -growing
plant, with perhaps a special partiality for dead nettles {Laminm
alhum and L. purpwreum). It feeds also on the lime tree (Tilia
vulgaris), and is commonly met with on apple trees and on the
various plants of our flower beds. The young caterpillar makes its
appearance in the autumn, and hybernates after feeding for two or
three weeks only. It is full grown in June, when it spins a silken
cocoon, and changes to a shiny black chrysalis.

The ground colour of the larva is black, but it is covered all over
with long hairs, those down the middle of the back being grey, and
the others brown. This familiar larva is known popularly as the
Woolly Bear.

The Cream-spot Tiger {Arctia villica)

There is yet another Tiger— the Cream-spot — too beautiful and
too common to be excluded from our list. It is represented on
Plate X (fig. 4) ; and, like the others of its genus, is so boldly marked
that mistaken identity is impossible.

222

COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

It is a very sluggish inoth, more often seen at rest than on the
wing, and will sutter itself to be roughl}- handled without making
any attempt to escape.

The caterpillar may be observed on sunny banks, generally feed-
ing on chickweed (Stellaria media) but sometimes on various
other low-growing weeds, including the dock and the dandelion.
Its colour is black, with red head and legs, and its body is covered
with long brown hairs. It commences to feed in the autumn,
hybernates throughout the winter, and is full grown in Ma}^
towards the end of which mouth it changes to a black chrysalis
within a liglit silken web.

The perfect insect appears in June.

T lie Bujf Ermine (Sjnlosuma luhricipeda)

The Chelo)iiidce also include three moths that are popularly
known as the Ermines, two of which — the Buff and the White —

are exceedingly common, and are
among the constant visitors to our
gardens during June and July.

The Buff Ermine has all four
wings of a buff or ochreous tint, and
spotted with black as here repre-
sented.

The caterpillar is whitish, with

a white line down the middle of the

back, and its body is covered with

long light brown hairs. It feeds on the dock (Rmnex) and many

other low-growing plants during August and September, and spends

the winter in the chrysalis
state, lying within a loose
cocoon on the surface of the
"round.

The White Ermine {S])ilo-
soma Menthastri)

Fig. 114.— The Buff EiianNE.

Fig. 115 The White Eemine.

In this species the wings

are of a pale cream colour,

and the dots of the fore wings are more uniformly distributed than

in the last. Its habits and life history closely correspond with

BOMBYCES 223

those oiLiibriciiieda, and its larva may be foiind feeding on the
same plants.

This latter may be distinguished fi'om the caterpillar of the last
species by the dark brown or black colour of the body, and the
presence of an orange line down the back. It is covered with long
brown hairs.

Family — Hepialid.^

The five species which compose this family are known as the
Swifts, a title which they have earned by their rather rapid flight.
Their wings are narrow, and the antennae very short.

In the larval state they ai'e long, naked and unsightly grubs,
that live under the surface of the ground and feed on the roots of
plants. The chrj'salides are armed with short spines projecting from
the segments.

The Ghoat Swift {Hepialuti Hionidi)

One of the commonest of these moths is the Ghost Swift, which
may be seen m hundreds on waste places in the south of England
during the month of ^^

June. The wings ?" , "sat, "^^

of the male are :^ ^""5^','^'- ^ - ^^~

white, with a silky '-.., ' , ' "'>''- ^.>'"

gloss, and a very - : -^'

narrow brown mar- { > in .^

gin. The fore wings --.y-"

of the female are
yellow, marked with Fig. 110. -The Ghost Swift-Female.

irregular reddish

lines. The hind wings are of a dull smoke colour.

The larva is pale yellow, with a brown head, and a brown horny
plate on the front of the second segment. It feeds throughout the
winter on the roots of numerous plants, including the dock, dande-
Uon, bm-dock, white dead nettle, black horehound, and the hop.

The Common Sivift {Hepialas lupulinus)

The fore wings of the male of this species are brown, with a bent
whitish streak, sometimes broken, i^assing fi-om the base to the
middle of the inner margin, and then to the apex. The hind wings

224 COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

are smoke coloured, with a light brownish fringe. The female is
much less distinctly marked, and presents
a rather dingy appearance.

The larva is dingy white, with brown

horny plates on the second, third and foin-th

segments. It feeds on the roots of dead

nettles (Lamium alhxim and L. jjiirpii-

w ream), black horehound (BaUota nigra),

Fig. 117.— The Comjion and various other herbaceous plants,

Swift. throughout the winter months, and is full

grown in April.

This insect is abundant everywhere in waste places, and may be

seen on the wing in May and June.

Family — CossiDiE

The members of this family have longer antennae than the
Hc'2)ialidce, and the females are provided with extended ovipositors
which enable them to place their eggs in the deep crevices of the
bark of trees.

The larvie are naked or only very slightly hairy, and have a
plate on the second segment. They feed on the wood of trees or
the interior of the stems of reeds. The pupae have spiny projections
on each segment.

The Goat Moth {Cossiis ligniperda)

There are only three British species of this family, the largest of
which is the Goat Moth, so called on account of the characteristic
odour of the larva, an odour said to resemble that emitted by the
goat.

The fore wings of this fine moth are pale brown, clouded with
white, and marked by numerous wavy trans\erse lines. The hind
wings are somewhat similar, but of a duller tint, and the markings
are less distinct. Its average breadth from tip to tip is over three
inches, and it sometimes I'eaches nearly four inches.

The larva is a most interesting creatux'e. It is dark reddish
brown on the back, and flesh colour beneath ; and its head is
intensely black. It feeds on the solid wood of the willow, poplar,
oak, elm, and other trees. The infected trees are often so riddled
A\ ith the burrows of these larva; that they are completely destroyed,

BOMBYCES

225

and the presence of the mtruders is frequently indicated by a heap
of small chips of wood lying on the ground near the roots. The
odom- of the larvte, too, is so powerful, that there is generally no
dithcultv in ascertaining their whereabouts bv it alone.

^a|f

Fig. 118.— The Goat Moth.

It is not always in living trees, however, that we find these
creatures, for they often feed on rotting wood, such as the
remains of old palings and
posts, that lie on the gromid
in damp places.

AVhen fully grown thej'
construct a strong cocoon of
chips of wood, bound together
by silk, and within this they
change to the chrysalis.

The moth emerges in June or July, and is commonly found
resting on the bark of willows and poplars during the daytime.

Fig

119. — The L.\rva of Ligniperiia
[less than half full size).

The Leopard Moth {Zcuzera ptjrina)

The wmgs of this species are white and semi-transparent, and
marked with numerous bluish-black spots in such a way as to
remind one of the skin of the leopard. Its body is -very long, and

226

COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

the antennto of the male are doubly fringed for about half their
length from the base.

Fifi. 120.— The Leopard Moth.

Fig. 121. — The Laeva of Pykina
(only partly grown).

The caterpillar feeds on the wood of various trees— elm, apple,
pear, ash, alder, poplar, horse chestmit, birch, lilac, and several

others. It is yellowish, with
black shiny spots, and a black
plate on the second segment.

The moth appears in Jiilj',

and is widely distributed. It

is attracted by bright lights,

but the best way to obtain it is

to search the trunks and branches of trees that are known to

harbour the larvie early in the morning, and so obtain newly

emerged specimens.

FamUy — Liparid.e

Passing over the two small species which are the only British
representatives of the family CocJiliopodidce, we come to the
interesting Lijmridce, the remarkable feature of which is that most
of the caterpillars are adorned with brush-like tufts of hair, and
even the chrysalides are hairy.

The perfect insects are not brilliantly coloured, but generally
display very pale tints ; and the antenme of the males are
pectinated or feathered.

The Brown Tail {PorfJicsla clD-ysoyrJioca)

The family contains two motlis— the Brown Tail and the Yellow
Tail — that are very similar in appeai-ance and habits. Both have

BOMBYCES

227

~>>:/f

white wings, and their bodies also are white with the exception of
the tuft of coloured hair at tlie tip of the abdomen, which gives the
names to the species. Their larv* may both be found feeding on
the same trees (whitethorn), and both change to a brown hairy
chrysalis within a loose cocoon among the leaves.

The larva of Chrysorrhoea is black, ,^=.,^-__ ^

with four rows of little wart-like pro-
jections on each side, from which pro-
ceed little tufts of hairs. These hairs
are reddish with the exception of one
row on each side, which is white. The
tenth and eleventh segments have each
a scarlet tubercle, and there are also
other small spots of the same colom' on some of the front segments.

The larva feeds on the blackthorn in addition to the tree
mentioned above, and is full grown in June. The moth flies in
August.

Fk;. 122.— The Biiowx Tail.

The Gipsu {Ocncria dinjuir)

The fore wings of the male are smoky brown, with darker
markings, including a V-shaped black mark near the centre. The
hind wings are brown, darker near the margui. Tlie female is
dingy yellowish white, with darker
markings arranged as in the male.
The male is much inferior in size,
and its antennie are very strongly
pectinated.

The larva is brownish black,
finely dotted with yellowish gi'ey.
There is a grey stripe down the
middle of the back, and six tuber-
cles on each segment give rise to

tufts of long hair. It feeds on the whitethorn {Cratccgus oxij-
acantJta), blackthorn {Primus sjnnosa), and various fruit trees.

The caterpillar is full grown in Jmie, and the moth appears in
August.

Fig. 123.— The Gipsy — Male.

The Black Arches (Psilnra Monachn)

The fore wings of the Black Arches are white, marked with
zigzag black lines, as shown in our illustration. The hind wings

228

COMMON BEITISH MOTHS

f>)i^^i^t'

are smoky grey. The hinder segments of the abdomen are banded
with black and rose-pink. The male is much smaller than the

female, and has the antenme
strongly pectinated.

The caterpillar is hairy, and
of a greyish- white colour. A
brown stripe runs dow'n the
back. On the top of the second
segment are two blue tubercles ;
and there is also a tubercle, of a
reddish colour, on each of the
ninth, tenth, and eleventh seg-
ments. It feeds on the oak, birch, fir, and the apple ; and is full
grown in June or Julj^

The moth flies during July and August.

Fig. 12i.

The Black Arches -
Male.

The Vajjourer Motli [Orgijia antiqua)

During the hottest summer months, and particularly in August
and September, a rather small brown moth may be seen almost
everywhere, flying rapidly and in a very erratic manner in the bright
rays of the midday sixn. This is the common Vapourer Moth,
which may be known at once by its bright chestnut colour, with
darker transverse markings, and a white crescent-shaped spot in
the anal angle of the fore wings. It seems somewhat partial to

Fig. 125. — The Vapouker
Moth— Male.

Fig. 126 The Female

Vapoueek.

civilised life, for it frequents the streets of our metropolis, even in
the very densely populated parts ; and the larva is one of the
commonest of the insect forms infesting our gardens and squares.
The caterpillar is variously coloured ; but the prevailing tints
are dark brown, grey, and pink. On the second segment are two
long tufts of hair directed forward, and on the twelfth segment a
similar tuft directed backward. On each of the segments fi\c to

BOMBYCES 229

eight inclusive is a brush-like tuft of yellowish hairs. It feeds on
almost every tree usually to be found in parks and gardens.

When fully grown it spins a web on the bark of a tree, or on
a wall or fence, and
changes to a hairy
chrysalis.

The female of this
si^ecies is wingless, and
never moves away
from the cocoon out of
which she has crawled, Fig- 1"27.— Larva of the Vapourer Moth.
but lays her eggs on
the outside of the silken web, and there remains to die.

The clusters of eggs may be found in abundance throughout the
winter months.

Family — Bombycid.e

This family contains eleven thick-bodied moths, mostly of large
size, in wliich the predominating colours are greys and browns.
Their hind wings are generally paler than the front pair, and less
distinctly marked ; and the antenna of the males are pectinated.

The caterpillars are very hairy, but the hairs are uniformly-
distributed, and not arranged in tufts as in the larva? of the last
family.

The chrysalides are inclosed in silken cocoons, but are not
hairy.

"We shall briefly examine three of the members of this family.

Tlie OnT; Eggar [Bomhijx Quercus)

The male of this species is shown on Plate X (fig. 5). The
female is much larger, and of a pale tawny colour.

The ground coloiir of the caterpillar is black ; but it is so closely
covered with short yellowish brown hairs that the black is scarcely
visible, excepting when the creature rolls itself up into a ring,
which it does when alarmed. The spiracles are white, and there
is a series of white spots down the middle of the back and along each
side. It feeds on whitethorn {Cratcegiis oxijacantlia), heather
{Calluna, Erica), poplar (Poj^ulus nigra), and various other plants
and trees.

230 COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

As a rule the larva hybernates through the winter, is full grown
in the following May, and the moth appears in July ; but in
Scotland the caterpillar does not spin its cocoon till September,
hybernates in the chrysalis state, and emerges in the following
June. The same is true of the Cornish Eggars ; but along the
coast of South Devon both varieties are to be met with.

The male Eggar seems to enjoy the bright sunshine, for I have
seen large numbers tiying over the rugged cliffs of the south-west
throughout all hours of the daj'.

The Driul'cr {Odonestis iiotatoria)

The popular name of this species is applied on account of a
peculiar feature of the larva, which sucks up the dewdrop that lies
on its food plant.

The colour of the male is tawny and brown, with a reddish tinge ;

that of the female is yellow.
The front wing has an oblique
(lark bar passing from the apex
to the middle of the inner
margin ; also two white spots
■ — one in the middle of the
wing, and the other between
it and the costal margin.
,( The caterpillar is dark

bluish grey above, and has a
Fio. 128.— The Drinker— Male. li^e of orange spots on each

side. Along the spiracles are
oblique orange streaks, and a series of tufts of white hair. It feeds
on the annual meadow-grass {Poa annua), and several other grasses.
It is a hybernator, commencing its caterpillar state in the autumn,
and reaching its full dimensions about the end of the following May.
The moth flies during July and August.

The Lajij^et {Lasiocampa quercifoUa)

Our last example of the Bo)nhijcid(e is the Lappet (Plate X,
fig. 6), a large moth, the female often measuring considerably
over three inches from tip to tip. The wings are of a rich reddish
brown, and exhibit a beautiful purplish bloom in a newly emerged
insect. Scalloped black lines pass transversely across each wing,
and a small black dot lies near the centre of the fore wings.

BOMBYCES 231

The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is usuallj- gi'ey or
reddish brown. A deep piu'ple band lies between the second and
third segments, and another between the third and fourth. On the
twelfth there is a small hump, and a pale stripe, more or less distinct,
n;ns along each side. It feeds on the blackthorn {Prunus spinosa),
buckthorn {Rhannius cafharticus), and the white willow {Salix
alha).

The moth is not unconnnon, and is on the wing in June.

Family — Endromid.e
The Kentish Glory {Endromis versicolor)

The beautiful Kentish Glory is the only British representative of
its famity. The male is shown in Plate X (fig. 7) ; the female is
larger and similarly marked, but its colours are not so bright.

This moth is not common, but may be seen occasionally in the
birch woods of the soi;thern counties. The males fly rapidly in the
bright sunshine, but the females must be searched for on the bark
and branches of the trees.

The eggs are laid in April on the twigs of the birch {Betuhi alha),
and the young caterpillar emerges early in May. It is gregarious
at first, but loses its social tendencies as it gets older. When full
grown, it is of a pale green colour, with white spiracles, a dark green
line down the back, and an oblique white stripe on each side of
each segment. The sides are dotted with black and brown, and
there is a conspicuous hump on the top of the twelfth segment.

"When fully grown it spins a cocoon among the dead leaves
beneath the tree, and in this it spends the winter months in the
chrysalis state.

Family — Satueniid.e

The Emperor Moth {Saturnia ])avonia)

Here is another family with but one British member ; but in this,
as in the last case, the only representative is a really beautiful in-
sect. The male Pavonia is shown on Plate X (tig. 8), and will
need no written description as an aid to its identification. The
female is larger, and similarly marked, but the ground colour of the
wings is pale grey.

This moth is abundant almost everywhere, and may be looked
for in the neighbourhood of heaths and woods early in the month of
May.

232 COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

The larva feeds on a large number of plants and trees, among
which may be mentioned the willow (Salix alba), blackthorn (Pr«-
nus spinosa), elder {Samhucus nigra), whitethorn {Cratcegus oxy-
acanfha), bramble (Rtibus fridicosus), heaths (Erica tetralix and
E. cinerea), and the meadow-sweet {Sjnma uhnaria). Its colour
is a lovely green ; and each segment has several pink tubercles, each
surrounded by a black ring, and giving rise to a tuft of short black
hairs. The spiracles are orange.

In the autumn it spins a pear-shaped cocoon of silk, open at the
small end (fig. 28).

It may here be mentioned in passing that, in the case of some
of the larger moths of the few preceding families, the young ento-
mologist is likely to meet with larvae more fi-eqnently than the per-
fect insect. These moths, however, are mostly very hardy and
easily reared ; and a beginner cannot do better than endeavour to
obtain either ova or larvae, in order that he may be able to watch
the different species through their various stages.

Family — Drepanulid.'e

We now reach a family containing six small moths that differ
in many important particulars from those we have just been con-
sidering. They ai'e of such slender build that a beginner may
easily mistake them for Geometers. Their wings, though small,
are broad, and well proportioned to their bodies. In five cases out
of the six the front wings are more or less hooked at the tips, and
on this account the moths in question are called the Hook Tips.

Thelarvie are not hairy, but they all have little fleshy projections
on their backs. Their bodies also taper to a point behhid, and the
last pair of claspers are wanting, so that they have only fourteen
waUving appendages. AVhen at rest they usually fix themselves by
their claspers only, their pointed ' tails ' being directed slightly up-
ward, and all the front segments being also elevated. When abovit
to change, they descend to the ground, and spin their cocoons among
dead leaves.

Two only of this family can receive an individual notice.

The Oah Hook Tip {Drcpana hinaria)

This can hardly be described as a very common moth, but it is
fairly plentiful in the woods of the southern counties of England.

BOMBYCES

233

Its wings are yellowish brown, marked with two lighter trans-
verse lines. There are two black spots between the lines of the
fore wings. The antennte of the male are
pectinated ; those of the female simple.
The latter sex is further distinguished by
the paler colour of the hind wmgs.

The larva is brown, with a broad stripe,
edged with yellow, down the back. There
are two projections on the back of the
foiu'tli segment. It feeds on oak [Quercus
Bohitr) and bu-ch {Betula alba).

This moth is double-brooded, and may be seen on the wing in
June and August. The larva may be beaten from the above-
mentioned trees in June and Juh', and again m September.

Fi.

Ho()K Tip.

Oak

The Chinese Character {Cilix glancata)

The fore wings of this species are white, with a broad dark
blotch irom the inner margin to near the costa. The central por-
tion of this blotch is marked with silvery
spots which are said to resemble Chinese
characters. The hmd margin is shaded
with a dark grey border, inside which is a
row of dark spots. The hind wings are
clouded with grey.

This moth is widely distributed, and
seems to be common throughout England,
first brood appearing in May and June, and the second in August.

The caterpillar, which is brown, with two prominent tubercles
on each of the third and fourth segments, feeds on the whitethorn
[Crata-gus oxyacantha), and the blackthorn (Fruniis s2nnosa).

Fifi. 1.30.— The Chinese
Chaeactee.

It is double brooded, the

Family — Pickanurid.e

The five British species that represent this family are such
interesting insects that we should like to have given a detailed de-
scription of all of them, but our limited space will allow of no more
than an outhne of the general characteristics of the group and a
selection of two for individual mention.

They are thick-bodied moths, and the prevailing colours are
white and shades of grey. The antennae are pectinated in the males,

234 COMMON BBITISH MOTHS

and, with the exception of tlie Lobster Motli (-Frt^/), in the females
also.

The larvie, like those of the last family, have no anal elaspers,
and stand, when at rest, with both ends of the body raised. They
have two ' tails ' projecting from the last segment. The largest of
them (the Puss), and three smaller species (Kittens) that closely
resemble it in habits, all construct hard cocoons to be presently de-
scribed ; but the larva of the Lobster Moth spins a light cocoon
among the leaves of trees.

They all spend the winter in the chrysalis state.

The Poplar Kitten {Dicranura bifida)

Our illustration shows the arrangement of the white and grey on
the wings of this moth, but the other Kittens {Bicuspis and Fiircula)
so closely resemble it that it is necessary to point out a mark of dis-
tinction. It will be observed that the fore wings are crossed by a
broad grey band, edged with black. This band, in the present
species, is almost of the same width throughout, its interior margin
being almost straight, and the exterior one slightly concave. In

Fiircula, the oiiter margin of tlie
band is generally sharply bent in-
ward just below the costa. In Bi-
cuspis the grey band varies consider-
ably in shape, but both this and the
dark blotch near the tip of the wing
are more sharply defined than in
Fig. 131.- Thk Poplar Kitten. ^\-^q o^i^er two species.

The caterpillar is green, dotted
with brown, and has a brown stripe on the back. This stripe is
broken on the third segment, and widens out on the eighth and
thirteenth segments. It feeds on the Poplar (Populus nigra) and
Aspen (P. treimda).

When fall grown it descends to the trunk of the tree, and con-
structs a very hard cocoon of a glutinous substance from its own body
mingled with little pieces of the bark that it removes for the
purpose. Thus made, the cocoon so closely resembles the sur-
rounding bark that detection is very difficult. I have frequently
found these cocoons on the inner surface of loose bark.

This moth is widely distributed, and may be searched for in
June and July. The larva feeds during August and September.

BOMBYCES

235

It is groen, willi

The Puss {Dicranura vinuJa)

No written description is necessar}' in this case, the iUustration
easily serving for identification. This beautiful inoth Hies in May
and June, and is common everywhere.

The caterpillar is a very interesting creatiu'e.
a hump on the fourth
segment, and a patch
of brown fi^om the
fourth segment to the
tail. This patch is
very ■nide on the
eighth segment, but
tapers to a point on
the thirteenth. The
two horns are I'ather
long and roiigh, and
from each of them a
very slender pink fila-
ment is protruded when the caterpillar is irritated.

It constructs a cocoon very similar to that of Bifida, though of
course larger, on the bark of the tree on which it fed, generally
three or foiir feet from the gi'ound. It feeds on sallows, willows,
and poplars, and may be found during .Tuly and August.

Fig. 132.-

-The Puss Moth.

Family — Notodoxtid.e
The Coxcomb Prominent {Lophopterijx camelino)

The family Notodontidce contains several moths of somewhat
varied appeai-ance, but foremost among them are the ' Prominent?,'
distinguished by a conspicuous pro-
jection on the inner margin of the
fore wings.

Our example of this group is the
Coxcomb Prominent.

Its fore wings are brov/n, with
darker markings arranged as shown
in the illustration ; and the hind
margins are scalloped. The hind
wings are much paler, with a dark brown patch in the anal angle.

The caterpillar is green, with a yellowish line on each side.
The spiracles are black, and there are two small humps on the

Fi(

18o. — The Coxcomb
Prominent.

236 COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

twelfth segment. It feeds during August, September, and October,
on various trees, including the oak, birch, poplar, hazel, and
alder.

The moth flies from Jime to August, and is moderately common
and widely distributed.

Family— Pyg.erid.e
The Buff Tip {Phalera buceplicda)

The first of our two examples of this small family is the common
and destructive Buff Tip. The perfect insect is represented on
Plate X, fig. 9, and is too well known to require a lengthy description.
During June and July it may be seen resting on the bark of trees
almost everywhere, with its wings folded closely round its bod}',
and its antennae tucked under the wings, looking just like apiece of
stick, or a projection of the bark on which it sits.

The caterpillars appear towards the end of June, and may be
seen in dense clusters on lime and other trees, sometimes twenty

Fig. 134. — The Larva of Bucephala.

or tliu'ty huddled together on a single leaf. As they grow larger
they retain their gregarious tendencies, and often completely strip
the leaves from large branches. They are of a dull yellow colour,
hairy, and have seven broken black lines, one along the middle of
the back, and three on each side. The head and legs are black.

When full grown, they descend to the root of the tree, burrow
into the soil, and there remain in the chrysalis state till the follow-
ing June. The chief food plants of this species are the lime (Tilici
vuhjarib), elm {Ubniis campestris), and hazel iCorylus Avellana).

BOMBYCES

237

TJie Chocolate Tip (Pi/gcera curtula)

This species is not nearly so common as the last, bnt is to be
met with more or less in most of the English counties in the month
of May.

Its fore wings are light greyish brown, crossed with four trans-
verse paler streaks, and tipped with a patcli of chocolate brown.
The hind wings are pale yellowish

grey.

The young caterpillars feed in com-
panies between leaves which they have
spun together, but when nearly full
grown thej cease to be gregarious.
They are also verj- different in appear- Fig. 135.
ance at different ages. When fully
fed, the larva is of a reddish-grey

colour, spotted with black, with a double row of orange-coloured
warts on each side. There is also a little black hump on each of
the fifth and twelfth segments.

The food plants of this species are sallows (Sali-r caprca and
S. cinerca), poplar {Popiilns nigra), and aspen (P. tremida).

-The Chocolate
Tip.

Family — Cymatophorid.e

This, the last family of the Bomhijccs, contains seven species of
moderate size, the larvae of which are either quite smooth or have
small warty prominences. The seven species are grouped into
three genera, from two of which we shall select a representative.

Tlir Peach Bios

Tlnjatira Batis)

The popular name of this pretty little moth is given on account
of the resemblance of the pink
patches of its olive-brown fore wings
to the petals of the peach flower.
It is a moderately common moth,
widely distributed in England and
Ireland, and Hies during .June and
July.

The caterpillar is marbled with
reddish grey and brown, and has
a hump on the third segment, and a smaller prominence on each

Fig. lb(j.- The Peach Blossom.

238 COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

of the segments six to ten inclusive. It feeds on the bramble
{Buhus friiticosns) during August and September, and spends the
winter in the chrysalis state, inclosed in a loose cocoon among the
dead leaves at the root of its food plant.

Tlie Ycllow-hornt'd {Asplialia Jiavieornis)

This is one of the earliest of our motlis, appearing on the

wing in March, when it may be
( ) attracted by means of sugar

^^^' ,y, j'L ..^ ^!^^^ placed on the bark of the birch
"s '^jif :"" )i yf) (^ :/ {Bctula alba).

The wings are grey, with a de-
cidedly greenish tinge, crossed by
'*w three dark lines near the base,

Fig. 1;;7. -The Yellow-horned ^nd two others, which are zigzag,

jiist outside the centre. Between
these two sets of lines is a conspicuous round pale spot. The
hind wings are greyish brown, darker along the hind margin.

The larva, which feeds on the above-named tree, is pale greenish,
with both white and black dots. It rolls itself up in a leaf, and
seldom ventures out of the retreat thus formed. It is fully fed in
July or August.

239

CHAPTER XIX

THE N0CTU2E

We ha^•e already noticed that several of our moths fl.y by day ;
that some come out of their hiding places at dusk, and settle down
again to rest before the deepest shadows of night fall ; and that
others prefer the darkest hours of the night. The tribe of moths
we are next to consider includes the greater mimber (about three
hundred) of our truly nocturnal species, hence the name that heads
this chapter.

They are generally of a somewhat dingy appearance, the pre-
vailing colours being dull shades of grey, drab, and brown. So
closely, in fact, do certain of them resemble each other, that the
greatest care has to be exercised in the identitication of species — a
task that is rendered still more difficult by the variations that we
observe in the tints and markings of certain species.

These moths have generally rather stout bodies. Their fore
wings are somewhat narrow, and, when the insects are at rest,
these are brought clofje to the body, and the hind pair are folded
up beneath them.

Family — Bryophilid.e

The Marbled Beautij {Bri/ojihila Peria)

Our first family — the Bryojjhilidcs — contains only four British
species. These are small and slender-bodied uioths, whose larvae
feed in early morning on the lichens that cover stones and old
walls, and conceal themselves by day in holes and chinks and under
stones.

The Marbled Beauty is the only moth of this fauiily that may

240

COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

be described as common with us. It is abundant in nearly every
Englisli county, as well as in parts of Scotland and Ireland.

Its wings are very pale grey, marked with
a darker bluish grej-, as shown in the engrav-
ing. These markings are variable, but the
bases of the fore wings have alwaj's a dark
blotch, followed by a patch of pale grey or
white, extending the whole widtli of the
wing. The moth may be found from the be-
ginning of July to the middle of September.
The larva feeds from February to April.
It is black above, with a broad orange-bordered stripe down the
back; and its body is covered with small warts, each of which
bears a single hair.

Fig. 138.— The
Mahbled Beauty.

Family — Bombycoid.e

In this family there are sixteen British moths, several of which
are exceedingly common. They are much larger than the Bryoplii-
lidcp, and of a much stouter build. The larvae are covered with
little hair-bearing warts, and are, indeed, often so hairy, that they
may be mistaken for the caterpillars of the Bomhyces.

The Grey Dagger {Acronycta Psi)

This is the commonest of all the Bomhycoidce. It may be
found at rest on tree trunks and palings during the daytime
throiighout the summer. Its fore wings are pale grey, with four

conspicuous black marks, one of
^ ^ which — that in the anal angle — re-

_^ sembles the Greek letter ])si (\//)
'^^fe^^fr placed sideways.

The larva is black or very dark

grey, with a pale yellow line down

: ' " the back, and a black hump on each

of the fifth and twelfth segments,

Fig. 1^!).— The Gkey Daggek. that on the fifth being much larger

than tlie other. It feeds in the
autumn on lime {Tilia vulgaris), blackthorn [Prunus s2nnosa),
whitetliorn {Cratcegus oxyacantha), fruit trees, and various other
trees, slmibs, and herbs.

THE NOCTUM

241

The moth called the Dark Dagger (Tridens) is hardly to he dis-
tinguished from Psi. It is not really anj' darker, and its markings
are almost exactly similar ; but the larva is very different.

Fic. 140.— The Poplak Grey.

TJic Po2)hir Grey {Acroinjcta uwrjacrjiJKda)

This is also a very common moth, to he found in all the southern
and midland counties, wherever poplars abound, during June and
July.

Its fore wings are gi'ej', marbled with a very dark grey. A little
inside the middle of these wings, near the costa, is a round spot
with a dark centre. This spot is ^^^
represented in a large number of
the NoctiKT, and is known as the
orbicular. It will be observed
that in the present species it is
very distinct.

The caterpillar is dark gi'ej^
with a line of black dots down the
back ; and it has a number of

little warts, bearing hairs. On the back of the eleventh segment
is a rather large pale spot. It feeds during August on various
species of poplar, and changes to a chrysalis in a crevice of the
bark.

The Figure of FAgld {DiJoba ccj^ridcoccpliala)

The fore wings are brownish grey. Near the middle of the
wing, but nearer the costa than the inner margin, are two whitish
spots that resemble the figure 8. The hind wings are dull brownish
grey, with darker wing rays, and a
dark spot near the centre.

This moth is common in all parts,
and flies during SeptemV)er.

The caterpillar emerges from the
egg in spring, and is fully grown in
May or June. It is of a very pale
colour — yellowish or greenish — with a
broad and broken yellow stripe down
the back, and a bluish or greenish

stripe on each side. Its head is blue (hence the specific name)
witii two black spots. It feeds on the hawthorn {Cratiegus oxij-

Fig. 141.— The Figuee
OF Eight.

242 COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

acautha) and various fniit trees; and on tlie twigs of these (espe-
cially the hawthorn) the little clusters of eggs inaj' be seen during
the winter.

Family — LEUCANiiDiE

In this family we have a number of rather small moths, with,
generally, no markings on their wings, save, perhaps, a few dots or
streaks.

Their larvte feed principally on grasses and reeds, and change to
the chrysalis state either in a cocoon among the food plants, or
under the surface of the ground.

Several of these insects are very common, and most of them
abound in fens and marshes.

The Broiun-line Briglit-eije (Leucania conigera)

The fore wings are yellowish brown. The ' brown line ' is a

transverse line parallel with the hind margin, and distant from it

about one-fourth the length of the wing. Another dark brown line,

describing a sharp bend, passes across the wing near the base.

The ' bright eye ' is a light spot just outside the centre of the wing,

nearer the costa than the inner margin.

This is another of those marks that

occur very constantly in the wings of

the Noduce. It lies beyond the orhi-

cuJar spot, and is usually somewhat

kidney-shaped, and is consequently

named the reniform.

Fig. 142. — The Brown- The caterpillar is yellowish or grey-

LTNE Bright-eye. jsh, v/ith a pale dorsal line edged with

black. On each side of this is a broad

black line, below which is a yellow line edged with black, then a

whitish stripe, next a yellow line edged with black on the upper

side, and lastly a broad brownish line, just above the spiracles,

edged with black on both sides. It feeds on couch grass {Agro-

pyron rej^ens) and various other grasses, and is fully grown in

May.

