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THE CANADIAN

FAEMEE'S MAN^UAL

AGRICULTURE.

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THE CANADIAN

FAEMEKS MA^UAI.

AQEICULTUEE ;

THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF MIXED HUSBANDRY,

AS ADAPTiSD TO CANADIAN SOILS AND CLIMATE.
COMPRISING :

The Field ; Produce of the Farm ; Stock : raisirgand m«i,Daffement; ManufaotTiTes of the Farm ; Dairy;
Diseases of Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Pigs ; Faim Buildings ; Modern Machineiy and Implements ;

COUNSEL TO THE IMMIGRANT-SETTLER,, ETC.,

CIIAKLES EDWARD WHITCOMBE,

0/ the Hoyal Agricultural College, Cirencester, England, and a Practical Farmer in Ontario.

WITH NUMEROUS WOOD-CUT ILLUSTRATIONS ;
Tables, aTid Forms of Simple Farm Account Keeping, prepared expressly for the Work,

AND

AN INTRODUCTION

PROFESSOR H. MCCANDLESS,

Principal of the Ontario School of Agriculture, GudpJi.

Wherefore come on, 0 young husbandman ! ,

Leam the culture proper to each kind.— Vmeik

TORONTO:
JAMES ADAM AND COMPANY.

1874.

Fuhlished and sold exclusively hy Subscription.

Entered according to the Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year One Thousand
Eight Hundred and Seventy-four, by James Adam& Companv, in the Office of
the Minister of Agiiculture.

IIUNTKH, ROSE & CO.
Priutera, SjUreotyt rs and liookbindcra,

TOKUNTO.

Palmam qui meruit ferat/

TO THE HONOURA.BLE

THE MINISTER OF AGRICULTURE FOR CANADA,

WHO IS
WORKING FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN OUR YOUNG
DOMINION, AND WHO IS EARNESTLY ENGAGED

IN THE CARRYING OUT OF

AN ENLIGHTENED IMMIGRATIONAL POLICY,
THIS WORK

IS, BY SPECIAL PERMISSION,

MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED

THE AUTHOR,

e>-

INTRODUCTION.

In all countries, and under all circumstances, the principles that
underlie the art of husbandry are identical, but the practice
through which they are brought to bear upon the cultivation of
the soil must necessarily vary, owing to the modifications that
are indispensable to bring that practice into harmony with sur-
rounding circumstances.

Hence, while the scientific or theoretical literature of agricul-
ture is of universal application, and may with success be imported,
that relating to the practice of the farm should, to be of sub;5tantial
use, be a home, and not a foreign production.

The present condition of Canadian agriculture demands the in-
crease, if not indeed the introduction, of such a literature, and it is
gratifying to find that this want has a fair prospect of being sup-
plied by the publication of such works as that which follows this in-
troductory notice. In it the author has kept steadily in view the
fundamental principles of true husbandry, and has, in harmony
with them, endeavoured to sketch an agricultural practice in no
way antagonistic to the modifying influences peculiar to the
country.

This harmony is indispensable to successful farming, and un-
less it be established, no matter how suitable to a country a
system of husbandry may otherwise be, it must inevitably fail to
be successful. It may, under exceptional circumstances, appear
for a time to be successful, but permanent it cannot be.

The system of cropping introduced by the early settlers of
Canada aiSbrds a striking illustration of this fact; for a time it
appeared to be everything that could be desired, but, owing to
the fact that it was opposed to the fundamental principles of true

viii Introduction.

husbandry, in depending upon the unaided resources of the soil,
it was not, and could not be, permanent. Its success, even for a
time, was due to the exceptional fertility of a rich virgin soil. Now,
however, particularly in the older settlements, that exceptional
fertility has been exhausted, and the skill of the true farmer be-
comes indispensable to successful cultivation.

Canadian agriculture is now in a trasition state ; it is gradually,
but steadily, assuming the character of real husbandry, and to aid
it in this transition is the mission that its agricultural literature
has to perform.

Under such circumstances, no elaborate treatises on scientific or
theoretical ao^riculture are demanded. What is wanted is a litera-
ture that will aid the farmers of the country in applying to the
work of the field and farm-yard the principles upon which hus-
bandry is based, and this has evidently been the aim of the author
of the Manual of Agriculture.

In it the farmer will find no elaborate theories or intricate prob-
lems discussed, but a reliable book of reference that may be
promptly consulted on almost any subject connected with his daily
avocations.

To be of practical utility for this purpose, that reference must
be easily made, and the convenient arrangement of the work makes
it so.

Does the farmer require information on the building of a house
or barn, on the treatment of his cattle in sickness, on the special
cultivation of any particular crop, or, in short, upon any matter
connected with the daily routine of farm management, he has but
to oi)en the index, and, without loss of time, refer to the page on
which information upon that subject is given, and he will seldom
refer to it and be disappointed.

Such a work must be of much value to the practical farmer, and
it is to be hoped that thousands will avail themselves of the infor-
mation it contains.

H. McCANDLESS,
Principal of the Ontario School of Agriculture.

GuELPH, 28th May, 1874.

PREFACE.

TO MY BROTHER FARMERS OF CANADA-

The waiit of a standard work on Canadian agriculture has long
been felt by our class. I have endeavoured to step in and fill the
breach by laying before you the accompanying work, entitled
"The Canadian Farmer's Manual of Agriculture."

We are all well aware that farming is no sinecure in the way
of work in Canada. Stout hearts and willing hands must be em-
ployed to win a way to fortune on our farms. But these are not
the only necessary qualifications — wages are high and hands are
scarce ; to pay the one and create a substitute for the other, in-
creased knowledge and intelligence must be the instruments. To
make farming profitable we do not require larger holdings ; but
the one thing needful is larger yields per acre. To attain such a
desirable increase of production, a more thorough knowledge of
the laws of growth, and the requirements of plant-life becomes
necessary. This knowledge, which is in itself indefinite, I have
endeavoured partiall}' to provide in the following pages. It can-
not be that any single work, especially of the proportions of the
present, can cover all the ground necessary to be touched upon in
a treatise on the Principles and Practice of Agriculture. This
work is not and could not be exhaustive, but where it fails to give
full information, I trust it may at least set the reader *' upon the
right track." The farmer in Canada must be essentially a practi-
cal man. The reader will find advanced no theories that have not
stood the test of practice. It has been my constant aim to adapt
every chapter to the present state of agriculture in Canada.
Topics on which the opinion of eminent farmers are divided, are
treated from every stand-point : where I have given a pei'sonal
opinion upon these subjects of debate, it has been based upon
no hobby of my own, but upon a mature consideration of the
several arguments advanced by eminent authorities, and gov-
erned by my own and my neighbours' practical experience.

2 (Preface.

opinion upon these subjects of debate, it has been based upon
no hobby of my own, but upon a mature consideration of the
several arguments advanced by eminent authorities, and gov-
erned by m}^ own and my neighbours' practical experience.
For instance, in the chapter devoted to Barnyard Manure, I have
set down the arguments of the advocates of Raw or Rotten, Long
or Short ; and the subject being one on which I do not feel decided,
I have refrained from the expression of any dogmatical opinion.
Whilst this is not a work of compilation, the reader, will find
scattered through its pages many quotations, in the citation of
which I have endeavoured to give due credit. These selections,
appropriate to the several subjects, I have been careful to obtain
in the majority of cases, from such authorities as I am aware are
or have been engaged in actual farming in Canada, or in those
States of the Union in which the soils, climate, and systems of
husbandry are generally of a nature similar to those of our
Dominion. The central object which this work is intended to keep
in view, is the demonstration of how farming may be made to pay
— by the general improvement of the soil, of seeds, and of methods
of cultivation. With these few prefatory remarks, I leave " The
Canadian Farmer's Manual " in the hands of my brethren of
the plough. That it may prove useful to them, and a welcome
addition to the agriculturist's library, is the sincere wish of the
author.

C. E. W.

-v/^.,
^

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED.

PAGE

ACCOUNTS :
Farm :

Advantages of keeping 520

Breeders' Calendar 520

" Statement 526

Calving Table 521

Dairy 527

Diary and Journal combined 525

Ledger 523

Livestock 522

Produce ... 524

AGRICULTURAL

Exhibitions : Undue encou-
ragement of Trotters 385

Steamers 500

ALLUVIAL SOIL 79

ASHES U6

AXLES 481

B
BARLEY :

Cultivation; Shallow 180

Position in Rotation 180

On Wheat Stubble 180

Seedbed 181

Rolling 181

Harvesting 182

Seed and SowfNG :

Checks from Frost 182

Steeping 181

Time of Sowing 181

BEETS 230

BINS, Capacity of 508

BOILERS, Agricultural 500

BONES 138

BREEDING 306

BREEDS of Cattle 304

BREEDERS :

Our Canadian 347

Calendar 520

BROOM CORN 196

PAGE-
BUCKWHEAT :

As a Manure 162

Cultivation 185

Flour, Value of 187

Harvesting and Threshing... 186

Seed and Sowing 186

Use as a Crop 186

Where to Grow , 186

BUILDINGS, FARM :

Barns, Height of 40

Plans for 41

•Roofing for 45

Ventilators 21

Basements, Accommodation in 23
To excavate for 21

Cellars, Concrete for Walls... 25

To make Frost-proof 26

To keep dry 25

Floors, Asphalt 26

Brick 29

Cement 29

Wooden 28

Granaries 21

Lightning Rods 48

Electricity ; how it acts 48

Paint : Cheap Wash 47

Crude Petroleum 47

How to apply 47

For Bricks 47

Roofs : To find No. of Shin-
gles for 46

Shingles, Paint for 46

To prevent decay of 47

Stables : Feeding Troughs... 30

Mangers 39

Oat Boxes 39

Stalls 30

To purify 39

To tie Horses in 39

Unclean, a source of disease 34

Stone 23

Ventilation, danger of bad. . 26

Table of Contents.

PAGE

BURNT LAND, Treatment of . . 73

BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS.. 528

Account Books as Evidence. 533

Husband and Wife 531

I. 0. U 531

Landlord and Tenant 528

Leases 529

P;jrchasing Property 528

Stamps for Promissory Notes 531
Wills 532

CABBAGES 238

CALVES :

Abominable butchery of 344

At Hohenheim 346

Costiveness of 343

Fattening 345

Feeding 343

Raising 341

Secret of raising 344

Weight of at Ten Months.... 344

Youatt's Opinion 343

CAPITAL, How to Invest 18

CARE OF HORSES, Lies in a

Nutshell 399

CARROTS AND PARSNIPS ... 230

Cultivation 234

Harvesting . 234

Seed Raising 235

Seed and Sowing 233

Soil 232

Sowing in the Fall 235

Value of 231

Varieties of 231

CATTLE 303

Breeds :

Ayrshires 305

Alderneys and Jerseys 305

Durham .' 304

Dutch or Holstein 305

Devon 304

Herefords 304

Milch Cows 326

Breeding :

Co-operation to obtain Bulls. 307
Generous Feed for ' Blood'.. 307
Grade Bulls should never be

used 307

Parents, Influence of 308»

Pedigree 308

Selection by Character 308

Th.oroughbred Males desir-
able 306

Breeders, Our Canadian 347

PAGE

CATTLE :

Diseases of :

Abortion 433

Aptha 434

Black Quarter 434

Bloated (see Hoven).

Brain 434

Bronchitis 434

Constipation 435

Choking 435

Colic (see Hoven).

Cow-pox 436

Cud, Loss of 436

Diarrhoea 436

Dnim-Belly (see Hoven).

Eye 436

Fever 437

Flooding ... 437

Garget 437

Hidebound 438

Hoven 438

Jaundice 438

Joint Felon (see Black Quar-
ter),
Lice (see Cow-Stables).

Milk Fever 439

Murrain 439

Pleuro-pneumonia 440

Quarter- evil (see Black Quar-
ter).

Red Water 442

Ringworm 442

Teats 442

Thrush (see Aptha).

Warbles 443

Yellows (see Jaundice).
Fatting :

Buying for 314

Live and Dead Weiiiht 317

Management in Stalls 316

Overfeeding 317

Rule i for tinding the Weight 310

Selecting for 315

When to stop 317

Fastenings :

Chain 33

Stanchion 32

Feed :

Clover, Analyses of 312

Comparative Equivalents of

various kinds of Food 312

Cutting 321

Nutritive Value of various

Foods 311

Quantities contained in an

acre of various Crops 311

Steaming 321

Table of Contents.

PAGE

CATTLE :

Feed — Continued ,

Soiling 324

Theory of 309

Indications of Quality :

For Beef-producing 309

For Milking 309

For good Constitution and

Early Maturity . 309

Medicines 450

Lice and Mange 35

Kind Treatment OF 313

Milch Cows :

Breeds 326

Breeding from 332

Management of 328

Management in Winter Quar-
ters 331

Milking ... 333

Milking Kickers,.. 335

Milk :

Cheese from Skim 341

Composition of 338

Properties of 338

Quality of 339

Taint, causes of 340

Overfeeding for Exhibition 348

Oxen 346

Shorthorns 347

Store 313

CELLARS 25

CHEESE, Skim Milk 341

CHESS AND WHEAT 179

CISTERNS, Capacity of 507

CLAY SOILS 75

CLOVER , 251

Alsike 269

As a Manure 160

For Pasture 263

COLTS :

Management of 390

Breaking 392

First year's care 391

Shying 393

Teaching to Walk Fast 391

Weaning 390

Whip, when needed 393

CORN and Potatoes together.... 225

Broom 106

Care of Crop 193

Cost and profit from an acre

of 198

Cribs 198

Culture 191

Fodder 194

Harvesting 196

Hills or Drills 192

PAGE

CORN — Continued.

Husking 193

Planting 192

Shall we hill up 193

Shellers 498

Soiling 199

To keep Birds from 197

Varieties of 190

COUCH GRASS 284

CRUSHERS, Grain 498

CULTIVATION :
Burnt Lani>, Treatment of . . . 73

Ploughing 52

Cross ... 53

Deep for Drainage 56

Deep or Shallow 64

Fall 58

For permanent Pasture 52

On Clay Lands 53

On Hilly Lands 53

On Light Lands 52

Quantity per Day 53

Subsoil , 56

Width of Lands 52

Without Lands 52

Rotation of Crops 64

Sowing, Broadcast 63

Drilling 63

Summer Fallow 59

Operation of 61

Depth of 62

Thorough 50

CULTIVATORS, or Grubbers... 475

DETERIORATION in Wheat

Crop, Causes of 163

DEW, how formed 264

DISEASES :

Common to Horses (see

Horses).
Common to Cattle (see

Cattle).
Common to Sheep (see
Sheep).

DITCHING MACHINE 503

DRAUGHT, Principles of 467

DRAINS 81

Depth of 85

Distances of, apart 90

Government should institute
a private fund for drainage 92

Material for 85

Spade for 502

Time to Dig 84

To Level for 89

Table of Contents,

PAGE

DRILLS, Grain 478

DRY EARTH SYSTEM 120

DUNG (see Manures).

ELECTRICITY, how it acts 48

EMIGRANTS, A Few Words to 534

Advice to 537

Beware of Whiskey 547

Hard Work necessary to Suc-
cess 545

The Backwoods Settler 546

The Settler's Position in a

new Land 547

The Settler's Duty in a new

Land 548

When to go to the " Bush". 547
Agricultural Advantages of

Canada 536

Average Wages paid to La-
bourers, Mechanics, &c 538

Chances to become a Farmer 536

Climate oy Canada 537

Comparison between Produc-
tions of United States and

Canada 543

Cost of Living in Canada ... 539
Educational System of Can-
ada 543

Elbow-room in Canada 534

Equality, Fraternity and

Liberty 535

Extent of Canada 536

Extent of Canada, compared

to England and Wales 536

Financial Aspect of Canada 542
Forest Produce, Exports.... 541
Imports and Exports of Can-
ada 541

Labour is the Poor Man's

Capital 534

Labour required in Canada 551

Prices of Land 549

The Nationalities from which

the People are drawn 540

The Religious Denomina-
tions in Canada 540

To convert British Money

into Canadian 537

To the Old Countuy Farmer

as an Emigrant 548

United Statics compared So-
cially with Canada 535

Ways of obtaining Land :

1. Free Grants 544

PAGE

EMIGRANTS.

Ways of obtaining Land —

Continued .

2. Purchase of Wild Lands. 544

3. Purchase of Cultivated
Farms 544

What is Grown in Canada.. 542
Younger Sons of English
Gentlemen as Farmers in
Canada 550

FANNING MILLS 498

FASTENINGS, Cattle 32

FATTING CATTLE 314

FENCES, Board 290

Comparative Cost of ■"'arious

Kinds 295

G.\TES, Farm 300

Hedges, Live 295

Afterculture 297

And Mice 300

Arbor VitEB 300

Beech 298

Buckthorn 298

Deciduous Plants 298

Hemlock 300

Honey Locust 298

Norway Spruce 300

Pruning 297

Setting out Plants 296

Thickening neglected 297

To prepare Bed for 296

Wild Plum 299

Hurdles, Movable 302

Rail 288

Stone 295

To Secure Posts 291

Wire 293

FERTILIZERS, Special 127

FLAX 199

FLOORS 26

FLOUR:

Wheat 178

Buckwheat 187

FODDER, Indian Corn for ...... 194

Peas for 190

GATES, Farm 300

GANG PLOUGHS 477

GOVERNMENT should insti-
tute a Private Drainage
Fund 92

Table of Contents.

PAGE

ORAIN CRUSHERS 498

GRANARIES 21

GRASSES :
Clover :

Alsike 269

Analyses of 259, 312

For Seed 262

Hay 257

Pasture 263

Seed and Sowing 253

Soiling 263

When to Cut..... 261

Hungarian 274

June Grass 273

Lucerne 271

Seeds , 266

GRAVELS 78

GRUBBER OR CULTIVATOR 475
GYPSUM... 150

HAIR, as Manure 146

HARROWS (see Implements).

HAY TEDDERS 502

HEMP, Essay by H. G. Joly,

Esq., M.P 201

HEN MANURE 126

HOE, Expanding Horse 478

HOPS 241

Baling 248

Cost and Profit of an Acre 248

Drying 247

Management :

1st year 244

2nd year 244

3rd year 246

Picking 246

Preparation for 243

Soil FOR 242

Time of Planting 244

Trellis Work. 250

Varieties of 241

HORSE POWERS 496

HORSES 381

Breeds :

Thoroughbred Racer ... 384

Arab 384

Suffolk Punch 385

Clydesdale , 385

N orman or Percheron 385

French Canadian 385

Trotting Horses 385

Morgans, Blackhawks, Tem-
pests, Royal Georges are
all mongrels 385

HORSES— Continued.

Brood Mares

Care of, lies in a nutshell ....
Colts (see Colts).
Common Diseases of :

Absces?

Accidents :

Apoplexy

Bite from Mad Dog

Bleeding

Bowels, Inflammation of ....

Broken Knees

Back Sinews, Strain of

Bots (see Worms).

Chill

Cold

Colic Spasmodic, Belly-ache
or Gripes

Constipation

Cough

Curb

Chest Founder

Cow-hocks

Diarrhoea

Distemper

Eye, Diseases of

Farcy

Feet

Fever

Fits

Gleet (nasal)

Glanders

Heaves

Hide-bound

Influenza (see Distemper).

Lampas

Lung Fever

Pneumonia

Pleurisy.

page

, 389
, 399

Maggots

Megrims

Poll Evil

Polypi

Proud Flesh

Ringbone

Saddle Galls

Shoulder Lameness.

Side Bones

Sitf asts

Sores

Spavins

Sprains

Staggers, Stomach.

Staggers, Mad

Staked

Stinos

406
407
407
407
408
400
410
410

411

411
412
412
412
412
412
413
414
414
416
419
419
420
420
422
422

423
423
423
423
424
424
424
424
424
424
424
425
426
426
426
426
427
427
428
429
, 429

able of Contents.

HORSES :

Common Diseases of — Conti-
nued.

Stifled

Strang] es

String Halt

Sunstroke

Swelled Legs

Thoroughpin

Ulcers

Warbles (see Sitfasts).

Windgalls

Worms

Warts

Washiness

Wolf Teeth

Unsoundness

Warranted Sound

Farmers

Food

And Water

Humanity

Mares :

Better than Geldings

To breed from

Medicine for (see Medicines).

Points of a Good . .

Stallions

Of pure Blood

To Drench

Undue Encouragement at

Agricultural Shows given

to Trotters

Unsoundness Hereditary ...
Vices Common to

Bad to Shoe

Balking

Biting

Orib-biting

Hard Mouthed

Interfering

Kicking

Overreaching

Paw mg

Pulling on the Halter

Rearing

Rolling in Stall

Runaway

Shying

Slipping the Halter

Stumbling

Getting bit in the Cheek

HOT-BED, To Make a

HOUSE .SLOPS, Valuable as

Manure

HUNGARIAN GRASS

PAGE

429
429
429
429
430 j
430 I
430 !

431
431
431
431
431
432
431
386
396
398
393

386
387

381
389
386
403

385

387
400
404
400
403
406
402
405
400
405
404
401
404
404
404
404
405
405
403
518

145
274

PAGE

HURDLES 302

HUSBAND AND WIFE 531

IMPLEMENTS 461

Broadcast Sower 480

Corn Shellers 498

Cultivator 475

Ditching Machine 503

Ditcher, Open 504

Drag Saw 498

Draining Spade 503

Fanning Mills 498

Gang Plough 477

Grain Crushers 498

Grain Drills 478

Grass Sped Sowers 481

Great Variety in 463

Grdbbers . 475

Harrows 473

Chain 474

Rotary or Revolving 474

Brush 474

Horse Hoe 478

Horse Rakes and Tedders. 502
Mowing and Reaping Ma-
chines 486

The First Invented 486

Qualifications of 487

Trials at Agricultural Shows 490

Must be Strong 464

Ploughs :

Anti-friction Wheel 470

Beam, Land-Side, Share, &c 467

Construction of 466

Gray's Double Furrow

Plough 471

Gray's Triple Furrow Plough 473

Hill's Patent 471

Jointers 469

Line of Draught 467

Other Swing 472

Swing 468

Swivel or Side Hill 470

Trial of, at Paris, in 1871 ... 469

Poor Tools cannot Pay 465

Powers 496

Roller 477

Root Pulpers 500

Saving of Labour effected

BY 462

Steamer AND Boiler 500

Straw Cutter 499

Stump Pullers 601

Table of Contents.

PAGE

IMPLEMENTS— Contmi^ed

Threshing Machines 492

Separator .* ..... 493

Little Giant 494

The Agitator 495

CloTer Threshers 496

Turnip Drills 479

Waggons 481

Dishing of Wheels 483

Principle of resistance in

Draught 483

Width of Wheels 483

Warehouses in Toronto and

London 465

Will not stand Exposure ... 464
INDICATIONS OF QUALITY

IN CATTLE 309

J
JUNE GRASS 273

LAMBING 354

LAMBS, Management of 357

LANDLORD AND TENANT... 528

LEASES 529

LEAVES, for Manure 146

LICE, To cure, on Cattle 35

LIME, as a Manure 154

LIQUID MANURE .. 122

LOAM 79

LUCERNE 271

MACHINES (see Implements).

MANGE, To cure on Cattle 35

MANGEL WURZELS 236

MANURES :

Amounts voided by differ-
ent Animals 113

Application :

On Grass Lands 113

On Heavy Lands Ill

On Light Lands 112

Quantity per Acre 1 14

Repeated 115

Spreading 112

Surface 108

Ashes 146

Barn Yards 99

Compost Heaps 105

Evaporation of 100

How it acts on Land 101

PAGE

MANURES :
Barn Yards — Continued.

Manajjement of 100

Site of Dung-hills 99

Straw for 98

Bones 138

Buckwheat, Ploughed down.. 162

Clover, Ploughed down 160

Fertilizers, Special 127

Guano 129

Nitrate of Soda 129

Sulphuric Acid 129

Superphosphate of Lime 129

Hair 146

Hen 126

House Slops 145

Leaves 146

Lime 154

Liquid 122

Pump for 125

Tanks for 124

Management of 115

Night Soil 116

Compared with Guano 117

Dry Earth System 120

Table of amounts voided by

Human Beings 119

Peat or Turf ] 45

Plaster of Paris 150

Salt 153

Sawdust 144

Seaweed 145

Swamp-Muck 143

Tables :

Shewing amount of incom-
bustible ingredients in va-
rious Crops 132

Shewing Chemical Ingre-
dients in various Manures 137
Tallow Chandlers' Refuse. . 145

Turnips Ploughed down 161

Wool Waste 145

MARES :

Better than Geldings for

Farm Purposes 386

Brood . 389

To Breed from 387

MEASUREMENTS (see Tables).

MEADOWS, Pasturing 270

MEDICINES :

Astringents 450

Alteratives 450

Antispasmodics. 455

Blisters 453

Caustics 455

Clysters 454

Table of Contents,

PAGE

MEDICINES— Continued.

Colic Remedies 455

Cordials 454

Coughs and Colds 455

Disinfectants or Purifiers — 456

Diuretics 456

Embrocations, Liniments,

Lotions, &c 452

Febrifuges (Fever) 456

Injections 454

Ointments 453

Poultices 458

Purging 457

Rheumatic Applications 458

Sedatives 458

Skin Diseases 459

Tonics 459

Vermifuges (Worms) 460

MILCH COWS 326

MILK 338

Cheese from Skim 341

Composition of 338

Properties of 338

Quality of 339

Tainted 340

MILKING :

Qualities of Cows 309

Kickers 335

MILLET 274

MUSTARD, Wild 286

N
NIGHT SOIL 116

OATS 183

Cut early 185

Rust in 184

Sowing, thick or thin 183

Value of Straw 183

Varieties of 184

Where they will gro\, 183

Wild 283

OBJECTIONS to Buckwheat as

a Crop 187

OVERFEEDING for Exhibition 348

OXEN 346

PARSNIPS 230

PASTURES :

Clover for 263

How to Stock 269

PAGE

PASTURES— Co n^i^mec?.

Permanent 273

Rye for- 270

Sheep 360

PASTURING MEADOWS 270

PEAS .. 187

A Cleaning Crop 189

A Green Crop 189

A Green Manure 189

For Fodder 190

How ''bugs" get into 190

Preparation for 188

Sowing 188

Varieties of 188

PEAT:

For Manure 145

Soils 80

PIGEON WEED , . 286

PIGS 364

Breeding of 369

Breeds OF 365

Dentition, Table of 378

Diseases... 447

Catarrh or Cold 447

Cholera 448

Diarrhoea 448

Drench, How to 447

Fever 448

Inflammations ... 448

Itch (see Mange).

Jaundice 448

Mange 449

Measles 449

Protrusion of Rectum 449

Rheumatism 449

Surfeit or Indigestion 449

Tumors 449

Fertility of 371

Parts of 376

Rearing 371

Spring 375

Store 371

Thoroughbred 370

To Catch 380

Value of 364

PLASTER OF PARIS 150

PLOUGHING 52

PLOUGHS (see Implements).

Gang 477

PORK, Curing 378

Value of 364

POSTS 290

POTATOES 208

After Culture of 215

And Corn together 225

Computatiou of Crop 218

Table of Contents,

PAGE

POTATOES— Con^irwcc^.

Culture of 210

Digf^ing 215

Diseases of 217

History of 208

Not exhaustive 210

Planting, Mode and Time of 212

Seed 213

Storing 216

Soil for 209

Value of, as Food 209

Varieties of 219

POWERS, Motive 496

QUACK GRASS 284

RAIN, Signs of 259

RAlNFALL,Tablefe of, in Canada 136

RAKES, Horse 502

RAMS, Use of 353

RED ROOT 286

ROLLER , 477

ROOFS 45

ROOTS :

To measure quantities of ... 508

Deep Cultivation £or 239

Relative Feeding Qualities

of , 240

Pulpers ; 500

ROTATION OF CROPS 64

RYE FOR PASTURAGE.., 270

SALT 153

SANDY SOILS 76

SAWDUST 144

SEAWEED 145

SHEEP 349

Age by Teeth 351

Breeding 352

Breeding Ewes 354

Breeds of 350

Diseases of 443

Colic or Stretches 443

Costiveness 443

Chronic Cough 443

Eruptive 443

Foot Rot 443

Grub in the Head 444

Inflammation of Bowels 444

Rot 445

PAGE

SHEEP :

Diseases of — Continued.

Scabs 445

Scouring 446

Staggers 447

Fall Feed 360

Lambing 354

Lambs, Management OF 357

Medicines for (see Medicines).

Pasture 360

Points of Excellence in 354

Shearing 363

Tar 359

Ticks 363

Use of Rams 353

Winter Management 360

Wools 352

woolwashing 361

SHORTHORNS 347

SOILING 199

Clover for 263

Cattle 324

SOILS 75

Alluvial 79

Clay 75

Gravels 78

Loam 79

Peats 80

Sand 76

SORGHUM 275

SORREL 285

SOUNDNESS, in Horses 432

SOWING MACHINES 478

SPREADING MANURE 112

STABLES (see Buildings).
STALLIONS :

Of Pure Blood 386

In Canada 389

STEAMING FOOD 321

STONE FOR BUILDING 23

STORE CATTLE 313

STRAW CUTTER 499

STUMPING MACHINES 501

SUMMER FALLOW 59

SURFACE MANURING 108

SWAMP-MUCK :

In Manure 107

As Manure ... 143

SWEDES (see Turnips).

TABLES :

Analyses of Farm Produce.. 517

Ashes of Various Crops 514

Dry Beef and Blood 517

Table of Contents,

PAGE

TABLES— Continued.

Average Wages paid Labour-
ers and Mechanics 538

Composition of —

Green Rye 511

Linseed Cake 510

Meadow Grass 511

Milk 338

Parsnips and Carrots 512

Pea and Bean Gtrav/ 511

Potatoes 512

Rape Cake ... 510

Rich and Poor Milk 513

Swedes 512

Vetches 511

Wheat, Barley and Oats 510

White Turnips 512

Cost of Living in Canada .... 539
Cost of Various Kinds of

Fencing 295

Dentition of Pigs 378

Discharge op Water from
VARIOUS sized Pipes 509

D [STANCES APART OF DrAINS 90, 509

Extent of Canada 536

Feeding Value of various

Substances 514

Imports and Exports 541

Labour required in Canada. 551
Measurements, &c.

Avoirdupois Weight 506

Bread Weight 506

Capacity of Bins 508

Capacity of Cisterns 507

Commercial Numbers 507

Corn in the Ear 508

Dry Measure 506

Land 505

Length 505

Roots 508

Solid Bodies 505

Surface 505

Time and Motion 506

Nationalities from which the

People are drawn 540

Number of Plants to an

Acre 518

Rainfall in Canada 1 36

Religious Denominations ... 540

Soils and Trees 517

Statistics of Panics 642

Temperature of Canada 134

Value of Manures obtained
from one ton of various foods 513
TALLOW CHANDLERS' Re-
fuse ...• 145

PAOS

TARES (see Vetches).

TEDDERS 502

TEMPERATURES 133

TENANT AND LANDLORD . 528

THEORY OF FEEDING 309

THISTLES 278

THRESHING MACHINES .... 492
TREAT ANIMALS KINDLY.. 313

Humanity to Horses 393

TURF 145

TURNIPS 225

As a Manure 161

Artificial Manures for 228

Drilling up for 228

Harvesting 230

Insect Enemies 230

Preparing Ground 227

Seed and Sowing 229

Soils for 226

Sower 479

Thinning 229

Varieties 226

VENTILATION, Danger of Bad 26

VENTILATORS 21

VETCHES 276

VICES COMMON TO HORSES
(see Horses).

WAGGONS 481

WARRANTY OF SOUNDNESS

of a Horse 431

WEEDS 276

Canada Thistle 278

Couch or Quack Grass 284

Mustard 286

Pigeon Weed 286

Sorrd 285

Various 287

Wild Oats 283

WEIGHTS, Tables of 506

WHEAT 163

And Chess 179

Canada a Wheat Producing

Country 163

Causes of Deterioration of 163
Cost of Producing an Acre.. 179

Fall or Winter 164

Essay on 169

Cultivation for 16(

Good Land for 166

Mulchinjr ^"^

List of Illustrations.

PAGE

WHEAT :

Fall or Winter — Continued.

On Clover Sod 166

On Pea Stubble 168

Seed 172

Sowing 173

Spring, Management of 175

Varieties of ] 65

Flour 178

Spring 176

Rust in 177

Smut in 178

FAOI

WHEAT :

Spring — Continued.

Varieties of 177

WILLS 532

WOOLS 352

Washing 361

Shearing 363

WOOL WASTE 145

YARD, BARN, Manure 97

LIST OF ILLUSTEj^.TIOIfS.

PAGE

Diagram shewing Form of Excavation for Basement Barns 21

Do Natural Slope of Ground for do 22

Movable Manger for Stalls 31

Movable Stanchion Principle for securing Cattle 32

Do do Sections of, and Details 32

Chain and Ring Mode of securing Cattle 33

Do do Modification of 34

Secure Plan of Fastening Cattle by Chain 34

Stable and Stall, side view of recommended 34

Horse Halter and Mode of Attachment in Stall 39

Do do showing working 39

Barn Building, Gable View of recommended 41

Do Plan of principal Floor of 41

Do Perspective View of 42

Do Basement Plan of 42

Do Longitudinal Section of 44

Do Second Floor Plan of 44

Bam Construction, View of 45

Roof, Woodcut of (To illustrate Rule for finding number of Shingles

required) 46

Theory of Electricity illustrated 48

Do Cloud and Barn Attraction 49

Do Cloud and Lightning Rod Attraction 49

Diagram of Ploughing on Clayey Lands 53

Simple Attachment to stir up soil beneath Plough, when subsoil ploughing 58

Diagram of " Drilled Wheat " and " Broadcast Wheat " 64

14 List of Illustrations.

PAGB

Diagrams illustrating System of Under-draining (2) 84

Simple Levelling Instrument for Farmers' use in Draining 89

Liquid Manure Pump, and Valve 125

Improved Corn Crib 198

Potato Digger 216

Head Halter for Cows, to prevent self- sucking 337

Plan of Sheep Pen for Early-lambing Ewes 355

Form of well-fatted Hog 364

Gray's Champion Single Furrow Plough 468

Combined Cast Beam Plough 469

Yankee No. 22 Jointer Plough (two or three Horse) 469

Anti-Friction Wheel Plough 470

Swivel or Side-Hill Plough 470

Hill's Patent Plough , 471

Gray's Double-Furrow Plough 471

Grubber or Cultivator 475

Morgan's Two-Horse Cultivator 476

Patent Flexible Iron Cultivator 476

Gang Plough o 477

Field Roller ". 477

Expanding Horse Hoe 478

Wethersfield Seed Drill 480

Cahoon's Broadcast Sower 480

Grass Seed Sower 481

Illustration of Principle of Friction between Wheel and Axle 484

Improved Thresher and Separator 493

Patent Wood Frame Grain Crusher 499

Straw-Cutter, for Manual or Horse Power 499

Agricultural Steamer and Boiler 500

Simple Stump Puller 501

Dick's Patent Potato Digger 502

English Draining Spade 503

Carter's Improved Ditching Machine 503

Carter's Open Ditcher, Road Grader and Subsoiler 604

ILLUSTRATIONS IN APPENDIX.

PAOB

Gray's Triple-Furrow Plough 553

Diagrams of Harrows (Square Frame and Askew Frame) 554

Eyer's Patent Harrow and Tooth 554

Improved Grain Drill 555

Broadcast Sower of Plaster, Guano and General Fertilizers 556

Improved Turnip and Seed Sower 556

Single Mower, with Forward Cutting Bar 657

Single Mo w 6r, with Cutting Bar in Rear 558

List of Illustrations. 15

PAGE

*' Caynga Chief " Mower 558

" Ayr Clipper " Mower 559

* ' Ayr Clipper " Reaper 560

Johnson Self-Rake 501

Kirby Combined as a Self-Raking Reaper (Dodge Rake) 562

Improved Ten Horse Pitt's Separator 563

*' Little Giant " Thresher and Separator 564

** The Agitator " Separating Threshing Machine 565

Ten-Horse Power 566

Totman's Farmer's Horse-Power 566

Totman Horse- Power applied to a Straw Cutter 567

Totman Drag Cross-cut Sawing Machine 567

Screw Stump Machine 568

Sulkey Revolving Horse Rake 569

Lock-Lever Sulkey Hay Rake 569

THE

CANADIAN FARMB:R'S

MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE.

CAPITAL.

When the day arrives at which farming shall be recognized as
in every way a profession, requiring as thorough knowledge and
as regular business habits as any other calling or trade, we may
look for an advance in the agricultural progress of the country,
commensurate to raise her to the highest position in the scale of
nations.

The man who, relying from the first upon credit, enters into
the business of manufacturing or of storekeeping, cannot succeed.
As well purchase a large factory or commodious store, and then,
deficient of means to stock the same, sit down and think of the
ways and means of establishing a trade, as to buy a farm and
hope to work it profitably without a sufiicient stock of horses,
cattle, implements and seed.

The man who enters upon a farm relying upon his credit for the
purchase of the necessary stock, seldom, if ever, succeeds in his
business. To-day an immense number of farms in Canada are
mortgaged ; the first incumbrance upon the property was in many
cases the means by which necessary capital was secured, and only
in the case of a few men of indomitable energy and untiring
perseverance has the farm been ever cleared from its first imposed
debt, but rather that debt has accumulated until the day of forced
sale has arrived.

The man who has not sufiicient capital to thoroughly stock
one hundred acres should be content with a farm of half that size,
for experience has shown that whilst, on the one hand, a large
farm is more economically worked than a smaller, yet on the
other a farm of say fifty acres, properly stocked and started, will
yield one hundred per cent, more profit than a larger holding
insufficiently stocked or hampered with incumbrances.
2

18 The Canadian Farmer's

It has been too much the fashion in Canada for the farmer,
when surplus produce has been sold, to rush to the purchase of
more land, without staying to place all the capital upon the old
land which was absolutely required, and, as a consequence, we can
point to many of our " large " farmers who do not sell as much
off their immense area, insufficiently stocked and imperfectly
worked, as do "smaller" neighbours upon lands which carry a
full Complement of necessary stock.

HOW CAPITAL MAY BE INVESTED ON THE FARM TO BEAR GOOD

INTEREST.

By removing stones from the fields, hy stumping and cleaning,
by squaring the fields so that all operations are performed in a
rectangular manner, and great saving of time effected. The chief
loss of time in the daily work of a team at ploughing, harrowing,
or in any field operation, is in turning ; make the fields right-
angled, and the turning will be reduced to a minimum.

By good fencing. — It is as poor economy to have bad fences as
to leave the till unlocked and invite the burglar to remove its
contents. Good fences once put up are an economy in many ways.
Not onl}^ is the cost of repairing and patching reduced, but cattle
do not learn to breach. The animal that has once broken bounds
into the rich clover field, or filled his belly in the ripe grain, will
in future assuredly seek for and find out ever}^ weak spot in the
protecting fence. We have seen as much damage done to a wheat
crop in one season, in this manner, as would pay for a hoard fence
round the whole field.

By buying the best of tools. — The carpenter cannot make a good
job with bkmt chisel or ill-set saw, neither can the farmer with
inferior implement or poor seed.

We have seen a heavy team struggling along before a short
cast-iron plough with iron mould-board, sole and land plate ;
while upon the opposite side of the road, in exactly similar soil,
a light, active team would be drawing with perfect ease the
light-made plough, in which all friction acts upon steel that shines
like polished silver.

By good accommodation for live stock and implements. — It is
useless to attempt to keep animals in winter with insufficient
accommodation. Unless we provide shelter and warmth to every
head of stock, we shall require to feed so much more to keep up
the necessary animal heat.

Each 3^ear, then, the extra amount of feed required to keep in
the cow or pig, &c., the requisite amount of animal heat, might
be to far greater advantage expended on warm accommodation.
The former plan, of supplying the heat requisite, must be repeated
each year, wliile suitable buildings will hist for very many seasons.

Manual of Agriculture, 19

Avoiding the first accumulation of mechanics'' and tradesmen's
bills. — The first year upon a farm is invariably one of loss. An
accumulation of extraneous accounts often throws a man so far back
that it becomes a chance whether he ever recover his lost ground.
In entering on a farm, sufficient available capital should be kept
over to pay all possible expenses for the first year. Never, if it
be possible to avoid it, trust to a future return to pay current
accounts. The perspective of the return generally recedes towards
a point, while the bulk of accounts usually exceeds all anticipation.
Interest increases on the bills, while it is a constant drain upon
the value of crops in prospective.

Under draining. — It has been demonstrated by the most ex-
perienced and practical farmers, both in England and in America,
that the surplus produce upon well-drained land will pay for the
expense of underdraining in three years ; or, in other words, that
capital invested in this form will yield interest at the rate of thirty-
three and one-third per cent, per annum in actual returns, while
the market value of the land is improved to the full amount of
expenditure.

On the purchase of Unproved stock — While we do not advocate
the raising of thorough-bred stock by the generality of farmers,
it must be a self-evident fact, that the animal which produces
the largest amount of meat, wool or milk for a given quantity of
food must be the most valuable.

It is demonstrated yearly at our Exhibitions, and by the written
and spoken experience of practical men, that good grade cattle,
sheep and hogs produce a greater amount of meat, wool or milk
than the coarse, bony, ill-bred animal.

The more capital, then, that can be retained for the purchase
of stock, the greater the interest that will accrue.

Safe speculation in live stock— The sound principle of safety
known as small profits and quick returns applies with as great
force to the business of the farmer as to that of the merchant or
tradesman. The value of live stock is constantly fluctuating.

With a cash capital attainable at any day, the farmer may take
advantage of the fluctuation of the market by buying cheaply and
selling at a profit.

It is not an uncommon thing for the price of pork, beef or mut-
ton to rise one hundred per cent, in a very short time. The man
who has always cash available is at any time prepared to buy
cheaply, and can sell as soon as the advance will yield him a
profit.

It is this very want of ready cash amongst the farmers gene-
rally that tends to bring about these sudden and rapid fluctua-
tions. Produce being down in value is often the result of a neces-
sity that drives the many producers to sell even at a sacrifice ;
whilst in a short space of time the reaction in the market must

20 The Canadian Faimer's

set in, and yield a profit to him who can keep over or who has
bought in the decline of the market.

An attempt to dictate the amount of capital requisite upon
a given acreage would be futile in such a work as the present.
There are so many circumstances — the condition of the land, the
state of improvements, or the st34e of husbandry required — that
it would be impossible to lay down any arbitrary rules based upon
the size or locality of various farms.

Most farmers are anxious for large occupations, and a great
number thus fall into the error of attempting to work more land
than they possess capital to manage properly ; some are seduced
by delusive hopes of making up all present deficiencies by future
savings ; while others are led forward by the vanity of being greater
landholders than their neighbours.

From these causes arise a meagre stock, imperfect cultivation,
and consequent scanty returns, and in their train follow debt, dis-
tress and final ruin. On the other hand, the man who is content
to commence with as many acres as he has capital to properly
work and cultivate, may look forward with certainty to a full
return from his land, will not be ever running into debt, and will
obtain in his daily occupations contentment of mind, while laying
the sure foundations of a future fortune.

ON FARM BUILDINGS.

Convenience and simplicity should never, in the arrangement
of farm buildings, be sacrificed to sj^mmetry. Neatness, compact-
ness and warmth are the great points always to be carefully stu-
died by the farmer in laying out or adding to his cattle-houses
or barns.

'' Time is money," and any arrangement which will render the
work of feeding and attending on cattle easier, and to be per-
formed in less time, should be carefully carried out, especially
in Canada, where seasons are short and wasies are hi oh. Besides,
if hired men ])erceive a neatness and compactness in the internal
fittings of a building, evincing a desire to make their work less
onerous, they will generally take a pride in the superiority of
their employer's arrangements over those of the neighbours, and
will attend more carefully to, and carry out more thoroughly,
the operations of winter feeding, «Sz;c. Such buildings as are
erected should be on the north, east and weso sides of the yard,
leaving the south open to the full benefit of the mid-day sun.

In Canada, where warmth is so great a requisite, the bank barn
is, undoubtedly, the most convenient, giving a great capacity in
room on a comparatively small scale.

Homesteads, however, must vary with farms, and it would be as
inconsistent to dictate the plan of farm buildings as of the farms
themselves.

Manual of Agriculture 21

We will merely point out those general rules which should be
carefully weighed ere the farmer engage in either new building
accommodation, or additions to former barns and out-houses.

Convenience and economy of space are here almost synonymous
terms, and are points to be carefully kept in view.

Good ventilation is as essential to the well-being of stock as of
man. Cattle and pigs require plenty of warmth, while horses and
sheep should be kept in cool, well-sheltered steadings, where
thorough ventilation has been carefully secured.

Ammonia and other noxious odours that emanate from animal
manure are very injurious to health, and means should be em-
ployed to carry off all such poisonous gases.

Grain, hay and roots also require good ventilation, and for this
reason there is great objection to the not uncommon system of
close-battening barns.

Ventilators should be provided for all barns and cellars, to carry
the heated air caused by fermentation out at the roof of the
building.

Granaries should not be built in under the swinof-beam of a
barn, surrounded by solid masses of grain, hay or straw. We
should advise, if possible, the building of a granary in the shape
of a lean-to, or, better, as a detached building from the main barn,
allowing the free play of air upon every side. We shall at a
future page speak more particularly on the subject of granaries.

Basement Barns. — Every barn should have a basement, wher-
ever stone to build one is accessible.

The sills are thoroughly protected from rot by being placed
high and dry above the ground.

The basement is well adapted to fatting cattle, hogs and milch
cows, while a cellar for the storage of roots may be built at the
back end. It is a great advantage to have roots stored upon the
same level as the feeding stalls, as there is a great loss of time in
carrying large quantities of roots up stairs or ladders. Where
a site upon a hill side can be obtained, there is nothing but a
simple excavation to be made, the labour becoming greater as the
slope of the land approaches a dead level.

The accompanying diagram shows the form of excavation where

Diagram L

The Canadian Farmer's

the slope is slight, the earth taken from the basement being
thrown out on the upper side to form the road- way to the barn.

Here x y shows natural slope of ground, making an angle of 5°
with the horizon. By excavating three feet at the inside, and
supposing the barn to be forty feet wide, sufficient earth is ob-
tained to make a raised road to the top of a basement wall, D B,
nine feet high. Raised road running out twenty feet from the
barn floor to the natural ground, and making an incline of three
feet in twenty, up which to take waggons into the barn.

If the site should be a dead level, earth must be obtained else-
where to make a protection to those walls of the basement forming
the outside of the cellar.

DiAQKAM 2.

X y shows the natural slope of the ground, being say three feet
in forty. By excavating three feet at the inside, and supposing
the barn to be forty feet wide, earth sufficient is obtained from
the excavation to make a raised road to the top of a nine-foot
basement wall ; such raised road running forty feet out to meet
the ground, has only an incline of three in forty, up which to
draw on to the barn floor.

If the site should be a dead level, the cost becomes far greater,
as the earth required to protect the outer walls of the cellar
would have to be drawn to the spot, whilst if the basement be
commenced on the crest of the elevation, as in Diagram 2, the
labour of excavation is reduced to a minimum.

A basement wall resting against a bank should be built of stone
and first-class mortar, and should be at least 1 J feet thick. Masons
generally slope such a wall upwards and outwards to the bank,
giving as their reason that the slope overcomes the pressure of
the contiguous earth.

To keep the Avails free from dampness, and to still further lessen
any danger from the crowding of the baiik, small stone or coarse
gravel should be filled in for about twelve inches in width be-
tween the wall and the bank, and this gravel rest over a drain
below.

In this manner all wet, especiall}^ in spring, escaping from the
ground, will filter through the gravel, and, before reaching the
cellar wall, will escape by the drain beneath.

Manual cf Agriculture. 23

Accommodation in a Basement. — For the purpose of approxi-
matioD, it will be near enough to calculate that ten bushels of
roots require fifteen cubic feet of space.

On this basis the following Table will serve to measure the ne-
cessary size of a cellar to contain various quantities of roots : —

1,000 Bushels of roots will require 1,500 cubic feet, or f 20 x 84x9 high.

i or, 20 X 9-4x8 "

1,500 " « 2,250 "■ ( 20 X 12*6 x 9 "

\ or, 20 X 14-0 X 8 "

2,000 " " 3,000 " f 20 X 16-8 X 9 "

1 or, 20 X 18-9 x 8 "

3,000 " " 4,500 " f 20 X 25-0 X 9 "

1 or, 20 X 2S-0 x 8 "

4,000 « «* 6,000 " f 20 X 33-4 x 9 *'

|or, 20X37-6X 8 "

7,000 " " 10,500 " ) 20 X 58'4 X 9 "

tor, 20X65-7 X 8 "

10,000 " " 15,000 « 5 20 X 83-4 X 9 "

\ or, 20 X 93-9 X 8 "
And so on.

TO SELECT BUILDING STONE.

The following instructions for the selection of building stone
are taken from the London Builder., and are of great interest to
all who may have anything to do with such work : — " In select-
ing a quarry from which to get the stone best suited for the pur-
pose, great care is required. Having first satisfied yourself that
stone of the size required can be obtained, and at a reasonable
price, the next and most important step of all is to find out if it
be durable stone. Too much weight must not be placed on the
assurance of quarrymen that the bed which is the cheapest for
them to get at is the best and most durable, nor the best looking
and easiest to work. It does not follow that because certain old
buildings in the neighbourhood have lasted well, therefore all the
quarries in the neighbourhood produce the same stone.

" It often occurs that a quarry on one side of a hill produces much
better stone than that on the other. Specimens, dressed up square
and sent out by the quarry man or agent, are very dangerous things
to form an opinion on ; because what looks very well in small
pieces, is really often of an inferior quality, and a stone that
would appear coarse and rough in the specimen would not do so
when in the mass. Stones that rub up to a smooth face are often
not so durable as those of a rougher texture.

" To give an example, ' best bed ' Portland is much superior in
colour and texture to ' brown bed ' Portland, but fiir inferior to
it in durability. Examine all the different beds in the quarry,
noting the particular grain, texture and colour of each bed ; com-
pare them with the buildings around ; and if there be any old
quarries near with the face exposed, see which of the beds stand

24 The Canadian Farmer's

out the most and show the old tool marks, and consequently have
yielded to the action of the weather least. It frequently happens
that the best stone is neglected, or only in part worked, from the
cost of removing the rubbish with which it may be associated.

" As an economical supply of stone in particular localities would
sometimes appear to depend on accidental circumstances, such as
the cost of quarrying, the degi^ee of facility in transport, and the
prejudice that generally exists in favour of a material which has
been long in use ; and as the means of transportation have of late
years been greatly increased, it becomes essential to ascertain
whether better materials than those which have been employed
in any given place may not be obtained from other, although more
distant, localities, offering equall}^ advantageous terms. The rela-
tive facility with which good materials may be obtained in a dis-
trict is to a certain extent marked by the appearance of the towns
and villages, the comparative cost in obtaining them being in
general better shown by the character of the ordinary buildings
than by that of the public buildings and large mansions, the stone
for which may sometimes have been brought from comparatively
considerable distances.

" From the frequent practice, however, of selecting those stones
which yield readily to the tool, and are hence commonly called
freestone, whatever may be their mineralogical characteristics, the
most durable and therefore the cheapest are far from being always
employed ; and it sometimes happens that we find the common
cottages built of durable materials, while large mansions and
public buildings are not, the materials for the latter having been
selected only because they were so readily worked up for ornamen-
tal parts, while those for the former may have been thrown
aside in the same quarries because they yielded less freely to the
tool."

For the reverse process, or to find how many bushels can be
stored in a given cellar :

RULE.

Multiply the length, breadth and height of the cellar together,
to obtain the number of cubic feet in space — divide b}^ 15, and
multiply result by 10.

Example. — Wanted to find the number of bushels of roots that
a cellar measuring 37 feet in length, 33 feet <i inches in width,
and 8 feet in height will contain :

37 ft. X 33 ft. 6 in. = 1230o0 square feet
1239-50 sq. feet x 8 feet -9916 cubic feet
9916 cubic feet -r- 15-661-06

and 66106 x 10 = 6610, or the number of bushels that the cellar
will contain.

Manual of Agriculture. 25

Trice of building such basements. — Excavation of, varying
according to the nature of the soil, from clay through gravel to clear
sand — 10 to 12 cents per cubic yard.

Stone. — There are 99 cubic feet of stone to the cord. There are
16 J square feet in a perch — a wall 12 inches thick would then run
6 perches to a cord of stone, whilst if 18 inches thick it wo\ald
only run 4 perches to a cord of stone.

The following prices apply more particularly to the classes of
limestone commonl}?' used in Canada by farmers when building :

Cost of quarrying a cord of stone from $2 00 to $3 00

*' " hauling (regulated by distance) " 2 00 to 5 00

*' " Lime required for a cord of stone — 6 bush... *' 90 to 1 20

** " Sand " " " 1 load. ... *• 25 t© 50

" ** hauling lime and sand

** ** building (at 50 to 60 cts. per perch) per cord " 3 00 to 3 60

, Total cost per cord from $8 15 to $13 30

«' " perch of l2 in. wall 1 35 to 2 20

" ** " " 18 in. " 2 20 to 3 30

TO KEEP CELLAR WALLS DRY.

It has been recommended to put a coat of tar on the inside,
and this custom is much practised in England.

The coal tar is boiled in an iron boiler until all the watery por-
tion has been driven out in steam. The tar should then be laid
on hot with a common whitewash brush, care being taken not to
use the tar hot enough to destroy the hairs of the brush. One or
more coats may thus be evenly painted on a rough stone wall,
and will render it quite impervious to that damp which is occa-
sioned by a difference in temperature between the outside and
inside of a wall.

We have already alluded to an effectual means for securing dry-
ness, by filling up for about afoot between the wall and the adjacent
soil with coarse gravel, small stones or brick rubble over a drain.
The most effective drain is one made of tiles, and laid at least a
foot deeper than the foundation ; this is best done before the walls
are commenced.

Another very dry form of cellar is that built with a double
brick wall, leaving a vacancy of about six inches, and tied at
the corners and at several places in the sides — this, however, is
too expensive, unless in a neighbourhood where it is impossible to
obtain the requisite building stone.

Cellar floors should be made smooth and hard, so as to offer
every facility for shovelling upon and cleaning.

CONCRETE FOR WALLS.

" The gravel should be coarse and not screened — the coarsest
kind of building sand or gravel right from the bed is best, as

26 T/^^ Canadian Farmer's

the coarse gravels ballast and support irregular stone best, and
make a porous mortar unfavourable to capillary attraction, ren-
dering the walls drier. The mortar or concrete should be made
and piled up in a heap, lightly covered with the gravel, and lay a
week or two before using, and thoroughly tempered or washed
over before using." — John Straihmore, in " Country Gentlemmi."

ASPHALT OR CONCRETE FOR FLOORS.

The Oardenev^s Magazine has the following : — " Three parts
coal ashes (those from the blacksmith's forge to be preferred) and
two parts gas-lime from the gas-works, to be thoroughly mixed,
and then made into a mortar with gas-tar. If the gas- tar comes
from tlie gas-M'orks, where the ammoniacal liquor is not separated,
it will be sufficiently mixed for the purpose ; but if the latter be
separated and the tar be thick, it will set quicker if about one-
fourth part of water be mixed thoroughly with the tar when used.
For the floors of cow sheds, this should be laid about three inches
thick in one layer, on an even surface of gravel, or stone broken
very small with a sprinkling of gravel over, and rolled down.
The mortar may be laid on with a common shovel, and merely
patted down flat. In dry, warm weather, if the mortar has been
carefully made, the floor will set Arm in a few days. For any
ordinary outhouse, half the thickness will make a permanent
floor."

TO MAKE CELLARS FROST-PROOF.

Before leaving the subject of cellars, we will point out an
excellent plan for making cellars temporarily frost-proof Take
paper (coarse brown paper is the best, but, in lieu of such, news-
papers will do); mix a strong size, and paste the papers — if com-
mon papers, two or three thicknesses will be necessary — firmly
upon the walls. There is no need to press the paper into the in-
terstices, as each air spot between the paper and the wall forms
an additional non-conducting medium of heat. This remedy has
been often adopted with great success --paper being one of the
best non-conductors known.

Ventilation is very necessary in a cellar, and the higher the
ventilator is carried the more thorough Avill be the action of its
draught in drawing away the noxious gases evolved by fermenta-
tion or decay.

In the case of cellars under a house, very fatal injuries may
arise by a want of due cleanliness and imperfect ventilation.

DANGER TO HEALTH OF BAD VENTILATION.

" Few people are ^uUy aware," says the Pennsylvanian, " ot
the danger to health and life of living in damp houses. It is

Manual of Agriculture. z7

now unquestioned by intelligently inclined men that damp houses
are a prolific cause of consumption This influence is more
marked in individuals who are predisposed to the disease of here-
ditary taint, but unmistakable instances are on record where
whole icimilies have died of this disease, in which no trace of he-
reditary taint was discoverable by the most careful investigation,
from the noxious influence of living in a damp house

" What is remarkable about this phase of dampness, like that
of malaria, is that its effects may not be immediate, but show
themselves years afterward. It seems somehow to produce such
latent depravation of the vital powers that at some future time,
when certain occult vital conditions are supplied, tubercular gene-
ration inevitably takes place. A family reared in a damp house
may for years be apparently healthy, but the chances are decidedly
that they will die of consumption before forty-five. These conclu-
sions are borne out by carefully analyzed statistics by competent
medical men. Any person who is any way predisposed to lung
troubles is in imminent danger, if living in a damp house.

" Not only does dampness produce and awake the germs of
consumption, it manifests itself in numerous ways in producing
disease and breaking down the powers of the system. To intelli-
gent medical eyes, those who have long lived in damp houses
are known by their devitalized look. Children manifest effects
of the poison in bilious troubles, sallow complexions, scrofulous
affections, debility and marasmus ; while grown people suffer
from rheumatism, catarrh, frequent colds and general loss of vi-
tality.

" So manifestly dangerous are damp houses to life and health,
that boards of health and civil authorities should proscribe their
use and condemn them as effectually as though they were centres
of contagion. We have no doubt but a civil action for damages,
and under certain circumstances even a criminal action, would
be sustained before an enlightened court, if brought by a person
who had been in any way compelled to live in a habitually damp
house.

" A house with water continually in its cellar is as unfit and dan-
gerous to live in as a malarious swamp. This is strong language,
but facts will prove the statement. The fearful mortality among
the poor of large towns and cities is largely owing to so many liv-
ing in damp cellars. Let no family live in damp houses who value
their health or lives."

We have ourselves observed a very strong proof of this fact.
Canadian farmers' families have been born and have grown ud
in robust health in wooden houses, which cannot but be dry.
The farmer has made money and has built himself a fine stone
liouse ; however, he utterly neglected the first laws of ventilation
by building high rooms, and plastering well away from contact with

28 The Canadian Farmer's

the outside walls. The consequence has in several instances
been that the family, who were robust in person and constitu-
tion, have become consumptive, and one by one have sunk into an
early grave. This fatal effect has been owing entirely to the
change from a dry residence to one in which continuous damp-
ness existed.

cow STABLES AND STALLS FOR FATTENING BEASTS.

It will be found very advantageous to have these in the base-
ment, as they will be warm — upon the same level as the root-cel-
lar, and underneath all other feed.

A milch cow requires from 3 J to 4 feet of room in which to
stand at the byre, although less may do in the case of Ayrshires
or other small breeds. In arranging a milking stable, it is very
necessary that each cow be completely isolated by a partition, so
that the milker may not be troubled by the restlessness of the
neighbouring beast ; whilst fatting or stalled dry stock should be
tied side by side without partitions, as by this means economy ol
space is secured, whilst in our cold climate a number of bodies
close to one another afford mutual warmth.

FLOORING.

In milking stables, gi-eat care should be exercised that the cattle
cannot lie down in their own dung, and that all manure be regu-
larly removed; for milk is exceedingly susceptible of taint by dirt
upon the udder, or by contact with impure air.

Behind every cow there should be a gutter, the length of the
stall being so regulated that, whilst standing, her dung shall fall
into the gutter, but long enough to enable her to lie down upon
the stall floor.

There are various methods of constructing floors, amongst which
the three most practicable are with wood, cement or brick.

FLOORING WITH WOOD.

Lay a double floor of 2-inch plank. Let the upper floor be
just long enough from manger to heel to admit of a cow comfort-
ably lying down ; this is usually about b\ Teet. Tlie lower floor
should be about 12 inches longer, and be gently declined from the
inside of the stable to the door through which manure is thrown
or wheeled out. This will secure a run down the gutter. Let
the upper and shorter floor, also of 2-inch pine or hemlock, be
graded with a slight fall from the feeding-box towards the back,
so that no urine or o^her wet may stii^nate, but be carried back
to the gutter. Cross pieces should always be laid between these

Manual of Agriculture. 29

floors, as a slight circulation of air will save the contiguous parts
from rotting. In laying any double floor, except where great
strength is required, they should, in order to preserve well, be
invariably kept apart from one another.

The manure drop or gutter should be 12 inches wide, 7 inches
deep, and water-tight. If the floor be planked, the best form of
gutter is one sided with plank or two square timbers, and the
bottom composed of pounded stone grouted in cement. A plank
drop is highly objectionable, as it absorbs the urine, rots quickly,
and is a constant source of taint to the stable ; whilst it is al-
ways slippery.

CEMENT FLOORS.

To make these, take three parts of clear gravel and one part
of water-lime cement; add water until a thin grout is formed ;
mix it thoroughly, and lay it on evenly with a trowel.

BRICK FLOORS.

Take what are technically called harp bricks, and set them on
their edges ; when the brick has been evenly laid, make a con-
crete by mixing two parts of sharp sand with one of cement ;
add water until the mixture will run readily, and then pour it
on the bricks, and even it over with an old broom ; the cement
will run between the bricks and firmly unite them, while a sur-
face will be formed quite impervious to water, and not liable to
become slippery.

Or hard-burned bricks may be simply laid edgeways in mor-
tar ; the addition of the cement, however, makes a more even job.

In the planning or building of cattle stalls this question of floor-
ing is one of great importance, as, unless a proper material and
sufficient drainage are secured, the noxious gases emanating from
animal dung, which has fermented in the stall, are not only cer-
tain to taint milk, but are very injurious to the general health
of beasts.

The Scottish Farmer, in an article on " Cows and Dairying,"
says : — " Perfect cleanliness in every part of the cow-house is of
essential importance. To judge from the filthy condition in which
many — too many — are kept, we would think that this was not
essential. The stalls should be kept clean, and not only so, but
the walls free from cobwebs and dust; and not less essentir.l
is it, that the mangers should be • kept clean also. If we would
only pay a little attention to the habits of our farm animals,
it would be seen that they are scrupulously clean, almost fas-
tidiously so. Much of the benefit of good food is lost by giv-
ing it badly prepared, and in dirty mangers or boxes. We
have alluded to the importance of ventilation, but the benefit of

30 The Canadian Farmer's

this will be to a large extent lost if the interior of the house is
not kept clean. It is of little use to admit fresh air into the in-
terior, if it is only there to be mixed with noxious emanations
arising from the presence of dirt. Another point to be attended
to is the bedding or littering for the cows ; in many cases this
is grossl}^ neglected — the animals being kept in a very uncomfort-
able condition. As a rule, the long straw which is generally used,
is used in a way anything but economical ; by far the most
efficient and most economical way to use straw is to cut it with
the straw-cutter. This may appear to be a costly mode of using it,
but it is quite the reverse. Less straw is required in this form
than if used long, and it not only admits of the ' droppings' of the
cow being lifted easily away without disturbing the rest of the
bedding, but it is, when done well, in the best condition for the
manure or dung heap. Sawdust also forms an excellent bedding,
as do leaves and fine tanners' bark. The ammonia which, in
even ordinary circumstances, rises from the droppings and bed-
ding saturated with urine, and is lost, may be fixed by sprinkling
the bedding and the gutters with sulphuric acid — the oil of vitriol
of commerce — 1 lb. weight of this will fix the ammonia of 60 or
70 gallons of urine. The liquid should be led at once from the
house to the liquid manure tank, which will soon pay for itself ,
the using of sulphuric acid will raise the value of the liquid
manure, that being estimated at a couple of pounds a year per
cow. The cost of the acid thus used will be very trifling — an
authority puts it at one halfpenny per cow per week.

" The best material for making floors of cowhouses, is ' Port-
land Cement Concrete.' It is easily made, easily laid, econo-
mical, and gives a surface as fine and as hard as stone. Grooves
for giving a foothold, if thought necessary, and gutters can be
formed in it with the greatest ease."

STALLS.

The width of stalls should vary from S to 4 feet. Whilst, on
the one hand, economy of space is secured by narrow stalls, on
the other, animals seem to do better when allowed sufficient room
to lie down and stretch themselves, without interfering with the
neighbour on either side.

When separate stalls are built, remember that the partitions
should be built very strong. At all times when confined, cattle
get a certain itchiness, which they will relieve by rubbing against
the dividing compartment.

FEEDING-TROUGHS.

The most convenient material for the construction of troughs
or feeding boxes in Canada is of wood — the cheapness of wood
makes the use of cast-iron a needless extravagance.

Manual of Agriculture.

Always raise a box from the floor, so as to secure dryness. To
make a handy set of feeding-troughs in cattle stalls, take two —
one 1 inch and one | inch — pine planks; construct the bottom
of the former and the sides of the latter ; let the front be 8 inches
deep, while the back is about 30 inches ; let the back incline
outwards at least 7 inches — this is a most important feature, as
the beast is prevented from throwing out his food ; the divisions
between the boxes should be 5 feet high. The common form oi
feeding-box is, however, inconvenient, as the cow being usually
difficult to make "stand over," and being, unless a muley or Gal-
loway, possessed of horns, it is a dangerous course to go up along-
side with feed, while if thrown over from the front, a portion is
apt to fall on the beast's head, and be thereby dislodged to the
floor beneath her feet.

It is a great convenience to build feeding-troughs on a frame-
work similar to that on which the drawer of a table slides, so
that the box may be drawn away from the cow when it is
necessary to fill.

Cows are also very apt to breathe upon and roll up into a solid
ball any portion of their food which is distasteful to them, and
this portion, adhering to the sides and bottom of the feed-box,
soon ferments, and besides rotting the woodwork, becomes a
source of noxious inhalations to the animal.

The following plan of a movable manger for stalls appeared in
the American Agriculturist, in the November number of 1872,
and seems to us to be well worthy of the consideration of all
cattle-feeders. The feed-box is simply swung upon two pins or
pivots, and kef)t in its place by a pair of bolts. When ready to
be filled, the box is swung out clear of the animal, and tho-
roughly cleaned, after which the food is placed in the box, pushed
in again, and fastened in its place. By this plan, the necessity of
going up alongside, or throwing over food to the animal, is obvi-
ated, while the quantity of food may be readily regulated by
the cleanliness with which a former meal has been consumed.

ria. 6.

The Canadian Farmer's

The hole is made, in the engraving, in the ^partition, simply to
give a fuller vievj of the feeding-box.

It is very necessary that the mangers be divided, so that the
turnips or other roots, when not pulped with chaff, may be
kept separated from other dry food ; as cattle will often throw
out all their dry food in order to get at the succulents more freely.

CATTLE FASTENINGS.

To secure cattle, so that they may have ease, and be at the
same time unable to break away, is a most important considera-
tion, while opinions on the best method amongst those now in
practice are very varied.

MOVABLE STANCHIONS.

Plates 1 and 2 illustrate the stanchion principle

Plate 1.

PliATE

Each cow IS fast-
ened between two oak
stanchions, 2J X 3 ;
one, a, is fixed, being-
morticed into the sill
and the upper beam ;
whilst h is movable,
and works upon a pin
m a loose mortice hole
in the sill, and in a
slot cut in the upper
/

^hiimiilHIIH»m«ttm>itiinnWinBl

Manual of Agriculture.

beam. When thrown open, the movable stanchion has a slope, as
shown by the dotted lines ; when closed upon the neck of the
beast, it is secured, at a distance of 6 J to 7 inches, by means of an
iron, d, of a wedge, e, or a pin as at g. Of these three fastenings,
the wedge is undoubtedly the safest, unless the pin be secured
in its place by a key through the smaller end.

The upper beam, which should be about 4 feet 6 inches from
the floor, is also of great use in preventing animals raising their
heads when they are about to swallow an awkward sized piece of
turnip ; if the animal be unable to raise his head he will very
seldom choke.

PI.ATB 8.

Plate 8 shows a chain which passes round the neck, and is
attached to an iron ring which slides upon a post.

This fastening secures to the animal more freedom of head,
but is not so secure as the former, whilst it has the dis-
advantage of allowing a milch cow to move further back, and
perhaps soil the udder by lying in manure.

Plate 4 shows a modification of the former, and will readily
explain itself ; the bar being of good iron and secured to the post by
being passed through at the ends, and nutted upon the back
side.

Plate 5 represents a more secure plan of fastening by chain.
This plan gives the advantage of the stanchion in keeping the
beast forward, whilst allowing rather more freedom to the head.

In all cases a beam or pole over the cow's neck, at a height of
about four feet and a half from the floor, is a very useful adjunct
to secure against choking by pieces of turnip or other roots.

Plate 6 gives a side view of such a stable and stall as has been
reeommended.
3

Platb 4.

The Canadian Farmer's

Plate 6.

Plate 5.

Passage, four feet wide ; manger, 2 feet
wide at the bottom ; stall, 6 feet from
front to rear ; floor, 5 feet from manger
to gutter; gutter, IJ feet wide and 7
inches deep, with the stalls from 3 to 4
feet wide, and a beam over cows' necks
4J feet from the floor.

Light must be carefully secured in all
stables for milch cattle or for young
stock ; though it is usually considered
that a dark place is better
for fatting animals, as in-
ducing a desire to lie
down more frequently.

GENERAL CLEANLINESS.

It is imperative that
at all times, and, as far as
possible, under all cir-
cumstances, general clean-
liness be carefully secured
- and rigidly enforced.

A COMMON FORM OF DISEASE ARISING FROM UNCLEANLINESS.

The most prevalent form of disease among cattle, arising from
want of proper and sufficient cleanliness, is that of lice. When
these appear upon any individual in a lot, the affection almost
invariably spreads throughout the whole herd. It is impossible to
keep up the condition of an animal, when once troubled with such
parasites ; and as there is often much trouble in destroying the
evil when it has once put in an appearance, and as all applications
of tobacco water, carbolic acid, coal oil, sulphur or mercurial
ointment are attended with more or less risk to the beast, we would

Manual of Agriculture. 35

impress upon the farmer the importance of strikinnr at the root
of such diseases by taking preventive measures. The best preven-
tive to the spread of this evil is a thorough whitewashing of the
stalls, ceilings and manger. Take your pail of whitewash, and
drop into it about 3 tablespoonfuls of the commercial carbolic acid ;
as the lime and water is renewed in the whitewash, also renew
the carbolic ; take an old broom and thoroughly wash everything
round and about the animal, not forgetting the floor overhead.
Not only is the stable thus purified and these insects driven off,
but a coat of whitewash with carbolic acid is a perfect disinfectant,
is at all times conducive of health to animals, and makes every
thing lighter, assimilating the light in the stables to that of the
dazzling snow without. Whilst upon the subject of these parasites,
we will give a few of the methods of cure most efficiently recom-
mended for their removal from the affected animal.

TO CURE LICE AND MANGE IN CATTLE.

As far as the cure is concerned, these two diseases may be classed
under the same head. The cause of mange is the presence of a
minute insect (or acarus) which burrows its way from the surface
Underneath the cuticle or outer skin.

Though the acarus, in each case, rnay vary in size and form,
yet mange in the horse and ox and scab in the sheep are one and
the same affection.

Of the primary cause of the appearance of this insect we have
no certain knowledge. Poverty of the animal and uncleanliness
of stables are, however, most certainly causes, while a plethoric
state of the system caused by blood-heating food is undoubtedly
a predisposing agent. It is, however, more common in poverty-
stricken and debilitated animals than in those that are kept sleek
and fat ; though the latter are not free from the disease, as may be
seen by the very common appearance of a mange on animals to
whom is fed a quantity of meal.

The disease spreads rapidly by contagion. When an animal
affected with mange or ilice is introduced into a herd, the disease
is sure to spread througkout, and it is, therefore, very important
that affected animals be isolated without delay.

The symptoms of mange are a constant rubbing and itchiness
of the animal, and are usually first observed about the root of the
tail and along the crest of the neck. On examination it will be
found that the location of this ii'ritation is bare, and covered with
a dry scurf If this scurf be removed by the nail, small raw-look-
ing pimples will be found beneath, discharging a yellow serous
fluid. The acari beneath this scab may be plainly seen through
a microscope. In chronic cases, or in those of long continuance,
the skin thickens and falls into wrinkles and folds.

36 The Canadian Farmer's

To treat mange effectually, two things must be accomplished
— primarily to remove the insect and all ova, and then to renew
the healthy action of the skin.

Nearly every poisonous compound known in the Pharmaco'po&ia
has been used for this purpose, and all are more or less dangerous
to the animal.

Compounds containing a proportion of arsenic will assuredly kill
the insect, but are very apt to be fatal also to the patient. These
compounds should never be used by men unskilled in medicine.

Mercurial Oinbnents are very effectual, but must be used with
extreme caution, as mercury has a tendency to produce salivation
or ptyalism ; if mercury be used in any form, the animal must be
kept carefully from cold, and especially from getting wet

If the case is bad enough to warrant the use of mercury, take :
Soft-soap one pound, and mercurial ointment (blue ointment)
four ounces. Let these two be thoroughly mixed ; rub small quan-
tities well into the parts affected ; let it remain for a few days,
and then wash off with warm water and a brush.

When the disease is not too strongly developed, oils of all kinds,
especially animal oils, will destroy tae insect, and are perfectly
innocuous to the beast.

Sulphur is an effectual remedy, but should also be used with
the precaution of keeping the animal dry after application. The
best form of employing sulphur is to take sulphuret of potassium
(liver of sulphur) one ounce, water eight ounces ; and apply the
lotion twice a day

In very bad and long-standing cases take equal portions of oil
of tar, oil of turpentine, and linseed oil, and rub it well into the
skin about every other day with a hard stiff brush. In using
any of these remedies, it must be borne in mind that no one
agent can be considered as a certain specific After a number
of applications, any one remedy, even the most potent, is apt to
lose its effect. In this case a change of remedy even from severe
to mild will often ensure success.

In dases that will yield to no milder application, a solution of
bichloride of mercury may be made, two drachms of the bichloride
to a quart of soft water ; but this should not be used without the
superintendence of or advice from a qualified veterinary surgeon.
Amongst other remedies are : — An infusion of quassia (one
pound to the gallon of boiling water) is very safe and often effec-
tual.

Miller's Tick Destroyer^ carefully used in accordance with the
patentee's printed directions, is in oi-dinary cases effectual.

The following are peculiarly effective in the case of the large
lice :— The Hoeraatopinus Eurysternus, or Honmatopinus ani et
vvlgce (respectively those that appear on the neck and such as
appear about the anvs and thighs).

Manual of Agriculture. 37

A decoction of tobacco — two drachms of tobacco to about a pint
of water.

A snfe and effectual dressing is : Stavesacre seeds four ounces,
white hellebore one ounce ; boil in a gallon of water down to two
quarts, and apply with a brush to the affected parts. Again, when
other methods fail, take red precipitate a teaspoonful (this is mer-
curial, and the cautions given above with regard to the use of mer-
curial compounds mast here be adopted), and mix in a pound of
hog's lard ; apply it with the finger to the parts most seriously
affected, but not all over at once — say to five or six different spots
at a time — and be sure and keep the animal warm and dry under
this treatment.

The following plan has been recommended by a practical farmer
who is extensively engaged in cattle-raising, and, if eflfectual, is
certainly perfectly safe :

Dissolve about a pint of strong soft-soap in a pail of warm soft
water ; saturate the whole surface of a lousy cow's body with it ;
after about thirty minutes repeat the operation, and in another
half hour take a pail of clean warm water, and quickly and
thoroughly wash out all the soap water and dead lice, put her in
a warm stable, and cover her with a dry blanket.

Again, take flowers of sulphur a pound, common turpentine
four ounces, mercurial ointment two ounces, and linseed oil a pint ;
warm the oil, and melt the turpentine in it ; when the mixture
begins to cool, add the sulphur, and stir the ingredients well
together, and afterwards incorporate the blue ointment with the
mass by rubbing them together on a marble slab, and apply to the
infected spots.

It is well, however, not to confine the treatment to local appli-
cations. Give wai'm mashes, and if the animal be poor and weak
endeavour to raise the system.

It should be borne in mind that when mixtures are applied local-
ly, a small quantity well rubbed in is more effectual than a greater
mass smeared on.

Horse Stables. — The most essential points to be considered in the
fitting up of horse stables are, in addition to those appertaining
to convenience of feeding, freedom from dust, cleanliness and
abundance of light.

The stable which has a loft over it should be at least twelve
feet high, and perfect ventilation should be secured either by
tubes carrying the foul air away at the roof or by gratings close
to the ceiling.

These gratings should be so arranged that, whilst effecting perfect
ventilation, they may also be made the means of securing cool
currents of air in spring and summer.

It has too long been considered by the groom that a glossy coat
can only be associated with a hot stable. To this we would

38 The Canadian Farmer's

reply that a thin glossy coat is not at all times desirable, for
when cold weather approaches nature provides the animal with
thick and warm clothing. Man in winter puts on additional
clothing, and the horse in like manner requires additional cover-
ing, and to the farm horse no blanketing can properly take the
place of his natural winter coat.

The coat, however, need not be so long as to be unsightly; warm
clothing in a cool stable, with plenty of honest grooming, will
keep the hair sufficiently glossy to please any but the most over-
fastidious.

The over-heated air in a close stable saves much of this groom-
ing, and for this reason the unscrupulous attendant will sacrifice
his horse's health.

The air of the improperly close and heated stable becomes con-
taminated by the urine and dung, which, rapidly fermenting, give
out stimulating and unwholesome vapours. When a person first
enters such an ill-managed stable, and especially in the early
morning, he is annoyed not only b}^ the muggy heat of the
confined air, but by a pungent smell resembling that of harts-
horn. Can he then be surprised at the inflammation of the eyes,
the chronic cough, and the disease of the lungs, by which the ani-
mal, who has been all night shut up in this vitiated atmosphere, is
often attacked, or when farcy and even glanders should break
out in such a stable ? Chemistry shows us that urine contains
a large amount of ammonia, and moreover that, influenced by
the heat of a crowded stable, the ammoniacal vapour begins to
be given off" rapidly almost immediately after the urine has been
voided.

THE CEILING OVER HORSES SHOULD BE TIGHT.

For this there are two especially important reasons: first, as a
preventive against the ascension of the carbonized and foul air
exhaled by the horse; and secondly, as against its circulation
through the feed above ; thus injuring both its taste and whole-
someness, and rendering it distasteful to the horse. The fact of
the breath of one horse rendering food unpalatable to another is
dail}^ illustrated in our public stables in town. By close observa-
tion, the reader may notice that his horse will often refuse the
hay in the racks from which another horse has previously been
eating, while if fresh hay of just the same quality be provided
he will no longer leave it untouched.

There should never be trap-doors directly over hay racks — for
immediately the attendant commences to pass down hay, the horse
will look upwards ; and, by this means, particles of dust or hay
seeds are often dropped in his eyes, and may cause severe inflam-
mation, and in many instances lasting injury.

Manual of Agriculture.

Fio. 7.

STABLES SHOULD BE ALWAYS KEPT WELL PURIFIED.

This is best effected by liberal white was! ling and the occasional
addition of disinfectants, chief among which ranks carbolic acid ;
moreover, the whitewash keeps a stable light.

Mangers should be made so that they may be cleaned from the
front and filled by the attendant without interference by the
horse.

Oat-boxes should be built deep, to prevent the horse casting out
with his nose any feed.

There is only one proper way by which to attach a horse's hal-
ter to manger or stall, and that is by a rope or strap running
through a ring and fastened to a
block just large enough to pre-
vent it coming through the ring.
More horses have been injured
by getting their fore leg over the
halter-shank, and in consequence
being cast, than in any other
manner in the stable.

In accompanying diagram, a
shows the position of the tie-
rope when the horse is standing
back, holding his head up high,
or lying down ; when the horse
stands up, instead of the rope
forming a loop over which he can
get his foot, the weight at the end
causes it to run through the ring,
and keeps it straight, and at all
times tightened.

The feeding and management
of horses, mares and colts will be
treated of in a subsequent chap-
ter.

THE BARN.

Building Timber. — Much more economy might by a little fore-
sight be practised in the use of building timber than has been for-
merly. For instance, in many cases the logs used for the sills,
plates or beams of a barn are large enough to make two or even
four pieces, had they been only sawn through the middle. Where
a saw mill is not too far distant it will pay, at the present value
of timber, to convey such large logs to the mill to be sawn in
two. To carry a long stick, take an ordinary strong lumber waggon,
attach a reach to both fore and hind parts, and lash the free ends
of these reaches to the stick, while the same is securely chained

The Canadian Farmer's

and boomed to both axles. Neither is there any unconquerable
difficulty in sawing a stick through, even should it be twice as
long as the saw mill carriage. Sticks sawn in this manner, from
a large log, are even better than ordinary squared timber for build-
ing purposes. Where the heart is near the centre of a beam, the
timber will often crack badly while drying, from the centre towards
the outer surface. If a tree be, however, sawn through the centre,
the heart being outside, these cracks will not appear.

Economy. — In many buildings, where the framework rests upon
solid masonry, sills one foot square are rested on the wall, and
gains are cut in for each joist. In this case, the large stick of timber
is reduced to the thickness of a plank beneath the joists, and the
large amount of timber between these joists is useless for any prac-
tical purpose. Much saving may be effected by replacing the large
sill with a heavy plank, from two to four inches in thickness, and
allowing the joists to extend clear across the top of the wall, and
flush with its outer face.

Buildings sometimes spread under the old system from the ends
of the joists starting out of the gains. By the plan advocated
above, where the joists are laid right across the wall and secured
by spikes, there is no possibility of any lateral pressure causing
a spread, while the expense of material is reduced to one-half of
the cost under the old-fashioned system.

As a partial estimate of the solidity of various woods, we here
quote the weight per cubic foot of various kinds of wood :

Hickory, 52 lbs per cubic foot .
Beech, 40 " " "
Birch, 45 '* " *'

Pine, Yellow, 38 lbs. per cubic foot.
Cedar, 28 " " " '*

Pine, White, 25 " '* *« '*

The Depth of Joists is dependent more upon the length over
which they, unsupported, spread, than upon the superincumbent
pressure. The rule in this case is, — The depth must increase as
the square of the distance from the point of support on a ivall.

Height of a Barn. — In building a barn for the storage of hay or
grain, height should be considered as a general principle in economy
of space. While adding a few feet in height to the frame of a barn
is not a great extra expense, the additional room attained by
extending the barn horizontally would cost very much more in
material and work, for in the one case there is no extra roofing or
flooring.

Where it can be attained, it is a good plan to build a high barn,
the inner frame being so constructed as to admit of two floors, one
above the other, in such a manner that the loaded team can drive
on to the upper floor and throw its load doivn for perhaps nine
feet. Even where this costs the erection of a long bridge, it will
be found economical in saving much work at busy times, while
we question if the material requisite for an increased area for the
storing of hay and grain crops will not more than pay for any

Manual of Agriculture,

bridge required. The accompanying diagram illustrates the prin-
ciple by showing the gable view of a barn so constructed.

Fie. 8.

Now that the use of the horse-fork is becoming very general, m
the plan of a barn, the upper old-fashioned cross beams should be
avoided. We shall presently, by plan, show a barn constructed on
this principle.

Among the many plans for barns that we have in view, we
select one which appeared not a long time ago in the columns of the
Country Gentleman as one that admirably suits the system of
farming in, and the climate of Canada, and as one from which
many valuable ideas may be gained by the intending builder, and
which is susceptible of modification to suit almost any locality and
site.

The accompanying plan is for a barn of a size suitable for about
75 acres of land under cultivation on the system of mixed hus-
bandry. Fig. 9.

The barn is 42 x 60 ft.
Figure 1 shows the common
or principal floor, and is so
constructed that a loaded
waggon is driven in at one
end and when emptied is
driven out at the other. The
arrangement for this pur-
pose, so as not to interfere
with the cellar or basement,
is shown in the perspective
view, figure 2, an embank-
ment being made at each
end, which would be faci-
litated if the building were
placed between two slight
knolls or in a moderate hol-

W^»,,,,»,,,,,,,W-J.'^^JJ^JM'J'V'.l^^,-.l.V^^JAVr^^^^

BAY. tf X60

JvL

rxj ii'i('iis

FLOOR. I3XC0.

HORSC STABLf.'y]ISX50

1. Principal Floor.

The Canadian Farmer's

low, in which case ample drains should be provided round the
whole. The plan fig. 1, mostly explains itself; V V being venti-
lators or haj^ shutes ; A, trap door for throwing down chaff or
straw ; G, granary ; and S, stairs. The bay contains 950 square
feet, and will hold nearly 40 tons of compact hay of about 500
cubic feet to the ton when well settled.

The space over the horse stables and platforms over the floor
will hold at least 20 tons more, making a complete available space
for 60 tons of hay.

By marking or graduating one of the ventilators in the large
bay into feet, the owner can see about how many tons of hay he
has on hand at any time.

Fia. 10.

^^ K -->^,,^J^J>>;Jt<i>^.^g^^^g.,^gtft>;:g) ^S— ^^

Roors.

10X36.

2. Perspective View.

Figure 8 represents the basements. The roots are drawn in on

the barn floor and dumped down the trap A ; fig. 1, A A A A,

j.,<j, u^ are calf pens or boxes

for cows in calf

The 3000 square feet
of roof will supply an
annual average of about
2000 barrels of water
— and cisterns may be
made, say at C C, to
contain from 400 to 500

I i barrels — /. e., if they are

to be depended on main-
ly for watering the
stock.

The accompanying
plan and view and ex-

PAssAGE.exeo

W I ill l|l^

CJW STAB LE . I ZX50

SHEO & manure:
//L/6o

^. Basement.

Manual of Agriculture, 43

planation are from a frequent correspondent of the Canada Far-
7)ier, who writes over the initial "C," and are well worthy of con-
sideration on the part of any ffiriner about to build.

He says: "Among the advantages which this design embraces,
may be reckoned the excellent ventilation provided. By the
arrangement indicated, the trap-doors (1, 1,) on the main floor
answer the double purposes of filling the root-house below and of
affording the means of perfect ventilation to the heaps of roots
when required by the removal of the obstructing shutters at (4, 4,)
under the root-house floor, and admitting a draught of cold air to
ascend through the roots and to escape by the traps in the floor.
The grave objection to the usual plan of allowing the breath and
exhalations of animals to pass into the grain or hay above is also
entirely avoided by providing the spaces marked (2, 2). This
construction secures an opening over each row of cattle. The
arrangements also provide for an exceedingly convenient space
through which to feed the cattle with hay or straw from the barn
floor. The barn has three floors : one of twelve feet in width at
each end, and one of twenty feet in the centre. There are doors
on these floors opposite each other, to admit of the free passage of
air in the summer.

" On the lower side, which is not designed for the egress of wag-
gons, the doors open outwards, and over the waggon shed below.
This shed will be found useful to drive under, and also admits of
loading from the barn floor through a small trap into the waggon
whilst standing under the shed. This is not shown in the draw-
ing, as it would only require a board on which the bags should be
caused to slide down.

''The two end floors are no loss of space, as they can be filled
with grain at harvest to be thrashed out first in time for storing-
roots, and as they are only eight feet high the portion overhead
may be occupied, as the other parts of the barn, with grain. When
thrashing is done, they form a most convenient granary, storehouse
for tools, &c. A hill-side is undoubtedly the best site on which to
build such a barn, but it is by no means an absolute necessity.
An ascent may be formed as a substitute.

'' When we consider that all the product of the farm, after being
once hauled in by horses, has again to be passed in detail to its
destination, it will be at once manifest that there is great advan-
tage in causing it to work down hill into racks and cribs, instead
of all being carried out on a level by hand.

''Again, the horse- power works to great advantage in such a
barn as this, as all cut hay or straw made on the upper floor will
readily be fed to cattle below, through the ventilators over their
heads, and the pulped turnips below are readily mixed therewith."

No provision for water is shown, as it is the writer's opinion that
the exercise for the cattle of walking to water once a day is beneficial.

The Canadian Farmer's

FlQ. 12.

3vr

3 J

Longitudinal Section.

Fi9. 18.

Second Floor Plan.

Still, a cistern would be handy , for water is often required to
mix ground grain with chaff, for watering fatting cattle, sick
beasts, and for many other purposes, immediately within the build-
ing. Neither are racks shown, as the writer prefers feeding cut
fodder.

The large doors in the sheds at the end are designed, among other
purposes, to allow of a team being driven in through the sheds to
carry away the manure.

We have not space, in a work of the proposed dimensions, to
enter more fully into the various forms of barn buildings. We
believe there are works to be obtained, specially devoted to this

Manual of Agriculture.

subject, and these may be, with advantage, perused by the farmer
proposing to build or increase.

Fia. 14.

We should like to have given more plans, for we consider that
the saving of trouble and labour is, in a carefully schemed steading,
of no small magnitude.

We now proceed to some practical remarks on the various mate-
rials brought into requisition in the construction of farm buildings.

ROOFING MATERIALS.

Our pine woods have so far provided us with an abundance of
material for the covering of our buildings, but the time cannot be
far distant when this source will not be so readily at hand, and
when we must look to some other and more lasting material for
the purpose.

Tiles, being made of burnt earth, are fireproof, and as such are
valuable, but from their weight it is necessary that the woodwork
be of sufiicient strength. Moreover, to prevent the snow and rain
beating under, it becomes necessary to lay them in mortar, and this
again forms an additional weight upon the framework of the build-
ings. Tiles must be laid on a steep roof, at least a quarter pitch;
i.e., the rafters being at right angles with <me another at the peak.
The tiles are hung by means of one or more wooden pegs driven
through the tile and hung upon the roof boards, which are com-
posed of strong slats laid lengthways upon the rafters. The pegs
through the tiles catch on the upper side of these slats. The
pegs must be driven home on each tile, so as not to incommode
the lay of the tile next above.

The Canadian Farmer's

The tiles are laid in mortar ; i.e. the mortar is laid on that part
of each tile that is covered by the next above.

It must, however, be borne in mind, that this roof is very expen-
sive, and that the tiles have to be burned from clay entirely free
from limestone. For, unless the pottery be of the best, it is subject
to be severely injured by Canadian frosts. There are various
shapes of tiles, from the plain flat to the fluted tile.

Slates also form an excellent roof, but are very expensive.

Shingles. — Extra shaved shingles made from large sound pine
timber are the most durable. Spruce, if large, and the sap all taken
off", will make shingles to last for fifteen or twenty years. Some
ash shingles last well, but they are very apt to warp and crack.

TO FIND THE NUMBER OF SHINGLES ON A GIVEN SIZED ROOF.

Dtaqram 8.

30 Feet

llll^^

Rule. — Multiply the
breadth of one side of
the roof in feet by its
full length in feet ; re-
duce to inches ; and di-
vide by 10, the result
will be the number of
shingles required for
one side of the roof.

Examples.

The roof in the diagram measures in length 30 feet.

in breadth 20 ''

The breadth of one side , 20

" length " 30

600 feet.
To reduce to inches by 144 144

• ^"■~— '^^■■~"
. 86400

Divide by ten 8640

— the number of shingles required for one side.

Therefore it would take 17,280, or seventeen thousand shingles
to cover this roof.

Paint for Shingles. — Slake stone lime by putting into a tub
and keeping in the steam. When slaked, pass through a fine sieve,
and to each six quarts add one quart of salt and one gallon of
water ; boil and skim off" what rises to the surface. To each five
gallons of this result add pulverized alum, one pound ; copperas,
one half-pound ; potash, one half-pound ; hardwood ashes, sifted,

Manual of Agriculture. 47

four pounds ; apply with a whitewash brush. This is a very cheap
paint, and will last for many years.

To 'prevent decay in Shingles, the following has been well
recommended : — Take a potash kettle or large tub, and put into
it one barrel of lye of wood ashes, five pounds of white vitriol,
five pounds of alum, and as much salt as will dissolve in the
liquor. Make the mixture, when all dissolved, warm ; soak in
it the shingles. Then lay the shingles on the roof in the usual
manner. After the roof is laid, take what liquor is left, put lime
enough in it to make a whitewash, and if you desire colour, add
some colouring matter, as ochre, Spanish brown, lampblack, &c.,
and wash on the roof with an old broom or whitewash brush.

Paint for Buildings. — A cheap wash may be made as follows : —
Take a clean water-tight barrel, and put into it half a bushel of
good lime ; slake it with boiling water ; cover it six or seven
inches deep, and see that it be thoroughly slackened. Then dissolve
the slackened lime in water, and add two pounds of sulphate of
zinc and one pound common salt. This will harden the wash, and
prevent its cracking after application. Colour it with : For a cream
colour add, in proportion to the above mixture, three pounds
yellow ochre ; for lead colour, add a lump of iron black ; for
fawn colour, add four pounds umber, one pound of Indian red,
and one pound lampblack ; for stone colour, add two pounds of
raw umber and two pounds lampblack. To render it still more
durable, and to give a glossiness to the work, before application
to woodwork add a pint of sweet milk to a gallon of the wash.

Crude petroleum, or coal tar, as an application to wood work,
is of some value, although dangerous on account of fire. The
proper method of applying coal or gas tar to woodwork is by
heating it to the boiling point. Of course, this, when subject to
light, heat and rain, will come off" in a year or two ; but when
applied hot, it will soak into the pores of wood and render it im-
pervious to damp.

Petroleum is not aflfected as coal tar, and outside influences
will not wash it oflf.

In using paint, it must be borne in mind that the advantages
of rendering damp proof arise chiefly from the use of oil. The
natural pigments are not only the most durable, but the most
economical to use in painting.

For painting brick, about the best mixture is finely-ground
French yellow ochre and American white zinc, equal quantities by
weight. The resulting colour is a soft buff, pleasing and per-
manent.

The ordinary colours used are Venetian red, artificial ochres
and red oxide of iron ; but these do not hold oil as well as the French
yellow ochre.

Brick should never be painted except in dry, warm seasons.

The Canadian Farmer's

after the moisture which brick absorbs in spring and winter has
dried out. If painted too early, the paint is apt to scale off.

Painting is too often executed rapidly, to the injury of its
permanent results.

Oil without any paint at all would be the best method of render-
ring wood waterproof, but for the combined effects of economy
and appearance it is desirable to mix with the oil various paints.

The extra ingredients for drying, such as benzine, turpentine,
Japan varnish, litharge, &c., should be used sparingly, for their
effect is to prevent the oil in paint mixtures from saturating .the
wood ; and it is in this saturation of wood by the oil that the
best results are attained.

Where much of these drying materials are used, the oil con-
tained in the paint is formed into a gloss, which is rapidly
washed off by rain and peeled off by the sun.

Of course this does not apply to inside painting, but only to
that which is meant to render exposed wood impervious to damp.

Oil must be boiled, to free it from impurities, before using in
paint.

Never use any but the purest oil. Moderately cold weather is
the best time in which to paint buildings, fences, &c., and great
haste in the application and drying is inadmissible.

The very best plan to be adopted is, paint with pure boiled lin-
seed oil and pigment, no drying material, and let it have sufficient
time to dry and soak into the pores of the wood ; long intervals
between the several coats of paint.

Lightning Rods. — It has been asked by some, what benefit can
be derived from the use of Lightning Rods ? We will explain in
a very short manner the principle upon which these rods operate.
Lightning, or electricity, is supposed by science, in lieu of a more
definite theory, to be composed of two fluids, to which have been
given the names Positive Electricity and Negative Electricity.
It is also an accepted fact, that the natures of these two are such
that like repels like and attracts unlike.

In other words, a body surcharged with ^positive electricity,
over which ])ositive electricity preponderates, will attract to itself
the electricity of a body surcharged with negative, and vice versa.

As an instance, we shall take the two clouds. We shall say

Fio. 16.

Manual of AgriciiUure.

Fig. 16.

that the negative electricity of the one cloud a is gathered towards
the point a, and the positive electricity of the cloud 6 is gathered
towards the point 6. Then when a and h come within a certain
distance of one another, the attraction of the opposite poles of
electricity, mutually the one to the other, becomes so great, that
they rush to unitewith great rapidity through the intervening space.
The union is attended with combustion, which is the jiafih of
lightning, while the sound of such combustion is the thunder.

We will now take as one illustration the cloud and the barn,
and before doing so, point out
another very important fact
with regard to the escape of
electricity from bodies : i.e.,
that electricity in any body
will invariably gather to a
point, and will escape first
from that "point. This is very
important, as upon it rests the
entire principle of the use of
the lightning rod.

Supposing, as in the annexed
diagram, there is a point a in
the cloud, to which is gather-
ed the positive electricity of

the cloud : the barn b charged with an opposite or negative elec-
tricity : the affinity of the electricity respectively contained in the
barn and in the cloud is so Pio.

great that, should the cloud
be driven within a certain
distance of the barn, their
severally contained electri-
cities will burst all bonds
asunder, and, rushing with
prodigious force to meet one
another, will evolve such
heat as will, in all proba-
bility, set the barn on fire.

We now consider the exact
use and advantage of the
lightning rod. A thunder
cloud charged with, say po-
sitive electricity, appears
and is driven by the upper
currents of air into the
neighbourhood of our barn.
The barn and the earth con-
tiguous are surcharged with
4

50 The Canadian Farmer's

an electricity of an opposite nature (or pole), say negative. There
is then an attraction between the electricities contained in the
cloud and in the earth.

If a solid rod of iron be carried up from the earth towards the
cloud, electricity will gather in force at its point, and rush from
that point to meet the opposite electricity from the cloud.

The currents, evolving immense heat, will combine in and above
the rod, and if the rod be properly isolated (by glass) from the
building, the shock will take place directly between the earth and
the cloud, and will not affect the building.

Brief as is this explanation, it is all for which we can afford
space in this work ; at least, from it may be deduced the safety to
a building of a contiguous but yet isolated lightning rod.

Professor Henry, of the Smithsonian Institute, gives the fol-
lowing instructions for the erection of lightning rods : —

1. The rod should consist of round iron of about one inch in
diameter ; its parts, throughout the whole length, should be in
perfect metallic continuity, by being secured together with cou-
pling ferrules.

2. To secure it from rust, the rod should be coated with black
paint, itself a good conductor.

3. It should terminate in a single platinum point.

4. The shorter and more direct the course of the rod to the
earth, the better ; bending should be rounded, and not formed
in acute angles.

5. It should be fastened to the building by iron eyes, and
may be insulated from these by cylinders ot glass.

6. The rod should be connected with the earth in the most per-
fect manner possible. Where practicable, let the rod be conveyed
horizontally to the nearest well, and then turned vertically down-
wards until the end enters the water as deep as its lowest level.
The horizontal part of the rod may be buried in a stratum of
pounded charcoal and ashes. The rod should be placed, in pre-
ference, on the west side of a building. A rod of this kind may
be put up by any ordinary blacksmith.

The rod in question is in accordance with our latest knowledge
of all the facts of electricity.

Attempted improvements on it are worthless, and, as a gen-
eral thing, are proposed by those who are but slightly acquainted
with the subject (and we may add, who are interested in the sale
and erection of rods).

ON CULTIVATION.

Thorough cultivation and liberal manuring are the two key-
stones upon which are built the success of agriculture. It is
perfectly useless to half- work our lands. If we would raise a fine
horse, he must be generously fed, and moderately exercised from

Manual of Agriculture. 51

a colt : should we starve him and put him to heavy work when
young, he will assuredly turn out a stunted beast. And so it
is in regard to our land ; we must feed generously and work
moderately if we would have profitable returns.

The land is the store-room to which the plant — be it grain, grass
or root — must go to obtain the greater part of its daily sustenance.
It is for us to see that the store-room is well provided, and is at
all times and in due seasons accessible to the tender rootlet.

As man's life and growth is dependent upon a regular supply of
food, which, entering into the body and being subjected to cer-
tain chemical processes within, is divided into various portions,
which portions are severally appropriated to the different wants
of the body, some to blood, some to bone, some to tissue, fee,
so the life and growth of the plant is equally dependent upon a
constant and regular supply of food, which, entering into its
body by a thousand tiny mouths, is appropriated to the dif-
ferent wants of the living plant, some to the formation of straw,
some to grain, some to sugar, some to starch, &c.

The operations of nature, on the control and subordination of
which man's life is dependent, are almost analogous to those by
which are regulated the life and growth of plants ; and the same
urgency which calls for a generous supply of food to man is neces-
sary if we would have our plants to grow and thrive.