The moth flies in July and August, and is connnon throughout
the United Kmgdom,

THE NO C TILE

243

Tlie Siiwkij Wainscof {Lcucania impura)

This same genus includes a number of moths, very similar in
general appearance, and popularly known as the ' Wainscots.' Of
these we shall take two examples.

The first is the Smoky Wainscot,
so called from the dark smoky tint
of the hind wings. Its fore wings
are wainscot brown, with lighter rays ;
and they each have three black dots ar-
ranged in the form of a triangle, one
in the centre, and the other two be-
tween this and the hind margin.

The caterpillar is yellowish, with a
fine white line down the back. The
spiracles are red, and inclosed in black rings.
{Car ex) from March to May.

The moth is on the wing from June to August.

Fi.

143. — The Smo-ky
Wainscot.

It feeds on sedges

The Common Wainscot {Lcucania pallens)

The fore wings exhibit

This moth is very much like the last
the same three dots, but it may be
distinguished by the pale colour of the
hind wings.

The larva feeds on various grasses
in March and April. It is of a pink-
ish grey colour, with two rows of
black dots on each side of the dorsal
line. There are also three stripes
along the side, two of ■s\hich are
brownish and the other grey.

The moth is common everywhere from .Tune to August

Fifi. 144.— The Common
Wainscot.

The Bullrush {Nonagria arundini^)

Our last example of this family is the Bullrush, a moth that is
common in all parts where its food plant abounds.

It is much larger than the two preceding species. The fore
wings are yellowish brown, with three parallel transverse lines of

E 2

244

COMMON BBITISH MOTHS

black spots. The hind wings are whitish, tinged with brown near

the hind margin.

The caterpillar is of a dull pinkish colour, with a shining

brownish plate on the
second segment. The
spiracles are black. It
feeds inside the stems
of the reed-mace (Ty-
l)ha latifolia), and
changes to a chrysalis
within the gallery it
has excavated, after
making a hole through
which it can escape
when it attains the per-
fect foi'm.

The caterpillar may

be found in May and June, the ehrj-salis in August, and the motli

in September.

Fir;. 145. -Tin-: JJullrush.

Family — Apameid.e

This large family contains no less than forty-four British species,
many of which are exceedingly' common ; and of the others only
about half a dozen can be regarded as rare.

Most of them are of medium size, and with one or two excep-
tions are dressed in rather dingy garbs ; but, although the ground
colours are dull, the various markings of the wings are sharply
defined. They may be searched for on palings and the bark of trees
\>y daj', at which time they repose with their wings sloping like the
sides of the roof of a house. Some are easily attracted by lights,
and others partake freely of the entomologist's ' sngar.'

The larvae have small retractile heads, and feed on low-growing
plants, keeping themselves well concealed on the lower leaves close
to the gromid.

The Frosted Orange (Gortijna Ochracea)

We commence with one of the brightest members of the family,
the Frosted Orange. Its fore wings are dark yellow or ochreous,
with distinct brown markings, the chief of which are two broad

THE NOCTURE

245

Fig. 14(i. — The Fkosted
Obangk.

transverse bands. The orbicular spot is pale yellow and very dis-
tinct. Tho hind wings are dingy yellow. This moth tlies from July
to September, and is easily attracted
by a light at night. It is common
everywhere.

The lar\a is yellow, dotted with
black, with a brownish plate on the
second segment. It feeds inside the
stems of a number of plants, in-
cladmg the marsh thistle [Cnicus
palustris), musk thistle [Cardiius
nutans), burdock {Arctium minus),
nmllein {Verhascum tliapsus), fox-
glove {Dicjitalis i-iurpurea), and elder [Sambucas nir/ra). When
about to change to the chrysalis it eats nearly to the surface of the
stem, leaving only a very thin and transparent layer of the epi-
dermis to cover the hole through which it is to escape when it
becomes a moth.

The caterpillars are to be found in June, and the chrysalides in
July.

Tlie Flame (Axijlia putris)

This also is a pretty insect, but much smaller than Ocliracea. It
is common in most parts, and may be seen Hying in weedy and
waste groimds at dusk during June and
July.

Tlie fore wings are pale pinkish brown,
with dark brown along the costa, and two
patches of the same colour on the hind
margin. There is also a double line of
small browli dots parallel with the hind
margm.

The larva is brown, with one yellow and two white dots on each
segment. There is also a triangular dark patch on each of the fifth
and sixth segments. It feeds during August on the stinging nettle
{Urtica dioica), and various other low herbs

Fig. 147.— The Flame.

The Light Arches {Xylophasia lithoxylea)

The fore wings of this species are very light ochreous, with a
light brown patch on the middle of the costa, and patches of the

246

COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

same colciu' along the hind margin ; also a row of small black dots

parallel with the same
margin. The hind wings
are pale ochreous : they
are brownisli along the
hind margin, and have
a light fringe.

The moth is very
common in waste places,
and flies in Jiine and
July.

The caterpillar is of

a dirty white colour, dotted with black, and has a black head. It

feeds on the roots of grasses in May.

Fig. 148. — The Light Akches.

The Flounced Rustic {Luperina festacca)

The fore wings are greyish brown, with darker umber-brown
markings. These latter are variable,
but the most conspicuous is a series
^^^,^^3^^ of dark crescent-shaped spots almost
parallel ^vith the hind margin, and
immediately outside these is a series
of paler crescents.

The caterpillar is dull flesh-colour,

with a brown head, and a brownish

plate on the second segment. It feeds

on the stems of grasses.

The moth is common throughout the British Isles, and flies in

A-Ugust and September.

Fig. 149.- -The Flounced
Rustic.

The Cabbage Moth {Mamestra Brassicce)

Whatever be your methods of moth collecting, you are sure to
meet with Brassicce in abundance. They swarm round the insect
hunter's sugar in such numbers as to become a positive nuisance.
They are also attracted by light. During the day the}- may be seen
at rest on palings. The caterpillar is even better known, and with
reason, for it is fearfully destructive to our vegetables and even our
flower beds. It burrows into the hearts of cabbages, filling the
gallferies it makes with its excrement, often leaving no very

THE NOCTU^

247

Fig. 150. — The Cabbage Moth.

It flies in June

visible outward signs of its presence within. But its ravages
are by no means confined to cabbages. It eats with more or less
relish almost every vegetable
and flowering plant of our
gardens, and is equally partial
to the various herbs of the field.

The fore wings of the moth
are dingy brownish gre^-, mar-
bled in a very confused man-
ner by darker markings. The
reniform spot is very distinct,
the orbicular less so. A light
zigzag line rmis parallel with the hind margin,
and July.

The larva feeds later in the season, and changes to tlie chrysalis
beneath the soil in the autumn. It is of a dark grey colour, with a
darker line on the back, and a lighter one along the spiracles, which
are white.

The Dot {Mamestra Pcrsicaricc)

The conspicuous white reniform spot on the very dark marbled
fore wings is always sufficient for the identification of this species.

This moth is out in June and July; and during the latter month
lays its eggs on the elder (Sambu-
CKS vigra), and the various low
jilants that supply the larva with
food.

The larva is greenish or grey-
ish, sometimes with a reddish
tinge, with a light line down the
back. The twelfth segment is
humped, and there are dai'k V-
shaped marks on the back of seg-
ments five to twelve inclusive. It is full grown in September, and
burrows into the ground to undergo its change to the chrysalis, in
which state it remains throughout the winter.

Fio. 151.— The Dot.

T7ic Eustic Sliouhlev-'knot [Ajyamca hasUinea)

The fore wings of this species are pale ochreous grey, with light
brown markings ; and there is a short dark streak in the middle of

248

COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

Fig. 152.— The Eostic
Shouldek knot.

the base, from which feature the specific name (Basilinca) is
derived. The hind wings are of a similar coloiir, but shading into

a dark smoke colour at the hind

The caterpillars feed at first on
the grains of wheat, on the ears of
which the moth deposits the eggs
in June. At harvest time they re-
main hidden among the husks, and
are often threshed out in large
numbers by the blows of the flail.
The cold weather soon overtakes

them, and they then spin a cocoon in which to pass the winter.

On the approach of spring they come out again, and feed hj night

on various low plants, hiding themselves among the roots by day.

In March they are full grown, and change to brown chrysalides

beneath the surface of the ground.

The moth flies in June, and is one of the commonest and most

destructive of our Nociuce.

The Marbled Minor [Miana strigiUs)

The next three genera {Miana, Phothedes, and Celcena) include
seven small moths known as the ' Minors.' The connnonest of
them is the Marbled Minor, which is to be
found in abundance everywhere during June
and July.

This species is very variable, but the fore

wings are usually dark brown, marbled with

a lighter colour — white or grey. There is

generally an irregular white or pale grey

band crossing the wings parallel with the

hind margin, and two white marks on the inner margin, halfway

between this band and the base. There is also a deep black blotch

across the middle of the wing.

The caterpillar is greyish or greenish with paler lines and black
spiracles. It feeds on grasses in March and April, and changes to
a chrysalis under the. ground in May.

Family — Cakaduinid.e

There are only ten British species in this fixmily, two of
which are rare ; and most of the others are particularly dingy.

Fig. 153. — Tin; Mah-

BLED MiNOi;.

THE NOCTUM 249

The transverse lines so often seen on the fore wings of Noctuce are
generally well marked. The larvte have short stiff bristles, and
feed on low i^lants ; they undergo their changes in an earthen
cocoon under the trroimd.

The Mottled Ei(vfic (Caradnna Morplicns)

We select as our type of this family the Mottled Rustic— a
common moth that may be procured from June to August. Its
fore wings are brownish grey, with
darker lines and spots ; the hind wings
are almost white, but darker at the tip.

The caterpillar is brownish grey, with

a row of triangular spots on each side of

the back. It is very sluggish, spending

the greater part of its existence among y, ., . , .,, ,,
, " „\ , ^ „ _ , ,^ Fig. 1.j4. — Ihk Mottled

the roots of low plants. It feeds through- IIustic.

out the winter, except during severe

weather, and is full grown in April. The food plants include teasels

{Dii)sacus jii^osus andi). sijlvestris), hedge bedstraw {GaUum Mol-

lugo), orpine (Sedum Telej^hium), sallows (Salix), and various

other plants.

The chrysalis may be dug out in ]\Iay.

Family— NocTUiD.E

A glance at our list of British Noctuie (Appendix I) will show-
that this family contains nearly fifty species and only three genera.
It includes several very common moths that frequent our gardens
and are to be met with during almost every summer evening
ramble.

Most of the species are very dingy, but the half-dozen that
comprise the genus Trijihcsna are characterised by the bright
coloiu-ing of the hind wings. The fore wings are narrow and more
or less glossy, and overlap to a greater or less extent when the
insects are at rest ; and the hind wings are folded and completely
hidden beneath them.

The larvae are rather thick and smooth, and generally of very
dingy colours. They feed on low plants, often confining their
ravages to the roots, and generally lie well concealed close to the
gromid or under the surface.

250 COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

The pupa3 are brown, smooth, and shining, and are usually
inclosed in earthen cocoons.

We shall briefly notice a few members of each of the three
genera.

The Tumi]) Moth {Agrotis Scgcfnm)

This is another of those destructive insects that attack vegetable
and flower gardens, often doing so nuxcli damage to our crops as to
become quite a nuisance to cultivators.

The moth is decidedly dingy. Its fore wings are brown, clouded
with a darker tint. The hind wings are almost white, sometimes
with a brown hind margin.

In June it lays its eggs on the stems of young plants, generally
very close to the ground. As soon as the young caterpillars emerge

they commence feeding on the
lower parts of the stems, or burrow-
ing deeply into the larger succulent
roots. When the larvie have com-
': ■' pleted their work of destruction in

*'=«»»«.. s,:- v,:,>^s^ this way, they change to brown

chrysalides in the ground. Some
Fig. 155.— The Tuenip Moth, undergo this change in October, and

shortly after give rise to a second
brood of moths ; but most of them remain in the caterpillar state
throughout the winter, and, contrary to the general rule with
hybernating larvte, continue to feed almost tliroughout the winter
months, and change to the chrysalis in the following May.

The caterpillar grows to a large size. It is of a greyish or
greenish colour, with a paler line on the back, a light brown line
on each side of this, black spots between these lines, and black
spiracles.

TItc Heart and Dart {Agrotis Exclamation is)

The destructive work of Scgetum is assisted by similar opera-
tions of the Heart and Dart, the larva of which feeds voraciously
on the roots of several of our cultivated vegetables, though
the present species does not entirely confine its ravages to the
farmer's crops, but attacks the roots of many low-growing herbs.

The fore wings of the moth are light brown, generally with
a reddish tinge. The darker markings include a large and very

THE NOCTILE S5l

distinct reniform spot, a less distinct orbicular, and a conspicuous
longitudinal blackish streak near the base of the wing known as the
clavifornt. Beyond the renitorm
a curved and zigzag dark Ime

crosses the wing. The hind wings ^^fe^,^ ), /^^ -""^^^

of the male are very pale, those
of the female darker, with a whitisli
li'inge. _ y , y ^^,^

The moth flies from June to '^^^—' t:;"',^;

August, and is common every-
where. The caterpillar feeds in pj,._ i,3(;.__ jhi. Heart and
the autumn, and reaches its full Dart.

size in October ; but it is said to

feed at intervals throughout the winter. Its colour is dingy brown
or grey, with paler lines on the sides. The spiracles arc black, and
there are black dots on the sides.

The Garden Dart {Agrotib iii/jricans)

This is another dingy moth, whose general appearance is so
Tinattractive that the tyro might be inclined to neglect it. But it
must not be omitted from our selection on that score, for our main
object here is to give the beginner
an acij^uaintance with those species
tliat are most likely to be captured
in the earlier part of his career, and
this moth is certainly one of those
tliat may be described as ' abundant
everywhere.'

Its fore wings are dull dark brown,
often tinged with red, and clouded Fi'-- 157. -The Gaehen Dart.
with black. The reniform spot is

pale, the orbicular spot less distinct, and between the two there is
generally a rhomboidal dark s])ot. There is also a short dark streak
near the base of the wing, and a black spot before the orbicular.
The hind wings are pale, but smoky towards the hind margin.

The caterpillar is brown and shining, with a fine pale line on
the back, and a double white stripe below the spiracles. It is also
dotted with black. It is exceedingly destructive, feeding on clovers
{Trifolimn 2}'>'atense and T. repcns) and various low plants in May
and June.

The moth flies froui Jime to August.

252

COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

Fig. 158 —The Flame
Shoulder.

The Flame Shoulder (Noctua i)lecta)

As our example of the next genus we take the Flame
Shoulder, a rather small moth, easily identified by the broad
yellowish-white streak along the costa of the reddish-brown fore
wings. The orbicular and reniform spots
are margined with wliite, and a thin white
streak runs from the base of the wing to
the former. The hind wings are white.
This moth flies in July, and is common
throughout Great Britain.

The caterpillar is reddish brown, with
a slender line of white dots on the back,
and a similar line on each side. The body
is smooth and velvety, and is netted and dotted all over with dark
brown. It feeds on the lady's bedstraw (Galium verum), sweet
woodruff {Aspcviila, odorata), and many other low plants ; and
is full fed early in July.

The Lesser Broad Border (Trijyhcena ianthina)

We now come to the third and last genus {Triphana) of this
extensive family, a genus which includes six interesting moths,
with bright orange or yellow hind wings. Of these we shall take
three examples.

The first of them — the Lesser Broad Border — has fore wings of
a rich reddish or violet brown, with paler markings. The hind

wings are bright orange, with a
broad marginal band of black.

It is a common moth, particu-
larly in the south-western counties,
and flies during July and August.

The caterpillar is of a dingy yel-
lowish or greenish grey, with a light
line down the back, and two black
spots on each side of segments nine
to twelve inclusive. It feeds through-
out the winter by night on dead nettles [Lamium purpurcum and
L. album), primrose {Primula acaulis), whitethorn {Cratcrciiis
oxyacantha), blackthorn {Prunus spmosa), and various low plants;
and may sometimes be seen in flower gardens. It is full grown
in April.

-The Lesser Broad
Border.

THE NOCTUM 253

The Lesser YcUow Utulerwing {Triplurna Comes)

This insect is very similar to tlie last, but is lai-f^er. The
fore wings are also of a greyish or ochreous brown, and the black
margin of the hind wings is propor-
tionately narrower. \ /"

It is more abundant than Ian- j; ^i-*- . ' -,' ■

til ilia; in fact it is to be found '; ';;- ^- -J--
every where in plenty- during the '^-
month of July.

The caterpillar is yellowish
brown. On the back of each of
the eleventh and twelfth segments Fn;. 100.— The Lesser

are two conspicuous dark marks. Yellow Undeewing.

The spiracles are white, and below

them is a pale brown stripe. It feeds on the foxglove (Digitalis
inirpiirea), chickweed {Stellaria media), thrift (Arinerict maritima),
and other low plants in the autumn, hj'bernates during the winter,
and attacks sallows {Salix Caprea and S. cinerea) and whitethorn
{CratcEgus oxyacantlia) as soon as the buds appear in the spring.
It is full grown in April, and then changes to a chrysalis on the
svn-face of the earth.

The Large Yellow Underwing {Triphana Promiha)

This is by far the commonest moth of the genus, and may be
found everywhere, in town and countrjs from June to August. It
is represented on Plate XI (fig. 1), but its fore wings are very vari-
able, sometimes a cold dingj' grey, but often of an exceedingly rich
and warm brown. On the costal margin, not far from the tip, there
is always a small black spot, which will serve to distinguish it from
Comes.

The caterpillar (fig, 21) feeds throughout the winter on the roots
of almost every plant in our gardens ; and, during the warmer
weather of the autumn and spring, on stems and leaves. It is full
grown early in the sinnmer, and then changes to a chrysalis in the
ground. Its colour is dirty yellowish or greenish grey, with a row
of dark spots on each side,

254

COMMON BBITISH MOTHS

Family — Amphipvp.idte
The Gotliic [Mania tijpica)

The above fiiniily contains only four British species, two of
which we shall briefly consider.

The first of these is the Gothic— a very common moth that may
be seen everywhere abont midsummer. Its fore wind's are brown

with darker marblings, and
there are numerous lighter
markings which may be easily
made out by reference to the
accompanying woodcut.

The caterpillar is smooth
and velvety, of a dull brown or
greenish colour, with darker
dorsal and side stripes. The
latter are crossed oblirjuely by
a series of whitish lines. It
feeds on fruit and other trees
in clusters when very young in early autumn, and afterwards
descends and feeds on low plants. It hybernates in the winter, and
feeds again on low plants in the spring. When full grown it bur-
rows into the soil to undergo its changes.

Fig. IGl. — The Gothic.

The Old Lady {Mania Maura)

This fine moth is so very different from the last in appearance

that the reason
for placing the two
in the same genus
is not apparent
till the eai'lier
stages and life his-
tory have been
studied. All its
wings are very
deep brown ; the
front pair has a
darker band con-
taining the oi'bicu-

lar and reniform spots, and the hind pair a lighter band across the

middle.

Fig. 162.— The Old Lady.

THE NOCTU^ 255

It is a common moth, often to be found at rest by daj' in oiit-
honses and sheds. It Hies in Jul}- and August.

The caterpillar is dark purple or umber brown, with darker and
lighter markings. It feeds in the autumn on fniit trees, and
hybernates during the winter. In the spring it feeds again on low
plants, and changes to a chrysalis in May under the ground.

Family — Orthosiid.e

This is a large family of over thirty species, most of them of
rather small size, which make their appearance, with two exceptions,
either in early spring or in late autumn, often attracted in the former
season by the sallow blossom, and in the latter by ivy bloom.

Several of them are very common insects, that are almost sure
to be taken by a young collector during his first season.

The fore wings of these moths are more or less pointed at the
tip, and the usual lines and spots are generally distinct. The males
may be distinguished from the females by their antennfe, which are
always more or less ciliated.

The caterpillars are smooth and velvet^-, and feed by night ; and
the pupte are inclosed in cocoons constructed of earth and silk.

TJie Common Qualer [TcrniocamjM stahills)

Several of the species of the family are known popularly as
Quakers, the connuonest of which — Sfabilis — is abundant in all
parts.

Its fore wings are grey, with generally either an ochreous or
reddish tinge. The orbicular and
reniform spots are outlined with
a paler colour, and there is a pale
transverse line parallel with the
hind margin, outside which is a row
of indistinct black spots. The hind
wings are greyish brown.

The caterpillar is green and Fin. 1G3. — The Common

velvety, with a yellowish line on Quakee.

the back and on each side ; and a

yellow band crosses the back of the twelfth segment transversely.
It feeds during June and July on oak {Que reus Eohur) and elm
{Ulmus cam2}estris), and changes to a chrysalis in August on the
surface of the ground. In this state it remains throughout the
winter, and the moth emerges in March or April.

2J(j

COMMON BBITISH MOTHS

Fk;. I(i4. Tjie Chestnut.

The Chestnut {Cerastis Vaccinii)

Unfortunately our space will not allow us to notice the wliole of
even the very common moths, so, passing over a few with great re-
luctance, we come to the familiar Chestnut, which may be seen at
large in October and November, and sometimes even in December,
^ and again appears, after a rather short

period of hybernation, in February
and Marcli.

The fore wings are reddish brown,
with darker wavy lines. The orbicular
and reniform spots have pale outlines,
and the lower half of the latter is very
dark grey. The hind wings are smoky
grey, with generally a pale band beyond the middle.

The caterpillar is dark brown, with very indistinct lighter lines
The spiracles are black, and inclosed in a yellowish grey stripe. It
feeds during June and July on the elm {Ulmiis camjjestris), oak
{Quercus Bohur), and sallow {Salix cajyrea), and various low
j)lants.

The Pink-barred Salloiv (Xanthia Flavago)

This moth is not nearly so common as the preceding species,
but has been taken more or less in all parts of England.

Its fore wings are orange yellow,
with purplish markings arranged as
represented in fig. 105. The hind
wings are yellowisli white.

The caterpillar is brown, with a
lateral stripe formed by numerous red,
yellow and white dots. It feeds on
sallow {Salix caprea) and various low
plants.
It is full grown in June, and tlie uiotli appears in September.

Family— CosMiiD.E
The Diin-har {Cahjmnia trapezina)

Our example of this family is the Dun-bar, common everywhere
during July and August.

Its fore wings are gi-eyish ochreous, witli a darker band across
the middle, On each sxde of this band is a white line margined with

Fio. 1G5. -Thk Pink-
barred Sallow.

THE NOCTU.^

2.37

dark grey, and there is a row of black spots along the hind margin.
The hind wings are smok}- brown, becoming paler towards the base.
The caterpillar feeds on oak {Quercus Rohar), hornbeam {Car-
jnnus Betulus), and birch {Betula alba),

and may be found in abundance during "T"^ ' '-"^

May and June. It is green, with dark
spots, and white lines on the back and
sides. Although it partakes of the leaves
of the above-named trees, yet its chief
food seems to be other caterpillars, for it
devours these with a savage greediness
that is simply astonishing. It will chase

an unfortunate caterpillar, seize it by the neck with a fatal grip,
and rapidly devour it. Its chief prey seems to be the larva of the
Winter Moth {Brumata).

Fig. lOG.— The Dun-
bar.

Family — Hadenid.e

Xearh' fifty British Noctiite are included in the family
Hadenidce. They are of variable dimensions, and differ much in
the brightness of their colours, some being very dingy, and others
gaily tmted. Their antennae are rather long ; and when at rest
the wings slope from the back like the sides of a roof.

The larvie are smooth, and not very thick ; and there is some-
times a hump on the twelfth segment. The pupae are brown and
shiny, and are inclosed in earthen cocoons beneath the surface of
the soil.

Tlic Broad-barred Wlute {Hccatcra sercna)

Although not gaily coloured, this is a pretty little moth, there
being a bright contrast between the white ground and tne grey
markings of the wings. It is common ^

in the south of England, and seems to
be plentiful in and around London.

The caterpillar is of a dingy greenish
colour, with a yellowish stripe on each
side of the back ; and there are two dis-
tinct dots on the back of each segment.
It feeds during July and August on sow-
thistles {Sonclius oleraceus and S. arven-
sis), sleepwort (Lactuca virosa), and hawkweeds {Hicracia)

The moth flies in June and July.

Fic

167.- The Beoad-
B.\RRED White.

258

COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

The Marvel-du-jour {Agrlopis Aprilina)

The Marvel-du-jotir is tlecidedly a beautiful moth — quite an ex-
ception among the Noctuce in this respect, and it is withal both
common and widely distributed. "We need not describe it, since it
is represented on Plate XI (iig. 2), and can hardly be mistaken for
any other species.

The caterpillar is dull green, often tinged with red. The dorsal
line is broad and dark, and interrupted by a series of very light
lozenge-shaped spots. It feeds on the oak in May and Jime, and is
full grown in the latter month. It then burrows into the earth at
the foot of the tree, and there constructs a fragile earthen cocoon
previous to changing to a chrysalis.

From July to September the chrysalides may be obtained in
plenty by breaking up the sods at the roots of oaks, and the perfect
insect may be found toward the end of September and throughout
October.

Tlie Small Angle Shades {Euplexia litci])ara)

This pretty little moth is represented in fig, 3 of Plate XI. It
is very common throughout the country, and ma^' be seen in June
and July.

The caterpillar is thickest on the twelfth segment, and gradually
tapers from this towards the head. Its colour is pale green, with a
white stripe just below the spiracles, which are black. On each
side of the back are a number of oblique lines, which meet in the
middle line, thus forming a series of v-shaped marks pointing
towards the tail. It feeds on the common bracken fern (Fteris
aquilina) ,io\g\o\e [Dicjitalii: purpurea), and the male fern [Lastraa
Filix-maa), in August and September.

The Angle Shadci

{Phlogophora Meti-

ciilosa)

This moth is so com-
mon and so widely dis-
tributed that it is almost
sure to be taken by the
young collector diu-ing
his first season. Its wings
are scalloped on the hind margin, and their colour light ochreous,
often tinged witli pink or o]i\e green, and marked with dark

Fig. 168. _The Angle Sh.vdf.s.

THE NOCTURE

259

brown as shown in the iUustration. It is double broodeLl, the lirst
brood appearing in May and June, and the second in September
and October.

The caterpillar is green or olive brown, and thickly covered
with white spots. It feeds on gi-oundsel {Senecio vuhjaris) and
many other low plants, the first brood throughout the winter from
November to April, and the second in July and August.

'5^-

Tlie Grey Arches {Aplecta nehulosa)

The fore wings of this moth vary from greyish white to a rather
dark smoky tint. The markings are of a darker colour, and are
also subject to considerable variation. The orbicular and reniform
spots are large, and paler than the gi-ound colour ; and several zig-
zag or scalloped hnes,
more or less distinct,
cross the wings trans-
^■ersel3■.

The larva is brown,
with a lighter line down
the back. On each of the
segments five to eleven
is a dark lozenge- shaped
spot, bisected by the
dorsal line ; and on the

second segment is a shining plate and a triangular njark. It feeds
on the dock {Riuitcx), and various other low plants during the
autumn; and, after its hybernation, on the leaves of the sallow
{Saliu; Caprea), birch {Bctula alba), and whitethorn (Cratccr/us
oxyacantha). It is fuU grown in May, when it burrows into the
ground to imdergo its metamorphoses.

The moth Hies during June and July, and is connnon in nearlj^
every part of Great Britain. Large numbers may be obtained by
searching fences and tree trimks about midsummer.

Fig. 160.— Thk (tkky Akches.

The Shears {Hadena dentina)

The Sheailj is another very common moth of the same family.
The ground colour of the fore wings is very variable, but is gene-
rally a lighter or darker shade of grey. Sometimes, however, it
has a very decided brownish tinge. Aci'oss the centre of the wing

260

COMMON BBITISH MOTHS

is a darker band, ^\ ider on the costal side, containing the orbicular
and renifonn spots, as well as a light patch beneath them, and bor-
dered on each side by a pale zigzag
line. There is another similar line
near to and parallel with the hind
margin. The hind wings are smoky
grey or smoky brown, darker towards
the hind margin.

The caterpillar is greyish, and has

a series of triangular black spots along

each side of the back. It feeds on the roots of the dandelion

{Taraxacum officluaJe), and changes to a peculiar spiny chrysalis.

The perfect insect appears to be abundant everywhere, and is

on the wing in June and July.

Fig. 170.— The Sheaks.

The Bi'i(j]it-U)ie Brown-eye {Hadena oleracca)

Every collector is sure to meet with this insect during his first
season. The moth is abundant everywhere in June, the caterpillar
may be found feeding in almost every waste and weed\' spot in
August and September, and the chrysalis is certain to be tm'ned
over by the pupa digger.

The fore wings of the perfect insect are reddish brown. The
orbicular spot is usually very indis-
tinct, being of almost exactly the
same tint as the ground colom% and
surrounded by a very fine whitish
hne. The reniform is generally
more conspicirous, a portion of it
being of a light ochreous colour.
Near the hind margin, and parallel
with it, is a white line, bent
shai'ply into the form of a W, just
on the anal side of the middle.

The hind wings are greyish brown in the base, and dark smoke
colour towards the margin.

The caterpillar is pale green or brown, dotted \\ith both black
and white, and adorned with a bright yellow line just below the
spiracles. It feeds on the nettle (Urtica dioica), dock {Bumex),
and many other low plants ; and, according to some observers, on
therein! [Ulmiis caDipeatris).

Fi.

171. — The Bright-line
Browx-eye.

THE NOCTU.^ 261

Family — Xylixid-E

The next tami]}? — XijUnidte — contains twenty Britisli species,
several of which are local, bnt two or three are abundant and
widely distributed.

The transverse lines that so often cross the wings of the Noctiuc
are nearly or entirely absent in this family, and longitudinal line.:;
take their place. When the insects are at rest the wings are folded
rather closely, the outer pair being arranged like a roof with n- very
gentle slope. The bodies of the perfect insects are very stout,
particularly in the thorax, and thus present a rather powerful
appearance.

The larvte are smooth, and generally brightly colot;red, and
feed principally on low plants. The chrj'salides are generally
inclosed in cocoons on or beneath the ground, and are often pro-
vided with spines or bristles on the under side.

AVe shall select two members of this familw

TJte Earhj Grey (Xijlocaiiqni Areola)

One of the first of the Noctua: to greet us in the spring is the
Early Grey, which may be found resting on fences in April, and,
if the season is mild, in March.

Its fore wings are light grey, often
tinged with rose pink, and marked
with dark grey. The orbicular and
reniforni spots are very distmct, and
surrounded by a pale line ; the3- are
both united at their lower edges. Along
the hind margin is a series of dark
spots. The hind wmgs are pale yel- Fi'-- 172 —The Eakly Grky.
lowish grey, with a darker central

spot, a central transverse darker line, and a dnrker line along the
hind margin.

The caterpillar is yellowish grey. The dorsal line is lighter,
and passes through a brownish spot on the eighth segment. It
feeds on the honeysuckle {Lonicera Pcrichjmenum) in July and
August, being fuU grown towards the end of the latter month.

The SJiark {CucuUia umhralica)

The Shark is a very common moth, to be found everywhere on
palings in June, but the colour of its wings so closely- resembles

2C2

COMMON BBITISH MOTHS

that of oak and other light-wood fences that detection is not so
easy as with most other moths.

The fore wings are grey, and marked with longitudinal dark
lines, the principal of which is a line from the middle of the base

to about the centre of
the wing. The wing
rays are also darker
than the ground
colour. The hind
wings are greyish
white or brownish
grey.

The caterpillar is
very dark brown, with
orange spots on the
back and along the
spiracles. It feeds on
sow-thistles {Sonclius oleraceiis, 8. paluHfris, and S. arvensis) and
sleepwort (Lacfuca vlrosa) at night from Jiily to September, and
hides during the daytime among the leaves that lie close against
the ground. When disturbed it does not roll into a ring or feign
death like many others of its kind, but wriggles about most vigor-
ously as if to repel its foe.

Fig. 173.— The Shark.

Family — Gonopterid.e
The Hcrahl Moth {Go}io]jfera Libairix)

The above-mentioned family is so called on account of the
angular margins of the wings, especially the fore pair. It contains
only one British species, the Herald (Plate XII, fig. 1), a moth
that is common everywhere in August and September. It hj-ber-
nates in the perfect state, and the hybernated specimens may be
seen in the spring time, from March up to the end of IMaj' or the
beginning of June.

Its fore wings are reddish grey, thickly spotted and streaked
with brown. Transverse whitish lines divide the base into three
parts of nearly equal widths. The basal and central divisions are
tinged with orange ; and there is a small white spot in the base
close to the thorax, also another near the centre of the wing. The
hind wings are brownish grev.

THE NOCTUM 263

The caterpillar is green and velvety, with a whitish stripe on
the side, and yellow spiracles. It feeds on willow {Salix alba)
and sallow [Salix caprea) ; and when full grown, about the end
of June, it spins a white silken cocoon between leaves of its tree,
and changes to a very dark chrysalis.