The knowledge, to the perfection of which we as farmers should
strive, is that of the best plan by which to supply food, and then
bo render such supply available to our crops. The former of these
is performed by gift of manure, the latter by cultivation of the
soil. As a practical illustration of the effects of thorough culture,
let us only point to the gardener's crops. In the r;arden, thorough
cultivation and generous manuring are faithfully performed, and
the results are such that if the acre should yield in proportion to
the yard, the crops upon a hundred-acre farm would be wondrous
to behold.

Now, whilst we cannot expect to cultivate our farm as thoroughly
as does the gardener his plot, yet it should be the constant aim of
the farmer to bring his land to a state of garden fertility. The
nearer to that end that he attains, the greater his profit propor-
tionately to the expense of cultivation. If land is rich, and is kept
rich, there is no more cost in the raising of forty bushels than in
that of ten bushels of wheat to the acre.

The foundation of farm cultivation must ever be good ploughing.
The reader may say, "Why ! almost any boy can plough." We
respectfully answer, a very great number of farm men cannot
plough.

To plough well, a good implement is necessary. The style, shape
and work of the plough vary according to the various natures of
. soil, and are greatly governed by taste.

52 The Canadian Farmer's

In a later portion of this work will be found a chapter devoted
to ploughs and implements.

Ploughing. — No amount of after-cultivation can retrieve bad
ploughing ; if the field be once turned over badly, it will be the
cause of extra trouble to the cultivator and injury to the crop
throughout the whole season.

We need not here dilate upon the necessity of economizing the
work of horses ; suffice it to say, that it is a matter of vital impor-
tance to use the plough which, with the minimum draught, will
thoroughly perform the required work.

There are various styles of ploughing, upon which we now pro-
pose to dwell shortly.

Fermanent meadows or 'pastures. — Where it is intended that
certain fields be used for a length of time in grass, they should be
laid flat and well surface-drained by narrow grips in any direction
necessary to carry away stagnant water. It must be remembered
that whilst water lying upon and freezing in young clover meadows
is almost always fatal to the plant, yet, that the old and permanent
meadows will stand a great deal of stagnant surface water, and
require to hold all the water that falls throughout the spring,
summer and fall seasons.

Width of lands. — In ploughing for a seed bed there is a great
variation, according to soil, in regard to the requisite width. Upon
the heavy clays a narrow land is required, so that there are plenty
of furrows to act as surface drains, while the land is so rounded
up that surface water cannot rest upon it.

On the lighter lands, especially where the subsoil is of a gravelly
nature, it were better if no furrow were made in the whole field ;
but, at any rate, where the land system as now generally adopted
prevails, they may be at least twenty-four paces wide from crown
to crown.

To do without lands there are two methods — one, the use of the
turnwrest or swivel plough, and the other by ploughing round the
field. To the latter there may be taken great objection on account
of the one fact that the horses trample down the new turned seed
bed at each corner.

The turmurest or swivel plough has of late years become more
popular. The peculiar principle of this plough is, that by reversing
the mould board at each end of the field the furrow slice can be
thrown up first on the gee side, and then, on returning, on the haw
side ; so that all loss of time in taking the plough empty across
the breadth of the land at the headlands is done away with, and
instead the plough returns each time in the same furrow in which
it previously came down.

The adoption of this plan will yet be general on our light lands.
On sandy soils the furrow is utterly useless ; in its finishing, in
the setting out of stakes for and the first slices of the land crown,.

Manual of Agriculture.

there is an amount of time taken up which might just as well be
saved to the regular ploughing ; whilst the furrows are a constant
source of annoyance in after cultivation, taking extra strokes from
the drag harrows to fill them, compelling the roller to travel across
them, jolting the mower and reaper, and also the loaded waggon,
whilst, as a matter of fact, the grain in the furrow seldom does as
well as that on the main land. On sandy land we should have our
fields perfectly even on the surface ; if we adopt the no-land system
we may cross-plough with impunity — we shall have no dead fur-
rows to cause hollows and rises all over the surface of our fields.

On lands of a clayey nature, and in which, owing to their tena-
city, there is little chance for the escape of surface water by per-
colation, it is expedient to plough in narrow lands and to round
them well off, and it is here that the knowledge of a good plough-
man is shown. The object must be to preserve a gradual descent
from the crown to the furrow.

Whilst sandy land may and indeed should be turned over flat,
the clay furrow-slices require to be set up well on end, so that
whilst each slice rests firmly against its neighbour, a provision is
made between them for drainage. The accompanying diagram will
show more plainly than language the shape in which clay lands
and furrows should be ploughed.

Fia. 18.

Gross ^ploughing is of great benefit on tenacious and dirty lands,
but may be advantageously dispensed with upon our sandy and
lighter soils. The advantage sought in cross-ploughing is to cut
across, and break into squares the old ploughing. JNow upon the
lighter soils this object may be better obtained by a free use of
the cultiv^ator.

The quantity of land 'ploughed in a day depends upon the nature
of the soil, the weather, and the lay of the land. It is generally
considered that two acres of stubble or one and a half acres of sod
is a good average day's work for an ordinary team.

How shall we plough our hills ? — There is a great difference of
practice on this point. Some plough round the hill, others plough

54 The Canadian Farmer's

across, and others up and down hills. The last plan is radically
wrong. By ploughing up and down a hill we form in each fur-
row a shallow underdrain with a very steep grade. Every storm
of rain that falls upon a hill so ploughed rushes down these innum--
erable drains, carrying with it manure, mould, and even the plants
themselves ; in fine, not only washing away the hill and its plants,
but smothering with these very washings a large portion of the
crop below ; whilst, on the other hand, by ploughing round and
round the hill, or even straight across it, the land is laid solidly
together, and through such the rains of spring and summer can
only soak instead of rushing away in streams, and thus the soil on
the hill-top receives a maximum amount of benefit from every
rainfall.

The turnwrest plough, of which we have before spoken, and
which will be found described in a future chapter devoted to
implements, will be found very useful on a hilly farm, as by its
use the team may be started at the bottom of the hill, and every
consecutive furrow thrown down hill, leaving a perfectly even sur-
face, without ridge or furrow.

On heavy land, where it may be thought advisable to let the
rain from off" the hill, it is better to plough diagonally up and down
the hill, as by that means the velocity of the rushing water after a
storm will not be so apt to wash away the surface soil.

From what has been stated, the reader must perceive that
ploughing cannot be regulated by any given and invariable rule,
but that the individual must use his own discretion, and, governed
by the general knowledge that we have of the special character-
istics of various soils, must adopt his own plans to the peculiar
land upon which his lot has been cast.

On strong lands, clays and loams, the plough should be set in
deeply, whilst on the gravelly and sandy lands, the advantages to
be obtained by deep ploughing are not by any means apparent ;
while great "harm may be done should we incautiously turn up a
sterile, cold and poisonous subsoil. Of this we shall now treat
more fully under the head of

DEEP AND SHALLOW PLOUGHING.

The depth of ploughing must always be regulated by the na-
ture of the soil and subsoil. While the efficacy of renewing the
surface by new soil brought up gradually from below has been
practically and fully established, no one would wish to plough
<lown into a subsoil of very inferior quality. As an instance of
the injurious effects that might result from an injudicious reversal
of such soil, it has been found that in cases, the subsoil is highly
impregnated with ox'de of iron, a substance exactly similar to
ordinary iron rust. This substance is fatal to plant life, and it

Manual of Agriculture. 55

is found extremely difficult to neutralize it when once mixed with
a seed bed.

Still, as a very general rule, shallow ploughing is one of the most
crying evils in agriculture all over the world, and from the evil
Canada is far from free. It is computed that the average depth
to which the farming soil in Canada is now worked cannot be
more than five or six inches.

Now, when we consider that the tap root of wheat, our staple
crop, has been found to reach down to a depth of 12 inches, and
that, under any circumstances, it will, if the soil be loose enough
to permit it, sink eight and nine inches, it is apparent that, where
the plan is practicable, a sufficient depth should be made loose.

If the tap root of wheat comes, in its search for deep hidden
food, in contact with a pan so hard as to prevent its further pro-
gress, it will again throw out its rootlets upwards, and there be-
coming entangled, and struggling for food and life with a thousand
other roots, its energy is wasted, its growth impeded, and the
plant above must suffer.

There are two modes of deep ploughing, which may be called
deep 'ploughing prosper and suhsoiling.X^ndiQr the former plan, the
subsoil is actually reversed and mixed with the surface mould ;
while, under the latter plan, the subsoil is simply stirred up and
loosened. Of the latter this work will presently treat, under the
caption Subsoiling.

When we propose to turn up soil from below and to incorporate
it with our already cultivated land, we must be sure that we are
not about to do it at the risk of poisoning the surface. As we
have already stated, there are some subsoils that must never he
turned up. These may be discovered by submission to a compe-
tent analytical chemist, but as farmers have not usually such men
handy to them, the simplest plan is for the individual to institute
a practical experiment for himself by taking a few spadefuls of
surface and an inch or so of subsoil, mixing them together, under
the same circumstances of season and management as he proposes
to adopt in the field, and then try what eftect these mixed soils
will have upon some seed. If the seed, be it wheat or of any other
kind, grows healthily, he may be assured that he is safe in car-
rying his experiment to the field ; for, if the subsoil be not visibly
injurious, he may be assured that the other benefits are so great,
that the surface soil will be greatly advantaged by a renewal
from below.

Even in the best of subsoils, caution must be used before an
attempt is made to utilize it by deep ploughing. Having been
always in a state of darkness, and removed from immediate con-
tact with the atmosphere, it is, when lirst brought to the surface,
in a state technically known as cold. Now to explain this term
cold, or sour. A soil may be full of the necessary elements of

56 The Canadian Farmer's

plant life, yet those elements are so held together that the tender
rootlet is unable to extract any for its use ; such land, then, whilst
rich in food, is yet useless to the plant, and is called cold, or sour.
To release these constituent elements and render them available
to the plant, a chemical process is necessary, and that is performed
without the help of man, by aeration, or exposure to the air, and
especially to the alternate actions of freezing and thawing.

For this reason, such deep ploughing as will rip up and bring
the subsoil to the surface must always be done in the fall, when,
by lying exposed, it will receive the full effects of frost, snow, rain
and thaw, while after, or in spring, cultivation will distribute it
evenly through the old soil. Farmers have heard of the benefits
of deep ploughing, have tried it and immediately sowed grain ; the
crop was a failure, because the soil was sour, having had no chance
of aeration ; and they, disgusted, have set down deep ploughing as
one of the humbugs of the book farmer.

It is not then advisable to bring up more than two or three inches
of subsoil at an}^ one time. Neither is it necessary or advisable,
after once ploughing deeply, to repeat the operation in each year —
for if we should, we only again fall into the error of creating
another hard pan by the constant passage of horses, men and
ploughs over the subsoil in the furrow. When once a field has
been broken up to a greater depth than usual, it may again be
ploughed for several years only sufficiently deep to give a good
seed bed. This is one of the chief advantages in favour of mixed
husbandry, that various crops require various depths of soil, from
the short-rooted barley to the tap roots such as carrots or mangolds.

If hill sides be deeply ploughed, the soil will not as readily wash
oflf them as when in a shallow condition ; the rain falls in torrents,
and rushes down, carrying soil and roots and manure ^long with it.

Another very good opportunity occurs in rotation for the pur-
pose of renewing land by bringing up a fresh supply of subsoil.
When land is to be fall ploughed for roots, and it is proposed to
apply farm-yard manure, there is an excellent time to turn up
two inches of sour subsoil, and thoroughly incorporating with it
barn-yard manure, leave them together exposed to the frosts and
snows of winter.

When the land is of a sandy nature, with perhaps a gravelly
subsoil, and by the constant passage of the plough a hard pan has
been formed at a reasonable depth, the efficacy of deepening such
may be in many cases very doubtful.

The second kind of deep ploughing is that of subsoiling, and
we consider this plan practical, and certain to be of advantage in
land of almost any nature. The action of the subsoil plough is
not to bring subsoil to the top, but to stir it below. The advan-
tages obtained by its use are :

Drainage. — The average depth to which our fields have been

Manual of Agriculture. 57

heretofore ploughed is probably about five inches Year after year
and season after season, our ploughs, horses and men have tramped
upon every inch of our field in furrows, just the same depth from
the surface each time. Such constant trampling has left a solid
sub-surface, baked down and compressed, until it has assumed
more the nature of stone than that of soil. Through this surface,
or "pan, no water can saturate, nor can any plant thrust in its ten-
der fibrous rootlets. Every plant whose roots partake of the na-
ture of tap root — and in this category may be found our most va-
luable cereal, wheat — requires a good anchorage ; such tap roots
strike straight down in a vertical direction, and directly on meeting
this hard pan are turned back again, and, extending in an unna-
tural way along the surface of the ground, become entangled in a
labyrinth with hundreds of other roots, and in the struggle for
food that commences between them all the weaker ones must
perish.

This is the only reasonable way of accounting for the rapid
decline in the health of a crop that we so often see, when almost
at its prime.

We want all spring and summer rains to soak through our lands,
and not to rush off them.

By breaking up this hard pan, we provide for the perfect soak-
age or percolation of all water into our soils, and for its access to
the very tiniest rootlet.

To guard against drought, deep cultivation is effectual. This
is apparent to the most casual observer, for the garden, under deep
spade culture, never dries out as rapidly as the open field.

The principle is what is known scientifically as capillary attrac-
tion.

Deep in all soils, except those of a gravelly nature (and on such
subsoiling is a waste of time and labour), is contained a large
amount of moisture. When the earth upon the surface becomes
dried out, it has a strong tendency to draw up moisture, by the
process known as capillary attraction, from the soil beneath, and
it would in all dry seasons do so to advantage, were it not for the
intervening barrier or hard pan caused by the passage of horses
and implements so often over the one level.

The action of this hard pan, as an impediment to vegetable
growth, is very apparent in the case of the long carrot. We know
that to grow carrots to perfection, it is necessary that the ground
be stirred to a depth of at least twenty inches ; and the same
principle applies to the necessities of other tap-rooted plants —
for instance, wheat.

A deep loose soil can only be had by subsoiling or trench
ploughing.

Trench ploughing is fitted only for very rich and deep soil, in
which the subsoil is equally fertile with the surface. Where there

58 The Canadian Farmer's

is but a shallow depth of fertile soil, the work of subsoiling must
be performed before such can be improved in depth.

This is general^ done by means of a subsoil plough following
in the furrow, and necessitates the use of another team.

" This is an obstacle which is insurmountable on the great ma-
jority of farms. To provide a means of accomplishing the impor-
tant work of loosening the soil below the bottom of the furrow,
we have hit upon the expedient here described :

FiG. 19. " The attachment here figured may be affixed

to almost any plough. Three bolts fasten it
to the land side of the plough on the inside :
the arrangement of the bolt holes should per-
mit the teeth only to project beneath the soil :
a small block of wood will be necessary to be
laid between it and the land side, and corres-
pond with the flange generally found at the
bottom of ploughs.
*'The draft is not materially increased, and the plough holds the
ground more steadily. The teeth, two in number, and about four
inches apart, should be of steel, and should be kept sharp in front ;
the rest is of wrought iron. A blacksmith can make the affair at
a cost of something over one dollar.

'' The constant use of this addition to the plough will loosen the
subsoil, and allow it to be turned over and intermixed at the rate
of two or three inches each year. It will dry the soil by thus
loosening it, in a degree gaining some of the benefits of under-
draining, without any of the cost.

" But its great advantage is, that it will gradually break up the
hard stratum of soil, which has been compressed at the bottom of
the furrow by continued ploughing and trampling, and permit
the penetration of roots into the subsoil, without necessarily
bringing it up to the surface." — Aifnerican Agriculturist.

FALL PLOUGHING.

It should be the object of every farmer in Canada to turn over
as much land, intended for sowing in the spring, as possible, in
the preceding fall.

The advantages of fall ploughing are very great. The earth is
exjjosed to the action of the frosts of winter and frost is the most
perfect pulverizer that we have.

Fall ploughing exposes to tlie cold many of the pupae of insects,
and they are killed. It also sprouts many weeds which will be
destroyed by the frosts of winter.

The object of the winter fallow is to place the soil in such a state
that the frost will act most efifectually upon it. To effect this, the
greater amount of surface that can be exposed the better. There-

Manual of Agriculture. 59

fore, always lay up a winter fallow as rough and cloddy as pos-
sible ; the frost penetrating thoroughly from all sides, and followed
in spring by the rain, will so disintegrate the component particles,
that the use of cultivator and harrows will cause them to fall
apart and show a deep, mellow seed bed.

Never harrow down a winter fallow. — The great tendency of
arable land in Canada is to run together and bake in the early
spring. When this happens, our ploughing has been useless, and
we might better have left the land in stubble throughout the
winter. This is more especially the tendency of heavy lands.
When the fall ploughing is made smooth, the rains of spring fall,
and, saturating the surface, beat it down ; the hot sun, bursting
out as it often does in Canada immediately after very wet spring
weather, bakes it into so hard and compact a mass, that the whole
has to be again ploughed before a seed bed can be obtained. To
obviate this difficulty there is no remedy so effectual as that of
rough fall ploughing, exposing as great a surface as possible of
earth to the action of winter's frosts.

Where the farmer feels that he cannot undertake the ploughing
of his stubbles in the fall, it is an excellent plan to put heavy
harrows over them ; this will stir the surface, and will cause many
weeds to sprout which will afterwards be destroyed by the severity
of winter weather.

SUMMER FALLOW.

A great difference has and probably ever will be found on the
question of the summer fallow. Many farmers consider it an ac-
tual necessity to right cultivation, while others again are of opinion
that the system must be false that makes a husbandman lose a
crop for a whole season.

When, however, we turn to the objects for the accomplishment
of which the system of summer fallowing is adopted, we shall see
that there are circumstances under which it becomes neither a
matter of economy nor of fashion^ but of actual necessity.

The use of the summer fallow dates from the earliest annals
that we possess of agriculture. It was first intioduced to Great
Britain by the Romans ; whilst we have in the Bible a certain
knowledge that as a rest was imperative for the people every
seventh day, so should the land require a like rest every seventh
year — for it was laid down in the Jewish law by Moses, who
ordered that the tribes of Israel, when led out of Egyptian bondage,
should, every seventh year, give to the land a jubilee : '' And six
years shalt thou sow thy land, and gather the fruits thereof, but
the seventh year thou shalt let it rest and lie still." (Exodus xxiii.
10,11.)

The objects to be accomplished by means of the summer fallow
are the destruction of weeds and the aeration of the soil. To ac-

60 '^he Canadian Farmer's

complisli these two objects, different soils require different treat-
ment ; and also, the destruction of weeds by some such certain
process as that of summer fallow, may be of more or less frequent
necessity on various kinds of lands.

On the lighter soils our weeds can nearly always be destroyed by
the working of the land by hoes, incidental to the raising of root
or corn crops ; but upon the tenacious clays we find it very diffi-
cult to raise roots to advantage, while weeds in such soils obtain
so very strong a foothold, that it is a matter oftentimes of insuper-
able difficulty to effect their destruction by means of hoeing.

An argument very frequently used by the opponents of the
summer fallow is, that it is the work of nature to reproduce in
every year ; that nature knows no rest. Such an argument is
correct, but not as against the system ; for our object being to
destroy weeds, it must be borne in mind that in that universal
law of yearly reproduction, nature makes no distinction between
the wild weed, and the flower and cereals raised for the use and
by the hand of man.

Amongst the most eminent scientific men and chemists there is
also, upon this point, no small difference of opinion.

Sir Humphrey Davy, than whom the world has known no more
able and clever practical chemist, says that "it is scarcely possible
to imagine a single instance of a cultivated soil, which can be sup-
posed to remain fallow for a single year with advantage to the
farmer."

" Land unemployed no profits grateful yield ;
Man's blessings should abound in every field ;
From industry our wealth and comforts flow ;
Comforts, alas ! which sloth can never know."

Another learned Professor, James Kennie, Professor at King's
College, London, England, says to the very reverse : that '' the
whole value of the system is due to the effects of solar light upon
the soil."

Let us now turn to the opinion of non-scientific but very prac-
tical men. Such authorities as we have of this nature invariably
agree that, as a matter of actual observation, it is found that upon
heavy lands, no matter how careful the ordinary cultivation, cer-
tain varieties of weeds obtain such a strong foothold, that they
cannot be eradicated but by a steady fight, extending throughout
a whole summer.

The great question at issue, and the one which every individual
farmer must solve for his own guidance, is: Can clays be kept
constantly clean ; or, should they once become foul, can they then
be cleaned by any other means than by the use of the summer
fallow ? For our own part, and writing under authority of very
many eminent, practical and successful farmers, we answer both
these questions in the negative, and feel convinced that the recur-

Manual of Agriculture, 61

rence of the summer fallow at certain intervals is a matter of abso-
lute necessity upon all tenacious soils.

In support of this opinion, we again quote from the words of an
eminent farmer to the Board of Agriculture some j^ears ago : —
" Fallowing for wheat on cold, wet, strong lands, and on all such
as are unfit for turnips, is absolutely necessary, and he who attempts
to manage such land without fallowing, will have reason to repent
his mistake. Mixed soils, which are too wet for turnips, have a
particular propensity to the production of root grasses. Summer
fallow, therefore, becomes absolutely necessary, and every attempt
to crop without it, for any length of time, on such land, has termi-
nated to its injury and to the loss of the occupier." — Broiun, oj
Markle, vol. i. p. 209.

The operation of summer fallowing. — As Marshall says, in his
"Rural Economy of Yorkshire," " To begin a fallow without
continuing it until its intention be fully accomplished, is throw-
ing away labour unprofltably."

Now, as to the propriety of fall ploughing for the summer fallow
of the succeeding year, there is some difference of opinion.

Some farmers contend that the heavier lands, when ploughed in
the fall, and left exposed in an open condition to the fall and
spring rains, become chilled, and do not dry off as rapidly as do
those that are left in stubble, which, having a hard and more even
surface, throw off the wet more readily. This is the only argu-
ment that can be given against fall ploughing for a summer fallow,
although, as a matter of expediency, it is better to do such fall
ploughing as is meant for a coming spring seed bed, first, because
it is of more actual importance, and our short fall seldom leaves
us time to plough for summer fallow.

But when, fortunately, we have the time, there are these ad-
vantages in fall ploughing : many annual weeds are turned up to
the surface, sprout and grow, when they are killed by frost,
whereas if they lay in the ground as seeds, the cold would have
no effect upon them, and they would grow in spring. This is a
slight advantage, inasmuch as it reduces the number of weeds to
be destroyed in the summer.

A far greater benefit is, however, gained by the exposure of the
pupae (chrisalydse) of our most noxious beetles and insects to the
severity ot winter, and the consequent destruction of them.

Another benefit is derived from the exposure of the soil to the
action of the frost. Frost, or alternate frost and thaw, is the best
pulverizer of soil, and the greater surface of soil we expose to its
action the more thorough will be its pulverizing effect. Again,
frost has an effect in heaving up the subsoil, when the surface lies
loosely.

As a remarkable instance of the effect of frost in this manner, we
may note a well-known fact, which has been yearly observed by

62 The Canadian Farmer's

the farmers of stony land, notably in the Counties of Wellington
and Waterloo, in Ontario. On some fields in these counties, and
doubtlesy elsewhere on soils of the same nature, stones are picked
off, and the fields ajjparently cleared of the larger ones ; yet, next
year, when the land is ploughed no deeper, more large stones are
ao-ain brought to the surface. Now, there is no way of accounting
for the presence of these stones high enough to be turned up by
the plough, except on the supposition that they have been thrown
up by the frost. If the frost thus acts as a heaver up of these
stones, it must also lift and disintegrate the subsoil, thus forming
an excellent natural drainage and subsoiler.

The 'proper depth of ploughing a summer fallow. — It is urged
by some that the first spring ploughing should be at the deepest
intended ; because they say, when the dry season sets in, if the
land has been ploughed shallow, it will be found a matter of almost
insuperable difficulty to plough to a lower depth ; while others con-
tend that it is better to plough shallow at first, and thoroughly kill
the weeds to this depth, and then at the second ploughing fetch
up more soil, and kill the weeds in that, thus, as it were, summer
fallowinof the soil bv instalments.

However, in Canada, where the summers are so well adapted
to the destruction of weeds, and where the dry season has a great
power in hardening the soil, the former plan of deepest ploughing
at the first will be found the most practical to the farmer.

As to the use of cultivators and harrows, the object of the
summer fallow is not only to clean the land, but thoroughly to
expose the soil to the air, from which it will gather much plant
food, especially ammonia, and that of a nitrogenous nature. Let
the first part of the summer fallowing be devoted to the destruc-
tion of the weeds ; and in order to effect this, let the land be as
constantly cultivated as time will allow, and the weeds thrown
out be raked to the top, by the use of harrows, and there left to
wilt.

Ifbythis course all weeds can be destroyed, the last ploughing, or
the one immediately before wheat, we should prefer to leave for
as mB.ny days as possible in a rough and cloddy state.

It will be found that, provided the clods have been ploughed up
dry, the heat of summer will have much the same effect as frost-
namely, to render them susceptible to pulverization by after culti-
vation ; while midsummer thunderstorms, succeeded by burning-
sun, will not bake down such land as compactly as when it has been
left smooth upon the surface.

If manure is to be ploughed into a summer fallow, we would not
turn it under deeply, but would rather, if it be short enough,
cultivate it in just before sowing, and thus thoroughly incor-
porate it with the surface soil or actual seed bed. Manure will
not wash upwards ; every shower carries its stiength into the

Manual of Agriculture. 63

ground. If it then be laid near the surface, its very essence will
be carried to the root plant ; if it be ploughed under deeply, the
root must penetrate to the manure. If land is cold and sour, lime
will be found an excellent addition. Applied early in summer,
and thoroughly mixed up by cultivation with the land, it will also
aid the extermination of all classes of weeds. For the action
and benefits of lime, see chapter on Manures.

ON SOWING — BROADCAST OR DRILLING.

In ancient times the general custom of sowing was by hand,
although in China the drill has been known for ages, whilst' in
parts of Europe its use dates back as far as 1650.

The father of drill husbandry in England was one Jethro Tell,
of Berkshire, who commenced his experiments in 1731.

Broadcast Sowing. — The advocates of broadcast sowing con-
tend, and theiropinionsare well worthy of consideration, especially
as referring to heavy soils :

1. That the plants should not be crowded together in rows, but
should spread evenly over the whole surface of the ground, and
thus draw their nourishment from every portion of the soil.

2. That broadcast-sown crops are less apt to suffer from wind
than such as have been drilled in ; for they say, drilled crops, not
giving at their roots such mutual support by interlacing on every
side, have their stems broken — a process known in Scotland as
knee-shackled.

3. That the effect of leaving rows unsown is such that they
become filled with weeds, many of which would have been
smothered by a broadcast crop.

On the other hand, the advocates of Drilling contend :

1. That the seed is deposited at a more even depth, and conse-
quently that its growth and ripening are even throughout the
season.

2. That a saving of seed to the amount of at least twenty-five
per cent, is effected.

3. That the seed, being uniformly and entirely buried, is saved
from the ravages of birds.

4. That the spaces between drills admit a greater amount of air
and light to the growing plant than is obtained in a broadcast crop.

5. That drilled grain is less apt to lodge by storm.

6. That such weeds as pigeon weed (Red-root) and cockle are
more readily observed, and therefore more easily picked, amongst
drilled than in broadcast crops.

7. That by the use of the sowers, as now attached to drills,
grass seed may be sown along with the grain, and at the time,
the wind notwithstanding, when soil is best fitted for its reception.

The grass seed growers should be placed before the drills. Some
have argued that, by so doing, the grass seed would be covered too

The Canadian Farmer's

deep ; but this is not so, for the spouts of the drill do not turn
over soil, but simply stir it. On the other hand, when the seed
sower follows the drill, not only does the field require rolling after
to press in part of the seed, but the greater portion rolls into the
trench formed by the drill spout, and is either covered so deeply
that it canuot sprout, or if it should grow will be found to come
up in rows, and amongst the roots of the grain crops.
The qualifications of a good seed drill are : —

1. To be simple and easily operated.

2. To be strongly built.

3. To distinguish in its sowing arrangements between wheat or
small grain, and oats and coarser grain.

4. To sow immediately upon being started.

5. To sow any required quantity from a peck upwards, and
drop its seeds regularly.

FlQ. 20.

Fid. 21.

Drilled Wheat.

Broadcast Wheat.

ROTATION OF CROPS.

In the right and proper cultivation of a farm under the system
of mixed husbandry, a recognized rotation of crops should take a
very important position. Indeed, no farmer can expect to obtain
the maximum yield from his farm unless he has so considered the
various wants and capabilities of his various fields as to be able
to adopt some systematic plan or coui'se of cropping.

It has been well observed tnat " no branch of farming requires
more sagacity and skill than a proper rotation of crops, so as to
keep the ground always in good heart, and yet to di'aw from it
the greatest possible profit."

The main object to be attained by a systematic plan of rotation
of crops is, not to allow the too frequent repetition of crops of an
exhaustive nature.

It is universally recognized, that in every soil there are certain

Manual of Agriculture. 65

particles especially adapted to the use of one kind of plant, while
for others, other plants have an affinity.

For. instance, the grains or cereals generally require a greater or
less amount of silica, while other crops require less of silica and
more of potash, or of some other mineral salt. A field which
would not yield a second good crop of wheat, may, even without
manuring, grow a passable crop of clover or return a large yield
of roots. The important principles in the rotation of crops are,
that although a given soil may contain all the mineral substances
necessary for the use of every cultivable plant, yet there may
be only a limited supply of that particular food essential to the
well-being of some particular plant.

Plants derive their sustenance from different sources. The grains,
to which few leaves are attached, depend almost entirely on the
surface soil or seed bed for their sustenance ; tap-rooted plants,
as carrots or beets, go very deeply into subsoil for a large proportion
of their food ; while the cruciferse, clover, peas, &c., depend in
great measure upon the amount of food that can be inhaled from
the surrounding atmosphere by the action of their leaves.

There is not space in this work, which is intended more as a
book of reference than as a treatise upon scientific agriculture,
to deduce from the tables of the chemical analyst the propor-
tions of food required by the various plants.

Experience, however, shows that land requires rest.

At one time the Canadian farmer did not believe in such a re-
quirement ; but trusting to the apparently inexhaustible nature of
the virgin soil, he continued to grow wheat after wheat until the
diminution in its yield, began to affect his pocket, when he at last
found to his cost that to receive a return from his land at all
commensurate with the yearly outlay of capital, he must turn to
the resting of land from the constant reproduction of any one
particular crop.

The question to set before our view is then : How shall we raise
the greatest amount of marketable produce in a given series of
years,with the least proportionate expenditure of capital and labor ?

While drawing from our lands great production in the one

season, we have to beware how we accomplish such exhaustive

yields at the expense of the crops of future years. We must

not kill the goose for the sake of the one golden Qgg. Let us

remember the old Scotch saying :

" He who sows wheat after bear (barley),
Had need of muckle gear."

We will now passingly allude to a few of the rotations that
bear sway amongst the farmers of Great Britain, merely as a means
from which each individual farmer in Canada may draw his
own conclusions as to the probable course that will suit his own
soil and circumstances.

The Canadian Farmer's

We take first the old-fashioned three course rotation, or Trien-
nial, which is ; First year, fallow ; second year, wheat ; and third
year, spring crop (barley, oats and peas). This was formerly
practised to a great extent over the whole of Europe, where farms
contained a large proportion of pasture and meadow.

A large amount of stock being in winter yarded, sufficient ma-
nure was usually made, to go over the fallow, if not every time
that it came round, at any rate in each sixth year.

The following advantages may be claimed in its favour, always
allowing that the farm to which it attached was one a large
proportion of which was devoted to pasture, and long laid down
in low-lying meadow :

Economy of work ; less constant attention than a fuller course.
For Canada, the loss of a year's crop every third year, by a fallow,
seems rather a serious matter ; but the advocates of the system have
claimed that, especially on heavy lands, such loss is more than
compensated by increased yield of wheat.

Besides, on clay ground, the system is widely adopted on the
deep sandy loams of East Kent, where, known as the Kentish
Bound Tilth, it consists of barley, beans, wheat, — although clover
is sometimes substituted for beans.

We next come to more modern rotations, and such are better
adapted to the general soils of this Dominion. We will take the
Norfolk system, which consists of a four-j^ear rotation :

1, turnips ; 2, barley ; 3, clover ; 4, wheat ; and this course is
adopted by many of the most successful farmers in that prince of
agricultural counties.

Turnips (which are usually there fed off by folded sheep) clean
the ground. Barley does well after the rich manuring usually
devoted to the turnips, and in the clean, well-tilled, shallow seed
bed that is the result of a turnip crop properly cultivated. The
ground is also clean and in good heart for a good catch of clover ;
and a young clover sod ploughed down early forms an excellent
bed for wheat.

This course is often extended to a five or six years' shift by
leaving the clover for two or even three j^ears, and, where there
might be objection to the putting of wheat upon a two or three
year old sod, it would be quite feasible to introduce some other
crop, say peas, between the clover sod and wheat ; and in the inte-
rest of the advocate of summer fallow, the rest might be intro-
duced also, supposing that a dirty crop like oats was grown in the
place we have assigned to peas, when the course would stand
thus :

1. Turnips. 5. Pasture.

2. Barley 6. Feas, or oats.

8. Grass, 7. Summer fallow or wheat

4. Grass. 8. Wheat

Manual of AgYiculture. 67

It is apparent, therefore, that, by taking any of these Old
Country rotations as a basis, we may so change their order or
make additions as to cut out for each one individually a systematic
rotation, in the carrying out of which one could so adjust his work
as never to lose an operation in the field by the wavering course
of cropping so generally adopted.

We take another very different rotation, commonly used on cold
thin clay and flinty chalk lands : —

1. Fallow.

2. Wheat.

3. Peas.

4. Turnips (fed off).

5. Oats or barley.

6 and 7. Clover, &c., left for any number of years,

as individually suitable.
8. Wheat.
One of the favourite Scotch courses on a soil strong, dry, and
not too tenacious, such as is found in the higher regions of the Carse
of Cowrie, consists of —

1. Fallow 4. Barley.

2. Wheat. 5. Clover.

3 Beans. 6. Oats or sometimes wheat.

Among the Scotch farmers, in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh
and Glasgow, where the production of potatoes is considered as
remunerative as that of wheat, we find the usual course to be : —
1. Potatoes. 2. Wheat. 3. Clover. 4. Oats — although we are at a
loss why the oats and barley should not be at 2, and the wheat
after the one year's clover.

As a conclusion to this brief reference to the principles of
rotation, we would quote a letter to an American agricultural paper
by JohnMcKelan, Esq., a valued member of the agricultural press
of Canada. Mr. McKelan says, in speaking of rotation in Canada : —

" It is rare to see two cereal grain crops grown (in Canada) on
the same land successively. A five-course rotation has been most
common, but of late years the greater profit obtained from stock
raising and dairy farming has induced the adoption by many of
a longer course, extending over seven years. Root crops and corn
together fill one course, and, being heavily manured and well
cultivated, both enrich and clean the land. Barley and spring
wheat succeed, seeded down with grass ; this is followed by peas
and summer fallow ; then oats and winter wheat, ending the rota-
tion— the length of which depends upon how long the grass con-
tinues to yield profitably.

*'In the five-course rotation roots and com are not counted, as but
a very few acres of either are grown, the manure not required for
them being applied to the summer fallow, and these crops, when

68 The Canadian Farmer's

grown, forming a portion of the land which would otherwise have
gone into fallow."

The following is the substance of a paper read by the author
of this work before a Farmers' Club in Ontario : —

" In no art are the prejudices of habit so strongly rooted or so
difficult to surmount as in that of agriculture ; and although I
consider it far from expedient to oppose such too suddenly, or to
eradicate them, except by the progressive and enlightening effect
of practical experience, yet it behoves each one of us to discon-
tinue customs that we have good reason to believe should be
abandoned, or that are radically bad in themselves.

" In the introduction of a proper system of cropping by rotation
we strike a blow at the very root of bad farming.

" It is impossible to drive in any direction in this our fair Do-
minion, without being struck by the appearance of an utter want
of system among too many of our brother farmers.

" We see fields so run out by continuous cropping as to show
plain indications of deterioration in the very colour and consis-
tency of the soil, while others, which have been pampered, petted,
and crowded with manure (because perchance they are handy to
the barn-yard), are so strong and rich that no grain crop can
stand upright upon them.

" The reason which renders it imperative upon our part to con-
sider and weigh well the benefits which will most assuredly accrue
from the adoption of some regular system of rotation in our crops,
is that no two plants of different kinds require for their nourish-
ment the same substances in the same proportion.

"For instance, the grains draw largely from the silica contained
in a soil, and will therefore soon exhaust the supply of this in-
gredient in ordinary land. I say ordinary land, for- in the virgin
soils so great is the proportion of the humus or putrescent animal
and vegetable matter — the most fertile portion of land — that
wheat, or, indeed, almost any crop may be and has frequently been
grown with unvarying success for many succeeding years. Under
the old system of farming, this repeated cropping with wheat
was adopted, and with apparent success. But it has been found
that, even to the virgin soil made rich with that decaying vege-
table matter, which has been deepened with each successive shed-
ding from forest leaves, a time will come when the land, under
an everlasting course of wheat, will begin to show signs of ex-
haustion.

"The important principles which should rule the larmer in
the adoption of a regular rotation of crops are : —

" 1. That though a soil may contain all the mineral substances
necessary for the nourishment of every variety of cultivable
plant, yet there is only a limited supply of the mineral food neces-
sary for each particular species of plant.

Manual of Agriculture. f)9

"2. That some plants, as for example the grains, draw their chief
nourishment from near the surface of the land, while others, like
carrots or beets, seek for food at a greater depth.

" 3. Clover and plants that put forth a luxuriant foliage absorb
much of their food from the atmosphere, while cereals depend
almost entirely upon the earth for their sustenance.

" 4. Certain insects live upon certain plants, and as long as their
peculiar variet}^ of food is furnished them, so long will they grow
and multiply (instance the midge in the white wheats) ; but if
a crop should intervene which is not the natural food of these
our enemies, their larvae will perish for want of nourishment.

" Variety is then one of the first rules by which the farmer
should be guided in adopting a regular rotation of cropping.

''Doubtless, by means of a copious supply of manure, sufficient
to return to the soil those ingredients which the harvest has with-
drawn, a succession of the same crops may be gi^own without the
grain being either diminished or deteriorated, but the most prac-
ticable and convenient plan is to alternate the crops so that after
a particular species of plant has been raised, the land may have
time to recuperate ere it be again required to supply a large quan-
tity of the same kind of food.

*'The general principles upon which different farmers may work
will, of course, vary with those differences, climatic and of soil,
which exist in their several localities. All considerations of pro-
per rotation should be carefully guided by the following rules : —

" To avoid the immediate succession of similar crops, especially
if such be of an exhaustive nature, and to throw their return as
far distant from each other as practical circumstances will admit.

" To grow intermediate crops of grass and roots, soil permitting,
between cereals.

" To give the preference to such green crops as afford the best
prospect of food for live stock, and particularly to those which
will admit of cultivation by hoe.

" Never lay down to grass until land be free from weeds.

" The subject of this paper is, like newly cleared land, all but
inexhaustible. I will therefore simply note a few of those courses
which are now in vogue in Great Britain, only premising that in
Canada wheat is undoubtedly the staple product, and that, owing
to the length of our winters, we require much more fodder for our
stock.

" First, a Quadrennial Rotation . —

" First year, summer fallow ; second, wheat ; third and fourth,
clover.

"Now, I hardly dare here give my private views on the subject
of summer fallowing, for I know that many farmers advocate,
and indeed practically adopt it. The use and abuse of the summer
fallow may well form a subject for future discussion.

70 The Canadian Farmer's

"The advantages claimed for the above rotation are, that the
system is economical, requiring nothing but the most simple oper-
ations and the most inexpensive implements; that it does not
require so much attention to the management of the land as does
a purely alternative system, for the repetition of the summer fallow
affords plenty of time for the preparation of the land for wheat ,
that the labour is evenly divided throughout the seasons ; that
if the clover be ploughed under after the second year, the land is
kept in good heart, and will be still more enriched by the appli-
cation of our barn-yard manure to the fallow ; that the fallow
cleans the land, and is undoubtedly followed by a good crop of
wheat.

"We now take a Five Years' Rotation, usually adopted upon
the light lands of the east of England, a part of the kingdom
famed as a great turnip-raising country : —

" First year, roots ; second, barley ; third and fourth, clover ;
fifth, wheat.

"It is not customary, nor indeed convenient, to grow such a
large proportion of roots in Canada. We may therefore put part
of this field in roots, peas, &c. ; but should, when the rotation
again comes round to this field, reverse the division, sowing grain
where we before planted roots, and roots where we grew grain.

" The advantages of this system are, that it is peculiarly suit-
able to our lighter lands and loams ; the roots get a thorough
cleaning, and prepare a mellow seed-bed for the barley; and a
young sod is held to be, when broken up by a single ploughing, a
good preparation for a sound seed-bed for the ensuing wheat crop.
" I will close by laying down for consideration a rotation for
such land as we have generally throughout this township.
"This extends over six years, and is as follows: —
"First year, wheat; second, third and fourth, grass ; fifth, hoed
crop; sixth, barley.

" By bringing in grass for three years — say one in pasture and
one in hay — we have an excellent sod to plough down, and we
also have plenty of opportunity to enrich that land which may
have been put to barley, b}^ a liberal dressing of dung before put-
ting in fall wheat.

"The advantages that I claim for this rotation are an even dis-
tribution of crops over the land, a thorough enriching of the soil
every sixth year, and a good proportion of superior hay and ot
wheat, the two most valuable products of a Canadian farm."

A contributor of the Country Gentleman, hailing from Wes-
tern New York, and signing himself " Observer," in a brief com-
munication to that paper, gives the following pertinent remarks
on this subject ; specially worthy of perusal by the farmer in
Canada : —

" So I soon worked into a rotation of : first year, corn ; second,

Manual of Agriculture. 71

peas, oats or barley seeded with clover ; third year, clover, first
crop cut for hay and the second saved for seed ; fourth year,
clover, cut for hay and then pastured. As the land improved and
oats became more liable to rust, barley was more generally sown
instead of oats.

" In this way, I not only soon got the land into condition to
grow good crops, and realized more money than the previous
owner had received, but the soil improved very fast.

"This improvement was due to two causes, one was, grow-
ing more corn and clover : the land was in clover half the
time, and was thus greatly improved ; and the other was the feed-
ing of a good deal of clover, hay and other fodder, as well as coarse
grains, which largely increased the amount and value of the
manure.

" Now, I know of no way in which land can be as certainly and
rapidly improved as by growing clover and making and applying
a large amount of good barn-yard manure. I find an essential
condition of this course is to sow clover often. Keep the land
in clover half the time, if possible ; to keep the clover mainly
for mowing, so as to secure a large growth of clover roots, on which
much of the improvement by clover depends, and to always plough
up a clover sod whilst in full vigour, or at any rate before the
more exhausting grasses come in and use up the fertilizers rendered
available by the clover. Another important point is to feed plenty
of rich feed, as clover — hay and coarse grain, in order to make
rich manure, which also has no small influence upon the amount
or degree of improvement that may be secured

" Now, in view of these facts, I think the course proposed by
T. ( first, clover ; second, wheat ; third, corn [hoed crop] ; fourth,
wheat) may be largely improved in two particulars: first, ingrow-
ing less wheat and more clover ; and second, in cutting and feeding
more clover-hay and making more manure. This rotation keeps
the land in wheat one-half the time. In every four years there
are two crops of wheat, one of corn and one of clover ; but the
clover is ploughed under, which only leaves three crops in four
years to be gathered. This, I think, can be improved to the ad-
vantage of the land and of the owner's pocket. The first object
with me would be to save ploughing under the first and best crop
of clover, so as to realize something every year from the land.
If the small kind is sown and a good growth secured, the first
crop may be cut early for hay, and the second crop make a good
start to be ploughed under in August. Then the next spring, seed
again to clover with the wheat, and grow clover one year between
the wheat and corn. This clover may be cut early for hay, and
then saved for seed ; and, if plastered and well managed, ought to
turn as much money as a crop of grain. This is also a cheap crop ;
there is no ploughing or fitting the land for the seed ; there is

72 'T'ke Canadian Farme/s

little to do besides gathering the two crops; and, where it is an
object to save labour, it will be found one of the best crops for
this purpose that is sown on the farm. The next spring the clover
should not be pastured, but make as much growth as possible
before it is ploughed under for corn. This allows of ploughing
under a good clover sod for both the wheat and corn crops, and
with the growth above ground, and the large amount of clover
roots in the soil, will be better — furnish more fertilizers than any
crop that can be ploughed under. Then there will be two crops
of clover-hay and one crop of clover-seed ; two crops of wheat, if
wheat follows corn , and one crop of corn, all grown in five years ;
which, I think, will pay far better than the course proposed by T.
Perhaps, to illustrate, the returns of each course may be calculated
from one acre, as follows : —

YIELDS.

First year, clover H tons

Second year, wheat 20 bus

Third year, clover... 1^ tons

Third year, clover-seed 2^ bus ,

Fourth year, corn 40 "

Fifth year, wheat 20 "

PRICE.

COMES TO.

>10 00 per ton.

$15 00

1 50 " bus

30 00

10 00 " ton

15 00

6 00 " bus

15 00

75 " "

30 00

1 50 ♦♦ '♦

30 00

According to this, one acre in five years would return $135 00

"According to the other rotation, there would be —

YIELDS. PRICE. COMES TO.

Firstyear,clover (ploughed down) 0 0 0

Second year, wheat 20 bus $1 50 per bus $30 00

Third year, corn 40 " ....... 75 " " 30 00

Fourth year, wheat 20 '* 1 50 " " 30 00

Which comes to $90 00

Add one-fourth for fifth year 22 50

$112 50

" This taken from the amount realized by the first course leaves
a balance of $22 50c. in five years in favour of the first rotation.
This on one hundred acres would make $2,250 in five years, or
$450 per year. And even this fails to show all the advantages of
the first course, as by growing clover two years, and feeding the
clover-hay, and making and applying more manure, the land will
improve much faster than may be expected in the last rotation.
An objection to both is getting corn out of the way in time to
sow wheat in the fall, which is a heavy job (and can't be done in
Canada). Hence I think a still better course is to plant corn ;
then sow to barley, or oats with which clover is seeded, the next
year — the first crop of clover cut for hay and the second turned
under for wheat; the fourth year the wheat also seeded to clover,
which may be allowed to lay one or two years."

Manual of Agriculture. 73

His rotation (which is excellently adapted to the average soil
of Canada) then stands :

First year, corn or any hoed crop.

Second year, barley seeded down.

Third year, clover cut for hay and for seed.

Fourth year, wheat seeded down.

Fifth year, clover.

Sixth year, clover.

And he goes on to say :

" This keeps the land in clover about half the time, and only
grows one crop of wheat in a rotation, which must be a decided
advantage where land has been run to wheat ; while the greater
improvement of the soil must make the crops better, and the rota-
tion more profitable in the long run. Indeed, with land in wheat
half the time, and in clover but one year in four, I don't see much
chance for improving the soil unless a good deal of manure is
purchased and applied. I know from observation that good crops
of clover, ploughed under every other year for wheat, will largely
improve the soil, until the land gets so rich — full of vegetable
matter — that the straw is weak and the crops lodge badly ; but I
hardly think that one crop of clover ploughed under in four years,
with three exhausting grain crops in the meantime, can work any
considerable improvement."

The treatment of burnt land. — A practical farmer writing to the
Canada Farmer, in 1871, says :

*• In regard to the mode of treating badly burnt land and plant-
ing root crops thereon, I have always found that turnips thrive best,
after one crop of grain (followed by clover) had been taken from
the land. I would recommend an}^ one who has sutFered b}'^
having the land deeply burnt over to sow barley, and seed down
with plenty of clover, using several varieties — Alsike, Broad and
Dutch. After harvesting the barley, allow the clover the follow-
ing year to attain a height of eighteen inches or two feet, and let
it begin to ripen its seed, and then plough all under, being careful
to bury the stalks thoroughly, but not all the heads. As soon as
these heads are thoroughly dried, but not on any account sooner,
harrow the land well, and sow wheat — fall wheat if possible.
There will be an abundant crop of clover amongst this crop, to be
again ploughed under in early spring. As soon as this second
crop of clover attains a fair growth, plough it under, and turnips
on this will be a successful crop. Burnt land, if badly injured,
will not do for turnips the first year; but if only partially burnt,
or but little injured, the turnip crop is the best that can be grown
on some descriptions of soils. If too much burnt clay results, the
turnip plant does not thrive at first, and is checked too much."

We have, also, the experiments of another farmer, in the same
columns, upon this subject, as follows :

74 The Canadian Farmer's

" I offer what little experience I have had for the benefit of
those who, like myself, have had their standing timber destroyed
by those destructive fires which sometimes occur in our Canadian
forests. The recommendation to sow barley for a first crop, I have
no doubt, is good, when any black soil is left ; but when nothing
remains but the hard clay loam, I should be unwilling to try it,
as such soils retain the water too long in the spring, and when
the hot weather sets in the soil becomes baked hard, and cracked
in every direction, and unless the barley had time to cover the
ground well, the crop would hardly be worth harvesting.

" The first piece of such land I cleared was ploughed in the fall
and sown the next year with spring wheat ; but, although the
spring was favourable, the crop was not worth much. The stubble
was ploughed in the fall, and sown the next spring with peas
at the rate of three bushels to the acre. The summer proved
showery, and the pea stalks grew to a length of eight or nine
feet, and were heavily podded ; the weeds were completely
smothered, and the soil mellowed, so that it was much easier to
plough. The next piece I sowed with fall wheat, ploughing the
ground as soon as I could get it cleared, and sowed early red clover,
very early in the spring. The clover took well, and it would have
been better to have ploughed it in last year, but, as is frequently
the case on bush farms, I had not sufficient meadow, so I cut it
for hay, and in September tried to plough in the after-grass, then
over a foot high, but the ground was so hard, I had to desist and
cut the after-grass for fodder. In November, when the ground
was soft enough to admit of being ploughed about four inches
deep, the clover was about six inches high, and I found the clover
roots had penetrated the hard pan about six or eight inches. This
year I sowed peas, but owing to the extraordinary drought the
ijtraw was very short but well podded, and the pods well filled.
In 1869, I had a ten acre field cleared and sown with the Tread-
well fall wheat, and in the following spring I sowed early red
clover at the rate of twelve pounds to the acre. In some places
two ploughings could not go more than two inches deep, and in
those places the wheat was winter killed, but the greater part
came on well, and I had a fair crop. The clover took well except
on the hard places, and these I harrowed after harvest, and sowed
clover again, and this year, in spite of the drought, I had a fair
crop of clover hay. Last fall I cleared another field, and sowed
the Treadwell wheat at the rate of two bushels to the acre.
Scarcely any was killed, and though the crop is, of course, not
so good as on unburnt land, yet the grain is an excellent sample,
and weighs much heavier than last year ; but as the clover sown
last spring failed, I have ploughed in the stubble for peas next
year, and in future shall sow such ground first with fall wheat
and clover, then peas, followed by fall wheat, with clover again."

Manual of Agriculture. 75

SOILS.

The surface of land is composed chiefly of minerals, such as clay,
lime, marl, gyps, fluor, talc, sandstone, slate, quartz and barytes.

These are the scientific names given by geologists, and these
substances mixed together in varying proportions, go to form the
different soils.

We will shortly see what these various earths are.
Clay consists of various earths in admixture, differing only in
proportion and tenacity.

Were it not for the stubborn tenacity of clay, it would be, under
all circumstances, the best for the farmers, for in clay is found
food in abundance for every variety of plant. Where clay can be
readily brought under the disintegrating action of sun and frost,
it will be found a very profitable soil; whilst, although much
labour and capital is required to reduce the stiffest clay to a till-
able condition, yet when once such a state is attained, it is
capable of producing yearly, and of sustaining production for a
long time, of immense crops.

Calx is lime in combination with acids, and to this class belong
chalk and marble. These, of course, are seldom found forming the
entire surface soil, but when present in moderate proportions, in
other earths, are found necessary to the successful production of
most crops, and more especially of cereals.

Calcareous earth. — To this belongs that peculiar earth in which
we find a mixture of clay and marl. Marl is very valuable on
light lands, and its presence is beneficial in all wheat lands.

Gyps is calcareous earth saturated with vitriolic acid, and in
the form of gypsum is found beneficial to many soils.

Clay. — The peculiar nature of clay is its power of retaining
moisture ; and for this reason alone a drainage is of very great
benefit to all clays. Stagnant water is poison to all plant life,
and clay has peculiar power to hold water until it assumes a stag-
nant state.

Again, clay being saturated with water, does not dry out easily,
and the effect of any sudden access of heat causes it to run together.
In this state no crop can succeed. One of the chief objects, then,
of the cultivator of clay land must ever be to counteract this
natural tendency to run together or bake. Among the preven-
tives are under drainage, subsoil and deep ploughing, and the
addition and incorporation of such foreign materials as lime, chips,
ashes, etc., or any substance whose mechanical action may be to
render the soil more porous and to divide the particles of clay
the one from the other.

The nature of clay is much benefited by deep cultivation, for
then the water that falls percolates through the soil, instead of
standing for a length of time at or near the surface.

76 1'h^ Canadian Farmer's

Clay is a soil that no unintelligent or poor farmer can work with
success. If ploughed too wet, it is ruined as a seed-bed, while if
it is too dry it becomes next to impossible to rip it up.

The general characteristics of a clay farm are, that it will pro-
duce the most abundant crops, and that its strength will remain
longer than any soil, but that, in its tillage, far more expenditure
is absolutely necessary to secure a crop at all.

But there is a hungry clay, although happily we have but little
of it in Canada, which is highly impregnated with iron ore (oxide
of iron), and this substance is poison to plant life. None but a
very rich man should dare to take hold of such land, for to bring
it to a cultivable state requires much underd raining, liming,
manure and time.

Clay is immensely improved by the application of lime, chalk
or any substance, mineral or otherwise, the eifect of which may
be of a stimulating nature.

For instance ; lime acts in three distinct and effective ways upon
a tenacious clay. As a corrector of acidity it neutralizes the acids
injurious to plant life, removing from a soil that sourness which is
found in what is technically known as cold soil : it acts as a de-
component of vegetable matter, and by hastening decay brings
the elements of plant-food into a state in which they are soluble
to the growing plant. Its effect is also mechanical in keeping
apart the particles of clay, and thus it becomes an instrument for
the admission of air into the soil, and the consequent destruction
of the natural and injurious tendency of clay soils to run together
and bake.

This mechanical effect may also be attained by the incorpora-
tion of such matters as ashes, coal or wood, chips from the wood-
shed, etc.

It may also be borne in mind, that lime being found in the ashes
of every vegetable substance, in greater or less proportion, is re-
quired as actual food to all growth

SAND.

We next come to a consideration of sand as a soil for the use of
the agriculturist. As a rule, we find our best farming sections in
Canada to be those where sandy or gravelly soils predominate.
This is, doubtless, owing to the general want of capital as applied
to our farms, for, as it has been before mentioned, the clay farm,
though capable of a heavier production of almost any crop, yet
requires more expensive cultivation. As an instance of this, we
may point to the farming operations of Alderman Mechi, in Eng-
land. When Alderman Mechi first promulgated his various pecu-
liar theories, he was laughed at as an enthusiastic scientist ; but
when, by the aid of capital, he was enabled to bring his theories

* Manual of Agriculture. 77

to actual practice, it was found that no man in Great Britain was
able to approach him in the yields that he obtained from his
farm of one hundred and seventy acres.

His farm was stiff, bhie clay, and required a large outlay of
money in drainage and mechanical efforts to render it less subject
to baking. This outlay he made, and, in his report (and we have
no right or reason to dispute the truth of every statement, as his
books have been voluntarily thrown open at all times to inspec-
tion by proper authorities and competent critics), the alderman
says:

" For the last six years my gain as landlord and tenant on my
little farm of one hundred and seventy acres, has been nearly
£700 (S3,500) per annum. Even this last year, with wheat at 42s.
per quarter ($ly^^ per bushel), I have gained £600 ($3,000) after
paying every expense."

Sands are easily cleared of weeds, and do not so absolutely or
often require the services of the summer fallow. Moreover, they
admit of easier and certain cultivation of root crops and corn,
and these being cleaning crops help to supei\sede the summer fallow.

They are not so subject to coldness or sourness as the clay,
for less stagnant water will rest upon them, and for the same rea-
son they are not liable to run together or bake. We may work
sand at almost any time, even in a moderately wet state, without
fear of the mechanical injurious effects which will assuredly accrue
from meddling with heavier lands when moist. The natural drain-
age is better, and, consequently, under-drainageandsubsoiling are
not required to so great an extent as upon lands of a more compact
nature.

On sands, our object will be the reverse of that upon the clay.
On the latter we desire to loosen the soil, on the former our en-
deavour is to compact it, and lime as an instrument for the compact-
ing of sand is as effectual as for the disintegration of clay.

Sand does not contain in its natural state as large a supply of
vegetable matter as clay, nor will it retain as long the benefits
of manurial applications. Whilst then we require to devote
more time and capital to the actual cultivation of clay, to sand we
must apply larger doses of manure of all kinds.

In Canada, one of the best plans and most practicable is the
ploughing down of rank vegetable matter, rich in ammonia and
nitrogenous matter.

A correspondent of the Country Gentleman gives to that paper
his experience in the fertilization of a thin sandy soil, and we com-
mend its principles to our readers. He says :

" About twenty-five years ago I came into \ ossession of about
nine acres of thin sandy land. There had been within, say, three
or four years previous, two crops of corn taken from it that did
not exceed ten bushels per acre. I had it ploughed deeply and

78 The Canadian Farmer's

sowed heavily to oats. As soon as they began to ripen we
ploughed them in, and applied about seventy bushels of lime-
kiln ashes to the acre. We then sowed it with rye, and also sow-
ed clover and timothy. We had a splendid crop of rye, and for
several years mowed a good swathe of grass; since which we have
kept up a rotation of corn, then wheat or rye, followed by grass,
which has been either mown or pastured ; two of the years potatoes
have taken the place of corn.

" The corn has averaged from fifty to sixty bushels per acre of
shelled corn, and the other crops have been above the average of
the balance of a good farm. We have put but little if any manure
upon it, except a moderate amount with potatoes. I may add,
that a large portion of this lot is so sandy that it does well for
building purposes."

GRAVELS.

Physically, gravels and sands are of a similar nature, the
drainage in both being good, and having no tendency to run to-
gether. But gravels are very various ; while some are noted for
their natural fertility, as instance in the County of Wellington and
parts adjoining thereto, others are of a cold, sour and barren nature.

These barren gravels are usually known as hungry soils. They
absorb all manure, and carry it beyond the reach of plant life,
so that the application of manure to such soils in their natural
sta.te is like throwing gold to the bottom of the Atlantic.

The better kinds of gravel are, however, especially adapted to
the growth of all kinds of plant life, both cereals and roots —
whilst winter wheat and grasses flourish upon such.

Whilst the gravel is hardly capable of producing as great a yield
of grain as the clay, both having an equal cultivation, yet the
grain on gravelly soils is usually superior in brightness and more
solid in body.

This fertility in many of our gravelly soils is due to the pre-
sence of a large proportion of phosphate of lime, potash, and sili-
con, all essential elements for the nourishment of grain crops.

The best of these soils, however, require a large amount of ma-
nure in order to keep them up to a high standard in their produc-
tiveness, and for this purpose we depend greatly upon the use of
green manure, especially the ploughing down of green clover. By
this process we not only supply a large amount of nitrogenous
matter, but the decomposing vegetable matter renders the staple
of the land firmer and more consistent.

Of the barren gravels, the most stubborn to improve are those
in which strata of clay and gi*avel lie iJternately, and crop out on
the sides of hills.

This is one of the worst forms in which arable land is found, as
it is invariably full of land springs, which render the soil cold, and

Manual of Agriculture, 79

it also has a tendency, from the firm binding together of stones
And gravel, to become impenetrable to the plough. These land
springs also render any attempt at under-draining very difficult
of accomplishment.

We have yet another soil, which, though of a gravelly nature, is
not purely gravel. We find land in many parts of Canada, whose
staple is clay, but in which is incorporated a considerable quan-
tity- of stones, of the nature of flint. This is usually very excellent
soil for wheat, fully supplied with silica, and oft-en containing a
large amount of lime We now come to the consideration of

LOAM.

This is the prince of soils, and to the nature of a loam it should
be the object of every farmer, by cultivation and care, to bring his
land. The loam is the farmers paradise.

Loam is a soil composed of an admixture of different soils, in
various proportions. From the preponderance of heavy or light
soil, we speak of clay, sandy or gravelly loams. Loam is exceedingly
friable, readily admits air and rain, and as readily discharges all su-
perfluity of moisture, only retaining as much as is necessary to
the wants of vegetation. It is deep, and is neither liable to be
parched by the summer's drought nor chilled by the cold of spring
and fall. The peculiar difference which exists between loam and
pure clay or pure sand is caused by the presence of a large amount
of V2getable humus, and for tins reason it is fruitful as the
\nrgin soil of forest lands. We have said that to the nature of
a loam every farmer should assimilate his land ; and as the es-
sence of a loam is the vegetable humus contained, so almost any
soil may be artificiaDy brought to a loamy nature by the sup-
ply of decaying and decayed vegetable matter, by the ploughing
down of green manures such as clover.

The loam is easily cultivated, and containing in it.self all the
elements of food known to the wants of vegetable life (because
largely composed of putrescent vegetable matter), it is adapted
to the growth of all crops, and can be brought under any system.
It will grow cereals and grasses, roots and vegetables.

That the superiority of loams is due to the presence of this de-
cayed vegetable matter may be readily proved by the observation
of two very practical facts. First, that newly cleared land, made
rich by the shedding of the leaves yearly from deciduous trees,
through many generations, is a perfect loam; while by neglect
to supply to loams long cultivated the necessary vegetable matter
to decay, they lose their richness and degenerate rapidly to the
nature of a loose barren sand on the one hand, or to that of a worn-
out, sour and tenacious clay upon the other.

Alluvial soil is a species of rich loam, which has been formed

so The Canadian Farmer's

in low lands, from the wasting of the surface of higher grounds,
from the deposits of streams pouring down in flood times, or the
overflowings of turbid rivers, which leave a deposit of mud richly
charged with vegetable matter upon the surface. Such is the
nature of the soil deposited at regular periods on the banks of
the Nile, m Egypt, about whose banks are cultivated probably
the heaviest crops in the world. Not only do they contain much
vegetable, but they are likewise rich in animal matter, and are
almost inexheustible.

Still, as practical farmers, we should infinitely prefer, for general
husbandry, the rich upland loam to the deep fertile lowland allu-
vial soil, for the products of the latter are very deceptive — they
are usually great in quantity, but not equal in nutriment to those
grown on higher lands.

This is not only observable in our own Dominion upon such
land, but in Spain — in Valencia, one of the most highly cultivated
districts in the world, and where the system of irrigation has been
carried to an excess — its products have been found so deficient in
nutriment as to have passed into a proverb, expressive of their
inferiority in the power of imparting vigour :

*' In Valencia the grass is water.
The flesh is grass.
The men are women,
And the women — nothing.^'

So in the lowland quarter of the great sugar-producing island
of Martinique, called the Lamentin, the richness of vegetation is
extraordinary. The canes grow to a size unparalleled in any other
part of the world ; but the sugar, though as white and clear as pos-
sible to please the eye, is found so scantily supplied with the crys-
tals in which lie all the saccharine strength, that it decomposes
when carried across the Atlantic, and is almost useless to the
refiner.

Peat is an inflammable soil, and may be said to rank with coal
and bitumen.

It is formed of successive layers of heath and close herbage,
which spring up, grow, and die out. There being not sufficient
natural heat, they only partially decompose, and thus are truly
vegetable matter in a half rotten state.

In peat, then, there is contained an immense supply of vegetable
food, but it is in a state perfectly insoluble to the wants of cul-
tivated crops.

To use it to advantage, it must be subjected to intense heat,
in order that, by chemical process, its vegetable matter may be
brought into a state of practical utility to the farmer.

This is best done by composting. As an addition and improve-
ment to the manure pile, there is no substance more valuable than
peat

Manual of Agriculture.

We conclude this section by a short allusion to the retentive
power of moisture in various earths and soils, based on the Report
of Professor Johnson, F.R.S., laid before the Royal Agricultural
Society of England.

In the expCiiments brought forward, the specimens were pre-
viously dried in a temperature of 212°, and then exposed to air
saturated with moisture at 60°, for three hours, under which cir-
cumstances,

1,000 parts of a clay soil gained 29 parts.
1,000 '• coal ashes " 14 "

1,000 " lime " 11 "

1,000 " gypsum " 9 •'

1,000 " chalk " 4 "

In the experiments of Professor Schubler, the amount of the
moisture absorbed by the earths was ascertained at different periods,
viz., 12 and 72 hours. The temperature of the atmosphere in
which they were exposed was between 59 and 65, and each sample
was spread over a surface of fifty square inches. The amount
absorbed is stated in grains :

12 Hours. 72 Hours.

1,000 grains of silicious sand 0 0

calcareous sand 2 3

gypsum (powdered) .... 1

sandy clay 21

loamy clay 25

stiff clay 30

grey pure clay 37

fine lime 26

fine magnesia 69

garden mould 35

arable soil 16

slaty marl 24

28
35
41
49
35
82
52
23
33

' It is evident, then," says Professor Johnson, '* that the power
of absorbing moisture is in a great degree the measure of the ferti-
lity of the soil."'

ON DRAINAGE.

This is a subject not only of great importance to the practical
farmer, but one upon which a full work might with advantage be
based. We shall, in this section, content ourselves with passing
allusions to the general principles upon which the formation of
lasting and useful drainage should be accomplished.

Draining is very often looked uf)on b}^ the farmer as an opera-
tion entailing such a considerable outlay as to be beyond the
pocket of an ordinary man

Doubtless, to undertake in a short time to effectively under-drain
a farm would require a very large expenditure, but the advan-
tages are so great to the productive power of any land, that a con-
stant improvement in this shape, on a small scale, and the opera-
tions spread over a number of years, are hardly felt to the pocket ;
6

82 The Canadian I'armer's

while it is marvellous what an amount may be accomplished at
odd times throughout the year.

There are many men who wait to hire their labour until the
day for its requirement on the ordinary farm operations has
arrived, and then, alas ! they find it exceedingly difficult, in a coun-
try like Canada, where labour is so scarce, to find such as they
require.

Rather we would advise the hiring of men for longer periods,
and then, by constantly having works of improvement to turn to
v/hen other work is short, we may apply that labour at all times
to some profit.

There are a great number of days when we cannot get upon
our land to work profitably at field operations. If we have a cer-
tain field or spot laid out for drainage, these wasted minutes
might be most profitably employed.

There are, indeed, but few farms in Canada to-day upon which
there are not to be found spots, sometimes covering very many
acres, which, composed of the very best kind of soil to the hus-
bandman, are yet so apt to retain upon their surface stagnant
water, as to be totally unfit for the production of marketable crops.

In many instances the drying of these spots, by means of un-
der-drainage, is not by any means so formidable a job as may at
first appear, while the profit is not only enormous, but lasting.

From the experience of all farmers who have done any under-
draining, we learn that the first cost is amply repaid in three years,
or, in other words, the capital so invested yields no less an interest
than 33 J per cent. We know of no investment so profitable and
safe upon the stock or money market.

The efi'ects of drainage are very varied upon different soils. The
immediate benefits derived are the removal of stagnant water, and
the opening of the soil for the transmission through it of the
manure laden rains and atmosphere.

The earth is full of pores. These pores must be either filled
with air or with water.

If with water which stands in them for any length of time,
then do they become cold and acid; if with atmospheric air,
then are they warmed with every increase of the temperature of
the upper air.

If these pores are filled with air, the land works up friable and
mellow ; if with water, then will it run together and bake like
brick on the receipt of the heat from a pouring sun upon it when
in such a wet state. The object of under-draining is to advance this
friable state, and, on the other hand, to overcome the baking
process.

By keeping the pores of the earth open, plants are enabled with-
out resistance to strike their roots downwards and upon every
side, thus securing sound anchorage, and seeking in all directions

Manual of Agriculture. . 83

for their natural food, the earth is opened up, and worms can work
down and increase in their passages the number of air channels
in a soil.

Water in spring, or when falling on the growing crop, percolates
or filters gently through the soil until it reaches the drain, instead
of faUing upon the surface and rushing off, as is its action upon a
hard road. When water falls and runs off the surface of land in
torrents, it is useless to the plant, for it never reaches in sufficient
quantities the root, while in its superficial rush it is very apt to
carry off to lower-lying spots the top soil, and leave the plant root
exposed to the next burning sun.

Thus will under-drains prevent a superfluous soaking of the soil
in wet cold seasons, whilst they help to retain all the water that
falls at intervals through the summer months.

In other words, they are means by which to dry the land in wet
weather, and also to wet the land in dry weather.

Now comes the question to the ordinary farmer: How can I
afford to under-drain ? Why, in the same way as you accumulate
a fortune — little by little, by constant but small increase.

Begin on the worst fields or worst spots upon the farm. Put in
your main-drain this year, and some of your side-drains next
season.

It is extraordinary how soon this devotion of odd times con-
stantly to the work will accumulate, and how many acres thus
become drained in but a few short years.

But when once a field is begun, do not travel off all over the
farm ; but, if it takes ten years, stick to that field until its drain-
age is thorough.

Finish as you go ; make good drains, if at the expense of extra
time and labour, and fill them in as you go along.

A little extra care upon a drain will often add many years to
the service it will render.

The outfall or main open drain, namely, that into which your
main covered drains discharge, is the first to be attended to.
When spring creeks of some depth of bank exist, this is often
greatly expedited.

As far as possible, fields should be so arranged that open drains
may run along the fences, as thus we are saved from cutting in
parts our fields for cultivation, and an open ditch by the side of
a fence will effectually, by draining the water from around the
posts, prevent its heaving under the influence of frost and
thaw,

A great mistake is made by many ditchers in not giving the
sides sufficient slope ; an angle of 45*^ is none too much at which
to slope the side of a ditch from the horizontal.

Steep banks become undermined by running water, and fall
in, or are poached by cattle in search of drink, and are tumbled

The Canadian Farmer's

in, and never last for any length of time without requiring to be
cleaned out. The plough and scraper are very expeditious tools
with which to dig an open ditch.

The bottom of an open drain is none the worse for being as
wide as a scraper ; whilst the horses can easily draw scrapersful of
dirt up an incline of 45*^.

Should the subsoil become too heavy and compact to use the
plough with mould boards, then take off the mould board and stick
in with landsido share and coulter.

The outfall ditch should be considerably deeper than the ends
of main drains, so that when the former discbarge they may be
well above the bottom of the outfall.

The time to dig drains is when the weather is dry: the best
is in September, October and November ; though with some care
in starting the top soil early, staking out the lines before winter,
and with the blessing of deep snow, we have seen many a drain
dug through mid-winter.

As to the direction of main under-drains, there is much variety
of opinion ; some are in favour of carrying main-drains across
the slope of land (diagonally), thus, as they say, preventing the
washing of drains by heavy storms flowing into and through
them with great rapidity. For our part, we consider that if main-
drains be led directly down the slope and properly joined, there
will be no fear of washing. Again, that a given number of
drains laid across the slope of a hill would not effectivel}" clear
as great a space of land of water, the accompanying diagram
will show : —

Fio, 22.

Suppose the base upon which the drains 1, 2, 3 rest to be
parallel to the surface of the slope in which they are placed, and

that they are laid 30 feet apart the one
from the other, then — as water cannot
flow upwards, either from 3 to 2, or
from 2 to 1 — all the water which is below
1 in the field must flow a distance of
30 feet ere it can enter the drain 2 ;
similarly, all the moisture below 2 must

Manual of Agriculture, 85

penetrate through the soil a distance of "30 feet ere it can drain
away by No. 3, and so on ad infinitum.

Now, if the drains be 30 feet apart, and running directly down
the slope, each drain would only require to draw water from 15
feet on each side of it, and thus the water would flow away faster
than in the former case. Moreover, under the former plan, the
pressure would act entirely upon one side of the drain.

As the object of under-drainage is to carry away all superfluous
water from the soil quickly, we are at a loss to understand whence
such a difference of opinion amongst authorities on drainage can
have arisen.

In a perfectly level field, or when the slope is not apparent to
the eye, the main drain should be run down the centre of the
field, and the lateral ones should empty into it at a right angle.

Side drains should be always placed equidistant in such a field,
so as to obtain the minimum average of distances from which to
draw water.

Depth of Drains. — This is a very particular matter in field
drainage. If too deep, the action will be slow and impeded,
while there is no fault so great as that of placing drains at too
shallow a depth.

If too shallow, the frost may get at them, and not only is there
a risk of freezing and bursting, but they will draw off, along with
the water, the manurial strength of cultivated fields.

This may be readily tested by putting in a drain at, say, 15
inches, and another at 3 feet. While the latter would be running
off clear water, the liquid in the former would be muddy, and,
if submitted to analysis, would be found to contain much manure
and valuable mineral matter ; in fine, would be but partially fil-
tered. But depth and distance apart must be regulated by
variety of soil. Experience tells us that the depth of 3 feet 6
inches below the surface of the ground, in all soils, is sufficient,
and that on heavy lands, be they tenacious clays or soft soils,
the distance apart of side drains should be about 8 yards, while
for the ordinary loamy soils, and porous sands or gravels, intervals
of 10 yards will be found ample.

To mark out for drains, it will be found very handy to stake
and run a plough furrow down the line.

Material. — There are, in Canada, three known materials in
practical use. For neatness of work and durability upon any
land but alluvial, none can compare with the burnt tile. Tiles
are, however, expensive, and their use may well be governed by
locality.

In some parts we have stone of a suitable kind in abundance.
Stone drains carefully put down will last for years, and are
very effective. To lay stone tJiere are several methods, three of
which are : —

§6 The Canadian Farmer's

1st. — Throw in loose stones of all shapes and of any size above
a pebble, and below that of a boulder, to a depth of about 10
inches , cover with a little brush or inverted sods, and fill up with
earth. Such drains in a stiffish subsoil will last for years, but
their action is rather slow.

2nd. — Place two flat stones for sides on their edge, and cover
them with a third ; above this cover again throw in a few inches
of small stone ; or we have seen, where flat stones are abundant,
as in many limestone ridges, the whole ditch bottom filled in,
placing flat stones on their edges for sides, a flat stone on top, a
few inches of loose stones above that again, and the whole then
filled in with earth, ridging up a little to allow of settling.

Srd. — Place one flat stone at the bottom, and two more, one on
each side, forming a triangle ; cover with small stones and fill in
the earth Where stones can be obtained at a reasonable distance,
and laid alongside the open ditch or grip, these drains are the
cheapest and most practicable, and, if care be exercised in so
adjusting them that the stones cannot cave in on one another
and form a dam, will last for a very long time.

It would be well, however, to bear in mind that it will not
answer to make drains of stones in deep alluvial soils, such as
exist in some of our swamps even, as neither stones nor tiles will
do in sand that is at all of the nature of quicksand.

Wood. — In many parts of Canada, in the neighbourhood of
low, wet-lying lands, there is abundance of wood suitable for
drains — pines, ashes, hemlocks, &c.

In stilty land, or such as is of the nature of quicksand or
muck, as cheap a drain as can be made is formed thus : — Take
scantlings, boards, or even pine slabs, and lay them as with the
stones in the triangular shape ; fill in around them with small
stones, or, if not available, with brush, to a depth of some inches.
These stones or brush will catch the *' silt," and prevent it
choking up the drain.

This is as effectual as we can find for such land. There is
always trouble in drains in such kind of soil, but probably less
need be anticipated from this style of drain ; moreover, they are
easily raised and relaid

In all these drains it is an excellent plan to cover over the
whole with one layer of inverted turf before the earth is filled
in.

Brush. — We have seen excellent drains made of simple
brush.

The brush being kept from the light will not decay. The
laying of a brush drain requires very great care, but if properly
put down will work for a very long time.

They should never be used for main, but only for side drains.
The limbs, cut a few feet in length, are placed with the butts

Manual of Agriculture. 87

down, commencing at the iip'per end. The ditch should be filled
at least one-third full, or from twelve to fourteen inches thick of
brush when well trodden down, as the weight of superincumbent
earth will afterwards further compact them. The ditch must be
made wider at the bottom than for tiles or stones.

Resinous and durable wood, such as pine, cedar, &c., is the best
for this purpose ; but if they be set deep enough, the hollow
drain will remain long after the wood has decayed, while the
brush itself will last for many years.

Mr. Allan Macdougall, C E., of Toronto, in his papers on
Practical Drainage, to the Canada Farmer, says • " The outfall
drain is the first thing to be looked to. If a stream or ditch ,
alongside of a road exists, it ought to be cleaned out to a depth of
three feet nine inches or four feet. It is not necessary to have
a great fall on it, as water acts more freely than solid substances.
Each particle looks out for itself, and seeks the lowest place it can
find ; and when confined in a drain, each particle, trying to get
to the lowest place, pushes on the particle next to it, until the
drain is emptied. For an open outfall three or four feet to a mile
is sufiicient fall to allow a drain to discharge water freely, as
long as the bottom and sides are kept clean and free from weeds;
and for drains from a field, one foot on four chains, or half an
inch on ten feet, is considered quite enough. The outfall is usu-
ally an open cut ditch, made down the side of two fields, which is
used for draining the fields on both sides, as well as being an out-
let for other drains coming down from other fields. It should
be carried up in the lowest place, so as to drain as many fields as
possible, and be made about three feet six inches to four feet
deep, according to the fall it has, about eighteen inches broad at
the bottom, and five feet wide at the top. Open cut outlet drains
from other fields should be connected to it. They should be about
one foot wide at bottom and four feet wide at top,

" The trenches or grips in which the drains are to be laid ought
to be commenced at the low end and carried up the field regu-
larly— that is, after one has been cut fift}^ or eighty yards, the next
must be brought up that distance ; then the third, then the fourth,
and so on, as this enables a grip to let away some of the water
from the low end of the field before the water from the top is
let into it, and also lets the air get into the land. For tile drains it is
not necessary to cut them more than twelve or fifteen inches wide
at the top, sloping downwards to six inches at the bottom. For
stone or brushwood they would need to be cut nine or twelve
inches broad at the bottom. Care should be taken in making these
grips that the bottom has a regular slope ; for if it has not, the
water will be certain to lodge in the hollow, and derange the
working of the drains. This is more particularly the case where
the ground is very flat. Side drains ought never to join a main

88 The Canadian Farmer's

drain at right angles. They ought to have a bend at the end for
ten or fifteen feet, to run in the slope of the land, that the water
coming from them may flow easily into the main drain. Were
this not done, the two currents coming in contact would cause
back-water in the weaker stream, which would be the side drain,
and this would keep the drain from being properly discharged, or,
as frequently happens after heavy floods, would cause the side
drains to burst.

" When drains come down the whole length of a field to the out-
fall drain, or the principal drain that is to carry ofl" the water,
they ought to join at a little higher level, so that the two
streams may unite together without any back-water.

"When the main drain happens to be an open ditch, as is usually
the case, it is a good and safe plan to place a large stone below
the last pipe, and another on the top of it to keep it from being
washed away by floods ; or in stone drains, to lay a large flat
stone for the bed, and place two stones on edge, with a large
one over them to cover them, which will protect the loose stones
of which these drains are composed from being washed away."

Another practical writer, in giving instruction on the formation
of rather more elaborate board drains than those above noted,
says : " Our plan is to construct angular board drains, by putting
together, in the form of an inverted ^, two boards bevelled so as
tofoiman angle more acute than a right angle. I have wit-
nessed the action of great quantities of this drain, and where laid
in a subsoil that does not wash, nothing can do better, especially
if kept nearly level. The drain box should be formed of a ten-
inch board divided obliquely through the centre. This saves lum-
ber, and makes a perfect drain, and the angle formed by putting
both bevelled parts together offers great resistance to breaking
in from the weight of earth above. About four nails in each
twelve-foot length will keep all steady until the earth completes
the security of the drain by its weiglit. This plan affords the
largest drain, and of the best shape for the smallest quantity of
lumber used."

To render boards for draining perfectly rot-proof the folio wing-
is effective, known as Robbins' process : " Strange as it may seem,
after all our experimenting with wood and the tile-draining ma-
terial, we are likely to come back again to wooden drains of
some sort under peculiar circumstances. They are pronounced
to be on good autliority superior to, as they are far cheaper than,
tile-drains, where the wood is subjected to the vapour of carbolic
acid. But even without this preparation, wooden water pipes,
made in the I est manner, will last two or three generations under
ground. But as it regards the so-called Robbins' process, it is not
applied to logs, but boards, so that the logs of any ])erishable
woods sawed into boards, and the boards subiected to carbobc

Manual of J. griculture.

]

acid, formed into square conductors and used as drains upon
farms, will last, it is claimed, ' for ever,' at a cost of not over a
fourth or a fifth of that for tile — a heavy article, and expensive to
farmers living at a distance from a manufactory. Should this
process turn out to be all that is claimed for it, the farmers of the
country will find in it a means of rejuvenating their lands by
draining, which, while it will cost but little, will nearly double
their productive capacity."

In undulating fields, the drains should not follow the exact ups
and downs of the field, but should have a regular slope.

This particularity is more necessary in the laying of stone or
tile drains than in those of wood, as the long length of wood will
give to the drain a regular shape.

If tiles follow small undulations in the ground, the low spots
will hold water, which, backing up, will form an impediment to
the general flow throughout the whole length.

Where the operation of tile fiq. '?x

draining is gone into on a large
scale a spirit level may be
bought, but they are expensive ;
or where they are undertaken
by professional engineers, of
course the regular levelling in-
struments are available ; but any
farmer can make a small instru-
ment, as in accompanying dia-
gi'am, which will answer every
practical purpose. It is simply
a plumb-bob attached to a perfect
T.

The operator places pegs in his
hollows and on the little knobs,
and by means of this T, which
can be held perfectly erect by
regarding the plumb-bob, drives
his pegs down into the hills, so
that their tops are in a regular
slope with those pegs that are
in the hollows, from end to end.
He then measures the depth of

his ditch, not from the surface of the earth, but from the tops of
each of his pegs.

In all drains, difficulties will be apt to arise by the work
of rats, mice, and often from roots finding their way into inter-
stices and dammino: back the flow of water.

In an orchard, to avoid annoyance by roots of trees, drains
should be set deep and equidistant from the rows of trees.

90 The Canadian Farmer's

One great advantage possessed by wooden drains over other
kinds is, that from being of larger dimensions they do not require
as great a fall ; but they are subject to infesting by rats. A plan is
often adopted to overcome this danger, by keeping the end about
half dammed up with a good heavy turf, or by some other means.
This always keeps the lower end of the drain half full of water,
but only for a certain distance up, so that while rats cannot
easily get up the drain, neither is the flow of water impeded
except for a certain distance from the mouth. Others put grat-
ings of wire at the end ; these must, however, be carefully looked
after, for they are apt to become stopped with silt coming down
with the water.

Wood will also last better in naturally wet soils than in those
of a drier nature, for as long as the wood is kept constantly wet
it will hardly rot ; it is dry rot that destroys a wooden drain.

Tiles, when used, must be well burnt, and smooth within. If
not well burnt, the wet is very apt to crack them.

The bottom of a drain on which tiles are laid should be very
carefully made — exactly the shape of the tile — so that the tile
may, when placed in position, be supported on the sides closely by
the bank, and lay touching the bottom at all points.

To shape the bottom of the ditch aright, regular draining spades
may be bought, and are required.

Tiles should have a flow of from three to four inches when used
as main drains ; when placed in lateral ditches a two-inch pipe
IS sufficient.

A side drain should not be longer than three hundred yards
with a fair fall, or two hundred yards on a lesser grade. A sod
should be carefully laid over every tile, and the earth compacted
well just above the tiles.

The horseshoe-shaped drain has been almost entirely discarded
in the old country, from the difficulty that was experienced in
getting the flat side to burn hard. In the selection of tiles, not
only must care be exercised that they be well burnt, that there
be no roughnesses inside them, and that they are straight ; for,
if crooked, the water has to rise to get over the obstacle thus
afforded.

Table showing the number of tiles necessary to drain one acre
of land, when the drains are laid at certain regular distances
from one another, supposing the pipes to be one foot long :

FEET APART.

TILES.

1815

RODS OF DITCHING.

108 rods.

27 . ...

1613

96 "

1453

88 "

1210

974

72 "

60 "

Manual of Agriculture. 91

Mr. D. G. F. Macdonald, C.E., gives the following experiment
in favour of the advantages of under-draining upon his own farm .

PRODUCE BEFORE DRAINING. PRODUCE AFTER DRAINING,

Wheat 24 bushels per acre.
Barley 40 "

Oats 48 "

Wheat 38 bushels per acre.
Barley 58 "
Oats 64 "

" Ogden Farm finds encouragement in the following passage in
the Hon. George Geddes' Essay on Wheat Culture : ' Undrained
clay lands are never worn out, for the owner that lacks the
energy to free them from stagnant water, never has force enough
to exhaust their fertility by cropping. Manure on such land is
nearly thrown away. Draining is the tirst thing to be done ; next,
thorouijh cultivation ; then manure. Whoever reverses this order
throws away his money and his labour.'

" This would be a good text for every farmer to keep constantly
in mind. The profit of farming comes entirely from the surplus
of production beyond the grand total of the cost of interest, labour,
seed, manure, and wear and tear. These are nearly fixed quan-
tities. They are at least as great, in the aggregate, with medium
crops as with good ones. If thirty bushels of corn to the acre
will barely return the outlay, sixty bushels may give a clear profit
equal to the value of thirty bushels. There are thousands of
farms in the country, whose soil contains enough of the elements
of fertility to produce fair crops with the aid of ordinary ma-
nuring (if only these elements were come-atable), but which, by
reason of their soggy and unpleasant condition, would do less in-
jury to their owners if they were hopelessly barren. In the
spring and early summer they are moist and cold— more like putty
than like arable land ; in July and August they are baked to a
crust ; and when the fall rains come they revert again to their
weeping state. Any effort to make good land of such a farm as
this without draining is simply an effort wasted. Neither labour
nor manure can do much to drive away the demon of bad luck
by which every path of its owner is beset. I have scores of let-
ters from the occupants of such farms, and I have had for j^ears.
I began by advising this and that makeshift, where it was claimed
that the expense of draining could not be borne ; but I have
finally learned to say, point-blank, to any man who is trying
to make his way on this kind of a farm : ' Either drain it or
give it up ! You can make more money by working at days' work,
on good land, than by fighting year in and year out against the
established laws of nature. If you can't do better, sell off* your
stock, and, if necessary, work for a neighbour enough of the
time to earn your bare living. Spend the rest of your time
and all the money you can raise in draining the best field you
have got. Don't imagine that your case is to be an exception,
but accept the fact, now that you cant aford to farm wet land

92 The Canadian Farmer's

— either own up that you are only lit for a day labourer, or
buckle to and make your land worth cultivating.'

" There are two great obstacles to the advancement of under-
draining, viz. : One is, the idea that land which suffers from
drought does not need draining, when the fact is that land often
suffers from drought just because it needs draining — take out the
water and let in the air, so that the soil can be put in proper tilth,
and it will be able to withstand drought. The other is, the not
unnatural notion that the first land to be drained is that which is
now the wettest. In my judgment the improvement should be first
applied to those fields which are just dry enough to be considered
arable, but which, two years out of three, disappoint the farmer's
hopes, and produce barely enough to pay the cost of cultivation.
If such land as this is drained, it will pay a profit. If a back lot
swamp is drained, it may be years before it will do more than pay
the expenses of its management. Begin with the very best land that
needs draining at all, and make it produce a profit, and then take
the next best and bring that to a profitable state, and so on until
the back swamp comes in its turn. What we want is not so much
large crops as profitable crops. A hundred dollars' worth of corn
that has cost a hundred dollars had better not have been grown.
It don't pay to work over large areas for meagre produce. Pile on
the steam ! Crowd the production to the most remunerative point ;
and then extend your operations to the next best field, and make
that pay a round profit. This is the soundest principle of good farm-
ing, and in carrying it out we shall have no more efiicient
aid than is rendered by thorough draining on the best lands that
need draining. When this is accepted as the correct principle, we
shall see draining extending in all directions. So long as the
chief object of draining is to convert innocent waste lands into
fields for unprofitable work, its progress will be but halting, and
farmers will continue to cry out against its great cost. Cost ?
Why, suppose it costs as much to drain an acre of land as to buy
an adjoining acre, this is no argument against it. The one acre
drained would pay a handsome profit; the two acres undrained
would pay no prorit at all, and had better be left to grow wood.
What is wanteJ, as the foundation of the best improvement, is r
conviction in the minds of the farming public that it is better to
have good farms than to have large farms. That point being
gained, all the rest will come as a matter of course. Let us con-
fine ourselves to such areas as will give us the most money for our
farming, and leave the rest of the land to take care of itself."

In the columns of the Canada Farmer, the author expressed
himself as follows on the subject of the institution of a Private
Drainage Fund by the Government, and regrets that some of the
surplus money was not, in the session ol '73, invested in the sajne
wav : —

Manual of Agriculture. 93

" We have reason to believe that there are a great number of
farmers who would gladly avail themselves of an opportunity of
borrowing money at a moderate percentage upon long time, did
they know of any fund from which such could be obtained.

''Some years must elapse before drainage and similar permanent
farm improvements can make a return to the farmer upon his
capital invested, and for this reason it is seldom within his power
to borrow money at large interest for such a purpose.

" The first cost of the thorough drainage of a large area of land
is very heavj^ and is beyond the means of the greater number of
our farmers. Of course no private individual will let out his
money upon light interest for drainage purposes, when eight or
ten \)QY cent, is obtainable upon the very best of securities.

"We cannot but think that some of the surplus funds in the hands
of our Government might be appropriated with great justice to
the creation of a Loan Fund, from which private individuals
could borrow on easy terms, giving as security mortgages upon
their real estate.

" The interest of Canada as a progressive country is entirely de-
pendent upon her agricultural prosperity, and in no way would
a larger average of yield be attained than by the adoption by
her farmers of a thorough system of under-drainage, and no
greater incentive could possibly be conceived to an improved
system of agriculture throughout the length and breadth of the
Dominion than the power of borrowing public money for the
specific purpose of land improvement by drainage.

''The great influence of drainage, in an increase of agricultural
products, cannot be called in question by any who have seen the
state to which agriculture has been brought in England within
the last half century. The greater proportion of the present
success of the farmer in England is due to a thorough system of
drainage. Our farms in this climate stand, perhaps, more in
need of under-drains than those of Great Britain, for our rain-fall is
very light, and we require every drop of water to percolate our
soil, and can afford to lose none of those heavy rain-falls which,
iQW and far between, rush in torrents over the surface of our land,
rather to the detriment than the benefit of the growing crop.

" We believe that, on the one hand, if a fund were appropriated
from which our farmers could borrow for the especial purpose of
draining their several farms, a very large amount would be sought
after, and, moreover, that such expenditure would benefit the
country to a far greater extent than that which is invested in
Government securities and Canadian debentures, even if the latter
were producing their ten per cent. The whole of the capital sum
would be invested in the country and for the country's benefit,
and the most ignorant of farmers knows full well that the effect
of thorough drainage is to increase the crop- producing power of

94 The Canadian Farmer's

his land, in many cases as much as fifty per cent Thus to the
country would be added, without going into minute calculations
of interest accruing in collateral ways, by investment in drainage,
a return commensurate with this estimate.

"It would, of course, be necessary that the Government should
assure itself of the investment of such funds for bona fide drainage
purposes and for none other.

" We are not, at this moment, in possession of a perfect know-
ledge of the system by which the similar fund is worked in the old
country, but we do know that there the Government takes effec-
tual means to assure itself that all such monies are well and
truly applied to the purposes for which they are from time to
time borrowed.

" We should like our farmers to take up this matter, and to see
that their representatives are made fully aware of the importance
of the subject, and we cannot but think that the county candi-
date for election to the House would find a broad and liberally
expressed view upon this point a verv safe and solid plank upon
his political platform.*'

MANURES.

The true theory is that, to keep crops from diminution, the
farmer must put as much into the soil as his crops take from it,
and that if he desire to increase his returns he must put more into
the land than he takes out of it.

If a man takes money out of his bank faster than he deposits,
he will soon have none to his credit; and so it is to the farmer who
draws more from his soil than he returns again.

The late Professor Liebig, one of the deepest philosophers, expe-
rimentalists and chemists that the world has ever produced, says :

" Perfect aojriculture is the true foundation of all trade and in-
dustry ; it is the foundation of the riches of States. But a rational
system of agriculture cannot be formed without the application of
scientific principles ; for such a system must be based upon an
exact acquaintance with the means of nutrition of vegetables, and
with the influence of soils and the action of manures upon them."

An application of science to agriculture simply means a know-
ledge of nature's wants, demands and methods of working. Far-
mers are inclined to sneer at what is called book-farming, but all
they know, be it handed down to them from father to son or other-
wise, has been first discovered by enterprising experimenters and
deep thinkers, and only ceased to be known by the name of scien-
tific when the knowledge of it was widely spread abroad.

Every improvement in the manner of working a farm that now
takes place is an effect of science; and many a system now sneered
at by the illiterate will in the future be generally practised by

Manual of Agriculture. 95

themselves, when it has stood the test of general practical applica-
tion.

Were it not for the discovery of science, and the widespread
influence of books, farming would be little farther advanced in
method to-day than it was when our fathers used a wooden
plough and drew it through the soil by means of four or five horses,
one yoked in front of the other.

Agriculture must keep pace with other arts ; or rather, the other
professions of the world cannot exist without a progressive
advancement in the knowledge of the agriculturist.

" The plough and the sickle shall shine bright in glory

When the sword and the sceptre shall crumble and rust,
And the farmer shall live both in song and in story
When warriors and kings are forgotten in dust."

It has been well said : " It is an excellent lesson for sticklers
for good old routine to cast their eyes over the surface of the
land, and to note in how many cases districts the most unpromising,
and with the least tractable soils, have been made models of agri-
culture, purely by the removal of the original obstacles to cultiva-
tion." Turn to England, and look at the cold clay lands of Nor-
folk, so improved by skill, energy and enterprise that the county
has become conspicuous in the history of England's agriculture.

Difficulties breed enterprise, and obstacles foster skill. Look
at the more barren, sterile and inhospitable portions of Scotland,
and find now there some of the most productive farms in the
world.

" Rough is her soil, yet blest in fruitful stores ;
Strong are her sons, though rocky are her shores ;
And none, ah ! none so lovely to my sight,
Of all the lands that Heaven o'erspread with light. "

The man who reads books on agriculture is too often met by
those who pretend to despise book- farming with —

*' He who by the plough would thrive,
Himself must either hold or drive. "

That applies in principle, but there is driving with the head as
well as with the arm. " One head is worth two pair of hands,"
we find to be an adage worthy of consideration, whilst a para-
phrase of the above is not inapt, that —

** He who by the plough would gain,
Himself must work by hand and brain. "

Far be it from us to advocate what is known as '• high farmino- "
to the general run of farmers. " High farming" is associated with
ideas of immense expenditure on high and abstract theories.

" High farming" requires a large amount of skilful expenditure
of capital and deeply reasoned system of cultivation.

96 The Canadian Farme/s

It would be as useless to expect to see the majority "high far-
mers " as to see the greater ]mrt of the world profound scholars.
But what we advocate is, such a general knowledge of other peo-
ple's ideas, real and idealistic, as shall form a basis upon which to
work out practical improvements, and by which to adapt the cul-
tivation of our land more closely to the ways of nature as revealed
by the researches of wise and scientific men.

In Canada, where labour is expensive and very difficult to be
obtained, if we would find a profit in farming it becomes espe-
cially necessary that we raise larger crops per acre. This end
cannot be obtained except by further enrichment of our lands,
nor can those elements taken away by the exhaustive cereal be
returned to the soil, for the use of a future crop, except through the
medium of a liberal application of manure. If we have a field
from which we gather in our one crop all its richness, we must
make some return ere we again tax its energies to supply food for
the subsequent crop. Manures are various ; any substance that
contains in itself any elements of plant food, is a manure, be it
in a putrescent, animal or vegetable, in a mineral or fossil, form.
Of these several forms of manures we shall now more fully treat.

FARM-YARD MANURE.

A portion of our agricultural readers may, on glancing at the
caption of this chapter, be inclined to pass it by as of so ordiuarj^
a nature that they can see no knowledge attainable in the dis-
cussion of a subject so common, and one to the application of which
all farmers devote time sufficient.

From our personal and practical knowledge of farmers and of
farming, we know that there are many in Canada who will be
apt to set aside such reading as commonplace, possibly as stale
and unprofitable. Should this chapter catch the eye of any such
men, we beg at once to take issue with them, and assert positive-
ly that not only is a profound knowledge of manuring, and practi-
cal appliance of such knowledge, of the most fundamental impor-
tance to every tiller of the soil, but that no subject of agricultural
education has been so sadlv neo^lected as that of the knowledofe
of the effects of vegetable, animal and mineral manures upon
our soils and upon our plants.

Though it is true that manuring has been generally practised
wherever cultivation has been attended with any marked success,
yet its principles are not thoroughly understood by our most emi-
nent agriculturists ; how much less then by the ordinary run of
farmers.

The perfect exposition of the practical effects of manure upon
plant life rests with the analytical chemists, and it is to such men
that we must look as our leaders in research.

Manual of Agriculture. 97

We do not desire to convey instruction in this work by any
fine theories or abstruse disquisitions on the analytical and chemical
properties of manure, but propose to dwell shortly on the first
principles of nature, trusting that such may induce more attention
to the great importance of the manufacture of manure among the
careless, and may strengthen the thrifty in theii' plans for the
enrichment of the land.

Cultivation for the growth of artificial crops, such as are nearly
all the farm products of America, has but two main objects in view.
One is, to provide food for the sustenance and growth of the plant ;
and the other, to place that food in the most tempting way before
the tender root, so that its delicate mouths may find their food
close by them. It is a common law, that " when the mountain
would not go to Mahomet, Mahomet had to go to the moun-
tain." The tender rootlet has little power to stretch far for its
food, so that food must go to the root.

This food is provided in three distinct and separate modes : 1,
By so cultivating the soil that the external atmosphere and food-
laden rain shall penetrate downwards, and moisture shall, by the
process known as capillary attraction, work upwards from the
subsoil ; 2, By providing all the elements of plant food, in the
form of putrescent or decomposed animal matter ; and 3, By stimu-
lation of the soil itself

There are manures which act directly upon the plant, and there
are those which act solely as stimulants.

The object, then, of putrescent animal or vegetable manures, is
to provide food directly, and in a soluble form, to the mouths of
growing plants. Some of these mouths are in the roots and others
in the leaf, and upon the various positions of these mouths in dif-
ferent plants we base the several advantages of top-dressing and
of ploughing under manure.

All those various substances which appear in the category of
vegetable and animal matter contain in their ordinary state all
the different elements of plant food, but they have to go through
a process of fermentation and decomposition ere losing their re-
spective fixed conditions ; they become assimilated in one sapon-
aceous mass, and are in such a state that the plant can seek out
the peculiar food especially required for itself In their or-
dinary state, or under partial decomposition, the several chemical
elements are held firmly together and fixed ; total decomposition
unbinds these various elements, and each becomes eligible for the
sustenance of plant life.

BARN- YARD MANURE.

Manure ^ar excellence is that of the dunghill — for in the con-
stituent parts of this manure may be found all the elements
7

The Canadian Farmer's

which were originaily required for the sustenance of the various
foods, and which, having passed through the animals, form now
the manure pile.

The dunghill is the best bank in which the farmer can invest
his money ; any investment that will tend to tlie increase of the
fertility of his land is one of perfect security to the farmer. Na-
ture becomes his banker, and she will never fail to give good
interest.

We would here call the attention of our farmers to the absolute
injury caused by the exposure of our manure piles to the sun and
air, by the following tabular statement, composed from actual ex-
periment, which will convey some idea of the various changes
wrought in a pile of farm-yard manure under the effects of expo-
sure to sun and rain : —

Weight of manure in lbs.

Water

Dry matters

Soluble organic matters ....
Soluble inorganic matters . . .
Insoluble organic matters....
Insoluble inorganic matters.

Total of nitrogen

Equal to ammonia

Put up

Put UP

Nov. 3.

April 30.

Aug. 23.

2838-00

2026-00

1994 00

1877-09

1336 01

1505 03

900-01

689-09

488-07

70-38

86-51

58-83

4371

57-88

39-16

731-07

38974

243-22

114-94

155-77

147-49

18-23

18-14

13-14

22-14

22 02

15-96

Put UP
Nov. 15.