Family— Plusiid.e

The most peculiar feature of the moths of this family is the
tufts of hair that stand up perpendicularly' on the top of the thorax.
The abdomen also is rested, and the fore wings of several species
have smooth patches that display a brilliant metallic lustre.

Most of the larvae maj' be described as semi-loopers, for their
claspers number only three pairs, and when they walk their backs
are considerably humped, somewhat after the fashion of the Geo-
metv(P. Some of them further imitate the Geometrce in their
position of rest, holding on by their claspers only, with body
straightened out at an angle with the leaf or twig on which they
support themselves.

Unlike the majority of the Noctncr, they do not descend to the
ground when about to change, but spin a silken cocoon among the
food plants,

Tlie Bnrnii^lied Brass [Phisia, CJirijsltis)

One of the commonest of the Plusiidcc is the Burnished Brass,
so called on account of the large patches of bright golden green on
the fore wings. The hind margin of these wings is very gracefully
curved, and bordered with brown. A
brown blotch fills the base of the wing,
and the remaining area is of a beautiful
metallic greenish yellow, broken by
two large brown blotches, one on the
costal and the other on the inner mar-
gin, which closely approach each other
and sometimes meet. Fig. 174. — The Burnished

This motli is very common every- Brass.

where, and is one of the frequent
visitors to oiu' flower gardens from June to August.

The caterpillar is thickest at the twelfth segment, and tapers
from this point. Its colour is pale green. It has no longitudinal
stripes on the back, but each segment is adorned with four or six

264

COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

oblique white marks. Just above the spiracles is a white stripe.
It feeds on the dead nettle {Laviiam album), stinging nettle
(TJrtica dioica), and burdock {Arctimn minus), and is full grown
in June.

The Silver Y (Plnsici Gamma)

Our second example of this family is the Silver Y, which may
be found in abundance everywhere from June to October. Its fore
wings are of a shiny grey colour, beautifully marbled with a rich
dark brown ; and just below the orbicular spot is a brilliant silvery
spot, in form something like the Greek letter y placed obliquely.

The base of the hind wings is
gi'ey ; along the margin is a
broad and dark smoky brown
band, and the fringe is ^•ery
lighi grey, barred with the darl:
tint of the band. This moth is
commonly driven out of its
hiding places among low plants
as we walk in waste places, and
when thiis disturbed it takes a
short and rapid flight, generally disappearing so suddenly among
the herbage that it is difficult to locale it correctly.

The caterpillar is thickest at the twelfth segment, and tapers
gradually from this point towards the head. Its bod^' is green,
with several thin longitudinal white stripes, and a thin yellow
stripe along the spiracles. It may be found from June to October,
feeding on many kinds of low plants.

Fig, 175.— The Silver Y.

Family— EucLiDiiDTi':

The Mother Shipton {EueUdia Mi)

Passing over a few small and less important families, we come
to the Euclidiidcc, which contains only two British moths. One
of these is the Mother Shipton, a very common insect that flies in
June.

The fore wings of this species are very dark brown with whitish
markings. The latter include a peculiarly tortuous line, the character
of which will be made out more easily from our illustration (Plate
XI, fig. 4) than from a written description. The hind wings are

THE NOCTUA^ 265

also very dark brown, and rather prettily spotted with an ochreons
tint. ,

The caterpillar is pale grey, with four white stripes, and has
only three pairs of claspers. It feeds in May on clovers {Trifolinm
2)ratense and T. repens) and other plants.

Family — Catocalid.e

This family contains only four British species, but these few are
very striking moths. They are of large size ; and, unlike the
Noctuce generally, the chief adornment is reserved for the under
wings. When at rest, the outer or fore wings completely hide the
other pair, and then their general appearance is dull, though if
closely examined it will be observed that these oiiter wings are
really beautifully marbled with shades of grej-.

The caterpillars of this family are very peculiar creatures. Their
bodies are convex above and flattened beneath ; and if disturbed
as they rest on the bark of a tree, instead of leaving their hold and
rolling into a ring like so many other larvae of Noctucp, they apply
themselves the closer, and hold on as if to defy our attempts to
remove them. x\nother peculiarity of these larvae is the possession
of fleshy projections along the sides, just above the legs. They feed
on the leaves of trees, and when about to rest they descend to the
trunk, and there remain protected by their imitative colouring,
detection being rendered even more difficult by the close application
of their flattened under surface to the bai'k. Before changing
to the chrysalis state, they spin a light cocoon among the leaves or
an the bark.

The CJifden NonpareU [Catocala Fraxini)

This is the largest of the family, and, indeed, of all British
Noctiicr. The fore wings and thorax are light grey, dotted and
marbled with darker grey (see fig. 5, Plate XI) ; and the thorax
and abdomen are banded with black and grej'ish blue.

The young entomologist can hardly expect to meet with this fine
insect, for it is very rare, and it is only occasionally that a specimen
is seen in Britain ; but its characteristics are so strikmg that we have
endeavoured to find it a place here. Pieputed British specimens of
Fraxini command the price of a few pounds each, but specimens
fi'om the other side of the Channel may be obtained for a few pence.
Witli such rarities we should advise a young entomologist to purchase

26G

COMMON BIUTISH MOTHS

the foreign specimen rather than adopt the two other alternatives —
give an exorbitant price for a supposed Britisher, or else remain a
stranger to the gem, but all foreign specimens should be labelled
according to their nationalities.

TJw Red Undcrwing {Catocala Nupta)

The other three members of the family are verj' similar in
appearance, the fore whigs of all being marbled with shades of
grej', relieved by touches of black and brown ; and the hind wings,
red or crimson, give the popular names to the species.

The Red Underwing flies in August and September, and is
common in the southern counties of England, as well as in some

Fig. 176. — The Eed Underwing.

of the midland counties ; it may be often seen flying by day
around willows.

The caterpillar is similar in form to that o{ Fraxini, and when
at rest by day on the bark of its tree it is very difficult to detect, so
closely does it apply itself to the surface, and so perfectly does it
imitate the colour of its surroundings. It feeds on the crack willow
{Salix fragilis), sallow (S. aJha), poplar (Pojniluf:), and plum
{Priouifi), and is full grown in June.

The Darl- Crimson Underwing (Catocala Sj>07isa)

This beautiful insect is represented on Plate XI (fig. 6). It w\]\
be observed that the black band crossing the centre of the hind
wing is rather broad and sharply bent — an important feature, since
it is the most serviceable distinguishing mark between this species
and the Light Crimson Underwing {C. Promissa).

THE XOCTILE 2G7

The caterpillai' is similar in i'orin and habits to those of Fraxini
and Nupta, and feeds on the oak. It is full fed abont the beginning
of Jime, when it changes to a chrysaHs between leaves which it has
si^un together with silk.

The moth flies in July and August, and is common only in
certain oak woods of the southern coi;nties. It is particularly-
abiTndant in the New Forest, where scores may be taken in a
single night by judicious sugaring.

There yet remain a few small families of the NocUkt, but we
must leave them in order that we may give a proportionate share
of our space to the other great division of the larger moths — the
Geumetrce,

268 COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

CHAPTER XX

GEOAIETR.^J

We have already referred (page 28) to caterpillars that Avalk by a
series of strides, alternately looping and extending their long and
slender bodies. It is this i^eculiar characteristic of the larvae of
the present division that suggested the name Geometrce — a term
that signifies ' earth-measurers,' for they appear to measure the
ground over which they travel in terms of their own length. AYe
have also dealt with the peculiarities of structure in the case of
these caterpillars — peculiarities which adapt them to this mode of
progression ; and we have now to make a selection from the various
families of this important division for a more detailed description.
The Geometrce. include nearly three hundred species and six-
teen families. The moths have slender bodies and full wings, and
generally rest with the latter outspread. A few, however, repose
with wings erect Hke the butterflies, and a small number conceal
their hind wings after the manner of the Noctua\

Family — Uropteeygid.t:
The Sicalloiu Tail {Uropterijx samhucayin)

Our first family' — Uroj^ferygidce — has only one British represen-
tative, and that is the well-known Swallow Tail, so common in gar-
dens and among hedgerows in the south of England. This species
is shown on Plate XII (fig. 2), and the insect is so readily identified
by the conspicuous ' tails ' on the hind wings that no written de-
scription will be necessary.

The caterpillar is a most peculiar and interesting creature. Its
coloiu' is very variable, being either brown, olive, ochreous, or red-
dish ; and it is notched or humped in such a manner that it exactly
resembles a twig. This strange imitation is rendered still more re-

GEOMETRY 269

markable by the attitude assumed by the caterpillar \\hen at rest.
It fixes itself to a twig by means of its two pairs of claspers, with
its body standing out at an angle in a perfectly straight posture ;
liut its head is always supported by means of a very slender and
almost invisible sillv fibre. It feeds on a number of plants and trees,
including elder {Saiitbiicus nujra), blackthorn {Fritmis spinosa),
whitethorn [Craiiegus oxyacantlia), bramble {Ruhus fruticosus),
honeysuckle (Lonicera Pericly)nenuiii), and forget-me-not {Myo-
sotis arvcnsis). It maj^ be found feeding in the autumn, or hyber-
nating in the crevices of the bark of trees in winter. In April or
May it comes out again ; and in June, in which month it is full
grown, it binds together some fragments of leaves, and forms
them into a little swinging hammock in wliich it changes to a brown
chrysalis spotted with black.

Just at this time it seems to be particularly sensitive. In the
caterpillar state it will strongly resent an^- kind of disturbance,
and will give a blow to an intruder by suddenly staying its
body right and left ; and while in its hammock a gentle irritation,
such as a puff of wind from the mouth, \\ill set it wriggling in a
furious manner.

Family— Ennomld.*;

This family contains about twenty species, several of which rank
among the commonest as well as the most beautiful of tke Gco-
mctrce. Their wings are more or less angulated ; and the antenna'
are generall}- pectinated in the males.

The larvae are generally humped and twig-like ; and, as in the
last species, the semblance is increased by the position they assume
when at rest. The mnuber of limbs varies from ten to fourteen, but
where the claspers exceed two pairs, the additional two or four, as
the case may be, are seldom used in walking.

TJte Brliimtone Moth {Rumia luteolatu)

As soon as the warm evenings of May set in, this lively and
bright little moth may be seen flitting about among our hedges at
sunset ; and it continues with us throughout the whole of the sum-
mer, but is particularly plentiful during the month of June.

The moth itself need not be described, since it is shown on Plate
XII (fig. 3) ; but the caterpillar (fig. 25) nuist receive a passing
notice. It varies considerably in colour, being either green, brown,

270

COMMON BIUTISH MOTHS

or marbled with a luixtiire of shades of both these colours. It has
a hump on the back of the seventh segment, and two more on the
ninth, and possesses four pairs of claspers. It feeds on whitethorn
{Cratcegiis oxyacantha), blackthorn (Prunus spiiiosa), and the
apple (Pyrus Mains), and may be found on these trees throughout
the summer.

Some believe that there are three successive broods of this insect
each year, but it is doubtful whether this is invariably the rule, since
both the moth and its larva are to be found without intermission
throughout the season.

The Light Emerald {Metrocampa viargavitaria)

All the wings of this moth are very pale green, and crossed with
a white band which is bordered with a darker green on the inner
side. The fore wings have an additional transverse line just half-
way between the former and the base,
but this one is not so distinct. It
Hies in July, and is very widely dis-
tributed, and in some parts is very
abundant.

The caterpillar feeds in September,
and again in May, after hybernation,
on several of our forest trees, includ-
ing the oak (Quercus Bobar), elm
{Ulmas cajjijK'stria), birch (Bctnla
aJba), and beech [Fag us sglvaiica). It is of a dingj olive colour,
with a dark dorsal line, on each side of which is a row of white
spots ; and it has three pairs of claspers.

The SeaJlopecl Oalx [CroealUs elingaaria)

This species is common and widely distributed, and may be seen
flying at dusk towards the end of July and throughout August. It
is represented in fig. 4 of Plate XII. The antennte of the male are
strongly pectinated ; those of the female are simple.

The caterpillar may be found in the autumn, and again in
spring, feeding on the honeysuckle {Lonicera Periclymenum),
whitethorn [Crcdcrgus oxyacantha), blackthorn {Primus spinosa),
beech (Fagiis sylvatica), and various fruit trees. It is full grown
in June, when it turns to a chrysalis in a cocoon spun between
leaves or moss on or near the ground. It is of a greyish-brnwn or
greyisli-piu'ple colour, and looks very like a piece of twig.

Fio.

]77. The Light

GEOMETR.E 271

The Au(just TJiorn [Eugonia qiicrcinaria)

Our last example of this family is the August Thorn, repre-
sented in the accompanying woodcut. The fore wings are ochre-
ous yellow, crossed by two nearly parallel lines of dark brown.
In order to distinguish between this and cflie or two similar species
it must be observed that both these
lines are angulated near the costa,
the inner one very shai'ply so ; and
between the two is a distinct brown
spot near the costal margin. The
hind wings are paler, and are crossed /

b} an indistinct darker line. The '"sy- --r^

antennte of the male are strongly Fig. 178. The August

fringed ; those of the female are Thoen.

simple.

The moth is very common in August and September, and is
readily attracted by lights in the e^■ening.

The larva is grej', marbled with reddish brown. It has three
small humps on each of the sixth and seventh segments, two on
the twelfth, and one larger one on the ninth. It feeds on the oak
and various other trees during the month of June.

Family — Amfhidasyd^

The seven British species of the family AmphidasydcE are
generally to be distinguished by theu' rather stout abdomens, and
the long shaggy hair that covers their thoraces. The antenna; of
the males are pectinated, and those of the females simple ; and in
three cases the latter sex is wingless.

The caterpillars have long and slender twig-like bodies, and are
never provided with more than two pairs of claspers. The chrysa-
lides terminate behind in a sharp spine, and are always to be found
buried in the soil.

The Brindled Beautij {Biston liirtaria)

Early in April, and sometimes in March, this moth may be seen
in abundance, resting on the liiue trees in and around our towns.
In fact, so strongly marked is its partiality to the haunts of man in
the neighbourhood of our great metropolis that it has received the
name of the Cockney. The male is represented in tig. 5 of

272 COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

Plate XII, and the female may be distinguished from it by her
simple antennae and larger body.

The caterpillar is coloured with alternate bands of dark purple
brown and reddish brown. There is a yellow band on the front of
the second segment, a row of yellow spots on each side, and two
little bright yellow warts on the back of each segment. It feeds by
night on lime {Tilia vulgaris), elna (Ulmiis cawpestris), and
various fruit trees, and often appears in such numbers that the
foliage is almost completely devom'ed. During the daytime it may
be seen resting on the bark, almost invariably fixed longitudinally
on the trunk, where it looks like a natural ridge of the bark which
it so closely resembles in colour. It may be found in June and
July, and in August it changes to a chrysalis at the foot of its tree,
just below the surface of the soil.

Tlic Piqrpered Moth {Amphidasys hetularia)

Although this connnon species displays no bright tints, yet it is
prettih- marked, its whitish wings being pej^pered and blotched all
over with black or very dark brown. It flies in Maj- and June,

later than anj' other species
of the famil}', and may gene-
rally be found on fences and
tree trunks during the day.
The colour of the cater-
pillar is very variable — drab,
grey, green, or brown ; but
it may be known by the
Tiu 17<» T.iL Pun Ri I. ]\r<.iH. deep notch in the middle of

the head, and the arrange-
ment of iis ' humps.' These latter are only small reddish or whitish
projections, of which there is one on each side of the fifth, sixth,
seventh, eighth, tenth, and eleventh segments; also two on the
back of the ninth and twelfth. It feeds in August and September
on a large niimber of trees, including, in fact, nearly all our com-
monest forest and fruit trees. In Sei^tember it enters the soil to
undergo its change to the chrysalis.

Family— BoARMiiD.'E

In the next family — BoarDiiidce — there are aliout twenty Eritisli
members, most of which are very pretty moths. They differ
generally from the last family in that their bodies are more slender,

GEOMETB.E

273

and althoiigli some of them bear a resemblance to species of the
family Ennomidcc, their wings are not angnlated. In several
cases the fore and hind wings are both similarly marked, a feature
very imcommon with moths.

The caterpillars of this family usually have humps on the sixth
and twelfth segments only, and have two pairs of claspers. The
pupae are to be found either on the ground, among leaves or moss,
or beneath the soil.

The Waved Umhcr {Hcmcropliila ahriij)tarin)

The most gaily coloured memlier of this family is the Waved
Umber, shown in fig. G of Plate XII. Like many other Geoiiietrcp,
it rests on fences and tree trunks by day with wings expanded so
that all four are displayed. It is on the wing in ^May and early
June, and again in August, and often frequents our gardens at
dusk.

The caterpillar is very dark brown, ^\•ith a white collar on tlie
front of the second segment. It feeds in June and Jnly on privet
(Ligusinim vulgare) and the cultivated rose trees of flower gardens,
and probably also on the dog rose (Rosa cani-na). When full
grown it spins a silken cocoon in a fork of one of the twigs, and
there undergoes its metamorphoses.

The Willoiv Beautij (Boarinia gcmmaria)

Our second example of the Boarmiidce is the Willow Beaut3%
the male of which species is here illustrated. Its wings are
brownish grey, marked with dark brown lines and streaks. The
female is generally larger than the
male, and has simple antennae. The
moth is abundant throughout Eng-
land, and may be seen generally
resting on fences and trees in June
and July.

The ground colour of the cater-
pillar is much the same as that of
the moth, and is marked with a
similar darker tint. It has a yel-
lowish line along the spiracles, and is much like a piece of brownish
twig. It feeds on the oak (Quercits Bobiir), Birch (Befula alha),
ivy (Herlera Helix), and othev trees, and may be found in September
and October,

Fig. 180.

The Willow
Beauty.

274

COMMON BBITISH MOTHS

Family — Geometrid.e

The nest family contains eight moths, mostly of small size, all
of which have green wings, and are popularly known as the
' Emeralds.' In most cases the male may be distinguished by its
pectinated antennie.

There is no general characteristic by which we may know all
the larvfe, but some have the head deeply notched.

Tlie Large Emerald {Geometra papilionaria)
This species is the largest of the family, and measures over two
inches wlien its wings are expanded. The colour is dull green,

with whitish bands
and spots, the arrange-
ment of which may
be seen in our en-
graving.

The moth is out
in July, and is com-
mon in most parts
of England.

The caterpillar
feeds on birch (Betula alba), beech {Fagus sylvatica) and hazel
{Corylus aveUana) in the autumn, and hybernates while still
voung. In the spring it feeds again, and is full grown in June,
when it changes to a chrysalis in a cocoon spun between leaves.

The Common Emerald {Hemithea strigata)

One of the commonest of the Emeralds is Strigata, which may

be found in June and July in all parts of England, as well as in

some localities in Scotland and Ireland.

Its wings are of a dull green colour, the

front pair being slightly scalloped on the

hind margin, and crossed by indistinct

pale lines ; and the hind pair are both

scalloped and angled and crossed in the

middle by a transverse pale line. The

fringe is white, dotted with dull reddish

bi'own.

The caterpillar is yellowish green, except the second, third, and

fourth segments which are brownish. It feeds on oak (QuercusRohur)

and whitethorn {Cratcegus ox gacantha), and may he found in June.

Fic;. 181. — The Large Emerald.

Fig. 182.- The Common
Emerald.

GEOMETRY 275

Family — Ephyrid.e
The Maiden's Blush {Zoiiosoma j^Knctaria)

The family Ejihyrida- contains only six British species, chiefly
remarkable for the fact that their pupae generally resemble those of
butterflies.

We choose for our example the pretty little Maiden's Blush, so
called on account of the soft reddish patch on the middle of each
fore wing. It is represented in fig. 7 of Plate XII. It is mode-
rately common, occurring more or less in all parts of England, as
well as certain localities in the sister countries. It is a double-
brooded moth, and may be caught in May and August.

The caterpillar feeds on oak (Qaercus Bnhur), from which it may
be obtained by beating both in June and September. It is either green
or tawny yellow, marked witli yellow oblicjue lines on tlie sides.

Family — Acidaliid.i-,

The moths of this family, over thirty in number, are mostly of
small size, and have slender bodies. As a rule the wings are not
in the least angulated or scalloped, but in a few species the hind
pair are slightly angled on the hind margin ; and both fore and hind
wings are similarly marked. The antennae are simple in the females,
and generally only slightly ciliated in the inales.

The caterpillars are long and slender, without projections, and
feed principally on low plants. The pupae are to be found in loose
cocoons among the leaves of the food plants or under the soil.

We shall briefly notice three members of this rather extensive
family.

TJie Lace Border {Acidalia ornata)

The wings of this moth are silvery white, marked along the
hind margin with a beautiful lace-like border.
This border consists of delicate black and
dark grey lines, and includes, in the fore
wing, two light brown blotches, one near the
middle and the other in the anal angle. It is
abundant in England, particularly in chalky
districts, but does net seem to extend into ^''^^- ^^^- '^^'^ -^•'^'^'^
Scotland. It may be seen on the wing from
June to August.

The caterpillar feeds on thyme {Thijmus ScrjujUinn) and
marjoram {Origanum vulgare),

276 COMMON BBITISH MOTHS

The Riband Wave {A. aversata)

All the wings of this species are of a pale yellowish or ochreous
grey. The fore wings are crossed by three transverse dark lines,
and the hind wings by two. The space between the two outer lines
of the fore wing and that betvveen the Hnes of the hind wing are
usually tilled in with a greyish brown, thus forming the ' riband '
from which the popular name of the
insect is derived ; and when this is the
case the lines which border the riband
are scarcely distinguishable. Just inside
the second line of the fore wings, near
the costa, is a small but conspicuous
Fig. 184.— The Eiband brown spot.

Wave. xhe motli flies in June and July, and

is common in all parts.
The caterpillar is dark brown except segments ten to thirteen,
which are grey. The line along the spiracles is whitish, and the
surface of the body is roughened by a number of minute warts. It
feeds on various low plants, including the meadow sweet {Siyircea
ulmaria), w^ater avens (Geum rivale), common avens {G. urha-
num), and knot-grass {Polygonum aviculare), during April and May.

TJie Blood-vein {Timandra amataria)

Our last example of the Acidaliidce is the Blood- vein, which is
common in most parts of England in June and July.

Its fore wings are pale grej^ dusted
with darker grey, and crossed by an
oblique red streak which runs from the

^' '*N>J^1.^*"" ^^P o^t^^^ ^^^^ wing to near the inner

\ \„~jJ^^^ margin of the hind wing. A slender

*^«^'''' ilark and wavy line lies outside this one,

Fig. 185.— The Bl..ui>-vein. parallel with it in the hind wing, but

meeting it near the tip of the fore wing.

The caterpillar is grey, with three white longiti;dinal stripes.

Tt feeds in the autumn on dock (Bumex), sorrel (i?. acetosa), and

knot-grass {Polygonum aviculare).

Family— CABERiDiE

Six species, all of rather small size, constitute the British
portion of the above famil3^ Their wings are mostly white or pale
grey, with light markings, and without angles. The moths are

GEOMETB.E 277

to be caught with the net at dusk, or they may be seen on
fences and tree trunks durmg the day, with their wings fully
extended and applied closely to the surface on which they rest.

The larv*, which have no humps, feed on trees, and change to
the chrysalis state in light silken cocoons.

The Contiuon Wave {Cahera exanthemata)

The first of our two examples of this small family is the
Connnon ^Yave, the wings of which are pale grey, almost white,
dusted all over with small dark dots. The fore wings are crosseJ
by three parallel and equidistant darker
transverse hues, and the hind pair by
two. The male may be distinguished b;
its ciliated antennae.

The caterjjillar is yellow or greenish ^ ..

yellow, with hinder segments slightly ' i-lJiM it **^«^ji

swollen. It feeds during the latter part j,j^,_ i8(;._Tj^j. Common
of the summer on sallows [Salix caprea Wave.

and S. cinerea) and alder (Alniis gluti-

nosa), and changes to a chrysalis in a light cocoon among fallen
leaves. In this state it sj^ends the winter, the perfect insect
emerging in May or June.

This species is very abundant in most i^arts.

Tlie Clouded Silver {Bapta temerata)

The other example is the Clouded Silver, the wings of which
are white, and clouded along the hind margin with smoky gre}'.
On the hind margin of the fore wings, close to the fringe, is a row
of black crescent-shaped spots ; and on
the inner side of the cloudings is a waved
transverse band. In the centre of the
same wings there is a \eYy. distinct dark
spot.

This moth is not so common as the
last, but is widely distributed. It tlies in ^'"- ^^'^"^7^^^™ Cloudei.
May and Jime.

The caterpillar is bright green on the upper side, and has a row
of orange spots, bordered with brown, down the middle of the back.
It feeds in the autunm on the blackthorn {Prunus sjniiosa) and
the wild cherry (P. Aviniit), and spends the A\iuter in the chrysalis
state, inclosed in a light silken cocoon.

278 COMMON BBITISH MOTHS

Family — Macariid.e
The V Moth {Halia Vauaria)

The family Macariidce contains only five British species, four
of which have the tip of the fore wings extended more or less into
an angle, and the hind ^\'inc,^s are also angled to a greater or less
extent.

Our only example is the V Moth, so called Irom the conspicuous
V-shaped blackish mark on the middle
of the costa of the fore wings. The ground
colour of all the wings is grey, with a
delicate violet tinge. There are other
dark markings in addition to the one
mentioned above, and the arrangement of
Fig. 188 — The V these may be seen in the woodcut.

"■ This s[)ecies is very common in all

parts, and flies at about midsummer.
The caterpillar is very variable in colour, but is generally green,
and is marked with longitudinal wavy lines. On each side is a series
of yellow blotches, forming a broken lateral stripe, and the body
is covered with minute black bristle-bearing warts. It feeds in
May on gooseberry' and currant bushes, and changes to a chrysalis
in a web between the leaves.

Family — Fidoniid.^e

We now come to a fiimily of moths peculiar for their habit of
flying more or less by day. As is often the case with day-flying
moths, these are mostly prettily marked, and are consequently
often mistaken by the uninitiated for butterflies. Most of them
are to be found on heaths, downs, and open fields; but one — the
Bordered White — is met with only in fir woods.

The wings are not angulatcd, and the iintcnnte of tlie males arc
pectinated.

The larviE are generally to be distinguished by a couple of little
horns on one or more of the hindermost segments, and in most
cases they pupate beneath the sxu'face of the soil.

The Common Heath {Ematurga alouuii-id)

Of this family we shall select two examples, the first of which is
the Common Heath, often so abundant on heaths and downs that
they are disturbed at almost every footstep.

(}EOMETB.E

279

Fig. 189 The Common

Heath.

The ground colour of the wings of the male is a dull yellowish
grey, and that of the female greyish white. In both cases the-
wings are crossed b}' irregular dark brown bands. The fringe
is barred alternately with white and dark
brown, and the whole of the ground tint
between the above-mentioned bands is
thickly dotted with dark brown. The
female is generally smaller than the male.

The caterpillar is very variable in
coloiu', but is generally reddish brown,
ochreous brown, or greenish, with a light

line along the spiracles, and a series of lozenge-shaped spots on the
back. It feeds on trefoils (Lotus cornicniatus and L. 2)ilutius)
and various other plants that grow on heaths.

The Bordered WJiite [Biqudiis ^;/»/(n7'rt)

The male of this species is boldly marked with yellowish a\ bite
and dark brown, the arrangement of the two colours being shown
in fig. 190. The female is very differ-
ent in general appearance. Her wings
are of an almost uniform orange or
yellowish-brown tint. The fore wings
are darker near the tip, and there is
generally a darker transverse band
across the centre.

The male may often be seen flying
in the sunshine among the branches
of fir trees during May and June, but
his mate is rather less active, and is
beating the branches.

The caterpillar is pale green, with whitish stripes and yellow
spiracles. It feeds during August and September on the leaves of
the Scotch fir (Pinns sylvestvis).

Family — Zerenid.e

Tlie Currant Moth (Abraxas grossulariafa)

The family Zerenidce contains only four British moths, and of
these we select the Currant Moth or Magpie. This insect is
exceedinglj' common everywhere, and on account of its general
brightness of appearance, and also of its diurnal habits, it is often

Fig. 190. — The Boedered
White — Male.

generally to be secured by

280

COMMON BBITISH MOTHS

taken for a butterfly. The ground colour of the wings is creamy
white, with a yellow transverse band, and a yellow blotch at the
base; and the whole surface is more or less blotched with black.
From the end of June to August this moth may be seen in

abundance in our gardens,
wdierever cvtrrant biishes
exist, flying about both
during the siinshine and
at dusk, with rather a
heavy movement.

The caterpillar is
white, with a yellow line
along the spiracles, and
numerous black dots.
There are, in addition to
the dots, two large black blotches on the back of each segment.
It feeds during May on currant and gooseberry bushes, also on
the blackthorn {Primus spinosa). About the end of May it spins
a light silken cocoon, and changes to a shoi't dumpy chrysalis of
a glossy black coloiu- with bright yellow bands (fig. 34).

Fig. 191.— The CrnRAXT Moth.

Family — Hyberniid.e

Passing over the family Ligiidce, which contains only one
British moth, the Horse-chestnut, we come to the small but
interesting family, Hyberniidcc.

Of this we have six species, five of which favour us during tlie
bleakest months of the year. Two of them visit us in October and
November, and even remain with us up to Christmas. The others
follow closely on them, and may be seen from January to March.

The males have slender bodies, and their wings are full and
without angles ; but the females are either perfectly or nearly
wingless. In three cases there is hardly a trace of wings in this sex,
so that they look more like spiders than moths.

The caterpillars are long and slender and without hum]is, and
all feed on the leaves of trees. They change to the chrysalis state
undert the "round.

The Sjjring Usher [Hyhernia leucophcBaria)

Early in February, and often even in January, this moth may be
seen in abundance in almost every oak wood, sitting on the bark of

GEOMETBJE 281

the trees, or occasionally taking a short flight in the sunshine. In
colour it is very variable. The wings have always a whitish ground
marbled and dotted with dark brown, but in some the fore wings
are almost entirely dark bi'own with the exception of a transverse
central bar. The female has only the
slightest rudiments of wings.

The caterpillar feeds on the young
buds and leaves of the oak (Quercua
liobnr) and sycamore {Acer Pseudo-
platan us), concealing itself among the

small leaves which it has spun together. puj^ xr)2. The Sprintt

It is full grown in June, when it Ushek.

changes, to a chrysalis on the surface

of the ground, and remains here throughout the summer and part
of the following winter.

The colour of the caterpillar is xevy variable, but is usually pale
green -svith white markings.

Tlic Mottled Umber [Hyhernia defoliaria)

This very pretty moth is represented in fig. 8 of Plate XII. It
is very common in most parts, and visits us at the fall of the leaf,
generally appearing in October, and remaining on the wing till
November. Our illustration gives the usual appearance of the male,
but in some specimens the four wings are all of one uniform
reddish-brown colour, evenly dotted all over with a darker tint.
The female is quite wingless.

The caterpillar is exceedingly pretty. Its head is large and
brown. The back is brown, bordered with a tine black line. Below
this is a broad and bright yellow line, with a red spot on each
segment. The spiracles are white. It feeds during spring on oak
iOuercus liobur), whitethorn {Crato'giis oxyacantha), blackthorn
(Prnnus spinosa), and other trees. "When disturbed it alwa^'s allows
itself to fall for a foot or two, and then remains swinging at the end
of a silken fibre till danger is over, or hunger recalls it to its food.
It changes to a chrysalis on the gromid about the midtile of
June.

The March Moth (Anisopteri/x tcscularia)

This is another common moth, and should be looked for during
March and April on the barks of trees in oak and other woods.

282 COMMON BlilTISH MOTHS

The fore wings are of a tling}' l)rown coloni', paler near the base,

and crossed by a pale wavy line. The hind wings are lighter,

with a central dark spot. But this

•r ■ *, description applies to the male only,

, -^^.y ' for the female is wingless, and may

'<^ '■§* :, - be known by the tuft of hair that tips

V, .; ;. ^;, the abdomen.

'*■' ■■■■•>'" The caterpillar is pale green,

Fig. Itto.— Thk M.\rvCH Moth, clouded with a darker tint, and has

a white line on each side of the back.

It feeds in May on the three trees named for the last species, also

on lime [Tilia vulgaris) and elm (Ulmus campestris).

Family — Larentiid^

This is by far the most extensive family of the Geomctrcr,
containing as it does considerably over a hundred species, or well
nigh a half of the whole group.

The wings of the various species are smooth and more or
less glossy, and the front pair are generally crossed by several
wavy lines. Many of the moths, and particularly those known
popularly as the Pugs, are very small. Eepresentatives of the
family are to be met with almost throughout the year— from early
spring to the middle of the winter.

Most of the caterpillars are rather long and slender, and without
humps ; and green is the prevailing colour. They feed either on trees
or low plants, often protecting themselves in folded leases ; and some
of the smaller species show a decided preference for flowers and seeds.

We shall select about a dozen of the commonest members for
individual description.

TJic November Moth {Oj^)orah'M
dilntata)

Our fii'st example is the November
moth — a rather dingy and very vari-
able species that may be found almost
everywhere in October and November.
Fig. 194.— The November '^]^^ ground colour of the fore wings is
Moth. ^^i^Sy "rey, crossed b^' several darker

lines, subject to considerable \aria-
tioiis. The hind wings arc paler, with two slender darker lines
parallel with the hind margin.

GEOMETR.E

283

i'lG. 1!):».-The
Twin -SPOT Carpet.

The caterpillar feeds on many trees, the jirincipal of which are
the oak, whitethorn and blackthorn. Like the perfect insect, it is
very variable in colour, but is generally of a bright green, with
reddish or purplish spots on the back and sides. The spiracles are
yellow or orange, and below them is a white stripe. It is full fed
in June.

The Tivin-spot Carpet (Larentia didymata)

The Twin-spot Carpet is common throughout Great Britain,
and the beginner is likely to meet with it in June and July
during his first season. Oar illustration re-
presents the male, the fore wings of which
are greyish brown, crossed by several dark
lines, and with a double dark and conspicuous
ppot near the middle of the hind margin.
The female is much lighter, and the markings
are -tilso lighter and less distinct.

The caterpillar is pale green, \\ ith a nar-
row whitish line along the spiracles. It feeds in April and May on
the leaves of the wood anemone {Anemone iicmorotia), chervil
{ClicBrophtjllum tcmuliim), and other plants.

TJtc Grass KivnJef {Eiiimelesia alhiilata)

We represent the genus Emmelesia by the Grass Rivulet — a
pretty little moth that flies in Jvine, and Mhich is widely distributed
though not abundant.

Its fore wings are pale grey, crossed l)y
several white lines, the arrangement of whicli
may be seen in our engraving. The hind
wings are of the same ground colour, but have
no markings except a white wa^y line near
the hind mai'gin.

The caterpillar feeds during July and
August on the seeds of the yellow rattle {Rhlnanthus Ciista-galli),
protecting itself from its enemies by spinning together the petals
of the flowers ; and when full grown it changes to a chrysalis under
the same cover.

The Netted' Pikj (Ei(pithecia venosata)

We now come to the enormous genus Eupitliecia, containing
about fifty small species, most of which are known as ' Pugs.'

Fig. 196.— The

GkASS ItlVULET.

284

COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

Many of these are only imperfectly known, there being yet much

to learn about their earlier stages.

The Netted Pug flies in May and June,
and is to be found in most parts of Great
Britain. Its fore wings are brownish grey,
crossed by two zigzag light bands, both of
which are bordered with black, and divided
throughout by a fine dark line. There are
also other dark lines, both transverse and
longitudinal, arranged as here represented.
The caterpillar feeds during July inside the seed capsules of

campions {Silcne Cucubalis, S. mariiima, S. acaulis, anA. Lychnis

diurna) and catchfly (Silcne gallica and S. nutans).

Fig. 197.— The
Netted Pdg.

The Narrow 7vinged Pucj {Etqjifhccia nanata)

Early in May, and frequently in April, this pretty little moth
may be seen flying about at dusk among the
heather on our moors. It is one of the first
Pugs of the season, and is widely distributed,
and very common in some localities.

Its wings are dark grey, and marked with
several transverse wavy light lines. The fringe
is dark grey, spotted with white.

The caterpillar feeds during August and
September on the ling {Calluna vulgaris) and heath [Erica cinerea
and E. Tetralix).

Fig. 198.— The

Nareow-winged

Pug.

The Brindled Fug [Eupifhccia ahhreviafa)

Our last example of the Pugs is the Brindled Pug, another
early species, appearing on the wing in March and April. It is
common in most parts, and may generally be
easily obtained by searching fences and tree
trunks.

Its fore wings are very long in proportion.

The colour is yellowish brown, crossed by darker

lines. The fore wings have a very broad band

of the ground colour, broken by two short lines,

and crossed by a slender angulated stri2)e.

The caterpillar feeds on the oak in June.

Fig. 199.— The
Brindled Pug.

GEOMETB.E

285

TJic SinaU Srfajiltiui {Lohoplwra sexalii^ata)

This moth is very mucli like the Pugs in general appearance,
and is qnite as small and even smaller than some of them ; l>nt it
and the other members of its genus differ from
the Pugs in that they cover their hind wings
when at rest.

The fore wings are j'ellowish or pale brownish
grey with fom' paler transverse lines, the two
median ones of which are divided throughout
by a darker fine wavy line. The hind wings
are grey, paler at the base, and crossed cen-
trally by a double darker line. This species flies in May and June,
and though apparently widely distributed, can hardly be described
as common.

The caterpillar feeds on the white willow [Salix alha) and
sallow (&'. C(q)rea) in August and September ; and the chrysalis
may be found in a silken cocoon among the fallen leaves throughout
the winter.

Fig. 200.-^The
Small Seraphim.

The Blue-hordcrcil Carpet (Mdanthia hicoJoraia)

This same family {Larentiidce) is remai'kable for its iarge
number of pretty moths, popularly known as the ' Carpets,' many
of which are exceedingly common in our woods
and gardens.

Our first example of these is the Blue-
bordered, M'hich is pretty well represented in
several counties of Great Britain and Ireland.
Its white fore wings are boldly marked with a
blotch of greyish brown at the base, and an-
other extending from the middle of the costal
margin more than halfway across. The hind

margin is marked with two bluish grey bars, separated by a ^\hite
line. The hind wings are white, with a very small dark spot, and
a bluish grey margin something like that of the fore wings.

The caterpillar is green, with longitudiiial stripes of a darker
and lighter shade. It feeds in June on the alder {Alnns gJutinom)
and blackthorn {PrmiKs sjnnosa) ; and when full gfown it changes
to a brown chrysalis within a light silken web.

The moth flies in July and August.

Fig. 201.— The

Bloe-bordeeed

Carpet.

286

COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

Tlic Beautiful Carpet {Melanthia alhtciUafa)

The Beaiitifnl Carpet belongs to the same genus as Bicolorata.
Its wings are of a rich creamy white, clouded with grey along the
hind margin. The basal blotches of tlie
fore wings are large, of a dark brown
colour, and marbled ^\■ith a light tint.
Near the tips of these wings is another
conspicuous blotch of the same colour,
I'rom which a delicate wavy dark line runs
to the inner margin. A small dark spot
also lies near the middle of the costal
margin of each of the four wings.

The caterpillar is green, with a white
line along tlie sj^iracles, and a triangular reddish spot on the back
of segments four to ten inclusive. It feeds on the bramble (Rubus
fruHcosus), raspberry (B. Idceus), and wild strawberry [Fragaria
vesca). It may be found in Jime and July.
The moth tiies in June.

Fig. 202.- The Beauti-
ful Carpet.

Tlic Common Carpet (Melanippe sociat

The genus Melanippe contains twelve species, some of which
3,re extremely common. One of tliese moths— the Common Carpet
— is represented in iig. 203. Its wings are
all of a smoky-brown colour, crossed by
numerous white lines, the arrangement of
which may be gathered from our illustration
better than from a written description. It
is a double -brooded insect, appearing first in
May, and then again about the end of July.

The caterpillar is mottled with shades of
brown and grey. On the back are five or six
greyish-white lozenge-shaped marks, and there are a few white dots
on the back of each segment. It feeds on the hedge bedstraw
{Galium Mollugo), and when full grown it changes to a chrysalis
in a light cocoon on the ground.

Fig. 20.S.— The
Common Carpet.

The Silver Ground Carpet {Melanippe onontanata)

In this species the ground colour is silvery white. Tlie bases of
the fore wings are blotched with pale brown, and a dark brownish-

GEOMETB.E

287

grey bar, containing a black spot, crosses the middle. The hind
margins of the fore wings are faintly marked with pale brown,
and lines of the same tint, more or less distinct, cross the hind
wings.

Tliis moth is very common in all
parts of the country, and may be seen
on the wing throughout the summer.

The caterpillar is light brown, with
several longitudinal lines of different
colours. On the back of each of the
segments seven, eight, and nine is a
distinct black V-shaped mark, termi-
nating behind with a bright red spot.
(Primula acanlis) in the autunm, hybernates through the winter,
and is full grown about the beginning of April.

Fig. 204.— The Silver
Gkound Cakpet.

It feeds on the primrose

The Garden Cari^et {Melanippe fluctuata)

Our third and last member of this genus is the Garden Carpet —
a moth that must be pretty well known to almost everybody, since
it is the commonest of all the GeometrcE that frequent our gardens.

The fore wings are pale grey or brown-
ish, with a patch of dark greyish brown
at the base, another larger one on the
middle of the costa, and a third near the
tip. The wing is usually clouded between
the middle blotch and the inner margin,
and numerous fine wavy lines, more or
less distinct, cross the wing.

This moth may be seen throughout
the summer, from May to September, but is most abundant in
June and July.

The caterpillar is extremely variable in colour, being either
green, brown, or grey, or some intermediate tint; and is marbled
and dotted with dark brown on the back. It feeds on the nastur-
tium {Tropceolum majus), rape {Brassica. Na2)^ts), and various
other cruciferous plants ; and maj- be found from April to August.

Fig

205. — The Garden

Carpet.

TJie Yellow SlieU (Camptogramma hilineata)

Passing over two smaller genera, we come to the beautiful
little Yellow Shell. This moth is so abundant in most parts

288 .

COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

that , wo arouse it at almost every stroke while beating low

bushes.

All its wings are yellow, and crossed by numerous delicate
white and brown lines. The most con-
spicuous feature is the two white lines,
with dark brown edging, crossing the fore
wings.

The caterpillar feeds by night, and is
therefore seldom seen except by those who
make special nocturnal searches with the
aid of a lantern or sweep net. It devours
various grasses, and hides itself among the

roots or under stones during the daytime. It is full grown in April

or iVIay. The colour is dull pale green, with a dark green dorsal

line, and two white stripes on each side.

Fig. 200.— The Yellow
Shell.

Fig. 207.— The Small
Phoenix.

Tlic Small Phcrnix [Cidaria ailacenta)

Again passing over a few small and less important genera, we
select the small Phoenix as the last example of this very extensive
familj'.

The fore wings of this species are dark brown, paler toward the
hind margin. Most of the wing rays are
generally of a pale yellowish colour, and a
variable and complicated system of whitish
lines crosses the wings near the base, and
another near the hind margin. Among the
latter there is alwaj^s a series of dark
triangular spots, with apices pointing to-
wards the hind margin.
This moth is moderately common throughout the British Isles,
and is double brooded, appearing in May and August.

The caterpillar is green, with a row of brown spots along the
middle of the back. When full groA\n it changes to a chrysalis in
a light web.

Family — Euboliid^
This is the last family of the Geometrcs we shall notice, and
contains ten species. Most of these are rather pretty moths, and
all have the tips of the fore wings more or less pointed. As a rule,
too, there is a dark streak running from the very tip of the ^\•ing for
Q, short distance obliquely inward.

GEOMETB.E

•iSO

They are generally very light sleepers, and are easily beaten
from their hiding places during the day.

The larvae are not humped, and may be found feeding on low
plants.

We shall briefly examine two species.

The Small Mallow {Euholia limitafa)

This moth is pretty abundant in waste places from June to
August, and is easily obtained by
lightly beating the foliage of small
bushes and low plants.

Its fore wings are pale brown
crossed by a broad central bar, the
edges of which are darker. The hind
wings are of a paler brown, and are
crossed by two or three fine wavy lines.

Although the perfect insect is so
common, the caterpillar seems to be

seldom met with. It is a grass feeder, and may be looked for in
May and June.

Fm. 208.— The Small
Mallow.

TJie Treble Bar (Anaitis plagiata)

Our last example of the Geometrcr is the Treble Ear, a very
pretty moth, which is illustrated in fig. 9 of Plate XII. It may be
readily identified by the aid of this coloured picture, and therefore
need not be described in words. It is pretty generally distributed
throughout the British Isles, and is in some parts a very abundant
species, particularly so in the neighbourhood of London.

The caterpillar is brown, with paler spaces between the segments.
The dorsal line is black and interrupted, and a yellow line runs
along each side. It feeds on the leaves and flowers of the
perforated St. John's wort {Hyperiaim loerforatum).

This insect is double brooded, the moth appearing in jMay and
August, and remaining with us throughout the month following in
each case.

290 COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

CHAPTER XXI
THE MICRO-LEPIDOPTEBA

The butterflies, and all tlie moths contained in the groups of the
last fonr chapters, are commonly spoken of as constitutintr the
Macro-Jeindoptera ; but in addition to these there are many hun-
dreds of small British moths that represent what is known as the
Micro-lejndojjtera.

It is not usual for young entomologists to have much to do with
the ' Micros ' until they have had a little practical experience with
the larger species ; in fact, a good number of them never seem to
extend their knowledge beyond the limits of the' Macros ' except that
they may make an occasional capture of a Micro that happens to fly
across their path.

Now, since it would be practically impossible to deal fairly, even
in outline, with both these divisions of the Lepidoptera in a work
of the present dimensions, I have devoted most space to the larger
species so as to meet the probable requirements of the majority of
my readers. Bixt in order that the beginner may also have the
means of introducing himself intelligently to a study of the ' Micros,'
I shall set apart this chapter for a simple account of the broad
principles of their classification, illustrated by means of a few
types, so that the collector may at least know something of the
insects he captures, even though he may not be able at once to fix
on their names.

The young entomologist, thus provided witli the broad features
that enable him to roughly classify the specimens which reach his
cabinet, may, as his store increases, pay an occasional visit to a
public museum or the private collection of an entomological friend,
and so obtain the names and other details he may require.

The MicTO-lepidop)tera are divided into five main groups —
Pyralidcs, Pterophori, Crambi, Tortrices, and Thieo', each of

THE MICRO-LEPIDOPTEBA 291

which is divided into famihes and genera, fis we \vA\e seen in the
case of the ' Macros.'

Ptjralides

The Pijralides may be easily distinguished by the proportionately
long fore wings, long legs, and elongated abdomen. Some of
them have wings of a pearly Instre, and are accordingly known
popularly as the ' Pearls.' Some species fly in bright sunshine,
others appear on the wing before sunset, and Hy till dusk ; others,
again, are purely nocturnal in their habits. All, however, are
apparently light sleepers, and may be easily beaten out of their
resting places and netted by day. Some of these moths are
common everywhere, but the majority of them are very local,
though they may be extremely abundant where they occur.

The larvae have a glossy and bristly appearance, and are
generally gregarious in their habits.

This group contains about eighty species, arranged in five
families as follows :

1. Pyralidida?, including about forty species.

2. Botydo', about thirty species.

3. Steniiadce, containing only five species.

4. HydrocarnpidcF, four species.

5. Acentrojoodidcp, containing only one.

The Tahbif {Aglossa piiigtiinalis)

The first of these families contains the Tabby or Grease Moth,
commonly met with both in the larval and perfect states in barns
and stables.

Its fore wings are brownish grey,
crossed with zigzag darker lines, and
having a black spot near the centre of
the costal margin. The term ' Tabby '
has been applied on account of the
fancied resemblance of the transverse p^^j^ 209.— The Tabf.y ok
markings to the fur of a tabby cat. Grease Moth.

and the other popular name was given

under the belief that the caterpiflar feeds on fatty matter, but it is
extremely doubtful whether this supposition is correct.

The caterpillar probably feeds exclusively on the vegetable
accumulations that lie in the undisturbed corners and crevices of

292

COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

outhonses and staples, and lives concealed in silken tubes, strength-
ened outside by fragments of hay, chati' &c. that have been spi;n
together. It feeds from September to April, except during very
severe weather, and vhen full grown it leaves its tube, and changes
to a chrysalis in a light silken cocoon in some secluded corner.
The moth emerores in Julv.

TJie Meal Moth {PyraUs farinalis)

The same family contains the common Meal Moth, so called
because in the larval state it feeds on meal and allied substances.
The fore wings are yellowish grey, with
reddish basal patches, a broad reddish band
along the hind margin, and two whitish in-
dented transverse lines. The hind wings are
grey, and are crossed by two lines similar to
and continuous with those of the front jiair.

This moth is to be foimd in abundance

throiighout the summer months in places

where corn, meal, and grain are stored in large quantities, sitting

on walls and rafters during the daytime, and taking to tiight in

the evening.

The caterpillar feeds on corn, meal, grain, bran. &c., and lives
concealed in a silken tube covered outside with particles of its food
substance. It is not fully grown till nearly two j-ears old, and
then changes to a chrysalis in a white silken cocoon.

Fig. "ilU. - The Mkai.
Moth.

The Small Magpie {Earrhypara urticata

The family Botydcc contains the moths that are popularlj^
known as the ' Pearls ' on account of the pearly lustre of the wings.
One of its species — the Small Magpie— is
shown in the accompanying illustration.
Its fore wings are pearly white, with
blackish hind margin, a yellow streak at
the base, and blackish markings, the ar-
rangement of which may be seen in the
figure.

It is a very common moth, flying at
dusk diu-ing June and July m waste places
where the stinging nettle grows.

The caterpillar is whitish, with a dark dorsal line. It feeds on the

Fig. 211. ^The Small
Magpie.

THE MICBO-LKPIDOPTEBA

29J

stinging nettle {TJrtica dioira), always remaining concealed between
leaves which it has spun together with silken threads.

Tlw MotJio'-of-Pcarl {Botijs raralis)

This is another very counnon .species of the family Boi/jdcc,
abundant almost everywhere, and to
be found on the wing from June to
August.

Its wings are whitish, and exhibit
a very decided pearly lustre, and all
the markings are of a dull dark grey.

The caterpillar is glossy, and has
a semi-transparent appearance. It is 1' i*-'- '-'1--
greenish white above, with a darker
line down the back ; and the sides are

of a brighter green. It feeds on the stinging nettle {^Urtica dioica)
dux-iog May.

TlIK il(iTHER-OF-

Pe.usl.

The Garden Pebble [Pionea forJicaUs)

The same family contains also the Garden Pebble, which is one
of tlie commonest frequenters of gardens, botli in town and
country-.

The fore wings are pale yellowish grey with brown markings.
The latter include a fine line from the tip to
the middle of the mner margin, and another
paler one inside and parallel with this, hav-
ing a dark spot near its centre. The hind
wings are lighter, and have a pale and inter-
rupted line parallel with the hind margin.

The caterpillar is pale greenish, with a
dark line along the back and on each side.
It feeds on the cabbage and other cruciferoiTs plants.

The moth flies from May to the end of the sunuuer, and tlie
caterpillar may be found about midsummer, and again in the
autumn.

Fig. 21.3.— The
Gakdkx Pebble.

TJie Beautiful CJii)ia Mark [Hydrocanq/a slagnata)

Our last example of the Pijralides— the Beautiful China Mark--
belongs to the family H/jdrocamjjidce. This small family is

294 COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

remarkable for the fact that its four species spend their larval state

in the water, feeding on the under surfaces of the leaves of water

lilies and other aquatic plants. These cm-ious

larvae live either in cases which they construct

for their protection, something after the fashion

of the larvie of caddis Hies, or quite free in the

water, and then they are supplied with special

Beautiful China breathing organs that enable them to absorb the

Mark. oxygen held in solution in the water.

The moth we have selected for illustration
is a very common species, and may be seen flj'ing in great numbers
in the neighbourhood of ponds during June and July.

The Pterophorl

The members of this remarkable group are easily distinguishable
from all other moths by the feathery appearance of their wings, a
feature that has gained for them the popular name of Phanc Moths.
Their fore wings are more or less divided or cleft, and their hind
wings are generally divided into three distinct feathery plumes.

The larvae are hairy, and when full fed they suspend themselves
by their anal claspers, and change to the chrysalis state without
any kind of covering. They are generally to be found in spring
and early summer, but some of them feed in the autumn.

The chrysalides are often hairj% though some of them are
perfectly smooth.

Plume moths are to be met with more or less throughout the
year. Many of the earlier species appear on the wing in spring
and early summer ; but the late feeders emerge in the autumn, and
hybernate through the winter, often taking to the wing on the mild
days of our coldest months.

The Ptcrophori include only about forty British species, all of
which, with two exceptions, belong to the familj' Ptei-oj^horidcc. The
two exceptions represent as many families — one the Chrysocorididce,
and the other ihe Alncltidcc.

Platijptilid (jonDdacfijln

This is one of the commonest of the Pterophoridcc, generally
appearing in our gardens and in waste places towards the end of
May, and continuing ■ with us for some time. It starts from its
retreat at or before sunset, and remains on the wing after dark.

THE MICRO-LEPIDOFTEBA

295

Its fore wings are oclireons grey, with a narrow brown costal
margin, and a triangular brown patch on the costa. Beyond this
patch the wing is cleft. The hind wings con-
sist of thi'ee distinct brownish plumes, the
third of which has a small tuft of black
scales projecting fi'om the middle of the
inner margin.

The caterpillar feeds on the flower stalks
of the coltsfoot durmg March and April.

21y.^GoNO-

Lciojiithis ostcodactijlns dactyla.

This is another species of the same familj*.
It is not imcommon, but is more local than
the last.

Its fore wings are pale yellow, with a
small brown dot at the commencement of
the dividing tissiu'e, and a brown blotch on
the costal margin nearer the tip. The hind
Avings are divided into tliree distinct plumes
like those of Gonodactyla.

This is a later species, appearing on the
wing in July.

AcljitUia jjcntadactyla

The fore wings of this species are white,
frequently with a few gi'eyish scales, and are
deeply divided into two feathery plumes.
The hind wings are pure white, and consist
of three plumes.

This pretty- insect is common and widely distributed, and flies
during June and July.

The caterpillar feeds on the convolvulus in May.

Fig. 21G.-0STEO-

DACTYLUS.

Fig. 217.— Penta-

DACTYLA.

Alucita liejcadactijla

Our last example of the Fteropliori is the Twehe-plume Moth,
the only British representative of the family Alucitidce.

This little msect is of a yellowish colour, with two dark bands
across the fore wings ; and both fore and hind wings are divided
into six distinct feathers. It is a common moth, and frequents

29G

COMMON BIUTISH MOTHS

sheltered spots, flj'ing at dusk. It appears in August, remains on
the wing till October, and then hybernates till the following April.
During the winter it is commonly met with
in outliouses and even in dwelling houses.

The caterpillar feeds during June and July
on the flower buds of the honeysuckle {Loni-
cera Periclymenum). It is not hairy, like
most of the larvae of the last family ; and,
inilike these, it changes to a chrysalis in a
silken cocoon.

Fig. 218.-HEXA-
DACTYLA — Enlarged.

Cramhi

The third group of the ' Micros' is the Cramhi, and contains
about eiglity species, arranged in four families.

Some of them are connnon moths with which all must be more
or less familiar, as they are roused from the grasses on which thej-
repose at almost every footstep as we walk through meadows in the
summer. "\Mien at rest, they present a verj' peculiar appearance.
Their wings are wrapped closely round their bodies in such a man-
ner that they are hardh' distinguishable from the stems on which
they repose.

The larvae have sixteen limbs, and are verj' variable in their
habits. Some feed among moss or dry stems in silken tubes, some
on the stems of reeds, and others inhabit the hives of bees and feed
on the wax of the honeycomb.

The four families are :

1. Chilidce — five species.

2. CramhidcB — about thirty species.
'6. Phycidce—o\ev forty species.

4. Gallcridce — five species.

Cliilo PhragmitcJJiis

This species is one of those moths known as the 'Veneers,' and
is popularly termed the Wainscot Veneer. It is one of the largest
of the family Chilidce.

Its fore wings are long, narrow, and pointed at the tip. They
are of a pale ochreous brown colour, \\itli a row of small black dots
along the hind margin.

The caterpillar is pale gi-ey, with brown stripes; and the head

THE MICRO-LEPIDOFTEBA

297

and second segment are yellowish brown. It feeds on the common
reed {Phragmites) in the autumn, and hybernates till the following
spring, when it resumes its
feeding.

This insect is rather local,
but may be searched for in all
marshy places where reeds
abound.

Cranihus hamellus

i. 21'.(. — Phkagjiitellus-
Enlakgeu onk-half.

Fig. 220.— Hamellus —
Slightly enlarged.

The family Cramhidtc is re-
presented by the above-named
species, which has the popular title of
Pearl-streak Veneer. It is not a connnon
moth, but is to be obtained in some locali-
ties by beating low herbage.

Its fore wings are ochreous and glossy,
with a silvery streak from the base, running
almost parallel with the costal margin. The
hind margin is yellow, bordered inside by a

wavy brown line. The hind wings are pale gi'eyish brown with a
yellowish margin.

Cramhus tristeUns

The same fainily contains the species TristeUns, Avhich, unlike
the preceding insect, is abundant everywhere.

Its fore wings are generally yellowish
brown, but exceedingly variable. A pale
streak runs from the base to just beyond
the middle of the wing, and is then forked.
Near the hind margin is a very indistinct
brown wavy line. The hind wings are
dull smoke colour with a light fringe. As
with the other moths of the family, its labial palpi are very long.

The moth flies from July to September.

Fig. 221.— Tristellus.

Cramhus horfucllus

This is also an abundant species, to be met with everywhere
during June and July.

Its fore wings are dull ochreous brown. The wing rays are

298

COMMON BBITISH MOTHS

223. — Mellonella.

whitish near the inner margin, and a brown line with a silvery
edging crosses near the hind margin. The hind wings are dull

smoky brown, with a shining surface, and the

fringe is light.

The larva is pale grey with dark grey spots,

and may be found among moss in April and

May.

Fifi. 222.— Hoe- Galleria meUonella

TUELLUS.

Our last example of the Cramhl is a moth
that the young entomologist is not likely to meet with unless he
happens to be in the neighbourhood of one of its haunts, but its
habits are so peculiar that we are
tempted to introduce it on that account.
It belongs to the family Oalleridce,
the larvae of which feed on the wax
combs in the hives of bees and in the
nests of wild bees. They are protected
from the stings of the inmates by silken
tubes which they construct, and by the hardened covering of their
heads and front segments — the only parts that remain exposed while
they are feeding.

The fore wings of the moth are reddish-grey or brownisli,
sometimes with a greenish tinge, and yellowish along the iimer
margin. The hind wings are greyish brown.

It flies in July and August, and the caterpillar feeds in May and
June.

The Turtrices

This is a large group of moths, deriving their name from the
peculiar habit of a niimber of the larvas of twisting or rolling up
leaves for their protection. This habit, however, is not common to
all, for some feed on stems and flowers, and others devour seeds and
fruits.

The perfect insects may easil,y be known by the shape of the
wings. The fore pair are gracefully curved on the costal margin in
such a way that, when the insect is at rest with its wings closed, its
outline is much the shape of a bell.

The identification of the various species of this extensive group
is no easy task, for many of them are so variable in their colouring
that insects of the same species are often very different from each

THE MICRO-LEPIDOPTEEA 290

other. So puzzling indeed is this tendency to rnn into varieties
that many insects, once considered to belong to separate species,
have been reduced to one ; and this has been the case in a number
of instances.

There are so many of these little moths that we cannot even
give a representative of each family, but the following outline will
serve to show the extensiveness of the group.

Family 1. Tortrlcidcr, about sixty species.

,, 2. PentliinidiT, „ twenty „

„ 8. Siiilonotido', ,, twelve ,,

„ 4. Sericorid(P, „ twenty-seven species.

„ 5. Scia2)hilid(e, „ twenty-four ,,

„ C. GrajiholithidcF, about one hundred and fift}' species.

„ 7. Pyraloididce, four species.

,, 8. Conchylidcc, about fifty species.

,, U. AphcUidce, three species.

"We shall now briefly examine a few of the commonest insects of
the group.

Torfrix xylostcana

This pretty moth is common in most parts, and may often be
met with in abundance in wooded localities during Julj'. It belongs
to the family Tortricida-.

Its fore wings are ochreous brown. A very dark
oblique streak, edged with yellow, runs from the
inner margin of the base. A reddish patch in the
centre of the wing, also edged with yellow, is narrow
on the costa, and expands as it approaches the inner „ ^^ .
margin. Beyond this are another dark patch on the Xilosteana
costa and two reddish-brown blotches on the hind with wings
margin. closkd.

The larva is greenish brown, marked with white
spots which have black centres; and it feeds on oak (Qucrcus
Rohur), honeysuckle {Lonicera Pcridijmcnnm), and other plants,
in the month of May.

Torfri-c viridiDia

In Jime and July this pretty but destructive little insect may be
seen flying in abundance in almost every oak wood. Its fore wings
are one uniform pale green with the exception of a streak of yellow

300

COMMON BBITISH MOTHS

along the costal margin ; and, when at rest, scores may exist on a

single twig without being seen unless closely' examined. The hind

wings are of a pale smoky tint, and rather glossy.

The larva is green, with black spots, and

feeds in May and June on the oak and other

trees, often almost completely devouring the

Fig. 225. - ViiiiuANA. foliatre.

Peronca cristaiia

This moth is not so generally abundant, but is very common in
many of the woods of the south.
It is remarkable for the large number
of varieties that have been observed,
many of which have been regarded
as distinct species.

Its fore wings are of some sliade
of brown or grey, with a light streak
of variable colour along the imier
margin, and a tuft of raised white
scales m the middle of the wing.

Fig. 226.— Cristana —
Enlarged.

It flies during August and September.

Ptijclwloma leclieana

Our last example of the family Tortricidcc is Leclieana, a moth
that is common in most parts in June and July.

Its fore wings are brown, lighter towards the
base. There are no very distinct markings, but
there is generally a darker patch in the middle of
the wing, edged with a silvery streak on each side.

The larva feeds on several trees, including oaks
and elms, in the month of May.

Fig. 227.—
Lecheana.

Penthina 2:>runiana

The next family — PenllLinidce — contains the

common species Pniniajia, which may be readily

known by its boldlj' marked wings. The basal

portion of the fore wings, to the extent of nearly

two-thirds of the whole, is very dark brown. The remaining third

is almost white, and clouded with grey. The hind wings arc smoky

brown with a paler fringe.

THE MICBO-LEPIDOPTERA

301

The caterpillar of this species feeds on the hlackthorn {I'ninus
spinos(t) in May, and the ninth tiics in Jmie and July.

Antitlicsia i>aJiccUa

This moth is not nearly so common as the last species, but is
fairly plentiful in some localities in the south of England. It
belongs to the same family as Prioilana.

The fore wings are whitish at the base
and along the inner margin, but the light tint
is dotted and clouded with shades of brown.
The remainder of the wings is marbled with
dark brown of different depths, relieved near
the hind margin with a little blue. The hind
wings, as is usual with the 'Tortrices, are dull
smoky brown.

The caterpillar is reddish brown with black spots, and feeds
during May in rolled leaves of willows.

The moth flies in August and September.

Fig. 229.— Sali-

CELLA.

Sciajihila octomaruhnui

Our single example of the family SciapliiVuhe is the species
Octomaculqna, which, though not
very abundant, is widely distri-
buted, and moderately common in
parts.

Its fore wings are white, dusted
with grey, and each is marked with
four dark grey patches which have
given rise to its specific name — a Fig,
word which signifies ' eight-spotted.'
The hind wings are grey.

The caterpillar feeds on thistles and other plants, and the
moth tlies from August to October.

230. — octomaculana —
Enlarged.

Epliippipliora cirsiana

This insect represents the family GraphoUtliiilo'. It is a
common moth, and is widely distributed.

Its fore wings are greyish brown, with a large white patch on
the middle of the inner margin ; and beyond this white, in the

302

COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

Fig.

231. — ClRSIANA-

Enlaeged.

anal angle, is a pale grey patch containing three or four black

dots. The tips of the wings are reddish brown.

The moth flies in June and July ;
and the larva, which feeds on thistles,
may be found in the stems from October
to the following May.

Caiyocaxysa ])omonella

The same extensive family contains

a few moths that are very destructive to

our fruits, the larvae burrowing into and

living entirely within their substance.

One of these — PomoneUa — is

popularly known as the Codlin, as

its larva is so often found in the

interior of small apples of the

same name.

The fore wings of this insect
are grey, with a number of dark
transverse lines. The spot in the
anal angle is edged with a coppery
tint, and inclosed by a curved
black line.

This moth is common in all
parts, flying during June and July ; and the larva may be looked
for in apples and pears in August and September.

Xantlwseiia zocgana

Our last example of the Tortrices is Zoegana, which belongs to
the family Concliylidce. Its fore
wings are yellow, with a reddish
streak along the costa near the base,
and a small reddish spot opposite this
near the inner margin. The tip of
the wings is dark reddish brown, in
the middle of which is a large j'eUow
spot.