1974-00

1466-05

507-05

54-04

36 89

214-92

201 -05

13-03
15-75

It will be observed that during the first or winter six months
the loss was only in the insoluble organic matters — ^but in the six
summer months the valuable portions, ammonia, nitrogen, dry
matter and soluble matter, had undergone very considerable dimi-
nution.

The most valuable portion of animal matter is the urine, and it
IS the portion that we should put forth our most strenuous endea-
vours to save from waste and loss.

Though chiefly composed of water, urine contains the elements
of vegetation in a peculiarly soluble form, and by the secretion of the
vessels is combined with a large proportion of ammonia.

The analysis of its composition has shown it to be most favour-
able to vegetation when mixed with other excrements, and with
straw and similar substances, because it occasions their better
combinations, and moulds them into that form of nianure of which
we are now treating.

Straw consists of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, with some
nitrogen and earthy or alkaline salts.

The value of straw is chiefly as an absorbent of animal excreta
and urine, though its mechanical effects are also benehcial,as form-
ing tubes through which air is carried into the body of the soil. .

Manual of Agriculture. 99

Straw yields, when burnt, about 5 per cent, of ashes, and so far
contains in itself actual fertilizing power. Chaff is very useful in
the manure pile, because it contains a large amount of silica, the
element that gives stiffness to the growing stalk.

Yards and Sheds. — In our travels through Canada, we have not
unfrequently seen the very essence of manure trickling from a barn-
yard into the road, where it goes to the enrichment of all foul
weeds instead of to that of the farmer's crops.

All yards should be formed more or less hollow, and have an im-
pervious bottom.

This may be rapidly done by the use of the plough and scraper.

If the soil is clayey, it is an easy matter to make the bottom
water-tight. After having cleaned the yard out and thoroughly
graded it, take advantage of the first wet day, and turning all
the cattle in, drive them round and round until the mud is pud-
dled to a depth of about eight inches. When that dries, the bot-
tom of your 5^ard is water-tight.

This principle may be still further improved upon by the con-
struction of reservoirs to receive all ley and manure ; the contents
might be pumped up and distributed over horse manure when
its too great dryness occasions any danger of its becoming fire-
fanged.

Few barns or barn-yards are so arranged as to save the liquid
manure. The loss resulting from such a want of proper arrange-
ment is a very serious one — more so than most farmers would
imagine. In the first place, the quantity of liquid matter which
might be saved from a pair of horses and half a dozen cows
amounts to 80,000 pounds yearty. This is equal to about 10,000
gallons, which, diluted with an equal quantity of water, would
furnish each year a dressing of 1,000 gallons per acre to twenty
acres of land. Fermenting liquid manure needs this addition of
water for the purpose of retaining the ammonia, which would
otherwise pass off and be lost. The solid matter contained in the
above quantity of liquid is equal to nearly three tons, and is worth
as much as the best guano. The money value would therefore be
about $200 — an amount that is well worth saving. Much less
than this amount would make the drains and tank required to save
the manure, so that the outlay would be more than repaid the
first year. Or, if proper absorbents were freely used, the whole
of the liquids might be saved without any outlay at all.

When dung is to be preserved for any time, the site of the
dunghill is of great importance. In order to have it defended
from the sun, it should be laid under a shed or on the north side
of a wall. To make a complete dunghill repository, the floor should
be paved with stones, a little inclination being made from each
side towards the centre. In the centre there should be drains con-
nected with a small well, furnished with a pump, by which any

100 'I'^^ Canadian Farmer's

fluid matter maj^ be collected for the use of the land, for it too
often happens that the drain in gs of the dunghill are entirely
wasted.

Were roofs constructed over dunghills to protect them from the
rays of the sun, as well as from the rain, there can be no doubt
that, if put up at little cost, they would be found to pay.

There are those who advocate the keeping separate all kinds oi
duno", for, say they, each animal manure is especially adapted to
various crops. While admitting the probable truth of this prin-
ciple, there are other and great advantages which seem to point
out the advisability of rather mixing the various dungs in one
heap.

Foremost among such reasons is the different degree of heat
found in various manures ; for instance, horse manure is very hot —
and it will be found that the presence of horse manure in the cow
dung will hasten the slow decomposition of the latter, while cow
dung will be found to tone down the rapid fermentation which
often proves injurious to the pile of horse manure.

Evaporation. — The question of evaporation from manure, where-
by many of the most valuable gases are lost, is one upon which
opinion is and has been greatly divided. In the works of Von
Thaer, a man of scientific and also very practical knowledge, we
find his summed up opinion to be, that "Not only are we taught
by theory, but, during his own experience, he has very frequently
observed that it is hurtful to remove manure whilst in a high
state of fermentation ; for an essential portion of the most active
substances of which it is composed are evaporated when exposed
to the air while the process of fermentation is going on. But be-
fore the fermentation has arrived at its height, or after it has
passed, the dung does not seem to lose anything by exposure to the
air, or at least nothing but what it regains by some other means."
Management of Barn-yard Manure must differ according to
season and soils.

How it should be applied has always been a fruitful source of
opposition and argument amongst the most practical men. There
are those who advocate the thorough rotting of dung before appli-
cation to the soil, while others are in favour of placing it upon the
land in its fresh, raw state.

We thmk that circumstances must regulate the matter, and that
none are justified in laying down either principle as a rule of faith.
We know that fresh manure lasts longer in the land ; we also
know that such is apt to foul our fields , while, on the other hand,
we know that certain crops require the manure in a thoroughly
decomposed state. For instance, in growing turnips, we wish to
rush the young plant out of danger from "fly" as soon as pos-
sible ; and to do this, manure should be applied in such a state that
its tender rootlets can at once obtain sustenance.

Manual of Agriculture. 101

Wheat, again, is a slow-growing cereal, and has about ten months
in which to mature ; there is then plenty of time for it to receive
benefit from the food slowly given away by long manure.

Wheat and turnips, then, require their manure in totally diiferent
forms.

Again, much of the benefit of dung to heavy lands arises from
the mechanical eflfect which it has in opening the land and loosen-
ing it up. This mechanical effect is best obtained by long strawy
manure, each straw forming a channel through which air is carried
to the soil.

Again, clay lands are usually cold by nature ; fresh horse dung
is hot, and helps to remove the coldness from the soil.

Also, if we apply manure to our turnips or other hoed crops, we
desire that there should be no strawy material to impede cultiva-
tion ; while, if to our fallows, or before winter, we have a long sea-
son in which it may become incorporated with the soil.

We think that, between the two plans, it is advisable to steer a
middle course, regulated by such a rule as this : —

When manure is applied directly to a crop in the spring, it
should be well rotted; when applied to a wheat crop or to summer
fallow, or in winter, it may be long. When the benefit is to be
immediate, let short be used ; when remote, coarse dung will be
found the best.

Before leaving this part of our subject, we would, however,
refer to the varying opinions of some of our best authorities, on
which the individual farmer may base his own action.

The materials of which the great bulk of farm-yard manure is
composed, consist chiefly of straw and other litter, which, being
fibrous, can be only rendered soluble by fermentation ; but chemi-
cal theorists say that this process should be perfected at least, if not
commenced, under ground, for they insist that, if completed in the
dung-hill, they would occasion a great loss of nutritive matter.

One very practical man, who has become converted to this no-
tion, says that " although half-rotted manure will sooner dis-
appear in the soil, and that the crop sown along with it may
often be better than fresh dung improperly applied, there may be
little doubt ; but there can be as little that, during the time the
latter is visible, it has afforded the greatest share of nourishment."
And he then asserts that " the ravages of fermentation and ex-
halation are more to be dreaded, and ought to be more guarded
against, than any other waste to which a heap of dung is liable."
In contradiction to this argument, another practical writer says :
" The object of applying all kinds of manure is to nourish the
seed sown in the earth, and we know from observation that its
development is much accelerated by the immediate assistance of
manure.

" If manure requires to be in a soluble state before plants de-

102 The Canadian Farmer's

rive benefit from it, it is evident the greater state of solution in
which the manure is, the more easily will the plant be enabled
to derive benefit from it."

This point is finely illustrated by the quicker efficacy of liquid
than solid manure in nourishing the plant, when both are applied
in equal strength. Now, if there is no way of making manure
soluble but by fermentation, it is also evident a greater degi'ee
of fermentation will dissolve all the fibrous portions of putrescent
manures the more easily.

This point is also well illustrated by a fermented dung-hill,
the materials of which, if properly commixed, will heat strongly
for a time, and then the fermentation will subside to a low de-
gree, leaving the whole mass in that pulpy, sappy state, than
which nothing can give a better idea of a soluble state of a fibrous
body.

Whether any really nutritive matter is driven off by fermenta-
tion before the mass is brought to that pulpy state ma}' be doubted ;
for the evaporation from such a dung-hill appears tobejustasteam
of water in a highly elastic state, glimmering like a hot haze in a
sunny day, on looking across a ploughed field.

But even should some gaseous matter escape during fermentation,
this undeniable fact remains untouched — that this fermented,
pulpy, sappy mass of manure will go much farther in maintain-
ing the fertility of land than the same hulk or weight of recent
farm-yard manure.

We have, however, on hand an actual experiment made by an
intelligent practical farmer on three kinds of manure, and on a
cultivated soil without manure, each plot of ground measuring 20
square rods.

Fresh stable dung Eotten dung, 8 Dry barley straw

in a strawy state, moatlis old, burnt on the ground Ko manure.

3 tons. 2 tons. 5 cwt.

Ist Crop Turnips 31i bush. 26 5-0 bush. 14 3-20 bush. \ bush.

2nd Crop Barley per a. 30 bush. 2 pks. 36 bush. 3 pks. 30 bush. 1 pk. 14 bush. Spka.
3rd Crop Clover " 20 cwt. 21 cwt. 18 cwt. 8 cwt.

4th Crop Oats " 38 bush. 40 bush. 18 bush. 32 oush.

—British Husbandry.

As to the feed after the clover, it was about equal to the ex-
pense of getting in each crop respectively, with a small surplus on
the plot manured with rotten dung.

The experiment is hardly as conclusive as it might have been,
if the proportion of the weight which fresh stable dung would
lo.se in eight months had been taken fairly into account ; for three
tons, at the expiration of that time, would in practice not amount
to more than one-half that quantity of rotted dung.

Had the quantities been equal in weight, every crop would
have been favoured by rotten dung.

Before leaving the subject we again quote from Sir Humphry
Davy, in his Treatise on Soils and Manures : —

Manual of Agriculture, 103

"That an immeasurable quantity of substance disposed for con-
version into food for plants is suffered to escape in the form of
drainings and vapour. During the violent fermentation which is
necessary for reducing farm-yard manure to the state in which it
is called ' short muck; not only a large quantity of fluid, but
likewise of gaseous m.atter, is lost ; so much so, that the dung is re-
duced one-half, and from that to two-thirds or more in weight. Now,
the principal elastic matter disengaged is carbonic acid, with some
ammonia ; and both these, if attracted by the moisture of the soil
and retained in combination with it, are capable of becoming nu-
triment." And he goes on in another part to say : " Where farm-
yard manure cannot be immediately applied, the destructive fer-
mentation of it should be prevented as much as possible. For
this purpose the dung should be kept dry and unexposed to the
air, for the moisture and contact with the oxygen of the atmosphere
tends to excite fermentation. To protect a heap from rain, a cov-
ering of compact marl or of tenacious clay should be spread over
the surface and sides of it. Watering dung-hills is sometimes re-
commended for checking fermentation ; but this practice, although
it may cool the dungfor a short time,is inconsistent with just views,
for moisture is a principal agent in all processes of decomposition;
dry fibrous matter will never ferment. Water is as necessary as
air to the process, and to supply it to fermenting dung is to supply
an agent which will hasten its decay. If a thermometer plunged
into the dung does not rise above 100° Fahrenheit, there is little
danger of much aeriform matter flying off; if the temperature is
higher, the dung should be immediately spread abroad."

From all which facts the practical farmer will learn, by the con-
flicting opinions of these practical and scientific authorities, that
there is a medium course in which to steer ; that dung loses much of
its value from leaking, and therefore that the bottom should be water-
proof, and the dung protected from rain, and that too much heat
should not be generated for a length of time in manure ; tiierefore,
it should be turned and drawn to the field when in a moderate
state of decomposition — neither garden mould nor strawy dung.

As to watering dung-hills, we know that it is often of immense
value, on the principle laid down by the great chemist, to equalize
fermentation over the whole surface, and thus to prevent that
white appearance of dung usually known as firefang.

It must also be borne in mind that there is more to be accom-
plished than the simple putrescence of farm-yard manure. All
such contains a large amount of weed seeds. These should be
germinated and destroyed after sprouting, by heat, if we would
not have our fields befouled by every load of manure that is drawn
from the barn-yard.

Whether the piling shall go on in the yard or take place in
heaps in the field is a matter to be determined by the peculiar sit-
uation of each farmer.

104 The Canadian Farmer's

When manure is to be used in the field and immediately upon
the crop, we have always drawn to the field at odd times and in
winter, and made our compost heap then and there, ready to en-
ter into a state of fermentation as soon as warm weather sets in ;
but where manure is to be spread on the winter fallow, rotting is
not so necessary, for it has time to decompose on or in the gr. und,
and weeds may then be sprouted and destroyed before seeding or
planting time.

There is one certain fact to be borne in mind, that there is no
loss by evaporation when there is no fermentation, and that ma-
nure laid on the surface in winter, not being in a solid mass to
heat, will lose none of its value by evaporation.

Mor does it lose any essential qualities by lying exposed to
the sun, provided that fermentation was not going on when so
exposed. All that is lost in such a case is a certain amount of
moisture ; and though it appears at first sight as if dried-out ma-
nure must be weakened, it is not so, and the next shower will
restore all the water lost before by evaporation.

To rot our manures when such is necessary, and to do so without
fear of those great losses shadowed forth by our scientists, we
must take some pains in the manufacture and manipulation of
compost heaps.

But before we proceed to this head, let us once more refer to
the practical opinions of our American farmers.

We find in the Canada Farmer :

" Where the most immediate effect is desired on the crop to
which the manure is applied, and where the soil has to be brought
to a state of fine tilth, it will be found much more advisable to
compost the manure, and make it as concentrated and finely di-
visible as possible, in order that the roots of plants can assimilate
it at once. John Johnston, of Geneva, who for many years raised
the heaviest crops of wheat and grass in America, always com-
posted his manure, and applied it as a top-dressing in the winter
or early spring. A farmer near London, Ontario, puts the manure
as a top-dressing on his fall wheat in spring, before the frost leaves
the ground. As a general rule, the sooner manure is buried in the
soil, provided the soil is suitable to its mechanical action, while
undergoing fermentation in it, the more organic material we add
to the land ; but this enriches the soil rather for the crop of the
second and after years than that grown immediately on the appli-
cation of the manure. On roots, barley, and, in fact, any crop
requiring to be stimulated into a quick and vigorous growth at the
start, a manure well decomposed and capable of immediate action
on the roots of the crop is necessary."

John Johnston, of Geneva, New York, is a practical farmer of long
experience, and one of the shrewdest of American agriculturists.

" If the dung be rotten, the effects will be quickness of growth,
succulency, crispness and delicacy of flavour. I strongly suspect

Manual of Agriculture, 105

that the application of ill-digested manure to land is an evil pro-
ductive of very great injury.

" Worms and grubs are multiplied thereby ; the most noxious
vapours are propagated ; and probably disease in grain crops may
originate in this circumstance. I cannot believe that the delicate
fibres of a root, making an effort to penetrate a clod of putrefying
dung, can escape uninjured ; and vegetable diseases, I presume,
often commence at the root. I have known recent manure check
vegetation." — Professor Thompsotis System of Chemistry.

COMPOST HEAPS.

All earths, especially clays and swamp mucks, and such matters
as leaves, peat, moss, turf and all refuse, contain in themselves
more or less of the elements of life and food required for the sus-
tenance of our various cultivated crops : but in many of them such
food is in an insoluble state ; thus they are comparatively useless
as applied in their natural form to the crop. To render their
inert vegetable or animal matter available or soluble, they require
to be decomposed, and there is no agent so effective in decomposi-
tion as the chemical action of heat. The shortest, most practical
and effective manner of subjecting such matters to heat is by incor-
poration with a mass of animal manure.

Therefore, all such will be found beneficial additions to our
compost heaps.

Composting makes our manure better to handle,and the food of
plants is more evenly distributed over the whole mass.

To make a Compost Heap. — A bedding is first formed of earth,
or of sods with grass up, upon which a layer of fresh dung is
placed, — the fresher the better, — about a foot thick ; upon that
another layer of mould, equally as thick, is laid , if of sods, doubled,
with the grassy sides turned in together. In this manner the
whole heap is raised to a height of five or six feet, when it is en-
tirely covered with earth or with sods, grass down. Form it narrow
and high, so as to expose a maximum of surface to the atmosphere.

This heap is left to ferment until it becomes cool again. It is
then turned, so that the upper portion is below and the outer
side is in the centre, and all thoroughly mixed together.

The urine of the 3^ard should be led in and around the heap (the
heap having been formed in a basin-shaped spot). The number of
turnings, and proportion of extraneous matter to dung, must be
governed by the experience of each farmer.

The Norfolk proportion is :

Mould for the bottom, 160 loads.

Dung from bullock yard and stables — a load of each alternately, 112 '*

Mould for next layer, 42 **

Dung for next layer, 48 '*

Mould for top and sides, 42 "

Total, 404 loads.

106 The Canadian Farmer's

This, when turned over twice, produces three hundred loads of
manure, and is used on about twenty acres for turnips, or at the
rate of fifteen loads per acre — about ten of our waggon loads.

Another plan is : — Turf, or any species of earth., is spread over
the yard to the depth of about two feet, then laid over with straw,
to wiiich stable litter is all drawn, and the feeding cribs outside
are then placed on this.

In this manner the dung may be allowed to accumulate all
winter ; it may then be either piled in the yard, covered with
earth and left until required, or carted to the field and there made
into a compost heap.

To manage manure m the yard in another form, W. R, of Roys-
ton Park, Ontario, says :

" A capital plan to decompose a manure heap in the cattle shed
and yarci, where there is a large straw stack, is to give the cattle
the full run of the enclosure. Spread out so much straw every
day for feed. What is not eaten is of course trodden down. Once
a week, sow all over some salt, lime and plaster. By the time the
fall wheat requires to be sown — that is, from the 1st to the
loth of September — you will have pretty well-decomposed
manure to haul out for the seed furrow, and entirely free of heat.
I adopt this system, and have sometimes had wheat straw from
sixty to eighty acres to get rid of, before thrashing comes around
again. No intelligent farmer will ever sell a load of straw ; there-
fore it is all-important to get it into manure and fit for crops with
as little expense as possible.

" The better way, however, is to take about three bushels of un-
slacked lime ; dissolve a bushel of salt in water, and slake the
lime with it — any quantity in about the same proportion. The
salt and lime mixture is very valuable. It retains the ammonia
and destroys the odour of putrefj'ing animal matter. Let any one
try this who has a dead carcase ; put said carcase in the dunghill ;
spread it over with the mixture ; throw on a lot of manure, then
some plaster ; cover up again with manure, and in a short time
the whole mass, bones and all, will be decomposed.'*

We give W. R.'s receipt, but think that it would be more advan-
tao-eous to leave out the lime, for the effect of lime is to set free
ammonia ; in other particulars his plan is very practical.

Into the compost pile should be thrown all the waste of the
house (erroneously so called, for nature knows no waste), and all
refuse of the farm, animal or vegetable, is of manurial value.

Another mode of saving all the manure is by the use of dry
earth under the bedding of animals ; dry earth being a powerful
absorbent, will take up all the urine, instead of allowing it to soak
into the plank ftoois.

R. Giddings, in his prize essay before the Illinois Agricultural
Society for 1870, says in favour of this use of dry earth :

ManuaL of Agrioulture. 107

" First, — That it requires no apparatus or cash outlay.

•' Second, — That the liquid manure of cattle is worth more than
the solid, and is usually lost ; but, under this practice, all is
retained.

" Third, — The dry earth retains within it all the value, of which
usually one-third or one-half is lost by fermentation, leaching, or
evaporation.

" Fourth, — It gives much larger bulk of manure, each load of
which is of double the value of ordinary farm-yard manure.

" Fifths — That one ton of saturated earth is of more value than
the same weight of even fresh-saved dung.

" Sixth, — That the aggregate amount of plant food thus saved
from the stalls is fully double, and in much better condition for
use."

Mr. Giddings also says :

" A covering of half an inch of soil will absorb every particle of
escaping ammonia, but a thicker coating is desirable. A water-box^
on a one-horse cart is also used occasionally to stop a too active
fermentation of the pile. There are other absorbents, rich in
themselves, of plant food, which not only save but add both bulk
and richness to the pile — muck, sawdust, coal ashes, &:c. Go into
your hen-house on a warm morning, and you will be oppressed
with the effluvia arising from their droppings ; spread over them
a hod of coal ashes, or a basket of sawdust, and the air is sweet-
ened as if by magic ; and it will keep the hens in good health,
besides increasing the manure, if followed up every few days."

To prevent firefang, it is recommended as follows:

" Manure may be prevented from heating by making the heap
sufficiently broad, and placing it in a position where cattle will
walk over it or feed while standing upon it, so as to tread it down
solid. The amount of muck, loam or turf to place in layers with
it, to prevent burning, must depend upon the manure, and the
readiness with which it will ferment. We would much prefer
using at least one-third as much muck as manure, or even more.
It will make more compost, and be more certain to hold all the
parts that might otherwise partly escape. The drier the muck or
loam, the more efficient it will be as an absorbent. If the manure
is trodden hard, the amount of muck may be little or much, as
may be most economical."

Blackie on Farm-yard Manure says, at page 5 :

" We will, however, admit that it would be an improvement if
reservoirs for the drainage of yards were so constructed that their
contents might be pumped up and sprinkled over horse litter,
whenever its too great dryness occasions any danger of burning
by too great fermentation. A watering pot with a large rose will
be found to answer the purpose."

How to obtain Swamp Muck. — In the fall of the year, go out

108 The Canadian Farmer's

into the swamp and dig a ditch around a small patch, so that the
surface water may dry out before the ground freezes ; or, if we can
dig out the muck at the edge of a swamp, and throw it up in
heaps on the adjacent dry land, it will then get about half dried
out and decomposition will set in partially, while exposure to the
winter's frost will be of great benefit to it as for manuiial use."

The Application of Barn-yard Manures. — When applied on the
surface of the land, direct from the compost heap, manure should
be covered lightly at once, because, as has been already shown,
when in any state of fermentation there is loss of important
strength by evaporation.

The lightest covering is sufficient, and therefore we advise the
incoryjoration of such broadcast manure by the use of cultivator
and harrows.

The old principle of ploughing down manure, except it be done
veiy lightly, has been pretty well exploded

Manure that is once ploughed down deeply will never rise again.
Every storm that falls will carry it down wards, and further out of
reach of the growing plant. \

It is possible to put on too much manure, and so increase the
bulk of the straw at the expense of the head. It is customary on
some farms to draw out the manure every year, on one or two
fields that are handy to the barn yard, and there to use it ; because,
forsooth, it saves the trouble of drawing a greater distance !

This is "robbing Peter to pay Paul." A few fields or acres adja-
cent to the homestead are so enriched that gi-ain lodges every
year, while this evil effect is attained at the expense of the bal-
ance of the farm. A proper rotation of crops will overcome this
evil, as each field will thus obtain its fair share of manure, and the
status of the whole farm will be kept up to an equitable standard
of fertility.

Surface Manuring. — We prognosticate that surface manuring
will before many years be a recognised principle over all Canada ;
already we find very many of our most intelligent and practical
men have become converts to the system.

We clip the following correspondence from the Country Gentle-
man, as it contains, in a terse and concise manner, the advantages
of this mode of application of barn-yard manure, and is written for
American farmers, and from a portion of America similar in cli-
mate and soil to Canada :

" Having tried nearly all of the various modes of using manure,
and finally concluded that surface manuring is the best, I propose
to give some of the reasons for coming to this conclusion. In
doing this I shall only refer to such manure as is made in the sta-
bles and barn-yards in Western New York, where a large amount
of straw and other litter is mixed with the manure.

" The first one to discover fully the advantages of surface ma-

Manual of Agriculture. 109

nuring was John Johnston, of near Geneva, N. Y. This was done
accidentally, in this way. Having land badly infested with red
root, he manured it early in the fall to induce the red root seed
to grow, so as to plough it under in the spring, and thus clear his
land of this pest. But he found a greater advantage in the fact
that the succeeding crop was much the best where the manure was
thus applied. This led to repeating the experiment several years,
and until fully convinced that one load applied to grass or clover
in the fall did more good than two used in any other way. Then
he wrote accounts of his experience in surface manuring to the
agricultural papers. These were at first doubted and disputed ;
but Mr. Johnston persevered, his heavy crops of wheat, corn and
grass being the best evidence he desired. When men doubted the
benefits described, he invited them to come and see for themselves.
Many went, saw and were convinced ; the very heavy crops for
which Mr. Johnston is so widely and justly celebrated, were evi-
dence that could not be doubted. Many tried surface manuring,
and also found it the best course they had ever pursued, and not
a few have also strongly recommended this system in the papers.
" Some of the reasons in favour of surface manuring are, that
nearly all the valuable portions of manure being soluble, are
washed out and taken into and completely diffused through the
surface soil by the fall rains, so as to be in the best possible situa-
tion and condition to be used by the growing plant. And then
there is little chance for loss, as when manure is spiead all fermen-
tation stops, and no more ammonia is formed or set free, but the
strength of the manure is washed into and retained by the surface
soil. The leading agricultural chemist shows that, as Dr. Came-
ron says, 'by a beautiful provision of nature — the absorbtive
power of soils — they will be retained until required to nourish the
plants.' Liebig also states that if 'water holding in solution
ammonia, potash, phosporic or silicic acids, be brought in con-
tact with the soil, these substances disappear almost immediately
from the solution, the soil withdrawing them from the water.'
But, perhaps, to the practical farmer, the best proof of all is that
his crops find the strength of the manure just where and when
they want it ; that corn, thus manured the previous fall, comes up
rank and vigorous, grows better and yields better, than when ma-
nured with the same amount of manure in any other way. This
I have found to be the case on a heavy sod ; but when manure is
ploughed under it does not do so well. When the corn is small,
and help is most needed to give the crop a start, the manure is
mainly out of reach, and the corn, if on sod, looks rather yellow
and poor ; and it is said that it must have time for the sodto rot,
and for the roots to get through to the manure, before the crop
can do well. Besides, when covered up by the furrow the rains
do not as readily reach and dissolve the manure, and spread it all

110 The Canadian Farmer's

throuc^h the surface soil, where it will be found and taken up by
the roots of plants. Hence there is no way in which manure can
be as thoroughly diffused through the soil, just where it is needed
and easiest and best found by the roots of plants, as by surface
manuring, unless it be by liquid manuring, and that is but another
way of surface manuring.

" It is also found that manure spread in the fall is a good mulch ;
that it gives grass and clover a good start, and that this extra
growth, together with the manure, is a valuable protection of the
land and roots of the grasses through the winter. It is also found
that when manure is applied to wheat, whether spread before
sowing and worked into the surface, or finely spread soon after-
wards, it answers the same purpose, giving the crop a better
and a stronger growth, and making it less liable to freeze out ;
while the larger growth and the manure is a protection to both
the roots and the soil. Grass thus manured in the fiill will start
much earlier and better in the spring, and may be made to fur-
nish quite a growth to turn under for corn ; while this green and
succulent sod will rot much sooner and more largely help the
crop ; so that surface manuring in the fall has the threef )ld effect
of enriching the land, mulching and protecting the soil and the
wheat, clover and grass roots, and making a start for green manur-
ing in the spring. Another advantage of thus manuring in the
fall is, that there is time to pile, ferment and rot the manure, and
thus put it in much better condition to be used as food for the
plants. It is very generally known that the principal value of
manure consists in the amount of available ammonia it may con-
tain. Dr. Voelcker, an English chemist, who has investigated this
point at great length, says ' perfectly fresh barn-yard manure con-
tains but a small proportion of free ammonia, and comparatively
but little nitrogen, and of course but little ammonia exists in
fresh dung in a state in which it can be used by the growing
plants.' Also, that ' most of the nitrogen is gradually liberated
as the fermentation of the dung progresses — it being found that
there is a regular increase of soluble organic matters, including
nitrogen, which keeps pace with the progress of fermentation.'
It also appears, that * in fresh manures (with abundant litter) the
larger part of the insoluble organic matter consists of straw in an
almost entirely undecomposed state. In rotting manure the straw
is converted into humus, the compounds of which, with potash,,
soda and ammonia, are soluble, and of a dark brown colour. The
humus mostly fixes the ammonia that results from the deca^'^ of
nitrogenous matters.' At the same time, other valuable matters
are brought into a more soluble and available condition.

" True, it is said that there is a loss of ammonia by fermenta-
tion ; and this may be the case when manure is spread out in the
yard, or where there is no straw or other absorbent mixture in the

Manual of Agriculture. Ill

pile ; but with manure as made here, this is not the case. Dr.
Voelcker says, that ' during the fermentation of dung, ulmic, hu-
mic, and other organic acids are formed, which fix the ammonia
generated in the decomposition of the nitrogenized constituents.
Dr. Cameron says that it is an error to suppose that the manure
loses by fermentation, if in a compact state ; all that evaporates
is water, and a small quantity of carbonic acid ; hardly a trace of
ammonia escapes. ' During the fermentation of manure, its nitro-
gen (for there is no ammonia in fresh natural manure) is con-
verted slowly into ammonia ; althe same time, other constituents
of the dung — carbon, hydrogen, &;c. — are converted into certain
acids which combine with and fix the ammonia.' It is said that
most of the foul odours that arise from such manure, when spread
out, as well as in the pile, are due to the escape of carbonic acid,
carburetted hydrogen, and other foul gases, that are of not much
value in manure. As ammonia constitutes the larger part of the
value of manure, and much more can be formed and saved by
fermentation than can be secured in any other way, of course the
system of piling, fermenting and rotting through the summer, and
applying in the fall, may be expected to give the best resultw.

" That it actually does give much the best results, as shown
above, is probably the best proof the practical farmer can have.

" In conclusion, I wish to state that my remarks relate solely
to what is known as coarse manure. Where no litter is mixed in
the manure, and no absorbents are used in the compost, there
may be a loss by fermentation ; and I am inclined to iDelieve the
sooner such manure is applied to the soil the better." — F.

" The same causes that produce ammonia from the faecal matter
generate an acid, called humic acid, from the straw. This relates
to manure and its distribution. These having a mutual affinity
unite, and the resulting compound is humate of ammonia, which is
non-volatile, highly soluble ; consequently, every dew or shower
carries with it this compound, which is distributed to the plant.
The soil has the power to take it up from the water and store it
away, giving it up again to the roots of plants as required. This
plainly shows that manure laid on lands is better than if ploughed
in six inches deep ; moreover, the humate of ammonia, being non-
volatile, in my opinion is not deteriorated either by the sun's rays
or action of frost." — Charles Joseph Whitivorth, M.R.C.V.S.L.

On heavy lands. — We are advocates of strawy manures, pro-
vided that after-cultivation is such as to ensure the destruction of
weeds.

If applied to summer fallow, and after being composted, there
will be no fear of weeds ; if, however, it is applied in a fresh state,
or in only a partial state of decomposition, it should be remem-
bered that although the mechanical effect of long manure is good
in opening up the soil, yet there are many weed seeds contained

112 ^^^ Canadian Farmer's

It should then be drawn out and lightly cultivated in some time
before the sowing, so that all weeds may start and be destroyed by
the immediate cultivation for wheat. And here again we find an
advocate for surface (i.e. just beneath the surface) manuring. If
manure be on a summer fallow ploughed down deep, many weed
seeds will lie below until the wheat has fairly got root, when they
will start to grow and befoul the field.

Moreover, it has been found, by practical observation, that ma-
nure, well incorporated with the surface soil of a field of wheat,
helps to preserve our wheat from being winter killed — a very im-
portant point, when, as of late years, this crop has been almost as
badly destroyed on the high lands as on wet-lying spots.

When manure is applied in the fall, it should also be lightly
covered and incorporated with the top soil. If ploughed down
deep, by the time we plough again in spring, or perhaps only cul-
tivate, the essence of the manure has been washed by fall and
spring rains and melting snows far below the reach of cultivator
or plough.

The early fall, if time can be obtained, is an excellent season at
which to surface manure our meadows. At the very time when the
growth of grass is sure to be very slow, the plant receives double
nourishment from every shower, the clover root takes up the man-
urial soluble elements washed down to it, and we not only obtain a
good aftermath and fall pasture, but if the sod is destined to be
turned under, we have the manure fixed in the roots of the sod,
and ready to be again distributed when decomposition shall take
place under ground.

On heavy lands, summer fallow or fall ploughing, from ten to
fifteen loads of coarse manure is a good dressing.

On light lands. — For turnips, manure must be applied in a well-
rotted state. The best time of application for turnips is in the fall.
We want the particles of manure so thoroughly disintegrated and
incorporated with the soil that the tender young plant may obtain
full benefit immediately, and so be pushed past that critical time
when the " fly" is destructive On these light lands the mecha-
nical effect of long straw is bad, as far from requiring aerating such
lands should rather be compacted.

On spreading manure. — The most economical time in which to
draw out manure from the yard is in winter — on the sleigh. If it
be then dumped in hillocks, there will be no loss as long as all is
frozen up ; but, as soon as spring opens, we must remeniberthat the
essence of the manure will be washed into the ground under each
hillock, and thus we shall have a field of very unequal fertility;
there will be too great richness under the sites of the piles, and at
the expense of the balance of the field. These small piles should
be spread immediately the frost will permit. When spread at that
time of the year, there need not be great haste in covering

Manual of Agriculture. 11^

lightly, for every gentle spring rain will wash the soluble parts
into the surface, and this will greatly help to germinate weeds,
whose destruction will be effected in the process of seeding or
ante-cultivation for turnips.

On grass lands. — For the surface manuring of gra!?s lands, ma-
nure should be thoroughly rotten and carefull}' spread. There
need be no fear of loss of strength, for the soil will absorb all
soluble matter ; the coarser parts form a mulch to the plant, and
any ammonia that may escape will be readily retained again by
the blades and leaves of the grass, or washed down by the first
rain.

When sod is used before a root crop, this method of applying
manure is especially commendable, as the roots afterwards receive
full benefit in a form in which their food can be easily assimilated.

Dung or compost should be laid on meadow land immediately
after the hay is carried off ; for, as at that time the ground is gene-
rally the driest of any time of the year, carting on it will not cut
the turf; there is the least grass to destroy ; it ensures a good
aftermath ; and the fall rains will wash all the manure into the
soil, so that it will receive the whole benefit of the dressing.

Relative quantities of manure voidedby ani'inals.— The following
experiment was made on a dragoon-horse : He was kept in a box
stall with one hour's exercise each day for a week, in which time
the quantity of fodder issued to him and converted into dung
was as follows : —

Oats each day 10 lbs. = 70 lbs. in the week.
Hay " " 12 " = 84 " " "
Straw •' " 8 " = 53 " " **

He drank within the week 27 gals, of water ; and during the
time of his exercise, the loss of dung is supposed to have been
4 lbs. daily, or 28 lbs. in the week ; in which period, then,

The total forage consumed amounted to 210 lbs.
And the dung and litter produced was 3274 '*

Thus, if lost dung be added, yielding with the addition of the
moisture imparted to the litter by urine, an increase of two-thirds
beyond the weight of the solid food.

A large-sized milch cow was also put up, and was fed on 126 lbs.
of fodder, composed of —

81 lbs. of brewers' grain, )

30 '* raw potatoes, > 126 lbs.

15 " meadow hay, )

She drank two pailsful of water, and the urine was allowed to
run off. The weight of the solid dung was 45 lbs., or at the rate of
315 lbs. of dung per week.

These animals were supplied with no litter.
8

,X]4 The Canadian Farmer's

Now, supposing that on ordinary feed these animals should pro-
duce in weight, including liquid, 400 lbs. of dung per week, all
being carefully collected — for every cow, we might calculate on
savin cr 400 lbs. per week for six months of winter, because they
ai-e ahv^ays at home ; while for every horse we might save two-
thirds of that amount.

Each cow in our yards will then produce 9,600 lbs., and each
horse 6,400 lbs. per winter. From this we may arrive at a rough
estimate of the amount of manure that we may expect from a given
number of head of stock.

This experiment is thus corroborated : —

" Carefully conducted experiments show that a cow of the ave-
rao-e size will void about sixty pounds of manure in a day, meas-
urino- about one and one-sixth cubic feet, which is more than three
cords, weighing over ten tons, for a year. It is the opinion of
many good cultivators that three loads of peat or muck, mixed
with one load of cow dung, make a compost quite as effective for
top-dressing meadows as the cow dung itself If this were done,
we should have twelve cords of good compost from the solid ex-
crements of one cow. It is further estimated that the liquid ma-
nure is quite as valuable as the solid. If this were carefully
saved by peat absorbents, kept under the stable or in it, it would
double the pile, or be equal to twenty-four cords of good com-
post. If this were spread upon two acres of run-down meadow,
producing a ton of hay or less per acre, it would increase the crop
probably to three tons to the acre the lirst year, and the effects
of it would be seen in increased crops for five years longer. In
those two acres it would make all the difference between profit-
able and unprofitable farming for five years. This compost, if
sold in many good farming districts, would bring $4 per cord, or
$96. Used on the meadow, it would produce much more in suc-
cessive crops of hay. This estimate shows what may be done under
favourable circumstances to increase the home supply of fertilizers.
We have found that nothing pays better than labour applied to
the compost heap." — Amierican Agriculturist

Quantitij of farm yard-manure per acre. — An eminent Scotch
agriculturist has put forth the following calculation as to the
amount of manure produced after feeding, by several crops per
acre, on land capable of producing 28 bushels of wheat : —

By turnips, cabbages, &c., fed to cattle 6 tons manure.

''' clover or " " " " first year 6 *'

* ' beans, peas, on part of seed being used again on the

farm 5 '* "

"ditto " " " " second year 54"

' ' wheat, barley, &c. , on an average of the whole •> " "

We see, then, the value of green crops as enrichers of a farm ;

Manual of Agriculture. 115

and it may be observed that, by composting with muck and other
rough vegetable substances, as mentioned before, the quantity of
manure may be largely increased.

The usual produce of the various straws per acre in Canada va-
ries from 15 cwt. to 20 cwt.

Supposing this straw to be moistened and rotted, it would
thereby gain an additional weight equal to about its original
weight, thus producing from 30 to 40 cwt., gross weight ; count-
ing in then the oats, refuse of grain and chaff consumed, we can-
not reckon the amount of putrescent manure resulting from an
acre of such produce at more than four tons.

Should we bring our land up to a productive capability of 28
bushels per acre, such as that on which the Scotchman's experi-
ment was conducted, we might easily calculate on such an in-
crease as would overrun his five tons per acre.

Repetition of manuring. — "Assuming that the general course of
crops consists : on light soils, of the alternate plan of cereals and
green or hoed crops ; on clays, which do not admit of that system,
of a proportionate quantity of grass land at intermediate distances
of four or five years and in large areas.

"Light soils, in the common course of husbandry, rarely require
the application of putrescent manures oftener than once in four
years, and, in all cases where clover is allowed to stand during
two seasons, it may be deferred without disadvantage for another
year. Heavy soils may run without manure for six years, pro-
vided that the land be laid one year in fallow, and that there be
sufficient meadow to be reckoned at least as one crop in the
course."

We now recapitulate a summary of the chief points to be ever
borne in mind in the manufacture and management of farm-yard
manure.

1. To cover the bottom of the yard with muck or some other
lasting absorbent.

2. To manage the feeding of outside cattle so that their dung
may be dropped evenly over the whole yard.

3. To remove the dung from the yard at least once a year.

4. To turn and compost all dung until the fibrous and woody
parts, and the roots and weeds contained, be thoroughly decom-
posed ; at which time the greatest strength is attained in the
manure.

5. To keep all dung in an even state of moisture, and thus to
prevent partial arrest of fermentation or jirefang — this to be done
by wetting and treading down firmly.

6. To have dung more fermented when it is to be immediately
applied to a growing crop, than when used in the fall of the year.

7. To use heavier dressings on cold soils than on the lighter ;
because clays require to have their natural acidity neutralized by

116 The Canadian Farmer's

the warmth of dung, while too much hot dung is apt to burn up
the roots of plants on dry, sandy or gravelly soils. Stiff land is
also bolped by the mechanical effects of the long fibres of unfer-
mepted dung.

8. To compost all dung for light soils with dry earth, peat,
swamp muck, or other extraneous vegetable substances.

9. To spread manure with least possible delay in the field when
carried out, and, if applied to arable land, to incorporate it with the
surface soil as soon as possible.

10. To collect and preserve all stable drainage, urine and liquid
manure, and, if not used directly on the land, to wet other manure
constantly with it.

11. To experiment upon every possible occasion, and, being
neither selfish nor sluggish, to give forth the benefit of the results
to your brother farmers through the columns of the agricultural
press, which are always open to practical experiences.

Whatever may be the respective merits of the disputed worth
of dung, fresh or fermented, long or short, we may be assured that
land to produce full crops must be generously manured. Whether
the farmer favours the one kind or the other, let him collect all
he can, apply it diligently; then, trusting to events, let the land and
the muck settle it between them.

NIGHT SOIL.

Not only does it often become a matter of serious thought how
to get rid of the noxious odours emanating from our privy vaults,
but the waste of the matter contained therein is a leak in the
pockets of every cultivator of the soil.

The saying is no less trite than true, that the stronger the food
the stronger the manure ; and the ordure of man contains in itself
more of the fertilizing elements of plant food, weight by weight,
than anv other animal manure of which we have knowledfje.

Animal manure is always stronger than that obtained from di-
gested and decomposed veiLiCtable raatter, and human ordure,
composed of both animal and vegetable food, contains in itself all
the elements of fertility for vegetation.

Now, when agricultural communities are daily becoming more
convinced of the necessity of saving and applying all the manure
that can be possibly gathered together, it becomes us to think
whether we are doing right in allowing to go to waste yearly
thousands of dollars worth of the richest and most fertilizing of
manures.

In China, where the population is closely packed, and where
very many mouths require to be fed, the agricultural average of
the country is f^r ahead of that of Europe or America. They are
advocates of, and devotees to, the principle of heavy manuring.

Manual of Agriculture.

Where hand labour is so plentiful as in China, horses are seldom
used in agriculture, while the art of stall feeding of cattle is not at
all generally practised.

All their crops are nourished by human excreta. Thousands of
coolies are constantly employed in the collection of the ordure of
man, and it is as carefully gathered and regularly removed as the
manure from our cattle stalls.

Yearly, immense quantities of guano are imported into Europe
and America, and j^et at our very doors we have a substance of an
equal value, that only requires a little knowledge to utilize as
readily as the former.

There is a natural repugnance to be overcome in the manipula-
tion of night soil, and yet chemistry has shown us how it may be
perfectly deodorized, when its smell is not perceptible, especially
by the side of such foul-smelling stuff as Peruvian guano.

The following tabular statements, the one of an analysis of hu-
man excrement by Berzelius. the other an analysis of guano by
Voelcker, ))laced side by side, will give some idea of the relative
values of the two as manures : —

ANALYSIS OF HUMAN EXCREMENT, BY
BERZELIUS.

Carbonate of soda 3*5

Muriate of soda 4*0

Sulphate of soda 20

Phosphate of magnesia 2*0

Phosphate of lime 40

Urine, 1,000 parts.

Water 93300

Urea SO'IO

Salts of ammonia, with some ani-
mal matter 18*46

Sulphate of potash 3*71

Sulphate of soda 3*16

Phosphate of soda 294

" ammonia..... 1*65

Muriate of soda (common salt) ... 4 45

Muriate of ammcmia 150

Earthy matter, lime and silica. ... 1 "03

1,000 00

ANALY.SIS OF GUANO., BY VOELCKER.

Oxalate of lime 7'0

Phosphate of lime 14*3

Clay and sand 4*7

Animal matter, with small quantity

of salts and water 323

Sulphate of potash 5*5

Sulphate of soda .'.. 3*8

Phosphate of ammonia 60

" magnesia 2*6

Oxalate of ammonia 10 6

Urate " '• 90

Muriate " ** 4*2

100 0

Professor Liebig says, in his " Chemistry of Agriculture : —
" In respect to the quantity of nitrogen contained in excre-
ments, 101) parts of the urine of a healthy man are equal to 1,300
parts of the fresh dung of a horse, and to GOO parts of that of a
cow. Hence it is evident that it would be of much importance to

118 The Canadian Farmer's

agriculture if none of the human urine were lost. The powerful
effect of urine, as a manure, is well known in Flanders ; but human
excrements are considered invaluable by the Chinese, who are the
oldest agricultural people we know. Indeed, so much value is at-
tached to the influence of human excrements by this people, that
the laws of the State forbid that any of them should be thrown
away, and reserves are placed in every house, in which they are
collected with the greatest care. No other kind of manure is used
for their corn fields."

It has been calculated that the excrement of a man used as
manure, aided by what plants obtain from the atmosphere, will
produce sufficient wheat to support him.

How nearly then do guano and night soil resemble one another,
each containing in great quantity those essential constituents of
plant life which are most liable to be absent from our soils.

Of what glaring inconsistency are we then guilty. We throw
away that which costs us nothing, and is yet so valuable, and at
the same time incur an immense expense in the importation of
guano from countries some thousands of miles distant!

The natural aversion to handling may be overcome by deodor-
izing the manure ; this may be effected by an admixture of ashes,
dried peat, or dry earth of a clayey nature, or soot. Lime should,
however, never be used, as it injures the strength of night soil by
driving off its ammonia.

About ten bushels of a compost will be a very liberal dressing to
an acre.

To compost it, it is recommended that there should be first
laid down about two feet of fresh earth, to which the night soil may
be drawn, after which another layer of earth to the same thick-
ness, then another of night soil, and so on.

It should then be regularly turned and thoroughly mixed, and
may be used either for wheat or barley in the proportion of three
loads of the mixture thinly spread abroad on an acre. It should
be used more as a top-dressing.

It is sometimes also mixed with the yard dunir to excite fer-
mentation ; this is not, however, advisable, for its effect is greatest
when a|)plied in an unfermented state.

The operation of deodorizing is, however, usuallj^ performed
by the earth closet system, and this is well worthy of attention by
all from a sanitary point of view.

Manual of Agriculture.

119

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120 The Canadian Farmer's

THE DRY EARTH SYST] M.

Build the house in the usual manner ; under the seats set a
drawer made of two-inch plank, well white-leaded at the joints,
and made on a frame, so that a horse can draw it out from under
at one end of the house. Cover the bottom with about three
inches of dry earth. Clean out the drawer once a week, after
covering the contents again with dry earth, and either place the
contents by themselves or mix with the other manure (the former
is the better plan). You may have your privy as near the house
as you like under this arrangement ; there will be no fear of any
disagreeably perceptible odour.

It would be, however, more certain in its effect should the dry
earth be handy, so that at least once a day some might be thrown
down and thus thoroughl}^ incorporated with the excreta.

The following contains the subject-matter of an able essay on
the Dry Earth System, by Mr. Richard Postans, read before the
Farmers' Club, at Ancaster, Ontario, on the 27th February, 1871 :

" This system, which is destined to become a great boon to man-
kind, was discovered a very few years since by a clergyman in
England, where it is rapidly coming into use. Perhaps it would
be more correct to say rediscovered, for a similar system is com-
manded and described in the book of Deuteronomy, chap, xxiii.
verses 12-13.

" The system, as applied to sewage purposes, consists in the in-
troduction of a certain quantity of dry earth into the vault every
time that the closet is used. This earth possesses both deodoriz-
ing and disinfecting pi'operties, and so thorough is the action of
these properties that all noxious gases are at once absorbed ; and if
the eai th be properly applied, the air in the closet seems always as
pure as that in any other ordinary room.

" The disinfectant qualities of dry earth are shown in a veiy
marked degree by the remarkable cures effected in cases where
severe wounds have become running sores, the clay having caused
the discharge to cease, and the sore to take on a healthy appear-
ance in a very short space of time. Its healing qualities have also
been shown in its successful application to severe flesh wounds
and to bad burns.

"Thechea[)est implement for applying the (by earth is an ordi-
nary scoop shovel ; but this is the most troublesome and the least
effectual. A macliine is now in use which has been patented by
the Rev. Mr. Moule, the discoverer of this system, and no doubt
other macliines will shortly be introduced.

" These machines may be attached to any existing closet, which
would require very little alteration.

" The best kind of soil to use for these closets is a pure or nearly
pure clay ; any soil, however, except puie sand will answer

Manual of Agriculture. 121

" Thus the entire rural, and the majority of the city population
may obtain a thorough deodorizing material — dirt cheap I

" The earth requires very little preparation, and there is only
one condition to be carefully observed, viz., that the earth be en-
tirely free from moisture before it is used ; and with our almost
tropical summer, this can be easily done.

" In one of the long dry spells that occur in the summer, as
much of the thoroughly sun-dried earth as n}ay be required for
one or even for two years' supply should be collected and placed
under cover, so as to be thoroughly protected from the wet. Two
or three good waggon loads will last an ordinary family a year,
allowing that it is to be used only once. The fine and dr}'' earth
from any but macadamized or very sandy roads would answer very
well.

" In stationary closets the vault may be made of such a size as
to go for three, six, or even twelve months without emptying.
Surface water should be carefully kept out of the vault. A small
door at the side or rear of the closet gives access to the vault for
the removal of its contents. The contents of the receptacle of the
portable, or of the vault of the stationary closet, may remain until
full without transmitting the slightest impurity to the surround-
ing atmosphere; and when they are removed the operation is
attended with no more unpleasantness than if it were so much
garden earth.

" In places where it is difficult to obtain a supply of suitable
earth, the contents of the vault, after being dried by the sun or
by fire-heat, may be again used, being entirely inodorous, having
the appearance of pure earth, and acting as effectively as when
first used. This may be repeated as many as six or seven times
without impairing the deodorizing qualities, and each time greatly
increasing the value of the material as a fertilizer. After seven-fold
use the material will have become about as strong in fertilizing
qualities as guano.

" Experiments have been tried with the earth by applying it to
turnips ; one hundred pounds weight of earth that had been used
seven times was applied to an acre with the most marked effect,
not only upon the roots, but the benefit of the top-dressing was
very apparent on the succeeding crop, both crops being much in
excess of the yield from an equal quantity of ground adjoining
not thus manured ; while the earth was applied with as little
difficulty and unpleasantness as would be found in using so much
bone dust.

" Every bushel of grain which is produced over and above the
quantity necessary for home consumption, and which is in conse-
quence sold out of the country, adds just so much to the wealth
of that particular nation ; and if every available fertilizer was re-
turned to the soil at such a cost as to yield a handsome profit on

122 The Canadian Farmers

the outlay, the profits thus secured would form quite an item in
the annual exports of the country that might pursue such a course.

" It is estimated that the human manure wasted in the United
States amounts to the annual value oi fifty ^million dollars. This
one fact is sufficient to clearly illustrate and prove the importance
of this subject of agriculture.

" Farmers have been advocating through the various agricul-
tural journals the advantages of co-operative societies, and have
made a practical move in that direction in the case of cheese
factories. Here is a good opportunity for co-operation. Let a
number of enterprising farmers, who happen to live near a town
or city, form a company, rent a suitable building for a store-house
and drying shed ; let each shareholder deliver annually a certain
quantity of dxy earth at the store-house, and receive his share of
fertilizing material ; let them employ men and horses to distribute
dry earth to the closets and collect the waste earth again, and let
them share the expenses thus incurred. If the size of the company
and the extent of its operations be properly proportioned, the
shareholders will thus secure an abundance of manure at a cost
far below its actual value, and they will thus promote their own
interests and the public welfare."

Mr. Postans went on to show the immense advantages, in a
sanitary point of view, which would assuredly accrue from the
adoption of this system, and thus do away with the thousands of
festering pools of corruption, that like a many-throated monster
send up their poisonous breath to pollute the suiTounding atmos-
phere.

LIQUID MANURE.

The value of liquid manure, as such, is also very highly regarded
by the inhabitants of China and Japan, the best gardeners in the
world. The national plan is thus :

" Into a cask or jar put a collection of putrid animal substances,
consisting of tlesh, fish, blood, &c., to which is added a certain
quantity of urine, but the vessel is not completely filled. A
mandarin, or officer of Government, then attends, who, upon the
vessel being closed, affixes his seal, and in this state it must re-
main for at least six months. When this or a longer period has
elapsed, the mandarin removes his seal and grants his certificate as
to the quality of the preparation, which is shown by the proprie-
tor, who cries it throusrh the streets as a manure for wardens, and
it IS sold m quantities as small as a pint. Before using, it is
always diluted with four or five times its bulk of water, and it is
extensively u.sed for garden crops, but universally in drills." The
writer adds that he was informed by several intelligent Chinese
that human urine, thus prepared, forms a fourth part of all the ma-
nure employed in China, and is never used until it has reached a
high state of putridity.

Manual of Agriculture. 123

We pride ourselves upon being in the advance of civilization,
yet we of the Western hemisphere might yet learn many a prac-
tical lesson of actual economy from the natives of the far East.

An immense amount of money is annually expended in our
large cities of Canada in the removal of sewage, which is carried
into rivers and lakes, there to destroy all fish life, and, at the best,
is but an imperfect way of getting rid of the noxious vapours and
effluvia that emanate from the ordure of man in densely populated
cities.

The subject of the utilization of our sewage to the increased
production of surrounding lands is one worthy of mature consi-
deration on the part of our city authorities.

We will refer to a few of the marked effects of the system a.s
carried out in England, and then, with a short consideration of the
matter from the farmer's point of view, will hasten to our next
chapter.

Mr, Morton, writing to the London (England) Times, says :
"As you express regret, in the course of your very interesting
remarks on the sewage question, that the results of the recent ex-
periments conducted by the Metropolis Sewage Company, and
quoted in the Report of the Board of Works, are not given more
explicitly, you may perhaps be willing to find room for the follow-
ing statement of their experience during the last summer.

*' It is not only on the sand-plot at the North London Outfall
that this experience has been obtained.

"They have there, as you appear to be aware, obtained great crops
of grass and vigorous growth of wheat, mangold- wurzel, celery
and carrots, by the use of sewage poured over about an acre of
the Maplin Sand, which has been brought up by barge and spread
thirty inches deep over a contractor's yard.

" But besides this, they have, since Lady-day, 1866, been tenants
of 200 acres of light and gravelly land at Lodge Farm, two miles
from the Barking Outfall, and on this, by pumping apparatus, they
can deliver sewage at the rate of three hundred tons an hour.
During the summer of last year about sixty acres of this land
were laid out water-meadow fashion, some on the ridge and fur-
row, or^ where the slopes were greater, on the catch- water plan.
And from fifty-three acres of Italian rye-grass sown on this land,
and watered with sewage in this way, they have cut during the
last summer 2,480 tons of grass, which is at the rate of forty-six
tons per acre. But of these fifty-three acres ten were sown this
spring (April), and sixteen and a half acres were sown late last fall
(October), so that only one-half of the land can be said to have
been in full bearing power when the sewage reached it ; and of
this again, at least one-half, which was mown in December last,
was nearly destroyed by the sharp frosts of Januar}^

" Besides this large extent of Italian rye-grass, small experi-

124

The Canadian Farmer's

mental plots of wheat, mangold and other crops have been sewaged;
and I may add the results of this report, notwithstanding that we
cannot attach so much importance to them because of the small
scale on which they have been obtained' six hundred bushels of
mangold roots were weighed off rather more than one-third of an
acre (at the rate of 1,733 bushels per acre) — more than twice the
quantity on fields close by manured and cultivated in the ordinary
way. And the plot of wheat (sixty-one rods) which received three
dressings of sewage when the land was dry in spring and early
summer, yielded fifteen bushels of grain, which is at the rate of
forty -three bushels per acre, while surrounding this plot on two
sides of it, 102 rods of similar land, in all respects similarly treated
excepting only that it had no sewage, yielded eighteen and a-half
bushels of grain, or at the rate of only twenty -nine bushels per
acre."

The followinof table shows the construction of tanks for con-
taining liquid manure, from which, at the Canadian prices of
labour and material, our farmers may gather the cost : —

Quantity in
Gallons

Depth of Tank.

ST «

.as

Bricks for
Walls, Dome
and Bottom,
standard size.

2,209

4,538

Feet.
10

Ft In.

6 10

9 8

11 10

13 8

15 3

16 8

18 0

19 4

20 5

21 7

Feet.
12

Ft In.

9 0

11 10

14 0

15 10

17 5

18 10

20 2

21 6

22 7

23 9

106

124

140

161

180

199

4,200
6,100
7,900
9,600
11.000
12 400

6,807

9,076
11,345
13,014

•'••••'" •••••

15,883
18,152
20.421

13,700
15,100
16,.500
17,900

22,690

Our Scotch readers must know that the Craigentinney Mea-
dows, near Edinburgh, furnish a convincing proof of the powei-ful
efi'ects of the application of sewage in the production of grass ;
whilst by the use of this class of manure as a top-dvessimi^, the
cold, thin, and sterile sands of Flanders have been brought to such
a condition of fertility that the crops grown there vie in quantitv
with those produced from the best lands ^n any part of the known
world.

On this subject the Canada Farmer says, in its issue for March,
18G9:—

"Our farmers have not yet experienced the great benefits to be
derived from this mode of using manure, which would be so pe-
culiarly a]-)plicable in our hot, dry summers, and we hope at no
distant day to see tanks for tlie ]iurpose of collectinLf manure for

Manual of Agriculture. 126

distribution in this manner become a necessary appendage to
every well-cultivated fiirm. But, while we think this mode of
applying manure to the soil, especially to grass crops, would be
highly advantageous, and repay many times over the cost of
tanks, water-carts, &c., we imagine that the construction of tanks
or cisterns in the farm-yard, in order to collect the liquid drain-
ings of the stables, cow byres, and even the rain from the roofs of
the farm buildings, in order afterwards to pump out the contents
and spread them over the manure heap, at intervals during the
dry weather of summer, would prove of signal advantage to the
cultivator of the soil. Ordinary farm-yard manure, as made in
Canada, contains a large admixture of vegetable matters, such as
straw, corn stalks, &c., which, becoming dried out in summer, re-
sist the decomposing powers upon the small amount of excrements
incorporated with them ; so that by the time the farmer wants to
haul the manure out on his fallow, or plough it in for root crops,
he finds the undecomposed vegetable matter greatly in the way
of the efficient incorporation of the manure with the soil. Dried-
up manure heaps are also greatly liable to become firefanged,
which destroys their value.

''In Belgium these manure tanks are usually constructed by brick-
layers at a price proportioned to their capacity — the larger they
are, the less the price in proportion : the usual size of a tank or
cistern being of a capacity to hold 38,000 gallons. In Switzerland
they make square holes in the ground, and line the sides with
brick set in clay mortar. Where the soil is a tenacious clay, and
there is no danger of the liquid manure percolating out at the
sides or bottom, it is only necessary to construct the tank in such
a way as will keep the sides from falling in, either from the
effects of the action of frost or the trampling of anivnals near it.
Where the soil is porous, it becomes necessary to make the bottom
of stone flags, with the joints cut square, set on a puddling of
strong clay. The wall is then to be built from and on this bot-
tom, and hydraulic cement used instead of common mortar.

" The cost of a tank containing, say 25 square yards of brick-
work, would be about $50."

FlO. 24.

Liquid Manure Pumps. — We find in the American Agricul-
turist a pump, and instructions to make, particularly well adapted

"126 The Canadian Farmer's

for the use of liquid manure tanks, the ordinary pumps being apt
to become choked in use by coarse particles of solid matter.

This pump can be made with the simplest tools.

The box must be fitted tight, so as not to leak, The valves are
of wood, covered with sole leather, which projects a quarter of an
inch over the edge, so as to ensure a tight fit. They are hinged
with a pair of common butt hinges to the pump rod, so that the}^
will open the full width to permit any solid matter to pass up
without choking.

The pump rod is a strip three or four inches wide ; at the bot-
tom of it is fastened a hemispherically shaped piece of wood, which
supports the valves when working.

Liquid manure is better in its diluted form for application to light
lands. But for heavy lands it may to more advantage be used
by distribution over the solid manure pile.

We may sum up the uses of liquid manure thus :

1. If applied in summer or fall it will increase the aftermath on
grass land and keep it green through the winter. If used for pas-
ture, apply in fall, as cattle dislike the smell when fresh put on.

2. Good to apply to clover sod before breaking up, very soluble,
and readily taken up by the roots of the clover for the use of the
succeeding crop.

3. Does well for wheat on light land, but its effect on clay is
imperceptible ; should always be laid on when the land is dry.

4. Not so good for barleV; as it is apt to soften the straw and
cause the crop to lodge.

5. Apt to make potatoes coarse, hollow and watery.

Lastly, the very best place for it is on grass, whether for mea-
dow or to be turned under.

HEN MANURE.

Hen manure is home-made guano, and as such is of very
great benefit to the farmer. We import an immense amount of
guano, and many of our best farmers use it every year upon
their roots Now, our home-made hen manure is almost as good
as the best of guano, while we know, when using it, that we have
an unadulterated article

In no article of commerce is there a greater amount of adulter-
ation than in the manufacture and sale of artificial fertilizers such
as guano, superphos])hate of lime and the nitrates, and it would
be to the interest of the sellers were they to obtain certificates
from qualitiod analytical chemists as to the purity of the article

There are few farmers who do not keep a sufficient number of
hens from which to collect yearly some ten or fifteen hundred
weight of hen manure, and guano would cost them at the rat« of
forty dolhvrs per ton.

Manual of Agriculture. 127

To Collect Hen Manure. — The droppings under the perches
should be carefully covered from time to time with dry earth,
ashes or plaster. These matters will have a powerful deodorizing
effect, and will by no means hurt the quality, but rather render it
nearly of the proper strength for application.

The dropf)ings so treated should be from time to time drawn
together in heaps kept under cover. If these heaps be watched,
that undue fermentation does not set in, and from time to time
turned with the scoop shovel, the hen dung, ashes, earth, &;c., will
work down to a powdery state, free from all disagreeable pun-
gent smell.

Lime should never be used with them, for it has the effect of
setting free the ammoniacal salts, which are amongst the most
valuable ingredients.

The hen dung may be incorporated with the manure pile, and
doubtless much of the benefit would be thus saved to the land ;
but it is better to work it separately by the plan above described,
and thus to keep it by itself as a special fertilizer on especial
crops. Thus will the maximum amount of good be obtained from
its use.

It may be used with advantage on hilled corn or on potatoes or
turnips.

It has, when applied in the hill, and lightly covered with soil,
the effect of generating heat, and thus conduces to the speedy ger-
mination of the young plant.

This is of especial benefit to the young turnip, as we desire
that its early growth should be as rapid as possill^, in order to
carry it into the rough leaf and beyond the attacks c f the destruc-
tive "fly." In all these cases it should be again mixed with dry
earth, ashes or plaster, as in its natural state it is too strong for
immediate application.

Another of its effects is, as soon as heat and consequent fermen-
tation is generated, to give off carbonate of ammonia, which, ab-
sorbed by the soil and through it taken up by the plant, quickens
growth and imparts a dark green colour to the leaf

It should not, if possible, be allowed to come into immediate
contact with the seed, but be separated by from a quarter to a half
inch of soil.

Some, however, have used it in a still more weakened state as a
top-dressing on the first braird of turnips, finding that its pun-
gency is very distasteful to the '"fly."

SPECIAL MANURES.

These special fertilizers are concentrated manures, or fertilizers
of great strength in small bulk.

They contain in a small compass large quantities of special

128 The Canadian Farmers

plant food, and are very vigorous stimulants of plant life. Due
caution is required, therefore, to be exercised in their use.

The cause of failure in the use of the concentrated fertilizers is
often due to the manner in which they are applied. It is difficult
for those who have been accustomed to use bulky manures to
realize that the fall fertilizing potency of a bushel of animal excre-
ment may be held in a large-sized table-spoon, and that a handful
of one adds to plant structures as decidedly as several shovelfuls
of the other. A full dose of opium as given to patients furnishes
quite a dark, bulky powder, or pill ; but if we separate the alka-
loidal principle upon which its hyponotic power depends, we have
only a little delicate white powder which a breath of wind will
blow away. The one-eighth grain of powder will affect the human
organism as powerfully as ten times the weight of opium. If we
were so forgetful of " potencies" as to administer as much, or even
one quarter as much, of the white concentrated powder as of the
bulky dark one, we should destroy our patient's life, or at least
do great injury to his health. So if, in the use of genuine super-
pho.sphate, or guano, or ground bones and ashes, we forget
their power, and apply too much, we endanger the life of our
plants.

An experiment made upon corn affordsan illustrative case in point.
At the time of planting upon a field divided by a narrow strip of
sward land, we directed that on one side a tablespoonful of the mixed
bone and ashes should be placed in each hill and well covered with
soil; upon the other, four rows were to be treated similarly ; and
upon the remainder, the hills should receive a double quantity. It
is curious to observe the effects. The first field and the four rows
were remarkably thrifty. The corn came up well, and manifested
remarkable vigour from the start. On the other hand, the over-
dosed corn appeared for a long while as if it had been paralyzed
by some wasting disease. It could not bear up under so much of
a good thing. More free ammonia was formed at the start than
could be appropriated by the tender plants, and many of them
perished from over-stimulation and heat, produced by the fermen-
tative changes of the active bodies in contact.

Whether it pays for the Canadian farmer to make use of these
expensive special manures we must allow each man to judge for
himself. We ourselves undoubtedly think it does when due regard
is had to the |)roper mode of application, so as to receive full
benelit to the crop.

Although the price at which these special manures is held appears
at first to stagger us, yet when we consider the strength in rela-
tion to bulk and weight, their value would ap[jear to assimilate
more closely to that of ordinary manure.

At any rate, this chapter will indicate to the reader several of
such manures, their method of action and mode of application,

Manual of Agriculture. 129

without attempting to lay down any certain profit to be derived
when compared with expense.

It may be, however, well worthy of observation, that the
majority of our more enterprising farmers seem to patronize the
concentrated manures, are satisfied with the results, and so year
after year cause an annual increase in the amount that passes
through the hands of city dealers.

Guano. — This is simply and purely bird manure made in a
country where little or no rain ever falls, and the deposits of
countless generations of sea-going birds, which come to the
islands every year to lay their eggs and hatch their young.
These deposits are found in the islands scattered in the Pacific
Ocean and on the coasts of Peru.

The fact that guano contains much more phosphoric acid than
ordinary bird manure, is probably owing to the fact that the
deposits are not only formed by the excrements of these fish-
devouring birds, but also of their carcases and skeletons.

There is great variation in the several guanos, the nitrogen
varying in them from 5 to 15 per cent., and their phosphates
running up the scale from 25 to 35 in the 100.

Guano used at the rate of from 2 to 3 cwt. per acre is a
most powerful manure — its effects are more readily felt in wet
than dry seasons.

The most powerful guano the analysis of which has been
recorded was found to contain in one hundred parts — water
20*53, Organic matter and Ammoniacal salts 7'59, Phosphates
3169, Carbonate of lime 6'06, Alkaline salts 5"63.

If water be drained through guano we have a very strong form
of liquid manure — but for immediate application to plant life it
requires to be very copiously diluted.

The same rules are to be observed in the application of guano
to turnips, corn, &c., as mentioned in regard to hen manure.

Nitrate of Soda. — On the use of this manure the American
Agriculturist says : —

" Nitrate of soda at 4 cents per pound is the cheapest source of
nitrogen in the market at the present time, and with wheat at
$1.75 it might be used with fair profit. Sow 100 pounds per
acre when the wheat is sown, and another 100 pounds if need be
in the spring. On poor, sandy land, it would be better to sow
100 pounds of guano and 100 pounds nitrate of soda per acre
in the fall."

Sulphuric Addis used chiefly as an agent in the decomposition
of bones, and of any other matter containing phosphate of lime.

Superphosphate of Lime. — The mineral phosphate of lime is
found in Canada in large quantities, and of late years no small
amount has been exported to Europe. It is abundantly de-
posited in the Counties of Leeds and Lanark, in Ontario, as

J 30 ^^^ Canadian Farmer's

doubtless also in many other parts of the Dominion. It is a very
valuable manure for the supply of the phosphates required by
nearly all vegetable life; but if we have bones about, we can
manufacture a home-made article, and we may be assured that
there is no adulteration in it when made under our own eyes.
A ready way of manufacturing this important manure is to break
up the bones as fine as possible, and then place them in a wooden
box or barrel. Water, equal to about one-sixth the weight of the
bones, may next be added, well stirred in, and left for a day or
two to heat and ferment. Boiling water would be best for this
purpose. Then add sulphuric acid, mixing well with a wooden
spade (no metal should come in contact with the mixture) in the
proportion of about forty pounds of acid to one hundred pounds
of bones. Let it stand for about two weeks, stirring daily. If
the mass is not then dry, add some absorbent, such as sawdust,
dry earth or peat, but on no account use lime or ashes. This
compound will retain its strength for a long time, but must be
kept under cover. Dr. Nichols, in his Boston Journal of Chemis-
try, February, 1869, gives the following, which he recommends:
Take a barrel of fine ground bone and a barrel of good wood
ashes ; mix well together and add three pailsful of water ; mix the
whole thoroughly, stirring daily ; the mass will be tit for use in
a week.

In the columns of the Country Gentleman we find: — "To
make superphosphate of lime, I take 500 pounds of bone and 175
of vitriol. The bones I take to a pine block and cut them up
small. (They don't fly so much when I use pine.) I put them
in a pile and let them heat and dry. Then I take a large flag-
stone and put a frame around it. Then get a boulder with a flat
bottom, fasten a ring to it, have a rope and pole, and let them
work like a well sweep. The frame around the flag keeps the
bones from flying off" when the stone strikes them. I put the
bones into a large kettle with twelve pails of water, and boil
them six hours. I have a large box made of plank and put the
bones into it, and then the vitriol. I keep them well stirred.
When they are hot, dry off" with dry earth. I don't dry with
ashes — they are not good to mix with phosphate. I sell 2,000
bushels a year. A glass company takes almost all my dried
ashes at my place, paying 25 cents a bushel, rounding measure."

Mr. Lyman Call, of East Durham, Ont., gives in the Canada
Farmer the following account of experiments made with super-
phosphate of lime on various crops. He applied this manure to
portions of a field of potatoes, leaving rows unmanured to note
the differefiCe. The quantity used was about one barrel to an
acre, and it was applied in the hills, about a tablespoon ful to each
hill. The manured portion exhibited a marked superiority over
the other in vigour of stalk during the period of growth, and at

Manual cf Agrictdture. 131

harvest yielded one-third more than the unmanured rows. In
experimenting with the same fertilizer on meadows, he comes to
the conclusion that a barrel of superphosphate will increase the
hay crop by as much as a ton to the acre. On wheat he found
less marked advantages, and believes that salt is preferable in
this case, using about two and a half bushels of salt to the acre.

English experimenters also agree with Mr. Call, in that the
benefits of superphosphate are not so marked upon wheat or
grain of any kind as upon potatoes, roots of any kind and
grass.

Before proceeding further with fertilizers, we would remind our
readers that the cultivator requires to regard two essential
matters for his guidance in the application of manures, special or
ordinary.

First, what proportion of particular ingredients of plant life his
several crops require ; and secondly, what proportion of such
particular ingredients are to be found in the various manures at
his command.

The two following tables will afford a basis of information on
each of these two necessary points :—

132

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138 The Canadian Farmer's

comparison of these two tables shows us that swede turnips
! in one ton no less than 157 lbs. 131 ounces of salt, and we

nave m unc uun uw a^oo unctru a^^i a«jo. ^^^
know as a matter of practical experience that salt appears to have
a better effect upon this crop and mangold wurzels than upon
any other. By reference to the table it will be seen amongst other
things that phosphoric acid and lime enter largely into the com-
position of roots of all kinds. Bones have by the other table a
large proportion of phosphoric acid in their composition — thus is
inferred by science and proved by practice that the phosphates are
peculiarly adapted to the quick growth of roots — also of guano. By
further comparison of the two tables it will readily appear what
manures are specially adapted to particular crops.

Colonel Daniel Needham, in a speech in the Massachusetts Se-
nate, advocating the passage of a Bill to provide against the sale
of adulterated commercial fertilizers, by requiring that they be
analysed and each barrel, &c., be labelled with such analj'^sis, said
in the course of his remarks, that '' a most valuable fertilizer could
be made by taking four barrels of ground bone, one carboy of
sulphuric acid, and one of ashes. He said that the expense of this
fertilizer would be only about $18 a ton, and that he had
no doubt the fertilizer thus made would be as valuable as any
purchased in the market for $40 per ton. He stated the expense
substantially as follows : — Four baiTels bone at $2 50 per barrel,
$10 ; one hundred and seventy-five pounds sulphuric acid, $5 25 ;
two barrels ashes, $2 50 ; total, $17 75. 'The process of mixing," he
said, "was very simple. He would take the ground bone, and. after
wetting it thoroughly, allow it to heat, which it would do in a
short time, then pour on the sulphuric acid, and afterwards mix
with the mass two barrels of ashes." Which is all quite correct
in practice, except that the barrels ot ashes should decidedly be
left out. There is yet one other preparation of phosphate of lime,
known as

Bone black, which is made by charring bones m close vessels,
by which process most of the strictly animal matter is driven off.
They are, however, more easily reduced to powder than before.

When dissolved in sulphuric acid they make a good fertilizing
agent, but not equal to common superphosphate, where all the
ingredients of the bones are used.

Caustic soda-ash will work down or dissolve ground bones.

It has been also recommended, to pile bones and burn them with
the trimmings of fruit trees and weeds, &c.

Bones may either be used as they aj-e, with the simple aid of
pounding or grinding, or their action as fertilizers may be hastened
bydissolution in strong acids — they then become superphosphates,
of which we have alieady spoken.

For accelerating the growth of grass and green crops bone manure
IS. of great value. Within the last twenty years this manure has

Manual of Agriculture, 139

excited great attention throughout the length and breadth of
Great Britain, and is now in almost universal use for raising tur-
nips in all the greater turnip-growing parts of that country. Of
late years it has been looked upon with favour amongst the better
class of Canadian farmers.

Long before the advantages to be derived from the use of well-
crushed bones were generally known, many persons were aware of
their fertilizing properties. At first they were reduced to
ashes by fire, but in this process there was great waste, for the
oil and nutritive matter were considerably diminished by calcina-
tion.

Bones contain more than fifty-three per cent, of phosphate of
lime, some phosphate of magnesia, carbonate of soda, and over
seven per cent, of nitrogen. To the quantity of phosphates con-
tained is due their principal value, for these salts are largely
removed by feeding cattle and the exhaustion of successive crops.
Another way of reducing bones to powder has been to partially
break them with a hammer, and then decompose them by the
efiect of urine at the bottom of the farm-yard. Mills may now be
obtained at a reasonable price, in which to reduce the bones
directly to powder, and by this plan much waste may be avoided.

When bone dust is used for the turnip crop it is usually sown
in the drills with the seed, or it may be spread to advantage, es-
pecially with ashes, along the drill when the young turnip puts
forth its virgin leaves.

With regard to the durability of this manure, it has been
asserted that on a field, part of which was boned forty years ago,
the crops were on that portion, during fifteen or sixteen years,
visibly better than on the remainder, although the land was all of
the same quality, and the part not boned was manured with barn-
yard dung. In another case reported to the committee of the
Doncaster Agricultural Association, about three acres of light
sandy land were dressed in 1814 with 150 bushels of bones per
acre, since which time the land is said to have never forgotten it,
but is nearly as good again as the other part, farmed precisely in
the same way, with the exception of the one application of bones.

Upon the lighter and more calcareous soils the benefits of bone
dust are more marked and more permanent.

This manure should be laid upon grass as early m the spring as
the land becomes dry.

That bone manure has little or no effect upon wet land is gene-
rally conceded. It has been affirmed that broken bones have a
mechanical effect in loosening heavy soils, but I think that a less
costly application, say chip manure, would be equally beneficial.
Upon thin sandy land, a liberal application of bone manure will
be of great advantage, not only to the immediately succeeding
crop, but in the improvement of the land for many years, and in

140 The Canadian Farmer's

the efficiency, in the succeeding courses, of a smaller quantity of
manure to ensure a crop.

For general use, particularly upon turnips, manufactured bones
— that is, bones boiled and ground — are most easily handled by the
farmer ; but farmers, at least in England, have found themselves
imposed upon by adulteration on the part of the manufacturers,
or more often by the deprivation by manufacture of the gelatine
and oil which bones in their natural state contain.

There is j^et another way in which to make this article at home.
Even as flesh, if buried in the ground, will not bring its fertilizing
powers to bear upon the earth until decomposition has set in, so it
is necessary that bones should have begun to ferment before they
become available for the use of the soil. To attain this fermenta-
tion, the formation of a compost of bones with earth and other
substances will be found quite practicable. Mix twenty bushels
of bones with four or five of barn -yard muck, cover the heap
well, and the mixture will soon become decayed and pulverized.
In this you will have the bona fide bone manure, with all its gela-
tine, phosphate, and nitrogen conserved. This practice has been
recommended by several very intelligent farmers and we have it
from a farmer near Guelph that its effects upon the turnip crop
have been very decided.

Bones have the advantage of being easily procurable in our
cities, and are compact for carriage One hundred bushels will be
found equivalent to thirty waggon loads of barn -yard manure.
They may be collected and drawn home in the winter time, and
can be preseived foi* a long time if kept dry. Moreover, they
have one advantage over barn-yard manure, in that they carry no
weeds to the field. They are most suitable for turnip culture, and
a successful crop of these will indirectly benefit the farm in suc-
ceeding years. We have numerous instances of turnips with or-
dinary manure laid under them being destro}- ed by the fly, while
those sowed with bone dust have escaped the ravages of this pest.

A dressing of 250 pounds per acre on grass land, especially if it
is occasionally [)astured, would undoubtedly pay. As a dressing for
grape-vines, pear trees, and for general garden use, it may be used
at the rate of three to five hundred pounds per acre profitably.

The method recom.mended by Mr. A. Gordon, of Fitzroy, in the
Co. of Carleton — a Canadian farmer, is : — " The bones to be used
should be broken as small as possible ; they cannot be too sn\all, as
the smaller the pieces the greater the surface presented to the ac-
tion of the acid, and consequently the more rapid and perfect
will be the solution. Having broken the bones into pieces from
one to two inches in length, place them in a large cask or sugar
hogshead, add a quantity of water sufficient to moisten the bones,
and allow them to soak in it for three or four hours before adding
the acid , if the water be boiling, so much the better , then add the

Manual of Agriculture, 141

acid, and stir it well with the bones. Sulphuric acid is the acid
most commonly used ; its specific gravity from the manufactory
ought to be 1845 ; it should be kept in close vessels, as it attracts
moisture rapidly from the atmosphere, and becomes weaker.
When strong acid is added to water, a considerable amount of
heat is produced If we mix vitriol and water in the proportion
of 5 lbs. of acid to 2 lbs, water, the temperature will rise to 266
degrees.

The proportion of acid to be used in making vitriolized bone man-
ure is one hundred-weight of acid for every two hundred-iueight
of bones, and the proportion of water should be fully three times
that of the acid. The water must be applied first to the bones,
afterwards the acid. The reason of this is, that when undiluted
sulphuric acid is poured upon the bones, violent action ensues, but
continues only for a short time, as a coating of gypsum, which is the
first new compound formed, covers the surface of the crushed
bones with a crust, which prevents the acid from coming in con-
tact with the unaltered portions, and consequently prevents a
perfect solution. But by applying the water first, and afterwards
adding the acid, the action is complete. This is strictly super-
phosphate of lime.

Caustic lye may be also used to dissolve bones, its action being,
however, slower than that of sulphuric acid.

To accomplish this, a rough but tight box, not over eighteen
inches deep, is needed. Procure sound, unl cached wood-ashes, mix a
peck of slaked lime and a peck of sal-soda to every barrel of dry
ashes. Pack the ashes, &c., with the bones in layers (ashes first)
until the box is filled. Saturate the mass with water, and add
from time to time more water to preserve a constant state of mois-
ture In four or six weeks the bones will have become so much sof-
tened that they will crumble to powder with a slight blow. The
mass may then be mixed up and beaten fine with a shovel, and an
equal quantity of fine soil added and thoroughly intermingled.
This compost is too strong for direct application to the seed, and
in using it for corn some earth needs to be mixed with it previous-
ly. If the quantity of ashes is increased, the process is proportion-
ately hastened

A correspondent of the Country Gentleman says : " Take a
water-tight box or cask of a suitable size, and in the bottom put a
laj'er of ashes, say three inches in depth, then on this a layer of
bones, and so on alternately until the cask is nearly or quite full,
the last layer of bones being well covered with ashes. I then have
my family pour upon this all the urine from the house every day,
and on washing days pour on a quantity of the strong soap-suds.

In a few months this can be taken out with a shovel all dis-
solved, except it may be the large enamelled joint bones, which may
have to be broken and put through another sweat in the like man-

142 The Canadian Farmer^ s

ner. It is understood that the ashes must be good hardwood
aiiihes,unleached, or the undertaking will prove a failure.

There is one great difference to be observed in the application
of bones simply broken up and ground, and when reduced by
strong acids.

Bones may be applied directly on the plant without fear in
touching the seed, whilst superphosphate should be incorporated
in the soil without actually coming in contact with the seed — for
the action of the latter is stronger, in that it is more rapid than that
of bones in a natural state

That the turnip has a great affinity for the ingredients of food
contained in bone, we have ourselves seen very frequently illus-
trated by the growth of a turnip root through a solid piece of
broken bone.

The value of bones as manure may be generally summarized as
follows : —
That on dry sands, limestone, chalk, and light loams, bones are a

very highly valuable manure.
That they may be applied to grass with great good effect.
That on arable lands they may be laid on fallow for turnips, or

used for any of the subsequent crops.
That the best method of using them, when broadcast, is previous-
ly to mix them up in a compost with earth, dung or other
manures, and let them lie to ferment
That if used alone, they may either be drilled with the seed or

sown broadcast.
That bones which hnve undergone the process of fermentation are
decidedly superior, in their immediate effects, to those which
have not.
That the quantity should be about twenty bushels of dust, or forty
bushels of large mcreasmg the quantity if the land be im-
poverished, and also if the bones have been manufactured.
That upon clays and heavy loams it does not yet appear that bones
have any marked effect.
Farmers, do not waste bones, but collect all you can '
Soot is another valuable manure, thousands of bushels of which
are annually wasted in Canada alone

Soot IS made up of carbon in the purest state, and is full ol
volatile parts.

The soot from bituminous coal is generally considered of more
value, weight for weight, than that obtained from wood.

" This is an excellent manure , but, as in many other cases,
one must know how to use it. It is, first, good for all
fruit trees, for meadows overrun with moss, and for clover.
In the kitchen garden, reserve it for the onions. Yor
other vegetables it is more hurtful than u.seful. Use it with
moderation. In small quantities, soot produces good results ; in

Manual of Agriculture. 143

large, it disorganizes the plants bums and cauterizes them, eats
both leaves and roots. On a rainy day, give your soil a weak dose ;
prudence says, mingle earth and mud with it. Above all, do not
make use of it in hot and dry weather." — La Gazette des Cam-
pagnes

SWAMP MUCK AS MANURE BY ITSELF.

We have spoken of the use of swamp muck as an auxiliary to
the composite heap ot barn-yard manure It may aJsc. often be
used with advantage by itself. Originally most of our swamps
were lakes or large ponds. The accumulation of decaying vegeta-
blematter, however, gradually raised them, until they became m the
half-dry and periodically wet state in which we now find them.

A great depth of soil on these is composed of alluvial deposits
and pure decayed vegetable matter. This is rich in the elements
of plant food, but as a manure is in its natural state next to useless,
owing to its acidity and the consequent fixed state of its most val-
uable ingredients.

In order then to render these ingredients soluble to plant life,
the acidity in muck must be corrected, and no agent is so power-
ful for this purpose as lime.

As we have before said, if near enough, it will often pay to haul
into the barn-yard and there draw out in the compost heap all the
vegetable food which has for generations been preserved from
entire decay by perpetual moisture ; but to use it by itself on
land, it may be manufactured into manure upon the edge of the
swamp.

Throw it up in heaps on the adjacent dry spots, and mix liber-
ally with it, as it is piled, lime. The action of the lime shovelled
into the muck will be to set up the action of fermentation. Its
rapidity will depend greatly upon season, and upon the state of
decomposition in which the muck may be found.

If used on the soil, it will be found a powerful and lasting fer-
tilizer, though its action will be far slower than that of barn -yard
manure.

In soils destitute of lime and alkalies, this muck will act very
slowly ; for when these ingredients do not exist in the land, the
benefits of rotten wood or vegetables are purely mechanical.

Therefore, even on stiff clays, it would have the effect of
mechanically loosening the soil, although for that purpose it
would hardly pay to go to the expense of manufacturing, hauling
and spreading, when other substances, such as chips, &;c., far more
effective to open up heavy land, could be obtained.

It is peculiarly adapted to the use of light land, giving to such
a greater consistency.

Like charcoal, it absorbs moisture and retains it for the use of
the growing plant.

144 The Canadian Farmer's

Depend upon it that; as a rule, money and labour laid out m the
use of such additions to the consistency of light lands will pay
better than when expended ou more acres.

''In a discussion before the Little Falls Clnb, Mr A.L. Fish stated
that twelve years ago he drew out three thousand loads of muck,
and applied it at the rate of fifty loads to the acre, pulverizing and
mixing it with the soil. The result was good crops without fur-
ther cultivation Two years later he drew out four thousand
loads, and applied it at the rate of one hundred loads to the acre,
spread with a plank to which was attached a tongue to hitch the
team The land was planted to corn. After taking two crops
from the land, it was put down in meadow, and it has produced
at the rate of two tons of hay per acre ever since, though before
the application it did not yield one ton per acre. It did not act so
quickly as manure, but was more lasting." — Rural Home.

A good compost may be made in the proportion of three bush-
els of lime to a cord of muck. If a peck of salt be added it will
greatly help to correct the acidity and hasten the action of the
manure upon the crop

Muck is a good top-dressing for grass. If drawn out in winter
and laid on wheat, it will not only help the wheat through the
alternate frosts and thaws of spring, but be of great benefit to the
growth of grass seeds.

If it be required to use it for spring crops, it should be drawn
out by sleigh and spread on the winter fallow.

In these ways we may find lots of profitable work for ceam
horses that would otherwise be " eating their heads off " in winter.

SAWDUST.

This has been too often called valueless. Its value is not great,
but where handy will often pay the hauling. We once saw a very
good crop of potatoes growing on a patch of old pine sawdust, hut
it was well rotted It should be heaped and well rotted. If is
injurious to the land to plough it under, m any quantity, in a
fresh state.

Better use it for bedding, and all'.)w it to undergo a process of
fermentation before using Thus it will be found a valuable ad-
junct to the manure pile for there is no better absorbent obtain-
able.

Hardwood sawdust is more valuable than that made from pine.

It IS also useful spread upon the surface in the neighbourhood of
the roots of trees — prevents the surface of the earth from crusting,
and retains moisture in the soil. Its action in this case is not
manurial, but purely mechanical.

On heavy soils it will also help to keep them open

It might help grass as a mulch, retaining moisture and protect-
ing the roots throu'rh winter.

Manual of Agriculture. 145

SEAWEED.

This is a valuable manurial agent, and is largely used in coun-
tries adjacent to the ocean.

It is used in two ways : either it is gathered, spread and
ploughed under when fresh, or piled in heaps and burnt. The
ashes are rich in fertilizing elements, containing twelve per cent,
of potash, twelve per cent, of soda, twenty per cent, of salt, ten per
cent, of lime, five per cent, of phosphates, and twenty-four per cent,
of sulphuric acid, besides a trace of chlorine.

It is used by the Lower Canadians in great quantities along the
shores of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence, and by them is ploughed
under green, or burned to ashes and spread broadcast, or deposited
in the potato hills.

PEAT OR TURF AS MANURE.

This is not of great value except as a top-dressing for grass, for
which purpose it must be reduced to a finely divided state by a
similar process and by the use of lime, as already given under the
heading of " Swamp Muck for Manure."

It is, however, far more useful in the barn-yard manure compost
heap.

tallow-chandlers' eefuse.

This consists of the muscular parts and membranes of fat after
it has been tried for lard. There is much animal matter in the
scraps, and they contain about thirteen per cent, of ammonia, with
no inconsiderable quantity of sulphur and phosphorus.

As manure, it is generally broken up fine and composted with
good muck ; about a hundred pounds to a cord of muck ; after
becoming well heated, the heap requires to be turned over and
well mixed. It may be applied with advantage to almost any
crop.

HOUSE-SLOPS

Should never be wasted. Not only are they when thrown
promiscuously out of doors a source of annoyance and a well-
spring of noxious odours, but there is contained in them a large
amount of good manure.

Pour them daily on a compost heap, or, after free dilution with
water, apply directly to garden crops, peach trees, &c.

WOOL WASTE,

Such as drops from the carding machines of woollen factories, is a
rich fertilizer, being saturated with grease or oil, and is used to
10

146 The Canadian Farmer's

a great extent, mixed with ashes and lime, in England, by hop
growers. The mixture is worth, on most soils, more than ordi-
nary ashes.

HAIR

Contains a large amount of nitrogen, and is therefore a rich fer-
tilizer.

It decomposes in the soil very =lowly, and so its results are not
very marked, but they are lasting.

It is several times more enriching than common barn-yard
manure.

We see the farmer who does not believe in books, sneer when we
advise him to save carefully all the combings from the teams.
Such a little matter to look after ! We wish the farmer to try it ;
he will be astonished at the amount collected from a few teams in
a season's grooming.

LEAVES

Of particular vegetables are the best manures for those vegeta-
bles, because they contain more or less of the special ingredients
of food required by them individually. This is nature's law, and
requires no special knowledge of chemistry to appreciate.

They are, when handy, well worth collecting. In the barn-yard
they will be found valuable as absorbents of liquid manure,
besides containing in themselves great manurial qualities.

The value of the leaves from hardwood trees is greater than
from pines.

These matters when viewed singly are small, but in the aggre-
gate an immense amount of addition of valuable material may be
made to the "farmer's bank" — the manure pile — by attention to
these minor details

" Mon}^ a mickle maks a muckle," the Scotchman says.

The ashes of leaves will be found largely composed of soluble
salts, earthy phosphates and carbon, also a very large amount of
silica, the straw-supporting requisite for cereals.

ASHES.

Amongst mineral manures there are few of greater im-
portance to the farmer than ashes. All ashes may, in one man-
ner or another, be made of great use upon the fjirm.

The ashes of coals and cinders are of benefit in a mechanical
way by loosening and making friable tenacious soils, whilst they
render light soils more compact.

In Canada, in the country, wood is the fuel ; farmers therefore
have the means of collecting every year large quantities of wood
ashes. By chemical analysis it is found that wood ashes contain

Manual of Agriculture. 147

in large proportion most of the more essential elements necessary
to plant life, with the exception of ammonia.

On the European continent the value of ashes and their power-
ful effect, especially upon young clover, are fully recognized.

In Germany, grass lands are kept in a high state of productive-
ness by the exclusive use of this manure. Indeed the question
has been frequently mooted whether it would not pay the British
farmer to import wood ashes from Canada for the purposes of agri-
culture. The chief and most important of the elements necessary
to plant life, contained in wood ashes, are potash and earthy phos-
phates.

Their quantity varies with the different kinds of wood, the
hard woods containing a greater amount than the soft.

We have some very complete analyses of the ashes of different
kinds of wood by eminent chemists.

It is advocated by some to burn the stubbles and thus make
ashes. To effect this, burnt stubbles must be left long, and it
then becomes a question whether the benefit of the ashes will
counterbalance the loss of straw for our long winter's use. For
our own part, we are inclined to think that the benefit (if any) of
this practice arises more from the effect of the fire in the destruc-
tion of weeds and insects than from the small quantity of the
ashes produced.

Let the farmer think as he will on these matters, yet he can
hardiy doubt the efiicacy of w^ood-ashes as a top-dressing for his
meadows

In the Netherlands, where their clover seldom if ever fails, ashes
are looked upon as necessary for top-dressing

Numerous individual instances of their beneficial effects have
been recorded, and Sir John Sinclair adds the public declaration
of eighty-three'practical Flemish farmers, that —

" They know by experience that when clover is not manured
with Dutch ashes at the rate of 25 cuvelles per hectare (equal to
nineteen bushels per acre), the following crop is very bad, not-
withstanding any culture that can be given the soil , whereas
they always have an excellent crop of wheat after clover, and
doubtless in proportion to the quantity of manure above-mentioned
being used."

The farmers who subscribed this declaration must have been
deeply impressed with the importance of these ashes ; for, besides
being brought through the canals from Holland, they must in most
cases have been afterwards carried from forty to fifty miles b}^
land.

When ashes are used to top-dress meadows in Canada, it is cus-
tomary to mix them with gypsum, and by on in early summer.

We think, however, the better plan would be to lay on the
plaster by itself in spring, and the ashes in the fall by themselves ;

148 ^^^ Canadian Farmer's

thus we shall secure a more liberal application of each of these valu-
able but differently constituted manures. Wood-ashes are so
valuable to the farmer that it becomes a penny wise and pound
foolish proceeding to sell them for the penny bars of inferior soap
which are often received in exchange from the peddling ash-man.

Let us rather keep our ashes for our own use ; it will in the
long run pay far better.

Good wood-ashes weigh about fifty pounds to the bushel — oi
this 6f lbs. ax-e soluble in warm water.

We find in the Boston Journal of Chemistry, the editor oi
which is also a practical farmer in New England :

" Of the soluble constituents of unleached wood-ashes there are
little more than 4 J pounds of potash and soda, the remainder being
the sulphuric, muriatic and carbonic acids, with which the alkalies
ai'e combined.

For by -three pounds are insoluble in water, and consist of ;

Carbonate of lime 32 pounds.

Phosphate of lime 3 "

Carbonate of magnesia 4 '*

Silicate of lime 3 "

Oxides of iron and manganese 1 "

43 "

In leaching, the only change in ashes is in removing the soluble
portions and adding about one pound of quicklime per bushel.
There is not much change in bulk, but considerable addition to the
weight from the quantity of water absorbed.

As to the commercial value of the ashes before and after they
are leached, it is said :

In the dry state,

441bs. of potash and soda are worth 6 cents per lb 27 cts.

Other soluble constituents 3

32 lbs. Carbonate of lime 3

3 " Phosphate of lime 6

3 " Silicate 0

Iron and manganese 0

This estimate gives the value per bushel of unleached ashes at
thirty-nine cents. By leaching, thirty cents of the commercial
value is removed ; this leaves a bushel of leached ashes worth
nine cents for its fertilizing constituents, though there should be
also added silicates, which, having no commercial value, are useful
as plant food.

A bushel of unleached ashes judiciously employed will return in
most seasons sixty or seventy cents worth of produce. The leached
ashes are also worth more to the farmer than nine cents per bushel.
A good, honest bushrl of moist leached ashes will give a return to
product for the fii'st year of fifteen or twenty cents.

Manual of Agriculture. 149

These estimates are only rough ones, but still afford some clue

to the relative agricultural values of leached and unleached ashes.

Something also depends upon the nature of the land upon

which they are applied, being peculiarly beneficial to the lighter

soils, especially such as have been deprived of phosphates.

Spread round trees they are of special benefit, not onl}' as ma-
nure, but also as destructive to insect life.

One of the most efiicient applications is found to be on potato
hills.

We find reported the following remarks from Mr. Quimby, at a
meeting of the Rochester Farmers' Club, on the value of
leached ashes ; they may well be read with care by those who are
fond of speaking of the utter worthlessness of ashes after leach-
ing : — " Leached ashes are good for all crops ; for corn in the hill,
and especially valuable as top dressing for wheat and clover fields,
and meadows generally. During the past three years he had
drawn 10,000 bushels on his farm, which he spread on land
at the rate of 200 to 300 bushels per acre. He had covered
forty acres in this way, and meant to ash the entire farm.
They had doubled his wheat crop and wonderfully increased his
crop of grasses, especially clover. Land which had been run down
too much to seed with clover, produced heavy crops when ma-
nured with leached ashes. He got a good catch of clover where
he applied leached ashes last year on his wheat and rye, while the
balance was a failure. He could see a great difference in the
growing wheat where the land was manured with ashes and where
it was not."

A successful orchardist being frequently asked how he made his
apple trees grow so fast, replied, " I give them plenty of soap-suds
and ashes ; so the potash manures them,renders them luxuriant and
kills insects." The same says also : " From one-fourth of an acre of
ground I raised last year (1869) sixty-five bushels of potatoes,
which was a remarkable yield for an unfavourable season."

The secret of this product was a liberal manuring with ashes
and soap-suds.

"A Subscriber" sends us the following as his experience in using
wood ashes, viz., that in quantities of only eight bushels per acre
they have a marked effect ; that they push the wheat forward
several days, thus getting it ahead of that critical period when it is
so apt to be attacked by rust ; that they strengthen the stem and *
increase its solidity.

The very best time to spread ashes, regardless of season, is as
soon as they can be procured ; they can be spread at once from the
waggon or sleigh in which they are hauled as easily as at any
other time, and one time is almost as good to apply them as another
— i.e. on grass lands — although we individually prefer fall and win-
ter. " Having made this season some experiments with hardwood

150 ^he Canadian Farmer's

ashes and bone phosphate, side by side, on potatoes, I take the li-
berty to send the results obtained to your excellent farming journal.

" The experiments were made on about half an acre of Early
Rose potatoes, rn the following manner : In two rows, when
planted, I put about one gill of phosphate ; in next two, the seed
was planted without any fertilizer in the hill , in two rows next
to these, I put one gill of hardwood ashes in the hill, and thus
this operation was repeated on the piece. The rows that were
served with phosphate came up first, and looked the best the fore
part of the season ; but the latter part, the rows containing ashes
were ahead, The rows that had to depend on nature alone were vi-
sible for a long distance, owing to a smaller growth of tops The
land was loamy, and bore potatoes last season, consequently not in
very rich condition to produce heavily.

"I dug the potatoes a few days ago, and found the rows in which
the ashes were put to produce the largest and the most in quantity ;
the rows in which phosphate was put produced a fair quantity,
but they were not so smooth and large as the rows containing
ashes , the rows that simply drew their nourishment from the
soil alone, produced quite a quantity, but nearly one-half of the
potatoes were too small to cook. Planted two bushels and one
peck of seed ; dug twenty-seven bushels of cooking potatoes and
seven bushels of small ones

" I have used ashes, both leached and unleached, for several
years, and find that unleached pay me pretty well on corn, potato,
wheat, &c. I can buy good hardwood ashes for twenty-five cents
per bushel, while phos|)hate costs from one dollar fifty to two dol-
lars fifty per bushel, showing, if ashes will produce as heavy a
crop as phosphate, a large balance in their favour." — CoHoSy in
Country Gentlf/man.

PLASTER OF PARIS — GVPSDM, OR SULPHATE OF LIME.

" Gypsum," " Sulphate of Lime," or, as it is generally known,
" Plaster of Paris," is used greatly, and with usually beneficial re-
sults, by the majority of our Canadian farmers. The fertilizing
powers of this manure upon certain crops and on certain soils
have been very favourably reported upon by many eminent Ameri-
can and British agriculturists

The name " Plaster of Paris" was given when gypsum first came
into general notoriety, from the fact that large beds were found
and worked in the hill of Montmartre, near Paris

The analysis of gypsum shows it to contain, of

Par' s.

Pure calcareous earth or lime, about 30 or 33

Sulphuric acid 32 " 43

Crystallized water 38 " 24

100 100

Manual of Agriculture. 151

Its dissolution in water, owing to the presence of a large propor-
tion of sulphuric acid, is a process of slow accomplishment, requir-
ing from four hundred and fifty to five hundred times its own
weight of water. Its purity varies in different beds, and hence
chemists have not well agreed in their respective analytical re-
ports, A good test of its purity is obtained thus : Put the
ground powder in an iron pot alone, over the fire ; when it be-
comes heated it will give out a strong sulphureous smell, accom-
panied by a rapid bubbling; if this ebullition is brisk, and the
substance will admit of a straw being thrust with ease to the bot-
tom, it may be considered pure.

Traces of the discovery of gypsum are discerned in the writings
of the ancients ; but not until the last centuries were its proper-
ties generally known in Europe At that time some experiments
of its use were reported on by eminent German agriculturists to
the Economical Society of Berne, in Switzerland, when it rapidly
spread over that country, France, and many other parts of Europe.
It was, however, in America that its merits became most gener-
ally recognized. Indeed, it was exported to America in large
quantities, and from the Delaware was conveyed as much as one
hundred and fifty miles by land carriage, until discovered in the
State of New York.