This moth is widely distributed,
and in some parts common. It flies

from May to August, and the larva feeds on the small scabious

{Scabiosa colwmharia).

Fig. 2.32. -Pomonella.

Fig. 233.— Zoegana —
Enl.\eged.

THE MICEO-LEPIDOPTEBA 303

The Tinece.

We have noticed that the Tortrices form a very extensive group
of moths, but they are far outnumbered by the Tinece, for of these
there are over seven hundred known British species.

Of course, among so many species we are siire to find consider-
able variety in form and structure ; but notwithstanding this, the
Tinea' form a well-marked division, and the beginner will find but
little ditficulty in distinguishing between these and the other
Micros.

The wings are long and narrow, and are remarkable for the
length of the fringe, particularly that of the hind wings. The bodies,
too, are long and slender.

The larvae are exceedingly variable. Some have the usual
number of sixteen limbs, and others have as many as eighteen.
Again, the larvne of several genera have onlj' fourteen legs, and
some are absolutelj' legless.

Witli regard to their food and habits, they are equally variable,
for while some feed exposed, others are always protected in rolled
leaves. Some construct for themselves portable tubes, so that they
always remain imder cover, and are at the same time perfectly free
to ramble in search for food. Some, also, are leaf miners ; and the
group includes the so-called ' Clothes Moths,' whose larvae devour
our garments, furs, and the upholstering of our furnitiire.

We shall now briefly notice a few species, in order that we maj'
become better acquainted with the general characters of the group.

Diurnea fagdla

This moth represents the small family Epigraijliiuhr, con-
taining only six species, all of wliich appear in the winter or
early spring.

The present species is verj' common in
most parts, and may be seen at rest on the
barks of trees in March and April.

The fore wings are usually pale grey or
yellowish grey, and dotted with brown ;
but there is a great variety both in the Fig- 234. — Fagella.
depth of the gi'ound colour and the dis-
tinctness of the markings. Our ilhistration gives the usual
appearance of the insect.

304

COMMON BRITISH MOTHS

The caterpillar feeds on various trees in September and October,
always protected between leaves that it has spun together.

Fig.
cuprella.

Adela cuprella

The family AdelidcE contains ten species, all re-
markable for the great length of their anteunte. The
one selected for illustration is a beautiful little moth
with bright bronzy green fore wings, tinged with a
rich glossy violet. The hind wings are brown with a
glossy surface.

This moth does not seem to be widely distributed,
but is fairly plentiful where it occurs. Wimbledon
Common and E^jping Forest are good localities for it.
It is on the wing in April and May.

Hijponomeida Padcllus

The family Hyponomeutidcc contains about twenty insects,
some of which are very common and exceedinglj' destructive to
our trees. In May and Ji;ne hawthorn and
fruit trees may be seen swarming with the
gregarious larvae of some of them, and almost
entirely stripped of their leaves.

The species here figured has gi-ey or white
fore wings with three rows of black dots. The
hind wings are darker grey without dots.
The larva feeds on hawthorn, apple, and other trees. The perfect
insect flies in July and Aiigust.

Depressaria nervosa

The next family — Gelecliiidte
— is represented bj^ the species
Nervosa, which is common in
many localities.

Its fore wings are reddish
brown, and are marked by a
number of short longitudinal
streaks of a darker colour. The
hind wings are light gre3^
The caterpillar is black, marked with black spots in white rings,
and having yellow side stripes. It feeds on the flowers of the

Fig. 237.— Nervosa— Twice
Natural Size.

THE MICRO-LEPTDOrTEBA

30.5

hemlock water dropwort {CEnaiifJie crocata) during June and
July.

The moth flies in August and September.

Harpella Geoff rella

The same extensive family contains the moth Geoffrella, repre-
sented in the accompanying cut. This is an exceedingly jiretty
insect. The basal portion of its fore wings is
yellow, with two longitudinal dark streaks, the
outer one of which is bent towards the inner
margin near the middle of the wing. The re-
maining portion of the wings is brown, with two
yellowish triangular spots, one on the costal and
one on the inner margin. On the middle of the
costa is a short dark streak.

This moth appears in May and June, and is rather local, but very
abundant in some parts.

Coleopliora ihipenneUa

The family Coleophoridce contains about seventy small moths,
characterised by then- very narrow and pointed wings, with long

IbIPEXXELLA — ExLARfiED.

fringes, and also, generally, by a little tuft of hair on the first joint
of the antennae.

The larvae live in Httle cases which they construct, and feed on
various leaves and seeds. They spend the winter within their
cases, and change to the chrysalis state in spring or early summer.

306

COMMON BBITI8H MOTHS

One of these molh'S.—IhipenneUa—ifi shown m fig. 239. Its fore
wmgs are white, with a satiny gloss, and brownish towards the
tips. The 'nervures' are generally of a yellowish tinge. The
hind wings are dark grey.

The larva feeds on the birch {Betula alba), and may be seen
walking on the surface of the leaves, carrying, or rather dragging
after it, the pistol-shaped case in which it lives, nothing protruding
save its head and front legs. It is full fed in May, and the moth
flies in July.

Tischeria complanella

This species represents the rather extensive family Elacliistidce,
the members of which have narrow and pointed wings. Many of
them are adorned with beautiful metallic tints, but are generally

so small that a lens is
necessary to show up
the splendour of their
clothing. Most of the
larvije are leaf miners,
and are easily reared.
All that is necessary is
to pluck a few twigs,
the leaves of which,
when held up to the
light, reveal the tiny
larvae in their burrows,
and place them in a vessel of water. They do not feed long, and
it is probable that most of the larvae so treated will be ready to
change before the leaves have become dry. The present species
has bright yeUow fore wings, with pale grey cloudings at the hind
margins. It is very abundant in many parts, and flies during the
month of June.

The larva is one of the numerous leaf miners, and is of a
3'ellowish colour. It feeds in oak leaves during the auti;mn, and
its presence is indicated by light blotches on the foliage.

Fk;. 240. — COMPLANELLA — ENLARGED.

Nepticula aurella

The family Nepticulidce — the last of the T/^e^^— contains a
number of little moths, including the smallest of the LepidoiAcra.
Many of them are exceedingly beautiful, being decorated witli

THE MICRO-LEPIDOPTEBA

307

various tints ot a splendid metallic lustre, but their beauty is re-
\ealed only by the use of a magnifying lens, and they are so small
that very great care and patience is required to set them properly.

They may be recognised by their short and thick antennse,
rather large head, broad fore v.ings, and narrow pointed hind
wings.

The larvie have no true legs, but have nine pairs of very
imperfectly developed claspers. They are leaf miners, and are

Fig. 241. — Aukella - Enlarged.

sometimes so abundant that several may be found in a single
leaf.

The species we have selected has fore wings of a rich golden
brown, with deep violet tips, and a broad bar of pale golden yellow
beyond the middle. It may be found throughout the spring and
summer. The larva excavates long irregular burrows in the leaves
of the bramble.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I

I HAVE previously called the reader's attention to our classified list
of butterflies and moths, and have hinted at one or two of the
objects for which it is inserted. It contains the scientific and
popular names of all the British Butterflies, Sphinges, Bomhyces,
Nocfucc, and GeoDtetrce, arranged in tlieir various families and
genera ; and in cases where two specific names are commonly
applied to the same insect, both are given.

Its chief uses to the young entomologist are to show the relation
which the insects bear one to another, and to supply a guide for
the ]"iroper arrangement of the specimens in his cabinet.

The order adopted is that of South's ' Synonymic List of British
Lepidoptera,' and it has already been mentioned that similar
lists, printed on one side of the paper only, may be obtained from
dealers in naturalists' appliances. These, cut up as required, supply
very neat labels for cabinets or store boxes.

COMPLETE CLASSIFIED LIST OF BEITISH
MA CBO-LEFIDOPTEBA

RHOPALOCERA (BUTTERFLIES).

PAPILIONID.E.
Papilio.

Machaon — Swallow Tail
PIEEID.E.

Apoi'ia.
Cratcrgi — Black- veined
White

Pieris.
Brassiccp — Large White
BapcB — Small White
Napi — Green-veined White
Daplidice — Bath White

Euchloe.
Cardamincs— Orange Tip

Leucophasia.

Siu((pis — Wood White
Colias.
Hgale — Vs\Q Clouded Yel-
low
EdHsa—C\o\\die({ Yellow
Gonopteryx.
Bliarirni — Brimstone
NYMPHALIDJi
Argynnis.
Selene— ^maXl Pearl-bordered

Fritillary
EtipJtrosgne — Pearl-bordered
Fritillary

310

APPENDICES

KYMPHALID.E— co?ii.
Argynnis — conf.
Lato)ia —Qneen of Spain
Aglaia — Dark Green Fritil-

lary
Adippe— High. Brown Fri-

tillary
Papilla — Silver- washed
Fritillary
Melitaea.
Aurinia (Artemis) — Greasy

Fritillary
Cina;i«— Glanville Fritillary
Athalia — Heath Fritillarj'
Vanessa.
C- Album — Coniuia
PolijcJdoros — Large Tortoise-
shell
Urticcc — Small Tortoiseshell
lo — Peacock
Antiopa — Caniberwell

Beauty
Atalanta — Red Admiral
Cardui — Painted Lady
Limenitis.
Sibylla — White Admiral
APATURID.E.
Apatura.
Irln — Purple Emperor
SATYRID.E.
Melanargia.

Galatea — Marbled ^Yhite
Erebia.
Epiphron {Cassiope) — Small

Ringlet
JE til lops (Bland Ina) —
Northern Brown (Scotch
Argus)
Pararge.
Egeria — Speclded Wood
Mcgara — Wall
Satyrus.

Semele — Grayling
Epinephele.
lanira — Meadow Brown
Tithonus — Large Heath
(Small Meadow Brown)

Epinephele — co)it.

H[/2^erant]ies—B.ing\et
Caenonympha.
Typlion (Drti;»s)— Marsh

Ringlet
Panijililliis — SuirU. Heath
LYC^NID.E.
Thecla.
Betalo} — Brown Hairstreak
W-Alhum — White-letter

Hairstreak
Pruni — Dark Hairstreak
Quercus —V\\r\Ae Hairstreak
Rubi — Green Hairstreak
Polyommatus.
Dlspar — Large Copper
I^hla'as — Small Copper
Lycaena.
Bietlca — Tailed Blue
Mgon — Silver-studded Blue
Astrarche (Agestls) — Brown

Argus
Icarus (Alexis) — Common

Blue
Bellargus (Adonis) — Chfden

Blue
Cor//£Zon— Chalk -hill Blue
Arg loins — Azure or Holly

Blue
Senilargus (Acls) — Mazarine

Blue
Minima (Alsus) — Small Blue
Arion — Large Blue
ERYCINID.E.
Nemeobius.
Lueina — Duke of Burgundy
HESPERIID.E.
Syrichthus.

MalvcB (Alveolus) — Grizzled
Skipper
Nisoniades.

Pages — Dingy Skipper
Hesperia.
Tlta u mas (L inea) — Small

Skipper
Lineola — New Small Skipper
Aclcp.on — Lul worth Skipper
Sylvanus — Large Skipper

APPENDIX I

511

HESrERIID^— co»f.
Hesperia — CO ;(^
Comma — Silver-spotted Skip-
per

Carterocephalus.

Pahemon {Paniscus) — Che-
quered Skipper

HETEROCERA (MOTHS).
SPHINGES.

SPHINGID.E.
Acherontia.

Atrojios — Death's Head
Hawk Moth
Sphinx.
ConvolvnU^ Coiivolvuhis

Hawk
Lifjndrl — Privet Hawk
Pinastri — Pine Hawk
Deilephila.
Phiphorhiie — Spurge Hawl\
Gain — Bedstraw Hawk
L ivoDi ica — Striped Hawk
Chaerocampa.
Celerio — Silver-striped Hawk
PorceUiis — Small Elephant
Elpcnor — Large Elephant
Smerinthus.
OccUatns -Eyed Hawk
Popidi — Poplar Hawk
Tiliic — Lime Hawk
Macroglossa.
Stellatarum — -Humming-bird

Hawk
Fuciformis — Broad-bordered

Bee Hawk
BombyUfor))iis — Xarrow-
bordered Bee Hawk
SESIID.E.
Trochilium.
Ap ifo rm is— Hornet Clear-
wing of the Poplar
Crahroniformis {Bemhecifor-
mis) — Hornet Clearwing of
Osier
Sciopteron.
Tabaniformis {Vespiformc)
Dusky Clearwiug

Sesia.

Scoliiformis — Welsh Clear-
wing _

Sjjhefjifonnin — "White-barred
Clearwing

Andren ifonnis — Orange-
tailed Clearwing

Tipii liformis — Currant Clear-
wmg

AfiiUform is {Cynipiformis) —
Yellow-legged Clearwmg

Myopiformis — Eed-belted
Clearwing

CiiUciformis — Large Eed-
belted Clearwing

Formiciformis — Pied- tipped
Clearwing

Ichnei())ionif'ormis — Six-
belted Clearwing

Miisciform is (Philanthifor-
mis) — Thrift Clearwing

Cli rysidiformis — Fiery Clear-
wing
ZYG.ENID.E.
Ino.

GlobularicE — Scarce Forester

Staiices — Forester

Geryon — Cistus Forester
Zygaena.

PilosellcE (Minos) — Trans-
parent Burnet

Exulans — Scotch Burnet

Melilofi—'New Forest Burnet

Trifolii — Broad-bordered
Five -spotted Bm-net

LonicercE — Narrow-bordered
Five-spotted Burnet

Filipenduhc — Six-spotted
Burnet

312

APPENDICES

BOMBYCES.

NYCTEOLID.E
Sarothripus.

TJndulanus — Tortrix Moth
Earias.
CliJorana — Cream-bordered
Green
HylopMla.
Prasinana — Green Silver-
lined
Bicolorana (Qaercaiia) —
Lar^e Green Silver-lined
NOLID.E.
Nola.
CncuUatella — Short-cloaked
Strigula — Small Black Ai'ches
Confasalis ( Cristulalis) —

Least Bla.ck Arches
Alhulalis — Kent Arches
Centonalis — Scarce Black
Arches
LITHOSIID.E.
Nudaria.
Sencx — Eound-winged Muslin
Munda na — Muslin Moth
Setina.

Irrordia — Dew Moth
Calligenia,

Miniata — Rosy Footman
(Bed Arches)
Lithosia.
Mesomclla — Four-dotted

Footman
Muscerda — Dotted Footman
Sororcida [Aureola) — Orange

Footman
Luta.rella (Pi/gmceola) —

Pigmy Footman
Griseola (Stramineola) Pale

Footman
Deplana [Helvcola) — Buff

P'ootman
Lurideola {Complaniila) —

Common Footman
Co)iiplana — Scarce Footman
Scricea {Molijbdeohi) —
Leaden Footman

Lithosia — cont.

Caniola — Hoary Footman
Gnophria.

Quadra — Four-spotted Foot-
man

BubricoUis —Pied-necked
Footman
Emydia.

Crlhrum — Speckled Foot-
man
EUCHELIID.E
Deiopeia.

P ulcliella— Crinison Speckled
Euchelia.

Jacohaa; — Cinnabar
Calliniorpha.

DoDLinula — Scarlet Tiger

Hera — Jersev Tiger
CHELONIID.E.
Nemeophila.

Bussula — Clouded Buff

Pla ntag inis — Wood Tiger
Arctia.

Caia — Tiger

Villica — Cream-spot Tiger
Spilosoma.

FuUginosa — Euby Tiger

Mendlca — Muslin

Luhricijjeda — Biiff Ermine

Meiitliastri — White Ermine

Urtica; — Water Ermine
HEPIALID.E.
Hepialus.

Hu)iiuU — Ghost Swift

Sylvanus — Wood SMift

Vellcda — Northern Swift

Lupulinus — Common Swift

Hectus — Gold Swift
COSSID.E.
Cossus.

Lign i per da — Goat
Zeuzera.

Pyrina (^'EArt(//)— Leopard
Macrogaster.

Cafit<(necc {Aru)idinis)—l\eed
Moth

APPENDIX I

31i

COCHLIOPODID.E. i

Heterogenea. !

Limacodes {Testii'lo}— \

Festoon Moth :

Atsella iAseUus)—Tvi-dng\ti '
Moth
LIPARID^. I

Porthesia (Liparis).
CJi runorrlufa—Bwwn Tail
Similis {Aiiri.Jlua)-Ye\\o^v

Tail (Gold Tail)
Leucoma.

Salicis^a-Atm Moth
Lselia.

CcBHOsa— Keed Tussock
Ocneria.
Dlspar — Gipsy
Psilura.

Mona ch cf— Black Arches
Dasychira.
Fa scelina— Dark Tussock
Puilihun (7rt— Pale Tussock
Orgyia.
Go/iosiir/»i((— Scarce

Vapourer
A n fiqn a— Vapour er
BOMBYCID.E.
Trichiura.

Ci(it(Fgi—Tii[e Oak Eggar
PQecilocampa.
Po^>»/;— December Moth
Eriogaster.
Lanestris^Hmall Eggar
Bombyx.
Ne list r ill— 'Lia-ckej
Crtsfre/isrs— Ground Lackey
E«6J— Fox
Quercus — Oak Eggar
TrtfoHi— Grass Eggar
Odonestis.
Poffltoc(«— Drinker
Lasiocampa.
gHe/-c//bZm— Lappet
I/iVi/oZm— Small Lappet
ENDROMID.E

Endromis.

Ve micolor -Kentish Glory

SATURNIID.E.
Saturnia.

Pavonia [Cc(rpini)-'Fjm\^(.'i-ov
DKEPANULID.E.
Drepana.
Lacertimn-ui {La'ccrtula)-

Scalloped Hook Tip
Harpagula (S;'f«/(')— Scarce

Hook Tip
Yalciititria{Falcula)-Ve\M&

Hook Tip
Binaria (Hainida)— Oak

Hook Tip
CuUraria {Uugnicida)—
Barred Hook Tip
Cilix.
Glaucata { Spin id a) -Chmead
Character
DICRANURIDiE.
Dicranura.
Bici(spis—A\Aer Kitten
Fi/,rf(f?«— Sallow Kitten
Bifida— VoiA-AV Kitten
Viinda—'Pui^i^
Stauropus.

J'^rtf/t— Lobster
KOTODONTID.E.
Glypbisia
C';«?Hfl^rt— Dusky Marbled

Brown
Ptilophora.
Plumicjera —Plumed Promi-
nent
Pterostoma.
Palpina — Pale Prominent
Lophopteryx.
CVn«e?;»« — Coxcumb Promi-
nent
Cucidla {CucuUina)—Ma.v\e

Prominent
(7ar»ieZt^rt— Scarce Promi-
nent
Notodonta.
Bicolor— White Prominent
Dic^fZrt— Swallow Promi-
nent
Dic^ceoi^cs— Lesser Swallow
Prominent

314

APPENDICES

^OTODO'RTIBM-conf.
Notodonta — cont.
Dromedaritis — Iron Proiui-

nent
Trilo-plius — Three -humped

Prominent
Ziczac — Pebble Prominent
T repida — Gve&i Prominent
Tri macula (Dodonea) — Mar-
bled Brown
Chaon ia — Lnnar Marbled
Brown

PYG^RID^E.
Phalera.

Buce])liala — Buff Tip
Pygaera (Clostera).

Cur tula — Chocolate Tip

Pygaera — cont.
Anaclioreta — Scarce Choco-
late Tip
Pigya (Eeclusa) — Small
Chocolate Tip
CYMATOPHOEID^.
Thyatira
Derasa — Buff Arches
B((fis — Peach Blossom
Cymatophora,
Octogesima (Ocularis) —

Figure of Eighty
Or — Poplar Liitestring
Duplaris — Lesser Satin
Fluctuosa. — Satin Carpet
Asphalia.
JJiluta — Lesser Lutestring
Flavicornis — Yellow-horned
liidcns — Frosted Green

NOCTU^.

BRYOPHILID.E.
BryopMla.

Alc/cc — Tree Lichen Beauty

Muralis {Glandifcra) — Mar-
bled (Mottled) Green

Par — Scarce Marbled Green

Perla — Marbled Beauty
BOMBYCOID.E.
Moma (Diphthera).

Orion — Scarce Marvel-du-
jour
Demas.

Cor//?i— Nut-tree Tussock
Acronycta.

Tridens — Dark Dagger

Psi — Grey Dagger

Leporina — Miller

Aceris — Sycamore

Megacephala—'PoT^lar Grey

Strigosa — Grisette

Alni — Alder

Ligustri — Coronet

Bumicis — Knot-grass

Auricom a — Scarce Dagger

Menya n thidis — Light Knot-
grass

Acronycta — cont.
EupliorhicB {Mgricce) — ii'weet

Gale
Diloba.
CcETuleoccpliala — Figm^e of
Eight
Arsilonche.
Albovenosa (Vcnosa) — Pow-
dered Wainscot
LEUCANIID.E.
Synia.

Muscu losa — Brighton
Wainscot
Leucania.
Conigera — Brown-line

Bright-eye
Vitellin a — Delicate
T'urca — Double Line
Lithargyria — Cla^'
Albipuncta — White -point
Extranea — American

AVainscot
06soZe<(i— Obscure Wainscot
Putrescens — Devonshire

Wainscot
Littoralis— above Wainscot

APPENDIX I

315

LEUCANIID.E— fo?/i.
Leucania — cont.
1)112) " ^'^ " * * ^" dorina) —

Striped AYainscot
Cr))nma — Shoulder-striped

Wainscot
Strfuiiinea — Southern

"Wainscot
Imjnira — Smoky AVamscot
Fallens — Common Wainscot
Calamia,

Pliragm it id is — Fen Wainscot
Meliana.
Flu )n Diea — Flame A\'ain scot
Senta.

Marifi))ui — Silky Wainscot
Coenobia.
Ftifu — Small Rufous
Tapinostola.
F'ulva — Small Wainscot
HcUm ann i — Mere Wainscot
Extrema (Coiicolor) — Con-

colorous Wainscot
Bvndii — Bond's Wainscot
Ely))u — Lyme Wainscot
Nonagria.
CaiuiiC — -Reed Wainscot
Sjxirganii— Iris Wainscot
Arundinis (Tyjihce) — Bull-
rush
067)1 in ij} 11 71 ci a — Twin-spotted

Wainscot
Ncurica — Nerved Wainscot
B}-evilinea — Fenn's Nonagria
Lutosa — Large Wainscot
APAMEID.E.
Gortyna.
Och i-acea (Flavago) — Frosted
Orange
Hydroecia.
Nictitans— -Golden Ear
Petasitis — Butter-bur
Micacea — Rosy Rustic
Axylia.

Put)-is — Flame
Xylophasia.

i?» rea — Clouded-border
Brindle

Xylophasia — co)it.
L itli oxijlea — Light xVrches
Suhlustris — Reddish Light

Arches
Mo)iogly])ha {Polyodo))) —

Dark Arches
Hepatic a — Clouded Brindle
Scolopaci)ia — ^lewder Cloud-
ed Brindle
Dipterygia.
Scabi-iuscn la {Pin a s tri) — ■
Bird's Wing
Cloantha.
I'olyndon. {Pcrspicillaiis) —
I'urple Cloud
Aporophyla.

Aiistralis — Feathered Brindle
Laphygma.
Exiyua — Small Mottled Wil-
low
Neuria.
lietivnhda {Sapo)iari(r) — •
Bordered Gothic
Neuronia.

Pop)ula)is — Feathered Gothic
Heliophobus.

Hispidus — Beautiful Gothic
Charaeas.

G)'a in in is — Antl er
Pachetra.

Lcncnpluea — Feathered Ear
Cerigo.
Matni'a (Cythei-ea) — Straw
Underwing
Luperina.
Testacea — Flounced Rustic
Dumerili — Dumeril's Lupe-

rina
Cespitis — Hedge Rustic
Mamestra.
Abject a — Crescent Striped
Sofdida iAnce2)s) — Large

Nutmeg
Albicolo)i — White Colon
Furva — Confused
Brassiccc — Cabbage
Pcrs ica )-icc — Dot

31G

APPENDICES

AFAMEID.E-conL
Apamea.

Basilinea — Rustic Shoulder

Knot
Connexa — Union Rustic
Gemina— Dusky Brocade
Unanimis — Small Clouded

Brindle
Opltiogramma — Double

Lobed
Leucostigijia {Fibro}>a) —

Crescent
Ltdi/nia (Oculea) —Common
Rixstic
Miana.
Strig j7is— Marbled Minor
Fasciuncida — Middle-barred

IMinor
Literosa — Rosy Minor
Bicoloria {Funincula) —

Cloaked Minor
^4 rcMosrt— Dotted Butf
Phothedes.

Captluncula — Least Minor
Celaena.
Haiuorthii — Haworth's
Mi]ior
CxiRADRINID.E
Grammesia.
Tyigrammica (Trilinea) —
Treble Lines
Stilbia.
Anomala — Anomalous
Caradrina.
Morplteus — Mottled Rustic
Alsines — Uncertain
Taraxaci {Blanda) —

Rustic
Amhigiia — Ambiguous
Q u adrip unctata, {Cub ic ii -

Zaris) — Pale Mottled Wil-
low
Acosmetia.

Cali// itwsa— Fieddish Buff
Hydrilla.

Palustris—Marsh Moth
Rusina.
Tc iich rasa —Urown Rustic

XOCTUID.E.
Agrotis.

Vestigial is (Valligera)—

Archer's Dart
Puta — Shuttle-shaped Dart
Suff'usa—D&rk Sword Grass
Saiicia — Pearly Underwing
Segetum — Common Dart

(Turnip Moth)
Lunigera — Crescent Dart
E xclamationis — Heart and

Dart
Corticea — Heart and Club
Ciiierea — Light Feathered

Rustic
Bijjce — Sand Dart
C'lirsoria- —Coast Dart
Nigricans — Garden Dart
Tritici — "White -line Dart
Aquilina — Streaked Dart
Obelisca — Square-spot Dart
Agathina — Heath Rustic
Strigula {Porjjhijira) — True

Lover's Knot
Prcecox — Portland
Obscura {Bavida'\ — Stout

Dart
Simu lans {Pgropli ila) —

Dotted Rustic
Lucernea — Northern Rustic
Asliwortltii — Ashworth's

Rustic
Noctua.
Glareosa — Autumn Rustic
Depuncta—VlKin Clay
Augur— Dowhle Dot "
PZec^a— Flame Shoulder
Flammatra—'Blsick Collar
C ■Nigrum — Setaceous

Hebrew Character
D;7;-(7j;f,';'/«»i— Triple-spotted

Clay
Triangulum — Double- spotted

Square-spot
Stigmatica (Ehomboidca) —

Square -spotted Clay
Brunnca— Purple Clay

APPEXDTX I

317

NOCTUID.E~roH/.
Noctua — CO lit.
Festiva {Conflun) — Ingvailed

Clay
Dahlii — Barred Chestnut
Sub rosea — Kosy Marsh
Biibi — Small Square-spot
Uinhrosa — Six-striped Rustic
Baia — Dotted Clay
Sohrinn — Cousin German
Cdsta n ea ( Neglecta)-— Grey

liustic
Xantliograplia — Square -spot
liustic
Triphaena.
Liutlihtd — Lesser Broad

Border
Fimbria — Broad- bordered

Yellow Underwing
Inter jecta — Least Yellow

Underwing
Orhona ( Subseqiia) — Lunar

Yellow Underwing
Comes (Orbnna) — Lesser

Y'^ellow Underwing
Pronuba — Large Yellow
Underwing
AMPHIPYElb.E.
Amphipyra.
Pynnii idea — Copper Under-
wing
Traciopogonis — Moixse
Mania.
Typica — Gothic
Maura — Old Lad}'
0RTH0S1ID.E.
Panolis.

Piniperda — Pine Beauty
Fachnobia.
Leiicograplia — White-
marked
Rubricosa —Red Chestnut
Hifperborea (Cam ica) — ■
Mountain Rustic
Taeniocampa.
Gotli ica — Hebrew Character
Iiicerta (InstabiUs) — Clouded
Drab

Tffiniocampa — co)i t.
0/JUH a.— Northern Drab
Pojmleti — Lead-coloured

Dral)
Stahilis — Common Quaker
Gracilis — Powdered Quaker
Miniosa — Blossom Under-
wing
Miinda — Twin-spotted

Quaker
Pulreruleuta (Cruda) — Small
Quaker
Orthosia.
Siispecta — Suspected
rj>s<7on — Dismal
Lota — Red-lined Quaker
Macilen ta — Y^ellow-lined
Quaker
Anchocelis.
Biifina — Flounced Chestnut
Pistacina — Beaded Chestnut
Liinosa — Lunar Underwing
Litiira — Brown-spot Pinion
Cerastis (Glaea).
Vaccin ii — Chestmit
SjJadicea — Dark Chestnut
ErijtlirocephaJa — Red-headed
Scopelosoma,

Satcllitia — Satellite
Dasycampa.
Pubir/inea — Dotted Chestnut
Oporina.
Croceago — Orange Upper-
wing
Xanthia.
Citragn — Orange Sallow
Fulvago (Cerago) — Sallow
Flavago (Silago) — Pink-
barred Sallow
Alt rago — Barred Sallow
Gilvago — Dusky Lemon

Sallow
CircrtJuris {Femiginea) —
Brick
Cirrhoedia.
Xeranqjelina — Centre-barred
Sallow

318

APPENDICES

COSMIID.E.
Tethea.
Siibfiisa — Olive
Eetusa — Double Kidney
Cosmia (Euperia).
Paleacea (Fulvago) — Angle-
striped Sallow
Dicycla.
Oo— Heart Moth
Calymnia.
Traper.ina — Dun-bar
PyraUna — Liuiar- spotted

Pinion
Diifinis — "White-spotted

Pinion
Affinis — Lesser-spotted Pinion
HADENID.E.
Eremobia.

OcJi roleuca — Dusky Sallow
Dianthoecia.
Liiteago {Barretii) — Barrett's

Marbled Coronet
Ccesia — Grey Marbled Coronet
Nana {Conspersa) — Marbled

Coronet
Albimacula — White Spot
Comjjta — The Shears
Cai^sincola — Lychnis
Cucuhali — Campion
Car2)opliaga — Tawny Shears
Capsopliila — Pod-lover
Irregularis {Echii) — Viper's

Bugloss
Hecatera
Clirysozona (Dijsodea ) —

Small Eanunculus
Seren a — Broad-barred White
Polia.
C;;i— Grey Chi
Fla vicincta — Large Pianun-

culus
Xanthomista (Nigrocincta) —
Black- banded
Dasypolia.

Tinnpli — Brindled Ochre
Epunda.
L ichcnea — Feathered Pianun-
culus

Epunda — covf.
Lutulen ta — Deep-brown Dart
Nigra — Black PiiTstic
Cleoceris.
T7h( inalis — Minor Shoulder-
knot
Valeria.
Oleagina — Green-brindled
Dot
Miselia.
Orgacanthce — Green-brindled

Crescent
i?(mac?(?osa— Crescent
Agriopis.
Aprilina — Marvel-du-jour
Euplexia.

Lucipara — Small Angle-
shades
Phlogophora.

Meticniosa — Angle-shades
Trigonophora.
Fla 111 niea (Empyrea) — Flame
Brocade
Aplecta.
Prasina {Herbida)— Green

Arches
Occulta — Great Brocade
Nebulosa— Grey Arches
Tincta — Silvery Arches
Advena — Pale Shining Brown
Crymodes.
E-niliH {Assim His) — Northern
Arches
Hadena.
Porphyrea (Satura) — Beauti-
ful Brocade
Adusta — Dark Brocade
Protea — Brindled Green
Glauca — Glaucous Shears
Dentina — Grey Shears
Trifolii iChenopodii) — Nut-
meg
Atriplicis — Orache
Dissim His (Suasa) — Dog's

Tooth
Oleracea — Bright-line Brown-
eye
Pisi — Broom

APPENDIX I

319

HADENID.E— CO/?;.
Hadena — cont.
Thalassina — Pale-shouldered

Brocade
Contigiia — Beautiful Brocade
Genistce — Light Brocade
Bectilinea — Saxon
XYLIXID-E.
Xylocampa.
Areola {Litlioriza) — Earlv

Grey
Xylomiges,

Conspicillaris — Silver Cloud
Calocampa.
Vetusta — Red Sword Grass
Exoleta — Sword Grass
SoUdaginis — Golden-rod
Brindled
Xylina.
(Jj-nitJiopus {BhizoUtlia) —

Grey Shoulder Knot
Semihrunnea — Tawny Pinion
Socia {Petrificata) — Pale

Pinion
Furcifera {Conformis) — Con-
formist
Lamhda — Nonconformist
Asteroscopus.
Nubectilosa — Piannoch

Sprawler
S2)h in.c [Cassuiea) — Sprawler
Cucullia.
Verbasci — Mullein Shark
Scroj^hii lav ice — Betony Shark
Lyclmitis — Lychnis Shark
Asteris — Starwort Shark
Gnaplialii — Cudweed Shark
Absinthii — ^Yormwood Shark
ChamomiUce — Chamomile

Shark
Umbratica — Shark
GONOPTEEID.E.
Gonoptera.
Lihatrix — Herald
PLUSIID^.
Habrostola.
Tripartita (Urticce) — Light
Spectacle

Habrostola — con f.

Triplasia — Dark Spectacle
Plusia.
Chrijson(Oriclialcea) — Scarce

Burnished Brass
Clirysitis — Burnished Brass
Bractea — Gold Spangled
Festucce — Gold Spot
Iota — Plain Golden Y
Pulch rina — Beautiful

Golden Y
Gamiiia — Silver y
luterrogationis — Scarce
Silver Y
HELIOTHID^.
Anarta.
Melanopa — Broad - bordered

White Underwing
Cordigera — Small Dark Yel-

lov/ Underwing
Mijrtilli — Beautiful Yellow
Underwing
Heliaca (Heliodes).
Tencbrata (Arbiiti) — Small
Y'ellow Underwing
HeliotMs.
Dipsacea — Marbled Clover
Scutosa — Rare Marbled

Clover
Peltigera — Bordered Straw
A rmigcra — Scarce Bordered
Straw
Chariclea.
Umbra (Marginata) —
Bordered Sallow
ACOXTIID.E.
Agrophila.
Trabealis {Sulplmralis) —
Spotted Sulphur
Acontia.
Luctu osa — Four- spotted
ERASTRIID^.
Erastria.
Fasciana (Fuscu Ja) — Marbled

White Spot
VcnustuIa—'Hosy Marbled
Baukia.
Argent ula — Silver-barred

320

APPENDICES

ERASTRIID.E— eoH^
Hydrelia.
Unctda (Unca) — Silver Hook
ANTHOPHILID.E.
Thalpocliares (Micra).
Ostrina — Purple Marbled
Parva — Small Marbled
Paula — Scarce Marbled
POAPHILID.E.
Phytometra.
1 'iridaria (^Enea) — Small
Piu-ple-barred
EUCLIDIID.E.
Euclidia.
Ml — Mother Shipion
Glijpliica — Burnet Noctua
OPHIUSID.E.
OpModes.

Lunar is — Lunar Double Stripe
CATEPHIID.E.
CatepMa.
A Ich ijm ista — Alch vniist
CATOCALID.E.
Catocala.
Fraxini — Clifden Nonpareil
Nupta — Red Underwinp
Proniissa — Light Crimson

LTnderwint^
Sponsa — Dark Crimson
Underwing
AVENTIID.E.
Aventia.
Fleriila — Scallop Barred
TOXOCAMPIDyE.
Toxocampa,
Pastinum — Black Neck
Craccce — New Black Neck

BOLETOBIID.E.
Boletobia.

Fn I iq inm -ia — Wave d Bl ack
HERMINIID.E.
Rivula.

Sericcalis — Straw Dot
Zanclognatha.
Grisealis — Lesser Fan-foot
Tarsipeiiva lis — Fan-foot
EmorUialis — Olive Crescent
Herminia.
Crihralis — Dotted Fan-foot
Berivalis — Clay Fan-foot
Pechypogon.
Barhalis — Common Fan-
foot
HYPENID^.
Madopa.

Salicalis — Lesser Belle
Bomolocha.
Font is {Crassalis) — Beauti-
ful Snout
Hypena.
Bostralis — Lesser Snout
Prnboscidalis — Snout
Hypenodes.
Alb istriga I is — White - streak
Cosfcestrigalis — Ribbed-
streak
Tholomiges (Schrankia).
TnrfosaJis — Tiny Snout
BREPHIDES.
Brephos.
Pa rthenias — Orange Under-
wing
Notha — Light Orange Under-

GEOMETR^.

UROPTERYGID.E.
TJropteryx.

Sa n 1 h u ca via ( Sam b u ca fa) -
Swallow Tail
ENNOMID.E.
Epione.
Pa )■(! Jlcla ria { Vespcrtaria)—
Dark-bordered Beauty

Epione — cont.

Apiciaria — Bordered Beauty

Advenaria. — Little Thorn
Bumia.

Luicolata (Crafo'gata) —
Brimstone
Venilia.

Macular ia — Speckled Yellow

APPENDIX I

321

ENNOMID.E^coH^.
Angeroua.
PriDiarla — Orange Moth
Metrocampa.
Mfirt/aritaria — Light Eine-
raid
Ellopia.
Prosapiaria (Fasciaria) —

Barred Eed
Euryiuene.
Dolohyayia— Scorched Wing
Pericallia.

Si/riiigaria — Lilac Beauty
Seleiiia.
BiliDiafia {lUunaria) — Early

Thorn
Lunaria — Lunar Thorn
Tetrahinaria {lUiisfraria) —
Pui'ple Thorn
Odontopera.

Bidcntata — Scalloped Hazel
Crocallis.

Elinguaria — Scalloped Oak
Eugonia.
Aiitiimnaria {Alniaria) —

Large Thorn
A Iniaria (Tiliaria) — Canary-
shouldered Thorn
Fuscantaria — Dusky Thorn
Erosaria — September Thorn
Quercinaria (Angularia) —
August Thorn
Himera.
Pcnnaria — Feathered Thorn
AMPHIDASYD.E.
Phigalia.
Pcdaria (Pilosaria) — Pale
Brindled Beauty
Nyssia.
Zonaria — Belted Beauty
Hisjndaria — Small Brindled

Beauty
Laiypoiia via — Rare Brindled
Beauty
Biston.
Hirtaria — Brindled Beauty

Amphidasys.
Strata ria {Prodromarla) —

Oak Beauty
Bctularia — Peppered Moth
BOARMIIILE.
Hemerophila.

Ahriiptaria — ^\'aved Umber
Cleora.
Angularia (Viduaria) —

Speckled Beaut^y
Glahraria — Dotted Carpet
L icJt en a r ia — Brussels L ace
Boarmia.
Rcpandata — jMuttled Beauty
Gemmaria {lihovtholdaria) — ■

Willow Beaut,>'
Ah icta ria — Satin Carpet
a net aria — Piinged Carpet
Boboraria — Great Oak

Beauty
Consortaria — Pale Oak
Beauty
Tephrosia.
Consonaria — Square Spot .
Crepuscularia — Small

Engi'ailed
Biunditlaria — Engrailed
Liiridata {Extersaria) —

Brindled "SMiite-spot
Punct u la ria — Grey Birch
Gnophos.

Ohscuraria — Annulet
Dasydia.

Ohfnscaria — Scotch Annulet
Psodos.
Coracina (T repidaria) —
Black Mountain Moth
GEOMETRID.E.
Pseudoterpna.
Pruinata ( Cytlsarla) — Grass
Emerald
Geometra.
Papilionaria — Large Eme-
rald
i TV;'»rtri'rt'- Small Emerald
I Phorodesma.

Piistnhita {Bajalnri(t) —
I Blotched Emerald

322

APPENDICES

GEOMETRID.E— co7?f.
Phorodesma — cont.
Smaragdaria — Essex Eme-
rald
Nemoria.
Viridata — Small Grass Eme-
rald
lodis.

Lactearia — Little Emerald
Hemithea.
Strigata ( Thymiaria) — Com -
mon Emerald
EPHYRID.E.
Zonosoma.
Porata — False Mocha
Punctaria — Maiden's Blush
Linear la [Trilinearia) — Clay

Triple-lines
Annulata {Om icronaria) —

Mocha
Orhicidaria — Dingy Mocha
Pendidaria — Birch Mocha
ACIDALIID^.
Hyria.
Mu rica ta {A uroraria) —
Golden-bordered Pm'ple
Asthena.
L^iteata — Small Yellow

Wave
Candidafa — Small White

Wave
Sylvaia — Waved Carpet
Blomeri (Pulchraria) —
Blomer's Rivulet
Eupisteria.
Obliferata {Heparata) —
Dingy Shell
Venusia.
CoDihrica (Camhricaria) —
Welsli Wave
Acidalia.
Pt';oc7; ytnirt — Ochraceous

Wave
OcJwata — Bright Wave
Bubiffinata {Ruhricata) —

Tawny Wave
Dimidiata {Scutidata) —
Single -dotted Wave

Acidalia — cont.
Biscta ta — Small Fan-footed

\^^ave
Trigeminata — Treble Brown-
spot
Contlguaria — Greening's

Wave
Rasticata — Least Carpet
Holosericata — Silky Wave
Dilutarla {Interjectaria) —

Dark Cream Wave
Virgidaria {Incanaria) —

Small Dusty Wave
Circellata. — Circellate
Ornata, — Lace Border
Marginepunctata (Prom u-

tata) — Mullein Wave
Straminata — Dotted-

bordered Cream Wave
Snbsericcata — Satin Wave
Immutata — Lesser Cream

Wave
Strigarla — Streaked Wave
Remutaria — Cream Wave
Fumata — Smoky Wave
Strigilaria (Prataria) — Sub-
angled Wave
Imitaria — Small Blood-vein
Emutaria — Ros}' Wave
Aversata — Riband Wave
Inornata — Plain Wave
Degeneraria — Portland

Riband Wave
Emarginata — Small Scallop
Timandra.
Amataria — Blood-vein
CABERID.E.
Cabera.
Pasaria — Common White

Wave
Rotundaria — Round- winged

Wave
Exanthemata — Common

Wave
Bapta.
Tcmcrata — Clouded Silver
Bimaculata (Tatninata) —

White-pinion Spotted

APPENDIX I

32n

CABEPiID.E— ro?!i'.
Aleucis.

Pictaria — Sloe Cavpet
MACAEIID.E.
Macaria.
Alteniata — Sharp-angled

Peacock
Notata — Peacock
Lifurata — Tawny-barred
Angle
Halia.
Vanaria (Wavaria) — V IMotli
Bru nneata {Pinetaria) —
Rannoch Geometer
FIDONIID.E.
Strenia.

Clatlira ta — Latticed Heath
Panagra.

Pefraria — Brown Silver-line
Numeria.
Pulvcraria- Barred Umber
Scodiona.
BeJgiaria — Grey Scalloped

Bar
Selidosema.
Ericctaria {Plumaria) — Bor-
dered Grey
Fidonia.
Carhonaria — Netted Moim-

tain
Limba via ( Con^j^icuafa) —
Frosted Yellow
Ematurga.

Atomarin — Common Heath
Bupalus.

Piniaria — Bordered White
Minoa.
Miirinata {Eupliorhiata) —
Drab Geometer
Scoria.
Linca ta (Deo Iha ta) — Black -
veined
Aplasia.

Oiionar la — Pi e st - h arro w
Sterrha.
Sacraria — Vestal

Lythria.
Purpuraria — Purple-barred
Yellow
Aspilates.
St rig ill a via — Grass ^Vave
Ochrearia (Citraria) — Yellow

Belle
Gilvaria — Straw Belle
ZERENID.E.
Abraxas.
Grossularia ta — Currant Moth

(Magpie) ^
Sijlvata ilJJmata) — Cloiided
Magpie
Ligdia.
Adustata — Scorched Carpet
Lomaspilis.
Mai'fjiiiata— Clouded Border
LIGIliXE.
Pachycnemia.
Hippocafitanaria — Horse
Chestnut
HYBERNITD.E.
Hybernia.
B upicapira via — Early Moth
Lciicopliccaria — Spring Usher
Anrantiaria — Scarce Umber
Marginaria {Progemm aria)

Dotted Border
Dcfolia ria— Mottled Umber
Anisopteryx.
^E scuta ria. —March Moth
LARENTIID^.
Cheimatobia.
ij;<<»?((ffl— Winter Moth
Boreata— Northern Winter
Moth
Oporabia.
Dilutata — Novemljer ]\roth
Filiqrnniiuaria - Autuujual

Moth
Autumnaria
Larentia.
Did 11 mat a — Twin-spot Cai'pet
Mil Itistriga ria — Mottled

Grey
Ccpsiata — Grey Mountain
Carpet

Y 2

324

APPENDICES

LARENTIID^— ro?)^.
Larentia — cont.
Flavicinctata {Buficmctata)

Yellow-ringed Carpet
6Vf ?iV(7f rt — Sti'iped Twin-spot

Carpet
Olivata — Beech-green Carpet
Viridn ria {Pectinitaria) —

Green Carpet
Emmelesia.
Affinitatn — Eivnlet
A IcliemiUata — Hmall Rivulet
Alhulata — Grass Rivulet
Decolorata — Sandy Carpet
Tceniafa — Barred Carpet
Unifasciata — Haworth's

Carpet
Minorata (Ericetata) — Heath

Rivulet
Adcvqiiata {Bland lata) —

Pretty Pinion
Eupithecia.
Venosata, — Netted Png
Consignata — Pinion-spotted

Pug
Linariata — Toadflax Pug
Pulcliellata — Foxglove Pug
Oblongata. (Centaureata) —

Lime-speck
Succenturiata — Bordered

Lime-speck
Subfulvata — Tawny-speckled

Pug
Sea b iosa fa ( Subn m b ra ta) —

Shaded Pug
Pernotata — Guenee's Pug
Plumbeolata — Lead-coloured

Pug
Isogrammaria — Haworth's

Pug
Pygmcrata — Marsh Pug
Helve ticaria — E dinbiirgh Pug
Egenaria — Pauper Pug
Satyr at a — Satyr Pug
Castigata — Grey Pug
Jasioneata — Jasione Pug
Trisiynaria — Triple-spotted

Pug

Eupithecia — co n t.
Virgaureata — Golden-rod

Pug
Fraxinata — Ash -tree Pug
Extensaria — Scarce Pug
Pimjyinetlata — Pimpinel Pug
Valeriana ta — Valerian Pug
Pusillata — Dwarf Pug
Irriguata — Marbled Pug
Cami^anulata — Campanula

Pug
Tnnotata — Long- winged Pug
Indigata — Ochreous Pug
Constrictata — Wild Thvme

Pug
Nanata — Karrow-winged Pug
Snbnotata — Plain Pug
Vulgata —Common Png
A Ihipun eta ta — White-spotted

Pug
Ex2)allidata — Bleached Pug
Absinth ia ta — Wormwood

Pug
Minutata — Ling Pug
Assimila ta — Currant Pug
Tenuiata. — Slender Pug
Subeiliata — Maple Pug
Lariciata — Larch Pug
Abbreviata — ll^\■'va([\e^ Pug
Dodoneata — Oak-tree Pug
Exiguata — IMottled Pug
Ultim aria — Tamarisk Pug
Sobrinata — Juniper Pug
Togafa — Cloaked Pug
Pmnilata — Double-striped

Pug
Coronata — V Pug
Bectangulata — Green Pug
Dcbiliata — Bilberry Pug
CoUix.

Sparsata — Dentated Pug
Lobophora.
Scxalisata (Sexalata) — Small

Seraphim
Halt era ta, {Hexa2)tcra ta) —

Sei'aphim
Fire^nf /rt — Yellow-barred

Bi'indle

APPENDIX I

325

LARENTIID/E- conf.
Lobophora — co)i t.
Carpi nata (Lobulata) — Early

Tooth-striped
Pohjcommata — Barred

Tooth-striped
Thera.
Juiiiperata — Juniper Carpet
Siriiidata — Chestnut-coloured

Carpet
Variata [Obeliscata) —

Shaded Broad-bar
Firmata — Pine Carpet
Hypsipetes.
Puherata — Buddy High-tlier
Trifdseidta (Impluviata) —

May High-ilier
So rdida ta [Ehita ta) — July

Hi,t(h-tlicr
Melanthia.
Bicolorata {Bi(higinaia) —

Blue-bordered Carpet
OceUaia — Purple Bar
AlhlciUata — Beautiful Carpet
Melanippe.
Hastata — Ar<,'ent and Sal tie
I';/sfrt^rt — Small Argent and

Sable
Pyocellata — Chalk Carpet
Unanfjiilata — Sharp-angled

Carpet
Bivata — Wood Carpet
Sociata (Subtristata) — Com-
mon Carpet
Montcmata — Silver-ground

Carpet
Galiata — Galium Carpet
Fluctua ta — Garden Carpet
Auticlea.
Cncuilata (Siiniata) — Pi03'al

Mantle
Pubidatu — Flame
Badiata — Shoulder Stripe
Nigrofasciaria (Deriva ta) —

Streamer
Bcrberata — Barberry Carpet
Coremia.
Miinitata- Bed Carpet

Coremia — cont.
Des ignata {Propugnata) —

Flame Carpet
Ferrugata — Bed Twin- spot

Carpet
TJnidentaria — Dark-barred

Twin-spot Carpet
Q u adr i fascia ria — L arge

Twin-spot Carpet
Camptogramma.
BHiiicata—YaWow Shell
Flu r lata— Gem
Phibalapteryx.
Ttnsata — Fern
Lapidata — Slender-striped

Rufous
Vittata (L ignata) — Oblique

Carpet
Pohjgramniata {Conjmic-

taria) — Many-lined
J'ifalbata — Small Waved

Umber
Triphosa.

Dubitata — Tissue
Eucosmia.
Cert a ta — Scarce Tissue
TJii da la ta — Scalloped Shell
Scotosia.
Vetulata — Brown Scallop
Phamnata — Dark Umber
Cidaria.
Sitcrata (Psittacata) — Bed-
green Carpet
Miata — Autumn Green Carpet
Picata — Short-cloak Carpet
Corijlata — Broken-barred

Carpet
Sag itta ta — Marsh Carpet
Trancata (Pussata) — Com-
mon Marbled Carpet
Immana ta — Dark Mai'bled

Carpet
Suffumata — Water Carpet
Bcticulata— Netted Carpet
Silaceata — Small I'hcjenix
Prunata (Ribesiaria) —

Phoenix
Tcstata — Chevron

326

APPENDICES

LAKENTIID.E— fo«^
Cidaria — cont.
Pojiulata — Northern Spinach
Fulvata — Barred Yellow
Dotata {Pyraliata) — Barred

Straw
Associata {Dotata) — Spinach
Pelurga.
Comitata — Dark Spinach
EUBOLIID.E.
Eubolia.
Ccrvinata {Cervinaria) —

IMallow
L iiii ita ta (Menauraria) —

Small Mallow
Pluinharia {Palnmljuria} -

Belle
Bljjimctaria — Challi Carpst

Mesotype.

Vircfata (Lineolata) —
Oblique-striped
Carsia.
Paludata {Tmhuiata) — Man-
chester Treble Bar
Anaitis.

Plagiata — Treble Bar
Lithostege.

(rrifieata — Pale Grey Carpet
Chesias.
Spa rt ia ta — Streak
Riifata {OhUquaria) —
Broom Tip
SIONID.E.
Tanagra.
Atrata {Clueropli ijtlata) —
Chimney Sweep

APPENDIX II

THE LEPIDOPTERIST'S CALENDAR

Thk success of the country rambles of an expert lepidopterist de-
pends greatly on his knowledge of the times at which the various
butterflies and moths generally appear, and of the localities which
they are known to frequent. The experiences he has gained in the
past enable him to calculate on the probabilities of the future, and
he chooses both time and locality according to his requirements.

As he makes his way to the hunting ground he counts over the
chances of meeting with a certain insect that is wanted to till a
long-standing blank in his cabinet ; and we hear him discussing the
probabilities as to whether this species is yet ' out,' or whether the
larvte of that species are feeding.

How different it is with the young and unguided entomologist !
He rambles promiscuously here and there, having only the faintest
idea as to what he is likely to see, and perhaps meeting with only
four or five species when an experienced collector, without covering
a larger area of ground, would take scores in the same time.

In order to atford some little help to the beginner, I have
thought it advisable to introduce a calendar of operations to guide
him in his work. The space at our command would not allow this
to be carried out in detail, but tlie general instructions will un-
doubtedly assist most of my readers until the practical experience
gained by a few years' work has enabled them to riui on their o\\'n legs.

APPENDIX II 327

Of course, in making reference to the monthly hsts of insects on
the wing, allowance mnst be made for the forwardness or backward-
ness of the seasons. Thus, an insect entered in the April list may
appear in March in an exceptionally warm season, but may not
emerge till the early part of May if the spring has been unusually
severe.

It will be observed that in cases where all the species of a
certain genus or family appear on the wing in the same month, the
name of that genus or family is entered on the list instead of the
names of the individual species ; but the latter can easily be obtained
by reference to Appendix I.

JANUARY

There is not much field work to be done during this month. If
the weather is very severe, hardly an insect will be found on the
wing ; but a mild January will sometimes entice the Brimstone
ButterHy {Rhavini) and some of the hybernating "N'anessas fi'om
their winter quarters.

Hj'bernating moths maj' also be met with, on the wing if the
weather is mild, or sleeping in their sheltered nooks dming the
frosts. These include several Noctuce — Auriconta, Litliargijria,
Suffusa, Vaccinii, Spadicea, Eri)throcepliala, Satellitia, Buhiginea,
Croceago, Vetusta, Exoleta, Oniitliopiis, Furcifera, Semibrunnea,
Socia, and Lihatrix ; and also a few Gcomctrcc — Zonaria,
Fluviata, Duhitata, Siterata, and Miata.

In addition to these hybernating insects, the collector may
examine tree trunks and fences for the Early Moth {Rupicapraria),
and late specimens of the "Winter Moth (Brumata) ; and towards the
end of the month he may expect to meet with fresh specimens of
the Pale Brindled Beauty {Pcdaria) and the Spring Usher [Lcuco-
pliaaria). A few of the Tinecc may also be seen.

The net need not be used at all during the colder months of the
year, as the moths are easily taken in pill boxes from the trunks
and fences on which they rest.

Pupa digging maj' be carried on throughout the month if the
A\ Gather is sufticientl3^ mild, but it is of no use attempting this
during a fi-ost. Hybernating larvte may also be searched out of
their winter quarters if the collector does not mind giving them the
attention they require ; but, as a rule, it is better to wait till they
themselves start out to feed in the spring, at which time all their
food plants are showing leaf.

FEBRUARY

Our remarks under ' January ' concerning pupa digging and
other work apply e(j[ualJy well to this month. The same hybernat-
ing butterdies and moths mav be looked for ; and, in addition to

328 APPENDICES

Pedarla, Leucojjho'aria, and BiipicaiJraria, which now appear
more plentiful^, the following species will probably be seen :

Small Eggar (Lanesfris) | Oak Beautj^ {Strataria)

Small Brindled Beaixty {His- I Dotted Border (Marginaria)
2)idaria) | March ]\Ioth {JEscularia)

About half a dozen species of the TinecE will also have made
their appearance before the end of the month.

MARCH

Many of the hybernating larvae will come out during March if
the weather is mild, and commence to feed ; and the young cater-
pillars will begin to appear from the eggs of the early moths already
named. This is consequently a good time to commence the search
for larvae if you intend to go in for rearing. During the daytime
some maj^ be beaten fi-om the boughs of trees and shrubs : and those
which feed on low plants, being generally noctm'nal in their habits,
should be searched for in the evening, after dark, with the aid of a
lantern.

The hybernating butterflies are now flying more freely than
before, and, if the weather is bright and warm for the time of year,
a few freshly emerged species may be seen. These may possibly
include :

Large White (Brassiccc) \ Green-veined White {Ncq)!)

Small White (Rapcc) \ Holly Blue {Argiolas)

As regards motlis, several fresh species may be expected to
appear, while those named as appearing in February are still to be
found. The new-comers may include :

Bombyces. j Noctuae — conf.

Kentish Glory (Versicolor) \ Green-brindled Dot (Oleagiiia)

Orange Underwing (P((r-

thenias)
Light Oi-ange Underwing
{Notlm)
Geometrae.
Early Thorn (BihniariiA
Engrailed (Binndnl(iri(()
Mottled Grey {Multistricjurin)

Yellow-horned (Flavicorn is)
Noctuae.
Pine Beauty (Pirujwrda)
White-marked Rustic (Leuco-

graxiha)
Pied Chestnut (Bubricosa)
All species of the genus Tccnio-

cfDtipa
Early Grey (Areola)

Sugaring may be commenced towards the end of March, and
sallow blossom may be searched in the evening, but it is probable
that only a few species will be taken by these means.

A few more species of the Tim'cc appear in Rfarch, and four or
five of the Toririccs are out before the end of the month.

APPENDIX II

329

APEIL

This is really a busy month with the entomologist, and it will
be necessary to put all apparatus and appliances into perfect order
early. The cyanide bottle should be freshly charged, nets examined
and repaired if necessary, and all setting boards, breeding cages
&c. put in perfect trim for the new season's work.

Larvae are now feeding freely, and a few hours spent in beating,
swee.oing, and searching will enable you to stock 3'our cages
liberally.

Sugaring inay be continued throughout the month, and the
sallow blossom may be searched as long as it proves attractive.
Motlis may also be attracted by light at night.

Tlie following butterflies are generally out during April, in
addition to the hybernated species already named :

Large White {Brassicce)
Small White (Bajja')
Green-veined White (iVrt^ji)
Orange Tip {Cardamines)
Wood White {Sinapis)
Pearl-bordered Fritillary
{Enpliroiiijnc)

Speckled Wood (Egeria)
Green Hairstreak (Eubi)
Small Copper {Pkhjeas)
Holly Blue {Argiolus)
Grizzled Skipper (Malvcr)
Dingy Skipper (Tagcs)

The following is a list of the principal moths for April :

Bombyces.
Snuxll Lappet (lUcifolia)
Kentish Glory {Versicolor)
Yellow Horned (Flavicornis)
Frosted Green (Bidens)
Noctuse.
Tine Beauty (Pi)ii2yerda)
White-marked liustic {Leaco-

graplia)
Red Chestm;t (Rubricosa)
All species of the genus

TcE7iiocampa
Early Grey (Areola)
Mullein Shark ( Verbasci)
Orange Underwing [ParlJic-

nias)
Light Orange Underwing

(Notha)
Geometrae.
Brimstone (Luteolata)
Early Thorn (Bilunaria)
Belted Beauty {Zonarid)

Geometrae — cont.
Brindled Beauty (Hirtarid)
Waved Umber (Ahruptaria)
Small Engrailed {Crepuncu-

laria)
Engrailed (Bin ndularid)
Sloe Carpet (Pictarid)
Netted Mountain (Carbonaria)
Mottled Grey (Midtistrigaria)
Satyr Piig (Satyrafa)
Marbled Pug (Irriguata)
Campanula Pug (Campann-

lata)
Brindled Pug (Ahbreviata)
Oak-tree Pug (Dodoneata)
Double-striped Pug (Pitmilata)
Early Tooth- striped (Cetr-

p/iiiata)
Shoulder Stripe (Badiata)
Many -lined (Polygrammata)
Tissue {Duhitata)

330

APPENDICES

In addition to the above, a few species of the TortriccSj several
oi the Tinece, and one or two of the Phime Moths (PtcropJiori) are
out during April.

MAY

Little or nothing will be obtained by digging during Maj', yet a
number of pupae may be found among grass and leaves imder
trees, and also attached to the leaves and stems of low plants.
These pupae include those of several of the butterflies, among which
may be mentioned Macliaon, Selene, Enjyhrosyne, Aurinia, Megcera,
lanira, Biibi, Astrarche, Icarus, Bellargus, Corydon, Lucina, and
SijlvanKs.

Larvae may now be taken in abundance by beating the boughs
of oaks and other trees, and also by examining low j)lants.

The hybernating butterflies are still on the wing, and the
followin>r are also out :

Swallow Tail (Machaon)
Large White (Brassicce)
Small White {BaiJCB)
Green-veined White (Najn)
Bath White (DapJidice)
Orange Tip {Cardamines)
Wood White {Sinajyis)
Small Pearl-bordered (Selene)
Pearl-bordered {Eujyhrosyne)
Greasj' Fritillary (Aurinia)
Glanville Fritillary (Cinxia)
Speckled Wood (Egeria)

Wall (Megcera)
Marsh Ringlet (Tyjjhov)
Small Heath (PampJtihis)
Green Hairstreak (Bubi)
Small Copper (Phloeas)
Brown Argus (Astrarche)
Common Blue (Icarus)
Clifden Blue (Bellargus)
Holly Blue (Argiolus)
Mazarine Blue (Seniiai-gus)
Grizzled Skipper (Malvce)
Chequered Skipper (PaUemon)

There is a great increase in the number of moths this month,
and much good work may be done by means of light traps and by
the examination of fences. Many moths are driven from their
resting places early in the morning by the direct rays of the rising
sun, and then seek out a spot where they are better sheltered, and
where they are consequently less easily found. Hence the advan-
tage of searching fences early in the morning.

The Mav list includes :

Sphinges.

Small Elephant (Porcellus)
All species of the genera Sme-

rintJtus and Macroglossa
Some of the Clearwings (Ajn-

fonnis, Sphegiformis, and

CuUciformis)
Cream-bordered Green (Ohio-

rana)
Green Sih^er-lined t^Prasinana)

Bombyces.

Wood Tiger (Plantayiuis)
Muslin Moth (Mcnd'ica)
Common Swift (Lupulimis)
Pale Tussock (Pudibunda)
Small Lappet (Ilicifolia)
Emperor (Pavairia)
All species of family DrcjnDiu-

lidce
Alder Kitten (Bicusjns)

APPENDIX II

331

Bombyces — cont.
Puss (Vinula)

Several of the ' Promiiients '
(Cuculla, Carmelita,Dk-tcea,
Dictceoides, Trilophus, Zic-
zac, Trepida, Chaouia, Tri-
macula)
Chocolate Tip {Curtula)
Small Chocolate Tip (Pigra)
Noctuae.
Knot Grass (EtiDiicis)
Sweet Gale [Myriccp)
AMaite Colon (AJbicolon)
Cabbage (Brassicce)
Treble Lines {Trigrammica)
Marsh Moth (Palustris)
Light Brocade [Genistce]
Mullein Shark {Verhasci)
Eetony Shark (Scrophularice)
Starwort Shark (Asteris)
Camomile Shark {CliamomiUcc)
Small Dark Yellow Underwing

(Cordigera)
Small Yellow Underwing

{Tcnehrata)
Bordered Sallow (Uvibra)
Lunar Double Stripe (Liinaris)
Geometrae.
Brimstone (Lideolata)
Speckled Yellow {Macularia)
Purple Thorn (Tetralunaria)
Scalloped Hazel {Bidevtata)
Brindled Beautj' (Hirtaria)
Peppered (Bctularia)
Waved Umber {Ahrujjtariu)
Ringed Carpet {Cinctaria)
Square Spot {Consonaria)
Small Engrailed {Crepuscu-
lar i a)
Engrailed ( B iu u du la via)
Grey Birch {Pu)ictularia)
Small Grass Emerald( T7/'u7rtfrt)
All species of family EjjJtyridce

Geometrae — cont.
"White Wave (Pusaria)
Eound-winged Wave [Rutun-

daria)
Common Wave (Ej-anthcDiata)
Clouded Silver (Temerata)
AVhite-pinion S^wtted (Biinacu-

lata)
Latticed Heath (Clathrata)
Brown Silver-line (Petraria)
Barred Umber (Pulveraria)
Netted ]\Iountain {Carbonarid)
Common Heath (Atomaria)
Bordered White [Piniaria)
Rest Harrow (Ononaria)
Yellow Belle (Oclirearia)
Clouded Border {Margiuata)
Horse Chestnut {Hipipocasta-

naria)
Pretty Pinion (Adaquata)
Pugs {Venosata, Consignata,
Pulchellata, Plumhcolata,
Satyrata, Castigata, Pusil-
lata, Irriguata, Indigata,
Naiiata, Vulgata, Assinii-
lata, Exiguata, Coronata)
Yellow-barred Brindle {Vire-

tata)
Ruddy High-flier {Buberata)
May High-flier (Trifasciata)
Common Carpet (Sociata)
Silver-ground Carpet {Muuta-

11 a fa)
Streamer (Nigrofasciaria)
Barberry Carpet (Berberata)
Flame Carpet (Designata)
Twin-spot Carpets (Ferrugata

and Uiiidentaria)
Scarce Tissue {Certata)
Water Carpet {Suffumata)
Small Phcenix (Silaceafa)
Oblique-striped ( Virga ta)
Broom Tip {Bufata)

Cream Wave {Bemutaria)

A number of the Micros are also out this mouth. About twenty
species of the Pyralides, one or two of the Ptcrophori, a few
Crambi, about fifty of the Tort rices, and no less than two hundred
of the Tineif. The collector will do w'ell to search fences and

^32 APPENDICES

tree trunks for these moths, whenever he has the opportunity ; and
also to use the net freely in wooded country, waste places, and
along hedgerows, before and at dusk.