The stone, when ground to powder, produces from twenty to
twenty-five bushels per ton.

Experiments were made in England of the relative values of
plaster simply ground and when calcined. It was thought that
by burning; much of the water contained might be expelled, and
thus the proportionate weight be greatly reduced The water
cannot, however be expelled from the sulphuric acid except by the
most violent heat, and thus the attempt was found practically
useless, and was consequently abandoned ; also, experiments upon
the use of plaster when calcined proved that there was an almost
imperceptible difference between its effects when burned and when
simply ground

Upon our light and sandy soils the effect of gypsum seems to
be most rapid and lasting, and in Canada we find that the farmers
on the lighter soils apply it more generally than those on the clay
lands. Upon wet land this manure has little or no effect. The
growth of young clover is very materially quickened by a good
top-dressing of plaster, and its benefits are more particularly ob-
servable in its application to all leguminous plants This manure,
like lime, is a stimulant.

We have seen it used on fall wheat with various results. No
doubt, it stimulates and starts a young wheat crop, but it also
gives the young plant an unnatural push, which weakens its
strength, and thus materially reduces its power of standing a long
and severe winter. Its application in the spring on winter wheat

152 The Canadian Farmer's

we believe to be of great benefit. Not only does it push forward
and revivify the young wheat plant after its long torpor, but it is
upon the ground for the benefit of the clover crop.

Its exact means of action upon the growing plant yet remains
clouded in much doubt and uncertainty. It is very generally
supposed that its effect is due to its power of attaching moisture
to the plant upon which it rests. Sir Humphrey Davy, however,
contradicts this, for he says that even allowing gypsum to have a
great attraction for water, yet the same substance, owing to the
large proportion of sulphuric acid, also retains its moisture most
strongly, and therefore would give it off very slowly indeed to the
leaves and roots of plants with w^hich it may be brought into con-
tact. Moreover, this great chemist denies the fact that gypsum
has a strong attraction for water, and gives the following experi-
ment in support of such denial : One and a half ounces of gyp-
sum were exposed for three foggy nights to the air, and on the
third night, being weighed carefully, it was found that the increase
was not quite half a grain.

It has also been urged that, when applied to clover just before
rain, its effects were not perceptible. No doubt this has been
owing simply to the fact that the rain has washed it off the plants
into the ground, where its effects upon the plant by the root would
not be so observable, because not so rapid ; and yet it is well known
that that part of the field upon which it has been spread invaria-
bly retains the dew for some time longer in the morning than those
parts upon which gypsum has not been laid.

Even with these contradictory reports and opinions before us,
we may, at any rate, be certain that its benefits are great upon
many crops — wheat, spring grain, corn, turnips, — but more especi-
ally upon clover and the grasses. For our own part, we consider
that in this very power of retaining moisture consists tiie great
value ol gypsum as a top-dressing in this country.

When all other sources from which moisture may be drawn
fail the plant, the gypsum is giving out its moisture, v^cy slowly
it is true, but in sufficient quantities to keep the plant supplied,
and growing from dew to dew and from rain to rain. In England,
where they do not often suffer from a too dry atmospheie, the opi-
nions of farmers upon the use of gypsum are very varied, and it
does not seem to have anything like as proportionate a value as
it has upon this our drier continent.

At one of the regular meetings of the Ancaster Farmers' Club,
last winter, when speaking on the subject of plaster, brought for-
ward in an able essay by a gentleman of that locality, although
some dift'erence of opinion appeared to exist as to the time of
application and the immediate action of this manure, yet the im-
mense benefit to be derived from a generous use of gypsum on
many crops, and more especially upon clover, was most cordially

Manual of Agriculture. 153

endorsed, and proved by reports of different experiments by the
majority of the most successful farmers in that locality.

On the time of application the Canada Farmer says :

" There is great diversity of opinion in regard to the best time
to sow plaster. Much will depend on the state of the weather
during the season. If the spring is dry and warm, early sowing
would be best, say as soon as the clover leaves are expanded. If
wet, cold, or backward, it would be best to defer sowing till dry,
warm weather sets in."

From one and a half to two bushels of plaster is a fair dressing
for clover.

Plaster, it is said by some practical farmers, is hard on land.
Growth is hard on land, and nothing can be said more truly in
favour of the use of plaster to increase growth than to assert that
" it is hard on land."

But the farmer should remember that he not only sows plaster
to increase his crop of clover for hay, but also to make a better
growth to plough down.

That if he increases the growth of his corn fodder, hay, &c., he
may thereby also increase the size of his heaps of barn-yard
manure.

Practical men tell us that they can sow plaster on a field of
clover in the shape of their written name, and the writing will be
plainly marked by a rank dark growth, and we believe them.
Our best Indian corn raisers always use plaster, and it is found
beneficial on trees, vines, vegetables, potatoes, turnips, &c., &c.,
and upon all grain.

Salt, for the use of the land, has now for many years occupied
the attention of leading agriculturists, and many and various have
been the results deduced from frequent carefully conducted experi-
ments in different parts of the world. These results have varied
upon different soils, and under different conditions as to climate
and modes of application.

Owing to the several forms in which salt has been discovered,
there has arisen a difficulty among scientific men as to calling it a
mineral, but we shall not be far astray when we class this product
among the mineral manures.

Salt, as a stimulant, is various in its action, according to the
mode and quantity of its application. If used in great quantities,
it has a tendency, like lime or any other energetic stimulant, to
destroy and rapidly disorganize all vegetable matter with which
it may come in contact. When, however, this substance is used
moderately, or mixed with compost, its action is that of a gentle
stimulant, giving increased vivacity to the vessels of the plant,
even as it does to those of the human body, consequently promot-
ing vegetation and acting as a useful manure.

Upon a naked fallow it has been recommended in large quanti-

154 The Canadian Farmer's

ties, in order to hasten the decomposition of any existing vegetable
matter or putrescent manures. Its effect is in this case precisely
similar to that of lime, and its quantity, when applied to fallow
thus, will have so far diminished by incorporation with the soil
by the time that grains are sown, as to act upon the crop with
moderate stimulating power.

• Salt is plentiful in Canada, and it is a matter of regret that
we have not more practical experiments on record as to its use for
manure from our farmers, especially those in the neighbourhood
of Goderich and salt-producing parts of the country.

Salt supplies soda and chlorine to vegetation, and is capable of
entire absorption by the growing plant. It also imbibes water
very freely, and retains it for the use of vegetation — keeping the
soil with which it is brought in contact in a moist state.

It renders soluble many of the earthy salts contained in the soil,
and, as it is very penetrative, finds its way rapidly down to assist
in the decomposition of deep-lying vegetable matter.

It is also a corrector of acidity and dissolves silica , for the latter
reason, it cannot but be of use to the stiffening of straw-
Its effects seem to be of little use on heavy lands. This, how-
ever, requires more test from actual experiment ere it be made a
positive assertion.

If added to dung, it, like lime, hastens fermentation, but does
not, as the latter, let free ammonia and other volatile parts of
barn-yard manure. When in combination with Plaster of Paris, it
forms and sets free soda and sulphuric acid.

By the tables on pp 132 and 137 it will be found that both swedas
and mangolds require a large amount of salt in their composition.
And experiments made in England under Dr. Voelcker go to
show an immense increase in these crops, as the result of bbe^'al
applications of salt

When applied, the rate generally recommended is from five to
ten bushels per acre — a wide variation, but opinions on the benefi
cial influence of this article diflfer as widely

It would appear that salt is pra-ticularly effective on wheat
crops, when incorporated by cultivation with the seed bed.

Lime. — All matters which, when applied to our soils, increase
their fertility either by mechanical action or by the supplying of
certain elements of plant food, may be fairly considered under the
head of " Manures." Lime may, then, be termed a " calcareous
manure," and is often of great benefit to our soils. By the dis-
coveries of science, and the experience of practical men in the ap-
plication of those discoveries, we have learned the great usefulness
of lime as a manure.

Lime may be used in one of two states — quick or slaked. After
limestones have been subjected for some time to the action of in-
tense heat, they burn into a substance very caustic, and having

Manual of Agriculture, lo5

an immense effect in causing the rapid decomposition of vegetable
and animal bodies. This substance is quick lime. If water be
applied to this quick lime, or if it be simply exposed to the air, it
loses with more or less rapidity, according to which process be
adopted, much of its caustic or burning power, and becomes
'' slaked "or "effete."

Now, the difference between quick and slaked lime is simply
in rapidity of action upon substances with which they may be
brought in contact — the former hastening decomposition much
more rapidly than the latter. When the object of an application
of this manure is to destroy and hasten the rotting of vegetable
or animal matters, the quick lime has the best effect.

The action of lime is almost entirely mechanical, although it
does directly impart a certain element of food to plants, as is proved
by chemical analyses, in that calcareous earth is found in the ashes
of all vegetables, and in large quantities in those of wheat or
clover In 100 parts of wheat straw there are found 5 parts, and
in wheat 3'35 parts, of phosphate of lime. On the other hand,
seeds planted in a pot of carbonate of lime will grow very feebly
— in clear lime, will die Partly fill with garden mould and cover
over with lime, and the plant w411 put down its roots through the
lime to the mould, without throwing out branch rootlets until it
arrive at the mould.

Great care must be used in the application of this manure, for
it has different effects upon different soils and under different con-
ditions. These conditions are so contrary, that while in many
cases lime has been shown to have a most beneficial effect, in
others its application has been fatal to all vegetable growth.

Lime has a strong affinity for acids. Its application to land,
therefore, is beneficial in the following ways : It either renders
harmless or converts into usefulness substances lodged in the soil,
which, by their acidity, or, as named by farmers generally, " cold-
ness," ma}^ be injurious to the growing crops, and thus prepares
the land for the reception of seeds ; it also greatly increases the
rapidity of decomposition of putrescent manures, thus making
them more easily available for the nourishment of vegetable life.

Lime has a great effect upon deca3^ed and decaying vegetable
matter, or. as we know it, " mould." There is no doubt that its
application is of great benefit on '' sour clays," for it corrects their
acidity, and warms that sour mould which has been useless hitherto
to plants, because it has required a quickening power to stimulate
its further decomposition ; also to land which has been at some
time previously well dressed with '• dung," without any addition
of calcareous matter, by hastening decomposition and rendering
every particle of the rotting or putrescent manure available to the
growing plant.

Now, in all arable lands, however much such may have been

156 ^he Canadian Farmer's

" run out," there still remains a large proportion of mould. Lime
applied upon such land will quicken all that plant food which is
lying dormant, and will greatly benefit the ensuing crop.

Let it be borne carefully in mind that lime has the effect ol
drawing out and placing within reach of the crop all the strength
of the land, and it becomes evident that, if its application be not
followed by more manure, it will have the effect of rapidl}^ ex-
hausting the land.

It is useless, and indeed injurious, to lime too often ; for if our
land become surcharged with lime, having no putrescent matter to
act upon, it will act too directly upon the crop itself, and greatly
injure it.

Many farmers have, by advice, used lime on certain lands, and
found that they have thus increased the yield of the ensuing crop.
From this result they have deduced the truth that it is a grand
manure, and have again and again applied it without further barn-
yard or green manure, to the utter exhaustion of the soil and the
certain failure of future crops. Lime is a stimulant, correcting
acidity and quickening the action of vegetable and animal ma-
nures, and, like all stimulants, is good when used in moderation,
but fatally exhaustive when taken in excess.

Low lands are immensely benefited by a free use of lime. Our
low lands are generally rich, with a deep black mould, but owing
to their coldness, crops are not as heavy as the richness of the soil
would lead us to hope. These soils contain in themselves all the
component parts of the best soils, and are rich in decayed and de-
caying vegetable substances, but the manurial qualities in these
lands are sluggish and inert, and will not freely give of their rich-
ness to the growing plant until stimulated by a free use of lime.

Heavy clays are often deficient in calcareous earths. In such
lime is needed, and has often, too, the purely mechanical effect of
making the soil more friable, and less subject to run together after
rain.

Upon sandy land, which seldom contains much vegetable mat-
ter, lime has a contrary but good effect, attracting moisture from
the atmosphere and giving more consistency to the sand, even as
sand and lime become mortar.

" But if the soil consists of clay and sand," as Finlayson says
in his Practical Essays on Agriculture, " containing animal or vege-
table matter in a torpid state of decay, then lime would be prefer-
able to dung. The state of the soil should therefore be minutely
inquired into before lime is employed, and it should only be used
to give effect to the inert substances with which it may be con-
joined "

We cannot but think that a ver}^ free and liberal application o
lime, ploughed in with our new lands when broken up, would in-
crease their fertility wonderfully, for such lands are rich in vege-

Manual of Agriculture. 167

table matter, but are cold, inert in action, and acid. On such
land we should use quick lime, as its effects are the more rapid,
and it will destroy weeds and injurious plants.

The authority quoted above also says : — " There is this differ-
ence between the actions of lime and barn-yard manure upon land :
The former, bemg more stimulant and corrective, helps the farmer
to an abundant crop at the expense of the land alone, while the
latter furnishes the land at once with fertilizing fluids, and will
ensure a good crop on a place perfectly barren before and after the
application of lime."

Lime IS of great value to pasture land. So great an affinity has
it for acids that it will greatly sweeten the herb. Indeed, if lime
be spread upon a tuft of grass that has been refused by cattle, it
will be found that they will soon detect the greater sweetness,
and will eat it close down. When used for this purpose it must
be slaked, for quick lime would be apt to burn the grass if used
in any but very small quantities.

In the " General Report of Scotland," it is remarked, that " In
the best cultivated counties, lime is now generally laid on finely
pulverized land, while under a fallow or immediately aftei being
sown with turnips. In the latter case the lime is uniformly mild
— in the former, quick lime, as pernicious (in a certain extent) to
vegetation, may be beneficial in destroying weeds, and some ex-
periments have been recorded showing it to have a very powerful
effect upon the fly Sometimes mild lime is applied in the spring
to land, and harrowed in with grass seeds, instead of being covered
with a plough ; and under this management a minute quantity
has produced a striking and permanent improvement in some of
the hill pastures of the south-eastern counties. Its effects are yet
conspicuous, after the lapse of nearly half a century In some
places lime is spread on grass land a year or more before it is
brought under the plough, by which the pasture in the first in-
stance, and the cultivated crops subsequently, are found to be
greatly benefited. But in whatever, manner this powerful stimu-
lant is applied, the soil should never be afterwards exhausted by a
succession of grain-bearing crops — a justly exploded practice, which
has reduced some naturally fertile tracts to a state of almost irre-
deemable sterility."

Lime may be, and often is, used as a top-dressing on wheat, and
the results of this proceeding have been various. Lime will have
a better effect if applied to the land before it is shallow-ploughed
the last time, or sown broadcast, and harrowed in with the wheat.
Strewn sparingly over the young turnip plants, it is stated that
it prevents the attack of the turnip-fly ; and harrowed in when
the ground is naked, if the quantity be considerable, slugs and
wire- worms disappear from its effects.

Many Canadian agriculturists have experimented with lime.

158 The Canadian Farme/s

Some have given us results in the Canadian agricultural press.
Let us have more experiences, and thus ventilate the subject, and
give us the bounds within which we may steer, in order that we
may improve the fertility of our lands without exhausting our
soil or ruining our crops,

Under a system of deep cultivation, such as is now generally
adopted in Great Britain, lime is laid on in very heavy quantities
at long intervals of ten or fifteen years apart.

But as our system of cultivation in Canada is usually shallow,
if lime were laid on in very large quantities,a great amount would,
before eight or ten years have elapsed, find its way through the
soil, it being of an exceedingly penetrative character, and be lost
to the use of vegetation by incorporation with the hard pan below.
The better plan in Canada is to apply at the rate of from ten to
thirty bushels per acre, at intervals of say five to seven years, the
best time being in the regular rotation on summer fallow before
wheat, or, where no summer fallow is adopted, by incorporation
with the surface soil of the fall wheat seed-bed

Upon soils that are wet, and retain a large amount of moisture, the
benefit from lime would be found nil. Such lands must be first
thoroughly drained.

It has been thought that lime, slacked for a length of time, is
valueless as manure. This is, however, far from being the case.
Suppose lime to have lain exposed for six months ; about one-half
of it will have become converted back to carbonate of lime, whilst
the remainder is equally as good as fresh burnt lime ; moreover,
carbonate of lime is exceedingly valuable as plant food.

The lime rubbish from under old houses, or refuse of builder?-
about newly-erected stone and brick houses, is full of nitrates, and,
consequently, of no mean value as a manure. We find it highly
valued as such by gardeners.

The idea has very generally gone forth, that land in the
neighbourhood of and over limestone rocks does not require the
addition of lime for artificial purposes. Now, should such soil be
itself of a calcareous nature, there is less need for the application
of lime ; but as a matter of practical experience, we have often
found land lying directly over a limestone rock to be very defi-
cient of lime in its composition.

On this point we have also the evidence of Dr. Voelcker, analyti-
cal chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society, England, who
says :

" In the analysis of some soils from the Cotswold Hills, in
Gloucestershire, I was surprised to find that they did not contain
more lime. These soils being the products of the decomposed
strata on which lime predominates, the presence of lime in large
quantities would be naturally inferred." He explains the matter
thus : that a huge proportion of the calcareous matter is being

Manual of Agriculture. 159

constantly dissolved and carried down into the sub-strata by the
infiltration of ram water charged with carbonic acid.

Similar observations on land over limestone ridges are very fre-
quently reported from Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and other
States in the Union, whilst we have ourselves observed the same
apparent anomaly on the limestone ridges on either mountain to
the north and south of the Dundas and Hamilton Valley, in
Ontario. We believe that the opinion of Dr. Voelcker must be now
modified, since the days of deep cultivation in England. It is a
strong point in favour of general and judicious deepening of culti-
vation, that it brings up lime with other ingredients of the soil
where such are present.

Lime is ot great benefit in moderate quantities, and incorporated
with the surface soil around the roots of growing fruit trees.

To spread on land, haul out lime in a quick state to the field, in
the fall, and dump it in small heaps , as a basis of quantity per
acre, one bushel every four rods each way will give a dressing of
twenty bushels to the acre.

Exposure will soon slake this lime, so that it becomes quite
powdery, when it may be spread evenly over the land.

It should be incorporated with the soil by means of cultivator
or harrow, and should never be ploughed down deep ; for, as we
have already said, lime is very penetrative in its action, and will
work downwards into the subsoil.

Great care should be exercised that, before spreading, the lime
be in a pulverized state ; if it is lumpy, much of the benefit is lost
to soil and vegetation.

Lime at twenty-five cents a bushel, covering expense also of
hauling and applying, is not a dear fertilizer. When we consider
that professional lime burners can manufacture and draw eight or
ten miles for twenty -five cents per bushel, surely lime can be util-
ized by the large farmer who has a limestone ridge within easy
distance or on his property, for a very much less sum per bushel.

In portions of Pennsylvania, near the coal regions, many farmers
burn their own lime at a cost of three cents per bushel. A farmer
who has limestone upon hi.s farm could hardly do a better thing
for himself than to visit western New Jersey and Pennsylvania.
The sight of the blooming wheat and clover fields, and of the corn
fields of thirty to forty acres each, turning forty or more bushels
to the acre, would, without much doubt, convert him to the liberal
use of lime upon his own acres.

As a summary of foregoing, the following general rules may be
worthy of careful consideration :

1st Land must be thoroughly dry before it is in a fit state to
receive lime.

2nd. It may be laid on the land at almost any season, but during
dry weather in the fall is the best time.

160 The Canadian Farmer's

3rd. Should not be used urtil reduced to a powdery state, and
then should be incorporated with the surface soil

4th Clays and strong soils will require a fuller dose than those
of a lighter nature.

5th. Lime being a strong stimulant must not be used too much.
Requiring to decompose some matter, care must be taken that there
be vegetable matter or manure in the land upon which it is
applied, else it will act directly on and destroy crops.

GREEN CROPS FOR MANURE.

Succulent growth of plants, such as clover, buckwheat, rape,
vetches, «Sz;c , ploughed under, go by the name of green manures.

The ploughing under of such plants has been found of immense
benefit in increasing the fertility of soils, especially of those of a
gravelly, sandy and generally light nature. The practice is now
fully recognised in Canada, and, when adopted, is attended with
excellent results.

The question, whether it would not pay better to cut the green
crop off and feed it to cattle, returning the manure to the land, rests
solely upon the relative cost of making, hauling and applying
farm-yard manure, and the value of meat.

As meat so frequently falls to a very low price in Canada, it
is very doubtful whether the increase of animal matter in manure,
and the value of our stock, will counterbalance the above-
named expenses resulting from the manipulation of manure. This
is, however, a point to be carefully weighed by each farmer for
himself

The chemical effect of ploughing under succulent plants is sim-
ply the return to the soil of all plant food, such as ammonia, nitro-
gen, carbon and the constituents of water, absorbed during growth
by the thousand mouths of many -leaved plants from the atmo-
sphere.

The gradual decomposition of such vegetable matter likewise
affords a constant and steady supply of manure to the soil, which
renders the effects of green manures more lasting than those oi
such as is made in the barn-yard.

It takes several seasons for green manure, such as clover, to
thoroughly rot in the ground, and until that end is consummated
it is giving forth plant food to the soil, and in a form readily
soluble to vegetation.

Clover has been called by one of the most celebrated of the
agricultural chemists of the day the " great renovator," and as
such it is looked upon ky the intelligent Canadian farmer.

The fact is patent to the most ordinary observer that the Ca-
nadian farmer has not enough of the "muck-heap" to supply the
yearly wants of his soil, and as an addition he properly looks to
green manuring.

Manual of Agriculture. 161

Professor Voelcker says that " A good crop of clover which
has produced one heavy crop of hay, and which has been allowed
to stand for seed, will add to the land a fertility for wheat which
could not be attained with the heaviest practical dressing of guano ;
but to do this in the best possible manner, the clover must be
allowed to come to perfection ; must be treated so that it will
produce and leave on the ground the greatest possible amount of
leaf and root, for in those two portions of the plant consists the
virtue of the clover crop."

We in Canada find that unless the clover be ploughed under
very early in August, it will not rot sufficiently to benefit the
fall wheat. This difference between our system and that adopted
in the British islands is doubtless owing to two facts : one, that our
climate is much less humid than the English ; and another, that
we have to sow our winter wheat earlier than there.

For this reason we find the best time in our rotation for the
ploughing under of green clover to be for our root crop,
or for summer fallow, or to be followed by peas as a cleaning
preparation for fall wheat.

Clover is the very best application for manuring steep hills. In
our own neighbourhood, some of our best farmers work very steep
conical shaped hills ; they clover heavy to the verj^ top, plough
it down and manure on top ; they then obtain excellent crops
yi wheat on the very crowns of their hills.

Clover ploughed down on hill tops is a manure of a jiature not
easily washed away.

And if dung be applied on the clover before turning under, its
strength will be absorbed by the plants and held at the top of the
hill for the use of the succeeding crop. We shall speak more
fully on this as a green manure in the pages devoted to the grasses.

Turnips as a green manure. — Whether it would pay to grow
turnips for manure we are not prepared to state, but we find the
tollowing observation from a practical farmer, Mr. A. B. Ball, Stan-
stead, Canada, on the effects of a crop of turnips that were frozen
in the ground by the early advent of winter. He says in the
Canada Farmer : " I had two acres of turnips frozen in, and
another acre of ground on which I had grown corn for fodder.

" On these three acres I sowed what is called mixed grain ; that is,
one-half oats and a quarter of each peas and barley : this is grown
and used for provender. From these three acres I harvested three
hundred and three bushels, and this without any further manur-
ing than that given to the crop the previous year.

" The acre where the corn grew was not nearly so stout as that
where the turnips had been ; the straw being shorter, and the
heads not nearly as well filled nor as long.

" The yield of this mixed grain is usually from fifty to sixty
bushels per acre, sometimes seventy-five ; consequently you can
11

1^2 ^^^ Canadian Farmer's

see that I had an extraordinary crop on the turnip grounds — from
one hundred and fifteen to one hundred and twenty bushels per

acre.

" I mentioned this crop to my neighbours ; but as only a few had
any turnips, and fewer still had lost them, they had not had an
opportunity of witnessing the result produced by a turnip crop
frozen in and used as a manure."

Buckwheat may be used in certain cases as a ploughed down
green manure to great advantage.

The fei tilizinoj power is not so great as that of clover, nor is the
raising of buckwheat for a manure as practical or profitable on
ordinary land as clover. But, owing to the coarseness of its stem,
it may be often used in this way very effectually upon heavy
clay lands ; such as, from want of careful cultivation, have run to-
gether and become closely compacted.

The bio- coarse straw keeps apart the atoms of soil, and thus
admits air and thorough percolation of water ; while the slowness
of its decomposition keeps the land thus opened for a long time,
and gives every opportunity for making it friable by thorough
cultivation.

The ground, to be generally benefited by the application of green
manures, should be capable of bringing them forth with such an
abundance as to produce a complete shade to the surface during
their growth, and a large enough mass of vegetable matter to
cause rapid and constant fermentation when buried by the
plough.

By this means we secure two desirable results — an increased
amount of fodder or pasture, and a great bulk of rich manure of a
very fertilizing nature.

Where the green manure system is adopted in Canada, the opera-
tion should be repeated so often that at no time, in the course of a
rotation, should the decaying vegetable mass be imperceptible in
our soils.

FIELD CROPS.

*' The autumn fields are fringed with gold.
The autumn breeze is sighing ;
The swallows flit to foreign climes,
The summer flowers are dying ;

'* The lanes are strewn with falling leaves,
The sky is overclouded ;
The pattering rain falls ceaselessly,
The lake with mist is shrouded ; —

'^* All, all around us Nature seems
To weave a web of sorrow,
l.nd winter comes with stealthy pace,
To deeper shade the morrow ;

Manual of Agriculture. 163

"Yet shall the autumn's gloomy days,
A.nd winter's deeper sadness,
Prepare the coming of the spring,
* And summer's brighter gladness."

Wheal. — Wheat should ever be thekeystone of Canadian fanning.
To bring his land up to a condition fit for the growth of" large and
abundant crops of wheat, should be the object of the agriculturist.
The food of the world depends upon the growth of wheat ; and we
find that when wheat is plentiful, all manufactures fiourish, and
nothing has the same power to affect general markets as have the
rise and fall of the demand and supply of bread — the staple of
life.

Canada is essentially a wheat-producing country. Her climate
and soil are well adapted to the growth of this cereal, and she has
at command great facilitie^j for placing her grain upon the markets
of the world.

There was a time when wheat grew and flourished in Canada
without any uncertainty ; when crops were great and diseases
unknown.

The rich virgin soil, formed by the decayed vegetable matter of
countless years, appeared to be inexhaustible. The surface had
" but to be tickled with the plough to laugh into a crop."

But year by year the natural richness became exhausted.
Nothing was returned to the land, and the soil in the older parts
was taxed to that extent, that its productive power fell to a low
ebb indeed. So debilitated at last became the farms, that their
produce was weakened, disease and parasites stepped in, and com-
pleted the downfall of wheat from the category of successful and
paying crops.

Yet our soil is of that superior nature, and our climate so well
suited to the wants of the wheat plant, that Canada is capable of
producing as heavy crops of wheat, acre by acre, as the best culti-
vated lands of the old countries or the virgin prairies of America.

Not only has our soil, in the more civilized parts, been worn out,
but the seed has also greatly degenerated — become prone to disease,
and fallen a victim to the attacks of the parasite.

The Canadian farmer, if he would see his land produce a paying
crop of wheat, must look well to its cultivation and to the nature
of the seed employed. We have just recovered from a fearful
visitation by "the midge;" let it be a warning to the slovenly, for
assuredly our crop was rendered more subject to its baneful influ-
ences by weakness of the soil, deterioration of seed and the con-
sequent inability of the plant to grow rapidly and stoutly in spite
of " midge.'''

We regret to have seen, in more than one number of the English
agricultural press, accounts in disparagement of the wheat grow-
ing capabilities of Canada. Writers on the world's production of

164 The Canadian Farmer's

breadstuff have of late years, looking at our returns, had too much
reason to assume that we cannot produce a supply adequate to our
area and population.

This is not, however, the fault of the capabilities of our soil and
climate, but of the carelessness of the cultivator. The soil is now
gradually coming back to her primeval strength, and in the hands
of many of our more intelligent practical farmers, crops are yearly
increasing per acre. Hasten the day when we shall stand where
we ought, at the head of the wheat-producing nations of the world!
None doubt the quality of our produce. May the time arrive
quickly when quantity shall be commensurate with quality !

^1 Canadian stands at the head of flour brands in the Liver-
pool markets.

Many an old farmer can tell us of the times when Canadian soil
has yielded thirty, forty, and even fifty bushels per acre. We are
afraid the average to-day is hardly up to twenty bushels per
acre.

We must raise more crop per acre, or our farms cannot pay a
fair interest on capital invested. When we raise better crops per
acre, the capitalist will think of investing in agriculture.

In England, wheat has averaged for the last fifteen years about
one dollar and a half per bushel, with labour at, say, forty or fifty
cents per day; while in Canada the prices have been, of wheat
about one dollar, and of labour from eighty cents to a dullar per
day.

There will in the future be little fear of wheat falling below an
average of one dollar and twenty-five cents per bushel, for the
increased circulation of money and the rapid multiplication of the
population of the North American Continent will keep up the
value of Canadian wheat, while increased facilities of cultivation
and of exportation will cause an ever-increasing demand.

Continental summer heat carries wheat and corn far north in
America, while a winter of some severity seems to be demanded
for the best class of wheat all over the world.

Canada and parts surroundin.?^ them owe much to the beneficial
effects of the great lakes, which equalize the naturally changeable
climate cf these portions of North America.

These lakes absorb solar heat during the very hot months, and
give it forth to the use of surrounding territory when there is a
deficiency of warmth upon the land.

Fall Wheat is divided into two general species — red and ivhite.
The red varieties are generally more hardy, and are less subject to
the attacks of rust and insects than the white. The outer husk is
of a coarse nature, varying in degree in proportion to the humidity
of the soil. It is therefore less valuable to the miller, but of late
years has be^n more productive, because more hardy, than the
white sorts in Canada.

Manual of Agriculture, . 165

It will be found, attacks of midge and disease set aside, that the
red or hard varieties do better on heavy lands, while the fine
wheats require a more friable soil to secure a profitable return.

The varieties in use in Canada at the present date are : Diehl,
Soules, Wildgoose, Treadwell, Red Chafi" (nearly obsolete), Mediter-
ranean, Midgeproof, Lowe, White China, Kentucky White, Hack,
Boyer, Michigan Amber, &c.

Of these, the most common have been for the last few years the
Diehl, a white wheat, and the Treadwell, a reddish wheat.

The Diehl has short stiff* straw and very plump well-filled ears;
it is an agreeably deceptive variety, usually thrashing better than
it promises in the field.

At present, not only in Canada, but in the States, it is next to
impossible to obtain the seed pure and unmixed with other
varieties.

The Treadwell (red) is a more hardy variety, stands the winter
better and stools out freely. It is also proof against the midge,
and if sown late will come out in the spring far better than any
variety now at our command.

Mr. Zimmerman, of Nelson, Ontario, gives to the Canada Far-
mer, 1870, the yield of several of these kinds on his own farm in
the previous year. It is worthy of note as affording a practical
comparison :

Diehl 32 bushels per acre,

Soules 30 " "

Treadwell 25 " "

Red Chaff ...20 " "

Wildgoose 16 " "

Midgeproof 16 *' **

Mediterranean, only 10 ** **

He, however, gives the preference to the Treadwell, as a gener-
ally profitable crop for the farmer.

Mr. Cull, of Toronto, thus writes to the same paper in 1869 :
*' My object in sowing the different kinds of wheat this year
was chiefly to test the liabilities of each kind to the midge ; and
also to see whether a wheat stubble field of which the soil Avas a
poor blowing sand, if well manured, and sown again direct, would
produce a crop.

" The diff'erent sorts were White China, Soules, Treadwell, Ken-
tucky White, Midgeproof, Mediterranean Midgeproof, Club-shaped
Ear (name unknown), and common Red Midgeproof The Tread-
well does not seem any earlier than either the White China or
Soules ; the Kentucky White was almost all winter killed ; having
sown it now three years, I would not advise any one to do so here-
after. The Soules, of course, is, as usual, excellent ; the Club-
shaped Ear also good ; the White China also; but the Treadwell
is best of all. The other sorts, although very rank and tall, have

106 • The Canadian Farmer's

badly-filled heads. No midge has made any perceptible inroads
on any of the seven varieties."

Good wheat land should always possess a certain degree of con-
sistency, and as a rule the clays, supposing them to be passably
dry, are the best adapted for its growth.

Though the gravels and even sands often produce an excellent
quality of wheat, as instance the plains between Paris and
Woodstock, in Ontario, yet are large yields more certain from the
heavier soils.

The majority of the annual prizes given by the Canada Com-
pan}'- at our Provincial Exhibitions have been gained by farmers
from clay regions, particularly the Township of Scarborough, and
in the neighbourhood of Richmond Hill, to the north of Toronto.

Yet if we have a sufficiency of lime in our sandier soils, to the
amount of not less than fifteen per cent., we have an excellent soil
for wheat ; but such must also contain a sufficient amount of
humus, or mould, to render it of sufficient consistency.

Pure sands are unfavourable to the growth of wheat, for such
are deficient in that degree of firmness which is necessary to sup-
port the roots.

The crop is liable to failure on such land, both from the severity
of winter and from drought in the hot months.

We would not, however, be understood to assert that sand is
always unfit for wheat, but only that such is the case in pure sand.

The sandy soil may, by good cultivation, and the use of clover
freely ploughed down, be changed into the nature of a loam,
having the necessary amount of mould or decayed vegetable mat-
ter to render it firm and to supply plenty of nourishment to wheat.

There appears to be a general prejudice against the growth ol
rye, but it is the best fall crop for very sandy lands.

Cultivation. — On lands of a heavy nature, the summer fallow is
the proper mode of cultivation for wheat. Tn our chapter on cul-
tivation this is fully treated of We would now only add : —

The land intended for wheat having been duly prepared during
the summer, by a summer fallow, or the cultivation of some pre-
paratory crop, as peas, barley, or clover, the finishing touch is
given about a week before seeding time by a last reversal of the
soil with the plough. This is a matter of some moment, and
should be not onl}^ carefully done, but a due regard given to the
requirements of the soil and the crop. If a sod has been turned
over for the summer fallow, or pea crop, it is usually ploughed
under to no great depth ; at the cross ploughing the implement is
run deeper, so as to break up the hard pan and stir up the subsoil ;
and this I'aw material having been subjected to amelioration by a
succession of harrowings and by exposure to atmospheric inllu-
encea, the last turn of the soil before seeding should thoroughly
intermix this with the now decomposed sod, and form a seed bed

Manual of Agriouiture, 167

containinor a due admixture of both mineral and ve<?etable food
for tiie support of the wheat plant.

The lay of the surface and nature of the subsoil should regu-
late in a great degree the last ploughing of land to be sown with
fall wheat.

Where land is not under-drained, there will invariably be spots
where water is apt to lie. This is, during the spring, in which we
write, very observable all over Canada, a large area of fall wheat
having been killed out during the winter last past in just such
spots.

On heavy land the ridges require to be rather narrow, and very
gently sloped from crown to furrow, and we have always preferred
to run the furrows diagonally across the slope of the land — this
plan saves many extra water furrows.

It is in the gradually rounding of the lands that the good plough-
man shows his skill.

A free outlet must be given at the lower ends of slopes for the
escape of surface water run off by furrows.

If furrows require to be ploughed out, the dirt thrown up
should be levelled off on each side with a hand rake ; it is a short
job, and we have seen water often dammed back on wheat by the
banks of furrows that were drawn for the very purpose of carry-
ing off the surplus.

Where wheat is killed out in fall and winter, in the majority
of cases its place will be taken by a growth of chess and other
foul weeds.

Men reasoning purely upon scientific grounds are assured that
the best position of wheat is on a clover cod. Dr. Voelcker tells
us:

" I believe a vast amount of mineral manure is brought within
reach of the grain crop by growing clover. It is rendered avail-
able to the roots of the grain crop, while otherwise it would re-
main in a. locked up condition in the soil. Clover, by means of
its long roots, penetrates a large mass of soil. It gathers up, so to
speak, the phosphoric acid and the potash which are disseminated
in the soil, and when the land is ploughed the roots are left in the
surface, and in decaying they leave in an available condition the
mineral substances which the wheat plant requires to enable it to
grow."

The practice is universally adopted in the southern parts of
England, but let us mark in the north of England it has been en-
tirely discarded.

The same reasons that led to its discontinuance in Yorkshire
and Cumberland ha^ve force to a still ijreater deofree in Canada.

Clover in order to benefit wheat must be to a considerable
degree in a state of decomposition.

A surticiency of time and wet weather must be obtained be-

168 The Canadian Farmer's

tween haying and sowing to rot the sod at all. These two quali-
fications we cannot attain in Canada.

We can seldom find time to plough down clover before the mid-
dle of August, nor do we usually have rain in any quantity at
that season, and we must have our wheat sown early in September.

We have seen individual instances of successful crops of Avhcat
on a clover sod, but in every case the young clover was ploughed
down very early. If, however, our sod be ploughed down
for a summer fallow, then have its roots and stems had plenty
of time to decompose into the form of mould ; then " the very
best preparation, the very best manure for wheat, is a good crop
of clover."

" Sometimes a farmer is tempted by appearances which indicate
that it will be a lucky hit to plough sod ground as late as August
and even September, and sow to wheat. And if a paying crop is
realized by such culture, it maybe regarded indeed as a mere * lucky
hit,' and not as the result of suitable culture for the crop. It
would be desirable in many instances to sow wheat on a field that
has been mown the same season, but experience teaches it is very
unsafe to do so. There may be cases, as where a field is very fer-
tile, and under a clean clover sod of only one year's growth, in
which the soil can be put in fair condition for the wheat crop if
ploughed after the clover is mown. But even then it is only a
second-rate way of preparing the soil to grow an important crop ;
and if the sod be timothy or red top — old and firm — the chance for
a crop of wheat by ploughing it after haying will be poor indeed.

" In the first place, there is not time to kill the grass roots by
working the land before the time of sowing, and as a consequence
considerable grass wnll make its appearance in the crop the fol-
lowing season. The grass roots, not being decayed, furnish but
little food to the wheat plant, and the whole soil is in fact in too
crude a state to promote vigorous growth in the wheat. It may
be rich enough, but the richness is not available.

" Wheat needs a soil that has been thoroughly worked, and in
which all the ])lant food, whether it comes from barn-yard ma-
nure or sod, is reduced to a condition to be available in growing
the crop. Hence it requires a summer ftillow, or it must follow
some spring crop which has been well tilled, and which has taken
the crudity out of the land and fertilizers. The manures for
wheat should be fine, weir decomposed, and not such as might be
used with good results on corn, like fresh barn-yard manure. As
wheat is the most delicate grain, so it needs the finest and most
perfect culture." — Rural Home.

As to the best stubble for wheat, we should prefer that of the
pea ; this decidedly, as we have known it to do as well as the best
summer falloAv. The pea seems to enrich the land — in this respect
related to clover. Its long haulm and the debris it deposits, its shade^

Manual of Agriculture. 169

&c., are all favourable to the improvement of the soil. Especially
where there is a sod turned down is this the case. Barley comes
next, and oats last. We now speak from our own experience.
Where the various grains have been in one lot, the pea always
took the preference ; and the heavier the crop the larger would be
the yield of wheat. This especially when plaster was used on the
pea. Between barley and oats there was but little difference,
though some, the oat land yielding generally a dirty, unsatis-
factory crop. But this being the poorest soil, should be consider-
ed. Such soil, if no manure can be used, and it is persisted in
putting it to wheat, should have at least a dusting of ashes.
Apply any quantity : no danger there will be too much ; this
especially with leached ashes, which are nearly as good as the
unleached, and will feed the crop while it lasts, and be a benefit
to the seeding, where that follows, for years

The following is the substance of an essay read before the
County of Northumberland ^giicultural Society, by Mr. C. Pow-
ers, some forty years ago, and lately given to the farmers of the
Province in the columns of the Canada Farmer :

" Although it may be raised to considerable advantage on several
kinds of soil, still a clay, mixed with what is called a vegetable
or black soil, is undoubtedly the best. That kind of soil which
has the greatest absorbent power with respect to atmospheric
moisture is the most fertile.

" In making your fallow, grass sward is preferable to stubble of
any kind, and should be turned over in the fall or early in the
season, if the tiller intends to make it fine ; otherwise the grass
will not be properly subdued, and the undecayed sods be a great
preventive to a good crop. But if the pressure of other business
has delayed you from breaking your fallow till August, do not
despair even then of growing a tolerable crop. In this case it
should be pasture land, turned well, first dragged, then sowed on
the fuiTows, and well put in. It will be less apt to winter-kill,
and frequently gives a good crop. A good coat of manure is not
only highly requisite to the ensuring of a bountiful harvest, but
the best possible preventive to winter-killing.

'' In respect to the seed you sow, I would recommend old in
preference to new. New seed, if it be contaminated with smut,
will have a more natural tendency to transmit the disease to the
succeeding crop. Old wheat, if it should be smeared with smut,
has had more time to evaporate, and thereby disengage itself from
its infectious qualities. Experienced farmers are aware that little
is to be apprehended from smut after seeding with old wheat ; be-
sides, they will tell you that it is more excellent and abundant in
its growth.

" Procuringr vour seed from a distance, or changing it from a
poor to a more fertile soil, is also of considerable advantage. The

170 The Canadian Farmer's

idea that shrunk seed is as good as plump, fair seed, is vqyv erro-
neous. To plant the shrivelled corn from the unmatured ears
would do as well. The absurd idea that wheat occasionally turns
to chess has most astonishingly gained credence among many far-
mers. This is physically impossible, and must have been a fabri-
cation of some slovenly farmer, to excuse himself for his negligence
in not procuring and sowing clean seed. Equally marvellous is it
that some farmers attribute the cause of smut to its being sowed
in the waning of the moon ; others to a cloudy day or a dewy
morning; others to a mealy bag, or pestilential hand from which
it is thrown. These are idle whims ; idle as the transmutation of
wheat to chess. Smut in wheat is natural to most climates and
soils in North America, and I believe as far as the cultivation of
wheat extends. This cereal has a strong inclination to smut in
low vegetable soils.

" To prevent the destructive effects of smut and the wheat in-
sect, one process is a remedy for both. The application of a solu-
tion of lime is too common to need explanation. A pickle of salt
mixed with ashes is also applied in a similar manner, and answers
the same valuable purpose. I think a still more convenient and
sovereign remedy is lye from wood ashes, sufficiently strong to
amalgamate with oil. Every farmer makes his own ashes, and in
that respect it is not only a convenient, but an independent pro-
cess. It may be drawn from the leach during seed time at plea-
sure, and mixed in a tub or other convenient vessel, b}^ pouring on
the lye and stirring it with a broad stick, or even the hand, till
the grain is completely tinctured and turns j^ellow, and the husk
will clean from it by rubbing it in the hands. It is then pre-
pared for sowing, and five pecks to the acre, from the 1st to the
20th of September, are sufficient."

Whatever may have been the nature of wheat forty years ago,
the present experience of practical men is against the use of old
wheat for seed.

Of the application of manure for wheat we have fully spoken
in the chapters devoted thereto.

The mulching of fall wheat may, however, be sometimes found
advantageous as a protection to the roots and as against winter-
killincr.

On tops of hills liable to kill by exposure to winter, we have
found mulching to have an excellent effecc, but it is rather an ex-
pensive operation over a whole field, unless, indeed, the mulching
be used as the regular dressing of manure to the crop.

Mr. Henry H. McAfee, farm superintendent of the University
of Wisconsin, furnishes the Western Fanner with the results of
bis experiments on the university farm, which are as follows :

"Experiment No. 1, Series 1871. — Twelve thousand one hundred
and forty-one square feet of ground were sown broadcast with

Manual of Agriculture. 171

twenty-Dine pounrls of White Toiizelle winter wheat, on Septem-
ber 10th, 1870. November 26th, coarse straw manure was spread
over the wheat, pretty thoroughly covering it. July 8th, 1871,
cut ; July 10th, bound and shocked ; July I4th, stored in barn ;
gross weight, one thousand one hundred and ninety-one pounds ;
August 10th, threshed with flail ; clean grain, three hundred and
ninety-two pounds ; weight per stricken bushel, fifty-nine and
three-quarter pounds ; yield per acre, 23-38 bushels. The clean
grain was thirty-two per cent, of the gross weight ; yield for each
pound of seed sown, 1351 pounds. Quality, No. 1, large grain,
white.

" Experiment No. 2, Series 1871. — Thirteen thousand one
hundred and thirty-eight square feet of ground were sown with
twenty-nine pounds Red Soisette winter wheat broadcast, same
date as Experiment No. 1, and treated the same throughout.
Gross weight, one thousand two hundred and eighty-seven pounds;
clean grain, three hundred and ninety-nine pounds ; weight per
stricken bushel, sixty-one and a quarter pounds ; yield per acre,
22*01 bushels. The clean grain was twenty-three per cent, of the
gross weight. Yield for each pound of seed sown, 137d pounds.
Quality, No. 1, large grain, red.

"The results of the experiments would have been more conclu-
sive nad similar tracts been planted and left unmulched, to test
the usefulness of a mulch for winter grain more fully and fairly;
but the favourable results of these experiments, though not conclu-
sive, are yet encouraging, and from former experiments with straw
and long manure as a mulch for winter wheat, I feel sanguine
that by this means a fair crop of grain may be raised, at least two
years out of every three. I believe it fair to recommend to farmers
generally, to try winter wheat in limited quantities with a reason-
able winter protection. Care should be exercised not to get the
mulch too thick in spots, as that cause killed out quite a lot of the
young plants in the above experiments.

" The variable character of our winters prevents uniform results
with most experiments in winter mulching wheat fields, but the
average benetit is so decided in all places exposed to severe winds,
that it should be adopted as an uniform practice at such places.
There are two remedies for the great drawback known as winter-
killing : under-draining and mulching. The former is the cure on
low, wet spots ; the latter on exposed knolls. Some years ago,
when the Mediterranean was the variety of wheat most sown, we
directed a tenant farmer to spread a thin dressing of the surplus
straw over a field of wheat, leaving one uncovered strip, by way
of experiment and comparison. But he was negligent, and spread
but two strips with straw. This was done early in winter, after
the ground had frozen hard, and before snow had fiillen. The
winter proved severe, with but little snow ; and the result with

172 The Canadian Farmer's

this field was, that the mulched portion yielded the following sum-
mer at the rate of about twenty-five bushels per acre ; the rest of
the field, fully exposed, was not worth harvesting. This, of course,
was an unusual and extreme case ; but the frequent liability to
severe injury from full exposure, which would be prevented by a
covering enough to protect the bare ground from the sharp cutting
winds, renders it wise to ensui^e the crop, when practicable, by a
suitable covering, even with varieties of grain less likely to be
winter-killed than the old Mediterranean.

" A modification of the course here indicated consists in substi-
tuting manure for straw. This is especially beneficial on the
poorer portions of the field, or on knolls, which not only need pro-
tection from winds, but which would be improved by the additional
enriching thus received. The common practice of top-dressing
wheat fields with manure after ploughing the last time in autumn,
and before the final harrowing, is especially beneficial b}^ way of
enriching the soil; and it also affords a slight protection as a
mulch. But if the early autumn application has been omitted, or
has been insufficient, a thin coating of manure early in winter
imparts a double benefit, as already explained. The soluble por-
tions of the manure soak into the ground ; and early the follow-
ing spring, the fine pulverization of the lumps of manure and of the
crusted soil, by means of a suitable harrow, together with one or
two subsequent harro wings, we have found has increased the wlieat
five bushels and upwards per acre ; while the new bed of fresh
earth has induced the best catch of the clover seed, even if sown
a month later than usual." — Tlie Cultivator.

Seed. — Much depends in the production of a good crop of wheat
upon the seed sown.

Imperfect seed may germinate ; plants from such will appear
to grow well at first, but they will have a sickly and imperfect
growth, which will be especially observable when oomiug into
flower, and the grain will be small in quantity and of inferior
quality

Undei the same conditions of soil, climate and cultivation, it
will be found an unchangeable law of nature that the most per-
fect seeds will produce the best crop.

No seed can produce a healthy plant unless it is the result of a
strong and healthy plant itself, and unless it be so fresh that its
power of germination is unimpaired.

Good seed may be recognised by its plumpness and size, its
glossy surfiice and the absence of odour.

Plumpness and weight will assure us that it is the produce of a
healthy and vigorous plant ; glossiness of the surface shows it to
be healthy ; and an absence of odour or mustiness proves that it
is fresh, and its germinating power is unimpaired.

^1 change of seed is in nearly all cases beneficial. The change

Manual of Agriculture. 17

should, if possible, be invariably made from off a poorer to a richer
soil, and from a light to a heavy soil.

We have never in practice been in the habit of, nor would we
in print advise, the giving of extortionate prices for every new-
fangled wheat which, under some fine name, and advertised in
fancy-coloured circulars by enterprising seedsmen, is brought be-
fore the notice of the farmer ; but good seed should always be
obtained, and there are always men in the community who are
especially noted for their painstaking care in tlie selection of seed
for sale.

It is as poor policy to sow bad seed as to feed musty oats to
your horses, and thereby bring on a train of diseases, accompanied
by long farriers' bills and many other resultant losses.

The free use of the fanning mill will help us wonderfully with
seed. We never yet used seed bought from the most reliable
dealers without passing once more through the mill, and we ha.ve
always succeeded in cleaning out of such many inferior kernels.

In a preceding page we gave our own opinion upon the use of
old wheat for seed ; one of the most reliable seed firms in America
thus corroborates our views : — ■

" We drilled in old wheat last fall instead of new, for the rea-
son that it was much better-looking grain, the new being very
much shrivelled. As a consequence, hardly two-thirds came up.
A neighbour did the same, with as bare results. Another neigh-
bour planted twenty-four grains each of new and old wheat before
sowing, to test its vitality : all the new grains came up but two,
while only seventeen of the old came up. Why did not we do
the same ? The old wheat was run throuo-h the fanning mill once,
and thrown from one bin to another during the hot weather, to
prevent heating "

In our own neighbourhood, two years ago, a neighbour sowed
old wheat seed, notwithstanding that he sought our advice, and
we strongly opposed his plan. The result attained was that in
the spring of the year he had to plough under his fall and re-sow
with spring wheat.

A very small amount of fermentation will destroy, or at any
rate greatly weaken, thp germinating power of wheat; and it is
almost impossible to know for certain whether wheat that has
lain for a length of time in bin has been subjected to undue
heating.

If we sow old wheat, it may be safe, but we run a great risk.
An excellent plan to secure a good and certain seed for the fu-
ture is, to go over the fields before cutting and glean the earliest,
largest and most perfect ears of wheat, as a stock from which to
grow seed. A few quarts gathered in this way and sown will in
two or three years yield enough seed for the farmer's own use.
The time of sowing fall wheat depends somewhat upon season

174 Tke Canadian Farmer's

and circumstances ; but, as we have already laid down, the ear-
lier it is sown in September the better.

Every season appears to require earlier sowing, as the country is
more thoroughly cleared up.

Of late years we have not been able to place dependence upon
the fall rains that used to come so regularly at that period, while
winter appears determined to set in for good early in November.

The only objection that can be advanced as against early sow-
ing is the risk of too heavy a growth for winteiing ; but as this is
a less objectionable featui'e than too little root, we feel that we do
not do wrong when we urge our farmers to put forth strenuous
efforts to secure an early growth of wheat in the fall of the
year.

Our fields are more often bared of snow in winter than they
used to be, and a heavy growth of plants appears to be more ne-
cessary than formei'ly in order to protect the root.

We have heard vague talk of too great top-smothering of the
plant under heavy snow. Why then does our wheat always come
out the best upon the sides of fences where snow lays for the
greater part of winter from four to six feet deep, and is tightly
packed by drifting ?

Unfortunately, we have very few actual results on record in

Canada as to the relative advantages of thick and thin sowing.

The controversy has raged hot and heavy in the old country,

but arguments used in that climate have little practical bearing

on this point in Canada.

Alderman Mechi's wonderful advocacy of the thin sowing sys-
tem may a})ply in the humid climate of old England, but in our
drier climate, and under the vicissitudes of a Canadian winter,
we should be sorry to risk our crops by pinning our faith to any
such theories.

The great question at issue is, whether rich or poor land needs
the most seed. Our view is, as for as regards wheat, barley and
oats, that the richer soil requires the less seed, for the plants will
stool out far more.

The principle is reversed in the case of Indian corn or any
plant growing by a single blade, or in which it becomes necessary
to reduce the number of stalks or suckei'S by an arbitrary rule.
Now, what do we understand by rich land ? On that, much of
the pith of the controversy must rest.

If b}' rich land is meant a soil in which the vegetable food is
in a state immediately soluble to the plant, and in which there is
more food, so available, than is actually required by the growing
crop, — why then a small amount of seed is required, and the
quantity should be regulated in a reverse ratio to the amount of
excess of plant food contained in our soil.

The fact is, that the true solution of this, as in most abstract

Manual of Agriculture. 175

arguments, rests in this : that a medium quality of land requires
a full supply of seed ; while on overly rich or exceedingly poor
soil thin seeding would be most profitable ; for in the latter two
cases, should we sow thick, the plants would either be so rank and
coarse as to impede a due exposure to atmospheric influence, or
there would be so man^^ more than the soil was capable of feeding,
and in consequence the surplus would be simply wasted.

As our land in Canada may generally be classed, even on the
best cultivated farms, within the range of medium soils, we do not
consider that at present any improvement can well be made on the
system now in vogue, of about two bushels per acre broadcast, and
from one bushel and a peck to one bushel and a half per acre when
sown with the drill.

The depth of sowing also varies. From one to two inches upon or-
dinary soils appears to be the practice of our best farmers, and
such in our own experience is the most advantageous depth at
which to drill.

There can be no special rule to regulate the depth when sown
broadcast; this must depend upon the state of the seed-bed.

Petri sowed equal portions of seed at different depths, and found
that —

I inch came up in 11 days — seven-eighths of the seed grew.

1 " " «* 12 " and all grew.

2 " " " 18 '* seven -eighths of the seed grew.

3 •' " " 20 '• three-fourths '* " "
6 " '• •• 23 " one-third " " "

This experiment was conducted on English soils. We think, how-
ever, that results would be relatively the same in Canada.

Sjpring Tillage. — But little is practicable in Canada. In coun-
tries where labour is cheap, they hoe their wheat in spring. Would
that we could do so at a profit in Canada ; but as, owing to the
high price of labour and hurry of work, we cannot, the next
best thing is the u«e of the harrows, in the s|)ring of the year, upon
fall wheat. Owino: to the running together of our heavier lands
by the mechanical influence of the snow and sprmg rains, our
wheat fields often come out of the winter season in that state most
expressively described as hide-bound. A free use of the harrow
over our wheat in the spring has a very beneficial efiTect.

When spring has fairly set in, and the land has become suffi-
ciently dry to allow the harrow teeth to work through the soil
without clogging, let the harrow be passed freely through the
wheat. The crust which tightly encircles the wheat plant is thus
broken, and the coronal root has an increased freedom given to it
to extend in every direction to seek for its proper fooil, and ob-
tain a good foothold upon the soil. This operation may be per-
formed with advantage upon almost any kind of soil, the weight
of the harrow being greater or less according to the consistency of

176 The Canadian Farmer's

the soil in which it may be worked. It is especially adapted to
the stirring of wheat that has been sown by hand and upon the
heavier soils. The harrows not only break the crust of the earth,
but drawing the fresh mould upon the wheat plant, they thus give
a perfect top-dressing.

Many have been "scared" by the appearance of their wheat
field after the operation, but as long as the scarifying of the wheat
has not been so severe as to tear out a great number of the plants
(and it is, as a matter of fact, almost impossible to tear out a great
many), it will have the desired effect of pulverizing the upper soil,
and will most certainly tend to give a rapid start to the growing
plant.

It should, however, be executed when the plants begin to re-
vegetate, and care and personal supervision must determine that
point.

If the work be done when the plants are yet torpid they may
be rotted, and if done too late their growth may be checked.

There is yet another great advantage in the operation. If we
intend to seed down our wheat, and the operation has not been per-
formed on the last fallen snow, after the harrowing is the next
best time to sow grass seeds.

They will fall in a good bed, and the next smart shower will
cover and sprout them.

It occasionally happens that our wheat has too full a growth in
the spring, and we desire to check it. We are particular to say
occasionally, for we ourselves have observed but very seldom any
wheat in Canada that required to be thinned after once it had
grown.

In such a case, tlie best method of thinning (if the harrows be
not sufficient) is to turn on sheep, in March, on frozen ground, or
as soon as the ground is dry enough to bear them without poach-
ing. Sheep bite off short, and do not pull out in bunches, as do
cows, and more especially horses.

The sheep bite off the frozen blades, and make room for a new
and vigorous stool from the crown.

It has been recommended to roll fall wheat after the last har-
rowing. We cannot endorse the opinion — first, because the ground,
when left smooth, will not hold the winter's snow as well ; and,
secondly, the action of the frost on ground that is a little cloddy
will be Lo mellow it down, and cover up such wheat roots as may
be partially thrown out by frost and thaw ; and, thirdly, when we
harrow in spring we should have no soil to harrow down.

Spring Wheat. — Perfect cultivation is the great requisite in a
successful growth of spring wheat. For several years back this
crop has been one of such uncertainty in Canada that the faith of
our farmers in it has been much shaken.

As in our comin.or chapter on barley and oats we shall speak

Manual of Agriculture. 177

more fully on spring seed beds, we need only say here that spring
wheat may be sown with more impunity when the ground is cold
than any other spring crop.

Indeed, it becomes a choice between two evils, whether we sow
late and run the risk of our crop being eaten up with midge, or
earlier, and risk the seed rotting in the cold soil.

Of the two, we prefer the latter, for wheat seed is very hardy,
and will seldom rot.

Spring wheat requires to be sown thicker than the fall varieties.

The kinds common to Canada are : Black Sea, Siberian, Canada
Club, Ohio Club, Golden Drop, Fife, Midge-proof, and Califor-
nian.

Diseases to wJiich Wheat is Liable. — These are usually, in
Canada, STYiut and Bust.

Must we are very subject to, not only on wheat, but on oats, and

.sometimes on barley, and it is of much the same nature as mildew.

*' Shield the young harvest from devouring blight,
The Smut's dark poison and the Mildew white."

Rust seizes on the stalks and leaves ; the dust gathering on
these stops the free circulation of sap, so that they are unable to
come to full size. The berry suffers accordingly, and is found to
be more or less shrivelled up.

Rust is more often found in " gleamy" days about the time of
ripening. If the attack of rust takes place when the plant has
fully ripened, it will only injure the straw; but if previous to
that time, the grain will be much injured and shrunk. Our
opinion is, that rust and mildew are so alike in their results that
we may fairly class them as one and the same disease.

Rust is rarely felt in warm, dry seasons, or upon high, dry
land.

The disease is generally considered to be caused by the presence
of numberless sporadic fungi which fasten on the crop in certain
states of the atmosphere. We know that we may certainly ex-
pect rust when the evenings, about harvest time or before, are cool
and foggy, or when we have a succession of storm ^ followed by in-
tensely hot intervals. Such is known as "blighty" weather. »

The only remedy that we have is under-draining, for ib is an un-
doubted fact that the disease is more prevalent in the neighbour-
hood of low, swampy spots than elsewhere.

Spring wheat is more liable than fall wheat to this disease.

The Canada Farmer says :

" No remedy has yet been discovered for it ; but reasoning from
analogy that salt is a well-known destroyer of parasitic fungoid
growth, it may be possible that sowing salt on the land, or even
on the crop, in very moderate quantity, when the weatlier is such
as to render the appearance of rust probable, may act as a pre-
ventative of its ravages.
12

178 ^^^ Canadian Farmer's

" We once saved a valuable and heavy crop of wheat from it by
the simple experiment of having two men pass through the crop,
in the early mornings, drawing a long rope between them over
the wheat. This bent down the heads, and shook off the accu-
mulated moisture to the ground before the sun evaporated it."

Smut is seen in the grain, when the husk, instead of ccmtain-
ing healthy farina, is filled with a black, stinking powder, render-
ing it utterly unfit for flour.

It is the cause of an injury which may be justly regarded as a
disease.

It is a minute parasite, or fungus, living on the grain of wheat,
and is propagated by spores, wliich answer the purpose of seeds.
These are so minute as not to be observable to the naked eye in
seed, and when sown, in some way reach up to the heads of the
wheat, where they grow and flourish by converting the farinaceous
portion of the kernel into a black nauseous powder.

The only preventive is the destruction of these spores in our
seed wheat.

Salt is a destro^^er of all fungoid growth ; so that we may des-
troy these spores by steeping seed in salt or sulphate of copper.

Dissolve common salt in water until a brine is made strong
enough to float an Qgg , or, if sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) is
used, put one pound to about 10 gallons ot water.

Put the pickle in a tub ; pour seed slowly into it, so that all light
grains will float — these may be skimmed oflf, — let the seed soak
for a few minutes, then spread it out to drain on the barn floor ;
after draining, sprinkle it with thoroughly slaked Ihne, or safer,
plaster of Paris, until dry, and sow as soon as possible. The sul-
phate of copper is a deadly poison ; care must be taken that none
of the grain, if vitriol be used, is left within reach of pigs or poul-
trj-.

Smut is usually found worst under and in the neighbourhood
of trees and dirty fence corners, after old sods and foul stubbles.
Clean fallows are most free from smat.

Of one thing we may be certain, sow smutty seed and the result
will be a smutty harvest.

Wheat Flour is of the best quality from grain that is cut before
it has come to full maturity, being whiter and softer, and such
flour carries a better figure in the market.

A bushel of 60 lbs. of wheat should yield —
Flour 48 lbs.
Shorts 8 "
Bran 4 "
But it must be remembered that the coarse or thick-husked grair
will yield more bran and less flour than the above.

The best time in which to cut wheat is as soon as the berry i«
solid and the straw is yellow, but before the berry has hardened

Manual of Agriculture. 179

The general use of reaping machines now makes it quite within
the reach of the farmer to cut his wheat at exactly the right time.

Cost ofproduchig an acre of wheat : —

Rent of one acre $3.50

Ploughing twice 3.00

Harrowing twice... 1.00

Seed li bushels, at $1.40 2 10

Sowing with drill 0.50

Reaping 1.00

Binding 1.50

Corrying, about 1.00

Thrash'ng, say 25 bush, at 8c 2.00

Cleaning up, &c 0.50

Teaming and cost of selling 1.50

$17.60

If summer fallowed, add the extra cost and one year's rent to
above.

Wheat and Chess. — The author of this work has heard of chess
actually growing out of the same stem and head as wheat. He
has often desired to see such a phenomenon, but has never been
satisfied by such a sight. By others, rewards have been offered
to any man who could prove that such a thing ever existed; those
rewards are, as far as we know, yet unclaimed.

Until we see and examine for ourselves a plant showing dis-
tinctly wheat and chess, the result of the same root, or a grain in
which the two are plainly intermingled, we shall refuse to acknow-
ledge as proven the frequent claim that wheat degenerates into
^,hess.

THE CULTIVATION OF BARLEY.

Barley in Canada is confined to the one kind, namely, spring
barley. In more moderate climates there is also a kind known as
winter barley, or here. There are again subdivisions of summer
barley into two-rowed and six-rowed. It is termed " two-rowed "
or " six-rowed," according to the number of its fertile florets. In
six-rowed barley, three rows on each side of the spike are fertile,
and consequently three rows on each side are perfected. Slightly
examined, indeed, six-rowed barley often presents the appearance
of four-rowed, but this is really only in appearance, for such barley
has always three rows on each side perfect, although in poor soil
and under unfavourable circumstances two of the rows will run
into one another, and thus the mistake may arise.

Soil. — Barley requires a rich, mellow and friable seed-bed.
Land may be heavy as long as it is free from wet, coldness and
tenacity. It cannot be grown upon a tenacious clay, except under
such peculiar circumstances of cultivation and climate as shall
render the land friable. It is a very tender plant, and will not

180 ' The Canadian Farmer's

stand the slightest amount of coldness in the soil. For this rea-
son barley soil should never be touched when wet, nor should
barley be sown before warm rains have fallen upon the seed-bed.
We may sow s[)ring wheat early with comparative impunity,
as the seed is very hardy, but when once barley has been com-
mitted to the earth, it must either grow or rot ; if the soil be too
cold to allow of its rapid germination and steady growth, then will
it most assuredly rot in the ground. Land containing from fifty
to sixty per cent, of sand and the balance of clay, provided that it
lies dry, is the very best for barley ; after it may be ranked the
lighter soils. It may also be grown successfully upon clay, pro-
vided that such contains a sufficient proportion of mould to render
it friable, while the presence of chalk is very beneficial as having
a tendency to correct any natural acidity that may be present in
the soil ; but the chief point upon which to depend for a success-
ful crop of barley is thorough cultivation.

Cultivation. — Barley is probably the most shallow-rooted crop
that we have. It does not, like wheat, send down a tap-root to-
wards the subsoil, but its roots keep near the surface and there
seek for food. For this reason cultivation to the depth of three
or four inches is ample. Again, its rootlets are very tender, and
its growth rapid, so that the soil requires to be broken up into as
fine a tilth as possible. A quick growing crop requires plenty of
food, and food so applied that it is immediately available. The
usual position of bailey in all rotations is after hoed crops. The
objects attained by this position are two-fold. The land under
hoed crops usually then receives a heavy dressing of barn-yard
manure. The roots or corn do not by any means exhaust this
manure, and the large balance left in the ground, after their re-
moval, has become thoroughly rotted, and in the processes of cul-
tivation for barley will become distributed through and incorpo-
rated with the surface soil. This manure, thus mixed up with the
soil, is in a form the most available to the wants of the tender
barley root. Also, the land is thoroughly cleaned and freed from
weeds by the use of the hoes, and as such is especially adapted
not only to the reception of barley, but also for seeding down with
grass, which is usually done on barley. Barley is, however, not
unfrequently grown upon a wheat stubble. When such is the
course proposed, the stubble should be ploughed in the fall. The
advantage thus attained is the beneficial effect of winter's frost
upon the soil — the frost, by expansion and contraction, so breaks
up the clods that when the cultivator and harrows are passed over
the ground in the spring, the soil will be found to break up into
the, fine state of garden mould. In England the best barley
ground is that upon which, when in turnips the preceding year,
sheep have been folded. The sheep manure the ground and com-
pact it by their treading. After ploughing shallow in winter, and

Manual of Agriculture, 181

exposure to frost and rain, the cultivators and harrows break it
into a shallow, rich, mellow and friable seed bed. Under this plan,
the crops of barley raised in Norfolk are immense. It is a matter
for regret that the severity of our winter precludes us from the
adoption of the same system in Canada. After fall ploughing, the
land should be cross stirred, by means of a two-horse cultivator or
gang plough, to a depth of about four inches ; this, when harrowed
over, will leave the land in very fine tilth. Of course, when
broadcast sowing is proposed, the land need not be harrowed be-
fore sowing, but will, after sowing, require several strokes. When
the drill is to be used, the finer the tilth can be brought down the
better. The use of the roller is very effective on land under culti-
vation for barley — the roller breaks the little lumps, whilst the
harrows simply push them on one side. Before drilling we al-
ways roll our beds.

As to the use of the roller after sowing — If the seed has been
broadcasted, the roller will doubtless help to cover it, and from
the fine state of tilth into which the land should have been
brought, will be better for the purpose than any after passage of
harrows.

If, however, barley has been drilled, it is a mistake to roll im-
mediately.

We desire to place no obstacles in the way of the rapid appear-
ance of the blade above ground — but the roller compresses the soil,
and makes it more difficult for the blade to pierce through to the
light. This is particularly the case in land that verges upon the
" strong " side , but after the blade has shot through it will be
found advantageous to roll, compressing the earth firmly round
the roots, and helping the soil in its retention of moisture for the
use of the young plant.

Seed and Sowing. — The colour of seed is immaterial if the ber-
ries be plump and hard. It has been recommended to steep the
seed in soft water for twenty-four hours. The advantage claimed
is, that any seeds and light grains will come to the surface and
may be removed, and that the seed will germinate more rapidly
and evenly when covered in the ground. We leave this to the
opinion of our readers ; for our own part, we consider the advan-
tage very slight, and fully counterbalanced in the weakening of
the germinating power of the grain. The usual time for sowing
in Canada is in the latter part of April or commencement of May,
but the point must perforce be always regulated by the peculi-
arity of the season. No matter how fine the weather may be
overhead, or how warm the sun may beat down on the new
turned soil, the seed-bed of barley can never be in a fit state for
reception of the seed until after a fall of luarm spring rains. We
have seen many a field of barley sown when the ground appeared
warm, but there was no growth in the soil ; the barley sprouted,

182 The Canadian Farmer's

and slowly showed through the top soil ; it was then stunted,
weak and yellow, and barley, when once retarded in its early
growth, will never recover lost ground. There is no crop so sus-
ceptible to the evil effects of a check in growth, and none upon
whose after life an early check has so certainly a damaging effect.
The blade is moreover often checked by late frosts, and this, if
possible, should be avoided.

The quantity of seed varies in Canada from two bushels to two
and a half bushels per acre when sown broadcast, and about one
and a half bushels per acre with the drill. The richer the land,
the less seed is required, as in such land it will tiller more than in
poorer.

The mode of sowing is by broadcasting or drilling. There are
yet to be found plenty of advocates for the broadcast ; for our
part, we consider that there is no comparison between it and the
system of drilling. The drill possesses two great and important
advantages in its use, namely, a saving of seed (for every grain is
covered), and the distribution of the seed at an even depth ; while
the passage of the drill itself acts as an excellent culiivator. The
opponents of the drill claim that it is a slow job. But although a
man can sow more land by hand than can a team and man with
the drill, yet one if not two crossings with the harrows are saved.
The drills should be from seven to eight inches apart, and the
quantity of seed may be fully half a bushel per acre less than that
used under the broadcast system of sowing. It is customary to
sow grass seeds along with the barley. For this purpose, a clover
sower is attached to the drill, which should sow before the drill,
not, as we have seen some, behind it.

Barley is the most troublesome grain that we have to harvest.
A single rain will destroy its colour after it has been cut, and not
unfrequently when standing ripe, and will reduce its value in the
market very materially. In Canada it is seldom long enough to
bind. Moreover, when binding has been possible, we have found
that bound barley does not thrash out as well as the loose.

This is doubtless owing to the carelessness of the feeders of
thrashing separators, who, being in a hurry to put through a large
quantity of grain, are in the habit of constantly letting pass
through the cylinder, without unbinding them, many of the small
sheaves of barley ; and a bound sheaf let into a separator is never
thrashed out cleanly.

It is well, in harvesting barley loose, to put it into moderate-
sized cocks in the field, for such as have been so cocked will not
sweat in the mow or stack.

Loose barley should always be handled with the wooden barley
fork. The use of the rake breaks it up, and if at all ripe will
cause it to shell out

Another advantage attained by the cocking system is, that

Manual of AgYicuUure. 183

very much larger loads may be built from the cock than when
taken from the ground in bundles, as left by the machine, or in
swath by the scythe.

Barley must be cut before it is dead ripe.

Oats. — Oats will flourish on almost any soil, and being of a far
hardier nature than barley, are found very useful as a spring crop,
to fill up a rotation in spots which are not well adapted for the
cultivation of spring wheat or barley.

The only soils upon which they appear to be a failure, are those
of too dry a nature.

They will grow well on a tough meadow sod or fresh -ploughed
old pasture. As for a full crop, they do not seem to require that
the sod should be thoroughly decomposed. For this reason we
often sow oats on the same land for two years in succession, and
where the seed-bed rests on an inverted old sod, the second crop
has frequently proved a better one than the first.

Oats are sometimes seeded down with grass, and we have our-
selves had in this way excellent catches ; but there is considera-
ble risk in the plan, for oats are apt to grow very rank, and often-
times to lodge, and in either way the young grass stands a
strong chance of being smothered.

We have found oats a very useful crop to sow with vetches, as
a green food for soiling purposes. Not only are green oats very
excellent fodder, but growing among vetches they help to hold the
latter up from the ground, thus allowing of the permeation of air,
and light, and rain throughout the whole crop.

They will do well in cold, moist places, and will grow rankly,
and turn out a good yield in swampy spots utterly unfit for the
growth of any other cereal.

Oat straw is a valuable fodder, and is generally more relished
by cattle than that from wheat. It is not, however, actually as
nutritious, but its superiority for feed doubtless arises from the
fact that it is usually cut greener than wheat, and at a cooler sea-
son of the year, in consequence of which the straw has retained
all its saccharine juices and is more of the nature of hay.

As to the sowing of oats, there is no crop upon the thick or thin
seeding of which there has been greater diversity of opinion.

It is observed, that oats standing thinl}^ are far more liable to
rust than when the ground is well covered.

At one season, when we were sowing a field of oats broadcast,
the wind blew very hard, and we made, in consequence, a very
irregular job. In one place we made too wide a cast, and across
the whole field a strip of some inches in width was left upon which
the seed was deposited not one-fourth as thickly as upon the land
adjoining.

At harvest this strip was gi^een and very badly rusted, whilst
the rest of the field was bright-coloured and fit for the cradle.

184 The Canadian Farmer's

This liability to rust is the great objection to thin sowing. The
best crop of oats that we ever grew was broadcasted, at the rafe
of three bushels per acre.

Of course, some difference must be observed with different varie-
ties of seed, as some stool out far more than other kinds.

The new varieties of oats come fast and thick before the notice
of the farmer.

In a few years it is probable that all our present varieties will
be known as oats of the past. We shall therefore only shortly
review the oats now come and coming into general use ; and we
cannot do better than to quote the report of experiments made by
the noted nurserymen, Messrs. Hicks and Son, of New York State,
in the season of 1871 :

" Eds. Country Gentleman — We drilled in seven varieties of oats,
April 7th and 8th. The previous crop was corn on inverted sod.

"Mr. Newton, of Henrietta, N.Y., sent us the White Probsteier ;
the (Jther varieties were procured of Mr. Fanning and the Depart-
ment of Agriculture. The White Schonen did so well the season
before, under very favourable circumstances, we desired to procure
as much as possible from the seed ; having about five pecks, we
drilled it on an acre. It stood very thin ; double the seed would
probably have given over a third more yield. The other varieties
were sown at the rate of seven to eiglit pecks, except Norway oats,
when only six pecks were used.

" Below is given their yield by weight, 32 lbs. to the bushel :—

Weight of Weight of

Bushels, bushel, sheaves.

Norway .., 39 32 lbs. 3,050 lbs.

Surprise 36 40 lbs. 3,000 lbs.

White Probsteier 38 30 lbs. 2,700 lbs.

New Brunswick 31 311bs. 2,475 lbs.

Excelsior 31 38 lbs. 2,340 lbs.

White Schonen 20 28 lbs. 1,220 lbs.

Common 28 29 lbs. 1,980 lbs.

"An acre of Norway, well manured and sown two weeks later,
yielded forty-five bushels to the acre, and the sheaves weighed
three thousand seven hundred pounds.

* Our common oats in 1869 jaelded forty-one bushels to the acre ;
this season twenty-eight bushels — we accordingly estimate the
above yields to be two-thirds a good crop.

**In examining the different varieties before reaping, the Norway
stood the highest, three and a half feet ; and the Excelsiors the
shortest, two and a half feet. To a casual observer, the Norways
did not look as though they would yield near as much as the
Surprise, growing side by side — we could see through the Nor-
ways down to the ground so easily, and hardly at all through the
Surprise ; the stalks of Surprise were smaller and more numerous.

" Weasked our neighbour, who was extolling the Surprise, to pick

Manual of Agriculture, 185

out a few of the best stalks and count the grains, while we would do
the same with the Norways. The gi-ains on a stalk of Surprise were
out on the end of little branches from two to four inches long,
leaning off in every direction from the main stalk ; consequently
the surface was evenly spread with grains, preventing seeing
through them. The grains on a stalk of Norway were all on one
side,andnot overan inch from it, giving plenty of room to see through
them, and making them appear to poor advantage. Our friend
counted from thirty-five to fifty grains on his stalks of Surprise ;
while our Norway stalks, the double grains counting but one, gave
us eighty-five to one hundred and one grains. The Excelsior, New
Brunswick and Surprise were ripe July 14th ; White Schonen,
Common and White Probsteier four days later ; and the Norway a
week later. The Surprise were the most broken down, caused by
weak straw and heavy grain. Having rolled the field, we were
enabled to reap without waste or extra trouble.

"The Excelsior, New Brunswick and Surprise are a short chunky
grain, and in examining them a few days ago, found their hulls to
be thicker and stiffer than the other sharp-pointed long grains."

The result of experiments made at the Michigan State Agricul-
tural College was : — " Excelsior oats, from England, yielded at the
rate of sixty bushels to the acre ; Somerset oats, from England,
ninety-four bushels to the acre ; White Schonen oats, from Ham-
burg, sixty-two bushels to the acre; Black Swedish, also from
Hamburg, sixty-six bushels an acre ; Prince Edward Island oats,
sixty-two bushels per acre ; Brooks' oats, from Michigan, sixty-
eight bushels per acre; Norway oats (the seed from Jones and
Clark, New York) yielded fifty bushels ; and the Surprise oats, at
the rate of thirty-eight bushels to the acre. The weight ot the
Norway oats was only twenty-eight pounds to the bushel, while
the same measure of the last-named variety weighed forty-six and
a half pounds."

Oats must be cut early. If left to ripen on the ground, there is
no crop that will shell out as badly. Moreover, the straw, being
very valuable, makes excellent fodder when cut well on the green
side.

If oats be allowed to become dead ripe when standing, a large
proportion of the saccharine matter contained in the growing stalk
is lost for the purposes of fodder.

BUCKWHEAT.

This is a good crop to fill up blank places in a rotation. It is
not very generally grown, but is by no means an invaluable crop.
Land that has been allowed to run to waste has often produced an
excellent yield of buckwheat, when no other cereal could, with
any degree of certainty, have been raised. This is doubtless owing

186 The Canadian Farmer^s

to the fact that for a very large proportion of its sustenance it is
dependent upon the stores contained in the air.

It is found a useful crop on a summer fallow. From the dense
luxuriance of its foliage and straw, it effectually smothers weeds,
and where a heavy growth is secured, even the Canada thistle has
QO chance among it.

So great is this facult)^ that there would even appear to te
something in its roots and stalks absolutely poisonous to plant life.

It forms a fair green manure, and ploughed under stiff soils, is very
beneficial ; for not only does it contain much nitrogenous plant food,
but from its coarseness acts mechanically in opening out and ad-
mitting air and moisture to such soils.

It luxuriates in a dry, warm sand ; although it will often grow
on apparently worn-out lands and without m.anure, yet there is no
crop that responds to generous treatment more rapidly.

It is not, however, advisable to have land too rich for buckwheat,
because such soil is fitted for more profitable crops, and too great
richness of land will cause it to grow altogether to straw.

The time of sowing is usually from the last week in June through
the first week of the succeeding month. This in our Canadian cli-
mate may be considered an arbitrary rule, i.e. when the crop is
grown for grain.

If sown too early, it will, when in full flower, receive the very
dry weather of the latter part of July, and such is injurious to the
formation of the berry. If, again, the crop mature too late, it may
be caught by late frosts and utterly ruined ere it has come to
maturity.

The quantity of seed should be not less than one bushel per
acre. Whatever be the nature of the land, it should be made
mellow for a seed-bed. Buckwheat matures very rapidly; nine
to ten weeks being the usual length of time between germination
and maturity.

We have seen thirty bushels and more, and almost under any
circumstances we may rely on at least fifteen bushels per acre.

Harvested usually with the cradle, being laid in swathes, the
follower of the cradle then rakes it up into fair-sized sheaves, and
giving their heads a twist stands the bundles up on their butts to
dry.

Drying requires some time, not only because the stems are na-
turally green and juicy, but the season of harvest is usually cool.
The less handling that it receives when ripe the better, for it is a
grain that shells with very little shaking.
To thrash buckwheat the best plan is : —

" Where it must be thrashed by hand, a floor may be pre-
pared in the field, by scraping and sweeping a piece of ground or
by laying down sheets. Lay over this a bed of rails an inch or
two apart, raised from the ground sufficiently to make room for

Manual of Agriculture, 187

the grain when it is thrashed. On the rails throw the straw as
it is brought from the stacks, and thrash out the grain, which falls
through the openings between the rails. The straw can thus be
removed and separated from the grain very quickly. When all is
thrashed, remove the rails, and the grain may be cleaned on the
ground if desired without removing it to the barn. It is abso-
lutely necessary to clean buckwheat as soon as thrashed, or the
chaff being damp will heat and spoil the grain in a few days."

If possible, it should not be stacked ; for it is exceedingly easily
heated in the mow or stack.

It is better to thrash straight from the field, either by the plan
above, or by hauling on to the barn floor, stamping out with
horses or thrashing with the flail. It should be cleaned up imme-
diately after thrashing, spread and turned over to dry.

Flour. — A bushel of good grain should yield about twenty-five
pounds of fine buckwheat flour.

The grain is a good feed for hens ; for horses it is not good
except when chopped and well mixed with oats.

It is a very heating feed, and will be found good for pigs
preparatory to feeding for the butcher.

It is satisfying, and will keep up the animal heat and growth,
but will not make firm pork.

For hens, from its heating quality, it is a great promoter of good
laying.

An objection taken to buckwheat is frequently, that the shell-
ings of harvest lie dormant in winter, and sprouting the next
spring become mixed with the then growing crops.

If it precede a hoed crop, this will not matter, for cultivation
will destroy it.

If it is to be followed by a cereal, the better plan is : — As soon as it
has been removed from the ground in autumn, put a pair of heavy
harrows on and thoroughly scarify the stubble. Should we, after
that operation, have but a few days of warm or wet weather, all the
shed buckwheat will sprout, and, after the seed has once germi-
nated, winter frosts will destroy it.

PEAS.

The faith of Canadian farmers has of late been sadly shaken
in the cultivation of field peas as a profitable market crop ; and,
were it not for the value of the gi^ain for "pork producing, and of
the straw as fodder, we doubt not but that the crop would ere
this have been almost entirely discarded.

At the present day peas are raised chiefly as food for pigs, and
as such are very valuable, for they produce hard and firm
pork — such as delights the eye of the dealer.

A loamy soil is the best for the cultivation of this crop, but sue-

188 The Canadian Farmer's

cess is generally attained on land of a heavier nature, and some
varieties do passably well upon sands and gravels.

Varieties in common use are : —

Grown. — A good sound pea, of which a farmer in the neigh-
bourhood of Tngersoll, Ont., says : —

" They are larger than the common pea, command a higher price,
and will yield a third more. They are especially suited to rich,
strong soils, as they do not run to straw and fie down. They
can be cut like hay. I cut mine with a mowing machine. The
straw is much liked by stock, and they ripen earlier than most
kinds. I have grown them for the last four or five years, sowing
at the rate of three bushels of seed per acre."

Golden Vine. — One peculiarly adapted to the lighter soils.

Black-eyed Marrowfats are good heavy yielders, but mature
slowly and ripen late.

Daniel GRourke are a very superior large pea. They, however,
require better cultivation than the common pea. They do not
yield a heavy crop of straw, but are better bearers of grain.

Small Canada or Common Pea is a very hardy variety : a
heavy yielder even under inferior cultivation, but is extremely
subject to the attacks of the " bug," or pea weevil.

We have an experiment before us of several new varieties of
early peas :

'* Laxton's Alpha came up in 12 days.

Philadelphia Extra Early, in 14 "

Kentish Invicta, in 16 "

Carter's First Crop, in 17 "

Laxton's Prolific, in 19 **

My soil is gravelly, with subsoil of hard clay."

Solving. — Early and late sowing have each their advantages
and disadvantages.

Early-sown peas will usually bring a heavier yield, but are
more subject to bugs. Moreover, early sowing frequently brings
the field into harvest at about the same time as wheat and barley,
which is often very awkward to the farmer.

Late-sown peas are more free from the attacks of the weevil,
but will not yield as well.

Peas should be sown heavily, to cover the ground well and
keep it damp, and to yield a nutritious straw. From 2 bushels
with drill, to 2 J bushels and 3 bushels with the hand, are the best
quantities of seed.

Cultivation. — The drill is the best instrument for the sowing of
peas. They are thus deposited at an even depth, come up to-
gether, and grow and ripen evenly.

It is difficult to cover peas that have been sown broadcast , a
heavy rain, shortly after sowing, will sometimes expose two-thirds
of the seed.

Manual of Agriculture, 189

When broadcast sowing is adopted, the only safe plan of covering
is to plough the land first and level it down with one harrow
stroke, filling in the furrows well (if the ploughing has been per-
formed in the previous fall, so much the better) ; then sow the seed
and cover it in by a shallow ploughing. This is most effectually
done with the gang-plough or two-horse cultivator.

This plan applies to stubble or root ground. In sod, we have
seen the peas sown on the surface and ploughed under with a
light cut furrow slice. The pea is a vigorous grower, and easily
forces its way through the grass roots to the surface.

The better way is, however, to plough the sod first, and then,
levelling off well, use a drill ; or in ploughing set the sod well up
on end, as recommended for heavy land on paga 53 ; and the peas,
even if sown by hand, will fall in between the furrow slices,
and their crowns may then be dragged in to cover the seed, when
the crop will come up in perfect drills, just as wide as the furrow
slice has been cut. If possible, peas should be covered to a depth
of at least three inches.

It is not advisable to apply fresh dung to the seed bed, for we
look upon this crop as a land cleaner, and rank manure is apt to
induce a coarse growth of haulm at the expense of the grain.

As a Cleaning Crop, peas are by many highly approved of, and
often form the preparation for fall wheat.

Bj their luxuriant growth, they keep the ground shaded and
moist through summer, smother weeds, and, gathering a large
amount of sustenance from air and dew, do not exhaust the land,
but rather leave it clean, mellow and friable, well prepared for the
reception of wheat seed.

As a green "manure they have been highly recommended. By
some they have been thought equal in fertilizing elements to
clover, whilst they exceed clover in quantity of matter. Though
we do not agree to this proposition, we have no doubt that they
contain, when decomposed, no mean amount of plant food.

Green peas are, however, very difficult to cover with the plough,
and are, therefore, when designed to be so treated, better mixed
with oats, around which they twine and are prevented from trail-
ing along the ground and lying in heavy bunches. The use of the
chain on the plough will be found efficient in rolling the crop into
each furrow before the mould board.

The land should not be again ploughed until the mass of covered
vegetation is well decomposed.

As a green crojp for hay, peas are valuable.

They should be cut when the lower pods are well formed, and the
upper blossoms in full flower ; it is well in this case also to mix
oats with the seed, for the same reasons as above stated. In this
case, two bushels of peas and two bushels of oats to the acre is not
too heavy a seeding.

190 The Canadian Farmer's

For fodder, the peas and oats may be allowed to grow together
until ripe ; these thrashed and ground make an excellent feed,
especially for horses and cattle, and the straw is almost as nutri-
tious as any timothy hay, and far more so than much of the hay
that we have seen fed or taken to market.

The ordinary mode of harvesting is with the scythe, by which
the peas are pulled out, breaking off close at the roots, and are then
rolled into heaps ; this is slow, but clean.

The revolving horse rake is sometimes used, and the pea crop,
torn up by the roots, is deposited in bunches laid in wind-rows.
This is, however, a dirty plan, for much dust and soil is gathered
with the crop ; and as the fodder value of pea straw is very great,
should not be resorted to except under special circumstances of
haste or want of sufficient help.

Peas usually lying in one way may often be cut on three sides
by the mowing machine ; and though we have thus seen very
excellent and clean work done, it can only be accomplished for
certain with such particular kinds as grow well up off the land.

Hoiv Bugs get into Peas :

" After the pea vines have flowered, and while the pods are
young and tender, and the peas within them are just beginning
to swell, the bugs gather upon them, and deposit their tinj eggs
singly in the punctures or wounds which they make upon the
surface of the pods. This is done mostly in the night or in cloudy
weather. The grubs, as soon as they are hatched, penetrate the
pod and hwvy themselves in the opposite peas, and the holes
through which they pass into the seeds are so line as hardly to be
perceived, and are soon closed." — Insects Injurious to Vegetation,
by Harris, p. 63.

Strange to say, there are peculiar sections in Canada where the
farmer is not troubled at all by the pea weevil ; and it is from
these parts that reliable dealers obtain their seed.

The bugs in peas may be destroyed b}^ dipping the peas in scald-
ing hot water ; but as it is quite possible to destroy the germina-
tion of the pea by boiling, they should only be left for a very short
time — about a minute — or the pea will be ruined as well as the
weevil destroyed. Of course this plan applies in practice only to
small quantities ; our only remedy as farmers is to obtain our
seed from localities that are not infested, and to sow late.

The latest season at which peas for a crop may be safely sown,
may be computed from the fact that the growth of the pea from
germination to maturity averages about ninety -seven days.

CORN.

The varieties of corn are usually divided into two general
classes, — the yellow and the white, — and for general Canadian
agriculture such classitication is full enough.

Manual of Agriculture. 191

There are in America an immense number of varieties of corn,
but as only a portion of these are suitable to our more northern
climate, it is not designed to dwellat length upon them in this work.

The Dent, the Large Western, and the Early Prolific are the
kinds in general use north of the forty-second parallel.

The Sandford, — a white variety, — has been generally tried in
various parts of the Dominion, but has hardly been found suffici-
ently valuable, under our climate, to form a staple kind for general
cultivation.

Our own experience of the Sandford has not been practically
favourable.

It is in warm parts of America a very heavy yielder, and its
kernels are of a superior nature, but the only value to us is in the
profuse growth of its stalks and leaves, making it a desirable crop
for fodder or for soiling purposes, under which heads we shall speak
of it again. With us, as a crop, we found it late, and liable to be
caught by early frosts in the fall. It is possible that, when accli-
matized, it might be brought more rapidly to maturity. We also
found the ears very liable to become smutty.

The Dent Corn is a hardy variety, well suited to our climate,
and early.

The Early Prolific is a bright yellow eight-rowed corn, with
stalk of a moderate size, and a fair yielder.

Culture. — The cultivation of corn is peculiar, partaking in its
essential elements of the modes of culture both of roots and of
cereals. Like roots, it draws nourishment largely by leaf from the
atmosphere ; and like the cereal, it is a shallow-rooted plant.

The roots of corn extend for a long distance upon every side
along the ground, and ever seek to keep near the surface. For
this reason it becomes necessary that the soil (as in barley) be mel-
low and rich near the surface, and that all manurial food be sup-
plied from near the top of the seed bed.

It loves a loose, light and friable soil, and will not grow on
compact lands, in cold soils, nor upon such as are retentive of sur-
face water.

It can only be grown on clays with any certainty when such
have been thoroughly drained and worked to a mellow and friable
condition.

It does excellently well upon a clover ley or even upon an old
sod ; but such should, when turned up in spring, be ploughed very
shallow.

If we would apply barn-yard manure, the fall of the year is the
best season. A practical American farmer says that "he has
no hesitation in saying, that twelve loads to the acre, spread in the
early part of October, and allowed to lie until planting time before
being turned under, are equal in the effect they produce to twenty
loads applied and ploughed in, in the usual way, in the spring. "

192 The Canadian Farmer's

We take this with a grain of salt, merely remarking that some-
thing depends upon the state of the manure, whether long and
unfermented, or short spit-dung.

The better plan, when manure is fine and of the nature of mould,
is to put a shovelful of such short manure in each hill and cover
with dirt before planting the corn ; but as this is a long job, we
prefer to spread our short manure all over the surface, and work it
in with cultivator and harrows.

As we said above, the corn throws out roots to a great distance
along the surface, and it will come in the way of manure along
each root.

Doubtless the hill manuring will push on the crop faster at first,
and that is a great matter ; but the latter will give more lasting
benefit all through growth, and the succeeding crop will find the
land more generally and evenly rich.

We prefer, with long manure, to apply it to the previous grass
before turning down the sod.

On one point all practical men agree, that corn requires plenty of
air and light, and, consequently, must not be sown too close or thick.

Hills versus Drills. — Steady and far has raged the controversy
amongst corn growers on the respective advantages from planting
in hills or in drills.

At one time the advocates of the drill take the agriculturist's
mind by storm, at others the hill men triumph.

We believe in hills for a matured crop, and in drills for fodder.

Opposed to our own practical observations we find the opinions
of a number of worthy authorities.

The Michigan Agricultural College has made experiments, and
reports :

" The plots for trial were forty-eight rods long and two rods
wide. The rods were four feet apart ; the corn. Yellow Dent.
The plants were thinned, so as to leave the same number of stalks
on each plot. The soil and manuring, and the cultivation, were as
nearly alike as practicable. Both were cut up at the same time,
the corn husked, and corn and stalks all weighed separately. The
drilled portion produced 74 J bushels of shelled corn per acre, and
that in the hills 62| bushels. The drilled plot yielded stalks at
the rate of three tons per acre ; the other at the rate of two and
two-thirds tons." In all published American works and period-
icals, and in those of our own Dominion, we find strong advocacy
ofboth sides of the question.

Sowing. — The old saying is, plant eight kernels to a hill : " Two
for the worm, two for the crow, and four will be left for the far-
mer to grow."

If we plant in hills, four kernels are ample to grow, and unless
land be very rich, three will be found sufficient to thrive well.

Of one thing we may be certain, deep sowing will not do; the

Manual of Agriculture. 193

corn must be planted shallow; the nature of its roots demands that
it shall grow near the surface. From one and a-half to two inches
is deep enough ever to plant com.

Hills should be not less than three feet apart each way. In hills
we have sun and air accessible to the plant from four sides, and
we can cultivate the land both ways — a very important feature if
the corn has been planted on a foul sod or dirty stubble.

Weeds rising up most assuredly do the crop much harm, and
we must acknowledge that " what the corn loses in its early
growth is lost for ever ; the stunt goes with it to the end."

After-culture. — Stirring of the surface soil is essential to the
successful growth of corn.

Weeds must be kept out of sight, for the corn roots, being near
the surface, are brought into direct competition for food with
young weeds. Stirring of the soil gives it more power to
retain moisture, and allows the air to go down to the roots.

Shall vje hill up or not ? — The practice of moulding up corn
has been discarded by many practical men in Canada. There is
something to be said for the retention of the plan, and also as
against the system.

While the hilling helps to prevent the corn breaking down at
the lower part of the stalk in windy weather, after the top gets
heavy, the passage of the plough, in the old-fashioned way, cuts
into the long spread roots and so weakens the anchorage of the
plants.

Our own experience is in favour of hilling up, provided the
work is done in a reasonable manner. Instead of running a plough
along the centre between the drills and cutting in three inches or
more, we have now horse hoes that will mould up by gathering
the soil from close to the stalks and at a depth of a little over an
inch. A very excellent after-manure is a handful of ashes and
plaster to each hill, when the plants have attained the height of
five or six inches. Very marked effects are to be observed in corn
fields thus treated. Cultivation with the horse hoe should be
stopped as soon as the tassels appear upon the corn.

Harvest. — Corn should be cut for a crop as soon as the cobs have
become glazed and before they are dead ripe. Corn will harden
when standing out in shock, and, if cut early, all the saccharine
juices are retained in the stalks, which then make a valuable ad-
dition to the store of winter fodder.

The process of cutting and shocking is too commonly known to
need description in a Canadian work.

Husking. — It is customary for a man to husk, on job work, for
every tenth bushel. Supposing a man requires to make one
dollar fifty cents per day, and corn is worth seventy-five cents per
bushel, he would require to husk twenty bushels of slielled or forty
bushels of cob corn in a day ; and many a man has done it.
13

194 The Canadian Farmer's

Fodder corn. — Now that hay and all kinds of fodder have been
for some time back very high priced, and that appearances indi-
cate a good price for these articles for many years, corn is beginning
to be looked upon as a valuable crop for fodder.

When we are late with our planting, rather than risk a crop
after the last week in May, we should advise the farmer to sow for
fodder.

Immense crops of fodder have been raised from corn, and there
is on record an instance of nine tons to the acre. The land upon
which such a crop was raised must have heen gorged with manure ;
but by generous treatment and careful husbandry we may, each
one of us, produce a very heavy weight to the acre.

Corn stalks contain an immense amount of sugar, and being far
superior to straw, are little below the value of the best hay as
cattle food.

But when the corn is allowed to mature we lose much of the
saccharine juices, and by so much, the value of the stalk and leaf
is impaired as fodder.

The best fodder is that which is thickly grown — ^being finer in
texture, it is more relished by live stock.

We should advocate cutting corn when it arrives at the blossom,
were it not for the difiiculty of storing it without danger of
heating.

No doubt, at this stage the crop will be at its best for food -
but, owing to the difficulty just mentioned, it is practically far more
safe to wait until the leaves begin to have brown and yellow
stripes upon them. The half-formed ears and nubbins are still
valuable as food, mixed with the stems.

The U. S. Department of Agriculture has issued a statement
presenting a long line of testimony from various sources on the
value of fodder corn as a supplementary feed or soiling crop for
milch cows in summer. The conclusions deduced from the testi-
mony given are :

" 1. Green-corn fodder is neither worthless nor the poorest of all
soiling material.

" 2. It is the best when planted in drills or hills, not so thickly
as to prevent normal growth and development ; cultivated to
destroy weeds and grasses, and cut between tasselling and earing,
when the elements elaborated for production of the ear are stored
in readiness for immediate use.

3. It is probable, both from the rationale of the case and from
facts presented above, that in the more northern latitudes a mis-
take has often been made in sowing thickly southern corn which
cannot mature, the fodder from which fed in August must be very
nearly worthless. On the contrary, the fodder from northern corn,
especially sweet corn, drilled and cultivated, and fed just before
earing, is found to be very valuable.

Manual of Agriculture, 195

"4. Its value, compared with lucerne, millet, the best grasses, and
other plants containing a larger percentage of nutriment, taking
into consideration the quantity produced and the cost of its pro
duction, has not been determined fully, and should be decided by
a series of thorough and exhaustive experiments.

" It is evident from all that is conflicting in the opinion of differ-
ent feeders, that the differences are mainly due to the degree of
maturity or soundness of the corn. That from thick sowing, im-
mature, colourless and watery, is unfit to place before the cows of
any well-regulated dairy. It is probable that half that is fed is
either improperly cultivated or in a state of growth not produc-
tive of the highest results. If this should be the case, how stupid
to condemn the maize for the ignorance of the cultivator. If it is
found to contain too little nutriment for its bulk, or too small an
amount of the flesh-forming element, the suggestion found in the
practice of some, of giving a small amount of more highly con-
centrated nutriment in connection with corn fodder, is eminently
wise. This is a deficiency easily remedied. While corn is our
national crop, less fastidious in the circumstances of its growth
than almost any other, and capable of yielding so largely under
the proverbial neglect which characterizes our culture, let not this
fodder be discarded until something of greater practical value is
found, the superiority of which has been actually demonstrated
under local circumstances of soil, climate and cultivation."

The drill husbandry is undoubtedly better for fodder than broad-
casting, allowing more spread for roots laterally, providing more
sun and air to the growing corn, and permitting cultivation by hoe.

" Stalks were collected from a field where the seed was sown
broadcast, and also stalks growing in drills upon the same field, and
they were dried in a drying closet to expel the moisture. Both
specimens were planted at the same time (the 6th of May), and it
was found that the plants from the broadcast sowing contained
ninety-two per cent, of water, those from drills eighty-three per
cent, of water. Thus it was shown that the difference of solid
matter in the two was relatively as eight to seventeen per cent
The solid matter was composed of starch, gum, sugar and woody
fibre. There was almost an entire absence of sugar and gum in
the stalks from the broadcast sowing, while the stalks that had
grown under the influence of light and air held these nutrient
principles in considerable quantities. The stalks were collected
at the period of growth just before the ear begins to form, a period
when most farmers commence to cut the fodder for their cows." —
Boston Journal of Chemistry.

In order to secure the greatest amount of benefit from the corn
planted exclusively for fodder, experience has led us to adopt the
following rules :

1st. To sow so thickly that cattle will eat the fine stalks.

196 The Canadian Farmer's

2nd. To sow in drills, so that horse-culture may be freely given.
3rd. To cut at the right time, as already designated.
4th, and last, but not least. To cure as perfectly as possible*
inasmuch as sweet, green fodder is better than black, water-soaked,
half-fermented or mouldy fodder.

The greatest difficulty in the manipulation of the crop in this
form is that of properly drying before it is stowed away.

One plan is : To start in the field and reach round a number of
tops with both arms, and bind a hill or as much as can be reached
in a drill ; let this stand fast ; then cut round and set up all round
this shock, until it is just so big that it can be readily bound.