JUNE

There is a marked increase in winged insect life during this
month. The early butterflies are disappearing, or perhaps have
quite left us ; but new species are taking their place. The
Sphinges now reach their maximum, as do also the Bonihyces ; and
the other groups are almost if not quite ixp to their highest total.
The Noctitce and Genmetrce each amount to over a hundred sjiecies.
No less than a hundred and lifty British Tortrices are on the wing ;
the TinecB make a near approach to three hundred, and the Pijra-
tides of the month are not far short of mimbering a hundred species.
It will thus be seen that the net and pill boxes, as well as the setting
boards, are in constant demand.

Dull days may be well occupied in beating for moths, and in the
examination of fences and the bark of trees ; and on bright da\s,
as soon as the butterflies have settled down to rest, the same work
may be carried on till dusk.

Micros and Geomctrcc are out early in the evening, when they
should be taken with the net. Later on the Noctiice may be seen
playing round their favourite flowers.

Sugar and light traps are likely to do good service during June,
and decoy females of the Bomhyccs group may be called to your
aid.

Larvae are also abundant during June, and those of most of the
butterflies may be taken by carefully searching their food plants.

The following is the list of imagines for the month :

Butterflies.
Swallow Tail {Macliaon)
Black-veined White {Cratcegi)
Large \Miite {Brassicce)
Small White (Rapce)
Green-veined White (Najn)
Small Pearl-bordered (Seleiw)

Butterflies — con t.
Marsh Einglet (Ti/phon)
Small Heath {Pamphilus)
Green Hairstreak (Bubi)
Small Copper (Plila'as)
Common Blue (Icarus)
Small Blue (Mininia)

Pearl-bordered [Euphrosyne) Duke of Bin-gundy (Lncina)

Silver-washed FritiUary {Pa- Grizzled Skipper {Malvcc)

phla) Dingy Skipper (Tagcs)

Greasy Fritillarj^ (Aurinia) Large Skipper iSijIvanns)

Glanville „ (Cin.j-ia) Chequered Skipper {Pahcnion)

Heath „ (AtJuilia) Sphinges.

Small Tortoiseshell (Urtica)
White Admiral {Sibylla)
Small Ringlet {Ejnjiliron)
Meadow Brown {lanira)
liinglet (Hiipcranihiis)

Privet Hawk (Ligusiri)
Spurge Hawk {Eitpltorbite)
Small Elejihant (Porcellns)
Jjarge Elephant (Elpcnor)
Eyed Hawk (Ovcllatus)

APPENDIX II

333

Sphinges — conf.
I'oplar Hawk (Populi)
Lime Hawk ( Tilicc)
Humming Bird Hawk {Stella-

tiinon)
All the Clearwings (Sesiidcc)
The Burnets (Fam. Zygcvnida')
Bombyces.
Family Nolidce
Dew Moth {Irrorella)
Cinnabar (Jacobcea')
Scarlet Tiger (Dominula)
Family Clieloniidce
Family Hejnalidce
Familj' Cossidce
Family CocliliopodidcB
Dark Tussock {Fascelina)
Pale Tussock (Pudlhunda)
Scarce \'apourer {Gonostigma)
Fox (Buhi)
Lappet (Quercifolia)
Family Drepa nididcE
Family Dicranuridce
Pale Prominent {Falpina)
Coxcomb Prominent (Camc-

Uiia)
Swallow Prominent (Dicto'a)
Lesser Swallow Prominent

(Dictceoidcs)
Iron Prominent (Dromedarius)
Pebble Prominent [Ziczac)
Great Prominent {Trepida)
Marbled Brown [Trimacula)
Buff Tip {Bucepliala)
Peach Blossom {Batis)
Genus Cij))U(tophora.
Noctuae.
Scarce Marvel-du-jour [Orion)
Genus Acronycta
Powdered "Wainscot (Alho-

venosa)
Most of the species of genus

Lcucania
Flame "Wainscot (Flammea)
Silky W'ainscot {Maritima)
Small Uufons {Rufa)
Mere ^Yainscot {Helhnnnni)
Coneolovous (Extrema)

Noctuae— ro«f.
Flame [PutrU)
Genus Xylophasia
Bird's Wing (Scahriusciila)
Small Mottled Willow {Edigtut)
Bordered Gothic {Bcticulata)
Featliered Ear {Leucojihcpn)
Large Nutmeg (Sordida)
White Colon (Albicolon)
Cabbage (Brassiccp)
Dot {Pcrsicariir)
Eustic Shoulder Knot {Basi-

tinea)
Union Eustic (Conncxa)
Dusky Brocade {Gemina)
Double Lobed [Opliiogramma)
Genus Miana

Treble Lines (Trigrammica)
Motiled Eustic {Morplicns)
Eustic ( Taraxari)
Pale Mottled Willow [Quadri-

pnnctata)
Eeddish Buff {Gxliginosa)
Marsh jNIoth (Palnstris)
Brown Eustic (Tencbrosa)
Turnip (Segctum)
Heart and Dart [Exclama-
tion is)
Light-feathered Eustic [Cine-

rea)
Sand Dart [Bipce)
Garden Dart [Nigricans)
Lover's Knot [Strigula)
Double Dot (Augtir)
Flame Shoiilder [Plecta)
Double-spotted Sqiiare-spot

[Trianguluiii)
Ingrailed Clay (Festiva)
Broad- bordered Yellow Under-

wing [Fimbria)
Large Yellow Underwing [Pro-

niiba)
Gothic [Typica)
Heart Moth [Go)
Genus Dianfhnecia
Broad-barred White (S'^rena)
Small Angle Shades [Luci-

para)

334

APPENDICES

Noctuae— ro?;^
Angle Shades (Meticulosa)
Green Arches (Prasma)
Grey Arches (Nebulosa)
Silvery Ai'ches {Tincta)
Pale Shining Brown (Advena)
Northern 'Arches {Exulis)
Genns Haclena (nearly all)
Lychnis Shark (Lyclinitis)
Starwort Shark {Asteris)
Cudweed Shark {Gnaplialii)
Camomile Shark {Chamo-

tniUce)
Shark {Umhratica)
Gemis Habrostola
Burnished Brass (Chrysitis)
Plain Golden Y {Iota)
Beautiful Golden Y (Palclirina)
Silver Y (Gamma)
Scarce Silver Y (Interroga-

tionis)
Genus Anarta
Small Yellow Underwing

(Tcuehrata)
Bordered Straw (Pelt uj era)
Bordered Sallow (Umbra)
Spotted Sulphur (Trabealis)
Four-spotted (Luctuosa)
Family Erastriidce
Purple INIarbled (Ostrina)
Small Marbled (Parva)
Small PiU'ple-barred (Viri-

daria)
Mother Shipton (Mi)
Bm'net Noctua (Gljjpliica)
Black Neck (Pastinum)
Family Herminiidce
Family Hypenidce
Geometrae,
Little Thorn (Advenaria)
Brimstone (Luteolata)
Speckled Yellow (Macularia)
Orange (Prunaria)
Barred Red (Prosajnaria)
Scorched Wing (Dolobraria)
Lunar Thorn (Lunaria)
Peppered (Betularia)
Speckled Beauty (Angularia)

Geometrae — cont.
Genus Boarmia
Square Spot (Consonaria)
Brindled White-spot (Luri-

data)
Grey Birch (Pu7ictidaria)
Blotched Emerald (Pustulata)
Small Grass Emerald (Viri-

data)
Common Emerald (Strlgata)
Nearly all the family Ac Ida-

liidce
Genus Bajita
Peacock (Notata
Eannock Geometer (Brun-

neata)
Brown Silver-line (Petraria)
Barred Umber (Pulveraria)
Grey Scalloped Bar (Belgiaria)
Frosted Yellow (Limbaria)
Bordered White (Piniaria)
Drab Geometer (Murinata)
Black-veined (Lineata)
Grass Wave (StrigiUaria)
Clouded Magpie (Sylvata)
Scorched Carpet (Adiistata)
Clouded Border [Marginata)
Twin-spot Carpet (Didymata)
Grey Mountain Carpet (Cithl-

ata)
Striped Twin-spot Carpet (Sail-

cata)
Green Carpet (Viridaria)
Genus Emvielesia
Most of the Pugs (Eupithecia)
Small Seraphim (Sexalisata)
Seraphim (Halterata)
Yellow-barred Brindle (V ire-
tat a)
Shaded Broad-bar (Variata)
Ruddy High-flier (Euberata)
Purple Bar (Ocellata)
Beautiful Carpet (Albicillata)
Genus Melanippc
Royal Mantle (CncuUata)
Flame (Rubidata)
Genus Coremia
Yellow Shell (Bilineata)

APPENDIX II

335

Geometrae — cont.
Fern (Tersata)
Oblique Carpet (Tittata)
Small AVavetl Umber (Vital-
bat a)
Scalloped Shell (Undulata)
Brown Scallop (Vetulata)
Sliort-cloak Carpet (Picata)
Broken-barred Carpet {Cory-
lata)

Geometrae— rn/)^
Common Marbled Carpet

(Truncata)
Small Phoenix (Silaceata)
Small Mallow {Limitata)
Belle (Pliimbaria)
Obliqiie-striped ( Virga ta)
Treble Bar (Flag lata)
Pale Gre}^ Carpet (Griscata)
Chimney Sweep {At rat a)

JULY

The niimber of species on the wing in July is even greater than
in June. Butterflies are very numerous, some being second broods
of double-brooded species, and others late single-brooded insects.

Sphinges are beginning to fall off, and so are the Bomhyces,
but the Noctucc and Geometrce are slightly on the increase.

As regards the Micros, a good number of fresh species may be
expected, all the groups exhibiting a marked increase in the total
number on the wing with the exception of the Tine(r.

Sugaring is likely to pay well this month, and many moths
may be attracted by light. Tree trunks and fences should be well
examined.

Pupae may certainly be taken, but unless the collector is par-
ticularly desirous of obtaining the pupae of insects known to be now
passing through that stage, he will probably do better by looking
after imagines.

Larvae, however, may well receive a little attention, providing
the setting of butterflies and moths leave a little leisure for other
employments. Beating by day, and searching by both day and
night, even if carried on only occasionally, will probably supply
you with as many species as you can accommodate in your glasses
and cages.

The butterflies of the month are :

Swallow Tail (Machaon)
Black-veined White ( Cratcpgi)
Large White ( Brassicce)
Small White (Bapce)
Green-veined White (Najn)
Wood White (Sinapis)
Brimstone (liliamni)
Dark Green Fritillary (Aglaia)
High Brown Fi'itillary {Adi2}2>e)
Silver-washed Fritillary (Pa-

jjhia)
Heath Fritillary (Athalia)
Comma {C -Album)

Large Tortoiseshell (Polychlo-

ros)
Small Tortoiseshell (Urticce)
Peacock (/o)
Painted Lad}- (Cardui)
White Admiral (Sibylla)
Purple Emperor (Iris)
Marbled White (Galatea)
Northern Brown {^thiops)
Speckled Wood (Egeria)
Grayhng (Semele)
Meadow Brown (lanira)
Large Heath (Tithonus)

33G

APPENDICES

Rin<(let (Hi/2)rranthes)
Marsh Ein^^let (Typlion)
Small Heath {Pmnphilus)
Brown Hairstreak (Betulce)
^\niite-letter Hairstreak {W-

Alhnm)
Dark Hairstreak (Pruni)
Purple Hairstreak (Quercus)
Green Hairstreak (Rubi)
Small Copper (Plilceas)

Silver-studded Blue [Mgon)
Common Blue (Icarus)
Chalk-hill Bine (Corydon)
Holly Blue (Argiolus)
Mazarine Blue {Semiargns)
Small Blue (Minima)
Large Blue (Arion)
Small Skipper (TJiaumas)
New Small Skipper (Lineola)

The moths of 3\\\y include the following species :

Sphinges.

Privet Hawk (Ligustri)
Bedstraw Hawk (Galii)
Eyed Hawk (Occllatus)
Poplar Hawk (PopuJi)
Plumming Bird Hawk (Siella-

tariim)
Hoi-net Clearwing of Poplar

{Ap)iforinis)
Hornet Clearwing of Osier

(Crahroniformis)
Welsh Clearwing (ScoHiformis)
Red-belted Clearwing {Myopi-

formis)
Red-tipped Clearwing

(Eormiciform is )
Six-belted Clearwing (Ichneti,-

moniformis)
Genus Ino

Burnets ( Trifolii, Lonicerce and
Filipendulce)
Bombyces.
Tortrix (Undulanus)
Large Green Silver-lined (Bi-

color ana)
Short-cloaked (CucuUatella)
Most of the family Lithosiidce
Tiger (Caia)
Ruby Tiger (Fuliginosa)
Buff Ermine (Luhricipeda)
Wliite Ermine (Menthastri)
Wood Swift (Sylvanus)
Northern Swift (Vellcda)
Goat Moth (Ligniperdd)
Leopard (Pi/rina)
Brown Tail (Clirysorrhoea)

Bombyces — cont.
Yellow Tail (Similis)
Satin (Salicis)
Reed Tussock (Coenosa)
Black Arches (Monacha)
Vapourer (Antiqua)
Lackey (Neustria)
Ground Lackey (Castrensls)
Oak Eggar (Quercus)
Diinker (Potatoria)
Sallow Kitten (Fiircula)
Poplar Kitten (Bifida)
Lobster (Fagi)
Pale Prominent (Palpina)
Coxcomb Prominent (Came-

Una)
Buff Tip (Bucephala)
Buff Arches (Derasa)
Peach Blossom (Bafis)
Figure of Eighty (Octogcsima)
Poplar Lutestring (Or)
Lesser Satin (Duplaris)
Noctuae.
Marbled Green (Mural is)
Marbled Beauty (Perla)
Grey Dagger (Psi)
Miller (Lep>orina)
Poplar Grey (Megacepliala)
Grisette (Strigosa)
Coronet (Ligustri)
Knot Grass (Rum ids)
Scarce Dagger (Auricoma)
Light Knot Grass (Mciiyan-

t]iidis)
Brown Line Bright Eye (Coni-

gera)

APPENDIX II

337

Noctuae — co}if.

Double Line (Turca)

Clay (Lithartjijria)

Wainscots (LittoraUs, Impu-
dens, Cotnma, Impiira, Pal-
lens, Phn'jjniitidis, Mari-
tima, Eufa.Bondii, Neurica)

Ear Moth {Nictiteuis)

Flame (Putris)

Genus Xylophasia

Antler (Grandnis)

ytraw Underwing (Mntura)

Most of Genus Mamestra

Genus Miami

Haworth's Minor (Haworfhii)

Treble Lines (Trigrunimica)

Genus Caradrtna

Brown Rustic (Tenehrosa)

Archer's Dart (Vestigialis)

Pearly Underwing (Saucia)

Heart and Dart (Exclama-
tionis)

Heart and Club (Corticea)

Sand Dart {liipc^)

Coast Dart (Cnrsoria)

Garden Dart (Nic/ricans)

Streaked Dart {AquiUna)

True Lover's I\Jiot (Strif/ula)

Stout Dart (Obscura)

Dotted Eustic {Sinuilans)

Northern Eustic (Liicernea)

Ashworth's Ilnstic{Ashwo rtJt ii)

Most of Genus Noctiia

Genus T ripliana

Copper Underwing(P7//-rt»i (Wee/)

Mouse {Tragopogonis)

Old Lady {Maura)

Suspected {Suspeeta)

Dismal (Upsilon)

OUve (Subtusa)

Genus Cahjmnia

Dusky Sallow {Ochroleuca)

I\Iarbled Coronet {Nana)

Genus Hecatera

Minor Shoulder Knot {Viidina-
lis)

Small Angle Shades [Luci-
para)

Noctuae — conf.
Genus Aplecta
Dark Brocade {Adusta)
Shears (Dentina)
Nutmeg {Trifolii}
Pale-shouldered Brocade {Tha-

lassina)
Silver Cloud (ConspiciUaris)
Lychnis Shark {Lychnitis)
Wormwood Shark {Absinthii)
Family Plnsiidce
Beautiful Yellow Underwing

{MyrtiUi)
Marbled Clover {Dipsacca)
Four-spotted {Liictuosa)
Eosy Marbled {Venustuld)
Marbled ^^^lite-spot {Fasciana)
SmaU Purple - barred {Vii'i-

daria)
Red Underwing (Nupta)
Light Crimson Underwing

{Pro)nissa)
Dark Crimson L^nderwing

(SjJonsa)
New Black -neck {Craccce)
Family Henniniidce
Family Hypcnidce
Geometrae.
Swallow-tail {Sanibucaria)
Dark-bordered Beavaty {Par-

allelaria)
Bordered Beauty (Apiciaria)
Orange {Prunaria)
Light Emerald {Margaritaria)
Barred Red {Prosapiaria)
Lilac Beauty {Syringaria)
Early Thorn {Bilunaria)
Scalloped Oak {Elinguaria)
Genus Chora
Genus Boarmia
Annulet {Obscuraria)
Scotch Annulet {Obfuscaria)
Black Mountain Moth {Cora-

cina)
Family Geometridce
Golden-bordered Purple {Ma-

ricafa)
Waved Carpet {Sylcata)

338

APPENDICES

Noctuae — cont.

Dingy Shell (Obliterata)

Welsh Wave (Cambrica)

Most of the A cidalice

Blood Vein (Amataria)

Family Macariidce

Latticed Heath (ClatJirata)

Bordered Grey {E ricetaria)

Common Heath {Atomaria)

Rest Harrow {Ononaria)

Vestal (Sacraria)

Grass Wave (Strigillaria)

Family Zerenidce

Twin-spot Carpet (Didymata)

Grey Mountain Carpet {Ccesi-
ata)

Yellow-ringed Carpet {Flavi-
cinctata)

Beech-green Carpet {OUvata)

Green Carpet {Viridaria)

Genus Einmelesia

Pugs {Linariata, Oblongata,
Sitccenturiata, Pernotata,
Isogrammaria, Virgaureata,
Innotata, Subnotata, Absin-
tliiata, Tenitiata, Subciliata,
Bectatigulata)

Chestnut-coloured Carpet {Si-
mulata)

Shaded Broad Bar (Variata)

Pine Carpet (Firinata)

July High-flier (Sordidata)

Genus Melantliia

Genus Mdanippe

Noctuae — cont.
Flame (Eubidata)
Red Carpet (Munitata)
Large Twin-spot Carpet

(Quadrifasciaria)
Yellow Shell (Billneata)
Fern {Tersata)
Oblique Carpet (Vittata)
Many-lined (Polygramviata)
Dark Umber {Rhanmata)
Short-cloak Carpet (Picata)
Marsh Carpet (Sagittata)
Common Marbled Carpet

( Truncata)
Dark Marbled Carpet [hiima-

nata)
Netted Carpet (Beticidata)
Phoenix (Prunata)
Chevron (Tcstata)
Northern Spinach (Populata)
Barred YeUow {Fulvata)
Barred Straw (Dotata)
Spinach (Associata)
Dark Spinach (Comitata)
Small Mallow (Limitata)
Belle {Plambaria)
Chalk Carpet {Bipwnctaria)
Oblique-striped ( Virgata)
Manchester Treble Bar [Palu-

data)
Treble Bar (Plagiata)
Pale Grey Carpet (Griseata)
Chimney Sweep {Atrata)

AUGUST

Although there is a very api^reciable falling off in the number
of species on the wing during August, yet there remains plenty
of work for the lepidopterist.

Many of the butterflies of July continue to fly during the whole
or part of this month, and several fi-esh species commence their
flight. August, too, may be looked upon as the month for second
broods, and an opportunity now arises for searching for some of the
species that were missed at the time of tlieir early appearance in
May. Clover and lucerne fields should be well worked.

A few Sphinges and a number of the Bomhyces are still on the
wing. The Noctiim are on the decrease, but there are yet nearly
a hiuadred species (including the rarer cues) at large.

APPENDIX II

S30

These last may be taken at sugar iu considerable numbers, and
it is interesting to note that two of the Vanessas {Atalanta and
Cardiii) may be caught sipping on your baited trees during the
daytime.

Geometni- and Micros fall oti' very considerably this month, but
these, as well as moths of the other groups, may be taken from
tree tnmks and palings. Light traps may also be used with much
success dining August.

Fallen fruits should be examined for the larvae that feed \\ithin
them ; and late in the month ripe fruit will supply food to the
lovers of sweets.

Ivy blossom should be well worked at night ; and clover and
lucerne fields form admirable hunting grounds for moths at night,
especially just after rain.

Larvie are to be obtained in abundance by beating and search-
ing, the latter process being conducted by night as well as by day.

The following is the list of imagines lor August :

Butterflies.
Swallow Tail {MacJiaon)
Large "White (Brasiiicie)
Small White {Pajjcv)
Green-veined White {Ncqn)
Bath ^Yllite (Daplidice)
Wood AYhite (Sinapifi)
Pale Clouded Yellow (By ale)
Clouded Yellow {Ediisa}
Brimstone (Bhamni)
Queen of Spain (Latona)
Dark Green Fritillar}- (Aglaia)
High Brown Fritillary

{Adi2J2J(^}
Silver--s\ashed Fritillary

(Pa2)hia)
Genus Vanessa
AYhite Admu'al (Sibijlla)
Purple Emperor {Iris)
IMarbled ^Yhite [Galatea)
Northern Brown (^Ethiops)
Speckled Wood {Egeria)
^^'all [Megcera)
Grayling (Semele)
Meadow Brown {lanira)
Large Heath (Titlionus)
Small Heath (Pam])liilus)
Brown Hairstreak (Betiilte)
Purple Hairstreak (Qaerciis)
Small Copper (Phlajas)
Tailed Blue [Bu'tica)

Butterflies — co)it.
Silver-studded Blue [jEgon)
Brown Argus (Astrarclie)
Common Blue (Icarus)
Clifden Blue (Bellargus)
Chalk-hill Blue (Cory don)
Holly Blue (Argiolus)
Mazarine Blue (Sennargus)
Dingy Skipper (Tages)
New Small Skipper (Lineola)
Lulworth Skijiper (Actccon)
Xarge Skipper (Sylvaniis)
Silver-spotted Skipper (Conuna)

Sphinges.
Death's-head Hawk (AtroiJos)
Convolvulus Hawk (Convol-

ruli)
Bedstraw Hawk (Galii)
Striped Hawk (Licornica)
Humming Bird Hawk (Stella-

taram)
Eed-tipped Clearvving

(Fonn icifortnis)
Six-belted Cleainving (IcJineu-
ntonifonnis)

Bombyces.
Eoimd-winged Muslin (Senex)
Muslin (Aland ana)
Footmen (Muscerda, Lata-

veil a, Griscolu)
Wood Swift iSylvanufi)

840

APPENDICES

Bombyces — conf.
Brown Tail {Clirijsorrlicea)
Yellow Tail (SimiHs)
Satin (Salicis)
Gipsy (Dis2)ay)
Black Arches (Monaclui)
Vapourer (Antiqua)
Lackey (Neustria)
Ground Lackey {Castrcnsia)
Oak Eggar (Qitsrcus)
Grass Eggar {Trifolii)
Drinker (Potatoria)
Hook Tips (Lacertinaria, Fed-

cat aria, Binaria, CitUraria)
Chinese Character (Glaucata)
Sallow Kitten {Furcula)
Poplar Kitten (Bifida)
Prominents {Cameluia, Trilo-

■plius, Ziczac)
Lesser Lutestring (Diluta)
Noctuae.
Marbled Green (MuraJis)
Marbled Beauty {Perla)
Grey Dagger (Psi)
Scarce Dagger {Auricoma)
Wainscots {Musculosa, Albi-

jmncta, Impura, Fallens,

Fiilva, CanncE, Ariindinis,

Geminipiuicta, Neurica,

Ltitosa)
Frosted Orange (Ochracca)
Genus Ht/drcccia
Slender Clouded Brindle (Sco-

lo2)acina)
Feathered Brindle (Ausfralis)
Feathered Gothic (Pojjularis)
Antler {Grami)iii)
Straw Underwing {Matura)
Genus Luperina
Confused (Fiirva)
Small Cloiided Brindle {Una-

ni))ns)
Crescent (Leucostigina)
Common Rustic {Didijiiia)
Anomalous (A)W))iala)
IMottled Rustic (Morphcu.s)
I'ale Mottled ^Yillow {<Juadri-

jJiiiictatu)

Noctuae — cont.
Archer's Dart (VestigiaUs)
Shuttle-shaped Dart [Puta)
Pearly Underwing (Saucia)
Crescent Dart (Lunigera)
Heart and Dart (Exchoua-

t ion is)
Coast Dart (Cursor ia)
Garden Dart (Nigricans)
AVhite-line Dart (Trifici)
Streaked Dart (Aquilinu)
Square-spot Dart (Obelisca)
Heath Rustic (Agathina)
Portland (Prcecox)
Stout Dart (Obsciira)
Dotted Rustic (Simulans)
Plain Cla.y (Depuncta)
Setaceous Hebrew Character

(C-Nigrum)
Barred Chestnut (Dahlii)
Small Square-spot (Biibi)
Six-striped Rustic (Umbrosa)
Grey Rustic (Castanca)
Square-spot Rustic (Xantho-

grapha)
Genus Triplicena
Mouse (Tragopogonis)
Old Lady (Maura)
Mountain Rustic (Hyperborea)
Suspected (Sus2)ecta)
Olive (Subtusa)
Double Kidney (Befnsa)
Angle-striped Sallow (Palcacca)
Genus Calymnia
Dusky Sallow (Ochrolcuca)
Grey'Chi (Chi)
Large Ranimcuhis (Flavi-

cincta)
Feathered Ranunculus (Li-

clienea)
Crescent (Bimaculoga)
Great Brocade (Occulta)
Beautiful Brocade (Porpln/rca)
Golden-rod Brindled [Solida-

ginis)
Herald (Libatrix)
Scarce Burnished Brass (CJiry-

son)

APPENDIX II

341

Noctuse — cont.
Burnished Brass (CJirijsitis)
Gold Spot {Fcstncce)
Scarce Bordered Straw {Arnn-

gera)
Four- spotted {Lnctuosa)
Clifden Nonpareil {Fraxini)
Red Underwing {Niiiita)
Dark Crimson Underwing

[Sponsa)
Geometrae.
Dark -bordered Beauty [Par-

allelaria)
Bordered Beauty {Apiciaria)
Purple Thorn (Tetralunaria)
Scalloped Oak (Elinguaria)
Canary-shouldered Thorn (.4/-

niarici)
Dusky Thoi'n {Fuscantnria)
September Thorn {Erosaria)
August Thoin (Qnercinaria)
Dotted Carpet [Glahraria)
Annulet {Obscuraria)
Scotch Annulet (Obfuscaria)
Family' Epliyridcp,
Small Dusty Wave {Virgu-

layia)
Mullein Wave {Mavginepunc-

fata)
Small Blood Vein {Ii)iifari(()
Common White Wave (Fu-

saria)
Vestal (Sacraria)

Geometrae — conf.
Yellow Belle (Oclirenria)
Straw Belle (Gllvaria)
Currant (Grossu la via fa)
Autiunnaria
Haworth's Carpet {Unifas-

data)
Bordered Lime Speck (Succen-

titriafa)
Pugs ( Virgaureata, Campayiu-

lata, Indigata, Coni^tric-

tata, ExpaUidata, Sobri-

nata, Variata)
July High Flier (Sordidata)
Carpets {Bicolorata. Monta-

nafa, Fhictuata, Berberata)
Yellow Shell (Bilineata)
Gem {Fhiviata)
Oblique Carpet (Vittnta)
Many-lined {Polygrammata)
Tissue {Dubitata)
Common Marbled Carpet

{Trancata)
Phoenix {Pranatu)
Chevron (Testata)
Northern Spinach [Populata)
Barred Yellow (Fulvata)
Barred Straw {Dot a fa)
Small Mallow (Limitafa)
Chalk Carpet [Bipiinctavia)
Treble Bar {Plagiafa)
Broom Tip (Rufata)

SEPTEMBER

The number of species on the wing is now considerably lower, yet
there is a good deal to be done both with butterflies and moths.

Many of the former are worn and ragged, but good fresh
specimens of some species may be taken. Clover and lucerne
fields and the flowery borders of corn fields remain vevy attractive.

Tree trunks and palings should be searched as before. Sugar
still ryctracts numbers of the Noctiice ; and ivy blossom should
be examined at night whenever an opportunitj' offers itself.

September is a good month for larva hunting. Most of the
species that pupate in the autumn are now full fed, and will
undergo the change to the chrysalis state shortly after they have
been housed, thus giving but little trouble to the entomologist.
The day feeders may be beaten or swept from their food plants, but,

342

APPENDICES

of course, the nocturnal species are best discovered by searching at
night.

Some liave ah-eady 'gone down' for the winter, and, con-
sequently, pupa ln;nting may be started. However, as there is
yet much to be done with imagines and larvae, it may, perhaps, be
better to leave the pupae alone till about the end of the month,
especially as many of the larvte have not yet had time to complete
their transforniation.

The list of imagines for September includes :

Butterflies.
Cloiuled Yellow (Edtisa)
Brimstone {Bliamni)
Queen of Spain {Lafona)
Comma {C-Alhmn)
Large Tortoiseshell {Polij-

chloi'os)
Small Tortoiseshell {Urtlccc)
Peacock {lo)

Camberwell Beauty {Antiopa)
Red Admiral {Atalanta)
Painted Lady {Cardui)
Speckled Wood (Egcria)
Wall (Mcgara)
Grayling (Semele)
Large Heath (TitJionus)
Small Heath (Pcim2)]iih(s)
Small Copper {Plilo'a.'i)
Common Bhie {Icarus)
Clifden i'Ane {Bellargiifi)
Chalk-hill Blue (Corydon)
Holly Blue {Argiolun)

Sphinges.
Death's-head Hawk {Atro2Ms)
Convolvulus Hawk {Convol-

villi)
Humming Bird Hawk {Stella-
tarum)

Bombyces.
Tortrix {Ujidiilanus)
Crimson Speckled {Pulchclla)
Vapourer {Antiqua)
Pale Oak Eggar {Crafcegi)
Lesser Lutestring {Dilufa)

Noctuse.
Figure of Eight {Ccernlro-

cejihala)
Small Wainscot {Fiilva)
Bullrush {Arundinis)

Noctuse — cont.
Large Wainscot {Lictosa)
Frosted Orange {Ocliracea)
Rosy Rustic {Micacea)
Feathered Brindle {Aiisiralis)
Beautiful Gothic {Hisjndas}
Antler {Graminis)
Flounced Rustic {Testacea)
Hedge Rustic {Cespitis)
Haworth's Minor {HaivortJili)
Anomalous {Anomala)
Slnittle- shaped Dart {Put a)
Dark Sword Grass {Stiff asa)
Pearly Underwing {Sancia)
Turnip (Segetum)
Heart and Dart {Excln-

mationis)
Autumn Rustic {Glarcosa)
Mouse {Tragopogonis)
Red-lined Quaker (Lota)
Yellow-lined Quaker {Mari-

Icn ta)
Genus AncJioccUs
Genus Xantliia
Centre-barred Sallow^ {Xcram-

l^elina)
Double Kidney {Rctusa)
Genus Polia
Black Rustic (Nigra)
Green-brindled Crescent

(Orgacanthce)
Marvei-du-joiu' {Ain-ilina)
Angle Shades {Mcticidosa)
Flame Brocade (Flammea)
Brindled Green (Protca)
Genus CalocamjJn
Genus Xylina
Herald (Libatrir)
Gold Spot (Festucce)

APPENDIX II

343

Noctuae —cont.
Silver y {Gamma)
Scarce Bordered Straw

{Armigera)
Clifden Nonpareil (Fraxini)
Buttoned Snout {BostraUs)

Geometrae.
Bordered Beauty {Apiciaria)
Brimstone (Luteolata)
Genus Eiirionia
November (Dilutafa)
Autumnal {F 'dig ram ma rut)

Geometrae — cont.
Juniper Pug {Sohrinata)
Shaded Broad Bar (Variata)
Slender-striped Kiifous (Laiyi-

data)
Tissue {Dubifata)
Carpets {Siderata, Miata, Im-

manata)
Chevron (Testata)
Mallow {Cervinata)
Streak [Sj^artiata)

OCTOBER

As there is very littlewinged life this month, and the larvae have
nearly all sought out their winter quarters, special attention may be
given to pupa:;. The earlier this work is started after the insects
have completed their change the better. If left late, many pupae
will have been destroyed by floods, moles, &c., and a prolonged
series of frosty days may render digging unproductive if not im-
possible. Again, it must be remembered that some larvae are not
yet down, and by digging at the roots of the trees on which they are
feeding, you are preparing an acceptable bed for the late species,
for the pupte of which you may call again in about a month.

Larv* may be obtained by beating and searching as before, but
this work should be done as early in the month as possible, since
but few are feeding after the first week or so.

Butterfly catching is now practically over, only a few of the late
species and the hybernators being on tiie wing, and these only on
mild days.

NoctucB are still attracted by sugar and ivy blossom, and a few
may be found at rest. Geometrce and Micros may be taken
from palings and tree trunks by day, or caught flying at dusk.

The imagines of October may include the following butterflies :

Brimstone {Bliamni)

Pale Clouded Yellow [Htjale)

Clouded Yellow (Edusa)

Comma (C- Album)

Large Tortoiseshell {Polij-

chloros)
And a few late ' Blues.'

Small Tortoiseshell {TJrticcp)
Peacock {lo)

Camberwell Beauty {Antioioa)
Red Admiral (Atalanta)
Painted Ladj- (Cardui)
Small Copper [Phloeas)

The principal moths of the month are :

Sphinges.

Death's-head Hawk {Atropof<)
Boinbyces.
Phimed Prominent {Plumi-
gera)

Noctuae.

Large Wainscot (Liitofia)
Eed-lined Quaker {Lota)
Yellow-lined Quaker {Maci-
lenta)

344

APPENDICES

Noctuae — co7it.
Beaded Chestnut {Pisfacina)
Brown- spot Pinion (Litura)
Chestnut ( Vaccinii)
Dark Chestnut (Spadicea)
Ked-headed Chestnut {Erythro-

cepliala)
SatelUte (SatcUiNa)
Dotted Chestnut {Rahiginea)
Orange Upperwing (Croceacjo)
Brick {CirceUaris)
Brindled Ochre {Temxili)
Green Brindled Crescent (O.ry-

acanthcf)
Marvel-du-jour (Aj^i-iUna)
Angle Sliades {Meticulosa)
Flame Brocade {Flammea)
Bed Sword-grass (Vetusta)

Noctuae — cont.

Sword- grass (Exolita)

Genus Xylina

Sprawler {Sphinx)

Silver Y (Gamma)
Geometrae.

Feathered Thorn (Pcnnaria)

Vestal [Sacraria)

Scarce Umber {Aiiranfiaria)

Mottled Umber (DefoUaria)

AVinter (Brumata)

Northern "Winter (Boreata)

November {Dilutata)

Juniper Carpet {Juni])erata)

Gem (Fluviata)

Carpets {Siderata, Miata)

Mallow {Cervinata)

Streak {Spartiata)

NOVEMBER

No butterflies are to be seen this month with the exception of
the hybernating species, and even these will not venture on the wing
imless the weather is mild and bright for the season.

Most of the moths met with are also hybernators, bi;t a few
species are to be found only at this season, and these should be
lookeu for on fences and tree trunks. A few Noctuce may be taken
at sugar, and the GeometrcB attracted by lights.

The only larvEe now existing are hjbernators, and many of these
may be met with during yoiu' pupa-digging operations ; but they are
best left alone till the spring, as a rule.

The chief work of the entomologist in November is certainly
pupa hunting, and this may be carried on in real earnest whene\er
the weather is favourable, following the instructions given in
Chapter VII.

It will be remembered, also, that many of the Lepidopfera pass
the winter in the egg state, and search may be made for ova \^hen
time permits.

The November libt, besides some of the hybernating species
previously mentioned, include :

Bombyces.

December {Pojnili)
Noctuae.
Genus Ccrastis
Satellite (SafeUiiia)
Dotted Chestnut {Ruhigiuca)
Orange Upperwing {Croccar/o)
Brindled Ochre {Exempli)

Geometrae.
Feathered Thorn (Pennaria)
Scarce Umber {Auranti-

aria)
Mottled Umber {DcfoUaria)
AVinter {Brumata)
Northern Winter {Boreata)

APPENDIX 11 345

DECEMBER

Oiitdoor work is now at a minimum. Tlie weatlier is too severe,
as a rule, to allow pupa digging to be carried on with either success
or comfort, but favourable opportunities should be seized for this
employment as well as for ova collecting.

Now and again we may meet with P. Populi at rest by day, or
fluttering round a light at night. Brumata and Defoliaria inay
also be seen, and the Early ]\Ioth (Bupicaiyraria) may appear on
the wing before the new year ; but nothing is likely to be met with
beyond these save the hybernators, already named in other lists,
and some of the Tlnecc.

It is a good plan to utilise your spare time during the dreary
months of winter by attending to your cabinet. Rearrange your
specimens where neceFsary, and see that all are properly labelled ;
remove all greasy specimens, and deal with them as recommended
on page 127 ; also renew the supply of camphor or naphthaline in
yoiu' drawers and store boxes. Time may also be found for the
constnrction of apparatus that is likely to be required next season,
and for repairing anj' that has been damaged during the work of
the last.

COLOUEED PLATES

Plate I {Frontispiece)

1. Swallow-tail {Fajniio MacJiaon).

2. Black-veined White {A2wria Cratcegi).

0. Large White {Pieris Brassicce). Female.

4. Small White {Pieris Bapce). Male.

5. Green-veined White {Pieris Naj)!). Under side.
G. Bath White {Pieris DapJidicc). Female.

7. Orange Tip {EiicJiIoc Cardamines). Male.

8. ., ., Male. Cnder side.

Plate II

1. Wood White (Leueopliasia Sinajjis).

2. Pale Clouded Yellow {Colias Hynle).

3. Clouded Yellow {Colias Edusa). Male.

4. Brimstone {Gonopferyx Bliamvi). Male.

5. Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary {Argyimis Selene).

0. Pearl-bordered Fritillary {Argynnis Enphrosyne).

7. Queen of Spain Fritillary {Argynnis Lafona).

8. Dark-green Fritillary {Argynnis AgJaid).

Plate III

1. High Bro'v^tj Fritillary {Argynnis Adippe). Under side.

2. Silver-washed Fritillary {Argynnis Paphia).

3. Greasy Fritillary {Melitcea Aurinia).

4. Glanville Fritillary {Melitcea Cinxia).

5. Heath Fritillary {Melitcea Atlialia).

6. ,, ,, ,, „ Under side.

7. CoM^ix (Vanessa C- Album) .

8. Large Tortoiseshell {Vanessa Polychloros).

9. Small Tortoiseshell {Vanessa, Urticce),

348 rOLOUBED PLATES

Plate IV

1. Peacock {Vanessa lo).

2. Camberwell Beauty {Vanessa Antiojja).
8. Eed Admiral {Vanessa Atalanta).

4. Painted Lady {Vanessa Cardui).

5. White Admiral {Limenitis Sihylla).

Plate V

1. Purple Emperor {Apatura Iris). Male.

2. Marbled White {Melanargia Galatea).

3. Small Einglet {Erehia Epiphron).

4. Northern Brown {Erehia Mthiops).

5. Wood Argus {Pararge Egeria).

0. Wall Butterfly {Pararge Megcera).
'!. Grayling {Satyrns Semele). Female.

8. Meadow Brown {Epinephele lanira). Female.

9. Large Heath {Epinephele Titlwnus). Male.
10. PiINGLET {Epinephele Hijperanthiis).

Plate VI

1. Marsh Ringlet {Crenonympha Typjhon).
■■2. Small Heath {Ccenonympha Pamphilus).

3. Brown Hairstreak {Thecla Betulce). Under side.

4. "White-letter Hairstreak {Thecla W-alhum). Under side.

5. Dark Hairstreak {Thecla Pruni). Under side.

6. Purple Hairstreak {Thecla Quercns). Under side.

7. Green Hairstreak {Thecla Ruhi). Under side.

8. Large Copper {Polyommatus Dispar). Male.

9. Small Copper {Polyommatus Phheas),

10. Tailed Blue {Lyccena Bcetica).

11. Silver-studded Blue {Lyccena. /Egon). Male.

12. „ ,, Female.

13. Brown Argus {Lyccena Astrarche).

14. „ „ Under side.

15. Common Blue {Lyca-na learns). Male.
IG. ,, ,. Female,

17. Clifden Blue {Lyccena Bellargufi). Male.

18. „ „ Female.

COLOURED PLATES 349

Plate \\l

1. Chalk-hill Bluk (Lyccciia Curyihui). Male.

2. ,, „ ,, „ Female.
o. Holly Blue [Lyccena Anjiulu-'i). Male.

4. ., „ ,, ,, Female.

[). Mazarine Blue {Lycwna Soniunjus). Male.

6. ,, ,, ,, „ Female.

7. Small Blue {Lyccena Minima)

8. Large Blue [Lyccena Arion).

9. Duke of Burgundy Fritillary {Neincobias Liiclna).

10. ,. „ „ ., „ Under
side.

11. Grizzled Skipper {Syrichfhus Malvce).

12. Dingy Skipper (Nisoniadcs Tayea).

13. Small Skipper {Hcsj^eria Thaumas).

14. LuLWORTH Skipper (Hesperia Actceon). Male.

15. Large Skipper {Hcsperia Sylvanus). Male.

16. Silver-spotted Skipper [Hesjjeria Comma).

17. Chequered Skipper {Cwrteroceiyhahis Palccmon).

18. New Small Skipper {Hcspcria Lincola).

Plate VIII

1. Larva of Swallow-tail Butterfly {FapiUu Machaon).

2. Larva of Orange Tip {Euchlo'e Carclamineti).

o. Larva of Silver- washed Fritillary (Argynnia Pajjliiu).

4. Larva of Peacock Butterfly [Vanessa lo).

5. Larva of Purple Emperor [Ai)atura Iris).

6. Larva of Duke of Burgundy Fritillary [Ncmcohius

Lucina).

7. Pupa of Swallow-tail Butterfly [Pajiillo Machaon).

8. Pupa of Orange Tip [Eucliloe Cardamines).

9. Pupa of Silver-washed Fritillary [Argynnis Pcqihia).

10. Pupa of Purple Emperor [AjHitura Iris).

11. Pupa of Duke of Burgundy Fritillary {Nemeolius Luciiia)

12. Pupa of Dingy ^Jkipper [Nisoniadcs Tages)

350 COLOURED PLATES

Plate IX

1. Ppjvet Ha-vstc Moth {Sjihinx Ligustri).

2. Spurge Hawk (Deilephila Eiqjhorbice).

3. liAKGE Elephant Hawk {Chcerocamjm Elpenor).

4. Eyed Hawk {Smerinthus OceUatus).

5. Lime Hawk {Smerinthus Tilice).

6. Humming-bird Hawk [Macroglosfta Stellatarum).

7. Broad-bordered Five-spotted Burnet {Zygcena Trifolii

Plate X

1. Cinnabar Moth {EucheJia Jacohcece).

2. Wood Tiger (Neincophihi Plantaginis).

3. Tiger {Arctia Caia).

4. Cream- spot Tiger {Arctia Villica).

5. Oak Eggar {Bomhijx Quercus). Male.

6. Lappet {Lasiocampa Quercifolia).

7. Kentish Glory {Endromis Versicolor). Male

8. Emperor Moth {Satiirnia Pavonia). Male.

9. Buff Tip {Phalera Bucepluda).

Plate XI

1. Large Yellow \}^-Dv.^\\mG {Triplicemi Pronuha).

2. Marvel-du-jour {Agriopis ApriUna).

3. Small Angle Shades {Euplexia Lucipara).

4. Mother Shipton {Euclidia Mi).

5. Clifden Nonpareil {Catocala Fraxini).

G. Dark Crimson Underwing {Catocala S2J07isa).

Plate XII

1. Herald {Gonoptera Libatrix).

2. Swallow-tail Moth {TJropteryx Samhucaria).

3. Brimstone Moth {Rumia Luteolata).

4. Scalloped Oak {CrocaUis Elinguaria).

5. Brindled Beauty {Bisfon Hirtaria).

0. Waved '[J-mb'e.v. {Hemerophila Ahruptaria).

7. Maiden's Blush (Zonosoma Punctaria).

8. Mottled Umber {Hyhernia Defoliaria).
y. Treble Bar {A)iiii/is I'hiylcita).

Plate H

Pnviflsson &■ Co., del. ad. j\at. et Chrovtolith.

Plate m.

Danii'hson &• Ci>., del. a,i. Mat. et C hromolitl).

Plate lY.

nniiielssfln &■ i e.. d(l. ad. Sat. el Chromoiitii.

Plate V

/'atiif/.^^on &■ Co.. (id. ad. Sat. et Ci

Plate YL

Hanulsson &■ Co., lie!, ad. Sat. et Chromohlh.

Plate '/n

12 ^Pr

^^L^^ flg^^^p ^^j^^r

Wf^ ^Iv ^r^

fw m9 ^'^

Paiiittsion &■ Co.. iUi. ad. j\at. ,■< Chro'iwtith.

f^^dteVTH.

nainrtssoii &■ Co., dii. ad. .\at. el Chr

Plate K.

Dnvieisson &■ Co.. del. ad. .Vat et Chromolith.

PLateX

Daiiielsson &■ Co., d:L ad. Nat. et Chromolitk.

Plate XI,

DattUlsson <5- Co., del. ad. Nat. et Chronwlith.

Plate Xn

>^^..^'^

naxielsson &■ Co.. ,M. ad. Sat. ti Chroniosith.

INDEX

Abbkeyiata, 284
Abraxas, 279
Abi'uptaria, 27o
Acherontia, 20i
Acidalia, 275
Acidaliidae, 275
Acipfcilia, 295
Acronycta, 24C
ActEeon, 199
Adela, 304
Adippe, 159
Admiral, Red, 168
Admiral, White, 170
Mgon, 189
^scularia, 281
^tliiops, 175
Aglaia, 158
Aglossa, 291
Agriopis, 258
Agrotis, 250
. Albulata, 283
Alucita, 295
Amataria, 27(5
Amphidasydse, 271
Amphidasys, 272
Ampliipyridse, 254
Anaitis, 289
Angle Shades, 258
Anisopteryx, 281
Antennffi, 5
Aiitiopa, 167
Autiqua, 228
Antithesia, 301
Apamea, 247
Apameidse, 244
Apatura, 171
Apiformis, 213
Aplecta, 259

Aporia, 141

Aprilina, 258

Arctia, 221

Areola, 261

Argiolus, 193

Argus, Brown, 189

Argus, Wood, 175

Argynnis, 154

Arion, 194

Arrangement of specimens, 136

Arundinis, 243

Asphalia, 238

Astrarclie, 189

Atalanta, 168

Athalia, 163

Atomaria, 278

Atropos, 204

August Thorn, 271

Aurella, 306

Aurinia, 161

Aversata, 276

Axylia, 245

B.iETICA, 188

Bapta, 277

Basilinea, 247

Bath W'hite, 146

Batis, 237

Beating for moths, 83

Beautiful Carpet, 286

Beautiful China Mark, 293

Bellargus, 191

Betula?, 183

Betularia, 272

Bicolorata, 285

Bifida, 234

Bilineata, 287

352

INDEX

Binaria, 232
Biston, 271
Black Arches, 227
Black Hairstreak, 184
Black-veined White, 111
Blood Vein, 276
Blue-bordered Carpet, 285
Blue Chalk Hill, 192

— Clifden, I'Jl

— Common, 190

— Holly, 193

— Large, 194

— Mazarine, 193

— Silver-studded, 189

— Small, 194

— Tailed, 188
Boarniia, 273
Boarmiida?, 272
Bombyces, 217
Bombycida?, 229
Bombycoidae, 240
Bombyx, 229
Bordered White, 279
Botys, 293

Brassicse {Pieria), 142
Brassicse (Mauieatra), 246
Bright-line Brown-eye, 260
Brimstone Butterfly, 152
Brimstone Moth, 269
Brindled Beautv, 271
Brindled Pug, 284
Broad-barred White, 257

— bordei-ed Bee Hawk, 211

— — Five spotted Burnet, 215
Brown Argus, 189

— Hairstreak, 183

— line Bright eye, 242

— Meadow, 178

— Northern, 175

— Tail, 226
Bryophila, 239
Bryophihdse, 239
Bucephala, 236
Buff Ermine, 222

— Tip, 236
Bullrush, 243
Bupalus, 279
Burnets, 215
Burnished Brass, 263
Butterflies— British, 139

— antennas of, 5

— body, 3

— catching, 64

— eye, 3

— legs, 8, 10

— proboscis, 6
^ wings, 2, 8

Cabbage Moth, 246
Cabera, 277
Caberidffi, 276
Cabinets, 134
Caia, 221
Callimorpha, 220
C-Album, 164
C-ilymnia, 256
Camberwell Beauty, 167
Camelina, 235
Camptogramma, 287
Caradrina, 249
Caradrinidse, 248
Cardamines, 148
Cardui, 109
CarpocaiJsa, 302
Carterocephalus, 201
Catching Butterflies, 64

— moths, 82, 85
Caterpillar state, 22
Catocala, 265
Catocalicte, 265
Cerastis, 256
Chalk hill Blue, 192
Cheloniida?, 220
Chequered Skipper, 201
Chestnut, 256

Chilo, 296

Chinese Character, 233

Chloroform bottle, 72

Chocolate Tip, 237

Chcerocampa, 207

Chrysalis state, 44

Chrysitis, 263

Chrysorrhoea, 226

Cidaria, 288

Cilix, 233

Cinnabar, 219

Cinxia, 162

Cirsiana, 301

Classification of Lepidoptera, 55

Clearwings, 212

Clifden Blue, 191

Clifden Nonpareil, 265

Clouded Silver, 277

Clouded Yellow, 151

Coenonympha, 181

Coleophora, 305

Colias, 149

Collecting box, 73

Collecting larvae, 101

— ova, 99

— puptE, 108
Comes, 253
Comma, 164, 200
Connnon Blue, 190

— Carpet, 286

INDEX

353

Common Emerald, 274

— Footman, 21'J

— Heath, 278

— Quaker, 255

— Swift, 223

— Wainscot, 2i3

— Wave, 277
Complanella, oO(i
Conigera, 242
Copper — Large, 187

— Small, 188
Corydon, 192
Cosmiidae, 25(5
Cossidae, 224
Cossus, 224

Coxcomb Prominent, 235
Crambi, 296
Crarabus, 297
Cratsegi, 141
Cream-spot Tiger, 221
Cristana, 300
Crocallis, 270
Cucullatella, 218
Cucullia, 261
Cuprella, 304
Currant Clearwing, 213
Currant Moth, 279
Curtula, 237
Cyanide bottle, 68
Cymatophorida;, 237

Daplidice, 146

Dark Crimson Underwing, 266

Dark Dagger, 241

Dark Green Fritillary, 158

Dark Hairstreak, 185

Death's-head Hawk, 204

Decoys, 96

Defoliaria, 281

Deilephila, 207

Dentina, 259

Depressaria, 304 »

Dicranura, 284

Dicranuridse, 233

Didymata, 283

Diloba, 241

Dilutata, 282

Dingy Skipper, 198

Dispar, 187, 227

Diurnea, 303

Dominula, 220

Dot, 247

Drepana, 232

Drepanulida", 232

Drinker, 230

DLdic of Burgundy, 190

Dunbar, 256

Eakly Grey, 261
Edusa, 151
Egeria, 175
Eggs, 16

Elephant Hawk, 207
Elinguaria, 270
Elpenor, 208
Ematurga, 278
Emmelesia, 283
Emperor Moth, 231
Emperor, Purple, 171
Endromidiie, 231
Endromis, 231
Ennomidse, 269
Entomological pins, 76
Ephippix)hora, 301
Ephyridaj, 275
Epinephele, 178
Epiphron, 174
Erebia, 174
Erycinidaj, 196
Eubolia, 289
Euboliidai, 28H
Euchelia, 219
Eucheliidaj, 219
Euchloij, 148
Euclidia, 264
Euclidiida?, 264
Eugonia, 271
Euphorbias, 207
Euphrosyne, 156
Eupithecia, 283
Euplexia, 258
Eurrhypara, 292
Exanthemata, 277
Exclamatioiiis, 250
Eyed Hawk, 208

Fagella, 303
Farinalis, 292
FidoniidcC, 278
Figure of Eight, 241
Filipendulaj, 215
Flame, 245
Flame Shoulder, 252
Flavago, 256
Flavicornis, 238
Flounced Eustic, 246
Fluctuata, 2.S7
Forester, 214
Forficalis, 293
Fraxini, 265
Fritillaries, 154
Fritillarv, Dark Green, 158

— Crlanville, 162

— Greasy, 161

854

INDEX

Fritillary, Heath, 101!

— High Brown, 15'J

■ — Pearl-bordered, If)!;

— Queen of Spain, 15(i

— Silver-washed, lait

• — Small Pearl-bordered, loi

Galatea, 173
Galleria, 2'J8
Gamma, 264
Garden Carpet, '287
Garden Dart, 251
Garden Pebble, -'Jo
Gemmaria, 273
Geoffrella, 305
Geometra, 274
Geometrge, 268
Geometridse, 271
Ghost Swift, 223
Gipsy, 227
Glaucata, 233
Goat Moth, 224
Gonodactyla, 294
Gonoptera, 264
Gonopteridie, 2(i2
Gonopteryx, 152
Gortyna, 244
Gothic, 254
Grass Rivulet, 283
Grayling, 177
Grease, 127
Greasy Fritillary, IGl
Green Hairstreak, 18(1
Green-chequered White, 146
Green Silver-lined, 217
Grizzled Skipper, 197
Grey Arches, 259
Grey Dagger, 240
Grossulariata, 279

Hadena, 259
Hadenidai, 257
Hairstreak, Black, 184

— Brown, 183

— Dark, 185

— Green, 18(>

— Purple, 185

— White-letter, 184
Halia, 278
Hamellus, 297
Harpella, 305
Hawk Moths, 204
Heart and Dart. 250
Heath, Large, 179

— Moth, 278

Heath, Small, 181

— Fritillary, 163

Hecatera, 257

Helice, 151

Hemerophila. 273

Hemithea, 274

Hepialidae, 223

Hepialus, 223

Herald Moth, 262

Hesperia, 198

Hesperiidae, 197

Hexadactyla, 295

High Brown Fritillary, 159

Hirtaria, 271

Holly Blue, 193

Hornet Clearwing of Osier, 213

Hornet Clearwing of Poplar, 213

Hortuellus, 297

Humming-bird Hawk, 210

Humuli, 223

Hyale, 149

Hybernia, 280

Hyberniidse, 280

Hydrocampa, 293

Hylophila, 217

Hyperanthus, 180

Hyponomeuta, 304

Ianira, 178
lanthina, 252
Ibipenella, 305
Icarus, 190
Ichneumon flics
Impura, 243
Ino, 214
lo, 167
Iris, 171

Jacou.i;.t2. 219

Kentish Glory, 231
Kilhng bottle, "68
Killing box, 70

Labial palpi, 6
Lace Border, 275
Lappet, 230
Larentia, 283
Larentiidffi, 282
Large Blue, 194
Large Copper, 187
Large Elephant, 208
Large Emerald, 274

INDEX

855

Large Heath, 179

Large Skipper, 200

Large Tortoiseshell, 1(15

Large Wliite, 14'2

Large Yellow Uiulerwing, 253

Larvte, 22

Larvffi Beating, 107

Larvfe, blowpipe tor, i:!l

Larva boxes, 101

Larva cage, 115

Larvse collectiiig, 101

Larvse, glass for, 114

Larvae rearing, 113

Lasiocampa, 2S0

Latona, 150

Laurel box, 70

Leaf Miners, 33, 903

Leaf Eollers, 38, 303

Lecheana, 300

Legs of Lepidoxitera, H, 10

Leioptilus, 295

Leopard Jloth, 225

Lepidoptera — anteiinrt", 5

— body, 3

— classification of, 55

— eggs of, 1(>

— general characteristics, 1

— legs of, 8, 10

— metamorphoses, 14

— proboscis, 0

— wings, 2, 8

Lesser Broad Border, 252

Lesser Yellow Underwing, 253

Leucania, 242

Leucaniidas, 242

Lencopliasia, 149

Leucophearia, 280

Libatrix, 2C2

Light Arches, 245

Light Emerald, 270

Light Traps, 87

Ligniperda, 224

Ligustri, 20(;

Lime Hawk. 210

Limcnitis, 170

Limitata, 289

Lineola, 199

Liparida?, 226

Lithosia, 218

Lithosiidae, 219

Lithoxylea, 245

Lobophora, 285

Lobster IMoth, 28

Lopliopteryx, 235

Lnbricipeda, 222

Lneina, 196

Lucipara, 258

Lulworth Skipper, 199
Luperina, 246
Lupulinus, 223
Luteolata, 269
Lycajna, 183, 188
Lyccenidce, 183

JMAcAKim.i;, 278
Ms.chaon, ]39
Macroglossa, 210
Maiden's Blush, 275
Malvse, 197
Mamestra, 246
Mania, 254
Marbled Beauty, 239
Jlarbled Mi)ior^ 248
Margaritaria, 270
Marsh Moth, 281
Marsh Ringlet, 181
Marvel-du-jour, 258
Maura, 254
Mazarine Blue, 193
jMeadow Brown, 178
Meal Moth, 292
Megacephala, 241
Megsera, 177
Jlelanargia, 173
Melanthia, 285
:\Ielitfea, 101
Mellonella, 298
Menthastri, 222
Meticulosa, 258
Metrocampa, 270
Mi, 264
-Miana, 248

IMicro-lepidoptera, 290
Minima, 194
Monacha, 227
Montanata, 286
Morpheus, 249
Mother-of-pearl, 293
Mother Shipton, 204
Moths, 203

— antennae of, 5

— catching, 82

— traps, 87
Jfottled Rustic, 249
atottled Umber, 281
Mnndana, 218
Muslin Moth, 218

Naxata, 284
Napi, 145

Narrow-winged Pug, 284
Nebulosa, 259

356

INDEX

Nemeobius, 196
Nemeophila, '220
Nepticula, 30C
Nervosa, 304
Nets, 05, 87, 91
Netted Pug, '283
New Small Skipper, 199
Nigricans, 251
Nisoniades, 198
Noctua, 252
Noctua3, 239
Noctuidaj, 249
Nola, 218
Nolidae, 218
Nonagria, 243
Northern Brown, 175
Notodontida?, 235
November Moth, 282
Nudaria, 218
Nupta, 2G0
Nycteolidse, 217
NymphalidEe, 154

Oak Eggar, 229
Oak Hook Tip, 232
Ocellatus, 208
Ochracea, 244
Ocneria, 227
Octomacularia, 301
Odonestis, 280
Old Lady, 254
Oleracea, 200
Oporabia, 282
Orange Tip, 148
Orgyia, 228
Ornata, 275
Orthosiidae, 255
Osteodactylus, 295
Ova collecting, 99
Ova preserving, 130

Padellus, 304

Painted Lady, 169

Pala;mon, 201

Pale Clouded Yellow, 149

Pallens, 243

Palpi, 6

Pam])hilus, 181

Paphia, 159

Papilio, 139

Papilionai'ia, 274

Papilionidae, 189

Pararge, 175

Pavonia, 231

Peach Blossom, 237

Peacock, 107

Pearl-bordered Frilillary, 150

Pentadactyla, 295

Penthina,"300

Peppered Moth, 272

Perla, 239

Peronea, 300

Persicarige, 247

Phalera, 236

Phlseas, 188

Phlogophera, 258

Phragmitellus, 296

Pierida?, 141

Pinguinalis, 291

Piniaria, 279

Pink-barred Sallow, 256

Pins, 76

Pionea, 293

Plagiata, 289

Plantaginis, 220

Platyptilia, 294

Plecta, 252

Plusia, 263

Plusiidte, 263

Polychloros, 105

Polyommatus, 187

Poplar Grey, 241

Poplar Hawk, 209

Poplar Kitten, 234

Populi, 209

Porcellus, 207

Porthesia, 226

Potatoria, 230

Prasinana, 217

Preserving larv», 131

— ova, 130

— pupEe, 133
Privet Hawk, 206
Proboscis, (>
Pronuba, 253
Pruni, 185
Pruniana, 300
Psi, 240
Psilura, 227
Pterophori, 294
Ptycholoma, 300
Punctaria, 275
Pupa state, 44
Pupw collecting, 108

— digging. 111

— n^anagement of, 118

— preserving, 133
Pixrple Emperor, 171
Purple Hairstreak, 185
Puss Moth, 235
Putris, 245

Pygsera, 237

INDEX

Pygseridfe, 230
Pyi-alides, 291
Pyralis, 292
Pj'rina, 225

Queen of Spain, inii
Quercifolia, 2:!il
Quercinaria, 271
Quei-cus (BoDibi/x), 229
Qiierciis (Thpclii},l»r>

Rap.e, 144
Rearing larvfP; 113
Red Admiral, iCiH
Red Underwing, 200
Relaxing, 125
Rliarani, 152
Riband Wave, 270
Rincrlet, 180

— Marsh, isl

— Small, 174
Rubi, ISC)
Rumia, 209
Ruralis, 293

Rustic Shonlder-knot,

Salicella, 801
Sambucaria, 208
Saturnia, 231
Saturniidffi, 231
Satyridse, 173
Satyrus, 177
Scalloped Oak. 270
Scarlet Tiger, 220
Sciapliila, 301
Segetum, 250
Selene, 154
S.emele, 177
Semiargus, 193
Serena, 257
Sesia, 213
Sesiidse, 212 >
Setting boards, 122
Shark," 261
Shears, 259
Short-cloaked, 218
Sibylla, 170
Silaceata, 288
Silver-ground Carpet, 280
Silver-spotted Skipper, 200
Silver-studded Blue, 189
Silver-washed Fritillarv, 159
Silver Y, 204
Sinapis, 149

Six-spot Burnet, 215

Skippers, 190

Skipper, Chequered, 201

— Dingy, 198

— Grizzled, 197

— Lulworth, 199

— New Small, 199

— Silver-spotted, 200

— Small, 198
Sleeving, 110

Small Angle Shades, 25,S

— Blue, 194

— Copper, 188

— Elephant, 207

— Heath, 181

— JIagpie, 292

— .Mallow, 289

— Pearl-bordered Fritillarv,

— Phoenix, 2.SM

— Ringlet, 174

— Seraphim, 285

— Skipper, 198

— Tortoiseshell, KiO

— White, 144.
Smerinthus, 208
Smoky Wainscot, 243
Sociata, 280
Speckled Wood, 175
Sphinges, 203
Sphingidw, 204
Sphinx, 200
Spilosoma, 222
Sponsa, 200

Spring Usher, 280
Spurge Hawk, 207
Stabilis, 255
Stagnata, 293
Statices, 214
Stellatarum, 210
Store boxes, 135
Stric;ata. 274
Strigilis,' 248
Stuffing insects, 120
Sugaring, 92
Sugaring net, 94
Sugar traps, 90
Swallow-tail Butterfly, 139
Swallow-tail Moth, 208
Swifts, 223
Sylvanus, 200
Syrichthus, 197

Tabev, 291
Tteniocampa, 255
Tages, 198
Tailed Blue, 188

154

358

INDFX

Temerata, 277
Tfstacea, '24t)
Thaumas, 198
Thecla, l.S:i
Thyatira, 207
Tiger, Common, 221

— Ci-eam-spot, 221

— Scarlet, 220

— Wood, 220
Tilise, 210
Timandra, 276
TiiiPfe, 303
Tipuliformis, 213
Tithonns, 179
Tortoiseshell, Large, 165
Tortoi^ieshell, Small, 106
Tortrices, 298

Treble Bar, 289
Trifolii, 215
Tristellus, 297
Trochilium, 213
Tryplifpna, 252
Turnip Moth, 250
Twin-spot Cai-pet, 283
Typlion, 181
Typica, 25i

Ujibricata, 261
Uropterygidfe, 268
Uropteryx, 268
UrticEP, 166
Urticata, 292

Vaccinii, 256
Vanessa, 164
Vapourer Moth, 228
Vauavia, 278
Venosata, 283
Versicolor, 231
Villica, 221
Vinula, 235

Viridana, 299
V moth, 278

W ALBUM, 184

Wainscots, 243
Wall Butterfly, 177
Waved Umber, 273
White Admiral, 170

— Bath, 146

— Black- veined, 141

— Ermine, 222

— Green-ehequei-eH, 146

— Crreen-veined, 14 5

— Large, 142

letter Hah'streak, 184

— Marbled, 173

— Small, 144

— V>'ood, 149
Willow Beaufy, 273
Wings, 2, 8

Wood Argus, 175
Wood Tiger, 220
Wood White, 149

Xanthia, 256
Xanthosetia, 302
Xylinidie, 261
Xylocampa, 261
Xylophasia, 245
Xylosteana, 299

YELLOW-horned, 238
Yellow Shell, 287

Zehenid.e, 279
Zeuzera, 225
Zoegana, 302
Zonosoma, 275
Zygsena, 215
Zyga?nid£e, 214

rRiNTKD rv

SrOTTLSWOODIC AND CO., NKW-STREE'l SCJUAKE
tONDON

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "Butterflies and moths (British)"

See other formats