The middle part, that stands fast, will remain dry, while the
stalks piled around will dry perfectly. Before winter they may
be all drawn in. No fear of heating from the small proportion of
those in the middle, for they will have dried out standing. Neither
will such shucks be blown down by fall winds.

Broom Corn, though not general in Canada, has been grown
successfully in parts of this Dominion.

It requires much the same soil, cultivation and climate that are
suitable to the large western corn, or to Sorghum.

About five hundred pounds of broom per acre is a fair average
yield, and from this will usually be cleaned about fifty bushels of
seed.

It must ripen early enough to escape fall frosts when in the
ground.

General cultivation similar to that of any other field corn.
If planted in hills, it should be thirty inches apart one way, and
eighteen the other.

About thirty seeds are planted to a hill ; thus taking seed at
about the rate of three pecks per acre.

It requires to grow thick to ensure fineness of the stalk, — a
quality desired by the brushmaker.

The seed should weigh forty pounds to the bushel.

The Canada Farmer thus describes the securing of this crop :

" As the seed as well as the brush is of value, and the first

autumn frost kills the plants, the operation of harvesting should

be performed as soon as the seed is ripening and before frosts

come. The stalks are bent down at a height of two feet from the

ground, laying those of two opposite rows across each other

obliquely, leaving a clear passage between every other two rows

for the convenience of passing through when it is ready for cutting.

After it has been so bent over, the brush will cure sufficiently

in from four to six days to be cut, which is then done with a sharp

hook or sickle, leaving about one foot of the stalk, or even less, in

the ground. After being cut, it is sometimes laid out to dry still

more ; but if the weather has been very favourable, and the brush

is dry enough not to heat or get mouldy when packed away, it is

Manual of Agriculture. 197

carried to the barn. If it is bound in small sheaves, there will be
less trouble in getting off the seed. If not perfectly dry, the brush
must be spread out on scaffolds in the barn till dry. The process
of extracting the seed is called ' scraping the brush ;' this is done
in a machine invented for the purpose. It is an upright imple-
ment of elastic wood or steel, fastened to a bench of the requisite
height for an operator to sit at. The brush is taken in hand, and
the top part, as far as the seed extends, is brought down on the
top of the machine, forced through between the teeth, and drawn
outwards toward the operator. This separates the elastic portion
of the brush, and when drawn out the seeds are scraped off in the
process. If the stalks are cut before the seed is ripe, the brush is
stronger, and more elastic and durable ; but the value of the seed
then lost is a serious item, and unless the grower can make certain
of obtaining as much higher price as will cover the loss of seed, he
will not submit to the sacrifice. The seed weighs forty pounds
per bushel, and is said to be valuable for feeding stock, though we
have had no actual experience in that way to enable us to judge.

" Sometimes the broom-makers will contract to take the whole
crop on the ground, and attend to the cutting and curing them-
selves, when they desire to take pains to have a particularly good
article of brush."

To keep birds from corn when first planted, the following plans
are recommended :

Put the corn, say half a bushel, into a tub, and pour in hot water
enough to cover the seed ; let it stand a few minutes, then strain
ofi the water, and pour over the corn a little gas or coal tar, which
has been previously warmed until it is thin ; with a stick stir it
thoroughly, which will give every kernel a coating of tar ; then
dust over it dry plaster to prevent the grains sticking to one
another, and stir it up again.

No birds will touch it after such a dressing, and though the
seed will not sprout quite so soon, yet no injury has been done to it.

The following is from Brown's " Book of Manures :"

Saltpetre, one pound; copperas, sul. of iron, three pounds ; dis-
solve each in six quarts of water, in separate vessels (rain water
is best). Put eight quarts of shelled corn into a tub, and over it
pour the two liquids ; stir the whole well together, and allow it
to remain twenty -four to thirty-six hours. Just before planting,
drain it off. As soon as the corn is dry enough, coat it lightly
with coal tar and dust it with plaster, and then plant. Seed pre-
pared in this way is not liable to be attacked by birds or worms,
will give the young plants an early start, a vigorous growth, and
an early maturity. If crows or other birds attack it, they will not
try more than a hill or two ; and if they eat what they have pulled,
will be found on the ground dead or dying.

But the surest way, and we have succeeded with the plan over
and over again, is —

198

The Canadian Farmer's

" String " the field with white cotton twine ; fasten it to short
stakes, and cross it about every three rods. The crows are '' scared"
of a trap, and keep at a respectful distance.

There is a use for corn-husks not generally adopted. Dried
and torn into strips, they make excellent mattresses — clean, sweet,
soft and elastic.

Plaited into a rope, and wound round, they make good door mats.

Corn-cribs.-— We extract the following from the Americaii

Agriculturist:

" FiQ. 26. " Corn-criDs might be

improved in a double
way by a somewhat
similar arrangement of
the floor. Generally,
if any mould occurs in
a crib, it is on the floor,
as here is found the
first corn put in, which
is generally dampest,
and here the least venti-
lation takes place. A
floor raised " roof-vShap-
ed" (Fig. 25), and holes
bored in it for ventila-
tion, would effectually
prevent dampness or
mould in that part of
the crib ; and if slide-
improved Corn-crib. doors are put here and
there at the bottom, at convenient places, the crib may be emptied,
or nearly so, without taking a shovel or scoop into it. We have
found that rats may be excluded from the crib by a peculiar
form of post, turned smoothly in the lathe. The shape is some-
what like a mushroom, the stalk smallest at the bottom. The
blocks (sunk in the ground) are of wood, with holes made to
receive the posts, which enter four or five inches and fit tightly.
This causes the crib to stand firmly. When the posts are made
smooth with sandpaper, no rats or mice will mount them."

Estimated cost and profit from an acre of corn ;

Rent of land $3.00

Ploughing in fall 2.00

Hauling out manure 2.00

Cultivating in spring 60

Harrowing twice 60

Planting 50

Cost of seed 30

Cutting, husking and cribbing 5.00

$14.00
Credit. — 40 bushels shelled corn, at 70c $28.00

Manual of Agriculture. 199

Leaving a profit of $14.00 per acre, with the com fodder thrown
in, and the land in first-class order.

Soiling. — For this purpose corn is one of the best fodders that
can be grown. The best recommended kind for this purpose, on
the continent, is Stowell or Evergreen Sweet Corn.

The Sanford is an excellent variety, as it puts forth a profu-
sion of leaves, stalks and suckers, and is a very rapid grower
when young.

There are a great many varieties of early sorts, suitable for soil-
ing purposes, amongst which we may mention —

The Sioux, Button, Mandan, Sugar^ Tuscarora, Adams, King
Philip, and the Chinese Tree.

The subject of soiling will be treated more fully in the pages
devoted to cattle.

FLAX AND HEMP.

Flax. — " It is strange that so many professing to take a deep
interest in agricultural matters neglect this valuable branch alto-
gether. It only requires a visit to the Counties of Wellington and
Waterloo to convince the most sceptical that the growth and
manufacture of flax is one of our most important interests in the
new Dominion. At St. Mary's will be found the produce of not
less than five hundred acres ; at Woodstock, at the fine mills oi
Mr. Brown, the produce of seven hundred acres, three hundred ol
which, I am told, were grown by himself at Elora ; the produce of
other five hundred acres at Baden, Conestoga, Stratford, Mary-
boro', and several other places. The most active operations are
being carried on. Employment is given to from twenty to thirty
hands at each of those mills, and a much larger number during
the grassing season, which continues several months.

" While we are all most anxious to make the most of our lands,
flax presents itself as another of the crops well worthy the atten-
tion of the farmer, from the fact that it is bringing as high a price,
when ready for market, as it did during the American war ; and
it only fluctuates in price like all other products.

*' Farmers have often been urged through the press to sow this
crop, each on at least a couple of acres on his farm. This would
soon be the means of flax mills for scutching being established in
every part of the country.

" From the experience of every man that has tiied flax in this
country, it has been found to answer best when it is early sown,
so that it may get a clear month before drought overtakes it. To
those who have not made the trial before, I would say it is desira-
ble to put flax in a piece of the cleanest and richest soil on the
farm , clay loam is preferable to any other when the soil is deep
and friable. On such land you may safely sow two bushels of
seed to the acre.

200 The Canadian Farmer's

" If you want to seed down, do so by all means with flax ; there
need be no apprehension about the clover plant being removed on
pulling the flax. On the contrary, it moulds the plant and causes
it to spring up with more vigour and freshness.

" Let not the pulling deter the farmers from growing flax any
longer, as they can as readily obtain a machine for pulling pur-
poses as they can a reaper for taking off* their grain, and at the
small cost of seventy-five dollars or eighty dollars each.

" I should have said, while speaking of the proper kind of soil
to sow flax on, that nothing can beat a piece of old ley, and if
ploughed in the autumn, it may be sown in the spring with great
certainty of a good crop. Let the ridges be made as wide as pos-
sible, with as few furrows as you can get along with, as the plant
invariably grows more in length along the edges of the furrows,
and it is most desirable to have it all as near one length as possible.

" During the last two years the price of this article has been
much reduced, owing to the great faD in cotton since the American
war ; while barley, wheat, and indeed most other crops bringing
high prices, several of the enterprising scutch millers have been
induced to abandon the enterprise for a time.

"What is most wanted at the present time is an established
market at some convenient point for shipping, and I have little
doubt some of our enterprising neighbours will soon fill up this
want also, so that we shall not have to depend on the periodical
visits of those buyers who only find their way here when the arti-
cle is scarce in other countries.

" There are now at work at least twenty scutch mills. Some
will produce this year fifty tons of clean scutched flax. At Wood-
stock, St. Mary's, Maryboro' and Elora, a much larger quantity
will be produced, but in round numbers say each of those twenty
mills will produce fifty tons. This would make one thousand
tons. At current rates — three hundred dollars per ton, or fifteen
cents per pound — this would net the handsome sum of three hun-
dred thousand dollars, foreign capital brought into the country in
a few months. The value of the seed also will amount to another
large item, the price per bushel beitig from one dollar and a half
to one dollar and sixty cents for every fifty-six pounds.

" In looking over the map of the Dominion, I find there are
over forty counties that have as yet to give the cultivation of flax
a trial ; but if each of those counties would only produce an equal
amount to that now produced in Wellington or Waterloo, we
should have a handsome revenue coming into the country annu-
ally of from eight to ten millions ot dollars for fibre and seed, to
say nothing of the increased employment it would create, and help
in a great measure to bring an industrious, skilful class of immi-
grants to our shores."-^ John A. Donm^dsoa^ G. I. Agent, in
The Canada Farmer.

Manual of Agriculture, 201

Eem'p. — The following is an Essay to the Canada Farmer for
1869, on the Cultivation and Preparation of Hemp, by H. G.
Joly, Esq., M. P. :—

"It is necessary that I should begin by stating, for those who
may not be acquainted with the fact, that the male, or fecundat-
ing flower of the hemp, and the female, or seed-bearing flower,
grow upon separate and distinct plants. So that hemp, unlike
flax, whose every plant bears seed, is divided between female, or
seed-bearing plants, and male plants, which do not bear seed, but
are indispensable for the fecundation of the female plant.

"I have never read nor heard that it was possible to distinguish
the sex of the plant in the seed of hemp ; male and female must,
therefore, be sown and grow up together. There is nearly an
equal quantity of each ; if anything, the female slightly predomi-
nates. The male ripens about three weeks sooner than the female.
It is known to be ripe when its stem and leaves assume a yel-
lowish hue. That colour makes it easily distinguishable from the
female, which at that time is still perfectly green.

" There are no two countries — scarcely two localities in the same
country — where hemp is treated identically in the same way ; but
I think all the various modes of treatment can be safely classified
under one or another of the two following heads — the old-fashioned
European, or the new-fashioned Kentucky mode.

"The choice of the ground, the way to prepare it, the sowing of
the seed, and the cultivation between seed-time and maturity, are
the same in both these modes of treatment, which, in fact, differ
but on one point, the harvesting of the crop.

^^ Choice and Preparation of the Ground.

" I will quote some good authorities on that subject, whose words
will carry much more weight than mine, merely stating that, from
experience, I have found them to be perfectly correct.

" Mr. Bradford, of Kentucky, says : —

" ' The 8oil for hemp must be a strong, calcareous, deep, warm
loamy, and perfectly dry one, deeply and thoroughly prepared by
ploughing and cross-ploughing, according to its previous condition,
until a fine state of tilth is produced.'

" Henry Clay says : —

" ' The lands which produce hemp best are those which are
fresh, or which have lain some time in grass or clover. Manuring
is not much practised yet (in Kentucky). Clover is used in lieu
of it. Fall or winter ploughing is practised with advantage. It
is indispensable in old meadows or old pasture grounds intended
for producing hemp.'

" Sebastian Delamer says : —

" * Hemp gives but a very unsatisfactory return on soils of too

202 The Canadian Farmer's

sandy or clayey a nature, on shallow soils, on those which are apt
to be scorched by the sun, or are unable to receive their due share
of atmospheric influence. Fresh broken lands, in the midst of
woods and forests, are favourable to its growth.*

" Sowing the Seed.

" We sow hemp, in the district of Quebec, about the first week
in May. You can safely sow yours, in Upper Canada, at least a
fortnight sooner. Sow it broadcast, about one bushel to the acre
(for hemp grown for rope-making, which is the only kind, I think,
that can be advantageously raised for the present in Canada).
Harrow before sowing, and harrow and cross-harrow lightly after
sowing.

" Never sow seed older than the preceding summer's growth, foi
it is admitted by every one that hemp seed loses its vitality
rapidly. The seed must be plump and full, and rather dark in
colour. Whitish and greenish seeds are always bad.

'' Last year I imported seed from Piedmont, noi'th of Italy. It
came to an absurd price, but, with proper management, it ought
to be got here for four or five dollars a bushel. This year I im-
port Kentucky or Missouri seed (I think it is the same), for which
I expect to pay, delivered in Quebec, from three to three dollars
and a quarter per bushel. Mr. Wm. Evans, of the Agricultural
Warehouse, Montreal, imports all my seed. From experiments
made last year, I am, so far, inclined to give the preference to the
Missouri seed over the Piedmontese. Some of the plants from
the latter are, it is true, much taller than any produced by the
former ; but the crop yielded by the Missouri seed was a good
average length, and much more equal in height and thickness than
that from the Piedmontese seed.

" There is no cultivation whatever required between seed-time
and maturity ; the rapid growth of hemp chokes up all weeds ;
in fact, it weeds itself

" Harvesting.

" I have now reached the point at which the European and
Kentuckian modes of treating hemp begin to differ from one an-
other— I mean the harvesting — and I will proceed to show in
what that difference consists.

" In Europe, when the male hemp has become ripe, it is pulled
by hand, plant by plant, allowing the female plant to stand, in
order that its seed may ripen, which takes about three weeks
from the time the male is pulled. After being pulled, the male
plants are laid out to ret, or, as it is more generally called in the
country, to rot, either on the ground or in water, like flax. The
same process of retting is followed both in the European and the

Manual of Agriculture, 203

Kentuckian treatment of homp. When destined to be retted in
water, hemp is put up in bundles, which must not exceed ten
inches in diameter or thereabouts at the thickest part, so that the
water may act easily on the centre of the bundle. Five or six
days in stagnant water, when the weather is still warm, is gene-
rally sufficient. It takes much longer in running water. When
the water is cold, owing to the lateness of the season, it is better
to ret on the ground. It takes from one month to six weeks to
ret on the ground — the time depending completely upon the
greater or lesser frequency of rain.

" When the bark which contains the fibre can be easily detached
from the wood, in long strips uninterrupted, from the root to the
top of the plant, the retting is completed. Hemp ought not to be
spread upon the field to dry the moment it is taken out of the
water, for it is then soft and brittle, and might be injured. The
bundles must be put up standing along a fence, a wall, or, if
neither be quite convenient to the pond, some light scaffolding
erected for the purpose, after slackening the ties, which can be
readily done by pushing them up towards the thinner part of the
bundles. They are left standing for a day or two, until the water
has run out of them. The plants are then fit to spread on the
ground in thin layers. When dried on one side, turn them over,
and a few hours of sunshine will complete the operation. Do not
take them in unless thoroughly dried.

" When the seed hardens, the female plants ought to be pulled.
It would not do to wait until the seed is quite ripe, because the
bags containing it will then burst, and the seed drops on the
ground, and is lost. The seed is allowed to ripen for a few days
on the field, care being taken to prevent the head of the plant,
which contains the seed, from resting on the ground. It must not
be beaten out with the flail. It is too soft for that, and would be
crushed. The best plan is to bring barrels or boxes to the field,
hold the handful of hemp with one hand, the heads of the plant
placed inside the barrel or box, and with the other hand, armed
with a small stick, beat the heads until the seed drops, after which
operation the female plants are retted in the same way as the
male plants.

" When the seed is extracted, it is taken under shelter, and laid
in very thin layers, not more than a couple of inches thick, for it
is very apt to heat when not thoroughly dry. It is well to
turn it over from time to time. After a month or so, when well
dried, the seed is winnowed and put up in bags or barrels.

" Such is the European mode of harvesting. Now for the Ken-
tuckian. In Kentucky, Missouri, and other parts of the States,
the whole crop of hemp, male and female, is pulled, or more often
cut, at one and the same time. The period chosen is about half-
way between the maturity of the male and the female plants, say

204 The Canadian Farmer's

about, ten days after the male has ripened. The instrument used
for cutting hemp is something like a reaping-hook, only the blade
is much stronger, nearly straight, with the slightest inward curve,
and about twenty inches long ; the handle is straight, two feet in
length.

" If the crop is to be cut with the hemp-knife, the operator is re-
quired to cut at once through a width corresponding to the length
of the hemp, and as close to the ground as possible, spreading the
hemp in his rear, in an even, smooth swath. It is afterwards
spread out on a meadow for retting. This is ' dew retting.'

" I think you will agree with me that the Kentucky mode is
preferable, for the following reasons : —

" 1st. Because it does not exhaust the soil, the seed not being al-
lowed to ripen ; but if it stands for seed, it is on all hands ac-
knowledged to be an exhausting crop.

" 2nd. It saves one pulling, both male and female hemp being
pulled or cut at once ; and that one pulling saved amounts to more
than one-half the work of harvesting. It speaks to common sense
that the first pulling alone, according to the European system,
when you must choose and pull the plants one by one, takes more
time than a general pulling or cutting of all the plants at the
same time ; and when they come in Europe to the second pulling,
that of the female plants, as they do not stand quite close together
(the male plants having been removed), the work does not proceed
quite as rapidly, in proportion to the number of plants pulled, as
it does in Kentucky.

" 3rd. When it is intended to ret hemp in water, the warmer the
water is, the more rapid and perfect is the retting. Now, as the
season advances towards autumn, the water cools rapidly. The
ten or twelve days during which the female hemp is allowed to
stand after the male is pulled, and the time afterwards required
for hardening and ripening the seed, and taking it off (which is
often protracted to one or two weeks by rain, for the seed cannot
be knocked off unless the ])lant is perfectly dry), may cause a long
delay, during which the water often gets too cold for retting the
female plant (as happened to me last fall), and then you must ret
on the ground, when the colour is not so fine. This applies more
particularly to Lower Canada, where the seasons are shorter.

"4th. I think the fibre of the female plant is stronger when
pulled before the seed is ripe.

" The high price of labour on this continent accounts for the new
mode of harvesting adopted in America. The Kentucky hemp is
quite as strong as the Russian, but its colour is not as clear, owing
to its being retted on the ground, and it accordingly compels the
rope-maker to employ tar of a lighter colour, which is more ex-
pensive than that required for the Russian hemp. The water in
Kentucky is not soft enough for retting hemp.

Manual of Agriculture, 205

" The Kentuckians sacrifice the seed, but they have found out
that the saving in labour both in the pulling, and afterwards in
the curing of the seed, more than compensates for the loss of the
seed. In other places, where labour is cheaper, it may be other-
wise. We have still a great deal to learn from experience.

" For those who will try the European plan (as both plans ought
to be fairly tried) and save the seed, I will state that, taken equal
weights of flax-seed and hemp-seed, hemp-seed will yield in oil
two-thirds of the quantity that flax-seed does. This statement,
however, must not be looked upon as conclusive. It is merely a
personal opinion, based upon the results of one experiment made
this last fall at Messrs. Turcotte's oil mill at Beauport. Those gen-
tlemen had never worked hemp-seed before. As we gain in ex-
perience we may expect more favourable results. But, even cal-
culating upon that, if an acre of hemp yields, say, twelve to four-
teen bushels of seed — and I think it will do that if carefully
worked — that yield would be an important item, well worth the
farmers consideration, where cheap labour can be obtained. The
oil is employed, in Europe, for painting. I got ours tried here by
a reliable painter, and it gave much satisfaction. It appears, how-
ever, to change the colour of white lead a trifle more than flax oil
does, but it is just as good for every other paint. The hemp cake
is fed out to cattle with the same results as flax cake.

" We have seen that b}'- following the Kentucky mode of harvest-
ing, the seed is sacrificed. In order to procure the seed necessary
for the next season's sowing, they lay out a small patch of good
land in hills, a couple of feet in diameter, disposed in straight
rows, three feet apart each way. They plant seven to eight seeds
in the hill. The same rules observed for the cultivation of Indian
corn will apply in the after culture of hemp-seed. Those plants
with plenty of room to expand laterally, will throw out, in
every direction, branches covered with seed. Of course, their
fibre is quite worthless, owing to those same branches, but the
yield in seed is extraordinary. I took myself, from two plants,
about one pint apiece of clean seed. You can form an idea of how
small an area of ground would be required in order to yield one
bushel of seed.

" As to the pecuniary returns from hemp, grown for the fibre,
per acre, I must base my calculations upon the price paid our
farmers last summer, namely, half a copper a pound for unretted
hemp, and one copper for retted, delivered at the mill. One man
was paid at the rate of sixty dollars per acre, irrespective of the
value of the seed, but that was the highest. Those who had well
selected the land generally ranged between that rate and thirty-
five dollars. The drought in our part of the country was extra-
ordinary. The hemp crop suffered very severely from it, as did
the flax, so that our success was far from complete. Some farmers,

206 The Canadian Farmsr's

who had sown their hemp in good soil, but such as Sebastian
Delamer describes as ' apt to be scorched by the sun,' were dis-
appointed. Some others, who pitched it carelessly in poor soil,
without due preparation, and expected a miracle, were more than
disappointed. One must be prepared to meet these checks with
patience. However, the general results of last summer's trial, al-
lowing for the great damage done by the unusual drought, which
at one time made me fear that all was lost, were of such a nature
as to encourage those upon whose help we must mainly depend —
the careful, intelligent and enterprising farmers, whose example
will tell in the course of time upon the others.

" When the male and female plants are pulled separately, the
female being kept for seed, the price of half a copper a pound for
unretted hemp is not unfair to the manufacturer. Both plants
are then brought to him ripe ; the sap is dried up ; the leaves are
gone, and in that state it will not lose more than half its weight
in retting, which will bring it to one copper per pound for retted
hemp. True, the manufacturer has the trouble of retting it,
but it may be worth his while to have ponds, and ret it in water,
which will give him a superior article, the farmer generally retting
on the ground. But that same price of half a copper a pound for
hemp not retted, when both the male and female plants are pulled
at once, is more than the manufacturer ought to pay ; for while the
male is dry^ and worth that price, the female is still green and
loaded with leaves, and will lose more than half the weight in
retting ; there ought to be some deduction in that case, say one-
fifth or one-sixth on the whole ; if the crop has been cut down
with the hemp knife, the deduction ought to be much smaller, if
any, because the manufacturer has not then to pay for the weight
of the roots, which is a considerable item. For my part, until the
whole business is more practically understood by us, I would prefer
it if the tarmer were to ret his hemp himself, even on the ground,
and deliver it at the mill at the rate of one copper a pound, as
some have done. At that rate one acre, well cultivated, ought to
yield him about fifty dollars. It would not impoverish the land
if both male and female plants are removed at one time, and would
prepare it for wheat.

" Of course, it is useless to start the growth of hemp on a large
scale, where you are not prepared to dress it. In Europe they
dress it by hand. Labour is too expensive here for such a slow
process. We must have recourse to machinery, as they do in the
States. A hemp mill worked by water, such as I put up at Lot-
biniere last fall, given the motive power (water-wheel, steam or
other ; it appears that in Kentucky they use horse-power, in the
absence of water-power), and a shaft on which to hang two pulleys,
one for the break and one for the scutchers, will cost from $300
to $350 at the most.

Manual of Agriculture. 207

" The whole machinery consists in a six-roller break (Sandford &
Mallory's pattern), manufactured by Mr. Wm. Moody, at Terre-
bonne, near Montreal, and sold by him for $240, and of two scutch-
ing pulleys, with five knives on each (the pulleys made of birch
and pine, and the knives of well-seasoned maple or spring steel).
Hemp requires much less scutching than flax : I think two scutch-
ing pulleys, with five knives each, will be sufficient for the former,
where five such pulleys are required for the lattei*. Put over the
machinery a covering, consisting merely of a roof without sides,
so that the dust will not trouble the men.

" The scutching pulleys, with the knives attached to them, must
be raised off" the ground a good deal higher than for scutching
flax. The shaft of those pulleys ought to be at least four feet
from the floor of the mill, the men who scutch standing on stools.
The reason is that, if you leave your scutching knives as low as
for flax, the ends of the hemp will lie on the ground (it is often
eight or nine feet long), when the knives, in their swift revolu-
tions, pick them up. The hemp then gets entangled, and ultima-
tely rolled up round the shaft, and is lost, as I found out to my cost.

" The outlay of $300 to $850 for the machinery of a hemp mill,
though not very considerable, is more than one would like to in-
cur for the simple experiment of a new thing, especially when un-
dertaken with some doubt as to the final success. But, without
incurring any expense, the trial can be made — as I made it before
building the hemp mill — either at any flax-dressing mill, or, in
the absence of such a convenience, with the common old-lashioned
flax-break, worked by hand, so well known to every farmer. K
there be a flax-dressing mill at hand, you can make use, for 3'our
experiments, of the flax-break, taking care to slacken a little the
screws that keep down the upper rollers. Hemp, being thicker
than flax, requires more room between the rollers. If your flax-
break is not very strong, to avoid injuring it, it will be well to cut
off* the roots of thick hemp before passing it through the break,
but you are no+ obliged to go to that trouble with a regular hemp-
break. Once broken, scutch the hemp with your flax scutching
knives, on revolving pulleys, taking great care th.t the long ends
do not get entangled ; or with a common hand scutching knife.
Six pounds ol retted hemp, at the rate of one copper a pound,
cost the manufacturer fiVQ cents, and will produce one pound of
clean dressed hemp. The cost, delivered at Quebec, of Russian
hemp of the same quality as our Canadian hemp, was, last fall,
about 9c. per pound, which I am told is not a very high price in
this market. This would leave a margin of four cents a pound
for dressing and delivering here ; and I think we could give it
cheaper than the Russian, hemp requiring much less scutching
than flax. It is indispensable that it should be sufficiently retted,
whether that be done by soaking in water or exposure to dew.

208 The Canadian Farmer's

*' We are now beginning to dress our stock of hemp at the mill,
for Mr. Onslow's rope- walk at Quebec. By the spring, I shall be
able to state with more accuracy the cost of dressing hemp, and
the yield of retted hemp in dressed hemp. I should not be sur-
prised if, on an average, it took something less than six pounds
for one. Some people tell me that they have found it to be five
pounds for one. Experience will show.

" I earnestly trust that the results of these experiments will be
such as to encourage the cultivation of hemp on a large scale, and
that it will be found profitable both to the farmer and to the
manufacturer in Canada, as it has been found in so many coun-
tries."

BOOTS.

Potatoes — {Solanum Tuberosum).

" Let the sky rain potatoes." Shakespeare.

The history of the potato is shortly this : —

It is a native of America, and was unknown to the ancients ;
it is no unworthy reward to the inhabitants of the old world for
the daring and energy displayed in the discovery and colonization
of the new.

The word Potato is said to be a corruption of the Indian word
batatas. In English it reads potato ; in Spanish, battata ; French,
"patate ; and in Mexican, papas.

It has been found growing wild in Central America and Mexico,
and a species now grows upon the Rocky Mountain slopes, from
which the present Colorado potato beetle has so thickly emigrated.

It is supposed to have been first introduced to Spain by Sir
Walter Raleigh, and thence to Europe generally and to Great
Britain from 1650 to 1740.

As food it is a most valuable esculent, and, whether for man or
beast, may be ranked as an agricultural production next in im-
portance to that of wheat, the place of which it, to a great extent,
has taken as an article of diet with both rich and poor, European
and American.

It has become an universal article of food, containing great nutri-
ment ; it has been proved alone to sustain life longer than any
other kind of food; its fat-producing qualities are very gieat;
and it can be grown under any climate and upon any soil in the
known world, although it luxuriates in a temperate clime and
light soil

The general cultivation of this crop has prevented any wide-
spread famine on the old continent, for when all crops have tailed
the potato has generally proved reliable. In Canada, the chances
ofa famine are reduced to a minimum, for our climate and soil
are admirably adapted to the raising of both flour and potatoes.

Manual of Agriculture.

209

The following Table shows the comparative value of the potato
as a food : —

Nutritive Elements.

Starch -
Dextrin
Sugary matter
Albuintu
Casein
Gluten
Fatty matter
Fibre or I Tusk
Salts and loss

Potato.

Wheat.

Corn.

64-20

2-25

13-47

5-77

1-00
13-31

73- 8
4- 7

7- 0 i"^
13- 5

1-00

71- 2

0- 4 I

12- 3

9-00
5- 9

1- 2

100-00

100 00

100-00

Rye.

64-00

11-00

2-25

10- 5

3- 5
&• 0
1-75

100-00

Rice.

86- 9
0- 5

7- 5

0- 8
3- 4
0- 9

10000

The ashes of the potato are thus divided by chemical analyses
made by Professor Morton —

S eS
§«2

CL|

(1h

12-57

Tuber .....

55-75

1-86

5-28

2-07

13-64

4-23

0-52

7-10

Haulm or Tops ...

28-02

16-26

7 09

16-96

7-62

6-88

3-85

1-05

12-33

Totals in 200 parts -

83-77

18-12

12-37

19 03

20-19

20-52

8 08

1-57

19-43

Or, according to an analysis made by Sir Humphry Davy, the
avoirdupois pound of 7,000 grains of a potato contained —

Of soluble Mucilage 970 grains.

OfpureStarch 695 "

Of Fibre 622 "

Of Water 4713 "

7000 "

The proportion in which the nutritive ingredients exist in
different species of potatoes doubtless varies, but tbe above
analyses show, to a certainty, how valuable an addition this tubei-
has been to the health and food of man and of beast.

As wood ashes contain a very large proportion of potash, it is
reasonable to infer that these must be veiy valuable as fertilizers
for the potato crop ; and experience teaches us, that we have at
home a lertilizer which is capable of superseding to a marked de-
gree the expensive foreign importations known as special manures.

The effect of a])p]ying wood ashes on the grass previous to
ploughing down for potatoes will be, that the clover takes for its
share the greater proportion of phosphates, leaving a large residue
of potash for the use of the succeeding crop.

Soil. — Potatoes may be grown with success upon almost any
14

210 '^he Canadian Farmer' s

soil, except such as have run together, or are very retentive of
surface water.

Immense crops have been recorded from the clay lands, where
such have been rendered dry by drainage and have been cultivated
up to a friable state.

Swamps, when reclaimed and thoroughly relieved of stagnant
water, have produced immense crops ; while new lands, especially
where the timber fallows have been burnt, being richly filled with
potash, are very superior lands for the potato. Indeed, owing
partly to the hoe cultivation that it must necessarily receive, and
where the top soil is bound in by a hard sod, potatoes are the very
best crop to grow on new Jand for the first few years.

Some idea of the varying adaptability of differently constituted
soils to the wants of the potato crop, may be gleaned from the fol-
lowing experiment : —

The produce of four eyes cut from one species and planted on
five difterent soils was : —

On a piece of new land, hardwood ridge 36 lbs.

*' a strong rich loam 34 "

*' a light loam, rich 26 "

" a good gravelly soil 20 "

" a good sandy soil .... 16 "

Of course, this is only partially indicative of the capabilities of
these soils in the production of potatoes ; much depends, in actual
practice, upon the variety of seed, the thorough cultivation both
before and after planting, and the climate.

But it strengthens the position that we have always assumed,
that the heavy lands are the greatest yielders, provided that capi-
tal be invested in bringing them into a loamy or friable condition.

The exhaustive cry is raised upon all sides, against every crop :
and some have asserted, and been backed too by excellent author-
ities, that the potato crop is very exhaustive of all -soils.

Our experience points to the contrary. No crop that we know
of (except the clover) is so certain to leave the land in good heart.

Turnips are very exhaustive, and, if not well manured, leave the
ground yellow and impoverished ; but this is not the case with
potatoes, and a good crop of this tuber is certain to be followed by
a heavy cereal crop.

Although not as exhaustive, neither is this crop as good a
cleaner as turnips.

If potatoes received, at the hands of the husbandman, the same
care and tender nursing as he is perforce obliged to devote to his
turnip crop, they would produce three or four hundred per cent.
a better yield than is at present the average return in Canada.

Culture. — The best position in rotation for this crop is after sod,
a young clover ley being the best antecedent crop. This needs no
scientific illustration ; it is consonant with the experience of every
practical farmer.

Manual of Agriculture. 211

It is better always to plough for potatoes in the fall : where a
sod is turned, it has a chance to rot better ; and where a stubble is
to be prepared, the winter frosts help to ameliorate the soil.

Coarse manure should, if possible, be kept out of the field ; nor
is it generally advisable to apply manure directly to the potato
crop. Too great richness of barn-yard manure is aj)t to make the
plant grow greatly to top, and to render the tubers hollow and
stringy.

Where manure is to be used, it is best to make it in the yard,
by piling as it is drawn from stalls and byres, then draw it out in
winter on the sleighs, and spread it as early in the spring as frost
will permit.

Or, it is sometimes laid in the bottom of the drills, the potatoes
laid on it, and the whole covered by splitting between the drills.

In this latter case the manure should be thoroughly well rotted,
and it is, at best, an inferior plan, especially upon the lighter soils.

We have before us the experience of a Quebec farmer from Pon-
tiac, on the raising of potatoes, which we commend to the atten-
tion of our readers. Our authority says he has never failed to raise
from four hundred to five hundred bushels to the acre : —

"He selects the earliest and best potatoes of the variety he wishes
to grow, in the fall, and lays them away for seed. He fall-ploughs
the land eight inches deep, and cross-ploughs it in spring four
inches deep, thus leaving the seeds of weeds, &;c., at the bottom of
the seed bed. He plants about the 12th of May, cuts his seeds
into from three to six pieces each, a week before planting time,
and is careful not to have the eyes sprout before planting. He
has the ground well harrowed and levelled, marks rows both ways
two and a half feet apart each way, by means of a wooden rake
with four large teeth in it, each the required distance apart to
mark the rows. He drops three pieces of potato at each cross mark,
and does all the afterwork by means of a plough, which he runs
both ways between the rows ; and harvests his crop of potatoes
fifteen to twenty days ahead of any of his neighbours. He grows
potatoes on the same land for three years in succession, and then
puts in wheat, of which he always gets a good crop after potatoes."

The experience of another practical farmer is thus worded : —

*' Experiments started to ascertain the comparative value of
various fertilizers. — Those planted upon the barn-yard dressing are
taken as a standard by which to measure the results of the others.
Barn manure we will call one ; the ratio of yield of the other fer-
tilizers will stand thus ; Hen manure and plaster, one half pint per
hill, gave an increase of one-fouith, or rates at one and one-fourth;
leached ashes, one pint per hill, one-half less ; no dressing, two-
thirds less.

" Recapitulation. — Barn dressing, one ; hen manure and plaster,
one and one-fourth ; leached ashes, one-half; nothing, one-third. My

212 The Canadian Farmer's

potatoes were "but little affected by the rot— no observable difference
upon different fertilizers — hut where a low placeoccurred the rot was
particularly at home. I have been saving my fowls' droppings with
zealous care for several years, and experimenting upon various crops
with them. Plaster I find the best substance to mix with them, and
would advise its use freely, even to the 'half-and-half point. I think
this compound, home-made and easily handled, as the old codger
observed of the cat race, 'a leetle ahead' of all other farm-produced
fertilizers, all things considered.

"J. W. Lang."

Mode of 'planting. — Some difference of opinion has always ex-
isted in regard to the relative advantages of planting in hills or
drills.

The hill system is recommended for the reason that cultivation
with the horse hoe can be afterwards performed in both directions
across the field ; whilst the advocates of the drill consider that a
greater yield can be obtained from the acre under the same circum-
stances of cultivation.

One 'plan. — Where the ground is rich enough without manure,
or the manure has been spread broMdcast, the potato sets are drop-
ped, either in hills or drills, in every third or fourth furrow, and by
this method, when the ploughing is finished the potatoes are also
sown. When the plants appear above ground, a light harrow is
put on, and the surface of the soil mellowed around the tops ; this
is also done to advantage under any system of | lanting, as by
means of the harrows the weeds on the surface are destroyed or
thrown back, so that no more cultivation is needed until the tops
are well out of the ground.

As regards hills or drills, perhaps the better rule to lay down is,
that when the land is rough and difiicult to work, hills will be
found the most advisable, while a better yield may be generally
expected from diills where the land is free from stumps and the
surface smooth.

Drills should be twenty-eight inches apart.

Time of 'planting must be regulated by circumstances. From
the day when the frost comes thoroughly out of the ground, plant-
ing may go on at convenient intervals until the middle of June.
If there be favourable weather, some one planting must get the full
benefit. The most important time in the growth of a potato is
its season of blossominor. It the weather is favourable at that time,
the crop may be counted upon as secure.

A common mode practised in Ireland, and in some parts of the
north and west of England and Scotland, is that known as the
lazy -bed fashion, which consists in f)lanting the sets in beds of a
few feet in width, covered from trenches formed with the spade.

The manureib spread upon the land when ready for planting, and
the beds aie formed of various widths — ^irum three to five and

^ Manual of Agriculture. 213

seven feet — the trenches being duor to a width of eighteen inches
to three feet, and to the depth of one foot to twenty inches, ac-
cording to the nature of the soil. The sets are then placed in
drills upon the dung, nine or ten inches apart, and at various dis-
tances between the rows, and cov^ered with soil from the trenches.
About three weeks afterwards, as soon as the sprouts begin to ap-
pear, the beds are covered equally with two or three inches of dirt,
dugalso out of the trenches. This operation is not only beneficial to
the plant by giving an addition of fresh mould, but has also a ten-
dency to check the growth of, and indeed in a great measure to
destroy, the couch and other weeds which make their appearance
on the land ; and it is repeated, so far as earthing up the plants,
without covering them after bloom.

Seed. — There is probably no crop grown by the farmer that in
yield and quality degenerates more rapidly than the potato.
This is apparent when we consider the faded glories of those
varieties that we were wont to consider the princes of the pot
some ten years ago. Where are the Cups and the Messhanocks gone
(the latter so rare that we hardly know that we have even spelt
the name right) ? But as the crop degenerates quickly, so is it
capable of very great and comparatively rapid improvement.

Seed-hulb. — The manner in which new kinds of potatoes are
raised is by the apple or seed bulb, which grows attached to the
stalk and above ground.

These apples require to be gathered in October and November,
and planted out again b}^ themselves in the succeeding spring.
When they have grown two or three inches above ground, they
require to be moulded up and afterwards treated as an ordinary
potato crop. When the potatoes, thus raised from seeds (and
which are seedlings from the variety on which the balls or ap|)les
grew), have come to maturity, careful selection should be made of
those from which it is intended to propagate the new variety;
gathering from beneath the haulms that are most healthy and
vigorous, and that have ripened early. It will take about three
years to raise a variety to put upon the market. There is in this
method very great risk ; for out of one hundred seetllings so
raised, it is quite possible that but one or two will ha^e any distinc-
tive advantageous qualities over the parents.

Whole or cut potatoes for seed. — The controversy on this point
has waged rancorously for the last fifty years. JNo matter how
old tiie l:)Ook that the student may take up ; if there be any infor-
mation on the cultivation of the potato, he will find the contro-
versy taken up between the advocates of planting whole tubers
and those of growing from cut seed.

For our own part, we consider that the point, notwithstanding
the flood of editorials and of correspondence that is constantly
poured into the agricultural press, rests mainly upon the healthi-

214 The Canadian Farmer's

ness and variety of the seed, and the method of cultivation by the
husbandman.

Of one thing we must be careful, not to let sprouts grow too
long on potatoes before planting ; they weaken the vitality of the
seed.

We will shortly touch upon the point at issue — whole or cut
potatoes for seed.

Dr. F. M. Hexamer, who has devoted much time to the history
and habits of the potato, and who is always looked upon as one of
the best authorities on any subject connected with that plant in
America, in a lecture delivered to the Cornell University, says
upon this particular part of our subject: —

" It makes no difference how potatoes are cut for planting,
The sprouts may be broken off, and they will grow again. If the
piece has no eye, it will nevertheless nearly always grow ; and even
if the eyes are all cut out and the potato planted, it will grow ;
because the branches of the medulla, which end in the eyes, are
still there, and, like the branches of a tree when the points are
cut off. they sprout out anew and grow. The eyes may be cut out
and planted, and the potato used for food, as is often done when
they are scarce and dear. If a very choice variety is scarce, the
eyes may be cut out and divided and subdivided, and they will
grow and produce large potatoes.''

In this way the lecturer said he had raised $600 worth of
potatoes from $10 worth of seed

The chief objection to the planting of whole seed has ever been
that such will throw up too many sprouts, in the same manner as
would thick- sown corn ; and will, in consequence, yield too many
small potatoes.

The summing up of the very many experiments that we have
seen recorded, and from the few that we have ourselves made, has
led us to believe that sets cut from fidl-groiun healthy tubers are
as productive as the whole tuber ; and there is undoubtedly
effected a saving of seed.

Of one thing we are convinced, that it is a sad error to pick out
the small potatoes and plant them for seed. " Like produces
like" is the universal law, and as we require to grow a medium-
sized potato of each sort, neither big and coarse nor small as a
marble, so should we use seed of a medium size.

From a great variety of experiments carried on for many years,
it has been recorded that" the heaviest crop of potatoes, and those
most profitable to the grower, will, in most soils and seasons, be
obtained from tubers of considerable weight, and will be found
least subject to decay in wet and cold seasons. It is, however,
probable that, when the soil is very dry, so as to preclude all
grounds of fear of the cuttings decaying, more regular and better
rows of plants might be obtained from single eyes placed at

Manual of Agriculture. 215

short distances, with a moderately large portion of the matter of
the tuber, than the whole tubers."

This last opinion we cordially endorse from our own observation.
A neighbour grew the finest crop of Peerless last year from sets
cut to a single eye out of good medium-sized seed, that it has ever
been our lot to see taken up.

Seed and tail end. — There is a difference in the nature of the
eyes or beads which appear on the surface of the potato, those at
one end being more prolific than at the other. A great difference
of opinion exists as to the use of the seed end or of the tail end.

The stems which spring from the nose of the potato arc more
vigorous than such as spring from that end of the potato into
which the fibre which connected it with the mother plant, and
from which the potato itself is grown, germinate but feebly, and
do not attain the size of those coming from the seed end.

In every field of potatoes that we have seen, where the cuts
were taken for seed from both ends indiscriminately, some of the
stems grow with much more vigour than others, which undoubtedly
proceeds, in the majority of cases, from planting weak sets cut
from the tail end of the potato.

Our own opinion halts midway between Dr. Hexamer's one-eye
theory and those who throw away the seed end.

And we have observed, invariably, that the most regular -grow-
ing and even -ripening crops of potatoes are those from sets that
have been made by splitting the tuber from nose to tail.

After-culture, — As we before observed, a stroke of the harrows
immediately after the top comes through is as effectual as a hand
hoeing, and breaks the mould round the young plant ; there is no
fear of dragging off the plant with a light pair of harrows.

The after-culture consists simply of the free use ot the horse
hoe and moulding up the potatoes, all of which should be done for
the last time before the potatoes bloom.

It has been asserted by Sir John Sinclair, that " the pluckiiig of
the flowers ensures a greater weight of crop.'' And another
authority says it has been proved by many other persons, as well
as by himself, that " if the blossoms of a potato plant be picked off
as soon as they may become visible, the quantity of potatoes will
be considerably increased."

We should prefer to see the experiment tried on some other
farm than our own.

Digging. — We are adherents of the good old fashion of
lifting with the fork, believing that by the time potatoes have
been ploughed, picked from the ground and cultivated and har-
rowed for a second and third picking, there is little saving effected
over the old-fashioned plan ; whilst the work is most assuredly
not as cleanly performed.

We have ourselves had no opportunity of witnessing the opera-

216

The Canadian Farmer's

tions of the potato diggers, but we know them to be impractica-
ble in any but well-cleared fields. The accompanying is an en-
graving of this implement.

Fig. 27.

Potato Digger.

Storing. — All potatoes should be dug as soon as thoroughly
ripe , that is, as soon as the tops can be detached by pulling from
the bulbs. They should be left upon the surface of the ground,
if the weather be open, until the earth upon them is perfectly dry.
Upon lighter lands, two hours will often suffice for this purpose.
They should then be piled or pitted in small heaps containing
from twenty to forty bushels, and left to sweat until there be
danger of injury by frost. This sweating process has to be under-
gone somewhere, and it is far better that it should take place in
small heaps outside, than when stored in large quantities in a
cellar.

If potatoes are to be left out through our long Canadian winter
in pits, such pits should be dug in a dry spot, from two and a half
to three feet deep, and great care should be exercised in the for-
mation and covering of the heaps. We are no advocates for large
pits. We consider fifty bushels to be the best size, and our rea-
sons for so thinking are, that our risk of loss by excess of heat or
frost is thus reduced to a minimum ; that such is a handy-sized
pit to open and pick over during the snatches of fine weather that
we may have in winter or early spring , and that fifty bushels
just about make a convenient waofgron load.

Lay the heap upon a very light bottom of straw, just sufficient
to keep the root from contact with the earth. Pile up neatly ;
cover with a foot of loose straw and six inches of earth firmly
compacted with the spade. Build in a ventilator, and leave it
until the very severe weather sets in. Long ere that time the
potatoes will have been thoroughly sweated. Then take away
the ventilator and make all snuff.

Manual cf Agriculture. 217

We would recommend every farmer to hang one or more ther-
mometers in his root cellar. They can be bought at fifty cents
apiece, and the cost is well repaid by the knowledge that our cel-
lars are neither too hot nor letting in the frost. In entering a
cellar from the outer air upon a cold winter's day, it is impossible
to tell what is the temperature inside by the feel. An atmos-
phere in which the temperature is at 26^ will feel warm after leav-
ing the open air, where the thermometer stands in the neighbour-
hood of zero.

We have found it an excellent plan to keep potatoes in barrels,
and any that we have intended to hold over for seed we have
always so kept in the cellar

Diseases. — The common disease of potatoes, although not so bad
as in the old countries, is yet very prevalent in Canada, and is
known as Rot.

The disease arises from the existence of innumerable and infi-
nitely small particles of moisture in the skin of the potato ; and
from this knowledge, it would appear a natural suggestion, that
heat applied to the skin of a diseased potato would absorb such
moisture, dispel it and prove a cure.

The presence of rot is generally accompanied by mildew of the
stalk ; indeed, experiments in proof of this have been tried and
have resulted successfully.

" The vines should be watched closely, and on the first appear-
ance of the disease, plaster should be applied ; not merely sowing
it broadcast, but dashing it over and under the vines, bringing it
in contact with the stalks, using a handful to three or four hills.
Piaster for this purpose should be very dry and powdery, and
should be applied when the air is still. One application is seldom
sufficient ; it should be renewed as often as circumstances require.
Examine the vines about three days after a cold night, or about
the same length of time after a heavy rain. If the leaves begin
to curl and wither, apply plaster at once, and, in short, whenever
the vines show any signs of drooping ; be the causes bites of
insects, excessive humidity of the atmosphere, or sudden change of
temperature — drooping from any cause whatever indicates the ap-
proach of mildew, which should be promptly met "with an applica-
tion of plaster.

" As before stated, plaster the vines as soon as they are up ;
again after the last ploughing and hoeing ; after that, one, two or
three times, as circumstances indicate. By this method the vines
are kept of a bright, lively green, and the tubers are kept swelling
until growth is stopped by frost. Another point gained is, pota-
toes so grown are so sound and free from disease as to be easily
kept for spring market, without loss by rot." — Br. 11. Compton, in
Utica Herald.

The remedy as applied to the potato itself was effected by a

218 The Canadian Farmer's

Hussian physician, who took in a quantity of potatoes with the ob-
ject of converting them into sets for the following season, and, for
want of other accommodation, they were placed against the wall
which separated the kitchen fire from the room adjoining (this
was in England). A strong heat from this fire, which was daily
lighted at an early hour, and kept well supplied with fuel until
a late hour at night, was diffused amongst the potatoes, and
produced the unlooked-for effect of absorbing the moisture con-
tained in the skin of the potato.

Quite unaware of the process which the potatoes had undergone,
the doctor had them cut into sets and planted them, and when
taken up for use, he was much astonished and highly delighted to
find that he had not an unsound potato in the entire crop, whilst
the crops of his neighbours, on every side of him, were totally
unfit for use.

It has been suggested that by laying out the potatoes, either
before or after cutting them, upon the drying-floor of a malt-kiln,
or on the floor of a bakehouse, all the good effects above nam.ed
may be obtained.

Doubtless the action of covering the potato sets with plaster,
as performed in Canada, has to a limited degree a precisely similar
effect.

Computation of Crop. — Taking up a three-ounce potato, we
should call it a fair tuber; a five-ounce, we should call a fine one ;
and an eight-ounce, we should call an extra root. Probably the
average will not be over three ounces for the ordinary seed potatoes.

Now, suppose we grow our potatoes in ridges, twenty-eight
inches apart from centre to centre, there will be eighteen thou-
sand six hundred and seventy lineal feet of ridge in the acre. Let
us put the sets nine inches apart the one from the other along the
drills, and we shall have twenty-four thousand eight hundred and
ninety-three sets to the acre ; and if each set produced three pota-
toes weighing three ounces apiece, or an aggregate weight of nine
ounces to a set, the acre would produce fourteen thousand and
two pounds, or two hundred and thirty-three bushels.

We will now take smaller seed on inferior soil, and see what a
vast difference a slight variation in the productive power of each
seed will make in an acre's yield.

Supposing one potato to only average two ounces ; we have, as
before, twenty-four thousand eight hundred and ninety-three sets
in an acre, and if each set produced only two potatoes of two
ounces, or an aggregate weight of four ounces to a set, the acre
would produce six thousand two hundred and twenty-six pounds,
or one hundred bushels.

From the reverse process it will readily appear that where a
ci'op only yields one hundred bushels to the acre under the drill
husbandry, twenty-eight inches between drills, and nine inches

Manual of Agriculture,

219

between sets, each set produces an average yield of four ounces of
potatoes ; whilst the result of two hundred and thirty-three bush-
els per acre points to an average yield of nine ounces to each set.

Let us now take the first, or four-ounce yield to each set, and
figure out what the yield should be of the crop when sets are
placed at six inches apart.

We shall thus have thirty-seven thousand three hundred and
forty sets, which, yielding each four ounces, would give us nine
thousand three hundred and thirty-five pounds, or one hundred
and fifty-five bushels, which is probably the average yield in
Canada under good cultivation.

Now, from this it would appear that, with our estimate of the
yield of the average potato for seed at two ounces, we shall, with
drills twenty-eight inches apart, and six inches between the sets,
ret^uire thirty-seven thousand three hundred and forty sets to the
acre.

If each seed potato makes four sets, we shall require nine thou-
sand three hundred and thirty-five potatoes, weighing two ounces
apiece, or one thousand one hundred and sixty-seven pounds,
— equal to twelve bags per acre.

Table showing amount of seed potatoes required, tvhen cut or
uncut, and when set at different distances apart, in drills twenty-
eight inches from crown to crown.

Whole, and planted 6 inches apart

Cut into two sets

((

Cut into four sets
(<

Cut into five sets
(<

Cut into six sets

77 bushels per acre.

50 "

38 "

26 "

19 "

38 '*

25 "

19 "

13 '♦

19 '*

13 "

10 "

15 "

10 "

13 "

The advantages, then, of

cuttinor

average-sized

potatoes, or
planting them whole, is the question: whether it is better
to plant whole potatoes at a distance of twelve inches or eighteen
inches from one another, or cut them into sets and plant them
nearer to one another.

We favour the latter plan.

Varieties. — There are several hundred varieties of potatoes ; we
shall content ourselves with allusion to a few best tried on this
continent.

Early Goodrich have fallen off" considerably in the last two sea-
sons ; Harrison, large and prolific yielders ; Garnet Chili, good

220 The Canadian Farmer's

red winter kind, well liked in Canadian market, and hardy as
ao^ainst rot ; Californians, hardy but very coarse ; Early Rose,
seedling of Garnet Chili, originated in 18(51, first introduced to
farmers in 1868, suit Canada well ; large white-fleshed, good
cookers, but already show great tendency to degenerate ; Gleason,
good yielders, and very superior for the table ; Feachblow, late,
very uncertain yielders, much sought in Canadian market for win-
ter use ; Idaho, a new kind, not well tested yet in Canada ; Peer-
less, excellent white flesh and abundant yielders.

Amongst the early kinds for the garden, we find Ash-leaved
Kidneys, Early Handfield, MyaWs Prolific, Early Shaw — all
small, and quick growers.

Amongst the medium earlies are Buckeye, and amongst these
may also be, perhaps, classed Early Rose and Early Goodrich.

New Kinds. — Amongst the new kinds (1873) we have — Bresee's
King of the Earlies, or No. 4. This is, without exception, the
earliest variety in cultivation, having been carefully tested by
many agriculturists in various parts of the country the past sea-
son, and by them pronounced from five to ten days earlier than
the celebrated Early Rose, and fully its equal in quality, produc-
tiveness and general appearance. Vines quite dwarf, averaging from
ten to twelve inches ; leaves large ; tubers large and handsome,
roundish, and slightly flattened ; eyes small and somewhat pink-
ish ; skin flesh -colour, or dull pinkish white ; flesh white, floury ;
cooks well, and is of the best quality for the table ; has thus far
proved very hardy, and the earliest in cultivation.

The Climax is a seedling of the Early Goodrich, and originated
with Mr. D. S. Heffion in 1864. It has a stout erect stalk, large
leaves ; tuber about medium size, smooth, cylindrical form, swell-
ed out at centre ; eyes shallow, but strongly defined ; skin con-
siderably netted or russet, rough white ; flesh entirely white, solid,
heavy, brittle and never hollow ; boils through quickly, with no
hard core at centre ; is mealy, of floury whiteness and of superior
table quality. It is equally productive with the Early Rose, hut
afev) days later; earlier than the Early Goodrich ; while its keep-
ing qualities are as good as those of the Peachblows.

Bresee's Peerless. — The latest and best of all Mr. Bresee's seed-
lings for the main crop. This is also a seedling of the Garnet
Chili, and originated from the same seed-ball as the Early Rose.
Skin dull white, occasionally russeted ; ej^es shallow, oblong ; flesh
white, mealy ; grows to a large size, often weighing from one and
a half to two pounds, and enormously productive. At a-trial
before a Committee of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in
September last, this variety obtained more votes as to quality than
any other of Bresee's seedlings.

Late Rose. — A sub- variety, or a sport of the Early Rose. The
parent hills of the Late Rose were found a few years ago, in Wash-

Manual of Agriculture. 221

ington County, New York. It was observed in digging a field of
Early Rose that some of the vines had not ripened with the main
portion of the ciop, and on digging, their tubers were found to be
much larger and more numerous than those in the ripened hills.

It is two or three weeks later than the Early Rose; has yielded
in the last season from two hundred and fifty to three hundred
bushels per acre ; is hardier, healthier and a better keeper, retain-
ing its good qualities till new potatoes come in. It also grows to
a larger size than the Early Rose.

From the above we should consider this new variety as a very
valuable addition to our keeping potatoes.

Extra Early Vermont — A seedling raised by Mr. George W.
Woodhouse, of West Rutland, Vermont, in 1866, from a seed-ball
of the well-known Jackson White. A patch of the Garnet Chili
was growing near them, and it is the opinion of experts in potato
culture, that the blossoms of the Jackson White must have be^^n
fertilized from those of the Garnet Chili, as it strongly resembles
many seedlings of that variety. The habit and growth of the new
seedling are much like those of the Early Rose, as well as its gen-
eral appearance. Vines of medium height, somewhat spreading,
the tubers growing very compactly in the hill. For four years
they have been grown side by side with the Early Rose, both
under the same treatment, and have proved from seven to ten
days earlier than that favourite sort ; they are more productive ;
fully equal if not superior in quality ; flesh very white, dry and
floury ; an excellent keeper, and in every way a most promising
variety.

Patterson' sBovinia, or Cattle-Feeder Potato — Imported to Cana-
da from Mr. Patterson, of Dundee, Scotland ; is very rich in fari-
naceous matter, and can be grown on ground that is too rich for
turnips.

This potato has actually yielded, in Scotland, the enormous
product of twenty tons, or six hundred and sixty-six bushels to
the acre.

Mr. Patterson, of Dundee, indeed affirms that forty tens per acre
have been grown with extra culture.

We have ourselves examined and weighed some of these pota-
toes at the store of the Messrs. Bruce, of Hamilton, and can readily
give credence to this apparently extraordinary yield under sjjecial
cu tivation.

We believe that this potato is destined to come into general use
as a cattle feeder; the amount of nutritious food yielded from an
acre of such, at an average rate in pi'oportion to size, would give
many times more good food for our stock than any other known
kind of field roots.

The following are a few experiments on the potato crop, taken
from the Canadian agricultural press.

222 The Canadian Farmer's i|

A farmer from Brampton, Ontario, sends the following : —

" Soil, rather light loam. Ploughed from sod in spring of 1868,
and sown with peas. Cross-ploughed after peas taken off, and
ploughed again in the fall. Manured last spring, about fifteen
loads to the acre, and ploughed and harrowed. Furrows for seed
run with the plough twenty-seven inches apart, and from four to
five inches deep. Seed cut into pieces with two or three eyes in
each (Early Rose only one eye in a piece). Planted from 20th to
28th of May, about a foot apart in the furrows, and covered with
the hoe. Ground harrowed down smooth immediately after plant-
ing, cross-harrowed about two weeks afterwards, and harrowed
again lengthwise after the potatoes were up. Horse-hoe run
through twice afterwards. No hand-hoeing or earthing up.

" Some of the varieties rotted very badly, and none could be
said to be entirely free from the rot.

" In the subjoined Table, the first column gives the names of the
several varieties grown ; the second, the rate of yield of sound po-
tatoes per acre, in bushels, ascertained by actual measurement of
ground and crop ; and the third, the amount per acre in bushels of
potatoes injured and decayed by rot, according to careful estima-
tion:

Cuzco 415 8

Harrison 411 11

Gleason 397 4

Farly Goodrich 385 12

Calico 302 23

Early Eose 301 43

Garnet Chili 257 45

Peachblow 235 78

Buckeye 197 71

Mercer 133 15

Mixed lot, chieflyCups 126 140

Myatt's Ash-leaved Prolific 98 5

Kidney 91 130

Early Handsworth 84 6."

A farmer from Orillia, Ontario, says : —

" I planted fourteen kinds on sandy loam, once ploughed, with-
out manure ; previous crop, oats.

" I tried their qualities for the table in May, before planting,
and in October after taking them up, and also weighed an equal
number of hills of each, so as to test their relative productiveness.

" The first and second columns give the quality, the third column
the quantity :

KINDS.

May. Oct. Bush.

Buckeye 1 1 20

Maiden's Blush 4 1 23

Wild Mexican 2 1 17

Buckley 2 2 25

Meshannock 2 1 12

White Garnet Chili 3 2 12

Red Garnet Chili 4 2 20

Oct.

Buob.

Manual of Agriculture. 223

KINDS. May.

Banff Cup 1

Black Diamond 4

Early Goodrich 3

Cuzco 5

Harrison 4

Calico 4

" The Early Rose under this treatment, or want of care, produced
sixty pounds to each pound planted, and from one middle-sized
potato of the Gleason variety, cut into eyes, I dug sixty -one
pounds.

" No rot observed, except in a very few potatoes of Meshannock,
Mexican, Buckeye, Early Goodrich and Early Rose.

" With manure, the relative quality and productiveness of some
kinds would possibly have been different.

" Of the above varieties, the best late appear to be in the order
named, Banff Cups (or Rouo^h-skinned Cups), Carters or Buckeyes,
Meshannock, Mexican, Buckleys. The best early, Early Rose,
Early Goodrich, Buckley, Mexican, Black Diamond.

" The most productive, Gleason, Buckleys, Early Rose, Harrison,
Cuzco, Maiden's Blush, Banff Cups, Red Garnet Chili, Buckeyes,
Early Goodrich, Black Diamond, Mexican.

" Early in the spring I spread over it a light coating of manure
which was not very well rotted. It was then ploughed some six
or eight inches deep, and harrowed smooth. I then made drills
three inches deep and two and a-half feet apart. I then cut
twenty-five eyes or sets from twenty varieties, the sets being as
nearly equal in strength as possible. These I planted in the drills,
one foot apart, making twenty rows of twenty-five sets each,
covering the sets about three inches deep. They were all planted
on the 10th of May.

" The following were the varieties planted :

" Ainerican Varieties. — Early Rose, Early Goodrich, Climax,
Bresee's Prolific No. 2, Bresee's King of the Earlies, Harrison, Van-
dervere, and Garnet Chili.

" English Varieties. — English Fluke, Royal Ashleaf, Cotter's
Early Kidney, Wheeler's Milky White, Early Racehorse, and
English Ashleaf

"Scotch Varieties. — Patterson's Victoria, Baron's Perfection,
King of Potatoes.

" Irish Varieties. — White Rock.

" Canadian Varieties. — Early Shaw, Bennis' White.

"They were well cultivated, and no weeds allowed to grow, and
the following table gives the number of potatoes and weight of
each variety.

Potatoes.

Ibg.

122

145

195

154

101

134

230

204

112

122

108

164

12i

150

234

115

174

224 The Canadian Farmer's

Early Rose

Early Goodrich.

Climax

Bresee's Prolific No. 2

" King of the Earlies

Harrison

Vandervere

Garnet Chili

Patterson's Victoria

Baron's Perfection

King of Potatoes ••

English Fluke

Eoyal Ashleaf

Cotter's Early Kidney

Wheeler's Milky White

Early Racehorse

English Ashleaf

White Rock

Early Shaw

Beunis' White

" From the above results I arrive at the following conclusions :
For poor land and ordinary culture the American varieties are far
the most profitable potatoes to grow ; that all the European varie-
ties require land heavily manured and good culture, especially
those of the Ashleaf or Kidney family, of which are Cotter's Early
Kidney, Royal Ashleaf, English Ashleaf, Patterson's Victoria,
Baron's Perfection, King of Potatoes, Early Kacehorse. These
are calculated more expressly for garden culture, and require
forcing in order to yield largely. I find also that nearly all the
European and Canadian varieties can be grown on heavily manured
rich land, and still be dry and mealy when cooked ; in fact, many
of them do not show their good qualities unless grown in very rich
soil, while on the other hand most of the American varieties are
almost spoiled for table use by growing in rich or heavily manured
soil. The King of the Earlies is an exception, however, to this
rule ; like the European varieties, it requires a rich soil, and is far
better adapted to garden than field culture. As it would be occu-
pying too much space to give my judgment of the q'lalities of the
different varieties, I will let that pass." — J. H. Thomas^ Brooklyn
Oyitario, in Canada Farmer.

Potato Grafting. — Take any two sound potatoes of different
varieties whose good qualities you wish to retain. Cut out all
the eyes of one of them entirely with a common pocket-knife,
then cut a piece out of this potato in the form of a wedge or of
any other shape, and substitute for the bit so removed a piece
having a good eye or two, nicely sprouted, about half an inch long,
then tie tirmly together with a piece ot bass matting or string,
having firbt run a couple of ladies' hair-f)ins clean through both
potatoes. These hair-pins will prevent the tie from slipping off
the potatoes, as well as assist in holding both parts together. The

Manual of Agriculture. 225

fit must be a good one, and the bark or rinds of each must meet,
as in any other mode of grafting. The operation must be per-
formed quickly, and the grafted set must be planted as soon as
possible, as the sap would dry up if exposed for any length of time
to the air. I have my trench opened and manured ready to
receive the grafted tubers, and they are placed therein and covered
up level with soil as quickly as I can get them ready. As some of
the grafts may fail, it is best to graft at least a dozen or more sets,
which will produce round ones and kidneys from the same root.
Pink-eyed and mottled ones, purples and reds, are also produced
of various shapes and sizes. Some are early, some late, some
large, and some small. All the produce, both large and small,
must be kept in bags and planted out the following year, for until
they have been planted it cannot be told whether the varieties are
early or late. The early ones can easily be discovered by the
early decay of the foliage. These should be marked with a stick.
The produce of each, or such of them as look promising by their
shape and general appearance, should be put into separate bags or
boxes, and numbered in the usual way. Let it be perfectly
understood that not every one can graft potatoes successfully. The
operation should be performed by a person who thoroughly under-
stands grafting fruit trees. Then there is a chance of success. —
Cor. Gardener s Chronicle.

A novel experiment was tried by a neighbour this season. He
took an Early Goodrich potato, cut out every eye, and inserted in
their place the eyes of the old-fashioned red potato. He made only
one hill of the grafted potato, and he dug from that one hill sixteen
pounds and a half of potatoes that were neither like one nor the
other, but like Jacob's cattle, ring streaked and speckled.

Corn and potatoes together. — We are informed by an experi-
menting farmer, that he obtains more corn and potatoes from a
field, by planting them in alternate rows, than by planting the
corn and potatoes separately in different parts of the field. The
rows of corn haye more room, and may be planted thicker in the
row. The rows being three and a-half feet apart, each two corn
and potato rows are seven feet. He plants the potatoes quite
early in the first place, and when they are just peeping, or about
the usual corn planting time, cultivates well between the rows
and plants the seed. There is some diversity of opinion on the
propriety of this practice of mixing, and it is doul3tful if there
would be any gaia where the usual distances for the hills are
maintained for the two crops ; but if their dissimilarity admits of
each being more closely planted in the row, there may be a decided
advantage.

ON TURNIPS.

Upon all the lighter lands of Ontario, the culture of turnips,
16

226 'I'he Canadian Farmer's

and of roots and hoed crops generally, is looked upon as the funda-
mental basis of a successful and clean system of farming. The in-
troduction of the culture of turnips into the British islands, which
is supposed to have taken place in the County of Norfolk nearly
two centuries ago, and from which county it spread into all por-
tions of the British islands, was the keystone of that system of
farming which has been since so successfully built up. Before
their general adoption, the farmer was at a loss to know how to
successfullj^ manage a proper rotation of crops, and was thrown
back upon the plan of la^^ing down land for an indefinite period
as pasture. It is not so very many years since the first Swedes were
raised in Canada, and since their introduction our farmers have
been enabled to engage more largely in the raising and fattening
of cattle, and have in this manner not only found a profitable em-
ployment for the farm all the year round, but have increased by
the manufacture and application of a large amount of barn-yard
manure the fertility of their lands. It is an observable fact, that
the progress of the agricultural status of those parts of Ontario
where the raising of roots and the fattening of stock have been
prosecuted upon a large scale, has been very much more marked
for the last twenty- five years than in other portions where these
means have not been generally adopted. Where hay was formerly
used up wastefully for the purposes of wintering stock, it is now
found that stock can be well put through the cold season by straw,
with the help of turnips.

Soil. — The soil best adapted to the growth of turnips is any of
a fertile nature, and sufficiently dry free and loose to shut out
the probability of baking. Indeed turnips can be raised on any
soil in Canada, but upon those of a clayey nature there is required
far more labour, and consequently a more expensive tillage, than
upon the sands, gravels or loams. The plant also delights in a
cool, dry climate ; but although it was once thought a Canadian
summer was too dry, it has been found that not only can the crop
be raised successfully here, but that, although perhaps smaller in
size, yet turnips here are more solid, and contain a greater amount
of food in comparison to water than those raised under a more
humid clime.

The kinds of this root are very various. Though known as
white, green, and purple-topped, the " Norfolk " and the " Globe,"
they may be for our purpose divided into two kinds, the white
and yellow turnips and the Swedes. The White Globe, or Norfolk,
is the turnip of greatest antiquity — well suited to very light soils,
can be sown late and used early, produces a very heavy yield, and
is very sweet. It, in company with all white turnips, is very
tender, and will not, as a rule, keep in cellars much after Christmas
although the wri'^erhas used them up to February, but towards the.
last they became stringy, and were not very much relished by

Manual of Agriculture. 227

the cattle — if sown too early, the white turnip is apt to run to
seed, and is then useless. The " Nimble Dick " is a white turnip
well known to Canadians, and one of the best kinds produced.
The " Yellow Aberdeen " is between the " Globe " and the " Swede,"
and is a very valuable species ; it is of a hardier nature than the
white, and of slower growth ; it is of fine texture and great specific
weight, and is adapted to keep well into February and March
The advantage of the Yellow Aberdeen is that it will do well on
land too strong for the certain growth of other kinds. The " Grey-
stone Turnip " partakes more of the nature of the Swede than the
Yellow Aberdeen, is a very heavy yielder, and must be sown late
in the season. If planted too early they will become hollow and
stringy. They will keep to the end of February in a well- venti-
lated root-house. In their cultivation they must be thinned in
time. When the plants are too big, thinning checks their growth,
and once checked, they are so tender that they will seldom, if
ever, recover their growth. The Swedish turnip is the hardiest
species known, and defies the influence of any ordinary frost.
The genuine and original sort has yellow flesh and no stem ; it
has, in its various kinds, more or less degenerated by the flesh
turning white and the crown running up to stem of more or less
length. We often hear complaints of Swedes being stalky. Its
bulb is not only much more solid and heavy than the turnip, but
(although this is not of great value) its leaves are very much
better relished by all kinds of animals. Its keeping qualities
place it in the first rank for feed, and now-a-days, as a marketable
commodity, it is one of the best paying crops that we can raise,
within reasonable distance of cities. The Swede requires richness
of land and thorough cultivation ; land must be manured at some
time, and none is better than before a turnip crop, because
nearly all manure contains an immense number of weed seeds ;
these will grow and be destroyed by hoe cultivation.

CULTIVATION.

Preparing for Turnips. — Whatever be the nature of the soil,
thorough tilth is the grand secret of success in the cultivation of
turnips. About the time for sowing turnips in Canada, the sun
invariably beats down with terrific heat, and is very often accom-
panied by hot drying blasts of wind. This heat will penetrate a
very great depth into the ground, and in rough cloddy earth it
will penetrate more deeply than in mellow soil. It is well known
that as all earth has great power to absorb water, so earth in a
finely divided state will retain moisture much longer than such as
is lumpy and shallow. A good early tilth, say ten days or two
weeks before the time of sowing, will start into growth nearly
every weed contained in the soil, and these may be killed before

228 The Canadian Farmer's

turnips are sown, by the use of cultivator, harrows and exposure
to a wilting sun. We cannot grow turnips and weeds together
except at great disadvantage to the former. When land has been
ploughed and manured in the previous fall, one cross-ploughing
early in the spring, and a constant tearing up and disintegrating
of the bed thus formed, from time to time until seed time, is all
the actual preparation of the land required. When, however, ma-
nure is to be applied in the spring, there are two ways in which
to perform the operation — spreading on the surface or spreading
in drills. By the latter we receive more immediate benefit to the
turnip; by the former, more even manuring of the land. If ma-
nure be short, the broadcast plan will be found to answer well ;
if long, it may be applied in the drill. We may remark, however,
that the system of spreading in the fail, and ploughing under
shallow then, is the best adapted for successful turnip culture in
this climate and on the lighter lands. Having got our land into
a fine tilth, we drill it up into ridges from twenty-six inches to
thirty inches apart. Draw the dung to the field and lay it in
small heaps along every third drill ; from these heaps it may be
spread by hand into three drills. Never draw out more dung
than can be spread and covered by splitting the drills, as you go
along, so as not to leave the heaps too long exposed.

If manured on the level, the manure should be spread and in-
corporated with the soil by the use of the cultivator, when it may
be drilled up immediately for turnips. Unless the manure be
short and well rotted it cannot be used in this way, for the plough
will gather the manure, and we cannot set up our drills right.

Turnip ground cannot be too rich, provided tilth be thorough.

Mode of Drilling. — The proper implement for setting up ridges
is the double mould-board plough, which in its passage up the
field makes each time the halves of two ridges, equivalent to a
ridge in each passage. While, however, the single mould-board is
used, it is customary to throw out one side of the drill, and then
to use a second stroke for the completion of each drill, thus neces-
sitating the passage up and down the field for the construction of
each drill.

Artificial Manures. — Those used for turnips are bones, super-
phosphates, and guano. The benefits of these artificial manures
are that they contain in an easily soluble form every ingredient of
plant food necessary to the use and growth of turnips. The young
plant is thus pushed forward vigorously, sprouts before the dry
weather can hurt it, and is carried on to the rough-leaved state
in the minimum of time, and when once in the rough leaf, the
turnip fly cannot injure it.

How to apply. — There are three ways. Spread broadcast and
harrow in — good ; sow by hand or drill before second half is made,
under the double-stroke system — better ; with a drill made for the

Manual of Agriculture. 229

purpose, or by hand in the groove on top of the ridge and just be-
low the turnip-seed — best. The young turnip plant must reach
the artificial manure immediately on sprouting. So great is the
afiinity of the turnip plant root, that the fibres are often found
growing through a piece of bone.

Best time to soiv. — This depends somewhat upon the nature of
the soil, and upon the particular season. We may take it as a
rule, founded on experience of our best turnip growers, that the
best times are on the heavier lands from the 5th to the loth of
June, and on the lighter soils from the 10th to the 20th of that
month.

Quantity of seed. — This also varies according to soil and season.
In damp weather and upon sandy soils, 2 lbs. is about the quantity
per acre ; in dry weather or on clayey soils, 3 lbs. are required. If
you alter these quantities, put in more, but never less. The depth
should be from one inch to one and a half inches below the sur-
face— -the deeper in dry weather. It is better for plants to come
up thick, as they grow faster when close together, affording one
another mutual support and moisture, and thus escape the de-
vastation by the " fly." But, on the other hand, if too thick they
spindle.

Modes of Sowing. — There are two methods — on drills and on
the level ; on drills is far the best ; far larger crops can be obtain-
ed, and weeds more easily destroyed ; the cost will also be very
much easier to harvest Drills should be at least 26 inches apart ;
many prefer a distance of 30 inches. The latter distance the
writer believes the most advantageous.

AFTER CULTIVATION.

Thinning. — After growth, the first operation on a turnip crop
is this : — Take your horse hoe and pare down drills so close as to
leave the braird or plants set on a crown of about four inches
wide. The plants are ready for this when two inches high ; damp
weather best for the operation. With a hoe thin out (by the push
and pull process), levelling down the drills, and leaving the plants
single from 12 to 15 inches apart, use a hoe not less than 9
inches wide. The single plant should be knocked down, and
left hanging by its roots ; a plant knocked down will grow to a
better turnip than one left standing up in the drill, like a trans-
planted beet The time of thinning is very important — it should
be done when the plant is about two inches high If thinned too
soon, plants will not stand the shock, and will wilt; if left too
long in thick growth before thinning, plants will be spindled,
weak, and will assuredly become necky turnips. The richer the
land, the wider apart may the plants be left. Why ? Because
the turnips will be bigger, and will require more room to expand
laterally. When a good braird has been secured, and the turnip

230 l^he Canadian Farmer's

plants singled (this singling is very important, for if two plants be
left together, neither will come to a decent sized bulb), nothing
more is required but constant stirring of the soil ; for, as has been
already stated, loose soil will absorb and retain the greatest
amount of moisture attainable, and the stirring ensure the destruc-
tion of every weed. If the ante-cultivation of the ground has been
good, this may be effectually accomplished by the horse hoe alone.
Insect Enemies. — The chief and only enemy to be feared is
the " fly " {Haltica memora), and the best remedy against its at-
tacks is any and every process by which the young plant can be
carried rapidly into the rough-leaved state ; in that state the crop
is comparatively safe. As adressing, however, sprinkle lime, ashes,
soot, plaster, or even road dust, on the plants early in the morning
when the dew is on.

Harvesting. — The Swede turnip grows more after the first frost
than at any time, so we must not harvest too soon. Many have,
however, been caught in their harvest by winter. This was
notably the case in the fall of 1869, when hard, sharp frosts set-
ting in early in November, hundreds of acres of turnips were lefl
in the ground all winter and lost as fodder to the farmer. The
best tim3 to secure turnips is, in Ontario, during the first week of
November ; the amount of growth after that date is not worth the
risk of total loss. There are two modes of harvesting : — First, the
old-fashioned method of topping and tailing with a knife ; second,
cutting off* the tops with a sharp hoe, and harrowing up the bulbs.
The first is so far the better plan that nothing but special cir-
cumstances can warrant the use of the harrows.

THE SUGAR BEET.

We refer our readers to a work on the Sugar Beet by J. A.
Cull, Esq., of Toronto, in which will be found a very full and par-
ticular account of the beet.

We shall barely have space in this work for other subjects of
importance to the farmer, and we therefore feel that there is no
need of apology for skipping the cultivation of the beet for sugar.
In our article on the Mangold Wurzel will be found all informa-
tion respecting cultivation of beet for cattle food.

CARROTS AND PARSNIPS.

These two tap-rooted plants are in their nature anl habits so
like one another, that any remarks made upon the habits and cul-
tivation of the carrot will apply to those of the parsnip with equal
force. We shall confine ourselves, therefore, to a consideration of
the carrot crop.

The carrot appears to have been known to agriculturists in

Manual of Agriculture. 231

Europe before the turnip, and was first brought into general notice
in Great Britain during the Elizabethan era.

The advantages of carrots as a field crop to the farmer are,
that they stand the droughts so prevalent in Canada, and are very
seldom injured by the attacks of any insects, while both top and
root make most excellent food for horses, cattle, sheep and pigs.
For milch cows they are specially valuable, as they impart no un-
pleasant taste to the milk and butter, such as is often observable
when turnips are fed in any quantity ; should the red or orange
varieties be used as food, they impart a rich tint to the butter.

Their culture is attended with some difficulty, for their growth
is very slow at first, giving noxious weeds a chance to push
ahead ; and they are a tedious crop to thin and attend.

Yet, in this as in many other cases, the tedium and slowness of
the operations to be performed may be in great measure overcome
by careful planning and good ante-cultivation of the bed.

The carrot is not an exhaustive crop — not so much so by far as
turnips — and the reason is doubtless to be found in the fact that
the long tap root gathers a large proportion of its food from the
subsoil, without encroaching upon the stores contained near the
surface, and thus rendering the latter available for the use of such
crops as usually follow in rotation.

They will yield more per acre, under careful cultivation, than
either mangolds or turnips ; and as animal food are more nutri-
tious, weight for weight.

They are particularly excellent for horses, acting as a diuretic
upon the kidneys, and imparting to the coat a healthy and glossy
appearance.

For the reason that they are in their effects diuretic, they are
peculiarly valuable as a spring diet ; and, for the same reason, care
should be exercised that they are not fed too freely.

From four to seven bushels per horse each week is an ample
supply ; added to the above uses, they are very beneficial to
newly weaned calves and colts, and to young store beasts.

Pigs are extremely fond of them, and there is no better food on
which to winter store hogs or to put through breeding sows.

Varieties. — Of these there are several ; some are used as field
carrots, whilst others are more generally grown, as being of
smaller size and more tender in the flesh, for the uses of the house.
Of field carrots we have three varieties of general credit in Ca-
nada. First ranks the White Belgian, then the Long Red or Orange,
and occasionally the Altringham are cultivated.

The White Belgian is a free yielding variety, and hardy. Its su-
periority to the Orange rests on the fact that it is far more easily
lifted ; for the latter showing very little above ground, and thus
forming no handle, is difficult to raise, especially upon soils bor-
dering on the tenacious. But we believe that the Belgian is

232 The Canadian Farmer*s

inferior to the latter in amount of nutritive matter contained ; while
the leaf or top of the Orange id more luxuriant, and more effective
in keeping the soil moist and in smothering out young weeds.

The Altringham is a variety much patronized in England, but
not a great favourite in Canada. It partakes largely of the nature
and possesses all the characteristics of the Orange or Long Red.

Soil. — The carrot delights in a friable soil and, so far, is
similar in its requirements to all other root crops ; but from the
nature of its long tap-rooted growth, it must have depth of soil.
For this reason, depth of cultivation must be an essential con-
sideration in the preparation of the land for this crop.

Cultivation. — The better plan is to manure, and plough in the
fall of the year as deeply as possible, and if time permits subsoil
at that time.

As early in spring as possible, this should be again cross-
ploughed. It should then be brought to a finely pulverized state
by a free use of cultivator and harrow.

It is now ready for drilling. The drills should be not less fchan
thirty inches apart. Ground in fair order would supply plenty of
nourishment to a carrot crop grown in drills from eighteen to
twenty inches apart, and even nearer to one another ; but the object
of placing the drills so great a distance apart as thirty inches, is to
afford plenty of room for the free use of the horse hoe. This, of
course, only applies to the cultivation of a field crop, and not to that
of the garden patch. If time has not, however, been found in the
previous fall to subsoil the land all over, it will be well now to do
so in the process of drilling. Drill up as usual, then run the
plough up and down between the drills, split them, and cover so
that the carrot may send down its tap root into the subsoiled por-
tion of the field.

The subsoiling will give us a long even-shaped carrot. If, on the
other hand, the cultivation has not been very deep, we have in-
variabty found that as soon as the tap root of the carrot has in
its natural course grown downwards and struck the hard pan,
it is impeded, turns to every side, and either grows a deformed
root or throws out a number of side roots to make good its hold
upon the ground. What we desire in carrots is an even taper
from crown to tip, and it is this kind of root that ever should re-
ceive the commendation of our show judges.

Manure. — The application of manure should, if possible, be made
in the fall, to give time for its thorough incorporation with the
soil ; but if used in spring it should never be long. For this
there are three excellent reasons — 1st. Long strawy manure m-
variably renders the seed-bed more susceptible of the effects of
drought ; 2nd. Carrots encountering such manure are apt to grow
stringy and to throw out a great number of side roots, and even
to fork at the bottom ; and 3rd. Such manure is invariably full of

Manual of Agriculture. 233

foul seeds, the weeds from which, being quick growers, are apt to
come up and smother the young carrot in its early and very slow
growth. The use of well-rotted manure will, however, overcome
all these difficulties — is very much more easily handled, and does
not prove an obstruction to good work in the preparation of a
seed-bed.

Seed. — Carrot seed has, owing to its hairy attachments, a great
tendency to cling together in bunches. This may often prove a
serious obstacle in sowing. To overcome it, mix the seed with
fine dry sand before using. It also takes a very long time to ger-
minate, and thus allows any weed seeds that may be in the soil, —
and in all land there are some, — to obtain the lead ; and when once
weeds get a fair start, it is difficult to prevent them from keeping
it.

This points to the advantage of the plan that we have always
adopted — the encouragement of weed growth at all times before
the last ridging up, — and by this meaas the destruction of many
may be encompassed without fear of disturbing our own crop. It
has been recommended to soak the seed before sowing. Our own
opinion is divided upon the wisdom of such a plan. No doubt the
germination or sprouting of the seed is hastened, nor can there be
any question but that its vitality is also thus somewhat impaired.
We have grown our carrots both from dry seed and from that
which has been swelled and sprouted, and from our own experi-
ence we do not feel justified in giving a decided opinion upon
either side.

Some soak it in warm water, spread it, dry it and roll it in dry
sand or ashes or plaster ; we should prefer the sand.

Another plan is to have the seed and dry fine-sifted sand or
road-dust well mixed together and laid in small heaps in a warm
place, screened from the rays of the sun, which should be wetted
with drainings (well diluted with water) from the stables.

Time of sowing extends over a long period. It may be sown
as soon as the earth is fairly warm, or at any time up to the 1st
of June. We had last year an excellent crop sown on the 29th
of May, but our experience leads us to consider from the 15th to
the 24th of May, or earlier than that period, to be the most certain
time of sowing.

On high lands, subject to drought, it should be sown early ; on
alluvial soils later.

The quantity of seed must depend entirely upon its quality ; if
raised by the farmer himself, or obtained from men upon whom
he can place implicit reliance, three pounds per acre, on land drill-
ed as we have recommended, will be found ample ; if, however,
there should be any doubt as to the vitality and freshness of the
seed, from fifty to one hundred per cent, more should be deposited.
Naturally, less will be required if the season is damp than in a

234 The Canadian Farmers

dry spell, and in moist than dry land ; indeed, it is a safer rule
never to sow less than five or six pounds. Sowing is performed
by many of our new seed drills well, but the hand process is the
safest.

After Culture. — If the land has been well cleaned previous to
planting, much after cultivation will have been saved. The car-
rot sometimes fails to put in an appearance for as long as two or
three weeks, while there is under the most favourable circumstances
seldom any show before the tenth day. They are not ready for
thinning for about ten days or two weeks after that period, and in
all this time any weeds that are present have been taking full
advantage of their opportunity. Remember, nature makes no
distinction between weeds and plants — all are equally her children
— and a friable state of the land hastens the growth of the weed
as well as of the plant.

When ready for thinning, the plants should be singled to a dis-
tance of from six inches to nine inches. This must be done by
hand ; but time may often be found in mornings and evenings,
and after wet, in which the men may be advantageously put in at
this job ; while, if boys are willing or are well watched, they can
make good wages at thinning. Care must be exercised to single.
Two carrots left together will neither of them grow to perfection ;
but, before this operation, as soon as the row or braird of young
carrots can be distinguished, it is well to pare away the soil from
each side of the drill. This is often done by the horse hoe, but if
there is time it will be found advisable to let the horse hoe cut up
all weed growth in the centre, while the drills themselves are pared
by hand hoeing. The latter can be performed closer up to the
carrots, and with less fear of destroying them. It requires a very
steady horse and a very good man to pare away close, without
cutting into the carrots, even with the best of horse implements.

We can thus leave the carrots standing on a ridge about an inch
wide, and the weeds in such will not hurt the growth of the root.

The ground between carrot drills requires to be frequently stirred
by the use of the horse hoe, through the early part of their growth.
Carrots grow slowly at first, but very rapidly in the autumn ; all
the aim of cultivation should then be to push them on in the early
part of the season.

Lifting. — For this there are several ways. Cut off the tops with
a sharp hoe as they stand in the ground, and collect them out of
the way. Then run a subsoil plough along the rows, when the
carrots may be lifted and pitched straight into the waggon.

Our own plan has always been to run a swing plough close along-
side the outer row, throwing the dirt from the carrots outwards,
then haw round, and in the same way come down the outer row
of any sized patch that you may wish to take up ; let the men and
boys follow, and pulling out the carrots by the top, throw them

Manual of Agriculture. 235

into heaps just far enough from the next row to be out of the way
of the plough. Continue this operation. Then top your carrots in
the heaps at pleasure, making separate hea^s of the carrots and
covering with tops ; leave these for a few da3\s that the carrots
may sweat, and draw into cellar. Carrots, when in the ground,
will stand a great amount of frost, but when once thrown out must
be carefully covered if there is fear of night frosts ; neither should
they be long left exposed to the rays of the hot sun.

Produce. — We are afraid the average produce of the carrot crop
in Canada does not come up to three hundred bushels per acre, but
they are capable of producing and we have seen eight hundred
bushels to the acre, while a thousand bushels has been recorded
in our Dominion.

Carrots sown in the fall. — We once sowed our carrots in the
fall. The seed must be sown late enough, so that it will not ger-
minate before spring. The advantage expected was an early
growth in spring, and in consequence a " big crop ;" but in this
hope we were miserably disappointed, and such has invariably
been the result to any who have tried the experiment in this
northern clime.

They came up all right in the spring, but were terribly hard to
hoe and thin ; about one-half ran to seed, and the rest did not make
up half as many bushels, nor were they as fine carrots as those
sown alongside upon the 23rd of May. Our climate is as well
adapted to the growth of carrots as that of England. The yield
of carrots by a Somersetshire clergyman, at the rate of two hun-
dred and sixty-seven bushels off* a quarter of an acre, has gone the
rounds of the papers, as worthy of special notice.

Raising Carrot Seed. — We wonder that more Canadian farmers
do not raise their own seed, especially those living at a great dis-
tance from reliable dealers.

We do not say much money is saved by so doing, but the farmer
has the satisfaction of knowing that his seed is fresh and unadul-
terated.

Select some of the most healthy carrots from the field. Cut the
tops off* to the length of an inch, and pack them in the barn cellar
in straw. In the following spring, as soon as the ground is dry
enough, set the plants in a well-prepared and heavily-manured
seed bed in holes. Put four roots in a bunch — on about a foot
square of land — and let these bunches be set at a distance of three
feet the one from the other ; keep them well hoed and hilled up
during the summer ; they will ripen very irregularly. As the seed
heads become ripened, they may be cut ofl'and carried to the barn;
they may then be thrashed with a flail ; they will require three
or four thrashings, passing the seed through a series of sieves, each
finer than the preceding one.

The quantity of roots planted per acre will be in this way about

236 The Canadian Farmer's

80 bushels, or 10 bushels to twenty square rods — and the produce of
seed should be from 600 lbs. to 1,000 lbs. per acre ; or, if a bushel of
roots be planted, the farmer may expect to obtain from eight to
twelve pounds of seed.

Maiigel-iuurzel. — Mangel-wurzel, or more properly Mangold-
wiirzell, is now grown over a very much larger area than formerly,
and is deservedly regarded as an excellent root for the use of milk
cows in winter. The late Dr. Lettson introduced this variety'' of
esculent some 80 years ago into England as a field crop, and since
that time it has been steadily gaining for itself confidence amongst
the largest stock raisers.

Mangel-wurzel will suit itself to any land which is moderately
moist, and although it will grow to great size even in wet lands,
yet in such it becomes watery, hollow, and will rot quickly. The
young plant is very easily killed by frost, and should not therefore
appear above ground previous to the middle of May. Land should
be ploughed deeply, and if manured, we should advise the work-
ing of the manure in with the land, rather than manuring in
drills in spring and splitting. The land should be ploughed early
and kept well stirred until ready for plantmg, for as we force for-
ward the weeds and kill them oflf at an early date, so will our
trouble be the less in keeping the after crop clean.

Doubtless the best plan of cultivation is by autumn ploughing
and manuring. The manure is thus thoroughly incorporated in
the soil, the spring work is lightened, and the action of the winter's
frost, followed by the cultivator and harrows in spring, will be
certain to secure a thoroughly pulverized and clean seed bed.
The plan very generally adopted in England answers well in our
soil and climate. In the fall the land is ploughed and ridged up
26 inches apart, and the manure spread in the drills. These drills
are then split before winter. In the spring all to be done is to
again split the drills in which the manure has lain all winter, and
we are ready to plant. These drills will work very fine, for the
frost has thoroughly penetrated them, and we thus save a great
deal of time in spring, our " thronging" season. A liberal supply
of superphosphate of lime (but it must be genuine) will be amply
repaid in crop.

The rows should be at least 26 inches (or in rich, well-prepared
land, 30 inches will be none too far) apart. The seed may be either
drilled upon the top of each row, or dibbled in at intervals of from
15 to 18 inches. Sow about the middle of May, thus escaping
the frost ; moreover, if sown too early, the root is apt to run to
seed early in the fall. From 4 lbs. to 6 lbs. per acre should be used.
In Canada the dibble is too expensive a process ; drilling and
thinning becomes our only practical plan. The seed is very easily
buried, and should not be covered by more than half an inch of
earth. Two or three plants generally spring from each grain of

Manual of J. griculture, 237

seed, and great care has to be exercised in thinning that we leave
the plant firmly rooted.

The after cultivation is such as applies to all root crops. Keep
the land thoroughly clean, and wage perpetual war upon all weeds.
They must be harvested early, before there is any chance of frost,
for this root is very tender and easily frozen. Many growers
recommend that the mangold be not tailed when taken up ; and
when the land is light and the bulb pulls up, clean tailing is an
unnecessary addition to the trouble of harvesting. The chief
drawbacks, then, to the cultivation of the mangold are that more
labour is required in the thinning, and that they are extremely
susceptible to the effect of frost. It may assist us, in making a
comparison of the two principal root crops, to state here the pecu-
liar advantages possessed by each — Mangolds and Swedes — as
practical field crops : —

THE MANGOLD- WURZELL.

1. Is neither liable to " fly" nor to " wire-worm."

2. Produces a greater weight of root per acre.

8. Does not taste the butter when fed to milk cows, and is a
better and stronger food in late winter and spring.

4. Will grow on s^i^'land with more certainty than the turnip

THE SWEDE.

1. The " thinning out" is less expensive.

2. Can be planted later.

3. Is less liable to be hurt by frost.

Ruta Bagas. — The growing of ruta bagas, both as a field crop
for feeding to stock, and as a garden crop for culinary purposes, is
becoming much more general in some localities than it was a few
years since. The proper time for sowing the seed is governed
largely by the latitude, soil and its condition. Often it may be
put in later than is generally practicable, and a good crop be rea-
lized. As a second crop, following an early one, removed by the
first week in July, it is often a success, although the safer and
more advisable course is to plant during the month of June.
These roots will bear transplanting equally as well as cabbage, so
that there is no excuse for any vacant spaces in the field, as those
thinned out may be reset, or a bed may be sown designedly for
transplanting.

The ruta bagas, and other like root crops, do not throw out any
fibrous roots to collect plant food far away ; consequently, do im-
mensely best when the soil is put in the finest possible condition
of tilth and fertility. A clay should be ploughed in the f^ill, hav-
ing manuve ploughed down, and left till spring for amelioration.

238 The Canadian Farmer's

Early in May it should be ploughed again, and after lying some
days be harrowed thoroughly ; be ploughed again a few days
previous to sowing the seed, having received one or more harrow-
ings during the intervening time. These three ploughings and
several workings will put the soil in excellent condition for de-
positing the seed. It is now ridged, with centres two and a half
feet apart. The soil ought to be so well worked that there are no
lumps, &;c., to interfere with drilling the seed. Fresh seed will not
need over one and a half pounds per acre ; that of which there is
any doubt will need more. With good quality of seed the plants
will be well up in ten to twelve days from sowing. Now is the
time to give the first working with a scarifier. The cultivator
disturbs the soil, leaving the plants free to grow. This and a few
weeks later are the important points in culture to obtain advantage
of and keep down weeds. When the plants attain a growth of
an inch they should be blocked or chopped out, leaving the bunches
four to six inches apart. As soon as they are out of the way of
the fly, &c., thin to a single one in a place. Cultivate sufficiently
to keep down all weeds, the soil mellow, and the plants well grow-
ing. By August the tops should cover the ground so as to shade
and keep down all weeds, &c.

On a sandy loam, more easily worked, two ploughings in spring,
and in some instances one, with suitable harrowing, is all that is
needful to put the ground in condition. The ground is fitted and
the seed sown as before directed. For domestic use the later
sowing gives the more suitable sized roots, as a medium size is
much preferable to the larger ; but for feeding purposes, the larger
the roots grow, the better.

When there is a prospect of a short hay crop, prudent farmers
will put in a few ruta bagas, or some other timely root crop, to
provide for the deficiency.

Cabbage as a Field Crop. — For some years past, in Canada, owing
to droughts, winter-killing of clover and other causes, there has
been a short fodder crop : as we are never perfectly safe against a
recurrence of the same casualty, it would be well to look to all
crops that will help to eke out food for our long Canadian winter.

We know of no crop that will yield a greater amount of food to
the acre, of the best quality, than the cabbage. The work of set-
ting out appals many farmers, but it need not. There is time
enough before haying or the middle of July. We should take
advantage of rainy weather to set out our plants. The land should
be rich and thoroughly cultivated. The plants should be set in
rows, two and a half feet one way and two the other. The plants
are then dibbled and puddled. It is a good plan to make a mix-
ture of clay and dung, saturated with the drainings from the sta-
ble, into which to dip the roots before planting.

Take the dibble in the right hand ; let a boy carry the bunch

Manual of Agriculture. 239

of plants, and separating a single plant, hand to the dibbler, who
makes a hole which is filled with water by another boy carrying
a water can ; the plant is placed in the hole, and the dibble again
driven into the soil close to the hole, and the soil pressed against
the root of the plant.

In placing a cabbage plant, the hole should be made deep and
the plant lowered as far as possible, and then slightly drawn up
before pressing into position. The sides of the hole catch the
small fibres that are attached to the tap root, and thus give them
a slightly downward turn, which is their natural position. A
smart man will thus plant from four to five thousand in a day.

In the fall, when pastures begin to fail, cabbages make an excel-
lent feed, and are a good preparation for cattle intended to be put
up to stall.

Let the soft heads be then pulled and fed, and leave the firm ones
for winter keep.

The method of keeping is very simple : place them on a dry spot,
head down, and cover with straw and earth, leaving the root and
part of the stalk exposed.

In winter they are m-uch relished as a change upon turnips by
fatting cattle, are greedily eaten by pigs, and are the very best of
green food for milch cows.

Beep cultivation for all root crops. — " We raise our root crops on
land cultivated too shallow. This is o great, a general, a crying
evil. The soil requires deep tillage, the subsoil plough used
thoroughly — an implement used too little now-a-days, and when
used, not sufficiently. Fine the land for twenty inches or more.
If all this depth is mellow, yet compact somewhat, draining itself
I'eadily, yet admitting the air, and if the crop is put out early — as
early as possible — so as to get the start on the prospective drought
of midsummer ; if weeds are kept out and the soil in good mo-
tion, stirring it well and often , if withal the land is rich — if all
these things are rigidly seen to, there will not, there cannot, be a
failure of a good crop. A severe drought will not prevent it, nor a
rainy season ; the cool fall will perfect what the summer advanced.
The great depth of soil is good for the moisture, where the roots
have a chance to penetrate and luxuriate even with a raging sun
overhead. But the land needs to be fertile, and if the manure is
put down it will not hurt it for that crop ; the roots will find it,
and the work will go on with vigour. The manure should be
spread and permitted to lie for some time — for weeks, better for
months. The soil immediately' below will then have received
much of its strength, and when it goes under, soil and manure ar©
both rich, and will form a good bed for the roots. The best suc-
cess we ever saw was with a field treated in this way, horse manure
being turned down. The soil was deep ; there was a great drought,
but in the fall it pushed forward, the manure then drove, aided by

240 The Canadian Farmer's

the rains. It is the depth of cultivation and the manure that
have a wonderful virtue, the very things that are neglected. We
use manure, but not enough, not rotten enough, not mixed with
the soil sufficiently, through its juices first, and then by the
plough.

" We like sod for roots, but let it be well rotted and made
mellow by after-ploughing and cultivation.

" This last has been among our best experiences.

" We can then secure a root crop with certainty. Why not do
it ? Why run risks ? We know what they are ; in too many
cases they are a loss, and this no one can afford, for the loss is not
a common one according to the amount of land used ; good soil is
selected, unusual labour expended. Make the soil still better,
devote more labour to it, judiciously, and this loss will be avoided ;
in its place will be a crop that will pay for all, with a fair margin
to boot ; and such a crop, where the drought is fought, is more nu-
tritious than where water has been imbibed ; there is more con-
centration, more excellent stuff. As the seasons now run, we must
expect drought, and depth of soil for moisture, and manure to drive,
must be relied upon to overcome it."

RELATIVE FEEDING QUALITIES OF VARIOUS ROOTS.

Of real food in one hundred parts of —

Potatoes there are 22*0 parts.

Ruta Bagas 12-7

Mangel-Wurzels 110

Parsnips ... 99

Cabbage 9*4

Rape 9-4

Carrots 9'2

Swedes 7 9

White Turnips 7-1

Rape is an excellent green manure, or it may be used in Cana-
da, in the fall of the year, up to severe frosts, to turn on sheep and
fit them for Christmas mutton. The leaf is exactly like that of a
turnip, but is more luxuriant, whilst the plant has no bulbous
root.

It will grow on any land ; the richer the better ; nor is it at all
subject to attacks of insects such as affect turnips or cabbages.

Usually sown broadcast, late in June or early in July, at the
rate of about two quarts to the acre, and then left to its fate,
bestowing no hoeing or more cultivation. The ante-culture should
be the same as for any description of roots ; thorough ploughing
and pulveri2;ation. It is well after sowing to roll and thus cover
the seed.

Some, however, cultivate it in drills, hoe and keep clean, and
thin out the plants to a distance of six or eight inches. By this

Manual of Agriculture. 241

means the plants acquire great vigour, and the crop serves the
purpose of a thorough cleaner.

It is doubtful whether the quantity of food available to sheep,
feeding on this in October and November, is more than two-thirds
of that secured by a crop of swede turnips. But as a green manure
it is one of the very best known.

We close with the following hints to root growers :

If possible, plough and manure in the fall ; get on your land as
soon as possible in the spring. When manure is to be spread broad-
cast in spring, have it done early, so that any weed seeds contained
in it can be sprouted and destroyed by cultivation previous to
planting time.

Thorough pulverization of the soil, and constant battle with all
weed life, are the essential elements in the successful culture of all
crops, and more especially of roots..

If the land is clean before planting time, the difficulties of
success in root growing will be greatly reduced.

HOPS.

The English word " hop," though probably derived from the
Saxon hoppan, signifying to climb, was immediately adopted into
our language from the German hoppe, its botanical name being
hwniulus.

The earliest records that we have of its cultivation are found in
old French works, where humolarice are spoken of, evidently allud-
ing to what are now known here as hop-gardens ; and we learn
from Beckmann, that " the first positive notice of the use of hops
begins in the fourteenth century, when it appears that they began
to be regularly used in the Netherlands."

The English, at a still later period, seem to have had their
doubts as to the effects of the plant upon the human system ; for
we find, in the annals of the house of Henry VIII., an order to his
brewer "not to put any hops into the ale." And at a still later
period the Common Council of the City of London petitioned
Parliament against the use of hops, " in regard that they would
spoil the taste of the drink, and endanger the people." In the
reigp of Henry VI. they were petitioned against " as a wicked
weed."

They were first brought into general cultivation in England
about 1520, and we find a distich in " Baker's Chronicles" which
runs thus :

" Turkies, carpes, hoppes, piccarell and beere,
Came into Englande all in one yeare."

Only one species of hop is known to the botanist, though of this
species there are in Europe several varieties. Whence the variety
16

242 The Canadian Farmer's

now cultivated in Canada was drawn, whether (rOU?(im^s, Canter-
bury Grape, Mayfield, or White Bine, we have been uaable to
find recorded.

We rather think from its nature that the descent comes through
the Flemish Red Bine, which, although a coarse species, is hardy,
and does better than the generality of other hops upon a bleak
exposure.

The nature of the hop. — It is a perennial plant, and its roots
strike very deep into the ground. The stalk grows spirally, natur-
all}^ upwards, but may also be trained horizontally. It is also a
twining plant, and thus takes its own hold upon the pole or
string. The plants have sexes, male and female ; and whilst the
presence of the male is necessary to fructify the other plants, the
female bines alone are serviceable to the brewer's use.

The females produce their flowers in the form of a cone, in shape
like that of the fir, whilst the blossoms of the male are like those
of the currant bush.

It is quite possible to propagate hops by seed, but it is usual to
growfrom nursery plants raised in beds, or from slips taken from the
stem, or from old roots, the latter being the mode usually adopted
in Canada.

The object of the addition of hops to beer is not only to correct
the insipid sweetness of the barley malt, but also as a preserva-
tive. Many substitutes have been tried to attain these results,
but none have proved equal to the hop. So great is the power of
preservation of the hop, that it is not uncommon for brewers to
dry-hop summer beer, i.e., to put hops through the bung-hole into
the cask after the beer is made, and when ready to send out.

Soil and aspect. — The quality of the hops depends greatly upon
the soil in which it is raised.

As a rule, the stronger the land, the more bitter and strong the
flavour and quality of the hop. From such land they are in great
demand amongst brewers of porter.

On lighter lands, although the hop may grow luxuriantly (when
land is well enriched) and produce abundantly, they usually con-
tain a less amount of farina and are of what is technically called
a lesser " condition," and this quality of hop is also in demand by
the brewers of the lighter kind of table-beer.

The criterion of the strength of the hop is the amount of
odour emitted and the degree of stickiness felt when moved
together in the hand.

A good free, friable and dry clay loam is the very best soil in
Canada for hops. In the plant upon such land are comprised
quantity, quality and duration.

The duration of a hop-field depends in great part upon the na-
ture of the subsoil ; that of a calcareous nature is capable of sup-
porting a hop-field through the greatest number of seasons without

Manual of Agriculhtre, 243

renewal. The situation of the hop-garden is not so essential as
its care, but protection from the cold winds of winter and spring
is an object to be sought after.

A southern aspect is the best, for it is the cold spring easterly
winds that are the most injurious.

The hop takes three years to come to perfection, although a
moderate crop is usually secured in Canada in the second autumn.
Preparation. — The land must be clean, dry and rich — these are
essentials. In a poor crop of hops a large amount of money may
be sunk, while there is no crop from which such a handsome re-
turn can be secured, given a fair yield and good price.

The chances are that the price of hops will never again deterio-
rate as it has done to the neighbourhood of live cents.

Some years ago, in America, we overdid the thing. A hop-fever
set in amongst farmers, not only in Canada but in the United
States also, and the consequence was, that the market was, with
a full crop in England and France, glutted ; down tumbled the
price ; and many a grower who could not stand his losses ploughed
up his gardens, never in all probability " to go into hops again."

Those few who stuck to the growth realized well from last
year's crop. Indeed, so careful must be the cultivation, and such
is the tirst cost of a plantation, that there are but few men of
means and energy sufficient to make the crop a success.

We said above, land must be clean, dry and rich. For the first
essential no preparation is equal to a thorough summer fallow ;
although many growers prepare their hop-garden by a well-tilled
and thoroughly-cleaned root crop.

For the second object — dryness — under- draining is necessary ;
and for the third, the liberal application of manure in a well-
rotted state, in the manner that will be presently explained.

When manure is first applied on the summer fallow, from ten to
twelve large two-horse waggon loads are required per acre — more
would do no harm — and this manure should be lightly ploughed
under and thoroughly incorjjorated with the soil.

Let the land be well water- furrowed for the winter. If the
ploughing and manuring have been put off to the spring {i.e.,
after a root crop), the land should then be very thorouglily water-
furrowed, so that all surface water may be immediately removed.
Marking out for j^lants. — 'J'his may be done with a surveyor's
chain, tying pieces of rag on the links at the required distances.
Small white stakes are set in the ground, to mark the hills, at dis-
tances respectively of seven feet the one way and eight feet the
other. The object of this difference of distance each way we shall
presently explain — or the distances may be carefully drawn out
with the plough, and the intersections of the furrows marked with
small w^ooden pegs.

The latter plan is far more rapid than by the use of the chain, but

244 The Canadian Farmer's

requires a thoroughly good ploughman and a steady pair of horses.
The man and team that can set out lands well for ploughing sod,
are capable of performing this operation also.

The time of 'planting is usually in the latter part of April or
in the beginning of May ; in fact, about the same time as the seed-
ing of spring grain.

The sets used have been cut from the root of an old crop by
the process of grubbing and pruning, which we shall explain here-
after. These cuttings should be six inches long, and care should
be exercised that every cutting or set has eyes or buds upon it.

The manner of planting is thus : — A hole is dug at and around
each stake, the hole to be about one foot deep and the same square.
Into this hole is then thrown two good shovels-full of well-com-
posted manure, earth is filled in, and the whole well mixed
together.

The spade is then driven into the hill perpendicularly to its full
depth, and worked forwards and backwards until a crack is formed
of the same width and depth as the spade (before this has been
done, the hill should have been tramped pretty solid). Then take
four of the six-inch sets, and carefully place them in this crack,
one set at each extremity and two between, and at equal distances
from one another. The sets must be planted with the buds up,
and be put down full-spade depth, so that when earth is again com-
pressed round them, they may be about an inch below the surface.

After setting, the small stake should be put back in the centre
of the hill.

It is necessary that a certain number of male plants be also set
in the field. The custom is to make each tenth hill in every
tenth row a male hill.

Where roots are bought, dependence must be placed on the
word of the seller as to which are male plants ; but in the field it
is customary, in order to distinguish the males at pruning time, to
leave the poles around them all winter — or a great many other
methods of marking them may be adopted.

The first years management depends entirely on keeping the
field clean. This may be done by the free use of the horse hoe
and it is not uncommon to grow a crop of Indian corn in the field
this year. The corn is planted intermediately between the hop
rows, and thus whilst a crop is secured the hoe may be worked
constantly and the land kept from becoming foul.

In the fall of this year the hills should be manured ; this is
done by putting on the top of each hill a couple of shovels-full of
well-rotted barn-yard manure, which not only acts as a protecting
mulch for the crown of the plant, but enriches the soil around it.

Second year's management. — As soon as ever the frost is out of
the ground in the second year, the operation of root pruning or
grubbing is performed.

Manual of Agriculture. 245

A boy goes first and cuts off" all that remains of last year's vines
above ground, and puts them off the hill ; then follows a man
with the grub hoe, who spreads the manure that was put on in the
fall, and using his grub all round to draw away the earth from
the hill, cuts off all side roots, drawing them out and cutting them
as close to the main root as possible ; the earth is then drawn
carefully around the root again. This pruning is a very impor-
tant operation, for if not done, the roots would spread and lace
over every inch of the hop-yard.

Poling. — As soon as convenient the poles may be set, and judg-
ment and care are both very necessary in this operation.

Two poles are used in every hill, and are set exactly one foot
apart, and across the eight foot width between stakes. Thus, after
poling, the width to be cultivated between the hills will be re-
duced to seven feet each way — this is the object had in view
when we recommended above, that in setting out the rows they
should be eight feet apart the one way and seven feet the other ;
the placing of the poles one foot apart in each hill equalizes, for
practical purposes of cultivation, the width of the rows in every
direction.

The poles, set firmly in a hole made by a man with a long
octagonal pointed crowbar, should slant slightly outwards. This
is very important, as affording far more sun, air and light to the
vines than should the poles be upright.

Poles should run from twelve feet to eighteen feet in length.
The next operation is —

Tying up the hop vines. — As soon as the vines have made from
eighteen inches to two feet of growth, they are ready to tie to the
poles ; this is generally from the middle of May till the middle of
June ; the work has to be done at odd times, for the vines come
ready for tying very unevenly ; we cannot wait to go through the
operation without intermission.

Three vines are tied to each pole ; fine soft twine is the best
for the purpose.

Cut strings to a length of ten inches. To do this rapidly, take
apiece of wood the required length, wind the twine round it, and
then cut through each end with a chisel or other sharp instru-
ment.

Hang the strings on your coat ; let a boy take up a vine, wind it
round the pole and hold it while you tie ; the string must never
be tied in a knot, or it would soon cut through and destroy the
growing vine ; but after passing the string around vine and pole,
give the ends a twist together between the finger and thumb.

By the time the vine has grown large enough to open out this
twist, it will be of sufiicient strength to cling and wind round the
pole without assistance.

Always wind the vine round the pole from left to right, or fol-

246 The Canadian Farmer's

lowing the course of the sun. If this precaution is neglected, the
vine will in its growth unwind from the pole and fall to the
ground.

The vines that are not tied to the poles should be drawn out
and cut off as close to the root as possible.

Cultivation is this year effected not only with the cultivator
but by plough. To plough between the rows requires four slices,
and always thrown towards the centre and from the plants. With
two horses the two centre furrows may be turned ; then one hor e
must be used with short whippletree well covered at the extremi-
ties, so as to get the plough close to the hills.

After this ploughing, the between rows should be again
smoothed down level with the cultivator.

A small crop is usually harvested this year, running from. three
to five hundred weight per acre.

It will be well in the fall again to manure, as recommended for
the first fall, and indeed to repeat it every year as forming an ex-
cellent mulch for protection against the cold weather of winter and
spring.

The third years manacmnent is exactly similar to that already
explained to take place in the second, but as this year the crop
should come to full perfection we shall proceed to speak of —

Picking, drying and haling. — The crop ripens from the 1st to
the 15th of September, varying in different seasons.

When the seed is fully formed, and the flower covered with
pollen, we know that the vine is ready to be stripped.

The hops are picked usually by women and boys, into
boxes or bags — the former are now almost entirely discarded.
Strong frames of wood, like a skeleton box, called " bins,"
or " cribs," are placed in the field ; these frames are about nine
feet long and four feet wide, standing about three feet and a-half
from the ground. They are made large, so that several can stand
around them. In the centre of the frame is hooked a large coai'se
canvas bag, into which the hops are picked. The particular part
for the " boss" to watch is that the women, and especially children,
pick the hops clean, and throw no more leaves than possible into the
bags. The vine is cut off" about three feet from the ground, any lower
being considered injurious to the root from the profuse bleeding
which it occasions, and the pole is then wrenched from the ground
and placed over the " crib" frame, when the vine is stripped by the
pickers. As the poles are often very fast in the ground, much
difficulty is sometimes experienced in pulling them out, and a
wrenching instrument is sometimes found necessary. The one
made use of in Kent, England, is the best that we have ever seen
for the purpose.

It is constructed of a strong, tapering wooden handle, about
three inches in diameter, and about fiv^e feet long, at a distance of

Manual of Agriculture. 247

about twelve inches from the lower and larger end of which a small
bar of iron, a foot long, is clenched ; and being bent in the middle
into an acute angle, the inside is roughened at the forge into some-
thing like teeth, which, when fixed upon the lower end of the hop
pole, bites, and holding fast, is used as a lever to wrench it loose
from its anchorage in the soil. This instrument is technically
known as a " hop-dog."

When smaller bags, baskets or boxes are used, it is customary
for a woman to engage one or more for herself and family.

The weather considered most favourable for picking is when it
is neither too hotnormoist, but as in Canada time always presses
and hands are scarce, we cannot be over-fastidious. But it will
not do to pick in rain.

Hops must be dried as soon as possible after picking, or they
will heat and become discoloured. One day's picking is therefore
always dried at the kiln before the next day's lot comes in.

Drying. — The operation of kiln drying is one of great nicety,
and requires experience — the hop grower should always super-
intend it himself

It is the simplest thing in the world to reduce the value of a
hundred of hops several dollars, by improper drying.

We cannot here enter into a full description of a hop kiln. Any
man proposing to build one should go and examine personally
those already constructed. There are, however, one or two impor-
tant points worthy of special consideration in the building of a
hop kiln.

The floor (slatted strong enough to hold men tramping) must be
high up in the heating room. This room should then be at least
from fifteen to eighteen feet high.

A room for storage of hops should be provided up stairs and
alongside the drying-room, but it may be at a lower level — and
there must be a room for baling in, below the store-room.

As a general rule, it may be assumed that a hop kiln of 20 X 15,
full ground plan, will be of capacity sufficient for from three to
four acres of hops.

Hops, when brought in, should not be spread too thickly upon
the floor; about one foot is the medium thickness — if they lie
heavier it becomes hard work to turn them.

The temperature should never be over 170°, for fear of scorch-
ing. Indeed, if we can accommodate next day's picking, or have
time, it were better that the heat should be even very much less.

When it is necessary to have one day's picking dried before the
next comes in, and the heat to be kept between 150° and 170°, the
time usually required is from 15 to 20 hours.

When dry, the seed of the hop must be shrivelled ; this know-
ledge cannot well be imparted by reading, but must be learned
from experience — for it is a knowledge on the accuracy of which

248 The Canadian Farmer^s

the quality of the hop, when brought to market, in great measure
depends.

Sulphur is generally used in drying, to improve the colour,
making a yellower sample.

Baling. — It is better to leave the hops at least two or three
weeks after drying before they are compressed into bales. In that
time they imbibe a certain amount of moisture, which keeps the
colour fresh and adds to the weight.

The hops are then passed down through a pipe into canvas set
in a press. The men that work the press below, also stamp the
hops in with their feet and sew up the sides ; the size of the bale
is usually about 5 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. X by 2 ft., and contains
from 150 lbs. to 250 lbs. of pressed hops.

The usual yield of hops in full bearing in Canada is from 5 cwt.
to 15 cwt. per acre. We have heard of one ton to the acre, but
have never had our eyes refreshed by the sight of such a crop.

The attacks to which the hop crop is most exposed are, chiefly,
of some of those numerous tribes of insects known as plant-licBf
which are the hop-a'phidoe. They are, in certain weather, gene-
rated in vast numbers, and, covering the plant, suck the leaves,
and cause them to curl downwards, black, sickly and dying.

Another very rapacious enemy is the wireworm, who acts be-
low with such effect upon the roots, that sometimes one-third of
them will be destroyed.

Attempts have been made to destroy the aphidse by burning
rubbish, sulphur, old tobacco, &c., on the windward side of the
garden, but such remedies are of little avail. Of one thing we
may be certain, that the hop-grower has no friend equal to the
" ladybird!' whose black larvse feed upon the ''fly!"

The " mildew," a common disease in England, we are glad to
say has never been prevalent in Canada.

We now come to a consideration of the cost and profit of the
hop crop.

Our estimate must necessarily be very rough, for there is such
a variation in the cost of poles, of labour and of production, that
it is impossible to come at closer estimates than the following :

COST AND PllOFIT ON ONE ACRE OF HOPS.

CULTIVATION.

Fint Year — Rent of land (being under-drained) $5 00

Ploughing in fall 2 00

Ten loads of manure 5 00

Ploughing in spring 2 00

Marking out and staking 2 50

Sets, at $2 per bush, and 4 bush, per acre 8 00

Planting : Two men for three days 6 00

Twelve loads rotten manure 6 00

Cultivatiixg twice 1 70

$38 20

Manual of Agriculture, 249

Contra.

By 40 bush. Indian corn, at 60 cents 24 00

§14 20

Second Year. — Fall manuring on hills, 12 loads |6 00

Rent 5 00

1,600 poles at 8 cents, extending this charge over 8

years, say 16 00

Sharpening poles 8 00

Trimming, grabbing, pruning and poling, three men

and one boy, for one day 3 50

Tying bines, a man four days altogether 4 00

One ploughing between rows 2 50

Cultivating twice 1 70

46 70

Third Year. — Same expense of cultivation as in the second year 46 70

Total expenses of cultivation for first three years $107 60

PICKING, &C., COST OF.

Say crop yields 12 cwt. in 3rd year, and 5 cwt. in 2nd year, or total yield of 17
cwt. to the acre in tirst three years :

Picking. — At 3 cents per lb. (usual price) $51 00

Drying.— At$l per 100 lbs 17 00

Baling. — Two men and one boy can bale and sew 600 lbs. per day 7 50

Bent oj Kiln, costing $400, at 12 per cent 4 80

Total cost picking, drying, &c $80 30

Total expenses $187 90

Contra.

17 cwt. hops, at 20 cents 340 00

Profit from one acre 152 10

It thus becomes apparent that, given a fair crop and price, the
growth of hops is very profitable.

We must also bear in mind, that in the estimate above set
down every item is charged at its highest cash value. Not only
labour but manure is charged at a far higher rate than would be
proper when the farmer of a large holding simply devotes a small
portion of his property to the cultivation of hops.

Every year succeeding the third the profit becomes very much
greater, for, as will be perceived, the first year is one of outlay
with no return, whilst the crop picked in the second year is of
little value.

Thus the third, or first year of perfect crop, is charged with
no less than three years' cultivation, while the profit on every suc-
ceeding crop will be only chargeable with the cultivation of one
year.

The hop crop is one that requires considerable capital in the
commencement, careful culture, and patience to wait for some
years ere the full interest be realized. The want of either or all

250 The Canadian Farmer's

of these requisites has ruined very many hop-growers both in
England and in America.

Like the generality of businesses in which profits are very great,
there are immense risks to run, and, therefore, the man who is not
provided with stamina enough to stand a year's dead loss, and to
wait for future crops to make up any deficiency so caused, had
better keep himself and his purse clear of the risky though profit-
able culture of the hop.

It has been well said, that " hop culture is one of the most
hazardous investments connected with farming, and is indeed
regarded by many persons as a species of gambling, only to be in-
dulged in by those who have capital sufiiciently large to withstand
successive failures."

Although this is rather strong language, yet we heartily endorse
the meaning of the writer, that a man without capital may easily
ruin himself by too extensive a rush into hop culture.

Trellis-work instead of Poling. — Many of our hop-growers
have given up the system of poling, and have adopted trellises
of string.

The advantages claimed are: the plant obtains more sun and
air, is more spread out, and therefore less liable to fly or lice.

The poles are shorter, cost less, and stand better against high
winds.

The plant is more accessible, and can be examined and trained
more easily.

The crop is picked without cutting down, thus preventing all
bleeding.

The price of hops has varied in the last few years through
every gradation from 6 cents to 35 cents and yet higher per lb.
The cause of the sudden decline in the prices some four and five
years ago, was the rush made into hop-culture of which we have
already casually spoken, and the consequent forcing upon the
European market of a great quantity of American hops of inferior
quality. English brewers must have good hops, for much of their
beer is sent to hot countries, and to keep, must have been made
from the very best of materials.

ARTIFICIAL GRASSES, HAYING, &C., «fec.

We now come to a consideration of the grasses grown for
meadow and pasturage in Canada.

These grasses, whether made into hay or fed upon the ground,
form the most important forage for cattle, and also, by the manure
made in their consumption, help to maintain more live stock
upon an arable farm, exclusive of the product of gi'ain, than
upon an equal amount of land solely in pasture.

Without the use of these artificial grasses, it would indeed

Manuai of Agriculture. 251

upon our light soils be impossible to continue a mixed course
of husbandry embracing a yearly proportion of wheat.

We find, on reference to botanical works, enumeration of a
great number of varieties of pea-blossomed plants under the
names of "Trefoil " and "Melilot/' but they all belong to the one
class, and, cultivated in Canada, are simply divided into red and
white clover.

These clovers are most of them indigenous to our climate, and
indeed the oily seeds of white clover will remain dormant, espe-
cially when covered in calcareous soil, for ages, and then appear to
spring up spontaneously and naturally when least expected, or
when, perhaps, particularly undesired.

It is a perennial plant, lying so close to the ground that it is
not unfrequently known by the name of " creeping clover," but
the great luxuriance of its growth, its nutritive quality, and the
sweetness of its flavour, give it rank as the most valuable for
pasturage amongst all our natural grasses.

The broad-leafed red clover is also to a certain extent indige-
nous, but it has been imported so generally, and so improved by
cultivation, that it now may be fairly ranked amongst the arti-
ficial gi'asses.

No better step has been ever made in the general agriculture
of this continent, than the general growth of this plant. As a green
manure it is unsurpassed by any other crop, aflfording shade to and
retaining moisture in the soil during its growth, and returnino^
much plant food when ploughed down and in a state of decomposi-
tion. It is a biennial plant, not arriving at perfect maturity
until the year after it is sown, and dying in the next season.

Clover is not an exhaustive crop, and the reason is very
concisely put in the following passage from the pen of Professor
Liebig : —

" Clover differs entirely from the cereals in this respect, that it
sends its main roots perpendicularly downwards, when no obstacles
stand in the way, to a depth which the fine fibrous roots of wheat
and barley fail to reach ; the principal roots of clover branch off"
in creeping shoots, which again send fresh roots downwards.
Thus clover, like the pea plant, derives its principal food from
layers below the arable surface soil, and the difference between
the two consists mainly in this, that the clover, from its larger
and more extensive root surface, can still find a sufficiency of
food in fields where peas will no longer thrive. The natural
consequence is, that the subsoil is left proportionably much poorer
by clover than by the pea. Clover seed, on account of its small
size, can furnish from its own mass but a few formative elements
for the young plant, and requires a rich arable surface for its
development, but the plant takes comparatively but little food
from the surface of the soil. When the roots have pierced

252 The Canadian Farmers

through this, the upper parts are soon covered with a corky
coating, and only the tine root-iibres, ramifying through the sub-
soil, convey food to the plant.

" The value of the root is equal to that of the leaf and stalk to
the farmer. As Dr. Voelcker's experiments clearly prove, there
remains in the soil, after the removal of the crop, an enormous
weight of clover roots, which on their decomposition supply, in
an available form, a large amount of plant food that this vigorous
feeder has collected largely from sources that would have been
inaccessible to the finer tendrils of wheat roots. Furthermore,
clover roots penetrate deeply into the subsoil, and when they
decay they leave open a well-furnished and inviting channel by
which the roots of more delicate plants can descend beyond the
influence of drought. This is in addition to the accumulation of
nitrogen in the substance of the roots, and in the fallen leaves of
the crop. Whatever the reason may be, the fact is most obvious,
whenever I have been able to observe its effect, that the growth
of clover has invariably added to the apparent fertility (the
available fertility) of the soil. The good eflfect is much more
obvious after two years' growth of the clover."

Many American farmers believe so heartily in the efficacy of
the clover plant as a renovator of land, that they are willing to
lose one whole crop in order to ensure a thoroughly good crop of
wheat in the succeeding year, thus going a step further with this
subject than we have in Canada. We as yet have only gone to
the extent of ploughing in the year's crop of clover, and generally
trust to the influence of the decaying roots alone, after having
taken off* either one or two cuts of grass or hay. American
farmers take the bull by the horns at once. They seed down
wheat with clover, do not allow the young clover to be fed off" on
any account, then for the next season close up the field fences
altogether, and neither feed nor cut the crop. The entire clover
plant is allowed to grow, and is often over, two feet high, a solid
mass of flowers and seed, and is allowed to rot down on tlie
ground, and lie all the winter. The next spring the clover starts
again, and is allowed to grow till in full flower. The whole of
the result is then ploughed under as a preparation for wheat,
either with or without a fallow. If spring wheat is to be grown,
the ground is fallowed during the remainder of the season, after
ploughing, and regularly prepared for spnng wheat. If for fall
wheat, the clover is ploughed under, the land heavily rolled, and
cultivated so far as to keep down thistles and weeds, and the fall
wheat sown. A noble crop may be expected, to be again seeded
down to clover. By these means the ground becomes filled with
clover seed, and the peculiar elements produced from rotten and
deca3^ed clover, and this ensures a thorough crop of clover so
often as it is used. The originators of this system claim that it is

Manual of AgYiculture. 253

one of great economy. The outlay is very small, the cost of
labour comparatively nothing, the smothering effect of the clover
kills all weeds, and the double crop so ploughed in is done by one
ploughing and a slight cultivation of the soil between the time of
ploughing and wheat sowing. They say that you have the ground
more cheaply and better manured than you can have it in any
other way, and ensure a thoroughly good crop of grain. In case
of growing spring wheat, the plan might be further supple-
mented by a crop of buckwheat ploughed under after the clover,
or a crop of green mustard. Either of these would be ploughed
in, the last thing in the fall.

Clover will grow upon almost any kind of soil, from the most
sandy to the stiffest clay, but on the lighter lands it appears to be
more at home. Indeed, it is generally considered that if a crop of
clover can be secured upon a field very much worn out, the first
step has been taken in the reinvigoration of such land.

When sown. — Generally along with spring wheat, barley or
oats, and upon fall wheat in the spring of the year.

Sowing. — In the sowing of clover, the most important point to
be considered is the condition of the seed. It must be borne in
mind, that good red clover seed is dark-coloured when thoroughly
ripe ; so that in proportion as there are present in the sample a
great number of light-coloured seed, so there will be greater
risk of a proportion not generating. To illustrate this point
more fully : if the light-shaded seeds in a sample be picked out
and planted, many will be found to fail, whilst all the dark-
coloured will germinate.

The quantity per acre is a subject on which there has been
much difference of opinion. We have ourselves always favoured
thick sowing, and we have yet seen no reason to change our
opinion upon the subject. Something may, however, depend on
the condition of the seed bed, as in a mellow, rich, friable sur-
face soil, doubtless the seed will have the best chance to grow
quickly.

The three objects to he attained in the sowing of clover are
nutritious fodder, a heavy growth to plough under, and the for-
mation of dense shade for the ground.

The practical experience of farmers is adverse to thin sowing
of clover. The plants come up far apart, and if, owing to a very
favourable state of soil and season, we have a good crop, the stalk
grows very coarsely, and is apt to become dry and brittle after
curing, stacking and mowing away. Extra seed should not be
grudged if by its use a sweet, soft, fine-stemmed clover can be
secured.

It is passing strange that the practice of thin sowing should
be so frequently carried out in Canada ; for even in Great Britain,
where there is far greater humidity of climate, and where the

254 The Canadian Farmer's

state of cultivation is very perfect, it is the general practice to sow
not only clover, but all grass seeds, much thicker than we do
here.

As we sit writing and cast our eyes into an adjoining field,
which was last year a garden, there is a patch upon which clover
seed was sown very thickly ; probably over twenty pounds to the
acre. The spring has been excessively dry (1873), and the clover
is generally very backward. Our patch is thick and luxuriant,
springy to the tread of the foot, and the ground beneath, notwith-
standing there has been no rain for about three weeks, is moist.

It is quite evident that the early and vigorous growth of a mass
of stem and leaves has covered the ground well, prevented the
escape of moisture, and also, in all probability, of many fertilizing
gases. The sun is streaming down with intense heat upon the
head when walking upon this green carpet, but the feet feel mois-
ture and coolness. Where the clover is thin in the fields, the
ground is bared to the action of the sun, is scorching hot to the
hand, the spires of the plants are dried and the leaf shrunk. No
after rain can ever cause such to make the growth that will be
found in one thick-sown piece ere the blossoms are out and the
crop fit for the scythe.

In the one case, a crop of at least three tons per acre will be cut,
and with the very best of weather we cannot expect more than
twenty hundred weight from the other.

The hay from the one acre will be worth, at ten dollars per ton,
thirty dollars ; while from the other it will be only ten dollars,
under the best circumstances of weather that may supervene be-
tween the present time and haying. The difference of seed used
on the two portions was probably nearly ten pounds, or, at six
dollars per bushel, only one dollar. Thus, for a saving of one
dollar at one time, is lost hereafter twenty dollars. This may be
called ^^ dollar wise and twenty dollar foolish."

It is, then, not the thick growth of individual plants, but the
heavy growth of the whole, that protects the crop ; for it gives
the crop a good start in early spring, and a growth luxuriant
enouo-h to form a dense shade over the o^round ere drouo^ht can
take effect upon the soil.

" It is held that heavy crops evaporate moisture all the more.
This is true. But much of this moisture is retained by the heavy
mass 'entangled in its folds,' so that the escape — actual escape,
from the grass as a body, is considerably less, in proportion, than
that set free by the more scattered growth. Here the air drinks
rapidly from the slim plants exposed fully to it, and carries off"
what it takes. In the dense mass it cannot do this ; it cannot
penetrate it.

"But the greatest harm in a drought is, the direct exposure of the
soil to the sun and the hot, dry wind. This, indeed, is the cause,

Manual of Agriculture, 255

more or less, of all drought. What is the evaporation of plants
compared to this ? Well, this is avoided, wholly avoided, in a
dense mass of verdure. It needs but a start to occupy and cover
in time, as now. The contrast is interesting — a cloud on the one
hand, barrenness on the other."

The quantity of seed per acre should not be less than ten pounds,
or a bushel to six acres. We have often put on fifteen pounds, or
divided a bushel between four acres, and have never had reason
to repent of such a liberal use of seed.

Less is probably required when sown early on fall wheat, than
upon spring crops.

The time of sowing depends, of course, upon the crop with which
it is sown, and also upon the state of the weather.

On Fall Wheat. — It may be either sown before the frost is out
of the ground, or when the land is ready to go on with horses. We
have had excellent " catches" by sowing on the last snow, i.e., the
late spring flurries that we usually have after the back of winter
is broken. The advantages are that the broadcast sower finds it
more easy to sow evenly, for he can see his tracks up and down
the field, and the melting snow sinks the seed into the ground
and gives it an early start. If the operation, however, is put off
later, it is a good plan to sow as soon as land is moderately dry,
and the wheat has begun to put forth a growth for the summer.
Then harrow the wheat, as was recommended in the section de-
voted to the culture of wheat, and the passage of the roller after
this harrowing will help to cover in the seeds. Last season (1872),
when a great number of farmers failed to secure a " catch" on fall
wheat, we adopted this plan and were successful.

A bush harrow, following sowing, will also be found a very ex-
cellent implement for covering clover seed, for it should not be
deep in the surface soil.

The success of the clover crop depends in great measure upon
the state of the weather, both when sown and afterwards when
standing for a crop.

It. requires gentle rains to sprout it rapidly and to give it a
good anchorage before the summer droughts set in, though in this
climate we alwa3^s run the risk of losing our clover by the burn-
ing heats of summer, no matter how favourable to its early growth
may have been the spring rains.

The fanner too often, however, blames the weather for his lost
crop ; but given soil clean and under good tilth, a liberal supply
of sound, fresh seed, and nature will, in the majority of cases,
respond with a bountiful crop.

It is useless to sow clover on foul land. Most of our noxious
weeds are fast and stout growers, and in the tussle for life our do-
mestic plant must go to the wall.

Not only does a fine friable state of the bed give the clover a

25Q The Canadian Farmer's

chance to strike its tap root firmly and deeply down, but in such
ground the temperature is always cooler.

When sowing clover seed along with spring grain, in drills, the
clover sower should run in front of the implement. The teeth of
the drill only stir the soil, and so just cover the grass seeds; while
if the seed follows, it will fall and roll into the drills and be cov-
ered nearly the same depth as the grain, which will be fatal to a
large proportion of grass seeds.

After clover seed is sown with spring grain, the roller should
always be used to cover in such seeds as may have remained on
the surface.

The Americans have recorded instances of a successful " catch"
of clover on corn ground.

A. G. Kirk, Dickinson Co., Kansas, says he saw in Columbus
County, Ohio, last April, a line stand of clover in a corn stubble,
and on inquiry found the owner of the land was in the habit of
sowing clover seed when he worked the corn the last time, for the
purpose of supplying manure for the crop of oats, or barley, or
wheat, which was to follow. This farmer evidently was one of
the progressive sort, who believes in putting all he can on the
land. We have done the same, pasturing the clover with sheep,
and had a good crop of wheat after it.

Sowing clover alone. — That grass seed will come to a good crop
when sown alone, is now a well-established fact. Indeed it was
brought under our own observation in a very marked manner.

We seeded down a field of oats ; the oats were drilled in, and
the grass seed was dropped by a clover sower attached to the hind
end of the two-horse drill; the seed was covered with a bush
harrow. For some reason the grain drill did not work well, and
several of the spouts missed sowing in two or three places through
the whole length of the field. In one spot the whole drill missed
for some yards. Upon these bare spots the grass seeds have, not-
withstanding the extreme dryness of the season, far excelled in
luxuriance of growth those upon the land where the oats have
grown regularly.

This goes to prove that the clov3r and timothy will do well
when sown by themselves.

Whether the farmer would approve of losing one yeai-'s crop off
his land, he may judge for himself ; but on low spots such grasses
as timothy may be sown to advantage by themselves in the fall,
and will come to a good crop in the succeeding year.

We would, however, repeat our opinion that if the land be not
in good heart and thoroughly clean, it will be worse than useless
to sow timothy and clover alone.

Should land, however, be in a fit state to receive the seed
next year, let it be ploughed in the fall and left rough , cross-
ploughed or thoroughly cultivated and harrowed down very finely

Manual of Agriculture. 257

in the spring, and seeded down thickly with equal bulks of tim-
othy and clover.

If manure be used, it must be fine and thoroughly rotted, so
that all weed seeds have been killed, and it should be incorporated
with the soil by spreading on to(), and working in with the culti-
vator in the early spring. A top-dressing of ashes and plaster will
be of great benefit at almost any period of its growth. Or let him
plough early this fall and sow timothy seed alone, and in the
spring drag with light harrov/s ; sow clover seed, harrow again, and
top-dress with fine rotted manure, plaster and ashes. Of the two
courses we prefer the former as the more safe. The only advantage
to be obtained from the latter course is that the first year's hay
will have a good admixture of timothy in it.

When clover is used with the intention of keeping the meadow
for two or three years, it becomes necessary to use another kind
of seed to take the place of the clover, which, being a biennial
plant, disappears in two years. For this purpose timothy is used in
Canada. While we believe that there are other grasses of a sweeter
flavour and more luxuriant growth than timothy for this purpose,
and suited to the climate of Canada, yet experiments, as recorded,
have been so meagre that we hardly feel qualified in advising the
supersedence of timothy by them. We shall speak of these other
grasses hereafter.

It was customary at one time to sow clover by weight and
timothy by bulk. The present and more practical plan is to sow
a given bulk per acre of the two, mixed in equal quantities.

Before leaving this subject, we may mention the common prac-
tice of cutting cereal crops, amongst which grasses have been sown,
too close to the ground. Undoubtedly a larger amount of straw
is thus obtained, but on the other hand a fair length of stubble
aflfords considerable protection to the young plant, and breaking
down in winter acts to some extent as a mulch. We now come to
a consideration of the main principles to be observed in the
securing of a superior article.

HAY.

We will here condense from a treatise on haymaking, by Mr. Sib-
son : —

" Haymaking, though essentially merely a process of drying, by
which the feeding principles of the grass are brought to a condi-
tion capable of being preserved, is accompanied by minor changes
which materially influence the result. The chief of these is the
production of the peculiar flavouring principles of hay, which pro-
bably contribute much to the value of this produce as a choice
article of food. Again, the grass in drying is exposed to certain
sources of loss in nutritiv«e materials, so that the hay made from a
17

258 The Canadian Farmer's

given weight of grass does not contain so much nutritive matter
as the grass in a fresh state would do.

" This loss may be accounted for : 1. By the seeds, flowers and
finer leaves, especially of the clovers, which become very brittle
on drying, shaking out to some extent, during the making, even
when carefully managed.

" 2. By incipient fermentation, which proceeds in the moist grass
as soon as cut, and proceeds while drying in the field as well as in
the mow or stack.

" 3. By the washing out of its soluble constituents by dew and
rain while lying in the field, especially" when arrived at the con-
dition approaching to that of hay. The extent of this loss, of
course, depends on the weather during the operation, being in wet
seasons very considerable, and is the principal reason why fine
weather is of so much value in haymaking.

*'The quality of hay as food, apart from that determined by
the manner in which it has been got, depends of course mainly
on the character of the meadow which produces it, and also much
upon condition as regards the maturity of the grass when cut.
Up to the period of flowering, the nutritive juices of the grasses
continue to increase, especially in sugar ; in many species notable
quantities of this valuable constituent of food are present. As the
process of fructification proceeds, these bodies diminish, being
drawn upon to supply the flowers, pollen, &c., much of which is
thus lost, whilst the amount of woody fibre in the stems rapidly
increases, also at the expense of nutritive principles. For these
reasons it is certainly better to cut grass for hay too early than too
late ; for although by waiting longer a heavier crop may be
obtained, beyond a certain period this increase in quantity will be
greatly at the expense of quality."

We give analyses of clover hay and ordinary mixed meadow
hay:—

MEADOW HAY.

Per cent. Per ton.

Moisture 16-64 333 lbs.

Fatty and waxy msitters 5*01 72

Albuminous compounds* 8"08 140^

Gum, sugar, &c. &c 4486 9654

Woody tibre 17-64 355

Mineral matters t 7'77 134

100 00 ■ 2000

Per cent. Per ton.

* Containing Nitrogen 1*30 29 lbs.

t •* PhcjphoricAcid 043 9^

" Potash 202 45

Manual of Agriculture. 259

CLOVER HAY.

Per cent. Per ton.

Moisture 1705 341 9 lbs.

Fatty and waxy matters 3*74 438

Albuminous compounds* 1434 2812

Sugar, gum, &c 3076 6490

Woody fibre 26-61 556-1

Mineral matters + 750 128 0

100-00 2000 0

Both meadow and clover hay contain a considerable proportion
of fatty and waxy matters, all of which are probably available for
animal wants

One-sixth, however, of the weight of hay, and a little more in
clover hay, it must be observed, is water. It is doubtless owing to
the greater amount of nitrogenous matter and phosphates that
clover is a better fertilizer than mixed grass.

It has been argued by some that slight heating in the stack or
mow does not injure the feeding qualities of hay ; but the smell
emitted from hay in a state of fermentation would lead us to con
sider that there must be a loss in the process of no small amount
of sugar.

The practice of salting hay, when about to ;mow away, is un-
doubtedly a good one, for it tends to amalgamate the soluble
nitrogenous compounds, and these are, undoubtedly, the origina-
tors of that fermentation which, if allowed to proceed, will cause
such evolution of heat as to destroy the feeding properties of the
hay, and in some cases cause actual combustion.

Clover has, undoubtedly, a larger amount of feeding quality
when green than any other kind of artificial grass ; but owing to
its brittleness when drying, it becomes dusty, and for this reason
is dangerous feed to an animal from whom speed, and rapid action
of the lungs and organs of breath are required.

Signs of Rain. — Many of our farmers regulate not only the
time of haying, but also the setting of posts and many other farm
operations, by the phases of the moon.

Now, whilst we can hardly perceive any analogy between the
moon and a fence post, it is yet probable that the moon acts as a
chronicle of certain times in the year in which rain is more or less
prevalent. It is observable that there is, on an average, a symme-
trical fluctuation in the amount of rain at certain given seasons in
each year, and these seasons are chronicled by the phases of the
moon, such phases showing the relative position of the sun, moon
and earth.

Per cent. Per ton.

♦Containing Nitrogen 228 511 lbs.

t " Phosphoric Acid '53 11-9

" Potash 1-83 410

260 The Canadian Farmer's

We would call our farmers' notice to the fact that in nearly
every year there is more rain in the first two weeks in July than
in the latter part of June or of July.

A natural barometer is noted in Macdonald's " Hints on Farm-
ing," as discovered by a gentleman in England, being the spider's
web. When it is about to rain and be windy, the spider shortens
considerably the last thread to which his web is suspended, and
leaves it in this state while the weather remains variable.

If the insect lengthens its threads, it will be fine, and the fine-
ness may be guessed by the length they attain. If the spider
remains inactive, it is a sign of rain ; if, on the contrary, it begins
to work whilst it rains, it betokens a speedy change for the bet-
ter. The spider alters his web every twenty-four hours, and if
these alterations are made a little before sunset, the night will be
fine.

The following quaint reasons, forty in number, are given by the
late Dr. Jenner as sure signs that rain is near : —

1. The hollow winds begin to blow,

2. The clouds look black, the grass is low,

3. The soot falls down, the spaniels sleep,

4. And Spiders from their cobwebs peep.

5. Last night the sun went pale to bed,

6. The moon in halves hid her head ;

7. The boding shepherd heaves a sigh,

8. For see a rainbow spans the sky.

9. The walls are damp, the ditches smell,
10. Closed is the pink-eyed pimpernel.

* 11. Hark ! how the chairs and tables crack —

12. Old Betty's joints are on the rack.

13. Loud quack the ducks ; the peacocks cry,

14. The distant hills are seeming nigh,

15. How restless are the snorting swine ;

16. The busy flies disturb the kine.

17. Low o'er the grass the swallow wings—

18. The cricket, too, how sharp he sings.

19. Puss on the hearth, with velvet paws,

20. Sits wiping o'er her whisker'd jaws.

21. Through the clear stream the fishes rise,

22. And nimbly catch th' incautious flies ;

23. The glowworms, numerous and bright,

24. Illumed the dewy deli last night.

25. At dusk the squalid toad was seen,

26. Hopping and crawling o'er the green.

27. The whirling dust the wind obeys,

28. And in the rapid eddy plays.

29. The frog has changed his yellow vest,

30. And in a russet coat is dressed .

31. Though June, the air is cold and still,

32. The mellow blackbird's voice is shrill.

33. My dog, so altered in his taste,

34. Quits mutton bones on grass to feast.

35. And see yon crows ! how odd their flight,

36. They imitate the gliding kite,

37. And seem precipitate to fall,

38. As if they felt the piercing ball.

39. 'Twill surely rain ; 1 see \vith sorrow

40. Our jaunt must be put off to-morrow.

Manual of Agriculture. 261

The object in making hay from grass, as we have hefore
observed, is to retain the maximum amount of sap, and this can
only be done by allowing it to go through a state of partial fer-
mentation in cocks whilst undergoing the process of drying.

This is best effected by first putting it into small cocks, then
into larger ones, thus gradually curing in the shade ; this also
prevents all liability of a second fermentation in the stack or
mow^

Clover is ready for cutting at a far earlier period than usually
practised by farmers. To preserve all the saccharine juices it must
be cut when in full bloom, when but a very few of the heads have
begun to brown — it is common to wait until the majority of the
heads are wilted and dead. The heads should wilt in the cock,
and not on the stem.

Timothy, likewise, to secure a well-coloured and nutritious
article, should be cut when the first joint above the root has
turned yellow and become hard. If left to ripen its seed, the
juices are turned into hard fibre, which is little better for feed
than ground-up chips of wood.

" A farmer says he wants to let his timothy grow until it is ripe
enough to haul into the barn the same day it is cut. This sounds
very nice, and looks practical. But on the other side there is a
horde that, if he could speak, would say he will not eat such hay
at all if he can get hay that has been cut before the seed was filled,
and has been well cured by the process of sweating in the cock.
We think that in most cases it is the imperfect curing of early cut
hay that brings it into disrepute with city buyers. Some cut it
too early, and allow it to lie in the swathe and burn up in the sun.
Finding it does not dry, they leave it all night exposed to the dew
in the swathe, or even for a day or two under the sun and passing
showers, till it gets wilted, not cured. Such hay has lost all its
aroma and sweetness. Had it been tedded, or shaken out twice
within six hours after cutting, and then put up in cocks to stay till
it had gone through a slight degree of fermentation, it would have
been quite a different article."

" The Country Gentleman hears of many farmers who could
not get in sluj hay during the showery or ' catching' weather of
this season ; and is told of one man who is not supposed to be
much of a farmer, but put from three to six tons of hay in good
' order into his barn every day for a week. There is no secret in
the process. He put up the hay in cocks and put canvas caps
over them, thus shedding the rain. Then when the weather was
clear again, ofi^ went the caps and the hay opened to the air and
sunshine. The caps he used were made out of old bags, and cost
about fifteen cents each. But much higher priced bags would pay
well on the investment when wet weather continues."

" It is held by some that clover, as soon as it begins to lodge,

262 The Canadian Farmer's

should, as a general thing, be cut. This irrespective of its age or
size. Hence, clover by these men is cut early as a rule — in
moist seasons always before it is in full blossom. When the crop
is light (in a drought) it is cut later, but not much. The early cut-
ting has convinced them of the superiority of the hay. Thus we
have, Aug. 7th, the second cutting in process. There are a few
heads, but half have not appeared. The crop has begun to lodge
— of course it is of a good length to do this ordinarily ; the stems
are eighteen to twenty inches long. It is a heavy mass of green
fodder, surpassing in weight the lirst cutting, on account of the
more favourable weather.

"To cut thus early is to get all of the growth, as all can be cleanly
cut oif, not having lodged sufficiently to prevent this. There is a
saving, therefore, in this respect, as well as in the better quality of
the hay, no rotting of the lodged stalk taking place. This last,
when much lodged, and a heavy growth, results in much loss."

Of late years caps have been brought into general requisition in
the States for the protection of hay in cock.

For weighing hay in small lots, an American exchange
describes a very simple contrivance, which saves the tying at
least, and is very cheap and easy to make. It consists of an
upright standard, five or six feet in length, of 4 x 4 scantling ;
a round pole will do as well. Near the bottom of this standard,
tw© two-inch holes are bored at right angles to each other.
Round straight poles are slipped through these holes, projecting
some three or four feet on each side of the standard. On the ends
of these poles are laid and fastened light narrow strips of boards
or poles, forming a square, the sides of which are equally distant
from the standard. A clevis is attached to the top end of the
standard in which to hook the steelyard. The usual lever ar-
rangement is used to raise the hay, which is simply pitched on to
the platform. When not in use, the cross poles can be slipped out,
and the whole stored in a small place.

Glover for Seed. — Clover seed is at best a troublesome crop, and
rarely yields more than three bushels to the acre. Still, as from
the farmer's own field he can obtain seed which he knows is fresh
and unadulterated, it may be a safe plan to cut and thrash ; but it
must be borne in mind that the cutting of grass for seed is hard
upon the land.

The period when it may be considered ready to cut is one re-
quiring judgment. "As the crop approaches to maturity, it
changes its verdant appearance to a light brown ;" the leaves
begin to harden and shrivel and drop off*, leaving a bare stem, with
the withered flower nodding at the top. The best plan is to pluck
the flowers and rub in the hand. When the seed separates with
some difliculty, but yet will come away from the flower, the crop
should be cut ; by the time it has dried it will thrash easily. In-

Manual of Agriculture. 263

deed, clover when ripe for seed is at all times a bad sheller, and
should be secured with as little moving as possible. The reaping
machine is the best implement for cutting clover for seed. The
clover heads may be raked in windrows, and immediately pitched
into a waggon rack which has been boarded up, so that as few
shellings as possible may be lost in carrying.

It is better to cut clover for seed in the mornings and evenings,
and on cloudy days, for it becomes very dry and brittle under a
hot sun.

The crop must, however, be perfectly dry for thrashing, as if
damp the seed is very hard to separate. But a wetting with rain,
and subsequent drying, will have a good effect in making it thrash
more easily.

Seed should be only taken from clover that has been grown on
clean ground, or a plentiful crop of mulleins and other abominable
weeds will be on hand for distribution over the farm.

The chief points to be considered in stowing away hay in the
barn are : — Mowing away in such a manner that it may be easily
moved again ; sprinkling with salt, the beneficial effects of which
have been already shown.

In stacking hay, more care should be exercised than is usual in
securing the bottom from wet. We believe that a regular stand
upon some stone pillars or wooden posts would pay well, for
such would not only keep the stack perfectly dry, but would also
allow of a current of fresh air passing constantly below the hay.

When hay is very damp, a ventilator is most useful. This is
simply made by keeping a bag filled with chaff, or some light but
bulky substance, always standing in the centre, building round
this bag, and then drawing it up each time that the layers of hay
rise to the mouth of the bag.

This plan of ventilation need not, however, be resorted to unless
the hay be very damp, for a moderate sweating of the hay renders
it far more palatable to the cattle.

The grand principles of a well-built stack are that the centre
be all the time kept higher than the sides, and that the whole be
kept well trodden down.

Pasture Land. — The management of pasture land in Canada is
more difficult than in the moister climate of England. Drouffhts
are of such frequent occurrence during the summer, that grass, once
eaten down, sometimes takes several weeks to put forth again the
slightest growth, and thus at certain seasons through the summer
we find that our cattle do no better when they have the run of
twenty acres than at other seasons in a far smaller field.

It is the quickly renewed growth of grass after cropping that
makes good pasturage, and this rapid revival will not take place
if the land be allowed to get parched up.

Soilioig vs. Pasture. — Our own experience in this matter has

264 The Canadian Farmer's

been that the less pasture land we have kept the better, and that
for a climate almost tropical as is ours in the summer months,
the soiling system is the correct one, if we would have our farm.s
carry a heavy stock.

Indeed, by the growth of plenty of green fodder (notably corn),
twenty acres may be made to feed forty head of stock equally as
well — aye, better than eighty acres, while the remaining sixty
acres may be reserved for winter feed in the shape of hay. The
whole question of Soiling vs. Pasturing resolves itself into this :
Will the extra expense of cutting and carrying food to the stock
throughout the sum.mer be more than counterbalanced by the
acreage of land thus saved for other purposes ? We submit as our
opinion that it undoubtedly will, simply premising that a suffi-
ciently heavy stock be kept to pay for the expense of one man's
whole time. We shall enter more fully into reasons when we
come to consider the principle of soiling cattle. At present our
business is with pasturage.

Now, to keep a pasture field in heart, we must not only have a
rich and deep soil, but we require any kind of grasses that will
thoroughly shade the ground. Timothy is a valuable grass for
hay, and is in first demand amongst city buyers ; but it is a
miserable species for a pasturage — not only itself a naturally dry
plant, having few leaves by which to gather moisture at night,
and partaking in this manner of the nature of a cereal, but it
grows spindly, straight up, far apart, and permits the hot sun
to strike down on to the very surface of the ground and to bake
it for several inches in depth. It does not afford the same surface
as other grasses from which to radiate the earth's heat at night,
so that a maximum amount of dew may be condensed, and per-
mits the hot scorching winds of summer to blow fairly through it,
and dry and shrivel up its stalks. What we want upon our pas-
ture (ground is a luxuriant matted growth — one that will tho-
roughly shade the ground, and will condense the greatest amount
of moisture at night during hot weather.

Dew. — And whilst upon the subject, we would explain the for-
mation of dew. It is incorrect to say that " the dew falls" or
even to speak of the dew rising. Dew forms — i.e., it is simply a
co.ndensation of the atmosphere upon the surface of substances,
varying in degree according to the amount of surface exposed to
the atmosphere over a given area ; for which reason dew is always
heavier upon the grasses than upon the bare ground, and heavier
upon thick matted, many-leaved grasses than upon those which,
like timothy, spindle into one almost leafless stalk.

The action of the formation of dew may be seen every day. Go
to the well or snrinor in hot weather and fill a glass with cold
water ; directly this glass, made cold by the water, is brought mto
contact with the warm atmosphere, moisture is formed on the out-

Manual of Agriculture, 265

side of the glass. This is dew. The wet does not come through,
for we know that water cannot 'penetrate glass ; but the glass,
being colder than the air, condenses the moisture of the atmos-
phere immediately round it into drops of water.

The same thing may be observed in winter, in frosty weather.
When we rise from our beds in the morning, we find the window
covered with frost or frozen water.

The pane of glass is made cold outside by low temperature of
the air ; our breath being moist, and coming into contact with the
cold glass, is condensed into drops of water, and frozen. When we
breathe upon a pane of glass at any time, moisture is formed by
the condensation of our warm breath in contact with the colder
pane.

In cold weather we can see our breath ; because immediately
the warm air exhaled by us comes into contact with the very
much lower temperature of the external atmosphere, it is con-
densed into water or vapour, and as such is perceptible to the eye.

All these illustrations show — and the glass of cold water is the
most palpable — that the effect of bringing air at a high tempera-
ture into contact with cold is to condense the air into water.

Now, after a warm day the atmosphere and surface of the earth
have both been heated.

Immediately the sun goes down, the earth begins rapidly to
lose its heat by radiation — that is, heat is passed away from every
particle of the earth's surface, or of what grows on its surface, as
grass, trees, &c., in radiating lines outwards towards the sky.

This radiation we will shortly explain. Heat is transmitted in
three ways — by conduction, reflection, and radiation. By conduc-
tion, when you place one end of a piece of iron in the fire, and
soon the other becomes too hot to hold ; by reflection, when to
preserve your wall you place a piece of bright tin between it and
the stove, by which, as soon as the heat strikes the tin, it is thrown
back towards the stove ; and radiation is the process by which
the heat leaves the stove and warms you as you stand some yards
from it.

The heat, then, leaves the earth as it leaves the stove, by radia-
tion upwards into space.

So that the earth cools far 7)iore rapidly than the atmosphere
immediately around it.

The earth then takes the place of the glass of cold water, and
the air condenses upon it.

We hear some reader say, " But why do we feel the evening air
so cold if it is really warmer than the earth ? " Because heat
radiates also from your body, and the air condenses upon you and
gives you a chilly and moist feeling.

Again, we hear, " Why is dew, then, never heavy under trees ? "
Because the tree above does the radiation of heat,* and the rays of

266 The Canadian Farmer's

heat from the earth are stopped by the tree above, so that there
the ground does not cool as rapidly as where unsheltered. If you
climb the tree, you will see the dew heavy on the top.

Again, for the same reason, radiation is prevented by clouds,
and, therefore, there is no dew in cloudy weather.

If 3^ou place a paper cover over a warm egg, but not in contact,
the egg will not cool as rapidly as one that is not so covered, no
matter how cool the surrounding atmosphere may be, because the
paper prevents radiation of heat. The earth is the egg; if covered
by a tree or by a cloud — aye, by a piece of paper, not in contact
with it, radiation is prevented ; it does not cool much more rapidly
than the lower air, and consequently there is little or no dew, ac-
cording to the closeness and thickness of the clouds.

We cannot afford space to enter more fully into the subject ;
we ask our readers to take notice that the greater the surface ex-
posed over a given area, the greater the amount of radiation, the
more rapid the cooling process, and the heavier the condensation
of air into water or dew.

Thus a grass that throws out innumerable leaves will condense
much air at night, and thus supply itself with much moisture to
keep it damp through the coming hot hours.

The dew is also so heavy on clover and such leafy grasses that
it soaks at last through them and drops to the soil beneath ; it
is then shaded from the hot sun by the dense growth of leaf, and
the ground remains onoist.

In timothy, the sun gets at the ground, and if it has become
wet in the night, will cause rapid evaporation, and leave it drier
in a few hours than if there had been no formation of dew at all.

We now give a list of grass seeds. In the first column will be
found their prices as sold by Bliss & Co., seedsmen, of New York,
and in the second column their prices as sold by Canadian seeds-
men, the latter being taken from the catalogue of Messrs. Bruce,
Hamilton.

The prices for 1S7S of the several imported varieties of grass
seeds already tried in the United States and Canada : —

New York Prices. Canada Prices.

Lb. Bus. Lb. Bus.

Creeping Bent Grass, {Agrostis Stolonifera.)—
A valuable variety for lawns, also highly suit-
able for permanent pasture on account of its
growing earlier and later than most others, es-
pecially in moist situations $0 45 $4 00 $0 00 $4 00

Meadow Foxtail, {Alopecurus Pra'.ensis.) —
This is one of the best and earliest of pasture
grasses ; its root leaves are rather broad,
and grows rapidly when cut or eaten down by
live stock. It thrives best on meadow lands . 0 50 0 00 0 50 0 00

Sweet Scented Vernal Grass, {Anthoxanthum
Odoratuvi. ) — This variety yields but a moder-
ate portion of herbage, yet permanent pastures

Manual of Agriculture. 267

New York Prices. Canada Prices.

Lb. Bus. Lb. Bus.

should not be without it, as it is of good qual-
ity and very early. Its pleasant scent, not
only when cut for hay, but also when the
seeds become nearly ripe, is also a strong re-
commendation. It even deserves a place in
the flower garden on account of its agreeable

odour 0 50 0 00 0 50 0 00

Yellow Oat Grass, {Avena Flavescens.) — Should
be sown with other varieties, such as Crested
Dogstail or Sweet Vernal, valuable for dry

meadows and pastures 0 75 0 00 0 00 0 00

Rhode Island Bent, [Agrostis var.) — An excel-
lent variety for lawns and pasturage 0 00 4 00 0 00 0 00

Schraeder's Brome Grass, {Bromus Schraederi. )
— A new forage plant from Australia, particu-
larly recommended for resisting the droughtbet-
ter than any other variety, and will thrive on
any soil except where there is a superabun-
dance of moisture ; yields two good crops in a
season, and is much liked by cattle, who will
walk over everything else to reach it, and will

eat it down as close as they can bite 0 50 0 00 0 00 0 00

Crested Dogstail, {Cynosurus Cristatus.) — This
grass, forming a close turf, and having rather
fine foliage, may be advantageously sown on
lawns and other places to be kept under by the
scythe ; it is also useful in agriculture for very
dry or gravelly soils. Cattle leave the seed
stalk, but the foliage is always eaten down

closely 0 60 0 00 0 50 0 00

Orchard Grass, {Syn, Bound Cocksfoot) [Dacty-
lis Glomerata.) — A valuable grass on account
of the quantity of nutritious feed which it
yields, and the rapidity with which it grows
after being cut or grazed. It is well adapted
for growing under trees, or in orchards, etc.,
and is especially valuable for grazing bullocks,
which fatten rapidly upon it. If allowed to
stand for hay it has rather a coarse appearance,

but if grazed it always has a fresh green hue. . 0 30 3 50 0 00 4 00

Hard Fescue Grass, (Festuca Dur'mscula.) —
Will thrive in a great variety of soils, and re-
sist the effect of drought in a remarkable
degree. From the fineness of its foliage,
it is well adapted for law^is or a sheep pasture,
and its habit of reproduction after sowing is
very great. It attains great perfection when
combined with Festuca Pratensis and Poa Tri-

vialis 0 30 0 00 0 00 4 00

Meadow Fescue, [Festuca Pratensis.) — This
thrives in all soils, excellent for a permanent
pasture, and is well liked by all kinds of stock.
It makes excellent hay, the foliage being ten-
der, succulent and highly nutritious 0 50 0 00 0 00 0 00

Tall Fescue, {Festuca Elatior.) — A robust va-
riety of the Meadow Fescue ; succeeds admir-
ably in moist soils or where the meadows are

subject to floods 0 50 0 00 0 00 0 00

Sheep's Fescue, [Festuca Ovina.) — This grass
forms a greater part of the sheep pastures of

268 Tke Canadian Farme/s

New York Prices. Canada Prices.

Lb. Bus. Lb. Bus.

the English Southdowns. In quantity of grass
it is not equal to other cultivated Fescues, but
it should always enter into the composition of
pastures in which sheep are to be pastured, as
thev are very fond of it, and mutton from such
pasture is of the finest flavour 0 30 0 00 0 00 0 00

Purple Fescue, (Festuca Rubra.) — A sub-va-
riety of the Festuca Duriuscula, and especially
suitable for dry, loose soils 0 75 0 00 0 00 0 00

Darnel-spiked Fescue, {Festuca Loliacea.) —
One of the most valuable grasses in cultivation
either for permanent pasture or for lawns. It
springs early, is very productive, very nutri-
tious, and improves by age. It resembles the
Eye Grass in its early growth, but excels it in
the quality and abundance of its aftergrowth.
It thrives on all good soils, and increases in
bulk if pastured for many years.. 0 80 0 00 0 00 0 00

Meadow Soft Grass, (Holcus Lanatus.) — Grows
from one and a half to two feet high ; thrives
in almost any soil ; useful for orchards or pas-
tures overhung with trees 0 75 0 00 0 00 0 00

English Rye Grass, {Lolium Perenne.) — Very
nutritious, and valuable for permanent pas-
tures 0 00 3 50 0 00 3 00

Italian Rye Grass, {Lolium Italicum. ) — For al-
ternate husbandry this is invaluable, especially
for early sheep feeding and soiling 0 00 4 00 0 00 3 00

Red Top Grass, {Agrostis Vulgaris.) — Valua-
ble for pasturage ; is well known and exten-
sively cultivated in the Northern and Middle
States and in Canada 0 25 2 25 0 00 2 25

Rough Stalked Meadow Grass, {Poa Trivialis.)
— Produces a constant supply of highly nutri-
tious herbage, particularly on damp soils ; and
the marked preference which oxen, horses and
sheep have for it distinguishes it as one of the
most valuable for laying down pastures and
meadows on soils either moist, or moderately
dry 0 60 0 00 0 00 0 00

Wild Meadow Grass, {Poa Nemoralis.)— Its
habit of growth is delicate, upright, close and
regular. There is no grass better adapted for
pleasure grounds, particularly under trees, as it
will not only grow in such places, but forms j,
fine sward where few other grasses can exist ;
produces a good deal of foliage early in spring. 0 60 0 00 0 00 0 00

Hungarian Grass, {Panicum Germanicum. ) —
One of the most valuable varieties for soiling ;
will thrive in almost any soil ; is not affected
bv drouoht : may be sown as late as the 4th
of July. 0 00 300 000 000

Kentucky Blue Grass or Smooth Meadow
Grass, {Poa Pratensis.) — This grass yields, at
a very early period of the season, herbage of
the most nutritious properties. Thrives in
moderately dry soils ; extensively grown in

many parts of the country 0 25 3 00 0 00 3 00

Kentucky Blue Grass.— Extra clean 0 35 3 50 0 00 0 00

Timothy or Herd's Grass, {Pkleum Pratense. )

Manual of Agriculture. 269

New York Prices. Canada Prices.

Lb. Bus. Lb, Bus.

— Well known and extensively grown through-
out the country ; very productive, and thrives
on almost any soil. For laying down strong,
tenacious and moist soils, it should form a con-
siderable portion of the mixture required for
husbandry or permanent pasture. It is also
very profitable when grown alone. It has been
found by careful analysis to contain a greater
portion of nutritive matter than any other
grass. Price according to market.
Reed Canary Grass, {Phalaris Arundinacea.) —
Grows well by streams or marshes 0 75 0 00 0 00 0 00

There are also several varieties of clovers : —

Canadian Prices.

Common Red, well known variety Market price

Large Red German, true, very superior " "

Yellow or Trefoil, very valuable for pasture " "

White Dutch, highly esteemed for permanent purposes per lb. 20 cts

Lucerne or French Clover, very valuable, vigorous grower " 40 cts

Red Perennial, (Cow Grass,) very valuable for pasture ** 40 cts

Bokhara, [Melilotus Alba,) a very vigorous growing variety ; may

be cut three times during the season ; blooms early in August ;

for green fodder or hay, cut when young — about two feet high ;

average yield three to eight tons of hay per acre ; sow in spring ;

the flowers are white and very sweet-scented, very valuable for

bees *' 50 cts

Alsike, the most productive and without doubt the most hardy

variety yet introduced Market Price

The Alsike Glover is valuable as a hay, and particularly of ad-
vantage to pasture land, and can be used on land too stiff or wet
for the common and larger kinds of clover.

It is, indeed, by nature a triennial plant, but so readily seeds
itself that it really becomes perennial in character. Having less
tap-root than common clover, and more fibrous roots, it is not as
liable to he thrown out by frost and thaw.

We should advise its use on low lands, especially such as are
meant to be chiefly used for pasturage.

How to Stock Pastures. — Pastures require to be fully stocked,
for if there are too few cattle, they will pick out food, taking the
sweet fine grasses, and leaving all coarse tufts ; but the pasturage
may be kept even by changing the stock upon it.

Let the cows have the first ; they require a large quantity, and
rich pasture, to keep up a flow of milk. Let horses and young cattle
follow — they will do well on it. When shorter and less succulent,
then sheep, which are very close grazers, and whilst they will
readily follow other stock, neither horses nor cattle care to eat
after them. When the last have grazed pretty close, it will proba-
bly be time to use fall pasturage, when the summer pasture
should be rested, so that enough top may be grown to protect the
roots before the winter sets in.

270 ^^^ Canadian Farmer's

Where but one kind of stock is kept, such as on a dairy farm,
the pastures should be well divided up, so that no field may be-
come at any one time bared.

Pasturing Meadoius. — Great care should be exercised in turn-
in or stock on meadows at any time of the year.

For want of sufficient pasture, cattle and horses are often turned
into the mown meadows, or stubbles that have been seeded with
clover. This is, to say the least, injudicious. Generally, dry
weather occurs after harvest, during which the clover and grass
have a struggle to maintain their existence, the j^oung clover
plants especially suffering from the heat and drought. Possibly for
some weeks the principal dependence of the meadows for moisture
is the nightly dews. If the leaves are allowed to be eaten off, this
mode of supply is arrested, by depriving the roots of the shade
which they would have afforded. Only a weak growth can then
be made ; many plants will be totally destroyed ; and when the fall
rains occur, followed by nightly frosts, the unsheltered roots are
thrown out by thousands. A promising piece of young clover
may thus be completely ruined, and the next year's supply of hay be
seriously curtailed. The small quantity of feed thusgained is dearly
purchased. The life of the meadows is consumed and their exist-
ence threatened. We are aware of the great temptation there is
to turn stock on to the aftermath and stubbles, but, unless in the
very rare cases where the soil is rich and the growth is too heavy
to be eaten nearly bare, it would be a great saving of money in
the end to hire pasture, buy feed, or sell the surplus stock which
cannot otherwise be fed at home.

Rye for Early Pasturage. — " The shortness and inferior quality
of the hay crop often makes it probable that, by the time spring
comes, many farmers find themselves with less of it than is desir-
able to carry through the stock in good condition till grass comes.
The price also may rule so high as to be an inducement to sell
hay, rather than consume it on the farm.

" In order to provide for this contingency, it will be well for
those who breed stock largel}^ especially sheep, to grow some crop
that will give them an extra early bite in spring, should the winter
fodder not hold out.

" For this purpose, nothing better adapted to the climate, or
more certain to succeed, than winter rye can be found. It wiU
grow on almost any soil with very little preparation, and if sown
early enough, will acquire such a growth before hard frosts stop
it, that when the snow melts in spring the sheep will find a very
good bite, and it will start again so early that much feed can be
had from a field of it before there is a bite of grass in any of the
meadows. The seed required will cost but little, as from a bushel to
a bushel and a half per acre will be sufficient seeding. Stubbles,
and land intended for fallows or roots next year, may as well be

Manual of Agriculture. 271

sown with this crop, if it is thought probable that there will be a
deficiency of forage before grass comes again. But it is a very un-
desirable crop if allowed to go further and grow up to maturity, and
those who sow it forthe purpose of obtaining late fall or early spring
feed must not be tempted by the fine appearance of the growth
to neglect ploughing it up as soon as the stock can go to other
pasturage. It is also better to be careful with stock when they
are turned on such very early spring feed, and allow them to
get gradually accustomed to it, otherwise the sudden change from
dry fodder to green food will prove prejudicial by rendering them
liable to scouring, and giving them a distaste to what dry fodder
can still be spared to them. They should get out on the rye only
for a short time each day, and in no case be allowed to live on it
exclusively." — Canada Farmer.

Lucerne. — This grass we do not see mentioned in our Canadian
seedsmen's list ; but it has been fairly tried in the eastern States,
under a climate very similar to that of our own Dominion,
whilst there are recorded facts as to its cultivation here.

The editor of the Canada Farmer, in 1870, says, in answer to
certain queries : —

" Fromalimited experience with lucerne, we believe it will endure
the Canadian winter. Many years ago we saw this crop grown on
sandy loam soil, and although neglected in its culture, there was
an excellent yield the first year. It was sown about the 1st of
May, and endured our winters, and yielded two cuttings each year
for about five years. It was then destroyed to make room for a
garden. The owner, a bricklayer, knew little of farming, and took
no care of the young plants, even the first year. It was sown
broadcast with barley. Many of the stalks were four feet high,
and several horses were fed during the summer from it."

The following, upon this crop, is of great value, as coming from
the pen of a farmer in New York State : —

*' Respecting the cultivation of lucerne, I will give you my ex-
perience with great pleasure, as I feel convinced that it is a soil-
ing crop which has only to be tried to be more generally grown.
It is essentially a soiling crop, being ready to cut in the spring
before red clover, and continuing to produce heavy cuttings all
through the summer, no matter how hot or dry. Last season,
though unusually dry, did not appear to check its gi-owth, as we
were able to mow over one portion of a field five times, and
another, only seeded last spring, was cut four.

" There are crops that will yield a greater weight of feed per
acre at one cutting — corn, for instance, and which is a crop that
lucerne cannot supplant, as it yields a very heavy weight of green
food at that season of the year when most of our dairy farmers
are requiring such — but as a soiling crop proper, I know of none
that can compare with lucerne, and one that few farmers can

272 The Canadian Farmer's

afford to be without. It yields a heavy weight of feed all the
summer, of excellent quality, and one that does not require the
expense of ploughing and re-seeding after each cutting, nor each
year, as by proper management, and on suitable soils, it will re-
main profitable five years.

" Its relative value, as compared with corn, is decidedly superior,
our sheep and cattle not only preferring, but ' doing' much better
on it. In fact, corn with me has not proved a very satisfactory
soiling crop — cattle fed on it generally losing flesh — until we have
all but given over growing it for that purpose.

" The first hay we have this winter, that is the hay our calves
and sheep prefer, is that with a little lucerne in it. Going on to
the hay mow the other day, I saw a hole cut in it. Inquiring the
reason, I ascertained that the shepherd had found where a load or
two of hay, with a little lucerne sprinkled through it, had been
mowed away, and that he had been getting it for his sheep, as
they ate it better than good clover hay.

" A rich, dry soil, with an open, porous subsoil, is the most con-
genial to the growth of lucerne; but it will succeed well on any
soil that will grow red clover to perfection.

" The seed may be sown broadcast, or in drills ten to twelve
inches apart. In England we generally followed the latter course,
so that after each cutting, or as often as might be necessary, we
could run through the horse hoe, to loosen the soil and destroy
weeds, fee, and by these means the crop could be grown success-
fully ten years. But here, I have generally adopted the former
plan, sowing from twelve pounds to fifteen pounds of seed per
acre, as early in the spring as the season will permit.

" The soil should be thoroughly prepared in the fall by deep
ploughing, and manuring with rich, well-rotted dung, or what
would be, perhaps, better, thirty to forty bushels of bone dust per
acre, there being less liability of having foul seeds introduced, as
this is a crop that is easily choked or run out by weeds, &;c.

" In the spring the soil may be lightened with a two-horse cul-
tivator, or scarifier, making a fine surface mould. The latter is
essentially necessary to get a good plant. The seed being very
small, will only require lightly brushing in.

" The after cultivation will consist yearly of a good top dress-
ing of well-rotted dung in the fall, and harrowing and rolling in
the spring.

" As I said before, weeds easily choke it ; it will therefore be
advisable to select a rich piece of soil free of weeds, and sow after
some hoed crop, such as roots or potatoes.

" The first season will yield a fair crop, but the second, third and
fourth will be the best."

I'he best grasses for butter purposes. — X. A. Willard, the first
authority on the dairy in America, says upon this point : —

Manual of Agriculture. 273

"' Fancy butter,' that will sell for a dollar per pound, cannot be
made from bad material — from milk produced on weedy pastures,
or upon the rank sour herbage of swamps, or upon land newly
seeded with red clover. The experienced butter dairymen, there-
fore, pay much attention to the feed of their cows, and prefer old
pastures.

"On the old pastures of the butter district there are several
varieties of grasses that spring up spontaneously, and are much
esteemed as affording sweet and nutritious feed, from which the
best qualities of milk and butter are produced. These grasses
form a dense solid turf, leaving no intervening spaces. They em-
brace the June, or blue grass {Poa piritensis), the fowl meadow-
grass (Poa serotina), meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis), red top
(Agrostis vulgaris), the wire grass (Poa compressa), the sweet-
scented vernal and vanilla grass, together with timothy (Phleum
pratense), orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata), clover and other
forage plants.

" The June grass {Poa pratensis) is regarded as very valuable ;
it throws out a dense mass of leaves, is highly relished by cattle,
and produces milk from which a superior quality of butter is
made. It is found growing throughout the butter districts of the
country. The wire grass {Poa compressa) is deemed one of the
most nutritive of the grasses ; is very hardy, eagerly sought after
by cattle, and is one of the best grasses for fattening. Cows feed-
ing upon it yield milk of the richest quality, from which the nicest
butter is made. It flourishes well upon gravelly knolls and in
shaded places, and its stem is green after the seed has ripened. It
is found growing in all parts of the country.

" The meadow fescue is common in old grass lands where the
sod is thick, and grasses of different varieties are mingled too-ether.
It starts up early in the spring, is relished by stock, and furnishes
good early feed. The milk farmers hold it in high estimation as
a reliable grass, tenacious of life, and not running out like timothy
{Phleumpratense) or clover. The white clover [Trifolium repens)
springs up spontaneously in the old pastures, and is highly es-
teemed as giving flavour and quality to butter.

"The sweet-scented vernal grass grows best upon the moist soil
of the old meadows. It starts very early, and gives off" an aoree-
able odour.

"We have been particular in naming the grasses which are
most esteemed for producing a high-priced butter, because a record
of long and well-conducted experiments has proved their utility."

Permanent pastures can be kept up to a full growth only by
careful attention.

After the pasturage has once become permanently established,
it can be kept up for many years by an occasional dressing of well-
composted barn-yard manure, superphosphate, or even a mixture
18

274 The Canadian Farme/s

of plaster and unleached ashes, giving at the same time a sprink-
ling of fresh seeds on those spots that show signs of having run
out. Particular care must be taken all along to carefully cut out,
root and branch, all noxious weeds that may make their appear-
ance, and not to allow stock to pasture it down too closely in the
autumn, so as to have the roots unprotected during the winter.

Hungarian Grass. — " The trouble about Huno-arian grass is,
that it is not generally cut at the proper time. I have raised it
for several years, and consider it the very best hay for horses.
They will keep fat on it, where on timothy they will grow poor.
I sow half a bushel per acre. It then makes fine hay, and on
good land should jdeld from two to three tons to the acre. Cut
it when in the blow, before any seed is formed ; wilt in the swarth
the same as clover, and make in the cock. The stalk is nearly
solid and the hay very heavy, and if made in this way will be as
gTeen as grass, and a horse will want little grain for ordinary
farm work. I only feed grain in the spring when doing heavy
ploughing. Give your horses all they will eat of it, and they will
fat with decent usage. But if allowed to turn yellow and form
seed it is the same as any other grain, and will, of course, injure a
horse the same as if he were fed wheat in the bundle to excess.
An over-feed of grain is bad. It is better to rake it by hand, but
on a good soil you will tumble up a big cock in a small space.

" If cut at the time I mention, it will sometimes sprout up again
and make good fall feed or a green crop to turn under. In one
case I cut it the second time for seed, but it was short." — Prairie
Farmer.

Millet. — "The Great or Indian millet (Holcus Sorghum L., Sor-
ghum Vulgari) * * * * [cultivated the length and breadth
of the continent] has a stem that rises five or six feet high, is
strong, reedy, and like those of the maize, but smaller. The
leaves are strong and broad, having a deep furrow through the
centre, where the midrib is depressed in the upper surface, and is
very prominent below. The leaves are two feet and a half long,
and two inches broad in the middle, embracing the stalks with
their base. The flowers come out in large panicles at the top of
the stalks, resembling at first appearance the male spikes of the
Turkey wheat; these are succeeded by large, roundish seeds, which
are wrapped round with the chafi". This grain is a native of In-
dia, where it is much used to feed poultry, and is frequently sent
to Europe for the same purpose. It is much cultivated in Arabia
and most parts of Asia Minor, and has been introduced into Italy,
Spain, Switzerland and some parts of Germany ; also into Cnina,
Cochin China and the West Indies, where it grows commonly five
or six feet high or more, and, being esteemed a hearty food for
jabourers, is called Negro Guinea Corn. Its long awns or bristles
defend it from the birds. In England the autumns are seldom

Manual of Agriculture. 21 o

dry and warm enough to ripen the seed well in the field. In
Arabia it is called dora, or durra ; the flour is very white, and
they make good bread of it, or rather cakes, about two inches in
thickness. The bread which they make of it in some parts of
Italy is dark and coarse. In Tuscany it is used chiefly for feed-
ing poultry and pigeons — sometimes for swine, kine and horses.
Csesalpinus says that cattle fed on the green herb are apt to swell
and die, but thrive on it when dried. They make brushes and
brooms of its stalks in Italy, which Ray observed in the shops at
Venice, and which are sent to this country. Of this species there
are two distinct varieties, one distinguished by black and the other
by red husked seeds, besides sub-varieties.

" The only sorts of millet which can be cultivated in this country
are the German, cultivated, and the Polish sorts. According to
Professor Thaer, the cultivated is to be preferred, as having the
largest grain.

" The soil for the millet should be warm, sandy, rich and well
pulverized to a good depth. The seed is sown in May, very thin,
and not deeply covered. In the course of its growth, no plant.
Professor Thaer observes, is more improved by stirring the soil,
after which it grows astonishingly fast, and smothers all weeds.

" In harvesting the millet, great care is required not to shed the
seed, and as it ripens rather une([ually, it would be an advantage
to cut ofl" the spikes as they ripen, as in reaping maize. No grain
is easier to thrash, or to free from its husk by the mill. It is used
instead of rice, and in Germany bears about the same price. It
produces a great bulk of straw, which is much esteemed as fodder."
— Loudon's {English) Encyclopcedia.

An American says that " curing millet is done in the same
manner as timothy and other grasses. Weather favourable and
properly handled, it will be sufficiently cured for harvesting two
days after cuttinor. Harvest when the seed is about swellinof. If
cut at a later period the nutritious qualities will be seriously
diminished. Product, two to four tons per acre. The land ought
to be thoroughly ploughed and harrowed. Sow four or five pecks
of seed per acre, broadcast, and cover with a harrow, followed by a
roller ; the land sandy or light loam, and made rich enough for
corn. Millet for hay may be sown in the middle States as late as
the 2oth of July. The same mode of curing will apply as to the
Hungarian grass. Our preference is the India or Grand millet,
which produces a third more forage and seed than the common
millet. Seed of the latter can be found at any prominent seed
store. The India can scarcely be obtained till the new crop
matures. Millet is very nutritious, and is eaten with avidity by
horses and horned cattle."

SorgJium. — We have found no difficulty in curing sorghum, so
as to be fed to cattle late in autumn and during early winter. It

276 The Canadian Farmer's

was placed as soon as cut in Jarge shocks, carefully made, so as to
stand even and erect, and was allowed to remain several weeks to
dry. When green and fresh, cattle eat the whole stalk greedily ;
the only objection to it is that the animals, becoming accustomed
to so sweet and delicious a food, neglect ordinary pasturage, and
if they do not have enough sorghum will be apt to suffer. In early
winter the stalks become too dry to be eaten in this way, and we
therefore cut it short by horse-power, and feed it in boxes or man-
gers. When thus cut, the cattle eat it readily, and it increases
the milk of the cows. It is important, in order to succeed well,
that it be kept in good condition, and the work weU performed.
For fodder, it should be cut rather early — a little before the aver-
age time for cutting sorghum for manufacture, so that the stalks
may not be too hard and horn}^ when they dry. We would not
recommend sowing broadcast ; it does much better in hills or drills,
where it can be cultivated and kept clean. A peck or so will do
for an acre, varying with soil and culture; on a fine, rich soil, in
perfect condition, and covering the seed at a uniform depth of
about three-fourths of an inch, four quarts would be better than
thrice that quantity on hard cloddy ground, or buried carelessly
at various depths. It may be well to say that sorghum cannot be
sown so thick as corn, to advantage, as the stronger plants crowd
and shade the smaller ones, and obtain the entire ascendency;
while corn, if sown thickly, is dwarfed all alike.

Vetches or Tares are very useful for soiling purposes. We have
invariably made it a practice to grow a patch of tares near our
stables for feeding horses when they come in from work. They
are very nutritious, and agree well with all kinds of stock, while
hogs will, in summer, eat them greedily. They should be allowed
to wilt a little before feeding to horses. To do this, they may be
cut in the morning and will be then ready for feed at noon. Like
all such very succulent food, they should be given to cattle cau-
tiously at first, or the animals may become " hoven," or bloated, by
too greedy feeding.

It is a good plan to sow oats along with the seed ; these help to
support the vetch and keep them from becoming too tangled on
the ground. We have usually succeeded in cutting two crops in
the season — one through June, and again in the autumn.

WEEDS.

*' If you've weeds in your garden, my good friend, I pray ;

Do not stand looking over the fence ;
To your neighbour's domains — just over the way —

Your weeds are the most consequence ;
Uproot them while yet. there is daylight to work ;

Tear them up seed and branch from the soil ;
Tiiey are sure to do mischief, so pray do not shirk j

You'll be amply repaid for your toil."

Manual of Agriculture. 277

Yearly, millions of dollars are lost to the agricultural community
in the war against weeds. Not only have we to engage in actual
hand-to-hand fight to exterminate them in our hoed crops and
upon our summer fallow, but every weed that grows takes away
from the abundance of the harvest.

Nature does not distinguish between the weed and the farmer's
crop — all are plants alike to her, and from her stores all gather
food. Let us destroy the enemy, and we shall receive its share of
natural provisions.

Attempts have been made by the State to curtail the spread of
noxious weeds by legal enactments. Could such laws be practi-
cally carried out, they would indeed prove a boon to the agricul-
turist and to the country, but all such laws have failed, and in all
probability will ever fail. The farmers must be educated up to
the point at which they will plainly perceive money for their
pockets in the eradication of noxious weeds.

A tidy farmer who attempts to keep all his land clean for his
cereals, gi^asses and roots, is very often annoyed by a neighbour
whose farm is the receptacle of every weed to be found in the
category of botanists. These weeds allowed to seed are wafted on
to his farm by every blast of wind, and through no fault of his
own his land keeps foul, fight he ever so hard against it.

The travelling thrashing machines are prolific sources for the
distribution of weeds. Indeed the farmer should see that separa-
tors are carefully cleaned of all small seeds before entering on his
premises.

The roads are too often generous nurseries for the propagation
of weeds ; and so great was the nuisance in England, that grand
jurors agitated the matter so strongly that it was forced upon pub-
lic attention, and the Irish Royal Agricultural Society a few years
ago resolved: " That as great injury arises to the farming classes from
the growth of weeds along the sides of public roads, whose seeds
being allowed to ripen and shed are spread over the adjoining
lands, a circular be addressed to the grand jurors of the several
counties soliciting them to give directions to the county surveyors
to make it imperative upon road contractors to cut down and re-
move all weeds, more particularly thistles, docks and rag- weeds,
before the 1st of June, and at such other periods in the year as
may prevent their injurious effects to the farmer."

The object of such a course is obvious to any one who reflects
for a moment on the fact that the seeds of weeds will lie in the
ground for years without germinating, but as soon as the earth is
ploughed for a crop spring into existence. No matter how clean
our fields are kept, if the corners of the fences are allowed to be
nurseries from which are scattered seeds for an annual supply of
weeds. Every thistle top has seeds enough to stock acres, and
every burr of dock can furnish seed for a township.

278 ^^^ Canadian Farmer's

Our own Legislatures have passed Thistle Bills, but in practice
they are but a dead letter.

The pathmaster is to see that all thistles, docks, &c., are cut
on roads and in the fields in his section before they go to seed.
In nine cases out of ten this person's farm is as well stocked as
his neighbour's, and in many cases he is himself an untidy farmer,
who " lets things go!' As far as the Canada thistle is concerned,
we think that the law might step in and not only impose a fine on
those that did not meet its requirements, but give to the Municipal
Councils power to appoint an independent overseer to see to the
enforcement of the law, and to be paid out of a public fine fund.

No man can be called a good farmer who does not keep his land
clean. He may be a strenuous advocate of liberal manuring, but
much profit is lost if he allow weeds to overrun, choke out his
crops, and luxuriate on the feed that he has generously supplied
for the use of his crops.

To ensure good crops, land must be cultivated in a superior
manner, and when such is the case dirty land cannot be found.

" Prevention is better than cure" in all cases, and the labour of
constantly going about and destroying thistles, burr-docks, rag-
weed and other noxious plants, out of fence corners and neglected
spots, before they can come to seed and multiply themselves into
hundreds and thousands, is not, nor ever can be, looked upon as
lost time. Indeed there is no time put in during a whole season's
operations as profitable to the farmer as that of destroy ing2/oi67i^
weeds.

In any badly neglected field, the botanist could probably point
out to us over a hundred different kinds of weeds ; annuals, bien-
nials or perennials, deep-rooted weeds or flowering weeds, such
as propagate by the buds in their roots, and such as are
disseminated by seeds carried by every changing wind and
by the birds of the air ; but we shall speak only of the pro-
perties and methods of destruction of the most commonly known
and most noxious weeds to the Canadian farmer. And first of the
Canada thistle.

The Canada Thistle, for all that has been said, we believe to be
indigenous to our soil and climate ; but why it should be dubbed
the thistle "of Canada " jpar excellence we are at a loss to see, for
it was well known in the British islands ere a stick of our
primeval forests had been touched.

The botanical name is Cirsium ccrvensis, and it is found in the
cultivated fields and in the fence corners and highways of every
part of Great Britain and the continent of Europe.

It has indeed obtained such a foothold upon Canadian farms,
that we blush to think that outsiders may be readily excused for
the assumption ^hat it is a Canadian pet.

There is more than one way of effecting its destruction. We

■Manual of Agriculture. 279

clip the following extracts from amongst the heap of writing,
practical and theoretical, sense and bosh, that has from time to
time appeared in the columns of our agricultural press ; the
two chief writers f^om whom we draw being those contributing
over the signatures of " Vectis" and " C," from time to time, in the
columns of the Canada Farmer.

Destruction by Summer Falloiu. — "This we believe to be the only
thoroughly effectual mode by which to encompass the ultimate
death of this pest, but the remedy must be searching, and carried
on by no half measures.

" The Canada thistle has two kinds of existence — the annual
and the perennial life. As an annual it is as easily killed as the
most delicate foreign exotic. The least movement or stirring of
the soil and exposure to the sun for ever so short a time is fatal
to it ; but the perennial requires a different course of treatment
altogether ; no half measures will do with it. If you plough onl}''
half enough, you have, by cutting up the roots covered with eyes,
from long pieces into short ones, made thousands instead of tens
of plants ; each piece when severed and divided is ready to spring
into a separate and individual existence. But if you plough (or
move them in the soil) often enough, and the soil is dry, you make
root and branch work with them, and (except on the deep, loose
soil) you have got rid of them for the time altogether."

" C." says, and this we believe to be the only effectual plan : —

" Now, my plan is quite different. I never plough or disturb
the fallow land infested with thistles until June, and then they
are often three to four feet high in my rich clay land, and many
of them forming seed ; in fact, their growth is about done, and
they only seek to mature their seed. Now is the time to go at
them. The land is comparatively hard, and ploughs up very
rough — and the rougher the better ; and the larger the furrows
turned, the rougher the land will lie. Much of the land so
ploughed will lay up quite hollow, and expose a surface many
times larger than the area of the land ; the sun gets into and under
these lumps, and being much exposed to the action of the air, the
soil becomes completely dried, and every thistle that remains in a
clod so exposed and dried will die, and in fact is dead in a week.
As soon as ploughed once, do not go and harrow all down smooth
again, for that course is the very worst you can follow. You can
easily perceive that by these means you cover up all thistles ex-
posed, and so prevent their death being entirely completed, where
there are some remains of life left. But instead of harrowing, put
in the plough again, and move all the under soil to the top, and
enable it to obtain more ammonia and nitrogen from the air.
While in this state of rough surface, so much is exposed that the
land is absorbing at every pore from the atmosphere, and on a
surface exposed to the action of the air a great deal larger than

280 The Canadian Farmer's

its flat area ; whereas, if the land was well harrowed down, the
surface exposed for such absorption would be but little larger than
its absolute area. Weeds, also, vegetate more freely in this case,
and in direct ratio with the surface so exposed. Three such mov-
ings, if the weather be dry, will entirely exterminate all thistles ;
they are dead, root and branch ; they have for that year lost the
natural and extreme tendency to surmount all difficulties and ma-
ture seed, as they had nearly done so before being disturbed, and
hence are much weakened, and five times as easil}^ killed. This
course particularly applies to clay land, and is the mode of work-
ing fallows in England, so far as the rough surface is concerned,
amongst the more intelligent farmers, especially where steam cul-
tivation is practised. They do not absolutely plough, but do what
they call ' smash up' the land with powerful cultivators, whose
tines or teeth penetrate from twelve to fifteen inches, leaving the
soil very rough, and the surface soil always on the top ; and in
many sections where the land is clean, this is considered the best
mode of cultivating, unless where manure has to be buried, or
weeds or sod killed. Let those who are sceptical try this plan
alongside a piece worked in the old way of fall ploughing, and
again in June or early in July, and again for seeding, with inter-
mediate harrowings. My piece will be clean and free from thistles
and weeds, whilst the other will be as foul as ever. My three
ploughings are applied just when the heat is greatest, and will be
found most efficient in their action.

" I entirely cleared twenty-seven acres of land, last summer but
one, by this course, and as yet no thistles are to be seen, where,
when I began, they could be counted by millions. Some were so
high that I had to mow them before the horses could go into
them."

By Clover. — Smothering with a heavy crop of clover will keep
down thistles for a time, but roots will lie dormant, and when cul-
tivation is again effected, they spring up and flourish with renewed
energy.

On this point, " Vectis" practically remarks : —

" I do not for a moment mean to deny that clover, in a great
degree, smothers and keeps down thistles, but I very much doubt
whether it kills the roots. The thistle is a perennial, and can live
and remain in a quiescent state with very small help from its
leaves, provided it remains undisturbed in the ground. It hyber-
nates, so to speak, until the favourable moment arrives for it to
put forth new leaves and flowers, and then bursts into full vigour,
and produces seed within four months from the time of making its
appearance.

" The growth of the Canada thistle, when in a perennial state, is
like that of the horse radish and other similar deep-rooted plants.
It sends forth in the spring one of its long and rapidly growinc^

Manual cf Agriculture. 281

underground branches ; this pushes aliead until it finds sufficient
light and air for the favourable growth of stem and flower. It
comes to the surface, and if all is favourable there it at once devel-
opes the seed stem, but it does not Anally push forth until the fa-
vourable place is reached. These stems thus grow with the clover
until the crop is ready for the scythe, and are then mown with
the crop, thus cutting the thistle just when it has made its great-
est exertion to live, and when it can actually least bear the check.
The stems being thus cut off just down to the ground, the thistle
has to form a new series of buds and headings, but it is generally
too late for a second blooming ; then the plant seems to husband
itself for another year.

" A bunch of short-leaved stems and corresponding leaves grow
amongst the second growth of clover, although they are not very
observable, and the plant prepares itself for the next year's cam-
paign against the farmer.

" Now, except in the loosest kinds of soils, the thistle does not
grow as deeply in Canada as it does in England ; for instead of
going down to great depths, it simply grows to the extent of the
plough gauge oi a little below, then runs out horizontally instead
of vertically, and in some of the worst infested ground, roots may
be traced in the bottom of the furrow for ten feet or more.

" All these roots are furnished with the regular complement of
eyes for new shoots, all are within reach of the surface, and hence,
when the circumstances are favourable, they all put forth at once,
and form one of those mats of growth known as a ' patch of
thistles.'

" These can only be destroyed by ploughing below the roots,
and thus bringing them into the loose soil, then continually moving
them to the surface before they have had time to grow or form
new shoots ; and in one season of summer fallow, if ploughed — or,
what is equivalent to plough mg, moved by the cultivator or grub-
ber often enough — they are killed and thoroughly destroyed."

American farmers also contend that the thorough summer
fallow, commenced when the thistle is in blossom, is the most
certain way of extermination. One of their most able writers
says : — " On land not excessively stony, I can kill the thistles in
four months, so that not one of them will ever peep again, for
eight dollars an acre. The fine condition the soil will be left in
will be worth about this sum additional. Let the thistles grow
till flowering time ; then turn them all under by means of a
log chain attacJied in the usual manner to the plough, for plough-
ing under tall crops. Repeat the ploughing once a month until
time to sow winter grain (or for any other crop), and the job
w^ill be completed. But remember — the work must not he done
by halves! If you leave a thistle sticking up here and there,
at any of the four ploughings, you will fail. Turn them under

282 The Canadian Farmer's

deeply — thoroughly ; the roots will all die if they cannot breathe
for a whole summer."

By Hoeing. — If this is done effectually, thistles may be greatly
reduced in number ; but it must be done very effectually. First
encourage the groivth of the thistle as much as possible, and then
destroy it as soon as it grows. Every thistle root has upon its
lateral roots a number of buds ; these will lie in the ground for a
long time without sprouting, and if not made to grow and the
product destroyed, will take advantage of the fine culture of our
land for some crop, as wheat, when we should be peculiarly glad
if they did not put in an appearance.

One object, then, in effecting their destruction by the hoe, must
be to cause first every one of these buds or eyes to sprout.

This can only be done by deep ploughing and. deep cultivation.
Say we would take off a crop of roots whilst we kill the thistle.
Turnips will be found the best, because we may with impunity
sow them late, say on the 10th of June.

Previous to that date we have time to plough and deeply
cultivate the land, so as to get a fine deep mellow seed bed down
to the very root of the thistle, and thus by culture give that root
every chance to grow. Many of the roots will, by such cultiva-
tion, being thoroughl)'- torn away from any hold upon the soil,
and turned over and dried out, be destroyed before turnip-sowing
time.

Such roots as remain under ground will lie in a mellow seed
bed, and will all grow.

Now comes the work. Throughout the summer, whenever a
plant from any eye of these roots appears on the surface, it must
be immediately cut off This can only be effected by a constant
use of horse and hand hoe.

If all the eyes of the root have sprouted, it has been in point of
fact turned from a perennial into an annual plant ; and if all the
annuals have been prevented from coming to maturity, the thistle
crop is destroyed.

But if any of the deep roots have remained quiescent or dor-
mant in the ground, there is yet left a perennial thistle root, and
at some future time it will throw up its bunches, or " Thistle
patches'' If, however, another root crop is grown on .the same
ground in the next year, and the same method of cultivation is
adopted, the total destruction of all thistles in that field will be
un fait accoinpli.

If we can get a good catch of clover on a field that is badly
infested with " thistles," cut one crop, and turn down the after-
math, we shall have a preparation of the land which will grow
two fair root crops in succession, upon the principle and for the
purposes above mentioned.

We still, however, hold to the position that when very large

Manual of Agriculture, 283

fields are overrun with the thistle, the summer fallow, deep and
thorough, commenced when the weed is in blossom, and carried
on continually through the hot months, is the most effectual and
practical means of destruction.

THE WILD OAT {Aveua fatua )

Is a wild winter oat. It has been well known for a long time
on the European continent and all over Great Britain, where it
has been justly regarded as a dangerous pest, and has been pretty
well kept under. If, however, it should ever get the same hold
upon our Canadian farms as has the Canada thistle, it will be found
even more difficult to eradicate.

It is a weed, the seeds of which are possessed of the most
extraordinary vitality. It will grow anywhere and under any
climate. It will be found in any crop, and, coming very rapidly
to maturity, it will re-seed the ground ere our cereals are ready
for the cradle.

A peculiar feature in the wild oat is that each seed has
hooks upon it, like those found in the seed of a burr-dock, by
which they attach themselves to any object passing in contact
with the ripe stems, such as cattle. So readily is this accom-
plished, that some farmers have persisted that they fly forward of
their own accord to cling to external objects.

The travelling separators and the habit of lending fanning
mills are prevalent sources by which these weeds are spread from
farm to farm.

If fed to horses, they will pass through into the manure pile,
and unless such is very thoroughly heated, will grow again when
carried to the fields.

The seeds will lie for a long time dormant in the soil, and even
when buried to a great depth do not lose their germinating
powers.

The stem will throw out flower and ripen its seed at any
height from two inches to four feet, and if cut down close to the
ground, will shoot out again and stool luxuriantly from the
crown.

When once the wild oat has obtained thorough possession of a
field, summer fallowing, such as we have above described for the
thistle, becomes the surest means of eradication.
^ It has been asserted that the seeds of this noxious plant will
lie for many years or for generations in the subsoil, and will
spring into life on the first favourable opportunity. In support
of this, " Vectis," to whose authority we have before alluded,
records, that "his father owned a farm in England, on which wild
oats were certainly known, for they are known all over England,
but they were not plentiful, and from having been welf kept

284 The Canadian Farmer's

under, were not even a nuisance, being duty weeded out of the
growing grain with the docks, thistles, &c., every spring. Well,
there was one field which it was supposed would be greatly
benefited by the bringing up of an inch or two of subsoil, and
this was done in the fall, so as to give it the benefit of the
winter's frost. The field was well manured, and sown to peas.
In due time the peas came up, but with them so plentiful a
crop of wild oats, that they would have smothered the peas, but
that peas like something to climb. The whole crop as green
stuff" amounted to more tons per acre than I should like to say ;
it was all cut green and fed to cattle in the way of soiling, and
destroyed in the farm-yard, and every exertion was used to
eradicate the wild oats by immediate ploughing, and fallow, or
rather hoed crops; but that field was many years thoroughly
infested with the wild oats, and they certainly had all been
brought up by that two inches of subsoil, which by its appearance
might have remained till that time undisturbed since the Deluge."

When not very bad, there is a simple mode of destruction which
is practical to all forehanded farmers : it is fall ploughing. The
spring crop, sown on second light ploughing, gang ploughing or
cultivating, will so far obtain the start of the wild oats that when
the crop is ready for harvesting the weed will not have gone to
seed. But as this is only temporary, and only prevents the increase
of the oat, the field must be ploughed each fall. A better
plan is to cultivate or harrow thoroughly the stubbles immediately
after harvest. This will start the weeds into growth, when fall
ploughing will destroy them.

They will seldom come up through meadow or pasture land,
but will lie dormant beneath the sod, ready to mature when cul-
tivation shall have aff'orded them a satisfactory seed bed.

Even after harvest, when cut off with the crop, the stem that is
left will throw up shoots, and seed^before winter.

COUCH OR QUACK GRASS {Triticum repens).

This plant is not as prevalent in Canada as in the Old Country,
but it is one, if well established, even more difficult to get rid of
than either the thistle or wild oat.

Growing close to the ground, with a heavy broad blade, it will
smother out almost any plant.

It is of a perennial character, and increases by spreading under-
ground its white jointed roots, from each joint of which a stem is
thrown up. Cut these roots up as much as possible, and if any
joint be left attached to the soil by a single fibre it will grow and
become the centre from which springs forth a new store of plants.

If the land is badly infested, nothing short of the expensive
operation of fallowing, raking, and burning will be effectual.

Manual of Agriculture, 285

Such a costly business may frighten the farmer, but it must be
done.

We know of fields in our own neighbourhood so filled with
couch that when ploughed and cross ploughed the soil cuts up into
square chunks, which it is almost impossible to tear with the cul-
tivator and harrow. A field never should be allowed to get into
such a state ; but when, unhappily, it has become so overrun,
the weeds must be torn to pieces, brought to the surface and
burnt.

Plough deep and cultivate thoroughly after spring seeding is
finished ; then by hand-rake gather the couch grass which is so
brought up into wind rows and heaps, and set fire to it. Summer
fallow the field thoroughly during the hot months, and each time
that it is stirred, gather up the roots and burn. In the succeeding
year put on a hoed crop, and keep it thoroughly hoed. This is the
plan, and the only one, by which this pest can be eradicated from
a field that has once become thoroughly overrun by it.

We would sooner own a field so covered with Canada thistles
that there should not be enough bare soil on which to lay a six-
pence, than one in which couch grass had held undisputed sway for
any length of time.

In every agricultural paper or book, and from every farmer to
whom we apply on this subject, we obtain the same invariable
answer — nothing will destroy couch grass but bringing the roots
to the surface, gathering them and burning. And such has been our
own experience. Never let a patch increase. Like other weeds of
a similar nature, it first shows itself b}^ the appearance of one or
two patches. Let these be destroyed by the above process, for if
its spread be not immediately retarded, it will soon cover acres.

The weed will grow anywhere, and its root penetrate almost
any substances ; it luxuriates on the heaviest of soils, and is yet at
home in sand. Such is the forcing power of its root, that we have
frequently found them growing complete!}^ through a potato ; and
we once ploughed up an old boot sole, probably drawn out in ma-
nure, through the centre of which a root of couch grass had found
its way.

SORREL {Rumex Acetosa).

When the season is unpropitious and meadows are thin, sorrel
holds supreme sway, as in the season of 1871 and 1872.
If clover is thin on the ground, some other plant will take
its place — that plant in Canada is usually what is called
Horse Sorrel — there is then commenced a struggle for growth
between the artificial grass and the natural weed. One of
two results must come to pass — either the clover smothers out the
sorrel, or the latter so destroys the clover.

It is a common saying that land is sour when sorrel is preva-

286 The Canadian Farmer's

lent, and that the application of lime, ashes and plaster will cor-
rect the acidity and make the soil uncongenial to the wants of
sorrel ; but this is far from being the case. Sorrel dearly loves a
good warm soil, and will luxuriate in such like any other plant, be
the same a weed or not.

But the application of these top dressings has the effect of
pushing forward the growth of clover, which then gets the start
and smothers the weed.

On light lands, the application of manure will destroy sorrel
ultimately. The first year the sorrel will grow equally well with
the grass, but in the second we have always found the clover make
such rapid growth as effectually to destroy the weed.

That lime of itself will not destroy sorrel we know, for we have
seen it flourishing on the very edge of a lime kiln.

But lime the land, harrow the grass, top dress it with ashes and
plaster, and nurse it, and you will get rid of sorrel by pushing for-
ward your own crop.

CHARLOCK, oil YELLOW MUSTARD {Siuapis Avvensis).

It is seldom that this weed, which is an annual, becomes so
thick that it cannot be hand picked. As it ripens before any
grain, forming seeds at the bottom, when the top is in flower it
must be picked out of the growing grain fields.

Should it, however, have been allowed to overspread a large
ajea thickly, a succession of hoed crops for at least two years will
be found effectual, killing the plants before they have time to
ripen and cast seeds. The two hoed crops are generally necessary,
because in very few seasons will all the seeds be sprouted ; some
will lie dormant.

But if we succeed in destroying the greater part in one hoed
crop, any that may be left, and grow in succeeding spring crop,
may be readily picked by hand.

PIGEON WEED, OR RED ROOT,

When not very thick, may be destroyed by hand picking. Mr.
John Johnston, according to the author of" Walks and Talks,"
has studied the habits of red root, or " pigeon weed," as he calls it,
and thus ascertained how best to attack it. He sowed some red
root seed in flower-pots each month, commencing in February, and
kept them well watered. The seed sown in February, March,
April, May and June did not germinate any earlier than that
sown in July ; that sown in August germinated more freely ; while
that sown in September came up at once, and in great quantity.
Here he got an explanation of the fact that red root rarely proves
of any damage to any crop except winter wheat. It shows, too,

Manual of Agriculture. 287

that a summer fallow for wheat will not kill it. The seed mainly
lies dormant in the ground during the whole summer, and the
thorough cultivation causes it to start up more freely in the wheat.
But if you fallow the land and then do not sow it to wheat, the
red root will spring up and can be easily killed. The red root
seed gets into the manure from clover hay and wheat straw, and
when the manure is applied to wheat it springs up, and there is no
chance of killing the plants except by weeding and hand hoeing.
It was for this reason that Mr. Johnston adopted the plan of
spreading the manure on grass land in September. The red root
seed then germinates, and when the land is ploughed over the
following spring the plants are turned under and killed.

It appears, from the nature of the growth of this weed, that it
cannot be destroyed by hoe crop or by summer fallow ; the most
effectual plan then is "to prepare the land for fall wheat, and
then not sow it to wheat!'

Docks {Ruviex Acutus) do not seed until the second year. In
the first year cut them off below the crown, or pull them up by
the roots, and they will die. About the end of June is the best
time. In the second year they form burrs, and thus become burr-
docks. Then cut them after the seeds are partially formed, and
when the stems are hollow. Don't pull them the second year, for
there will be enough food stored up in the root to allow the seeds
to ripen, even after they are out of the ground. It is better when
the burr is fully formed to cut them off than to pull them up by
the root.

Plantains. — Dig them out with a knife, and if on grass land,
encourage the growth of the grass, which will kill out the
weeds.

Smart Weed {Polygonum Amphihium) is not a noxious weed,
but a valuable article of forage ; horses and sheep eat it greedily,
whether green or cured. Its effect upon the animal system is very
good, and promotes health and vigour through the summer. It is,
in fact, an excellent tonic, and is often used by man for giving a
tone to the appetite and stomach.

Chickweed {Alsine Media). — Of this there are two kinds, one
an annual and the other a biennial. Good culture and constant
care in preventing the first from going to seed are the only neces-
saries required to keep it under. For the biennial, it must in some
way be smothered out. Heavy growths of clover will generally
effect its destruction.

Yarroiu is a common perennial plant in Canada. It is very
bitter in its nature, and so aromatic that it will impart a flavour
to hay so strong that horses do not care to eat it. Good cultiva-
tion and heavy crops will soon smother it out.

-288 The Canadian Farmer's

FENCES.

Nothing contributes so much to the comfort, convenience, and
successful prosecution of farming as neat and durable fences, di-
viding the fields into suitable sizes for a satisfactory rotation of
crops, and keeping cattle secured in their proper pasture fields.

There is no index to the character of a farmer so suggestive as
the state of his buildings and fences. Without good fences, no
man who has engaged in a system of mixed husbandry, into
which a certain amount of pasturage enters, can carry out his
work successfully.

At one time, when timber was in great abundance, and the
difficulties in the way of carrying to market made it of little cash
value, rails were undoubtedly the cheapest and most practical for
fence purposes. These are, at the best, most unsightly, and mar
to a very great extent the beautiful landscapes of this our fair
Dominion ; whilst in their corners are to be found nurseries of
weeds and insects.

Nowadays, timber has become a most valuable marketable pro-
duce, and it behoves us to use less wood in our fences, or to find
a substitute altogether for such.

It is not many years ago that the farmer split clear logs for
rails, because, forsooth, it was too great trouble to take such as were
at all knotty or gnarled. To-day that same timber is worth
twice as much per acre as cleared land standing by its side.

The wholesale destroyers of the forests, in the more civilized
parts, have been brought face to face with the contingency of a
future shortness in the supply of wood, and it has become neces-
sary to economize in this direction.

We shall not, in this chapter, enter upon the innumerable pa-
tent fences that are being hawked about the country, a great
number of which look very fine in a small model, but are, when
brought into actual requisition, found to be miserable humbugs.

All the various kinds of fences that we shall here note have
been tested and approved by practical farmers. Great diversity
of opinion, as well as differences in access to various materials,
exist amongst the farmers spread over such a vast extent of coun-
try as is covered by the agricultural population amongst whom
this work is intended to circulate.

We shall then only indicate, by brief sketches, various forms of
fencing now extant. Our readers may. according to the materials
to which they have access, rest their individual judgment upon
our sketches.

Rail Fences. — Splitting rails is best and most easily done in
moderate weather, not on extremely cold days ; they split best on
thawy daj^s, and especially in the spring, when the sap is rising in
the tree.

Manual of Agriculture. 289

The best wood for rails is cedar ; then come chesnut, white oak,
elm (but very hard to split), white ash, black ash, red oak, bass
wood, &c.

The large pine is too valuable for this use, and the small will
not last at all well.

The tree should be split as soon as possible after it has been
felled, for the more the tree has been allowed to dry out, the harder
will it be to split. Moreover, if rails are split from a tree full of
sap, they will last longer than from a dried tree. It is far better
for rails to dry without getting full of water. Therefore, they
should always be carefully piled in the bush, to shed all rain that
falls.

In the older sections, we do not think that many more old-
fashioned fences, wormed, ridered and staked, will be set up.
They take up a great deal of ground, the plough cannot be got
close to them without ripping out the stakes, and they take a
great number of rails. This fence, with a two-feet six-inch at
each corner, or five feet worm on the whole, and eight rails high,
takes exactly a rail to a foot of straight measure from end to end.

Next to this kind comes the straight rail fence, held by upright
stakes driven in the ground, and drawn together by a wire at the
top — a good fence, but easily moved by the wind, as any force
exerted horizontally on the upper part of a panel has an immense
leverage upon the stakes, which are, in consequence, very apt to
break off a few inches from the ground.

We would suggest an improvement ; we do not know that it
is patented ; at any rate we have used it without the payment
for a right.

Pass short slanting stakes across one another under the second
rail, and resting upon the third, and sink them in the ground.
These prevent the plough passing quite as close to the fence as it
otherwise would, but they are beneficial in two ways : they brace
the fence against lateral pressure, such as is exerted by the
wind, and they relieve the wires of some of the weight of the riders.

We may observe a horse with his head through a fence, endea-
vouring to reach the cabbages. A boy throws a stone, the head
is withdrawn rapidly, and only the providential fact that the rail
was smooth prevented a large piece of skin being knocked off" the
animal's head. This is one of the great troubles in rail fences —
make the gaps at the top so small that animals cannot inseic
their heads.

It is said that if a man can insert his head, his whole body may
be squeezed through any aperture ; and upon the strength of this
statement (a statement we don't undertake to prove) may be
founded another — that if an animal, from a pig to a bull, can put
his head between the rails of a fence, he will find means to get
the remainder of his body through.
19

290 'I' he Canadian Farmer's

Moreover, if a horse or beast gets his head under the upper
rider, he will soon learn to throw it off the fence. This may,
however, be remedied by wooden caps, either bored and dropped
on the stakes, or nailed across them, or wires bent round them
above the top rail.

An American farmer writes of a fence that he made, and that
will last until rust shall eat through inch iron rods : —

"Field boulders of about two feet deep were laid zigzag along the
line of the fence, so as to occupy a space of about three feet
wide ; holes were drilled, and inch iron rods inserted, and fastened
with melted brimstone. Then cedar rails (which had been in
fence for fifty years without perceptible wear) were bored and
dropped on to the rods ; rails six inches through, three to a panel,
making a fence five feet high. The fence was made crooked,
that it might be stifFer than a straight fence.

"It is not a sheep-tight fence, but by filling under the bottom
rail with stones or dirt it is a sheep fence. If a higher
fence is wanted, a longer rod and an extra rail can be used. It is
an excellent fence for land subject to overflows from freshets,
where ice and logs do not run. The top of mine has been three
feet under water often, but has always been undisturbed when the
water subsides." A fence made of cedar rails, twelve feet in
length, split as flat as possible, and about four inches by two or
three thick, makes the most durable kind of fence ; especially if,
instead of the many kinds of straight fences we so often see, posts
are mortised with five holes, 2J by 4 J inches each, and cedar rails,
tapered at each end to half their thickness, for about four or five
inches in length, are inserted, passing each other in the mortise.
They should be placed about four inches from the ground to the
first rail, then allow four to five inches for the rail itself, and four
inches of space for the following rails, and spaces of six inches al-
ternately until six rails high are attained.

Board Fences. — The construction of these are more or less
familiar to all our farmers. The chief points to be considered
are deep setting, ramming the earth well in at the bottom, and
not allowing too great a space between the posts. All board
fences should be capped, to shed the rain. Cedar and chesnut
are the best and most durable woods out of which to make fence
posts.-

There is an opinion very generally abroad, that charred timber
will last longer in the ground than such as is not burned on the
surface. We have never believed it, and are borne out in our
opinion by the following excellent remarks in the Manufacturer
and Builder : —

" As charcoal will endure for ages in places where timber would
decay speedily, the practice of charring the surfiice of fence posts
and other timber lias been repeatedly recommended in books and

Manual of Agriculture. 291

ephemeral publications, as eminently worthy of universal adop-
tion.

" The theory on which such a recommendation is based would
seem to warrant a confident expectation of satisfactory results in
practice, but repeated experiments with charred timber have fur-
nished conclusive assurance that this process will not promote its
durability. Indeed, numerous experiments have shown that
charring promotes premature decay. Two posts split from the
same log may be set side by side in the ground, the surface of one
being charred and that of the other not, and it will be seen that
the charred post will perish before the other.

"The same is true of railroad ties, and all such timber as may be
exposed to the alternating influences of wet and heat. Could the
entire timber be changed from its perishable condition to one
solid piece of charcoal, the durability would be promoted to a sur-
prising length of time, but the strength of the material would be
destroyed. When fence posts or other sticks of timber are ex-
posed to the rapid action of wet and heat, the surface will decay
first. One might suppose, therefore, that when timber is enveloped
by a layer of charcoal, the durabilitj^ of the entire piece would
be greatly promoted. And such would be the case, were it not
for the fact that the charcoal is not impervious to water ; and as
water reaches the timber beneath the charred surface, decay will
commence soon after the grain of the wood has been exposed to
the influences of the weather.

"When the change has once begun beneath the charred surface,
the durable covering of coal will be of no service whatever in
preserving any portion of the wood. Taking this practical view
of the subject, it will be perceived that if only half an inch of the
outside of a post be charred, the post will not endure so long as if
the same thickness of wood has been left uncharred, to waste
away by slow decay."

To secure fence posts from sagging and heaving, nail a strip
of board on each side of the post at the lower end, even with the
bottom and projecting a few inches. When the post is set down,
let these strips below run at right angles to the line of the fence.

The locust makes a very excellent wood for posts ; they last
long and hold nails well ; if set out in a nursery, they would be
fit for posts in about seven years.

There has always existed much difference of opinion as to the
manner of setting posts, whether in the same way as the tree grew,
or reversed with the head dowj;iwards. We give two opposite
opinions upon this point : —

" Many years ago, by way of testing a certain principle, we set
two gate posts, the one top and the other butt downwards. The
latter was taken from the lower and what might be supposed the
best end of the log, and all were entirely sound. We had, some

292 The Canadian Farmer's

years since, occasion to remove these posts ; the latter was entirely
rotted off, and the former would have lasted some six, eight or
more years longer. We tried two pieces of post fence with simi-
lar results.

"It is such experiments as these that have got into our head, and
most men's heads, the notion that a post set top downwards will
last longest. Such practical tests are of more importance in de-
ciding such questions than all the philosophical reasons that could
be produced,

"Although we have heard of no philosophical reasons why a post
set top downwards lasts longest, yet we have one of our own. It is
moisture, for instance, that rots timber. Keep it dry, and it is
exempt from decay. There are many kinds of vegetables that
will propagate from the slip — far instance, the currant, grape,
willow, &c. These, although separated from any connection with
the root, continue to elevate the moisture from the earth, so as to
cause their growth. Of course, the vessels of post timber, if placed
in the ground according to the arrangements of nature, will ele-
vate the moisture, and keep the timber damp; but if that order is
reversed, it remains comparatively dry — hence the principal
reason, no doubt, why a post lasts longest top downward."

And again: "Some twenty-three or four years since, I set a
fence, enclosing house and door-yard — a rail and bannister fence.
The posts were sawn from good-sized, first growth, red chesnut
logs. To saw them tapering, one-half of them, must be sawn to
set in the ground top down, and the other half bottom down.
The posts were set promiscuously, and to this day there has been
no distinguishable difference in their lasting quality, unless it be
where some of them had more sap on than others, and these gave
out first, without regard to which end was set down."

When the doctors differ, who shall agree ?

Comparative estimated cost of snake rail, straight rail, board and
picket fences : —

Snake rail fence :

Twelve rails, at $25 per thousand 30 cents.

Ground covered by fence, with total worm from stake to stake, in

alternate panels of six feet, at $50 per acre 78 "

Two stakes, at two cents apiece 4 "

$1.12 per 12 ft.

Straight rail fence :

Eight rails, at $25 per thousand 20 cents.

Ground covered by fence, two feet wide 26 "

Two stakes 4 "

Wire 2 "

$0.52 per 12 ft.

Board fence four feet six inches in height, cedar posts six feet
apart, four boards, re^jpectively six inches, six inches, nine inches,

Manual of Agriculture. 203

and twelve inches wide, with a coping board and vertical boards
covering joints against the posts :

Two posts, at five cents 10 cents.

Fifty-four feet inch lumber, at $16.00 per thousandfeet 86 "

Nails 5 *•

Ground covered by fence, two feet wide 26 "

$1.27 per 12 ft.

Picket fence four feet six inches in height, two scantlings two
by three, pickets three inches wide, and spaces four inches wide,
cedar posts six feet apart, and a bottom board a foot wide :

Two posts 10 cents.

Twenty pickets (three feet six inches by three inches) making seven-
teen feet, at $18 00 per thousand 30 **

Two scantlings (two in. by three in. by twelve feet), twelve feet of

lumber, at $16-00 per thousand feet 18 "

Bottom board, one inch by twelve feet 16 **

Nails and spikes 7 "

Ground covered by fence 26 '*

$1.07 per 12 ft.
Comparative cost is, including land taken up :

Bail fence, with worm $1.12 per 12 feet.

straight 52 "

Board fence 1.27"

Picket fence , , 1.07 '' "

We have said nothing of cost of labour, because the posted fences,
although requiring more work at first, do not require as much re-
pairing from time to time as those made of rails.

Wire fences. — For use along a lane which is apt to drift up in
winter, there is no fence so useful as wire. Indeed, in view of the
high price of lumber, and the destruction of board fences by sag-
ging, we think that the wire fence will, in time, come into very
general use in Canada.

For a wire fence the posts should not be more than eight feet
apart. Every other post may, however, be a stout stake, pointed
and driven into the ground, the wires to be passed alternately on
each side. This stake will keep the wires taut.

It is well where small stock are running to put one board on the
bottom, and in the case of fencino^ a lane, this would allow suffi-
cient snow to drift into make constant sleighing. A scantling is
also sometimes used on the top to make the fence more visible to
cattle, especially young colts. The fence is, however, often made
with no woodwork besides the posts. Nos. 6, 7 and 8 are used ;
we think, however, that 7 and 8 are rather light, and should ad-
vise the use of No. 6. Animals will not readily jump at a wire
fence, or should they do so oncCy will generally learn such a lesson
as will deter them from making a second attempt.

If we use a bottom board say from twelve inches to fifteen

294 The Canadian Farmer's

inches wide, the lowest wire should be three inches above it ; then
a space of four inches, then a space of five inches. This will raise
the fence two feet from the ground ; two more wires, at distances
of twelve inches apart, would give us a four foot fence, which will
be amply high enough should there be no scantling If a scant-
ling is used, it may be put on six inches above the top wire, by
which means we shall obtain a fence four feet six inches in height,
requiring one board, five wires, and a scantling. Should the object
be only to turn large stock, a less number of wires will be found
ample.

The wires have to be attached to the posts and stretched.

Some bore small auger holes, and pass the wire through the
posts ; whilst others have used staples to keep the wire close to the
post.

If staples are used on cedar posts, they may be made from the
No. 6 wire, sharpened and driven in. If the posts are of hard-
wood, then stouter iron is required for staples. We prefer the
passing of the wire through the posts.

Not more than fifty yards of wire should be used without
stretching. The first post in the fence to which the wire is
attached should be especially stout, and should be braced firmly,
as the tension of the whole fifty yards of fence will come upon it.
The wire must be coiled once round this post, and fastened tight
by stout staples driven home.

There are several ways of stretching — one with a handspike, or
with a roller worked like a capstan in grooves on the post, or by
the use of a screw. The latter is the most powerful.

If staples are used, the wire should run in and out on alternate
posts, so as to prevent the pushing out of the staples by stock rub-
bing against the fence.

As the cost of such fences will vary according to the number of
wires used, the size of the wire, and the number of posts, &c., we
give below a table showing the length of wire of each number
that a given weight will make, from which may be exactly calcu-
lated the cost of a wire fence.

63 lbs. of No. 6 runs 223 yards, and costs $3 45 or 8 1 cents per rod.
" 7 " 229 " " 3.55 or 7i **

" 8 " 322 ** " 3.65 or 6i **

Cost of materials of a wire fence, posts eight feet apart, with
a bottom board twelve inches wide, and a scantling three by four
on top :

14 posts, at5 cents 7^ cents,

12 feet of inch board, at |16.00 per thousand feet.... 19 "

Scaiitlmg, 12 feet, at $16.00 per thousand feet 19 "

5wiies = 60ft. of No. 6, at 84 cents per rod 30 '*

754 cents per 12 ft.

Manual of Agriculture. 2^3

Summary of cost of material of various fences per twelve feet :

Rail fence (snaked) ; $0.34 or 46f cents per rod.

" (straight) 0.26 or 35| "

Board fence (horizontal) 1.01 or $138 "

*' (picket) 0.81 or 1.11 "

Wire fence, with scantling and board 0.75 or 1.03 "

" with 7 wires, alone 0.50 or 68| "

Stone Fences. — In some portions of Canada the farmer cannot
find use for the piles of stones that he yearly picks off his fields,
except in the erection of dry stone walls. The building uf a dry
stone wall requires no small amount of dexterity. We will de-
scribe the process.

The base should be at least 2 feet 6 inches wide ; the line of the
wall is marked out and made level the oneway — that is, across the
base.

In laying up the stones, the largest end should always be out-
side, so that any tendency of the small filling stones to roll will
be inwards, and thus pressure upon the outside of the wall be
avoided ; the inside is carefully filled in with smaller stones, and
the whole tapered until at the height of about three feet the wall
is from 12 inches to 18 inches wide.

Coping stones are then laid on their edges all along the wall,
and if lime can be handily obtained, it will pay to make some
coarse mortar and lay between the coping stones.

If the wall be not considered high enough, long poles may be
laid as riders, resting on crossed stakes at a height of a few inches
above the top.

These walls must not be built where there is the slightest
chance of spring freshets, and if on a side hill, a number of chan-
nels should be left in the bottom to admit surface water to flow
through.

Hedges require capital and patience to grow successfully as
stock proof fences. They must be protected from cattle when
young, and take time to grow to maturity. Like all cultivated
plants and crops, they must receive constant attention on the part
of the cultivator.

But where a man has the means at his command, the sight of
hedges upon his property will amply repay the outlay, and it must
be borne in mind that a hedge once fairly established will last as
long as a tree.

Many attempts have been made in Canada to introduce hedges.
Near our cities we see them flourishing, but, as a rule, farmers
will not give time and attention enough to render them a success,
and in too many cases they have been allowed to struggle up
neglected, when they are useless as stock fences, and for all prac-
tical purposes are but incumbrances upon the land.

The Canadian Farmer's

neglected thorn may be utilized, by converting the
sts upon which to form a board fence.
i^ the following excellent articles upon Hedge Culture
/^columns of the two first numbers for 1870 of the
Farmer : —

/e forests gradually disappear from the face of the country,
it becomes a more and more difiicult matter for the cultivator of
the soil to provide the chief materials to keep up fences in the
manner he and his fathers before him have been accustomed to,
and it must soon come to the point that we must either adopt the
'long-tried and successful plan of older countries in forming per-
manent live fences, called hedges, or else abolish all right of stock
to freedom on the highway, and confine them at all times within
narrow limits, feeding them in summer on the soiling system.
That hedges can be grown here successfully admits of no reason-
able doubt ; yet in the few cases where the ordinary farmer has
attempted the work, he has often failed, and laid the blame of the
failure on any and everj^thing but the right one, which in nine
cases out of ten is his own want of perseverance in well doing what
cannot possibly succeed without being done well and thoroughly.

" There are three cardinal points absolutely necessary to be
attended to in order to make hedging successful : 1st, Proper pre-
paration and cultivation of the soil. 2nd, A proper selection ol
plants of the right sort. And 3rd, Proper care and pruning of
the plants after the hedge is once established.

" Preparation of the Soil. — The first requisite is proper drainage,
which can best be secured by first laying a tile drain at the depth
of three or four feet from the surface along the centre of the fine
on which the hedge is to grow. At a distance on each side Ox
this from 20 to 80 feet, according to the retentiveness of the sub-
soil, another tile drain should be laid. The soil over the drain on
which the hedge is set is first to be trench-ploughed or subsoiled for
a distance of at least four feet on each side, or to the width
of 8 feet altogether. Then the surface is to be thoroughly
broken, pulverized, and left ridged up slightly. To prevent
surface water from being retained and soaking in amongst
the roots, there should be a slight surface drain about five feet
from each siaie of the hedge, just about the depth of an ordinary
furrow drain, to draw off'surface water from rains or melting snows
and let it soak away to the tile drain without first getting among
the main roots of the hedge.

" Setting out the Plants. — Whatever kind of plants are to be
used to form the hedge, it is requisite that they be selected of as
nearly equal size and quality as can be ; as if strong and weak
plants are intermixed, the strong ones will shoot ahead, while the
weak ones will soon be outf^rown and choked out, leavin^^ tlie
hedge full of small gaps that can never be successfully filled.

Manual of Agriculture. 297

The plants are to be cut back before planting to within three
or four buds or branches of the collar, which will leave them
about three inches high when planted out. The distance apart
at which the plants are to be set will vary with the kind of
material used, but in any case must be uniform throughout. In
assorting out plants as they come from the nursery or seed bed, it
will generally be found that there are three sizes, which may be
classed as large, medium, and small. One strip of hedge may be
planted with the best and strongest plants ; another with those
of medium size, and the small ones either set out again in the seed-
bed till they get strong, or, if they are thrifty, though slim, set
out in a strip by themselves. Every plant that has roots that are
imperfect or deticient in fibres should be rejected, it being impor-
tant that the roots, as well as the tops, should be equal in strength
and quality. The planting out may be expeditiously done with a
trowel or small garden spade. Insert the implement into the soil,
press the handle forward, while another hand places the roots into
the crevice, and on withdrawing the blade the earth will fall back
on the roots, and can be compressed slightly by a pat of the im-
plement, or by the hand.

After-culture. — Having planted out the hedge, the after-culture
should consist in keeping the ground stirred with the hoe, and all
weeds down, for a strip the full width between the water furrows
on each side. Care should be taken to allow no animals to browse
on the hedge at any time — a thing they are most apt to do when it
is young, and full x)f succulent wood. Any plants that fail to grow
must have their places filled from the seed bed, or from the end
of the hedge, as soon afterwards as possible. When the hedge
has fairly started growing, it should be left undisturbed by any
pruning process for two seasons, at the end of which the plants
are to be cut back to within four inches of the ground, and there-
after twice in each year, say in July and September, to within
three or four inches of the previous cutting, the first time it is
done, and as much higher with an inch more added at each time
of cutting, till the hedge has reached a height of five or six feet.

" Pruning into shape. — The most common error in pruning
hedges, and one that results in making them thin at the bottom,
is that they are cut from the top downwards, instead of the bot-
tom upwards, thus leaving a flat top. The hedge should be
allowed to extend at the bottom to thicken it, and cut so as to
form a triangle, the base of which rests on the ground, and the
apex points upward to the sky.

" Thickening neglected hedges. — When a hedge, even at six or
eight feet high, has become scraggy and thin at the bottom, it
may be restored to usefulness by cutting each stem half-way
through, near the ground, with an upward stroke Oi a sharp
hatchet or chisel, and bending the plant down to an angle oi

298 ^^^ Canadian Farmer's

about 30°, commencing with the first stem at one end and bending
it, the next being bent to it, and so on to the other end. This
operation must be performed very early in the spring, before the
buds begin to break. A new growth will start upwards from near
the cut, and at the end of a year the hedge can be pruned into
proper shape, which consists mainly in throwing back the growth
towards the iDottom and side branches.

''Deciduous Hedge Plants. — Those plants that are of a thorny
nature are usually best adapted for making a hedge, though good
hedges can be made from some varieties of shrubby trees that pro-
duce no thorns. One of the most popular hedge plants of America,
and one that is every way adapted to the purpose, where it can be
successfully grown, is the Osage Orange. It is a rapid grower,
makes a strong, thorny fence, and is easily propagated from seed.
It does not, however, prove sufficiently hardy to withstand the
severe cold of our Canadian winters, until the plants have become
quite large and strong. In an experiment we tried with it some
years ago, the plants were found very variable in their hardiness.
Some of them were killed out entirely the first winter, some only
partially so, while others were scarcely affected by the frost, and
continued in after years to grow vigorously ; but the seeming im-
possibility of filling up the gaps, after several trials, caused the
attempts to make a hedge of Osage Orange to be abandoned.
Three inches apart is the distance they find best to set the plants
of Osage Orange in the western United States, where many hun-
dred miles of hedges are made of it. •

" White Willow suckers so badly, it is quite worthless for hedg-
ing.

" Buckthorn makes a capital hedge, and proves quite hardy here,
but is of slow growth and difficult propagation, and has one seri-
ous drawback we have observed in those that have come under
our notice, viz. it suffers greatly from summer drought when it
has got well established, often to the extent of the destruction of
so many plants as to leave large gaps in the hedge. It may be,
however, that this can be prevented by mulching the ground on
both sides of the hedge during summer time, with a layer of straw.
Plants are set six to eight inches apart. They can be bought at
most nurseries for six dollars per thousand.

" Honey Locust makes a thick, strong, rapid-growing hedge, per-
fectly impervious to any kind of stock. The plants can only be
raised from seed. It is somewhat liable to winter-kill when young,
but not nearly so much so as the Ot;age Orange. Plants may be
set out nine to twelve inches apart ; and it is absolutely necessary
to keep it well cut back after the hedge is established, or it will
get too strong and unmanageable.

"Beech. — Some ^^arieties that are inclined to be shrubby, espe-
cially the purple beech, would make an excellent hedge, perfectly

Manual of Agriculture. 299

hardy, and capable, when once established, of turning any kind of
stock. Such a hedge would, however, require to be protected
from sheep and cattle in its early stages, as they are extremely
fond of browsing on the young shoots of beech in the winter and
spring. Plants set eight inches apart. Can be easily grown from
seed or young plants a few inches high, grown in the woods, may
be transplanted to a seed bed, and a year afterwards set out in a
hedge.

" Wild Plum. — Some of the prickly varieties of our wild plum
ought to yield a good material of which to make hedges, and
plants could doubtless be easily obtained from seed. The wild
crab would probably also make a good hedging plant under proper
management, though as yet we do not think it has been tried.

"For merely ornamental hedges to the garden or lawn, or inside
the fence in cities or towns, there is nothing equal to Privet, which
is a quick-growing shrub, easily obtained at a cheap rate, in most
nurseries, and quite hardy and reliable Set the plants four to six
inches apart. Barberry also makes an excellent hedge for gardens,
and is both useful and ornamental ; the berries can be made into
tarts and preserves by those who like their flavour.

" For a low hedge bordering a garden walk, there is nothing more
beautiful than the Japan Quince (Pyrus Japoiiica), with its loads
of bright scarlet blossoms in spring and early summer. Set the
plants eighteen inches apart, and trim the sides in, so as to incline
them to throw out branches towards the top and centre, till the
hedge is about three feet high, at which elevation it is to be kept
by regular pruning."

A correspondent of the Prairie Farmer, thus records a novel
mode of trimming hedges, which appears to have the advantage of
being exceedingly expeditious : —

" Having heard a great deal said about the mode of trimming
hedges, I will give my mode of keeping hedges low trimmed, which
for ease and expedition I think is the best I have yet tried. Take
my waggon, with hayrack on, fill the space on off side of rack with
an extra board, so as to make a good and soft platform to stand
on, then I hitch my most steady team to the waggon, and armed
with a good, sharp scythe, am ready for the work, drive with off
horse next the hedge, tie the lines to the standards in the front of
rack, w^ith right line a little tight, to keep team close up to the
hedge, then start the team as often as the length of the rack. I
am now speaking of cutting the top of the hedge, which is much
easier cut than timothy grass, being young and tender, and with
a little care can be trimmed as level as a house floor.

" After trimming the top, T put out my team and walk back-
wards along the side of the hedge, with my scythe still sharp, trim
with an upward stroke, and if there is any unevenness in the
trimming you will immediately see it, having your face constantly

300 The Canadian Farmer's

towards the part trimmed. This is all very easily done, being
much easier than mowing grass. A man can trim in this manner
from one-half to a mile of hedge per day. It should be done twice
during the season, in June and Auo^ust. This manner of trim-
ming gives the hedge a beautiful appearance, with a slope on each
side and flat on the top, giving it the appearance of a well-laid
stone wall."

Hedges and Mice, — These little pegts are often found very des-
tructive in hedges. The only practical plan to prevent their rav-
ages is to be found in keeping the land at the bottom and along
each side of the hedge clear of all grass. They will seldom move
across bare land, nor take up their quarters except where grass is
thick, in winter.

In the articles quoted above, no mention has been made of the
English Hawthorn. We know of many hedges of this kind in
Canada, but of none that have been kept properly cut down so as
to be stock proof; but where they exist, although in a wild neg-
lected state, they are hardy and thrifty.

The Arbor Vitce, Norivay Spruce and Hemlock make very
tiandsome hedges, and though not stock proof, will be found very
valuable as windbreaks, on the exposed sides of private grounds,
barn yards and orchards.

Faron Gates. — Of these the number is legion, patented and un-
patented— swing, slide, lift and self-acting gates.

Some gates cannot be opened except by a man's strength, whilst
others are so delicately engineered, that on the approach of the
horse and buggy, open sesame and presto ! — the gate flies open of
its own accord as if by magic. But as unfortunately, time and
weather do not recognize the subtle mechanism of these patents,
and lay upon them, equally with those of more humble preten-
sions, the heavy hand of inevitable decay, we prefer to leave
them to be puffed by the patentees. As our work is devoted to
the interest of the farmers themselves, we shall confine ourselves
to a description of a few cheap gates that can be made b}^ any
handy man, with a few simple tools, and during the slack winter
days.

For a simple swing gate : —

Take six pieces of stuff twelve feet long, four inches wide, and
one inch thick ; lay these down on a level piece of ground,
leaving the first bottom space two and three-quarter inches
wide, the next three inches, the next three-and-a-half inches, the
next five-and-a-half inches, and the next or top space, nine-and-a-
half inches wide ; then take the same kind of material and nail
across the ends with annealed nails ; then nail on a cross brace
from the upper to the lower corner, also with annealed nails, so
that it will fit neatly inside of the end pieces. Now turn the
gate over, and nail similar upright pieces across the ends, even

Manual of Agriculture, 301

with the ones on the opposite side, and one upright piece midway
between the ends. This latter is far preferable to putting on a
diagonal brace on that side In such a gate there is no mortising,
and, for the weight of it, it is far stronger than any mortised gate
that can be made.

Annealed nails are better than wrought nails.

Such gates look well, and are very quickly made. A good
hand will make five of them in a day. In hanging, place the
opening end at least one and a quarter inches above what you
wish it to be, as any large gate, no matter on what kind of a
hinge, will spring at least that much.

This may be varied by mortising the bars into scantlings for
uprights.

A very good gate is made by forming a frame of scantlings,
and letting pickets into the horizontals.

Referring to a good sliding gate, W. H. Smith, in the Rural
New Yorker, says : —

" I have a gate which has been in use eight years, and works as
well to-day as the first day it was put up. I now have nine of
them on my farm. Not one of them has cost me a dollar since
erected, nor any repairs, except two of them which have had new
sills. They are constructed as follows :

"Four posts are set firmly m line, so that the fronts will be true.
Measure fourteen feet, in line with those already set, and set the
post the gate shuts against. Then place the sill for the gate to
run on, fourteen or sixteen feet long, put down solid. The sill for
the gate to run back on, can be made of any light material that
will sustain the weight of the gate. The sill should have about
one inch down grade toward the shutting post, and be spiked fast
to the posts. The gate is made of any width lumber, and long
enough to lap four inches on the shutting post, and about two
feet on the groove post, to keep it steady. At the bottom the
gate must have two boards to support the bolts that the rollers
turn on. These rollers should be six inches in diameter, an inch
thick, to run on half-round iron, placed at the proper distance
from the bottom board of the fence, so to let the gate pass with-
out rubbing. The iron rod should have holes punched, so as to
let twelve-penny nails through to nail to the sill about two feet
apart. Nail down the rod, and it is ready for the gate.

"The gate is put together with sixteen two and a-half inch bolts
and eight three and a-half inch bolts ; the three and a-half inch
bolts go through three boards at the bottom. The rollers go be-
tween the bottom boards close under the brace, so as to get the
bearing ; the bolts should fit the rollers as tight as possible.
These rollers in their place, put up the gate on the rod, and run
it back on the fence ; mark the four posts one inch above the top
of the gate ; saw them off square in line ; place on top of the

302 The Canadian Farmer's

posts a joist twelve inches wide, two inches thick ; let it project
over in front of the gate far enough to clear it : now nail a six-
inch strip on the edge of the joist, so that the top edge will be
even with the top side of the joist; the four inches projecting
down will serve as a groove for the gate to run in, and keep it
in its place, now spike the joist to the top of the post firmly ; let
the gate lap on the shutting post about four inches on half of the
posts ; then nail the ends of the boards to the post occupying the
other half so that the gate will shut against the butts, which
will help to sustain the post ; now nail a board solid in line with
the butts, and thick enough to project a quarter to a half inch
from the gate ; nail a stout board on the previous one, and let it
project over about three inches toward the gate, and in line with
the post, so as to make a groove for the gate to stand in. If it is
properly shaped, the gate will jam in it, and remain solid until it
is pushed back

" These gates are the cheapest and most durable of any I have
ever used. I am now sixty years of age, and have used all kinds,
but these are the cheapest and best."

The great difficulty encountered with swing gates, is the sag-
ging and heaving of the posts, when the frost is coming out of
the ground

To overcome this, the following plan will be found effectual : —
The posts are framed in a stout sill, about two feet above this a
girt is framed in, this acts as a brace in such a manner that the
posts are rigidly kept in place. A trench three feet deep is dug,
the frame and posts are set up therein, and the earth is well
stamped and compacted round the sill. The upper girt need not
be sunk more than a few inches beneath the surface, but the
earth should be well tamped and forced under it, that it may not
suffer from loaded wagons being driven over it. These posts may
be guaranteed to stay where they are placed until inevitable decay
overtakes them.

It will not be out of place here to quote an excellent plan for
lifting old posts that are firmly imbedded in the ground. A long
logging chain is put around the post at the base and a stout prop
put under it a few feet away and inclined towards the post, then
let the oxen draw. There are very few posts so tight in the
p-round, that they cannot be easily removed by the strength of two
stout oxen. In this way, a long line of fence may be removed in
a single day. A span of horses may be used in place of the oxen.

MOVEABLE HURDLES.

At a meeting of the Elmira Farmers Club, Mr. George Maby said :

"Last fall I made a visit to Orange and Ulster counties, and

there I saw a good deal of hurdle fence in use. It is made in

Manual of Agriculture. 303

sections eight feet long, and of the desired height, all of young
chestnut, having regard to lightness and durability. Saplings
four inches in diameter are suitable for posts, and these are cut
about six and a half feet long, allowing eighteen inches to enter
the ground. Each piece is split, making two posts, and sharpened
as if for driving. At proper distances holes are bored in the
posts ; two holes with an inch augur as close as they can be
bored together, to receive the slats. These are made of smaller
chestnuts, those two inches in diameter being split to make two.
Now the holes being bored and the slats fitted at the ends to
enter them, they are driven together and light braces nailed a-
cross, and the panel is ready to carry out and set up. Holes are
made with a crowbar and the posts dropped in, two panels to
the rod, a quick job and a good fence. I saw fences of this
character, which had been twelve years in use, and were yet ser-
viceable. They are taken up at the close of the season and
housed and piled in good order, and in the spring they are reset
where needed. Low flats subject to overflow may be fenced in
this way with entire security against loss by overflow, and it is a
quick, easy job to put out or take up the fence. So patches of
roots may be sepai-ated from the remainder of the field easily by
this fence. Any common labourer may put it up if he has sense
enough to punch a hole in the ground with a bar. The cost of
the panels is h^ cents each, all ready to set up, and it is said the
mountainous districts in those counties are inhabited by men who
drive a profitable business in making this fence, and selling it to
their wealthier neighbours on the low lands. Many farmers there
deal largely in small fruits and these hurdle fences by their
portability are just suited to their wants. Cattle have due
respect for the fence, and on the whole I think it worth notice
especially by those farmers whose lands are subject to overflow."

CATTLK

When we advocate the keeping of well-bred cattle, we do not
wish to be understood as advising the raising of thorough-breds by
the generality of farmers. Such would not be remunerative nor
practicable. What we require is good grade stock — cattle that
have fineness of bone and at the same time a large frame. In order
to keep up a good standard of grade, it becomes necessary that we
look for sires to animals of the most symmetrical shape, the most
perfectly developed form, and possessed in a pre-eminent degree
of all those various points which go to make up a square well-
built animal. We are not amongst the number of those who
would disparage the common cow. Far from it ; we consider such
to be of great value in their own particular way ; but we main-
tain also that they are capable of improvement. Their hardiness

304 The Canadian Farmer's

and freedom from disease are points in their favour. Let us retain
those good inherent qualities, and by the use of a different class
of bull, endeavour to break down such characteristics as may be
found unprofitable in the common cow She is large in bone, and
therefore is not profitable for beef ; she is a greedy feeder, and
takes far more food to put on a given weight of beef than one of
her own size, that has finer bones in her frame. The preservation
of pure blood, uncontaminated by mixture with different breeds
is only required for breeding purposes, for the very best results
have always been attained by crossing such thorough-breds with
the common naturalized cow of the country.

In these days, when the farmer is looking to beef as a source
of profit even greater than such as is realized by the exhaustive
process of continual grain raising, and when every kind of fodder
is scarce and dear, it behoves him to look well to the kind of
cattle to which he devotes his attention and his feed.

The fine -boned, high-blooded animal will return a greater
amount of beef, and that of a better quality, as the result of a given
quantity of food, than will the coarse bred beast.

The questions that each farmer must set before him to be an-
swered are : "What produce do I require from my cattle, dairy or
beef, or dairy and beef ? What kind of animal will give me, in re-
turn for the care and food that I may devote, the greatest quantity
of either or of both of these marketable products ?"

But we have often been asked which is the best breed of cattle
for the ordinary farmer ? Shorthorns, Devons, Ayrshires or Jerseys?
Now this matter depends entirely upon what sort of a common
farmer the querist is. If he wishes to devote his stock to butter,
the Jersey is undoubtedly the best, if to the raising of cattle
for work, the Devon ; if a milkman near the city, Ayrshire ; and
if a beefmaker ; the Durham

The Darham, though not giving a copious supply of milk, will
be found a good butter cow, for her milk is exceedingly rich

Indeed, Mr. Allen, in his work on American cattle, affirms that
they are as good milkers in quantity as any other breed ; and it
should not be forgotten that the Tees water cattle, from which our
present improved Durham have sprung, were, one hundred years
ago, noted in Great Britain for their feats at the pail.

For this reason the Durham strain or good Durham grades will
readily commend themselves to those farmers who desire to obtain
profit both from milk and beef; and in this latter particular these
grades are very superior, for should our cow at any time go barren
for a year, we can immediately dispose of her to advantage by
a short preparation for and sale to the butcher.

The Devon and Hereford. — The latter have never taken well in
America, and to our mind the reason has been, that though
good beef cattle they are inferior as milkers.

Manual of Agriculture. 305

The Devons are better milkers than usually supposed in Canada ;
the chief objection to them seems to have arisen from a prevalent
idea that they were an ill-tempered breed. We believe there is
some ground for the idea, at least when we compare them with
the kind and gentle Durham or Ayrshire.

But in the southern parts of England, and especially in their
native county, they are highly esteemed as generous milkers.
There is no stock equal to them as oxen for work ; and the best
yokes that we have seen in Canada were invariably Devons.

The Ay rehires have from time immemorial been bred in the
west of Scotland as milkers. In that rocky country, against
whose heights the moisture-laden clouds from the Atlantic are con-
stantly brought in contact and dispelled in rain, the natural
pasture is superb, and in every way calculated to increase the milk
producing qualities of any race of cattle. They are of undersize,
hardy, kindly, and seem to do well under the Canadian climate.
They require very little food to keep in good condition and gene-
rous flow ; and for the farmer whose chief desideratum is milk or
cheese, there is probably no better breed existing. But for beef-
producing, not only is the frame small on which to lay meat, but
the beef is inferior to that of the Devon or Shorthorn.

It is a common practice, and one highly recommended by many
of our best breeders, to put a grade Shorthorn to a thorough -bred
Ayrshire bull. They assert that the result is preferable in the
dairy to a thorough-bred Ayrshire cow, while the beef-producing
qualities are doubtless very much better than those found in pure
Ayrshire.

The Alderney or Jersey come from the three little islands half-
way between France and England, and situated in the English
Channel. Again, the humidity of these islands has favoured the
development of a good milking race of cattle.

These Alderney s are small in size, hardy and kindly — requiring
but very little food to keep them in good flow. The richness of
their milk is proverbial, being of a deep yellow creamy colour
throughout ; they are consequently very superior as butter cows,
and we are surprised that they are not more sought after by pri-
vate families, who require for their daily use rich milk, plenty of
butter, and at the same time a gentle, kind and docile animal about
the house. For such families, in town or village, the Alderney or
Jersey will be found the very best breed.

The Butch or Holstein Cattle, natives of Holland, have of late
years attracted considerable attention at the hands of American
dairymen, and we believe are yet destined to become an estab-
lished breed on this continent. Holland is a purely dairy country,
and the milking qualities of their native cattle are very excellent.
They possess the grj at advantage of being largely built and capa-
ble of making fair sized beeves.
20

S06 The Canadian Farmer^s

If nothing more would deter the ordinary farmer from going
into thorough -breds, their high price forms a barrier ; and to our
mind it is as well. Men of means and judgment have been found
to take up breeding as a business. Let us be content with our
grades, and look to (hem for thorough-bred males, by which to keep
up the good qualities of our grades.

We go to the seedsman for new and improved varieties of seeds,
and we pay him a high figure for them. We acknowledge the
necessity of improvement in our cereals, and we are willing to pay
those who have devoted time and money to starting such improve-
ment. In like manner there are those who are devoting means,
energy and education to the improvement of the several breeds of
cattle , before we partake of the benefits accruing from the devo-
tion of these men, we must "pay our footing."

" To a man who deals in scrub cattle worth fifty dollars ahead,
it seems an enormous price to pay two hundred dollars for a herd
book animal, and six hundred is deemed a clear case of extortion.

" But there is nothing in the breeding of choice animals to dis-
turb the usual law of supply and demand. Like any other ani-
mal in the market, they are worth just what they will bring.

" The scrub cow is good for beef and milk, and it does not add
a cent to her value that she can reproduce her kind. If she is a
good milker she is worth sixty dollars as a new milch cow, if that
is the market value of the article. If she will make five hundred
pounds of beef, she is worth so many cents per pound, according
to the market price. You can get as many as you like at that
price ; but the thorough-bred is prized for different qualities alto-
gether. If known to be a barren animal, she is worth no more
than a scrub cow of the same weight. If she can reproduce her
kind, every good quality in her is enhanced in value.

" We are ready to pay for her pedigree, her beauty of form, her
capacity to make beef economically, to produce a large flow of
milk or to make rich butter or cheese. These extra qualities are
the result of care in breeding ; they represent capital lavishl}^
spent and skill in the breeder, acquired by long years of expe-
rience. He has in the carcase of his thorough-bred animal a ma-
chine for the production of certain economical results which has
cost him large sums of money. If he can show that he can pro-
duce these results with a fair share of uniformity, he is entitled to
an extra price for his thorough -bred animal. There is no doubt that
the skilful breeder can do this. A shorthorn bull at a large price
is cheaper for a farmer who wants to raise beef than a scrub bull
at any price. It is the confidence which farmers have that tho-
rough-breds will transmit their good qualities that leads to the
steady demand for them. A. breeds them, it may be to sell to
B. at a fancy price. But B. would not want them unless he could
sell to C. who is engaged in raising beef cattle ; and has found out

Manual of Agriculture. 307

that grade shorthorns will save a whole year of feeding, and one
year's interest on the large capital he has invested in stock. He
wants only a thorough-bred bull, and thinks he can afford to pay
any price which is necessary to get him.

" The high prices for these animals will only continue as long
as farmers find it to their own interest to buy them. The several
breeds of cattle meet real wants among farmers who desire them
for ordinary purposes. The demand will probably continue as long
as beef, milk, butter and cheese are eaten ; as long as oxen are used
on the farm It is the most thrifty and skilful farmers that in-
vest in thorough-bred animals.

" It is altogether probable they understand their own interests."

Now, a stock of good grade cattle may be rapidly gathered up
by any farmer at an expense of from one to two hundred dollars.
Many breeders will dispose of a thorough-bred bull for a moderate
sum because his colour does not suit them, whilst his pedigree
may be perfect and he may possess every useful quality.

Co-operation in a neighbourhood where more than one farmer
would purchase a thorough-bred bull, so that they might exchange
and prevent too close breeding, would soon raise up a fine class of
grades in a section.

Of one thing we may be certain, the use of a grade bull should
never be permitted. It takes but four or five years to raise up a
herd, with little expense, to three-quarter and seven-eighth bred
animals, and then it is that the good qualities show and high
figures begin to be realized. Could a common steer be made up to
a live weight of 2,600 lbs. at three years old ? We think not.

The old saying, " Blood will tell," true as it undoubtedly is, will
be found no talisman against neglect, exposure and starvation.
Many a man has tried improving his stock, but left them out in
the weather and neglected them just as he used to do with his
common stock; and the natural consequence of such treatment
was made a ground of complaint against breeding.

If a man should buy some old worn-out watch for a dollar, and
put it to steep in a basin of water, its functions would be, in all
probability, somewhat retarded. Should he give a hundred dol-
lars for a Waltham, and treat it in like manner, the fact of his
article having been composed of the best material would not pre-
vent its reduction to about the same state as the dollar watch
when under the same course of treatment ; but his loss would be
the greater.

The reason why a grade bull is not a safe one to breed from is
simply, we know nothing of his ancestry for any length of time
back, and we cannot tell if those qualities which we particularly
want to be developed in the progeny have been passed down to
him through a sufficiently long ancestry to make it certain that
they will also be stamped upon his calves.

308 The Canadian Farmer's

Breeding. — " Whatever the class or character of the dams, the
continued use of sires of a distinct breed, capable of transmitting
a family likeness, should constantly be persisted in ; the man who
does so finding his stock of various breeds of animals yearly in-
creasing in value, the receipts correspondingly raised, and the oc-
cupants of his pastures, stables or stalls, wonderfully improved in
appearance.

" Whether they attend to it or not, we find most men admitting
the influence of a well-bred sire on. the character and quality of
the future offspring; but, strange to say, comparatively little
stress is laid upon the influence for good which is exerted by the
dam on her young, when she herself is of good quality and well
descended. When both parents are good, progress is rapid ; and
by holding over for breeders only the young of the best animals
much time is saved, and the required amount of perfection is
reached in a very limited number of years. Once looked to, this
point will ever after be considered one of the most vital import-
ance, and will on no account whatever be neglected or overlooked.
To any one conversant with stock in large numbers, the influence
of the mother is strikingly apparent in certain members of each
class, their produce year after year exceeding in value that of
every other animal of the same kind, and, when sold, brings pro-
portionately more money. Thus, for instance, a cow will sometimes
breed calves for a succession of years exactly the same colour, form
and general character — no matter if the sire is changed each year ;
and her progeny again will transmit to their own oflfspring the
same characteristics, but in an improved degree, if the necessary
measures have been attended to with this view. Families are thus
founded, and men intelligent enough to profit by improving a good
strain which has come in their way — it may be quite acci-
dentally in the first instance — have gained for themselves a name
and acquired fortunes. To breed from females which have proved
themselves indififerent nurses, and whose progeny, however
handsome they themselves may be, are always amongst the culls
of the flock or herd, is very short-sighted policy, and detracts
very materially from the prosperity of those who will not take
the trouble of marking all such animals, and getting rid of them
on the first favourable opportunity. Hardiness, by which general
term a great deal of meaning is expressed, should never be lost
sight of by the breeder, but, on the contrary, carefully attended
to, as it is a quality of the utmost consequence, enabling them to
withstand the vicissitudes of the weather, to keep up condition at
periods when the greatest foresight cannot prevent a scarcity of
food, to be always in good health, and to be able to breed animals
of sound, healthy and hardy constitutions." — Mark Lane Express.
Animals should be selected for breeding purposes that have a
character. If for the dairy, a character is wanted that they, and

Manual of Agriculture, 309

if possible their dams and grand-dams, fee, have been good milkers
before them. And the same is applicable whatever be the quali-
ties that the breeder desires to develop in his stock.

INDICATIONS OF QUALITY.

These, as generally observable to the eye, are :

For heef produci'ng. — Moderate size, compactness and levelness
of form, a straight broad back and fine tail, soft skin well covered
with hair, short legs and well ribbed up.

For TnilJcing. — A broad forehead, small muzzle, kind and bright
expression ; the udders full, rounded and largely developed, but
not fleshy ; the milk-veins showing out large, thighs well kept
apart.

For good constitution and early maturity. — Broad, deep chest,
and ribs well rounded in the barrel behind the shoulder.

THE THEORY OF CATTLE FEEDING.

Mr. Fletcher says : " A farmer has three things to consider and
three distinct objects to attain in feeding cattle — first, to make
bone ; second, to make flesh ; and third, to make fat Without
bone he can have no flesh, and without flesh no fat. Thus they
are dependent upon one another ; they are all necessary to the
support of animal life, and to the full development of the animal.
This being so, it is absolutely necessary that in feeding an animal
its food should contain all the elements of bone, flesh and fat ; the
two former being plentifully supplied to the growing animal, and
the latter when it is being made up for the market. Now, bone
has for its elements phosphoric acid and lime ; those of flesh are
gluten, fibrine, &c. ; and of fat, carbon.

" These, therefore, it is necessary that food should contain in
their proper proportions, in feeding the animal in its various
stages. While young and in a growing state it requires the bone
and flesh-forming constituents, and these are to be found in swedes,
cabbages, potatoes, &c., all of which contain a large percentage of
phosphoric acid, the principal constituent of bones, and also a
considerable quantity of gluten, caseine, &c., the principal consti-
tuents of flesh ; but ii flesh is required to be laid on with a view
to fattening, peas, lentils, and other leguminous food should be
used ; and for fat you must have recourse to linseed and other
seeds containing a large proportion of oil, starch, gum, sugar, &c.,
all fat-forming constituents.

" The constituents the food ought to contain being known, the
next question is the quantity required as best adapted to pro-
mote the growth and sustaia the animal at diflerent periods and
under diflerent conditions."

310

The Canadian Farmer's

It is remarked by an eminent cattle feeder, Mr. Glyde, that
" an ox requires two per cent, of his live weight of hay per day ;
if he works, 2 J per cent. ; a milch cow, 3 per cent. ; a fattening
ox, 5 per cent, at first, and 4| per cent, when half fat, and 4 per
cent, when fat ; grown sheep, 3J per cent, to keep them in their
store condition." An ox, to replace the daily loss of muscular
fibre, requires from 20 to 24 ounces of dry gjuten or vegetable
albumen daily. This would be supplied by —

120 lbs. of turnips,
115 " wheat straw,
75 " carrots,
67 " potatoes,
20 " meadow hay,

or 17 lbs. clover hay.
" 12 lbs. peas.

12 lbs. barley.

10 lbs. oats.
*' 5 lbs. beans.

The closer the food approaches in its chemical constituency to
the matter it is required to form, the sooner will the end be
attained.

From the following table may be gathered the amount of each
chemical constituent that dried beef {i.e. beef divested of its 77
per cent, of water) contains, and the proportion of those consti-
tuents found in hay, oats and peas : —

TABLE SHOWING CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF DRIED BEEF, AND THE
PROPORTION OF SAME CONSTITUENTS CONTAINED IN HAY, OATS,
AND PEAS.

Dried beef . . .
Clover hay. . .

Oats

Peas

Mutton fat . .
Potato starch

Gum

Wool

Horn

Hydro-

Nitro-

other

Carbon.

gen.

Oxygen.

gen.

Ashes.

Water.

Matter.

51-82

7.57

21-37

1-501

4-23

33-47

4-20

32 51

1-26

7-56

iV'-b's

3-95

41-57

5-25

30-10

1-80

3-28

18-00

38-24

5-84

33-10

5-00

3-71

14-11

Total
Parts.

100
100
100
100

78-996

11-700

9-304

44-250

6-674

49076

42-682

6-374

50-944

60-653

7-0-29

24-608

17-710

51162

6-597

24-957

17-284

Thus the best fat-producer here is found to be potatoes, and
next to it comes clover hay. It will be obsei'ved the chemical
constitution of these articles of food approaches very closely that
of animal substances, and we may deduce from the fact how rea-
dily food acts on the system, and how essential to the well-being
and the proper progress of bone, flesh and fat is a variety of
food.

We give another table showing in a different form the relative
nutritive properties of various common articles of food : —

Manual of Agriculture. 311

RELATIVE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF VARIOUS ARTICLES OF FOOD.

Food.

Oats

Beans ,

Peas ,

Indian corn

Barley

Meadow haj'
Clover hay. .,
Pea straw . .
Oat straw . . .

Carrots

Linseed

Bran

Woody fibre.

Starch, Gum

Gluten,

Fatty

Water.

or husks.

and Sugar.

Albumen, &c

Matter.

8 to 11

2-5

2-1

5 to 9

13-5

2 to 3

7 1

2 to 5

9-3

3 to 5

10 to 15

12-3

1-5

1-3

0-8

1-5

0-4

9-2

8 to 9

35-3

20-3

20-0

15-1

53-6

19-3

4-7

Saline
Matter.

2-5

3
1-5

3
to 10

9
to 5

. to 2

6-3

7-3

The most nutritious grasses are those which abound in sugar,
starch and gluten. Sugar enters largely into the composition of
milk. Hence it is that we find X. A. Willard, Esq., and our best
authorities on the Dairy, recommending the sweet-scented
grasses for permanent pastures.

The essential difference between cattle kept over and those that
are intended for the shambles is, that in the former case a gener-
ous varied diet is required to perfect the whole animal organiza-
tion, whilst in the other our efforts are directed to the supply of
fatty flesh-forming food.

To reiterate, the flesh-forming constituents are albumen, gluten,
(fee, and those that go to form fat are gum, saccharine matter,
starch, &c.

The next table shows how much for each of these purposes may
be expected as an average yield for an acre of land.

An acre of land should produce, of —

Peas, (20 bushels)
Oats, (40 bushels)
Hay, (2 tons )
Potatoes, (150 bushels)
Carrots, (700 bushels)
Turnips, (560 bushels)
Wheat straw, (2,000 lbs.)
Oat straw, (1,800 lbs.)
Barley straw, (1,400 lbs.)

Flesh-forming food.

285 lbs.
232 lbs.
220 lbs.
400 lbs.
840 lbs.
400 lbs.

27 lbs.

24 lbs.

18 lbs.

Fat -forming food.

504 lbs.

935 lbs.
1,660 lbs.
2,220 lbs.
4,000 lbs.
3,350 lbs.

626 lbs.

646 lbs.

430 lbs.

In the IJ. S. Agricultural Report for 1865 we find the following
very exhaustive tables, prepared from the best English, German,
and American authorities. From this may be deduced, when
taken in connection with the analysis of the animal system, the
comparative value for nutrition of nearly every crop in general
or partial cultivation in Canada : —

312

The Canadian Farmer's

TABLE OF COMPARATIVE EQUIVALENTS OF DIFFERENT FOODS.

FOODS.

Irish potatoes'

Carrots

Parsnips

JerusaJem artichoke

Sugar beet

Turnips, (swede)

Common white turnip . , . .

Mangold wurzel

Green pea straw

Spurrey, (green)

Green buckwheat stalks.. .
Common vetch, (green). . .

French retch, (green)

Green stalks of white lupin
Green stalks of white bean.

Green oats, (fodder)

Timothy grass, (green) . . .
Red top " "

Superior English hay

Red clover, (green)

White clover, (g^reen)

Lucerne, (green)

Red clover, (hay)

White clover, (hay)

Lucerne, (hay)

Wheat flour

Indian corn

Rye meal

Barley meal

Oatmeal

Buckwheat meal

Peas

Kidney beans

White field beans

Lentils

English linseed cake

American linseed cake ....

t> « c

2 j; --' O

S E "

1.4

0.6

1.2

1.0

0.9

1.0

0.9

1.0

0.9

2.7

0.2

1.9

©.7

1.8

1.0

4.0

8.3

13.5

2.0

1.5

1.9

22.5

18.7

12.7

14.7

11.0

14.3

130

180

9.0

23.1

23.9

24.0

25.7

22.1

22.2

-•^ ''^ .^

«« a S .

•S C 3 03

*- « » =

c bf c 5

S 3 O O

r- c S
£=«•;"

18.9

6.6

7.0

18.8

13.6

5.2

3.3

12.6

7.9

2.3

4.7

2-6

4.7

2.3

2.7

8.6

8.7

36.3

3.6

2.7

8.6

18.7

40.0

38.0

66.4

66 7

55.8

52.0

51.1

52.1

41.9

39.3

39.7

38.9

51.0

48.6

S £ «2

lei

O 93 S

20.3

7.2

8.2

19.8

14.5

6.2

4.2

13.6

8.8

5.0

4.9

4.5

5.4

4.1

3.7

9.5

13.7

12.0

49.8

5.6

4.2

5.5

41.2

58.7

50.7

81.1

77.7

70.1

65.0

69.1

61.1

65.0

63.2

63.7

64.6

73.1

70.8

1^2

245.3

691.6

607.3

251.5

336.5

803.2

1185.7

367.6

565.9

960.0

1016.6

1106.6

922.2

1212 1

1345.9

624.2

363.4

416.0

100.0

907.1

1185.7

905.4

120.8

84.6

98.2

61.4

64.2

71.0

76.0

72.0

81.5

76.0

78.7

78.2

7T.0

68.0

70.3

There is a variety in the various clovers. Einhoff and Crome
give the following analyses :

Water

Stiirch

Woody fibre

Sugar

Albumen

Extractive matter of gum

Fatty matter

Phosphate of lime

Red Clover.

White Clover.

Lucerne.

76.0
1.4

13.9
2.1
2.0
3.5
0.1
1.0

80.0
1.0

11.5
1.5
1.5
3.4
0.2
0.9

75 0

2 2

14 3

0 8

1.9

4.4

0 8

100.0

Excellent analyses have been put on record by Sir Humphry
Davy and Mr. Herapath, showing the relative value, as food, of
the generally cultivated roots : —

Manual of Agriculture,

313

QUANTITY OP NUTRITIOUS AND FAT-PRODUCING CONSTITUENTS IN

A THOUSAND PARTS.

Swede turnips

White turnips

Mangold wurzel Qon^ red). . . .

" " (orange globe

Sugar beet

^-^'^^^ Sugar, ^^r.^ Total.

or Starch.

7
13
15i
171

51
34

119

1061

126J

136

134

145}

Treat all Animals Kindly — It is a pity every one does not
treat animals kindly, for much more can be done with them in all
ways ; they will do as you wish them readily, and you become
completely master of them, without knowledge on their part that
they are subservient to your desires. There is not a more interest-
ing sight than to see a first-rate herdsman or a thoroughly good
shepherd move a numerous lot of animals and draw them out into
different yards, and then, perhaps, into pens — one here, two there,
&€., but in every instance the right one going into the right place,
and all this done without any bustle and in the most regularly
quiet manner imaginable. ^Jan too is an animal, and how very
much better it would be if any one having that sort of animal
around him would treat them kindly : he might, as stated with
the lower animals, become complete master and have entire con-
trol of them, without their feeling how really subordinate they were.
Overbearing manners beget dislike. Belittle a man by a foolish
arrogance, and he is totally discouraged and becomes careless. In
fact, there is generally a great want of sense in any one who tries
to make others feel inferiority; and depend upon it^there is nothing
better than kindly treatment towards all animals.

Store Cattle. — The two chief points to ever bear in view in the
treatment of store and growing cattle is shelter and generous
variety of food ; and yet store cattle must be kept cheap, or they
will "eat their heads off," as the saying is, ere they be ready to put
up for the butcher or to come in as milkers. Well, comfort is half
the battle, and costs very little. A warm shed in winter ; a liberal
supply of straw, varied with roots, and a very little grain in winter;
shade and access to water in summer, and plenty of moderate
exercise, are all that is wanted to keep young cattle growing.
The object to be sought with stores is to keep the frame enlarging
and the constitution sound and healthy, so that when the time of
feeding arrives we may have a large and fully developed frame
and a healthy machine by which to convert the crops into beef

Depend upon it, for the ultimate benefit of the farm, the right
and proper way of disposing of all straws, hays and coarse grains,
is by making them " walk off " to market.

The common object sought in keeping cattle in the barn-yard

314 The Canadian Farmer's

through the winter is to keep the beasts at least in as good order
as when they left the pasture, and to make manure.

If cattle be once stinted in their growth, they will never after-
wards be able to acquire flesh either so rapidly or so fully as if
better kept.

The different appearance of cattle kept well sheltered in winter
and those that are allowed to run out in all sorts of weather, and
unprotected, to grub their own food, is in the spring very apparent
to the outsider ; and if the owners could be persuaded to produce
a fair and square account, we have no doubt that the feeder would
show a better balance sheet ere June grass had left, than he who
winter starves his cattle.

Fatting Cattle : —

** Oh ! rare rosbif ! loved by mankind,

If I were doomed to have thee,
All dressed and garnished to my mind,

And swimming in thy gravy,
Not all the country's force combined

Could from my fury save thee."

Buying Cattle to Fat in Winter. — The liberal and constant ap-
plication of manure is the grand basis upon which rests successful
farming. Of manure there are three kinds — the so-called artificial
manures, green manures, and animal or barn-yard dung. Each in
its place is necessary to a proper enrichment of the soil, and the
obtaining of all is a matter of much importance. To make plenty
of barn-yard manure, a number of stock must be kept, and such
should be richly fed ; for as the fodder is rich, so will the manure
be impregnated with a maximum amount of those rich elements
which go to increase the growth of the plant.

While endeavouring to fat a great number of head of cattle, the
question of a profitable return for the food supplied has to be con-
sidered as inseparably connected with the manufacture of rich ma-
nure. We have seen beasts put up to fatten who have eaten more
than they have made. A thin beast, put up in the cold weather,
takes a great amount of his food for the purpose of supplying the
necessary heat to the body ; while an animal in good order has a
heat-producing store in his own fat, which allows all the extra
food to be taken up in producing more meat. We may lay it
down as an axiom that it will not pay to put up a thin beast to
fatten upon stored or winter food.

After August, the fall pasturage will be ready for cattle ; take
them off this as soon as very cold nights set in, and stall feed.
They will be the very best of beef by Christmas.

In this way alone, as a rule, can winter feeding of stock for the
butcher be made profitable. The animal is growing from August
to December without a day's check. We have bought steers in
August for thirty -five dollars cash, and sold the same before

Manual of Agriculture, 315

Christmas for sixty-five dollars, only stall feeding for about six
weeks.

Money may be made in the current year by growing and selling
a large breadth of grain, but it is made at the expense of our fu-
ture income. Fattening of stock is the most profitable manner in
which to apply our farm produce, for we have profit from the ani-
mals and manure to boot.

At the same time, there is such a thing as putting more feed
into a beast than his increase in weight will pay for. If we adopt
as an axiom, that an animal should always be in good order ^h^n
put up for winter stall feeding, we cannot go far astray.

Choosing a Beast to Fatten. — British Husbandry says : " In
choosing a breed more especially adapted for fatting purposes,
there are some points which should be closely regarded. Attention
should be paid to compactness and symmetry of form ; deep fore
quarters, wide carcases, fine small bones, moderately thin hides, a
protuberance of fat under the root of the tail, and large fuU
eyes. A well-shaped steer should thus have a small head, with a
placid countenance, as indicative of docility and aptitude to get
fat ; a fine muzzle and open nostrils ; the throat should be clean,
long and thin in the neck, but wide and deep in the shoulders ;
the back should be broad and straight near the setting on of the
tail, with the rump-points fat and coming well up to it ; the bar-
rel should be round, wide across the loins, and the girth deep be-
hind the shoulders, with the space between the hip bone and the
short rib very small (this latter is most important to all easily kept
animals) ; the fore legs should be short and wide apart, so as to pre-
sent a broad appearance to the chest, and the thighs of the hind
legs should be shut well in the twist — the seam in the middle of
which should be well filled ; and the flanks should be heavy and
full. A form such as this is not only the best for afibrding the
greatest weight, but will be also generally found to lay the flesh
upon the prime parts, to produce the least quantity of ofifal, with
such a large quantity of tallow as, emphatically speaking, in the
butchers' phrase, will cause the animal to ' die well.' These marks,
however, are not the only indications of a propensity to fatten
quickly. On the contrary, it has been found by experience that
many coarse beasts, with large bones and gummy legs, have often
proved superior in that respect to other animals of undoubted
superiority in point of shape. The state of the hide and flesh is
of the first importance, as the essential property of ' handling
welir'

An eminent breeder considers that " it is the nice touch or mel-
low feel of the hand which constitutes, in a great measure, the judge
of cattle."

" The knowledge and the value of skill in touch can only be
acquired by long practice, but when once obtained, it may be

316 The Canadian Farmer's

relied on as the best criterion in judging of the feeding qualities
of a beast, for it is generally found to be accompanied by the other
good properties of gentleness, purity of blood and consequent dis-
position to fatten. A thin, papery skin, covered with light silky
hair, denotes weakness, and is therefore as defective a test of su-
periority as that of a coarse tough hide, covered with hard, short
hair, which always indicates a bad feeder."

This judgment of good feeders is most important to the cattle
buyer, and we have the perfection of a skin indicative of disposi-
tion to fatten, thus briefly summed by an eminent cattle dealer,
"as consisting in a thick, loose skin, floating as it were on a layer
of soft fat, yielding to the least pressure, springing back towards
the fingers like a piece of chamois leather, and covered with thick,
glossy soft hair."

Early maturity can be gained in no other manner than by the
increase of the superiority oi the breed, best effected by the use of
thorough-bred male stock.

Although it has been said that " a plain, coarse, ugly animal
may pay more than a fine, well-made one, because tbe coarse one
is bought at a much less price in proportion," yet our readers who
have had experience in fatting extensively for the market will
endorse us when we strongly recommend the propriety of the
purchase of those cattle for the stall which have the finest points
in their form ; for these will not only carry beef of the best quality,
but will consume less food in proportion, particularly as they
attain age and fatness ; and will thus, generally, realize the largest
profits on their fattening.

Management in the Stalls. — The thrifty condition of a beast,
and the saving of food from waste, are in a very great measure
dependent upon their management when put up to stall feed.

The first point is comfort of accommodation ; for on their easi-
ness depends, in a great measure, the rapidity with which they
will lay on fat. They should be perfectly secured from the weather,
and a certain degree of warmth above and below — roofs rain-proof
and floors dry. Neither should stalls be ill-ventilated or too warm ;
for the first fault may aflfect the healthy state of the respiratory
and digestive organs, whilst the latter may cause perspiration, and
every sweating is so much food lost to fat. A dry bed and plenty
of litter inclines the beast to lie, and the oftener he is down, con-
tentedly chewing the cud of perfect satisfaction, the more rapidly
will he increase in size and weight.

Strict regularity in times and (if any) gradual variations in
quantity and quality of food are most important.

Whatever periods for feeding are once adopted, they should be
made a rule and acted up to within the minute. The beast soon,
by instinct, will acquire a most accurate knowledge of his proper
feeding time, and from that minute will be restless until he is sup-

Manual of Agriculture, 317

plied, and every minute of restlessness is again so much food lost
to fat.

Stalls should he kept moderately dark, for by so doing the ani-
mal is induced to take more rest.

Cleanliness. — No point is of more importance, and probably
there is none so generally neglected as this. Mangers should be
cleaned out before every feed, that there may be no sourness
found in the bottom.

Water. — It is not uncommon to say that cattle fatting require
no water — that such as is contained in the turnips is ample. Try
the beast with a pail of clean water immediately after he has eaten
his turnips, and in nine cases out of ten he will take a drink.
Turnips, no doubt, contain over ninety per cent, of water, but it
is not in a form by means of which the animal can wash down
his feed.

When to stop Feeding Cattle. — Nature has a law, that she will
refuse to increase live weight of the animal world above a certain
point. There is a period during the fatting of domestic animals
beyond which feeding is no longer done at a profit. When the
beast is well fattened, and loses his appetite for food, further fat-
tening is only at a loss, and the sooner the animal is slaughtered
the greater its profit to the feeder.

Feeding may be continued just as long as the beeve appears
healthful, and will take his regular feeds with a keen relish.

Overfeeding. — There is such a thing as overfeeding, and the
effect is that the appetite becomes cloyed, and it will take some
time to bring back a healthful relish for food. To prevent this,
careful watch must be set, and when a beast begins to play with
his fodder, tossing it out of the box or rolling it into a ball, it should
be immediately removed, and the amount of succeeding feeds be
reduced.

Large quantities of grain should never be fed at one time.
The error is not uncommonly committed of feeding the animal too
little at one time, and then endeavouring to make up for lost time
by cramming. This may have answered for the Irishman's pig,
when he wanted to " put on a streak of lean and then a streak of
fat — sure ;" but the effect upon beasts is to cloy the appetite, and
the principle comes well under the old adage of " the more haste,
the less speed."

LIVE AND DEAD WEIGHT.

The difficulty of judging correctly the difference between these
weights has led to the adoption of calculations based on the
measurement of the dimensions of the animal.

One plan is : —

The girth is taken by passing a tape-line round the body, just
behind the shoulder blade and under the fore legs ; and^/ie length

318 The Canadian Farmer's

is found by measurement along the back from the foremost corner
of the shoulder blade-bone, in a straight line to the hindmost
point of the rump, or to that bone of the tail which plumbs the
line with the hinder part of the buttock.

This mode of measurement is generally acknowledged as the
most simple and the best, as applicable to all breeds of cattle.

The weight is then found by any of the following rules : —

RULES FOR FINDING DEAD WEIGHT.

For example, we suppose a fat beast to be 5 feet in length and
7 feet in girth.

Rule 1. Multiply the square of girth in inches by length in
inches, and divide the result by 525, and the quotient is the
weight required : —

Ex.

Square the girth in inches 84

7056
Multiply by length in inches 60

Divide by 525. 525)423360(806

Ans 806 lbs.

Rule 2. Square the girth in feet, multiply the same by the
length in feet, and multiply the double sum by 333, and the re-
sult is the weight required : —

Ex. 7

Square girth in feet 7

49
Multiply by length in feet 5

245
Multiply by 3'33 333

Ans 815-85 lbs.

Rule 3. Multiply half the girth by itself in feet, and the pro-
duct by fourteen times the length in feet. The result will give
the desired weight.

N.B. This rule is more simple, but not quite as accurate as
Rules Nos. 1 and 2.

Manual of Agriculture. 319

8-5
Multiply half girth by itself in feet 3 5

1225
Multiply by length in feet 5

61-25
Multiply by 14 14

Ans 857^ lbs.

Bule 4. Multiply girth by itself in feet ; multiply product by
five times the length in feet; and multiply result by the fraction |.

Multiply girth by itself. 7

49
Multiply by five times the length 25

1225
Multiply by fraction | Ans 816| lbs.

Rule 5. Obtain the live weight of an animal by actual weighing,
and divide this by 8, and multiply the quotient by 5. Thus, if
the animal weighs 1288 lbs. on the scales: —

Divide by 8 8)1288

161
Multiply by 5 5

Ans 805 lbs.

In other words, the live weight loses exactly three-eighths.

For 1288 — f (1288) = 1288 — 483

= 805 lbs. Ans.

Or the mean amount of beef from a fat beast is about 625 of the
live weight : —

For, as above -625 of 1288 lbs. = 805 lbs.

A number of experiments have been, within the last few years,
made on this point at the public slaughter-houses of Paris and
Brussels, and the result of these have been that —

320 The Canadian Farmer's

An ox weighing 1322 lbs. yields : —

Meat 773-25

Skin.. 111-20

Grease 8800

Blood 5516

Feet and hoofs 2200

Head 1100

Tongue 680

Lungs and heart 1533

Liver and spleen 20 05

Intestines 66' 15

Loss and evaporation 154 32

548-75

Total 132200 Iba

In this experiment, the beef was only -58 of the live weight,
but we believe that our former figure of 625, or |, is a better
standard.

Rule 6. — As there is a difference in the proportion of meat to
offal in animals of different condition, the following accurate rules
have been struck : —

Multiply the girth into itself and multiply by the length ; if the
beast is

" Just killable," multiply product by 3 08
"Fair beef," " " 322

"Fat," " « 3-33

"Very fat," " « 3 50

"Extra fat," " " 3-64

Example : —

Take girth as before, 7 feet, and length 5 feet.

Multiply girth by itself 7

49
Multiply by length 5

245

If " Just killable," multiplyby 308, gives 75470 lbs.
" Fair beef," " 322 " 788-90 "

"Fat," « 3-33 " 815 85 "

"Very fat," « 350 " 85750 "

"Extra fat," « 364 " 89180 "

In the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture we find also a state-

Manual of Agriculture.

321

ment of the live and dead weights; and proportion of offal of
bullocks of different breeds, a summary of which is as follows ; —

Breed.

Proportion of carcase to
700 lbs. of live weight.

Proportion of offal to
700 lbs. of carcase.

Durham .

487^ lbs.
485 "
412i "
380 "
366 "

146i lbs.

Devon ...

172i^ "

Hereford . .

220 "

Highland

Cross-bred

282^ "
282^ "

Thus establishing the Durham at the head of beef producers.

Again, we have another tabular statement of four animals,
which, though individually of equal weight when alive, yet sepa-
rately displayed an extraordinary difference when killed, in their
production of beef and tallow, exclusive of hide and offal.

Live Weight.

Dead Weight.

Tallow.

An Aberdeen ox

1859 lbs.
1848 "

1680 "

1681 "

1182 lbs.

1261 "

1087 "

945 "

229 Ibe.

A Shorthorn ox

196 "

A '* heifer

210 "

A " steer

208 "

It is instructive to observe the large proportion of tallow from
the young stock as compared with that in the oxen.

CUTTING AND STEAMING CATTLE FEED.

We have been often asked what are the advantages to compen-
sate for the trouble and expense of steaming our cattle food. Like
all such farm operations, people have said it is all very fine for
fancy stock, but it won't pay with our ordinary stock. The
answer is ready. It will pay if only enough stock is kept. It
will not pay to rig up apparatus at some expense, and then to
expect the profits on two or three head of cattle to make it up to
the farmer, but the aggregate saving of a few pounds per day, on
a fair sized stock, will, in the course of a long Canadian winter,
tell up to a very pretty sum total.

By steaming, twenty-five per cent., or one-quarter, is saved over
the ordinary plan of feeding long fodder.

If 30 lbs. of hay be required per day to keep one cow in fair
order, and, by means of steaming, it can be shown that 22 lbs., or
three-quarters of the first amount, will answer the purpose equally
well, we save 8 lbs. of hay per day, per cow. Supposing that we
have twenty head, we thus save ICO lbs. of hay per day, equiva-
lent to $1.60 cents per day when hay is worth $10 per ton, or for
21

322 The Canadian Farmer's

the five winter months we effect a saving in fodder to the amount
of $150.

Albert J. Foster, a farmer having many years' experience, says
before the Orleans County Farmers' Club : —

"Having been solicited to make a statement of my experience
in cutting feed and feeding stock, I will say that I have cut feed,
more or less, for the last fifteen years, and find it a great saving
in feeding all kinds of stock, and particularly in feeding horses.
I find thot it does not require more than two-thirds as much in
bulk when cut as when fed without cutting. I am feeding the
present winter seventy horses and mules and eleven head of cattle
entirely on cut feed. I do not steam my feed, for the reason that
I. have not the proper facilities for so doing, but I think a great
saving might be made by steaming. I have a second-hand two-
horse power that cost me $25, and a cutting box that cost $30,
that I use for cutting feed for all my stock. Two men and a boy
will cut enough in one day to last seven days. 1 mix this feed
in a box as I want to use it, and always salt it well before feeding.
In this way I have no sick horses, and they all appear to have
good appetites. I usually water once a day, and while the stock
are drinking, clean the stables. I find that one hand will take
proper care of this stock, with the help of another hand one hour
in the morning and at night. I have often heard it said that stock
would not do well if compelled to eat cut feed up clean, and that this
is particularly the case in regard to corn fodder; but I have nearly
finished cutting 16 acres of heavy corn fodder, that, owing to bad
weather, was not as well saved as some years, and as yet I have
not thrown into my yard one bushel of this cut mixture. I intend
to mix, as nearly as possible, two parts straw with one of hay and
one of corn fodder. A sufiicient quantity of this, with at least six
quarts of ground feed (three parts shorts to one of meal) per head,
will keep stock thriving and in good condition. I am not able to
give any experiments in feeding cattle for beef, except in regard
to one pair of six year old oxen, which I bought last spring, and
worked through the summer, and fed on grain after the}'' were
turned to grass. They were weighed when put up to feed in the
fall, again two weeks before selling, and when sold, and I found
they had gained an average of 2J pounds a head per day. They
were fed, in addition to the regular cat feed, about six quarts of
meal each per day. I am fully satisfied that it will pay any farmer
to cut feed for his stock, and perhaps to bay more feed rather than
to sell any off the farm.

" But this is not the only advantage gained by feeding cut feed ;
there is a great saving in handling the manure, and it is always
ready to use. I usually draw in the winter, and spread on the
ground intended for corn, thus saving the time in the spring wiien
I want to be at other work. Labour is also cheaper in the

Manual of Agriculture. o23

winter, and teams have not much to do. I consider one load of
such manure worth at least two as usually drawn from barn-yards
in the spring and summer. It is always ready for top-dressing
meadows or orchards, or for manuring corn in the hill, or for mix-
ing with other ingredients for any purpose."

For the very large farmer it would undoubtedly be advantage-
ous to buy a regular apparatus, such as Prindle's Agricultural
Steamer, but a very excellent substitute can be obtained by the
use of the ordinary agricultural boiler.

Mr. A. Lurgan, of Baytield, Ontario, thus communicates his
simple plan in the columns of the Canada Faviner : —

" Invert and fit a strong tub, the staves eighteen inches or two
feet long and two inches thick, into the top of an agricultural
boiler. Slope the staves off from the outside, so that they will fit
the top of the kettle tight, and plaster the joint round with a
mixture of clay, sand, lime, and ashes, till it is perfectly steam-
tight. Have a hole in the bottom of the tub, to pour in the water,
and a hole in the side for the pipe to take away the steam ; the
hole in the bottom may be closed by a plug.

" Take your steam pipe into a box containing from 150 bushels
to 200 bushels, and you will steam it in a short time as effectually
as can be desired.

" Last winter I worked on this plan with a common large sugar
kettle, set in a small stone arch, with a tub turned into it as de-
scribed, and a pipe from the side of it leading into a common
grain bin, holding 75 bushels, In filling the bin I first put in a
layer of chaff* or cut straw about a foot deep, and then a sprinkling
of meal, and so on to the top of the box. I then filled the kettle
with water to about a foot from the top, started the fire, and in a
short time the steaming was complete. Instead of a conunon
grain bin made of inch stuff", it would be better to have it made of
two-inch plank with a false bottom. I have known two tanneries,in
the early times of the settlement, to work for years with a simi-
lar contrivance."

Saving Effected by Steaming. — Augustus Whitman, in the
Country Gentleman, says : —

" While 2t> lbs. per day of good dry hay are required to keep
dry cows (weighing from 1,150 lbs. to 1,450 lbs.) in an even con-
dition of flesh, upon 20 lbs. of steamed feed a handsome gain is
made.

" The trial that furnished the data for the statement was made
a year since, when six dry cows, in condition as nearly alike as
could be found, were divided into three pairs, and each pair fed
differently from the others for three weeks ; note was then made
of the result, and the trial continued another three weeks, ofivinir
to each pair" what another pair had previously been allowed. The
re^>uit was, that upon 26 lbs. per day of good dry hay, two cows

324 Tne Canadian Farmer's

weighing 1,184 lbs. and 1,456 lbs. respectively, just about held
their own; while another paii weighing 1,3G2 lbs. and 1,120 lbs.
respectifely, upon 20 lbs. per day^ of steamed feed, gained 54 lbs.
and 36 lbs. Reversing the feed for the second three weeks, the
last named barely held their own, while the first gained 40 lbs.
and 30 lbs. respectively.

" I should say that the cattle on long hay had all they would eat
at the three regular feeds, and the quantity consumed was found to
be at the close of the trial equal to 28 lbs. per day, as above stated.
You will very properly ask, what is the mixture made of ?

" My steam box (in three divisions) holds enough to fill 200 feed
boxes of about one bushel each, and requires to pack it well 900
lbs. of dry fodder. This is made up of 300 lbs. good hay and 600
lbs. of corn stover, dried fodder, corn or oat or barley straw. This
is cut tolerably fine and well mixed, and when packed in layers
for steaming is thoroughly wet and seasoned with 180 quarts
wheat shorts, 60 quarts cotton seed meal, and 60 quarts corn meal

" The rule for feeding now observed, and that has been used for
the past winter, is somewhat changed from previous years, and is
a boxful of steamed feed morning and noon, and 5 lbs. dry hay at
nio-ht. The two boxes of feed contain 3 lbs. good hay, 6 lbs. straw
(or its equivalent), 1 lb. shorts, and If lbs. meal (half each cotton
seed and corn), and upon this good gain is made, as the monthly
record shows."

Before leaving the question of feed, we will return to summer
feeding as performed under the system known as

Soiling. — Whether the adoption of entire soiling will pay or
not depends in great part upon the nature and value of a farmer's
land. Where there is rough land it is often only fit to be put
into a state of permanent pasture. But where all the land can
be used to advantage to raise meadow hay, it becomes a question
whether it would not pay us better to get a full crop than to turn
our cattle out upon land upon which our hot climate usually very
materially reduces the amount of succulent food through the
summer months. We are well aware that a given amount of land
will feed far more head of cattle under the soiling system than
when pastured. The question for the farmer to solve is, will the
savin o- of land fo other purposes pay for the time and trouble tor
be expended in cutting and carrying food all through the sum-
mei* months ?

There are six distinct advantages accruing from the practice
of soiling :

1. It saves land.

2. It saves fencing.

3. It economizes food.

4. It keeps the cattle in better condition and greater comfort.

5. It produces a better flow of milk in milch cows.

Manual of Agriculture, 325

6. It increases the quantity and quality of the manure made on
the farm.

That it saves land there can be no doubt, for when there is a
rank growth in the pasture cattle will leave all the coarse grasses
unused ; whilst by dunging, treading in wet weather, &c., cattle
at pasture waste more feed than they consume.

X. A. Willard, the first authority on the dairy in America, is
a strong advocate of the system, for he says that " stock pro-
vided regularly with an abundance of food and a supply of pure
water, and otherwise cared for, are seldom essentially ill, seldom
miscarr}'' (in the case of cows), or meet with those accidents inci-
dent to herds that are roaming over pastures, often subjected to
hunger and thirst, drinking muddy and impure water, driven and
worried by dogs, breaking down and jumping over fences in quest
of food, or otherwise gratifying their propensities for mischief.
The soiling system does not necessarily confine the animals
wholly to the stable. A j^ard is provided in which rubbing posts
are set and shade is provided. Into this inclosure they are turned
for several hours in the day, and where they can take all the ex-
ercise necessary for their health."

It has been estimated that the amount of manure thus saved
for use upon the field crops of the farm alone pays for the time
and trouble entailed under this practice.

The kinds of fodder grown for soiling purposes are chiefly clo-
ver, oats, Indian corn, cabbages and rye. The last makes an ex-
cellent early crop ; then clover from the 1st of June ; oats will
be ready by July, and Indian corn may be made to come in by
sowing at diflferent intervals for all the hot month of August and
the greater part of September ; while the cabbages, helped out by
the second crop of clover and other roots, will carry the soiled
cattle into winter quarters.

The cattle require to be fed often, say five times a day, and to
have access to plenty of pure water.

One boy, devoting his whole time to it, will feed a great num-
ber of cattle ; but it is work that requires the constant supervi-
sion of the owner, for upon the regularity of feeding will entirely
depend the thrift of the animals.

It is recorded by the Hon. Mr. Quincy, an American, and is
corroborative of experiments made by Sir John Sinclair, that 17
acres of land under the soiling system will keep as many head of
cattle as had previously'' required 50 acres of pasturage. Thus has
been eflTected a saving of 83 acres, which at a very moderate rent
would be equivalent to one hundred dollars a year, to say nothing
of the crops that may be raised on the 33 acres, the increased
amount of manure made, and the superior thrift of the cattle.

It has been urged that the abolition of pasturage on a farm
would be hard on the land ; but it must be remembered that

326 The Canadian Farmer's

none of the crops used for soiling are permitted to go to seed, and
that a great amount of manure is made to return to the fields.

V/hat it takes to Soil a Coiv. — "Having an excellent piece of
clover just coming into blossom, we measured forty square rods,
and commenced feeding it to seven cows and four horses : it fed
them liberally fifteen days. The two succeeding years we tried
the same experiment, the animals differing somewhat, but with
the same result. In each case we found forty square rods equal
to the summer feeding of one cow. These crops of clover were
very heavy, and could not always be equalled ; yet, allowing for
contingencies, we came to estimate one half acre of land in good
condition in clover as adequate to the summering of a cow ; thus
making soiling equal to from four to six times the space in pas-
ture. We tried afterwards much larger experiments — soiling
thirty-five cattle and horses, and using some land in much poorer
culture ; but we found the saving comparatively quite as encour-
aging. We selected one hundred acres — barely sufficient to have
pastured this number of animals — ten uf it in clover, oats and
sowed corn ; we fed them from the 20th day of May to the 1st
day of December. We had a surplus of sixty-five tons of hay,
after feecing those animals six months and ten days, which sold
in the barn for $972.00. It required six hours' labour per day to
soil them, which amounted (in those cheap times) to SG5.00. One
hundred loads of manure were saved in fine condition, worth at
least $50 more than the droppings of these animals at pasture.
The expense of cutting and housing the sixty-five tons of hay was
$1.50 per ton, or $97.50, which, added to the labour of soiling,
makes $162.50, leaving $859.50 as the net gain of this soiling ex-
periment."— Live Stock Journal.

MILCH cows.

Selection. — We make no apology to the reader for quoting on
this head somewhat lengthily from X. A. Willard's very excellent
work, " Practical Dairy Husbandry." The work should be in the
hands of every dairy farmer, and would, indeed, be found a valu-
able addition to any library in the country : —

" Which is the best breed of Coivs for the Dairy, and how is it
to be obtained ? — This question has been before the dairy public
for the last quarter of a century, and is to-da37^ by no means set-
tled among practical dairymen. If you go among the breeders of
thorough-bred stock, you will get no end of argument, backed
by a formidable pile of statistics, to show that this or that breed
is the best. It is now Shorthorns, then Ayrshires, or Alderneys,
or Devons, or Dutch cattle ; just as you ha[)pen to meet those in-
teiested in one o'* other of these breeds.

" Now, it may be presumed that none of these men mean to

}

Manual of Agriculture, 827

inislead ; for they may have strong convictions of the truth of
what they advocate, and, under certain conditions, T think that
it might be proved that either would be rio^ht. But that any one
of these breeds is best adapted to all soils, all climates or all pur-
poses, is quite another matter, and one which is not true in fact.
The practical questions for dairymen to decide are — first, what
breed of cattle is best adapted to the soil, the climate and the
surface of the country, or farm, where the stock is to be kept ?
and, secondly, what breed is best adapted for the peculiar purpose
for which it is wanted ?

" It would, it seems to me, be exceedingly poor economy for the
butter maker, located on a rough hilly surface, affording scanty
herbage, to select Shorthorns ; because they are not an active
race, and demand a plentiful supply of nutritious food — food easy
to be obtained. And to the cheese dairyman, located on a level
or slightly undulating surface, yielding an abundance of rich food,
who desired to get the greatest profit from making cheese and
heef, it would be equally bad economy to select the Alderney.
And yet, if one was to engage in butter dairying alone, where
exti'a quality and high prices were looked after sharply, the Alder-
ney might serve his purpose altogether best. It is from overlook-
ing certain conditions, and hoping to realize every excellence,
such as quality and quantity of milk, of butter, of cheese, of beef,
with activity and endurance, all centred in one breed, that has
caused so much dissatisfaction and difference of opinion among
dairymen in regard to particular breeds."

In Allen's work on American Cattle we find the following ex-
cellent advice on the selection of good milkers : —

" Where the digestive organs are defective, good milch cows
are rarely met with, since these organs have a powerful influence
on the exercise of all the functions, and particularly on the secre-
tions of the milky glands.

" Good milkers allow themselves to be milked easily ; often
while ruminating they look with pleased eye at the person who
milks them, and like to be caressed, and caress in return. The
udder is formed principally by the glands which secrete the milk,
called the milky glands. These, four in number, two on each
side, are designated by the name of ' quarters,' each constituting
nearly one-fourth part of the udder. The udder is composed,
moreover, of skin, cellular tissue, fat, lymphatic ganglions, vessels,
&;c. In almost all cows, the abundance of milk is in proportion
to the size of the mamelles. The marks indicatincr that these irlands
are constituted so as to produce much milk are, a very large de-
velopment of the hind quarters ; a wnde and strong lumbar region ;
a long rump ; haunches and hind legs well apart ; a large space
for lodging the udder ; milky glands well developed, and causing
the udder to be of considerable size. In good cows the glands

328 The Canadian Farmer's

constitute a large part of the udder, and accordingly, after milking,
it shrinks much, and becomes soft, flabby, and ver}^ wrinkled. The
teats should be set apart from each other, as indicating that the
milk vessels are large. Of all the marks for ascertaining good
cows, the best are afforded by the blood vessels ; if the veins
which surround the udder are large, winding and varicose, they
show that the glands receive much blood, and consequently that
their functions are active, and that milk is abundant. The veins
on the lateral part of the belly are easily observed. These veins
issue from the udder in front, and at the outer angle, where they
form in good cows a considerable varicose swelling. They pro-
ceed towards the front part of the body, forming angles more or
less distinct, often divide towards their anterior extremity, and
sink into the body by several openings."

Classification of milkers. — We may classify milkers in a general
way as follows : —

Good milkers. — Veins large and of a varicose appearance, i.e.y
knotty. Milk veins well developed. Udder large, pliable, and
shrinking much after milking, covered with thin skin and fine
hair. Hind legs wide apart and teats far from one another, with an
outward slope. Broad chest, showing a good constitution, with a
gentle and kindly disposition.

Moderate milkers. — Generally good shaped in udder and but-
tocks, but without a first-class development of the milk and blood
veins.

Bad 'milkers. — Cows of bad constitution, or poor feeders. Fleshy
thighs, so narrow that there is little room for the udder to hang,
without being chafed ; skin of udder hard, and coarsely haired ;
veins feebly developed.

MANAGEMENT OF MILK COWS.

Feeding in Spring and Summer. — We have already spoken at
some length on pasturage and soiling in a former chapter ; we now
add a few remarks hy X. A. Willard. He says : —

" There is a great difference of opinion amongst dairymen in
reference to the kinds of grain best adapted to milch cows in
spring.

" Dairymen generally suit their own convenience in the matter,

without much regard to the opinion of others So widely

do people differ on this question, that many prefer to feed in spiing
nothing but hay, if of good quality, claiming that the cows will
be healthier when turned to grass, and that the net profits from
the dairy will be greater than when grain is used in spring feeding.
In other words, that the value of the grain fed in spring more
than balances receipts from the extra quantity of butter and of
cream produced ; and hence, that grain feeding in spring must be

Manual of Agriculture. 329

poor econoii.y. Another class of dairymen, who claim to have
looked pretty closely to profits to be realized from milch cows,
and to have compared results one year with another, say that no-
thing is gained by having cows ' come in milk' as early as Feb-
ruary or March. They prefer the months of April and May, as
not only more agreeable, but actually resulting in greater profits.

" They argue that cows ' coming in milk' early in the season
are more exposed to cold and storms, which must injure the health
and weaken the constitution of the animal ; that it sooner wears
out the cow, and yields no more net profit than when a later date
is had for commencing the business of dairying.

" Why, they say, should one do extra work in milking and
nursing stock through the bad weather of Februar}^ and March,
when the result from stock calving thus early not only is no pecu-
niary gain, but brings positive injury to the herd ? Others insist
that greater profits are realized when cheese and butter making
are commenced early in the season. But if we assume that
cows are to come in milk as early as March, then some kind of
food other than hay — at least hay as usually harvested — seems to
be imperatively demanded, in order to keep stock in decent con-
dition as to health and strength, until it comes to grass

" Now, the secretion of milk is in some respect a matter of
habit or education, and should be promoted and kept up from its
first flow. This cannot be accomplished upon hay alone, since the
cow cannot be induced to consume the quantity necessary for her
maintenance and a full yield of milk of good quality. This will
be made evident by comparing the constituents of milk and those
of ordinary meadow hay. Suppose the cow is yielding but
eight quarts or twenty pounds of milk per day ; this will con-
tain a little over two and a-half pounds of dry materials, as
follows : —

Of Casein 1000 lbs.

"Butter 0625 '*

"Sugar 0-875 "

" Phosphate of lime 0*045 *'

Other mineral ingredients 0*055 **

Total 2-600 lbs.

" Now, the same amount or twenty pounds of dry hay contain
of albuminous matter, fibrine and casein, &c., say about I'So ; oil,
butter, (fee, say 5*36.

" So it will be seen that this quantity of hay (considering that
a part of the nutritive matter is not assimilated and passes oflp in
the excrement) will be mostly needed for the manufacture of the
milk alone, while a like quantity, and more, must be used for hei
maintenance. Experience, as well as science, amply demonstrates
the fact that late-cut hay, when used as an exclusve food for milch

330 The Canadian Farmer's

cows, is insufficient to produce milk rich in quality and large in
quantity.

•' The most natural and of course the healthiest food for cows in
summer is green grass. When cows are 2jiving an extra quantity
of milk, and consequently are milking down thin and poor, it will
be advisable to give concentrated food.

" When cows are first turned to grass in spring, if feed is abun-
dant, they should not be allowed in the pasture but a few hours
each day, for several days. The change of food should be gradual."

This is also to be guarded against when turning cattle in to
aftergrass in the fall.

Salting Milch Co^t'S. —The}" should have constant access to salt;
they will take just enough to keep up their appetite and general
health.

The common practice of salting at certain intervals is a bad
one, for the cattle are themselves the best judges of when they re-
quire a lick at the salt, and if deprived of it at one time are apt
to devour it too greedily when it is supplied.

Salt is necessary to milch cows : it is an important element in
the constitution not only of blood, but furnishes the soda neces-
sary to hold the cheesy portion of milk in solution.

Haidliii found, in the analysis of one thousand pounds of milk,
nearly half a pound of free soda and over a third of a pound of
chloride of sodium (common salt), and also one and three-quai ter
pounds of chloride of potassium. Pasture in the spring is deficient
in saline matter. Salt should be certainly supplied at that season.

X. A. Willard tells us that, from actual experiments made, it
has been found that in May and June, when milch cows have
been deprived of salt for several days, the milk shrunk from two
to four loer cent, in quality.

Water for Cows. — No cow can keep up a good flow of milk
without abundance of pure water. We have all observed the
rapid decrease of milk when the weather has been hot or water
scarce. Of milk no less than 87 parts in every 100 are water.

It is held by many that the quantity of drink taken by a cow
is an excellent test of her worth as a milker. It must also be no-
ticed in this connection, that as water enters so largely into the
composition, any taint in the water will affect the quality of the
milk to a very great extent.

M. Dancel, in his communications to the French Academy of Sci-
ences, asserts that " by inciting cows to drink large quantities of
water, the quancity of milk produced by them can be increased
several quarts per day without materially injuring its quality."

Fall Feeding. — There is no season of the jear when it is more
essential that the feeding of milking cows be carefully attended
to, esj)ecially of such as it is desired to continue in milk through
the winter months.

Manual of Agriculture, 331

Fall pastures are YQvy apt to become stringy, bitter and un-
pleasant to the taste of cattle, and milk is sure to fall off if feed
be not liberally given. Should the production of milk be allowed
to fall off to any extent in the late autumn months, it will be
found impossible to raise the flow again when once winter feeding
has fairly commenced. A little bran or meal should be given
daily to cows at this season, or even a small quantity of whole
grain, such as corn, peas or oats. They should also be sheltered at
night, or at least sheds should be at hand into which they may
go in cold rain or early snow storms ; and during the heavy white
frosts that occur in the fall, or out of the cold north-easterly blasts
which herald the a])proaching winter.

Milking cows are peculiarly susceptible to the bad effects of
cold and wet, and such effects " are invariabty first perceived in
the decrease of the flow of milk. The flow must be kept up if we
would make our cows profitable machines. As well half feed a
cow for no milk as run an engine with no paying freight behind
it.

Moreover, fall frosts very materially injure the quality of grass.

cows IN WINTER QUARTERS.

Cows should go into winter quarters in good thrifty condi-
tion. If poor in order and in milk at that season, they will re-
main so throughout the winter. When put up in good order, it is
a simple matter to keep them well through the winter, and the
supply of butter and milk will then come in at a time when its
market value is invariably high.

Before leaving the suV)ject of food we would say a word on
The use of Concentrated Foods. — Great care must be exercised
in the feedinof of meal and such strono^ food, which is not a natu-

O CD ^

ral diet to the animal ; but, on the other hand, if hay and natu-
ral fodder is poor, the elements required must be made up by the
use of strong materials.

Shelter is an important object to be ever kept in view in the
management of animals, and of none more especially than in the
case of such as are in milk. A certain amount of animal heat
must be kept up in all living bodies. Any exposure to bleak winds
or cold rain and snow storms has a tendency to destroy animal
heat, and it must be restored by the application of extra feed. If
by shelter we can save the animal heat from loss, then do we also
save the use of so much food, and food has a distinct money value.

The usual estimation is that animals well and warmly housed
in such a climate as ours will come out of winter in better condi-
tion and on two-thirds of the food consumed by cattle remaining
without shelter. Thus by " housing" we save 33^ per cent, of all
the food stored in the barn — a very large amount where many
head of stock are wintered.

332 The Canadian Farmer's

Whilst attending to warmth, we must never neglect good ven-
tilation, for a cow requires 956 cubic feet of fresh air daily.

Exercise. — Milk cows do not require much exercise, nor in
the summer time will they voluntarily take more than is
necessary to gather their daily feed, but a certain amount is
necessary to the general health of the animal. For this reason
we have invariably made a rule of turning our cattle out every
day in winter (unless may be upon some that were exceptionally
stormy) for some hours, according as the day has been bright and
sunny or otherwise.

These are all matters of common sense, gained by a careful
observation of the animal's ow^n instinctive likings. That cows
like to be let out on a winter's day, none can doubt who has
ever loosed them from their fastenings; while no matter how short
has been the time that they have exercised, they are ready to
come back to their stalls immediately the door is again opened.

The Proper Age for Breeding. — This depends upon circum-
stances ; but even with the Shorthorns, which mature very
early, were they allowed to run until they were two and a-half
to three years of age, they would become larger, finer, and more
valuable, while their progeny would undoubtedly be larger and
stronger. The custom, which at one time was very prevalent,
and which we regret is not yet obsolete, of putting the heifer at
one year old, is one fatal to the development of superior stock.

At an age when all the food is required for the formation and
growth of the mother's frame, a sufficient nutrition cannot be
afforded to the " foetus," and the result is injury to the young
and to the mother as well.

From two to two and a-half years old is the best age for put-
ting to the bull. If the heifer is allowed to go over three years
old, the animal gets in such hiofh condition that there is often
difficulty and uncertainty as to her becoming pregnant. If the
first calf comes at too early an age, there will be danger from the
mother not having attained her full growth ; if at too late a
period, there will be risk of fever to the heifer.

The same age applies to the use of the bull ; he should never
be used before he is two years old.

Treatment before Calving. — We must remember that the cow
in calf has not only to yield milk for her master, but also to supply
food to the "foetus" within her. Her food mast therefore be
plentiful and generous ; increasing in strength and quantity as
she approaches her time of parturition. The chief point to be
carefully kept in view in the treatment of cows in calf is, never
to allow them to become costive^ and this is best eff'ected by liberal
allowance of succulent food.

A moderately oper state of the bowels is most important at the
time of parturition in the cow. During the whole time of preg-

Manual of Agriculture. 333

nancy her enormous stomachs sufficiently press upon and confine
the womb ; and that pressure may be productive of injurious or
fatal consequences, if at this period the rumen is suffered to be
distended by innutritions food, or the many plus takes on that
hardened state to which it is occasionally subject.

We shall speak more fully on the subject of Parturition in a
future chapter devoted to Diseases, fee, of Stock.

Milking. — X. A. Willard says : —

" Farmers generally have the impression that when milch cows
have wintered well, and are fairly out to grass, there need be
little care or attention given to the animals, and that then in
their herds they have a fountain that is to supply good pure milk
simply by drawing it, not much matter how or when.

" It is true, people understand that when cows are milked with
great irregularity, or are subject to any extraordinarily brutal
treatment, such as sundry kicks in the udder with a heavy boot,
they will yield unprofitable results, since the consequence of such
management forces itself almost immediately upon the attention.
But it is not those things that come so plainly under the eye of
the observer, concerning which I propose to speak. If an angry
man kicks his cow in the udder, probably some of the blood-vessels
of the part will be ruptured, and the bloody milk which flows
from the teats will speak more forcibly than any words of mine ;
but if he kicks her in the ribs or mauls her with the milking-
stool upon the hips and back, the consequences may not be so
immediately apparent, yet that damage has been done, and that
loss will follow, are equally certain.

" I am speaking of no exceptional cases, but of such as are of
common occurrence wherever any considerable herd is kept, and
where the eye of the master is not sharp enough to detect and
punish these offences.

" A rap upon the spine with the stool has ruined many a valu-
able beast ; a stroke upon the udder has often produced unaccount-
able cases of garget.

" I wish it could be generally and thoroughly understood that
nothing pays better in the dairy than kindness and gentleness to
stock. Milch cows should be kept as quiet and comfortable as
possible, and no person should be employed in milking that the
animals fear. Any undue nervous excitement not only lessens
the quantity but depreciates the quality of the milk.

" The hours of milkincj should be reo-ular, and each cow should
be milked in its regular order.

"The milk should be drawn rapidly, and to the last drop; and
all loud talking:, sing^ino: and wrang^lino: avoided. These are little
things in themselves, and may seem to many to be ' over nice,
but repeated and well-conducted experiments have convinced me
that they are important points to be attended to, and must be ob-
served to obtain the best results.

334 The Canadian Farmer's

" In driving cattle from the pasture to the stable they should
never be hurried faster than a walk.

" Good cows have well-filled udders, which make it painful to
move over the ground faster than at a walk. Besides, in warm
weather, by huirying the animal there is always danger of over-
heating her blood and milk, and thus not only injuring it, but all
the other milk with which it comes in contact.

" I)ogs should never be allowed in a dairy. They are a source
of infinite mischief In all my observations I have never yet met
with a first-class dairy of cheese where the cows were dogged
from the pasture to the stable.

" Some people are in the habit, when first sitting down to milk,
of drawing a little milk to wet their hands and the teat of the
cow. It is not a cleanly habit, and should always be avoided.

"Some persons have the impression that milk in some way pu-
rifies itself, and that taints imparted to the milk cannot be carried
into the butter and cheese. Such ideas are very erroneous.

" Cows do not milk any easier with wet than %vith dry hands.
If the udder or teats are muddy or covered with filth, they should
be washed with clean water and wiped dry. Then milk with dry
hands, and it will be found easier and pleasanter, even with those
who have been accustomed to wetting the hands and teats whilst
milkino'."

On this subject, Professor Dick, of the Edinburgh Veterinary
College, says : —

" The operation of milking is performed differently in various
parts of the country. In some the dairy-maid dips her hand into
a little milk, and by successively strip[)ing the teat between her
fingers and thumb, unloads the udder. This plan, however, is at-
tended with the disadvantage of irritating more or less the teat,
and rendering it liable to cracks and chops, which are followed by
infiammation extending to the rest of the quarter. This accounts
for the disease occurring more frequently among the cows under
the charofe of one milker than it does in those under the chare:e
of anotlier ; and as this [)ractice is more common in some parts
of the country than in others, it also accounts for the disease be-
ing more common in these parts. This plan of milking, where
the irritation is not sufficic nt to excite the extent of inflammation
to which I have alluded, frequently produces a horny thickening
of the teat, a consequence of the cracks and chops, which renders
it more difficult to milk than when in its natural state, and at
the same time predisposes to infiammation when any cause oc-
curs to set it up.

" These effects may be, and are, almost entirely avoided by the
more scientific plan of milking adopted in other parts of the coun-
try, where, instead of drawing down or stripping the teat between
the thumb and fingers, as I have stated, the dairy-maid follows

Manual of Agriculture, 385

more closely the principles which instinct has taught the calf. She
first takes a slight hold of the teat with her hand, by which she
merely encircles it, then lifts her hand up so as to press the body
of the udder upwards, by which the milk escapes into the teat ;
or if, as is generally the case when some hours have elapsed be-
tween milking times, the teat is full, she grasps the teat close to
its origin, with her thumb and forefinger, so as to' prevent the
milk which is in the teat from escaping upwards ; then, making
the rest of the fingers to close from above downwards in succes-
sion, forces out what milk ma}' be contained in the teat through
the opening of it. The hand is again pressed up and closed as be-
fore, and the milk drawn easily and freel}^, without the tugging
and wrenching inflicted by clumsy milkers."

The following instructions are the rules of a large dairy in Scot-
land. We recommend our readers to establish the same upon their
own farms : —

1. Every cow must be in her stall at the appointed time of
milking.

2. Milkers are expected to be on hand at 5.45 A. M. and 5.45
p. M., Sundays excepted, when milking will commence at G.15 A. Ji.
and i),\o P. M.

3. Each milker will have charge of a definite number of stalls.
and will be held responsible for the thorough milking of every cow
occupying them.

4. Gentle words and kind treatment are enjoined. Striking
cows with stools, clubs, heavy sticks, &c., will under no circum-
stances be allowed.

5. In driving the cows to and from pasture, great pains must be
taken not to hurry nor run them.

6. When persons have any trouble with their cows, they are ex-
pected to report the same to the herdsman.

7. It will be the duty of the herdsman to occasionally inspect
the milking of all the cows, and to report the result of his inspec-
tion to the superintendent.

Cows Withholding their Milk — When cows withhold their milk,
they are commonly in a dissatisfied state of mind, and therefore
anything to draw their attention from this condition answers a
good purpose. We have always succeeded by giving them a mess
of food to amuse them while the milking is going on, — genei-ally
dry meal, so as to keep them long occupied. If they have suck-
inof calves, let them suck at the time of milkino:. Drivins: them
in a position so that their fore legs will stand on much higher
ground than the hind legs, or on lower ground, counteracts the
animal's attention, and generally succeeds. It is said that a weight
on the small of the animal's back, as a bacr of o-rain, will answer,
but we know nothing of its efficacy, nor how heavy it must be.

Milkcng Kicking Cows. — Cows raised under gentle treatment,

336 The Canadian Farmer's

and well accustomed when young to handling, will seldom develop
any propensity to kicking, i.e., to systematic and vicious kicking,
when being milked. The first drawing of the milk from the
udder of a heifer is always accompanied by more or less pain to
the animal, and usually results in a few lunges and timid kicks.
Gentle handling is all that is required in such a case, with suffi-
cient firmness on the part of the milker to show that he is de-
termined to empty the bag. Time and gentle handling will
rapidly accustom the heifer to being milked, when, far from
showing an inclination to be obstreperous, she will find relief and
pleasure in the operation. But as some heifers, perchance from
careless handling on the part of the attendant, great soreness about
the teats, or a habit formed, become bad kickers, it behoves us to
use some strong remedy by which to master the animal. Whip-
ping will never be of any avail. When kindness fails, one plan is
to strap up the fore leg ; this will often stop her, as she thinks that
she cannot kick without falling when standing on two legs.

A more severe remedy, and one that we ourselves have always
found effectual, is to pass a girth or rope round the body, just in
front of the bag and over the hips, and draw it tight.

After a time the strap need not be tightened up, but only laid
across her back, to make her cognizant of the fact that it is there.

The setting of the head firmly against the flank, close up to the
hind leg, will often, with a steady pressure into the flank, stop a
cow from kicking.

G. W. Jackson gives his experience with a kicking cow to the
columns of the Country Gentleman. After trying all the ordinarj'
plans with an inveterately vicious kicker, he says : —

" Finally, I made a milking stall by putting up scantling two
and a-half feet from the wall, the cellar wall answering for one
side of the stall. I made the stall eight feet in length — if the cow
is small, it should be shorter. Board up in front, so that the cow
cannot get out ; put up three scantlings, and leave a place on the
right side of the cow to milk, so that a person can milk with ease.
Board up the side, drive in the cow, and put up a bar behind to
keep her from backing out. Then drive a stake in the ground
about two feet behind the cow, buckle a strap around her right
hind leg just above the hoof, pull her foot back about one foot,
and tie it to the stake ; then you can milk without being kicked
or hooked. If this will keep any person from getting a broken
nose, I shall think myself well paid for writing it."

Cows SucJcing Thew selves. — Some cows have a very awkward
habit of reaching the head round and sucking themselves.

The following plans for prevention of this habit have been
recommended : —

"Put on the cow a good leather head-halter with several links of
chain in the tie ring ; and a web sUrcingle with some links hang-

Manual of Agriculture.

837

Fia, 26. in a from the middle under

the belly, ending with a
ring. Make a smooth ash
pole as thick as a hay-fork
handle, having a little curve,
with a snap at one end,
which is secured to the bit
of chain on the halter. The
other end passes between
her fore legs and through
the ring which is suspended
from the surcingle. The
pole should be long enough to allow her to extend her neck and
head without pulling it out of the ring ; but as a further precau-
tion, a strip of leather may be wound around the lower end, and
nailed so as to form a slight knob too large to pass through the
ring. The harness does not interfere with grazing, lying down or
getting up, but she cannot suck herself.

" T. J. H."
Another farmer says : —

" Any one who has carefully noticed a calf while sucking has
observed that the tongue is extended an inch more or less beyond
the front teeth, to envelop the teat on the under side. Now, any
device which will render it impossible for the cow thus to extend
the tongue beyond the front teeth, it is obvious, will make it im-
possible for the cow to take her own milk ; and this the bridle bit
will do most effectually, if secured in the mouth by a small strap
buckled over the head, back of the horns, as the back part of the
tongue is so thick that the tongue cannot be extended under the
bridle bit while the mouth is closed, which it must be nearly in
the act of sucking. The bit does not in the least interfere with
the operations of eating or chewing the cud, or of licking herself,
as this act is performed with the mouth open sufficiently wide to
allow the tongue to be extended out of the mouth under the
bit."

A good, simple, and cheap arrangement to prevent cows from
sucking themselves, or each other, may be made by making a halter
as follows : Take two or three straps two inches wide, and long
enough to reach around the cow's nose. Stitch the edges together,
and the ends also, with sharp nails inserted every one and a-halt
inches, so that the points will stand outward. The heads of the
nails should be very large, and should be between the two straps
when sewed together. Now fasten two side straps, with a buckle
on one end of one, so that when the part with the nails is around
the nose, the side straps may bt buckled together over the head,
back of the horns ; the part around the nose should be large
enough to allow the animal to eat freely.
22

338

The Canadian Farmer's

MILK — ITS rROPERTIES, ETC.

Bossingault found on analysing the first milk that it contained
in one hundred parts, for the first eight or ten days after calving,
about four times as much caseine as in ordinary milk.

Voelcker's analyses of four samples of new milk show the pro-
portionate constituents in one hundred parts to be —

Water 83*90 parts

Butter from 7*62 to 199 parts.

Caseine " 3-66 to 2 94 "

Milk sugar " 4-46 to 512 '«

Mineral matter " '64 to 113 "

Making dry matters to vary from 16*10 to 10 05 per one hundred
parts.

All analyses show an immense variation in all the constituent
parts of various samples of milk, dependent not only upon the
different breeds, but also upon food.

The average quantities are stated to be, by X. A. Willard : —

Water 87-40

Butter 3-43

Caseine 3'12

Milk sugar 5*12

Mineral matter "93

100 00
Professor Voelcker, in papers prepared a few years ago for the
Royal Agricultural Society, England, gives us the following com-
positions of milk drawn from cows, and we subjoin his remarks
immediately following : —

"COMPOSITION OF NEW MILK.

No. 1.

No. 2.

No. 3.

No. 4.

No. 5.

No. 6.

Milk

Analysed

Analy.sed

October 21,

Nov. 29,

Sept. 18,

August 7,

Sept. 6,

1860.

i860.

1860.

1860.
(Morning's

1860.
(Evening's

milk.)

Water

83-90

7-62

3-31

4-46

•71

85-20
4-96
3-66
5-05
1-13

86'G5

3-99

3-47

5-11

-78

87-40

3-43

3 12

5-12

•93

89-95

1-99

2-94

4 -48

•64

90-70

Butter

1-79

Caseine

2-81

Milk sugar

4-04

Mineral matter (ash)

•66

100 00

100-00

10000

100 00

Percentage of dry

matters

16-10

14-80

13-35

12-60

10-05

9 •so

"I have selected these analyses from a considerable number
made in my laboratory. They strikingly illustrate the great differ-
ences that exist in the quality of new milk. It might readily be

Manual of Agriculture. 389

imagined that milk sucli as that which I examined on the 6th
September, containing 90 J per cent, of water, had either been
diluted with water or at least produced by cows fed on mangold
tops, distillery wash or similar food. Such, however, was not the
case. The cows which yielded this poor milk were out at pasture,
and every precaution was taken to get a fair average of the milk-
ings from some eight or ten cows. The milk was received by me
almost immediately after it had left the udder, and I can thus
vouch for its being genuine, and, in its watery condition,
natural. The pasture, however, was poor and overstocked, so that
the daily growth of grass furnished hardly enough food to meet
the daily waste to which the animal frame is subject, and was
thus not calculated to meet an extra demand of materials for the
formation of butter and curd. The milk consequently became not
merely deficient in quantity, but also poor in quality.

" It is well, then, to bear in mind that an insufficient quantity
of food in the case before us caused the supply of milk to be small
and unusually poor. This analysis illustrates and confirms a
principle generally recognized by good dairy farmers, that it is
bad policy to keep more cows than can be liberally supplied with
food. The evening's milk on the 6th of September, it will be
noticed, contained about three-fourths per cent, more water and
somewhat less caseine and butter than the morning's milk of the
same cows on the same day. From this and other instances some
may be disposed to infer that the morning's milk is geneially
richer than the evening's milk — a view which I myself was dis-
posed to adopt until a larger range of experiments proved to me »
its inaccuracy.

" The mineral matters of which we have made mention in all
the above analyses are composed chiefly of phosphates of lime and
magnesia, chlorides of potassium and of sodium and free soda."

QUALITY OF MILK — HOW AFFECTED ?

In answer to this, Mr. Willard's statement is : —
^ " By the age of the animal, as well as by the distance from the
time of calvino'.

" Now, as to the milk of aged cows, the general impression is that
the milk of old cows is quite as good or even better than that of
young cows.

"Hence the almost universal practice among dairymen is to retain
old cows upon the farm, and if no accident occurs on account of
which their milk fails, they are kept in the dairy until quite worn
out with old age, and are then turned off— but little better than
old skeletons of hides and bones— at from six to ten dollars a head.
In England I found a very different practice prevailed. When
milch cows have attained an age of from six to eight years, they
are put in condition for the shambles and sold. A good profit is

340

The Canadian Farmer's

thus realized on the animals for meat, irrespective of what they
may have made in the dairy. They hold that the milk of old cows
is inferior in quality to that of young cows, and chemical analysis,
it seems, confirms this opinion. Again, as old cows consume more
food than young ones, and are therefore more expensive to feed,
nothing appears so unprofitable as to keep cows until they grow
old."

Toelcker affirms that "after the fourth or fifth calf, generally

speaking, the milk becomes poorer If turned

into beef at seven or eight years old, there will be little or no loss ;
but if kept for four years longer and sold for ten dollars, the loss
on first cost of the animal is some sixty dollars, or fifteen dollars
per year."

What are the Strippings? — .... "Now, cream
being lighter than milk, the denser or heavier portions of the milk
is drawn first from the udder, while the lighter parts, rich in
butter, remain back, and make up what is known among dairy-
men as ' strippings.' It will be seen, then, how important it is that
the last drop of milk in the udder should be drawn while milking,
and that when particular attention is not given to this point the
loss is much more serious than a waste of the same quantity of
first drawn milk, for the one is thin cream, while the other is
nothing more than plain milk. There is another loss of course in
not milking clean, as it has a tendency to dry up the cow, or lessen
the secretion of milk from day to day."

MILK WILL BE TAINTED BY COWS INHALING BAD ODOURS.

It has been fairly established that the milk is affected by taint
when cows are at pasture near where there is carrion or other
decayed matter, and the taint will be carried right through into
the milk pail, and from thence to both butter and cheese. Dozens
of cases of this might be cited, but we content ourselves
with again advising every farmer who keeps milch cows (and
who does not ?) to invest in Mr. X. A. Willard's excellent work
on " Practical Dairy Husbandry."

We have already complete analyses of milk ; we now set down
the composition of cheese (American), by Voelcker : —

Water

Butter

* Caseine

Milk suuar, lactic acid and extractive matters
t Mineral matters (ash)

* Containing nitrogen

t Containing common salt

No. 1.

No, 2.

No. 3.

27-29

3304

31-01

35-41

33-38

30-90

25-87

27-37

26-25

6-21

2-82

7-43

5-22

3-39

4-41

100-00

4.14

4-38

4-20

1-97

•47

1-59

No. 4.

38-24

26 05

26-81

3-64

5-26

100-00

4-29
1-94

Manual of Agriculture.

COMPOSITION OF SKIM-MILK CHEESE.

( Voelcker.)

341

No. 1.

No. 2.

No. 3.

No. 4.

Water

27-08

30-80

35-12

1-46

4-94

100-00

5-62
1-27

39-43
27-08
30-37

-22
2-90

3o-39
23-21

28-37
6-80
3-23

43 87

Butter

15-89

* Caseine

28 -93

Milk sugar, lactic acid and extractive matters
t Mineral matters (ash)

6-47
4-84

* Containing nitrogen

100-00

4-86
•23

100-00

4-54
-33

100-00
4-63

t Containing common salt

1-66

So little cheese is made at home in Canada that we do not feel
justified in devoting any of our pages to the manufacture of cheese.
It is a subject to which justice cannot be done under very many
pages, and we would rather, therefore, refer our readers to such
works as that from which we have already made copious extracts,
for fuller information upon the subject.

We conclude with an analysis of the composition of whey, from
which our readers will perceive that its qualities as food are not
by any means to be despised. The analysis is made in the same
terms as that of butter and cheese — from samples.

Water

Butter (pure fatty matters)

• Nitrogenous substances (caseine & albumen)

t Milk sugar and lactic acid

Mineral matter (ash)

* Containing nitrogen ,

+ Containing free lactic acid ,

No. 1.

No. 2.

No. 3.

92-95

92-65

92-60

-65

•68

-55

120

•81

-96

4-55

5-28

5-08

-65

-58

-81

100 00

100-00

•19

•13

•15

•48

•41

•36

No. 4.

92-75

-39

•87

5-13

•86

10000

•14
•41

Raising Calves. — There are two distinct ways of raising a calf:
we don't mean here, well or badly, but by hand or by the natural
use of its mother's milk. There can be no doubt that the latter
plan is the best for the calf, for it is nature's way, and in such mat-
ters nature can never stultify herself ; but whether for the farmer
looking to the question of profit this is the better plan, is open to
strong doubt, and yet even doubtfulness on this point must be en-
tirely governed by circumstances.

If the reader is one who is raising thorough-bred and high-
priced fancy stock, the amount of butter or cheese lost in allowing
the calf to suck its mother is as nothing in the balance with the
value of any increase in the beauty, shape and size of the calf.

342 The Canadian Farmer's

But for the ordinary stock, such as are generally raised by the
farmer for general purposes, we, having tried both plans, are of
opinion that the calf should never see its another, and our reasons
are briefly as follow : —

1st. Neither the calf nor its mother will fret much if they are
separated immediately after birth. Science and nature tell us that
the matter which the cow licks from the body of the calf is medi-
cinal, and beneficial to her after parturition.

This is undoubtedly true, yet by giving the cow a good warm
gruel, we have found that she is as certain to do well as after
taking nature's medicine ; and if we permit the calf to remain
for its mother to clean, or to obtain one draught from her teats, the
worry and vexatious pining of the cow, when her young one
is removed, is so much more keen as fully to compensate, in doing
her harm, for the medicinal benefits gained by her in the licking
of the calf

Calves that have sucked at the mother for say eight or ten
weeks, usually lose three or four weeks' growth in the process of
weaning ; whilst the cow, in the worry and excitement of losing
her calf rafter so long a knowledge of it, takes a very long time to
become reconciled, loses much in flesh, while she is sure to go oft'
very materially in her flow of milk.

The punching of the calf is very apt to make sore teats on a
cow, so that breaking her in to milk becomes a far more difficult
process.

Of course we must not be understood as laying down an universal
rule, for there are cases when it becomes advisable to leave the
calf a short time with its mother ; as, for instance, when the bag is
very hard and baked after calving, nothing is so effectual for soft-
ening it and promoting the ready flow of milk as this very punch-
ing and chafing of the calf

But to return. Calves brought up '' by hand" are much more
domesticated, less wild and timid, than those which have depended
upon their mother for daily food. Rules that apply to domesti-
cated animals undergo a change from such as rule in the case of
wild beasts. Sucking is the natural and wild way in which calves
are brought up, and applies well to all such cattle as those of
Texas, which run almost wild in herds ; but for domesticated ani-
mals we must form new rules, for we have already broken through
nature's laws in their civilization.

Heifers brought to milking without their calves, turn out more
gentle — less given to wildness, kicking, holding up their milk and
other bad tricks.

Oxen and cows that have been started " by hand " are more easily
carried through the first winter than those that have been allowed
to suck. They do not then require to be taught to eat corn meal,
swill, &c., &c. These were all fed to them in their babyhood, and

Manual of Agriculture. 343

they " know the ropes." Indeed it has been urged that bringing
up a calf in the way it should go is as important as bringing up a
child in like manner — we do not mean important to the world,
but to the animal.

With patience and determination a calf may be taught to drink
out of the pail without the finger in two or three lessons.

Although the calf is not only foolish but naturally stubborn, yet
it will soon succumb to gentle determination on the part of the
feeder.

Indeed, it is about as easy in point of time and trouble to feed
a calf by hand as to let him in to and remove him from his mother,
at stated times, as is the proper custom under the other plan.

These customs, however, can never be regulated by rules ; each
man will generally "gang his ain gait." Youatt is very averse
to removing the calf at once, and puts it very strongly on a point
of cruelty to animals when he says :

" It is a cruel thing to separate the mother from the young so
soon. The cow will pine, and will be deprived of that medicine
which nature designed for her, in the moisture which hangs about
the calf, and the calf will lose that gentle friction and motion
which helps to give it the immediate use of all its limbs, and which,
in the language of Mr. Barry, increases the languid circula-
tion of the blood, and produces a genial warmth in the half-
exhausted and chilled little animal." He further says : " In what-
ever manner the calf is afterwards to be reared, it should remain
with the mother a few days after it is dropped, and until the milk
can be used in the dairy. The little animal will thus derive the
benefit of the first milk, that to which nature has given an ape-
rient property, in order that the black and glutinous foeces which
had been accumulating in the intestines during the later months
of the foetal state might be carried off" ; moreover, the cow's udder
becomes more soft and pliant than it would otherwise be, by the
calf being allowed to suck for a time. In the case of young cows
especially, the udders of which are generally hard, it is often ad-
visable to allow the calf to suck for a couple of weeks."

The calf should be fed for from ten days to four weeks (accord-
ing as the farmer is willing to sacrifice butter to stock) on new
milk, giving four quarts night and morning, or eight quarts a day.

At about five weeks old, the calf will take another four quarts
at noon, or twelve quarts per day (skimmed milk). In changing
from new milk to skimmed milk, care should be taken that the
milk is at first warm, and it will pay well to add to it some
fine-ground oat or pea meal. Cold skimmed milk, immediately on
stopping new milk, will assuredly scour a calf badly, and this
scouring is very injurious.

We should have mentioned, that calves are very apt to be cos-
tive at birth ; this must be carefully watched, and relieved with a

344 The Canadian Farmer's

dose of sweet oil. Calves are ready to eat grass at from six to-
eight weeks old ; but the skimmed milk and meal should be con-
tinued for about three months, when they will thrive well on fodder
and sour milk. A good calf should weigh four hundred pounds at
ten months old. During the first winter, warmth and generous
food, with plenty of succulents, are essentials.

A great mistake often made by farmers is the allowing of calves
to run with larger cattle, especially those that are six or ten months
(yearlings) older than themselves. Not only do the little fellows
get mauled about, but rather than allow them to obtain any food,
the older cattle will spoil such fodder as they cannot themselves
eat. In this selfishness, yearlings and all cattle are not unlike
many of their superiors of the genus homo.

The secret of raising stock is never to let them stop growing ;
crowd them on, gently at first, but more fully as they advance in
age.

We have owned many two-year-old heifers which, fed cheaply
but regularly, provided with warmth and shelter, tenderly handled
at all times, and never interfered with by older stock, have been
put to the bull, and before three years old have raised as fine
calves and become as large and fully developed mothers as other
cattle carelessly attended to have attained with a year's additional
growth.

A good grade Durham steer should, under this system, with very
little fatting at the last, be worth from sixty to seventy -five dol-
lars as a three-year-old. That the superiority of thorough good
beef cattle is recognised by our butchers, we were convinced on a
visit to the stables of Mr. Rennie, near Fergus, Ontario. There
stood a picture — a white three-yeaj'-old Shorthorn grade steer.
He weighed twenty-six hundred pounds, was sold for ten cents a
pound live weight, when common beef was worth only about
five cents, and thus realized two hundred and sixty dollars
to his proprietor. Unfortunately, we did not see Mr. Rennie
himself, and were unable to get accurate particulars of the cost
of raising, but are convinced, from what we learned from the young
man who attended us, that the raising of that calf, from birth to
maturity, did not cost one-half of what it will take to raise four
of the ordinary sixty dollar steers.

Killing Heifer Calves. — We look upon this butchery as an
abomination, and respectfully ask our farmers to " spare the inno-
cents."

Indeed, why man cannot be content to live upon beef and mut-
ton and pork and game, for meat, we know not. It seems a sinful
waste of God's gifts to sacrifice the calf to suit the epicurean tastes
of the diners of the world. We suppose it must, however, always
be regulated by the knowledge on the pnrt of farmer and butcher
that under circumstances " there is munc}^ in it."

Manual of Agriculture. 345

Our duty, however, calls us, in the design of this book, to touch
lightly upon all subjects, to speak shortly on the best foods by
which to fatten a calf, and we quote an excellent article on this
point from the Rural New Yorker : —

" It has usually been thought impracticable to fatten a calf
properly without giving it fresh milk from the cow. Milk is the
best type of food for the young animal, because it possesses all the
constituents necessary to build up every pare of the system, and
in the most soluble and digestible condition. Now, any food con-
taining the requisite constituents, in a soluble condition, easily
given in a liquid state, may be substituted for the new milk.
Hay tea is sometimes used to bring up a calf This is the soluble
constituents of the hay, obtained by cooking. But the best food
to fatten a calf, without whole milk, is oil meal, molasses, and
skim milk for the first two weeks, after which a little oat or bar-
ley meal may be added. We have often made calves weigh one
hundred and twenty to one hundred and forty pounds, at four
weeks old, on this food. We have one now that weighs one hun-
dred and twenty -five pounds at that age, never having had any
new milk after the second day. Molasses may, perhaps, be con-
sidered a new food for this purpose, but, when fully understood,
must be regarded as an important one. It is very soluble, and
easily assimilated by the young animal. Liebig is of opinion that
starchy food is first converted into sugar before being assimilated
by the animal. We all know how rapidly sugar enters into the
circulation of the system. Sugar is found to take the place of
animal fats in cold climates in keeping up the heat of the body.
It may be considered as a substitute for the oil of the milk used
in making butter. Oil meal is rich in muscle-forming food, and
phosphates with some remaining oil. Its constituents are mostly
soluble, and easily assimilated as food. Oil meal should be scalded,
and allowed to form a thick mucilaore before beins: mixed with the
skimmed milk. The molasses may be added directly to the milk,
and the whole should be blood-warm when given. The proper
quantity for a young calf is a table spoonful of oil meal and the
same of molasses, divided into three parts, for one day's feed, added
to the refuse milk. At the end of the first week each may be
increased, and at ten days a spoonful of molasses and the same of
oil meal may be given at each feed. At the commencement of the
third week a spoonful of oat or barley meal may be added to each
feed, but this should be cooked. This food, together with the
skimmed milk of the mother, will make an excellent calf for the
butcher at five weeks old. Now, the whole expense of this extra
food is not more than one-tenth of the value of the butter made
from the milk saved. At present prices it will cost less than one
dollar for five weeks ; and an early calf of the weight mentioned
will bring from ten to fourteen dollars. The molasses may be of

246 ^^^ Canadian Farmer's

the cheapest sort, but there is none better than sorghum for this
purpose." Oil oneal is better known as oil cake in Canada.

Ho7v they raise Calves at Hoheiiheim. — This is in Germany ;
established in 1818 ; the father of agricultural colleges, and proba-
bly the best conducted in the world.

They raise calves entirely " by hand," and the daily allowance
of food is as follows : —

MILK. OATMEAL. FINE HA.Y.

lbs. lbs. lbs.

1st week 12 0 0

2nd " 16 0 0

3rd " 20 0 0

4th " 22 0 0

5tli, 6tli, and 7th weeks 22 4 i

8th week 21 \ 4

9th " 20 1 1

10th " 16 2 3

11th '' 12 2 6

12th '* 8 2 10

13th " 4 3 10

In the ninth week the milk is first mixed with water, and a
little fine oatmeal is stirred in. The meal is afterwards mixed
with the dry fodder

After three months the milk is withheld, and then the young
animals receive daily, till two and one-half years old, from twenty
to twenty-two pounds of hay or its equivalent. But the calves
never after receive, even in summer, any dry food till they are
nine months old. The average feeding is so divided that the
younger portion receives less, the older more, till two and one-
half years, when they begin to receive the regular rations of the
older cattle, including the grain fodder as indicated above. The
growth with this treatment is such that these animals (not Short-
horns) attain the following weights at various ages : —

HEIFERS. BULLS.

Average weight of calves at three months 233 lbs. 353 lbs,

" " " six months 351 " 472 "

twelve months G40 " 750 "

«* " " two years 1184 " 1300 *'

Daily increase of calves 15 '* 18 "

" " in second year 1'4 " 1*5 **

Oxen. — The method of training steers lies in a nutshell, and
can be accomplished by any man who is gentle, without fear of
the animals, and, above all, possessed of quiet determination suffi-
cient to tire out the natural stubbornness of the ox : —

" First train them to lead by a rope attached to the horns.
Then procure a light yoke and bows, and teach them to stand
with them on for a few days until they get used to them. Then
take them out and exercise them gently, and with great patience,
teaching them the meaning of the terms used in going to the

Manual of Agriculture. 347

right or left and backing. If they get restive, quiet them with a
little salt and some coaxing. Never unyoke them while they are
excited ; cool them down first. Let the lessons gradually increase
in length until they understand their business ; then attach a
chain, and soon after a small log or other weight may be given
them to draw. Working in this manner, they may soon be
broken in to do light harrowing or other work not too heavy for
them. It would be well if oxen were broken in to the use of a
line attached to the horn, and the shouting commonly made use
of were abandoned."

Our Shorthorns. — This favourite stock has obtained a strong
foothold upon Canadian soil. It is the pride of the farm to show
a beast with Durham in him, and the Canadian Shorthorns are
becoming well known in Europe.

A residence and acclimation in Canada appears to give hard-
ness and generally improve the constitution and form of the de-
scendants of the Bates, the Booths, the Wallarbys and a dozen
other tribes of celebrated English Shorthorns, and of late years
we have been selling thorough-bred Burhams to go to England.
In the present year one of our most celebrated breeders, Mr. Coch-
rane, of Compton, Quebec, has sold ten Duchess Shorthorns to
Lord Dunmore, of Scotland, for no less a figure than fifty -one
thousand dollars, or five thousand oneMindred dollars apiece. We
give below a list of some of our most celebrated Canadian breeders
of thorough -breds : —

BREEDERS OF SHORTHORN DURHAMS.

Ashworth, Jno., Belmont Ottawa.

Barker, W. B St. Thomas, O.

Beattie, Simon Bangor, O.

Bell, Jno. M Atha, P. O., O.

Brown, Hon. Geo., Bow Park Brantford, 0.

Craig, J. R Edmonton, 0.

Christie, Hon. David Paris, O.

Cochrane, Hon. M. H., HiUhurst.... Compton, Q.

Dunkin, Hon. C Ottawa.

Greig, Major.. Beachville, 0.

Haskett, T. R St. Thomas, O.

Isaac, Geo Haldimand Plains, 0.

Kirby, Jos Milton, O.

Miller, Geo., Riggfoot Markham, O.

Miller, Jno. (Jr.) Markham, O.

Miller, Jno Brougham, O.

Mills, R. P St. Thomas, O.

Snell, Messrs., Willow Lodge Edmonton, O.

;Stone, F. W., Moreton Lodge Guelph, O.

348 The Canadian Farmer's

Taylor, Col. J. B London, 0.

Thompson, W Markham, O,

Thompson, J. S Whitby, 0.

White, Jno, M.P Milton, O.

Whitson, Jas Atha, P. O., 0,

Wood, Geo Stratford, 0.

BREEDERS OF DEVONS.

Foley, R .Bowmanville, O.

Mann, Geo

Peters, W. J London, 0.

Pincombe, J Bowmanville, O..

Eudd, Geo Guelph, O.

Whetter, R London, 0.

BREEDER OF HEREFORDS.

Stone, F. W., Moreton Lodge Guelph, 0.

BREEDERS OF AYRSHIRES.

Abbott, Hon J.J. C -. Montreal, Q.

Gibbs, Jno. L., Sunny Braes Compton, Q.

Lawrie, Jas Malvern, O.

Logan, Jas Montreal, Q.

Patton, J Scarborough, O.

Wallbridge, A. H Belleville, O.

Wheeler, Messrs Scarborough, 0.

Whitney, N. S Montreal, Q.

BREEDERS OF GALLOWAYS.

Hood, W Guelph, O.

Kerr, Jno London, O.

McNeil, A Vaughan, O.

McRae, T Guelph, O.

Nichol, Jno London, O.

Overfeeding for Exhibition. — The chief aim of breeders seems to
be to outdo each other in so fatting up their thorough-breds as
to hide the real points of breeding, by rendering the animals un-
shapely in the extreme by superabundance of fat, no matter what
the cost, thus overlooking the most important and protitable argu-
ment advanced by the advocates of breed — the production of
animals which give the maximum of meat at the smallest cost.

^Manual of Agriculture. 349

We would not reflect upon the judges ; they have simply fallen
in with a system, but this system has the most pernicious result.

In the words of a well-known breeder who resides near Guelph.
" Leicestriensis " — " Does it not seem senseless in the extreme
that after an experienced breeder has been to an enormous ex-
pense in importing first-class breeding animals, he should, by
injudicious treatment of them, destroy their procreativeness, and
thereby render them utterly useless for the very purpose for which
they were imported ?"

Many of our best breeders will not send their stock to our
shows for this reason : —

Inferior animals are exhibited, many of whose bad points are
hidden in fat ; and again, our best men are determined not to
destroy the constitution of their animals, and injure their power
of procreation, by showing breeding stock dressed up in fat fit to
become Christmas beef

Surely it would be better that cattle of equal age, fed and stalled
at the same time, should be brought before competent judges, to
determine the best frame for putting meat and fat upon — the
frame which would be most productive of profit to the producer
and of eligible food for the consumer.

It is the frame and constitution that we wish to transmit to
our herds when we pay fancy prices for thorough-bred animals.
The fat-producing qualities — not the fat itself.

Prizes should be invariably awarded to the " best framed" ani-
mals ; and good frames do not show to advantage under layers
and rolls of fat.

We have been orlad to see at our late large fairs, both at home
and across the line, a step has been made towards discarding over-
fed animals from the pens in which are shown breeding stock.
May it prosper until judgment is given upon "frames" alone.

SHEEP.

The sheep is found in every part of the world. They are pro-
viders of clothing and meat, and in many parts also of milk.

The calling of the shepherd has from time immemorial been
conspicuous, and not wanting in dignity and importance. Abel
was a keeper of sheep ; as were Abraham and his descendants, as
well as most of the ancient patriarchs. Job possessed fourteen
thousand sheep. Rachel, the favoured mother of the Jewish race,
" came with her father's sheep, for she kept them." The seven
daughters of the priest of Midian " came and drew water for their
father's flocks."

Moses, the statesman and lawgiver, " learned in all the wisdom
of the Egyptians," busied himself in attending the flocks of Jethro,
his father-in-law.

350 The Canadian Farmer's

David, that sweet singer of Israel, and its destined monarch —
the Jewish hero, poet and divine — was a keeper of sheep.

To shepherds abiding in the field, keeping watch over their
flocks by night, came the glad tidings of a Saviour's birth. The
Hebrew terra for sheep is significant of fruitfulness, abundance,
plenty — indicative of the blessings which they were destined to
confer upon the human family.

In the Holy Scriptures this animal is the chosen sj^mbol of
purity and of the gentler virtues — the victim of propitiatory sacri-
fices, and the type of redemDtion to fallen man.

Among profane writers. Homer and Hesiod, Virgil and Theo-
critus, introduce them in pastoral themes ; whilst their heroes
and demigods, Hercules and Ulysses, ^neas and Numa, carefully
perpetuate thera in their domains.

In North America we have a native breed from the Rocky
Mountains, called by our hunters the Bighorns. They are great
climbers, hardy and active, and in their habits more resemble the
goat. In summer they are found single, but when travelling in
lower and warmer parts for the winter months, they march in
flocks.

The breeds cultivated on our Canadian homes are all imported
European varieties.

Amongst the short-wools we have the Spanish and Saxon Meri-
nos and the Southdown ; and for long-wooled sheep we raise Lei-
cesters, Cotswolds and Lincolns.

The Spanish Merino. — The wool lies thick, short, and close to
the body, being abundant in yolk or oil ; is matted closely together,
and is covered with a dirty crust, often full of cracks. Legs long
but small in bone, breast and back narrow, sides somewhat flat,
fore-shoulders and bosoms are heavy, and the ugliness of the ani-
mal is caused by all the weight being carried on the coarser parts,
and by the nature and appearance of the wool. Some are horned
and some are not. They are small sheep, and, when fatted, make
from twelve to sixteen pounds per quarter.

The advantages of the merino consist in the fineness and felt-
ing property of their wool ; also, the closeness of their fleece and
the large amount of yolk enables them to support extremes of
cold and heat, and they will feed and thrive upon very coarse pas-
tures.

Leicesters. — The old or unimproved Leicester was a large, heavy,
coarse-wooled sheep, a habitant of the midland shires of England
— a slow feeder, coarse in wool and in meat, but a heavy shearer.
Its value in those days lay altogether in the quantity rather than
the quality of its wool.

Hobert Bakewell, of Dishley, in Leicestershire, and after him
many eminent breeders, applied themselves to tlie improvement of
this breed by reducing the size of the bone and fining down the

Manual of Agriculture. 351

texture of the wool. It is now at the head of the long-wooled
breeds, is valuable for the quantity of meat that it produces, but
far inferior to smaller breeds in the flavour and quality of its
mutton.

The Souihdoiun is a native of the chalky hills all along the
south-western and west-southern coasts of England, extending
northward to Norfolk and westward to Eastbourne.

It is probable that originally the Downs were horned sheep, as
occasionally a horned ram crops up among them, but they are now
usually polled.

Of black legs and medium size, the quality of the Southdown
cannot be surpassed by any breed for mutton, and is only equalled
by one, namely, the mountain sheep of Wales. Its wool, though
ranked in the short, might, in point of length, well belong to a
middle class. For mutton the Southdown is eminently adapted,
maturing early, and possessing extreme aptitude to lay on fat ;
it is killed at two 3^ears of age, when, in England, it will run from
twenty to twenty-five pounds to the quarter, whilst thirty to forty
pounds to the quarter have been often on record.

It is a very hardy sheep, and loves high, dry and close pastu-
rage, whilst it stands our Canadian climate better than any other
kind of sheep.

The Cotswolds, natives of and named after a range of hills in
Gloucestershire, in the west of England, differ from the Leicester
in their superior hardiness and better adaptability to our soil, food
and climate. They are also very prolific and splendid mothers,
being supplied with a great flow of milk.

A cross of the old Cotswolds with the Leicesters has produced
the present breed of improved Cotswolds.

The wethers may, in this climate, with ease be fatted to thirty
and forty pounds to the quarter. The mutton is superior to that
of the Leicester, having less tallow, and with a better develop-
ment of muscle and flesh, but is far inferior to that of the Down.

The Lincolns are another phase of modern improvement upon
an old breed.

The present Lincolns are robust in health, though somewhat
coarse in wool and mutton; they are hardy, and yield a great
amount of wool ; they are prolific and good mothers, generally
capable of supplying plenty of milk to two lambs.

Age of Sheep by their Teeth. — The age of sheep is commonly
counted from the period of their first shearing, instead of the time
at which the lamb Avas dropped, and may be known, like that of
cattle, by the appearance of the teeth in the lower jaw, the upper
jaw being without any in the front.

During the first year they are all of small size, but when from
fourteen to sixteen months old, they renew the first two (or centre
ones), and two more every year until the fourth shearing, at which
time they have " a full mouth."

352 The Canadian Farmer's

The natural age of a sheep is about nine or ten years, but their
teeth begin to fail in the sixth and seventh years, and they become
what is technically termed " broken-mouthed." As their power
of mastication is from this date greatly impaired, it is usually poor
economy to fit them for mutton later than six years of age.

Sheep were originally clothed with long hair, underneath which
and next the skin was found, and is yet found in the sheep in
those countries over which the Israeli tish races wandered, a close
mat of short, crisp wool. This is now the appearance of the cov-
ering of the Cape of Good Hope sheep and of the flocks of South
America.

The change from hair to wool, influenced doubtless somewhat
by peculiarities of climate, is yet chiefly due to civilization and
cultivation.

If sheep be badly neglected, it will be observed that the tendency
of their wool is to go hack to a half-hairy condition.

The yolk, which is simply an insensible perspiration, keeps the
wool soft, oily and strong. Where there is a deficiency of this
substance the wool is dry and harsh and brittle. The quantity of
this oily matter differs in various kinds of sheep, the Merino
having in their wool the greatest proportion.

It is found in the greatest abundance about the neck and shoul-
ders, and the texture and quality of the fleece is improved in pro-
portion as this yolk soaks to a greater or less degree into other
parts of the wool.

The chemical analysis of the yolk has established its composi-
tion as of carbonate of potash, acetate of potash, lime, muriate of
potash, and animal oil — all forming a substance of a purely soapy
nature, which accounts for the ease with which wool is washed
white when upon the sheep's back.

Fine or coarse wools are regulated by the size of the fibre ; but
these terms, as commonly used, are vague, for all fine fleeces have
some coarse wool, and all coarse fleeces some fine.

" The most accurate classification is to distinguish the various
qualities of wool in the order in which they are esteemed and pre-
ferred by the manufacturer, as the following : first, fineness with
close ground, that is, thick matted ground ; second, pureness ;
third, straight-haired, when broken by drawing ; fourth, elasticity,
rising after compression in the hand ; fifth, staple not too long ;
sixth, colour; seventh, what coarse exists to be very coarse;
eighth, tenacity ; and ninth, not much pitch-mark, though this is
no disadvantage, except the loss of weight in scouring. The bad
or disagreeable properties are : thin grounded, tossy, curly-haired,
and, if in a sorted state, little in it that is fine ; a tender staple,
many dead white hairs, very yolky."

Breeding. — No one breed of sheep can combine all good quali-
ties in itself One is remarkable for its weight, early maturity or

Manual of Agriculture, 353

the excellent quality of the mutton, but deficient in quantity or
texture of wool; while, on the other hand, a breed may produce
heavy fleeces of superior wool, and be unfit to take a place in the
market as first-class meat. Some varieties do well in one cKmate,
whilst there no other sort will thrive.

Situation and nature of pasture lands are especially adapted to
particular breeds of sheep. There are two essential considera-
tions to be ever kept in view in determining upon any particular
breed : First, situation of pastures, food and climate ; and second,
the market demand and facilities.

General Principles of Breeding. — The aim of every breeder of
animals must ever be to retain by generation any and every varia-
tion for the better that may at any time be observed in his live
stock. The same remarks apply to the very great advantage of
using none but well-bred male stock for sheep, that we made in a
former chapter when on the subject of cattle.

It may be observed that the influence of the ram having first
fruitful intercourse with the female, is often distinctly marked
through many generations. If that influence has been to improve,
its effect will be felt through the flock for many years. In crossing,
there are several objects to be -obtained — to raise animals for the
butcher or to establish a new breed. It is, however, nearly always
advantageous to choosealarge female of the breed which it is sought
to improve ; for instance, the Southdowns have greatly improved
the Hampshires, and the Leicesters the ungainly Lincolns and
lar^e Cotswolds.

The Use of Rams. — Rams are used from one year old to ten and
sometimes over. But a ram at from two to four years old may be
considered in his prime. Much depends, however, upon whether
rams have been overstocked. We have seen those that have not
been allowed to run to too many sheep, sure lamb-getters even
when quite aged.

A ram lamb should never be used ; the effect upon him will be
to stunt his growth, injure his form, and in the majority of cases
to seriously impair his usefulness and damp his courage.

For a yearling ram thirty ewes are ample ; a two-year-old may
serve from forty to fifty ; while a three-year-old will run satisfac-
torily with from fifty to sixty; and, in exceptional cases, rams have
been found strong and mature enough to serve from seventy to
eighty ewes.

An animal that is impoverished and overtasked cannot transmit
faithfully those superior points for which he has been chosen as a
sire-

A ram should be carefully selected, not only on his general ex-
cellence and blood, but with the distinct view of improving by
transmission of some of his own characteristics to the progeny,
and in which the ewes are generally deficient.
23

354 The Canadian Farmer's

The general points of excellence in a good flock of sheep are,
strong hone with a roomy frame, heavy fleeces of good quality and
texture, natural disposition to lay on fat early and quickly, and
prolific nature. Any of these characteristics deficient in a flock
should be counteracted by the use of a ram with such very fully
developed.

One ram and his flock of eives should always be kept separate
to themselves. Two or more rams in a flock incite one another to
extra and unnecessary activity, and are sure to fight.

To Mark a Flock. — In order to show which individual ewe the
ram has covered, smear his belly with a preparation of Venetian
red and hog's lard.

To tell when the ram is ready for work, examine his skin upon
the flanks ; if red, the natural desire is upon him. A good ram
should serve all his ewes within three weeks. It is better, how-
ever, to leave him with them for a full month.

To make a ram serve from one hundred and fifty to two hun-
dred ewes. — Kobert Jennings, V.S., says :

" A couple of strong rams, of any quality, for about every hun-
dred ewes, are aproned, their briskets rubbed with Venetian red
and hog s lard, and let loose among the ewes.

" Aproning is performed by sewing a belt of coarse sacking,
broad enough to extend from the fore legs to the hind legs, loosely
but strongly round the body. To prevent its slipping forwards
or backwards, straps are carried round the breast and back of the
breech.

" It should be made perfectly secure, or all the labour of this
method of coupling will be far worse than thrown away. The
pigment on the brisket should be renewed every two or three days ;
and it will be necessary to change the ' teasers,' as these aproned
rams are called, about once a week, as they do not long retain
their courage under such unnatural circumstances. Twice a day
the ewes are brought to yard in front of the hut.

" Those marked on the rump by the teasers are brought into the
hut. Each is admitted once to the ram, and then goes out at the
opposite end from which she entered, into a field separate from
that containing the flock from which she was taken.

" Thus a powerful, vigorous ram, from three to seven years old,
may be made to serve from 150 to 200 ewes in a season."

Raons should be fed when on service with grain. The rutting
season should be delayed until moderately cold weather in the fall,
say November or December ; this will bring in the lambs in April
and May.

The ewe goes pregnant about five months, or from 145 days to
165 days.

Lambing. — Pregnant ewes require a generous diet. Pea straw
is even better than hay ; while the best division of fodder is pea

Manual of Agriculture.

355

straw (cut on the green side) twice a day, and good clover hay at
one meal.

A few succulent roots and a little grain will increase the secre-
tion of milk.

Too many turnips are injurious, as tending to sour the milk, to
the injury of the lamb.

Ewes must not be allowed to become excessively fat, as in such
condition abortion is readily brought on.

Abortion is likewise produced by frights from the appearance
of dogs and strange objects, long and severe journeys, blows, (fee,
and more especially by the too prevalent practice of driving, with
dogs not properly trained, ewes that are pregnant.

Lambs are usually dropped in Canada during the months of
March and April ; we think, however, that March is a wQry bad
month in which to time the arrival of lambs.

Given good shelter and accommodation, and we have been more
successful with February lambs than with such as came in March.
In February there are usually plenty of fine sunny days, and in
such weather, if the ewes can be kept in a warm place, well
sheltered, lambs will do very well, and be large and fat for the
Easter market. Even when lambs are dropped in May, the ewes
should be always put in at night, and during rain, or when there
is a prevalence of windy and blustering weather.

Should the weather be warm and bright, it is better that lamb-
ing should take place in the pastures, since sheep will there get
away by themselves, and be disposed to own and take kindly to
their own lambs more certainly than when confined in a crowded
inclosure.

For ewes that are to lamb very eariy, or in winter quarters, the
following is an excellent arrangement ;—

In the pen shown,
protected and yet well
ventilated, e/and gh
are moveable divi-
sions across the pen,
and dividing it into
three divisions, a, b, c.
These divisions are
moveable, and ef and
g h run on wheels, so
that the size of a, 6, c
may be altered at will.
In each of e/ and g h
there is a door. Now,
before any ewes have

lambed, the divisions g h and 6/ are pushed close to one end of the
building, so that the pregnant ewes have the whole pen to run in.

Fig. 28.

356 The Canadian Farmer's

As 3oon as lambing commences, the ewes are carefully watched,
and as each ewe shows the usual signs of labour, the divisions are
moved out, so as to make three pens — a, b, c. The ewe is placed
in the middle pen, b, by herself, or with one or two others ready to
lamb, as the case may be ; they are then by themselves when their
lambs are dropped, and the lamb is neither separated from its
mother, nor knocked about by the crowding of the flock. When
the lamb is strong and able to suck fully, it and its mother are
removed on to pen c. By this process the flocks are divided into
three portions: pregnant ewes; ewes having just lambed, or upon
whom are the signs of labour ; and the ewes with their lambs. As
the ewes continue to lamb, the pen a becomes smaller by the push-
ing up of the divisions g h and e/, and the pen c becomes larger,
until, when all the flock have lambed, the pen is brought back to
its original size by the pushing of the divisions over from one
side to the other.

The jostling of sheep upon one another is very injurious to ewes
in lamb, for which reason the shepherd must always teach his
sheep docility, and by gentleness accustom them to his presence.

Enclosures for yeaning must be kept clean ; for when the lamb
is dropped it is covered with moisture, and to this in a dirty en-
closure so much filth will stick, that the ewe will refuse to lick
the body of her lamb, which is nature's method of warming and
strengthening the newly-dropped lamb. Neither should too much
straw be used for litter, as such may embarrass the young lamb
in attempting to rise for the purpose of sucking its mother.

The signs of lambing in the ewe are ; enlargement and red-
dening of the parts under the tail, and a dropping of the flanks.
The ewe, immediately before the pains of labour are fully upon
her, stretches herself frequently, exhibits great restlessness, sepa-
rates herself from her companions, constantly lies down and rises
up again, as if dissatisfied with her bed ; paws the ground, and
bleats as if the lamb were already born and she were looking for
it ; and appears very fond of other lambs.

When these symptoms appear, if the sheep be yet in winter
quarters, she should be isolated.

When the expulsion of a bag of water takes place from the
vagina, the pains of labour are fully upon the ewe. W^hile it is
well to watch her narrowly now, interference should be carefully
avoided. Nature may take some time bo effect a birth, but to
sheep that have not been frightened or subjected to rough treat-
ment, and have been well kept, mechanical assistance is very
rarely needed.

Uncalled-for interference ivith ewes ivhen lambing, hasdestroyed
more lambs than natural causes.

Interference, when not absolutely necessary, just frightens the
ewe, and she ceases her efforts to expel the lamb.

Manual of Agriculture. 357

Should it be apparent that the foetus is presented wrong, that
is, is not coming away in the natural position — the two fore legs
with the head lying between them being presented at the mouth
of the vagina — mechanical assistance becomes necessary. Let the
shepherd oil well his finger and thumb, and whilst the ewe is gen-
tly caught and carefully held, push back the lamb and turn it
very gently until the nose and fore feet appear.

Sometimes the ewe has not strength enough to expel the
foetus ; in such a case aid may be given, hut very gently, and only
to help the throes of the dam. Never take away a lamb by main
strength, or, as such work is sometimes called, by the exercise of
brute force and stupidity."

The clearing, or 'placenta, which usually comes a few minutes
after delivery, should always be taken from the lambing pen and
not be allowed to lie there.

Cabbages or kale are better food for ewes, just previous to
lambing, than turnips, for the latter are fibrous and astringent in
the spring, and for this reason are not beneficial to the secretion of
sweet milk. A little oil-cake, meal or whole oats will be found
very beneficial to ewes before and during lambing.

Management of Lamhs. — When the lamb is first dropped, it will
be clumsy on its big unwieldy legs : be in no haste to help it to
rise — it don't want milk immediately ; what it requires is
nature's warmer, the licking of the ewe. If the attendant inter-
feres too soon, he angers the ewe, and she may even refuse to
recognize her lamb, or, as we have often seen, even stamp upon it
in her rage.

A lamb that gets at a teat and sucks for itself, will learn to
take care of itself, and may generally be regarded as safe. If
helped, it will continue to expect aid, and will not try for itself for
several days.

Never feed with a spoon, but from a bottle with a quill or tube
in the cork, because the latter is more like nature.

If a lamb is, however, so weak that assistance becomes neces-
sary, don't throw the mother down, but make the lamb suck in
the natural position of the ewe, because instinct teaches the lamb
in search of food to point its nose upwards. If taught to suck
from the bag of the prostrate ewe, the lamb, when strong enough,
will be very awkward about finding the teat in its natural position.

If lambs have to be fed by hand, the mothers having no milk,
the food should be invariably taken from a new milch coiv. Don't
feed this in its full strength, but mix it half and half with water,
and put in enough molasses to give it the purgative efi'ect of the
mother's first milk ; gently warm to a natural heat ; when feed-
ing be careful to make the lamb suck from the bottle. Many a
lamb has been choked by pouring milk down the throat, and
the consequent passage of the fluid into the lungs.

358 The Canadian Farmer's

If a lamb becomes chilled, wrap it in a woollen or flannel blan-
ket, and place it in a warm room, giving it a little milk, with a
trifle of pepper, as soon as it can drink. Don't keep the lamb
from its mother longer than possible — a little gentle friction, espe-
cially of the extremities, will be found very restorative.

Sometimes, a ewe having a good bag of milk loses her lamb, when
it may be required that she should be taught to suckle a strange
lamb. Skin her dead lamb immediately, and sew the skin on the
lamb that she is required to raise. Put her in a moderately dark
room ; if she is suspicious of it, watch her carefully, and, if neces-
sary, hold her for the lamb to suck. She will soon take to the
young impostor, when the covering skin may be removed.

When a ewe has a full bag, and, losing her lamb, no other one is
placed to her, the milk must be drawn off by hand once or twice,
or the affection known as garget will ensue.

After milking, bathe with cold water, which has the effect of
checking the secretions of milk, and gradually decrease her sup-
ply of succulent and milk-secreting food.

When a young ewe will not stand for her lamb to suck, it is
the effect of soreness or hardness of the bag. Let the ewe be
caught and held until the lamb has emptied the bag, and there
will seldom be any trouble afterwards.

"Pinning!' — Young lambs are frequently subject to this
trouble. Their first excrements are so adhesive and tenacious
that the orifice of the anus becomes completely covered over, and
subsequent evacuations prevented. Let the adhering matter be
entirely removed, and the part rubbed with a little dry earth
(clay). We have seen very many lambs perish from a neglect of
this precaution.

Weaning should take place at from three and a-half to four
months old. When first weaned, the lambs should be put in a
field as far distant from the mothers as possible, that their respec-
tive bleatings may not be heard.

It is an excellent plan to turn one or two tame old ewes in with
the lambs ; these teach the young sheep to be docile, to come when
called, to find salt when thrown out, and to eat from troughs, «Sz;c.

Lambs require fresh and tender pasture when first weaned ;
while the dams should be put for a week or so on short, dry, up-
land pasture, to stop the flow of milk. The latter should be care-
fully watched, as the bags of some may require emptying by
hand. After once being thoroughly dried, they require to be well
fed, to put them in condition for the rutting season.

Castration and Docking. — The object of docking is to keep the
sheep, especially ewes, clean behind ; since the animal, especially in
Canada, being changed from dry fodder to pasture, and from grass
to hay or straw, is very apt to purge.

It is usually done when the mothers are washed in the latter

Manual of Agriculture, 359

part of May, and that is about as good a time as any. It should,
however, be carefully done, so that the skin may slip back over
the wound. Let the skin be drawn tight back towards the body,
while with a chisel and mallet the tail is cut quickly and cleanly
off between the bone joints, leaving it from one and a-half to two
inches long. By drawing the skin back in this manner, it will,
when released from the hand, slip back over the end of the stump,
and the healing will soon take place.

An ointment of lard and tar, mixed in the proportions of four
pounds of lard to one quart of tar, should be smeared on the
wound, in order to keep away flies, and thus prevent the forma-
tion of maggots.

Castration. — Some authorities advocate this operation in a day
or two after birth, while the majority approve of the age of at
least six weeks, when the creature has attained strength and the
parts have not yet become too fully developed. We favour the
latter plan.

Dry and cool weather should, if possible, be selected — a cool
day if possible — and if warm, it should be performed early in the
morning. It is a safe and simple operation. Let one man hold
the lamb, with its back firmly pressed against his breast and
stomach, and all four legs gathered in front and held closely in his
hands. The operator then, with a sharp knife, cuts off the bottom
of the pouch, frees the testicle from the inclosing membrane, and
draws it steadily out, when, if the cord does not s^ap off at the
proper distance, he cuts it with his knife. It is well to drop a
little salt into the pouch. The end should be lightly smeared
with an ointment for the same purpose, and as above recommended
for docking.

Feeding. — Sheep purge very easily — for which reason they
should not be turned suddenly from dry food to grass — which is
best effected by housing them for the first few nights and feeding
hay.

Water. — It is commonly thought that sheep require no water.
They will, it is true, live without, but a free access to it is very
advantageous, especially to ewes giving milk.

Salt is indispensable to the perfect health of sheep. Although
it does well to feed it at intervals of, say, once a week, yet it is
better that the flock should have constant access to it ; they will
not take too much ; but, rather, will lick just the amount that
nature requires, instead of eating it voraciously, as they do when
it is served out at stated intervals.

Tar is supposed by breeders to be very healthful. Smeared on
the nose it will be licked, and swallowed as the natural heat of the
flesh or weather causes it to trickle down over the lips. There is
no doubt that, applied to the nose, it will repel the fly, and, to a
great extent, prevent what is known as *' grub in the head "

360 The Canadian Farmer's

Dry, sweet pastures are best adapted for sheep runs.

They will eat any kind of grass, pasturing on what has been
rejected by horse and cow ; they feed on many a weed that larger
animals will not look at, as wiJd mustard, burrdock, thistles,
milkweed, marshmallow, and many other similar plants.

Artificial Pasture. — Rye makes an excellent fall and early
spring feed for sheep. Corn sown broadcast, or white mustard —
both make an excellent feed for sheep, not only as pasturage, but
when cut early for fodder and used in winter quarters.

That shade is very essential to sheep, none can doubt who
have seen them panting in their heavy coats and crowding on to
the smallest piece of shade possible to find. In the absence of
trees, whose entire removal from many of our farms is to be
deeply deplored, shade should be provided by means of any
roughly constructed open shed. Want of shade is loss of flesh to
the animal, and loss of flesh is a drainage to the farmer's pocket.

Fall Feed. — By the middle of November, grass has usually lost
its nutrition in Canada, owing to the action of repeated frosts and
thaws. It is time then that sheep should have some fodder in
addition to their pasture. This may be provided in pens, by
bringing them home at nights. Sheep that lose condition in the
fall will seldom pick up again during winter. A few oats fed at
this time, say a gill per head, will be well bestowed.

Winter Feed and Management are very shortly summed up.
Pea straw is valuable for sheep feed. Corn stalks, Hungarian
grass, and hay of all descriptions form good fodder. We prefer
bright pea straw to any fodder for ewes in lamb ; but as all ani-
mals like a variety, so an occasional change from one kind to
another of fodder is highly relished by sheep. The straws of
cereals, as wheat, barley and oats, being very dry, aff'ord poor fod-
der to sheep. Grain, in small quantities, is the cheapest fodder we
can give. Oats, at a gill a head per day, will go further in keep-
ing sheep thriving and in good healthy order than an equal value
of any other kind of food. Indian corn is bad feed for sheep ;
for pregnant ewes it is especially dangerous, as being very
heating.

Roots should be fed in moderation to sheep.

Water in winter is very necessary, although very few farmers
in Canada allow their sheep access to it.

Sheep should be kept separate from other stock. How often
have we seen the cattle in a yard with their horns ornamented by
lumps of wool taken from the fleeces of the farmer's sheep.

Cattle hook them and colts tease them, while neither cattle nor
horses will touch what sheep have fed over.

Sheep do not require wannth — Nature has provided them with
tremendous coats — but they must have dryness and shelter. Un-
der a bank barn is the worst place to keep sheep ; they should be

Manual of Agriculture. 361

confined in sheds open upon the south side, so that, on the one
hand, neither rain nor snow can drive in ; and on the other, there
may be a plentiful circulation of fresh air. One evil effect of
wintering sheep in too warm a place is, that the wool comes off
them in spring long before shearing time.

The utmost regularity in feeding should be preserved — regu-
larity as to the times of feeding. Sheep do not, like cattle and
horses, feed well in the dark ; they should therefore be provided
with their evening meal early enough to allow them to consume
it before night sets in. Regularity in amount is synonymous with
a saving of fodder, and should therefore be carefully attended to.

The Effects of Food. — An analysis^of wool shows us that it con-
tains : —

Carbon 50 65)

Hydrogen 7-03(.-- .

Nitrogen 17-71 ( ^^^ P^^*®"

Oxygen and sulphur 24 61 )

The large quantity of nitrogen here contained shows that its
production is dependent, in great part, upon food in which that
element predominates ; and all experiments have shown that
amount of wool in every case depends upon amount of nitrogen-
ous food. From this we may learn that the steady feeding of
grain, such as peas and oats (especially the former), in such quan-
tities as not to injure the health, will be most effectual in the pro-
duction of an increased amount of wool.

Moreover, grain helps the increase of the tissue, and is, therefore,
beneficial in putting flesh upon the stall-fed sheep, ; without it no
fat could be produced.

Yards. — It is well that yards be attached to all winter sheds,
as sheep, especially pregnant ewes, require daily exercise.

Washing. — The methods usually adopted for washing sheep de-
pend upon the means at hand to the individual farmer. A
thorough washing is, however, of great importance, for upon a
proper performance of this operation depends greatly the value of
our wool as a marketable commodity. It is often done in a very
hasty and inefficient manner. We have seen a flock of sheep
driven three or four miles along a dusty road, penned in on the
banks of the Grand River, where the current is very strong, taken
out one by one, shoved into the water, and after being turned over
by a man standing in the river, and slightly rubbed, allowed to
swim ashore and go off again along the dirty high road.

A roomy pond of clear stagnant water is far preferable to a
running stream. The water is usually softer, and the yolk or oil
which is supposed to be formed through the wool by insensible
perspiration, being of a very soapy nature, causes the wash to act
more effectually. In running streams this soap is carried away
with each sheep, and the water remains hard from first to last.

362 The Canadian Farmer's

The sheep, owing to the weight of fleece upon its back, is in its
normal state hot at all times, and particularly so in the end of
May. A sudden plunging into cold water is, therefore, a very
severe shock. The water in a stagnant pond, or in one formed by
draining a creek, has a chance of being well warmed before use,
and this is another point in its favour.

Perhaps the most effectual plan is to combine these several
ways. Let the sheep be seized by the fore legs, and passed to a
man standing in the stagnant and warm water. He should turn
the animal in every direction ; should squeeze out the wool well
with his hand, and pass it on to one who is placed below, either
in running water or under a shoot.

After two or three have been washed, we have good soapy
water, which will far more effectually soften the wool and loosen
all impurities than will clear hard water ; and these impurities
will be entirely removed by a final immersion in the running
stream. Moreover, the stagnant water, being warm, will prepare
the animal's body gradually for the colder, and will do away with
that shock to the system caused by a sudden immersion of the
sheep, which has sweated under the combined influence of a May
sun and its own struggles with its captor.

All burrs and tenacious impurities should be carefully and
thoroughly removed, and the offensive matter collected round the
anus may, when thus softened, be drawn from the wool, thus saving
many pounds of wool in a fiock from the process of tagging, at
shearing time.

A clean pasture, and if possible a clean road to pasture, should
be provided un^l after shearing. The former is most necessary ;
for when the dews are heavy, if there be a patch of bare ground
in the field, there will the sheep be found lying at night.

So important, indeed, has the subject of thorough cleansing of
the fleece before shearing been considered by large breeders, that
some years ago the Farming Society of Ireland recommended the
use of a large tub of water warmed to blood heat, in which to
place the sheep till the wool be well softened, and then to river
wash, on the ground that " the keeping the animal in cold
water a sufficiently long time to wash thoroughly, endangers its
health ; that fleeces of a close pile cannot be cleansed by the usual
mode of washing ; and that the extra labour required to wash
sheep in tubs of warm water would be amply repaid were the
washiags in these tubs carried out and applied as manure, the
quantity of rich animal soap which they contain making it one of
the most fertilizing applications which can possibly be used."

It is better to allow a full week or ten days to elapse before
shearing. The wool will then, if it has been fine, be thoroughly
dried, and some time is necessary for the oil or yolk to ascend from
the body into the wool, by which the weight of the fleece is in-

Manual of AgYicultura, 36B

creased, and by which a great deal of softness and elasticity is
imparted to the marketable wool.

If the wool be got clean and white, it will always sell for more
than enough extra to offset the increased labour and the diminu-
tion in weight.

Our wool (long) loses by washing about 36 per cent. ; from this
may be judged the relative prices that should be paid for washed
and unwashed wool.

Skearing. — Between washing and shearing sJiould be generally
a week or ten days, but this must depend upon the weather ;
should the interval be cold or rainy, or even cloudy, more time
must elapse. The wool should be thoroughly dried out, and
the natural oil be allowed full time to rise in the fleece. Shear-
ing should not commence until the dew has dried off sheep.
Sheep are generally sheared upon the barn floor. It is well to
raise a platform at one end a few inches, so that the shearing table
may be kept perfectly clean ; but if a nice clean sod is handy, it
will be found that they will lie easier and more quietly on soft
grass under the shears.

It is impossible to convey in writing intelligible practical in-
structions by which shearing can be taught. The operation
requiring much sleight of hand, must, like the trade of a barber
or haircutter, be learned by experience ; there are, however, a
few points that may here be with advantage indicated.

The wool should be cut off as close as conveniently practicable,
and evenly. If the wool on the sheep's back is left uneven, or in
very plainly marked ridges, it betrays a want of skilled workman-
ship on the part of the operator.

Care should be exercised that the wool is never cut twice in one
place, as by so doing the length of staple is injured. The chief
point to be attained is to place the sheep as easily in its diflferent
positions as possible, and to hold it firmly, that struggles may be
avoided. It will be remarked, that clumsy shearers always
grumble, because they say that they get the most troublesome
sheep, when it is really but another application of the old adage,
that " the bad workman complains of his tools."

Sheep-ticks. — These vermin, when very numerous, are apt to
keep sheep very thin in winter, and at shearing time, being driven
from the mothers, will go to the lambs.

A fortnight after shearing, when all the ticks have migrated
from the back of the sheep to the fleece on the lamb, boil refuse
tobacco leaves until the decoction is strong enough to destroy the
vermin.

Five or six pounds of cheap plug tobacco will answer for a
hundred lambs. The following plan of dressing lambs has been
highly recommended : " The decoction is poured into a deep, nar-
row box, kept for the purpose, which has an inclined shelf on one

364

The Canadian Farmer's

side, covered with a wooden grate. One man holds the lamb by-
its hind legs, while another grasps the fore legs in one hand, and
shuts the other about the nostrils, to prevent the liquid from
entering them, and then the animal is entirely immersed. It
is then immediately lifted out, laid on one side upon the grate,
and the water squeezed out of the wool, when it is turned
over and squeezed on the other side. The grate conducts the

fluid back to the box If the lambs are regularly

dipped every year, ticks will never trouble the flock."

Miller's Tick Destroyer we have found to be an excellent and
effectual preparation : full instructions for its use are conveyed
with every box.

MarJcing Pigments. — Boil tar until, when cold, it has a glazed,
hard consistency ; stir in a little lampblack when boiling ; apply
when just cold enough not to burn the sheep's hide, and the mark
will remain the whole year round.

Paint made of lampblack, to which a little spirits of turpen-
tine is first added, and then dilated with linseed or lard oil, may
be used. /

The rump is the best place on which to mark sheep, as it is
plainer seen when the flock are together or moving away. More-
over, the wool on the rump is less valuable than that on the flanks
and shoulder. A distinction should be made in the mark between
ewes and wethers.

Maggots. — To destroy these, boiled tar is an effectual remedy.

The Diseases of Sheep will be noticed in a subsequent chapter.

PIGS.

Fig. 29.

" Pork, both in its fresh and salted state, is an article of such
universal consumption (not only in Canada and the United States,
but over the whole world), and the hog is such a profitable con-
sumer of every eatable species of offal, that pigs are reared by not
only every farmer, but
every cottager who
can find means to feed
them ; for there is no
animal which yields
so great a quantity of
flesh in return for the
kind of food which it
consumes ; and it has
been not unjustly call-
ed 'the poor man's
stock.' This, together
with the fecundity of
the sow, which gener-

2F^

'Mi' A

Manual of Agriculture. 365

ally produces from seven to ten young ones at a birth, and that not
unfrequently twice within the j^'ear, tends, notwithstanding the
demand, to keep down the price at market to a figure which would
leave but little profit if reared upon purchased food. But as they
will eat every refuse of animal and vegetable substance, from the
kitchen or the stable, even if spoiled or trodden under foot by
other animals, they are thus fed at comparatively little expense
during their growth. They are also tended with little trouble ;
and this, combined with their leaving nothing to be lost, and pro-
ducing large quantities of dung, of a quality only inferior to that
of sheep, renders them so valuable to the farmer, that if the sale of
the meat repays the cost of production, it is commonly thought
sufficient.

" Although thus apparently careless of the quality, provided the
quantity is sufficient to appease the appetite, and swallowing
everything that comes in his way, yet, if allowed a choice of diet,
the hog has the palate of a true gourmand, and always selects that
which is the most nutritive ; if turnips and potatoes be oflTered, he
will be sure to choose the latter, and he infinitely prefers beans or
peas to either oats or barley."

The animal, though unjustly considered filthy in his habits, is
yet cleanly, if he be only allowed a proper chance, and his flesh
is of a delicacy equal to that of any other meat ; so that the pig
is cultivated as a means of supplying food to the whole Christian
world.

ON BREEDS.

The various breeds range through every size and shape, from
the immense Yorkshire and modern Chester White to the small
improved Berkshire and rough Highlander, the latter of which is
described as an ugly brindled monster, the very epitome of the
wild boar, yet scarcely bigger than an English terrier.

** His bristled back a trench impaled appears,
And stands erected like a field of spears."

We shall content ourselves with a succinct account of those now
generally bred throughout Canada and the United States.

The pig is not a native of North America, and we owe the
origin of all our present species to Europe and Asia.

Improved Berhshires. — These were first imported to America
in 1832, and have steadily, since that period, risen until they have
now attained the apex of popularity. Harris says, in his excellent
work, " Harris on the Pig," that " although the Berkshires were
fully as valuable as the breeders claimed, yet a widespread dis-
appointment soon manifested itself For a time the supply was
not equal to the demand, and, doubtless, hundreds of pigs were

366 The Canadian Farmer's

sold as ' pure Berkshires' that were nothing but grades. But the
general complaint was that the Berkshires were not large enough.
The advocates of the breed met this complaint by statements of
weights, giving many instances where Berkshires and their grades
dressed four hundred pounds at a year old, and that at eighteen or
twenty months old they could be made to weigh five hundred
or five hundred and fifty pounds dressed. One of the prominent
breeders stated that he had a thorough-bred Berkshire that gained
four hundred and ninety-six pounds in one hundred and sixty-
six days, and when killed, dressed six hundred and twenty-six
pounds.

The fact is, that what the pork raiser requires is an animal
that, having the least amount of ofFal, will mature rapidly and
make a fine lump of pork at an early age. For the last few years
there has been no demand for great coarse carcases, but buyers
have preferred those that will dress from two hundred to two
hundred and fifty pounds of pork.

The winter is long and severe in Canada, and it will not pay
to feed pigs over the winter months. What we require is a class
of pigs that have the qualifications to mature rapidly, and born in
the spring will be ready for the knife, making one hundred and
fifty pounds and upwards, by the first month of winter.

This tendency to early maturity is eminently characteristic of
the fine improved Berkshires and Suffblks.

The value of these small breeds lies in their perfection of form,
fineness of bone, and small proportion of offal ; whilst they put
the greatest proportionate amount of meat upon the ham and
shoulder, the choice portions of the carcase. The essential points
in a well-bred Berkshire are that the hair be long, thin and
somewhat curly ; ears fine, and fringed with long hair round the
outer edges ; the body thick, compact and well formed ; legs short
and sides broad ; the back wide (showing a well-arched framework
of ribs), on which to put fat; the head well set on; the snout
short ; the jowl thick ; ears erect ; skin fine in texture ; flesh firm
and well-flavoured. It is highly popular for pork feeding, on
account of its smallness of bone, early maturity, aptitude to fatten
on little food, hardihood and fecundity of the females, who are also
good mothers.

Improved Suffolhs. — The old Suff'olks were white, long-legged,
long-bodied, and, in general, a type of the racers. The present
improved breed owes its existence to crossing with the Chinese,
and a notable herd of such may be found on the late Prince Con-
sort's farm near Windsor.

These improved Suffblks, many of which have been lately im-
ported to Canada, and have deservedly become very popular, are
well formed, compact, of medium size, with round, bulky bodies,
short legs and small heads, and exceedingly fat cheeks.

Manual of Agriculture, 367

They are rapid maturers ; indeed, in this respect few breeders
will agree as between them and the improved Berkshires. For
our own part, we have always preferred the Suffolks to the Berk-
shires, although we allow a certain prejudice in favour of the colour
of the former.

The Chinese. — The native habitat of this hog is in the south-
eastern parts of Asia — Siam, China, Burmah, Malacca, Sumatra —
and in many of the eastern islands ; and there can be little doubt
that the European stock was originated in the Asiatic breeds.

They are divided into two distinct varieties, the white and the
black ; they are all very small in size. Being exceedingly fine in
bone, small in limb, of round bodies, and covered with fine
silky bristles, they have been for many years largely used by
English breeders to tone down the natural coarseness of the old
British stocks of swine, and to the use of these Asiatic breeds we
may trace most of the improvements now apparent in our own
best stocks.

Yorkshires. — The old Yorkshires were coarse, ungainly animals,
greedy feeders, and although consuming an immense amount of
food, yet could show a very poor proportion of pork to bone and
offal when slaughtered. Notwithstanding their great size, they
seldom attained heavier weights than from three hundred and
fifty to four hundred pounds, even when fat and full grown.

By crossing with the Leicesters, the Chinese, the Neapolitan
and the Berkshires, the breed has been greatly improved, and has
come down to us as the Improved Yorkshire.

Those from the Berkshires are hardy, but, though attaining
considerable size, fatten very slowly.

The old breed, crossed with the Leicesters, has given us the
Improved Large Yorkshires, and is in great request not only in
Europe and Great Britain, but also in Canada. As we said
above, if the present demand for small good pork continues in our
market, the Yorkshires will never be a profitable breed to the
Canadian farmer ; for although they can be fed to an immense
weight in time, yet they do not mature early enough. The prize
boar at a Royal Agricultural Show of England, held at Chester,
weighed no less than one thousand two hundred and thirty-two
pounds alive.

Of the small Yorkshires, Mr, Mangles, a well-known pig breeder
in Yorkshire, says : — " The small Yorkshire is peculiar to York-
shire, and different from any other breed I have seen. It has a
short head, small erect ears, broad back, deep chest, and short legs,
with fine bone. It is always ready to fatten, and turn to account
either in the way of roaster, small porker, bacon or medium.
Three or four of the small breed might be fed well, and kept fresh
and symmetrical, on the food which would barely keep one leaa
and gaunt large Yorkshire."

368 The Canadian Farmer's

The Essex. — Sidney, one of the best English authorities on the
pig, says : — " The improved Essex is one of the best pigs of the
small black breeds, well calculated for producing pork and hams
of the finest qualities for fashionable markets, but its greatest value
is as a cross for giving quality and maturity for black pigs of a
coarser, hardier kind. It occupies with respect to the black pigs
the same position that the small Cumberland- Yorks do as to white
breeds — that is to say, an improved Essex boar is suie to improve
the produce of any large dark sow.

" The original Essex pig was a parti-coloured animal, with
white shoulders, nose and legs ; in fact, a sort of ' sheeted' pig, large,
upright and coarse in bone

" The improved Essex, with symmetry, have more size and con-
stitution than the original Essex- Neapolitans, and this has been
maintained, without any crosses, for more than twenty years, by
judicious selections from the * three distinct families ' (Original
Essex, Western Essex and Neapolitan-Essex)."

Chester TTAi^es.— Harris says : — " The most popular and exten-
sively known breed of pigs in the United States at this time is,
unquestionably, the Chester County breed, or, as generally called,
the ' Chester Whites.'

" The rearing and shipping of these pigs has become a very
large and profitable business.

" One firm alone in Chester County, Penn., informs us that for
the last three or four years they have shipped from two thousand
fiYQ hundred to two thousand nine hundred of these pigs each year,
and many other breeders have also distributed large numbers of
them. There are several reasons why the Chester Whites are more
popular than the English breeds. In the first place, they are a large,
rather coarse, half-h ardy breed, of good constitution, and well adapted
to the system of management ordinarily adopted by the majo-
rity of our farmers. They are a capital sort of common swine, and
it is certainly fortunate that they have been so extensively intro-
duced into nearly all sections of the country. Wherever Chester
Whites are introduced, there will be found sows admirably suited
to cross with the refined English breeds. No cross could be bet-
ter than a Chester White sow and an Essex, Berkshire, or small
Yorkshire thorough-bred boar.

" We get the form, refinement, early maturity and fattening
qualities of the latter, combined with the strong digestive powers,
hardiness and vigorous growth of the Chester Whites.

" If the first cross does not give pigs possessing sufficient refine-
ment and earl}^ maturity, a good, thrifty, well-formed sow should
be selected from the litter and put to a thorough-bred boar, and
this second cross will, so far as our experience goes, be as refined

as is desirable for ordinary farm -yard pigs The pigs

from a third cross would have 87 J per cent, of thorough-bred blood

Manual of Agriculture, 369

in them, and, so far as the production of pork is concerned, would
be more profitable than thorough-breds."

The Oheshire, or Jefferson County Pigs. — This is a breed which,
originating in Jefferson County, N.Y. State, has come into some
notoriety in the States, though few have found their way into
Canada. They are descended from the " Cheshires," one of the
largest and coarsest breeds in England, of which Sidney says,
" These unprofitable giants are almost extinct."

They are like the Chester Whites in form, but superior in beauty
and fineness.

The Magie (Ohio) Pig is another large breed of pigs which
has of late attained considerable celebrity, especially in the west-
ern States.

D. M. Magie is the largest breeder of them, and from him they
have obtained a name.

They are large and coarse, and we doubt their ever finding
favour, unless considerably refined, in the Canadian market.

Breeding. — The same remarks that have been applied to the
advantages of breeding sheep and cattle from thorough-bred male
stock, are of equal weight in the selection of sires for pigs.

There are distinct objects to be attained in breeding — improve-
ment of shape, tendency to early maturity of progeny, and fecun-
dity of sow and boar.

Under any circumstances, the points to be looked for in a good
breeding sow, whatever may be her breed, are : a small, lively
head ; a broad and deep chest ; round ribs ; capacious barrel ; a
haunch falling almost to the hough ; deep and broad loins ; ample
and wide hips, with considerable length of body. Smallness of
bone is another property inevitably transmitted to progeny, and
on the possession of which early maturity is dependent.

Twelve teats should be found on the belly of a good breeding
sow ; for every pig selects a teat for itself, and keeps it.

Breeding sows or boars should never be raised from defective
animals.

A good hoar should possess a long body ; small bones ; well-
developed muscles ; wide chest ; broad, straight back, not falling
at the rump ; short head ; fine snout ; clear, bright eye ; a short,
thick neck ; broad, well-developed shoulders ; a loose, mellow skin ;
fine bright long hair and few bristles ; and small legs and hips.

In-and-in breeding has a very rapid deteriorating eftect upon
swine. When persisted in, the result is decrease in number, size
and early maturity of every succeeding litter, until at length the
progeny becomes puny, the sows barren, and the boars almost use-
less.

The practice is also very injurious in that it predisposes the
progeny to all the diseases that the pig is "heir to," such as scrofula,
epilepsy, rheumatism, &c. Pigs not only improve very rapidly by
24j

370 The Canadian Farmer's

the use of superior breeding animals, but also degenerate very
rapidly by injudicious management.

Raising Thorough-breds. — As in the kine or sheep, thorough-
breds must be raised by some one to give us the benefit and use
of blood-boars, but for the ordinary farm purposes a good grade
pig will be found the most serviceable ; in order, however, to keep
up a good stock of grades, thorough-bred males must be used.
As Harris puts it : —

" It cannot be denied that many farmers have purchased
thorough-bred pigs, and after keeping them a few years have
given them up in disgust. One cause of this result may be found
in the erroneous ideas prevalent in regard to the object of keeping
improved thorough-bred animals. No farmer could afford to keep
a herd of high-bred Duchess Shorthorns simply for the purpose
of raising beef for the butcher. Their value consists in their capa-
city to convert a large amount of highly nutritious food into a
large amount of valuable beef, and in the power they have of trans-
mitting this quality to their offspring when crossed with ordinary
cows. It is in this last respect that pedigree is so important.
But the former quality is due in a great degree to persistent high
feeding for many generations. Were they submitted to ordinary
food and treatment, especially when young, they would rapidly
deteriorate. But put one of these splendid Shorthorn bulls to a
carefully selected ordinary cow, and we get a grade Shorthorn that,
with ordinary good feed and treatment, will prove highly profit-
able for the butcher.

" The same is true of improved thorough-bred pigs. Their
valuable qualities have been produced by persistent high feeding,
and by selecting from their offspring those best adapted for high
feeding. Pigs that grew slowly were rejected, while those that
grew rapidly and matured early were reserved to breed from. In
this way these qualities became established in the breed ; and these
qualities cannot be maintained without good care and good feeding,

" In the case of pigs, we could well afford to give the necessary
food to fatten thorough-bred pigs for the butcher. But we cannot
afford to raise the young thorough-breds for this purpose. This
would be true, even if we could buy thorough-bred boars and sows
to breed from at the price of ordinary pigs. The reason we can-
not aflford to raise highly refined, thorough-bred pigs for ordinary
purposes is, that if we feed them as they must be fed to main-
tain their qualities, they are apt to become too fat f6r breeding;
and if we feed and treat them as ordinary slow-growing pigs are
treated and fed, they lose the qualities which it is the object of
the breeder to perpetuate. To raise highly improved thorough-
bred pigs requires more care, skill, judgment and experience than
we can afford to bestow on animals designed to be sold in a few
months to the butcher.

Manual of Agriculture, 871

" The object of raising thorough-bred pigs is simply to improve
our common stock. They should be raised for this purpose, and
for this purpose alone. The farmer should buy a thorough-bred
boar from some reliable breeder, and select the largest and best
sow he has to cross him with. A thorough-bred boar at six weeks
or two months old can usually be bought for $20 to $25. Such a
boar in a neighbourhood is capable of adding a thousand dollars a
year to the "profits of farmers who use him."

Fertility. — This is a quality that runs in families in sows, and
one very important for the profits of the pig breeder. To keep up
fertility in a stock, sows should be chosen for breeding whose an-
cestors have been noted for the same quality. AlsO; sows should
be at all times plentifully but not highly fed. Plentifully, that
they may never be suffering from hunger; and not too highly, that
all danger of over-fatness and fever be avoided.

The influence of a first impregnation is very great upon the
future breeding of a sow. We have many illustrations of this
fact in daily experience, for we see the litter of a sow often taking
for many years, even when a different boar has each time been
used, after the first boar to which she had access.

Breeding and Rearing. — A strong, vigorous sow, of good size,
should be chosen from which to breed. If a farmer desires to let
his pigs run over the first winter, and to make heavy eighteen
months old pork, a sow fiom a big-bred sow bad better be selected
to put to a small thorough-bred.

As we have said in a preceding page, we believe that for the
farmers in Canada the most profitable kind of pig is one that
will make from one hundred and fifty to two hundred pounds of
pork in the first nine or ten months of its life ; and for this pur-
pose there are none equal to the well-bred small kinds — Black
Berkshires and Essex and White Suffblks and small Yorkshires.
We take the following full and yet concise instructions from the
pages of " Harris on the Pig :" —

tStore Pigs.—RQ begins by saying : " Better pay five dollars
for the use of a thorough- bred than accept the services of a grade

or common boar for nothing If the sow has

had pigs in, say, the middle of March, they may be weaned in six
weeks ; and if the sow has been properly fed, she will take the
boar in a few days after the pigs are weaned. We should then
get a litter of, say, grade Essex about the 1st of September.
The sow, during the summer, should, if possible, have the run of a
clover pasture ; and if she is not in good thriving condition with
this, and the wash or milk from the house, throw her two or three
ears of corn a day. She should not be too fat, but there is not one
farmer in a thousand who ever falls into this error. Let her have
plenty of exercise ; and if she is fully half fat by the time she
comes in, all the better. If she is a good mother, nearly all her

372 The Canadian Farmer's

accumulated fat will find its way to the little ones before they are
six weeks old.

" For two or three weeks before she is expected to farrow, let
the sow be put in a pen by herself at nights, to accustom her to it.
She may be allowed to run out during the day, but should always
be fed separately in the pen, and in this way she will soon come
to regard the pen as her own, and will go in as soon as the door is
open. Let no harsh word be spoken, nor a kick nor a blow be on
any provocation resorted to.

" The pen should have a rail round the side, about six inches
from the floor, and eight or ten inches from the side of the pen, so
that if she makes her bed near the side of the pen, as she almost
invariably will, the rail will afford a space for the little ones to slip
under, and thus prevent their being crushed against the sides of
the pen.

" As at this season the weather is warm, she will need but
little straw. The better plan is to put in two or three times as
much straw as is needed two or three weeks before she is expected
to pig. By lying on it she will make it soft, and this is very de-
sirable. If any of it becomes wet or dirty, remove it from time to
time when the sow is out. As the time approaches she will select
a particular spot and * make a bed.' When she is eating, or out of
the pen, examine the bed and see that the sides are not too hard,
or compacted together too closely, and that they are not more
than four or five inches high ; if so, remove a little of the straw.
It is better to have too little than too much. After this, the sow
should be left to herself With gentle thorough-breds that are
accustomed to being petted, we keep a close watch during such an
interesting event, rendering assistance if necessary ; but as a rule,
and especially with common pigs, it is far better to trust to nature,
and let things take their course.

" At this season of the year, and especially if the sow has had
the run of a pasture, and is in a thrifty condition, there will sel-
dom be any trouble. The little pigs will come strong, and com-
mence to suck a few minutes after they are born. On no account
disturb the sow until all is over. This may be two hours, and
sometimes longer. Do not be in any hurry to feed her. But
when she gets up let her have all the slop or milk that she will
drink.

" It is better to watch her, and keep pouring it into the trough
as fast as she will drink it up clean. Let her have all she can
drink, but leave none in the trough. We are aware that these
directions are not in accord with the general rules upon the sub-
ject. There are those who think that the sow should be kept on
short allowance, so that she may be wide awake, and quick to
hear the scream of any little one she may be lying on.

"■ This is all very well, but the chief danger occurs from the sow

Manual of Agriculture. 373

getting up and lying down again ; and if she has a good meal, and
eats it all up clean, she will be more likely to lie still during the
night than if she is hungry.

" After she has eaten, and when she goes back to her bed, you
will be there to hear if she lies on any of her pigs, and can go to
the rescue. When she has once lain down, there is little danger
until she gets up again. If all goes well for the first two nights,
there will rarely be any loss or trouble afterwards.

" Give the sow all the milk or slops she will drink, but little or
no grain for the first week or ten days. If the little pigs scour,
change the food of the sow. There is nothing better for her than
skimmed milk not too sour, and the next best thing is two quarts
of fine middlings, scalded with two or three quarts of boiling
water, and the pail afterwards filled up with water sufiicient to
cool it to the temperature of new milk.

" When the pigs are two weeks old, a little shallow trough may
be made for them. Nothing is better for this purpose than two
or three feet of a tin eave trough, turned up at the ends. Nail it
to the floor so that the pigs will not upset it, and, if possible, put
it where the sow cannot get at it. Then put in half a pint or so
of sweet milk.

" Let them drink and waste what they will of it, but always
clean it out before fresh is put in.

" Try to teach them early to eat their meals promptly and then
lie down to sleep. Give them a small handful of oats, or, better
still, three or four tablespoonfuls of oatmeal, increasing the quan-
tity daily, but never giving more than they will eat up clean.

" If fed too much at one time, and too little at others, it will pro-
duce scours, and retard the growth of the pigs. At three weeks
old a litter of eight or ten pigs will eat a quart of good oats four
times a day. They seem particularly fond of cracking the oats
and eating out the kernels.

"After the first week or ten days, the sow should have richer food,
say two quarts of fine middlings and a quart of oat or corn meal
three times a day. Let her have all she will eat, and in a week or
ten days later give richer food. Boiled barley is excellent, but it
is better to vary the food so as to induce the sow to eat more. We
often throw our sows an ear or two of corn after they have eaten
their regular meal. The more food the sow can be induced to
eat, the richer will be the milk and the more rapidly will the little
pigs grow.

" When about six weeks old, the pigs should be altered. Do
not be tempted to reserve one of them for a boar. No matter how
handsome and well-formed he may be, it is absolute folly to use
him for breeding purposes. Select out one or two of the best sows,
but alter all the boars.

" The sow pigs will grow and fatten more rapidly if spayed,

374 The Canadian Farmer's

but it is not often that we can find men in this country who are
able to perform the operation with safety. Where there are such,
all the sow pigs not intended for breeding should be spayed a
week or ten days before weaning. There is nothing better to apply
to the wound than petroleum — not kerosene, but the crude oil.

" The time of weaning will depend upon the time when it is
required to have the next litter of pigs.

" If the sow is in good condition, she will take the boar in a
week or two after the pigs are weaned. And if the sow and pigs
are well fed, the pigs may be allowed to remain with the sow
until ten weeks or three months old.

" It is better not to remove all the pigs at once ; let them return
to the sow for a few minutes at the expiration of twelve hours,
and again at the expiration of twenty -four hours. We prefer,
however, to let one or two of the weaker pigs remain with the
sow for a week or so after the others have been removed.

" At the time of weaning, the pigs should have extra attention.
Feed them five times a day, the first thing in the morning and
the last at night. If they have all they can eat, they will not pine
for the mother. Nothing is so good for them as milk. A little
flaxseed tea, oatmeal gruel, or cornmeal gruel, mixed with the milk
or given separately, will be good and acceptable. As the weather
by this time is getting cold, it will be well to give warm food.
But guard against giving it too hot : it should not be warmer than
new milk.

" There is perhaps nothing better for the pigs than corn pudding
and milk. Put two quarts of corn meal into a pail, and pour
on two or three quarts of boiling water and stir it until all the
meal is wet, then fill up the pail with milk.

" We need hardly add that all pigs should be allowed a con-
stant supply of fresh water. There are few things more important
in the management of pigs.

" Let the pens be warm, clean and well ventilated, but with no
cracks for the wind to blow in on to the pigs. And, above all, let
the bedding and pens be dry. There should always be litter
enough for the pigs to bury themselves in. Warmth, to a certain
extent, is equivalent to food, and, what is of more importance than
the saving of food, it saves digestion. Let the pigs have all
the exercise they wish, and then do not be afraid that warm, dry,
and comfortable quarters, with abundance of wholesome food, will
make them tender.

" We are aware that this is a common idea, but it is an erroneous
one. A cold wind or storm, that will send a half-starved and
neglected pig squealing round the barn-yard with hair on end,
head down and back up, will have no effect on pigs treated as we
have recommended. And there is nothing more important than
to have young pigs in a healthy, vigorous, and almost fat condi-
tion before winter sets in.

Manual of Agriculture. 375

" The pigs are now three months old, and should weigh 75 lbs.
to 80 lbs. apiece.

" During the winter, the pigs may be allowed to run in the
barn -yard, to pick up what they can find. If the cattle are fed
with grain and oil-cake, a certain number of pigs will keep in good
condition on the leavings of the cattle, and on food which would
otherwise be wasted. Let the young pigs, however, have a sepa-
rate pen from the old ones, and see to it that they have enough
food to keep them in condition.

" By throwing them an ear or two of com in the pen, they will
soon learn to be ready at the appointed time to enter the pen for
the night without trouble. On no account let them go to bed
hungry.

" Let their stomachs be well filled, say at five o'clock in the
evening, and they will sleep quietly until eight o'clock the next
morning. In fact, a well-bred and well-fed pig will sleep three-
fourths of his time during winter. If not disturbed, and tempted
with fattening food, he will eat nothing and gain nothing. And
sometimes, like other hibernating animals, he will live on his own
fat.

" As spring approaches, the young pigs will need more food, and
fortunate is that farmer who has a liberal supply of parsnips,
sugar-beets or mangold-wurzels for them. These roots, pulped or
rasped in a cider mill, mixed with a little corn meal, are a cheap
and excellent food for pigs in the spring. But, whatever the
feed, let the pigs have all they need to keep them in a good thriv-
ing condition.

" As soon as the clover is fairly growing, the pigs should have
the run of the clover pasture. They will get three-fourths of
their food in the pasture, and we need hardly say that where
clover grows abundantly, it is the cheapest food that can be fed
to a pig ; with clover and the slops from the house and dairy, the
pigs will keep in a thriving condition. But it is a waste of time
and food to depend on this alone with pigs intended for the
butcher. If fed from a pint to a quart of corn or corn meal a day,
they will eat just as much clover, and will grow nearly as fast
again. After harvest they will pick up considerable food on the
grain stubbles ; but if as fat as they should be by this time, stub-
ble gleanings can be more profitably left to the breeding stock
and spring pigs.

" By the 1st of November, such pigs as we have described, fed
as here recommended, should be in prime order for the butcher,
and can be sold at any time when the price is satisfactory.

** They should average 400 lbs. dressed weight. The pork is of
the highest quality, and the lard keeps firm and hard during the
hottest weather in summer, and makes excellent f^astry."

Spring pigs, to be killed when nine or ten months old, should

376 The Canadian Farmer's

be brought in as early in spring as possible. As the weather in
which they are born is apt to be cold and stormy, some care
must be exercised in the protection of the mother and young. The
pen must be warm and well sheltered. The treatment of the
mother may be similar to that already explained in the foregoing
extract. There should be plenty of straw, but let it be provided
some days before pigging is expected to commence, so that the
mother may bite it up short and make a compact bed.

In long straw, young pigs are apt, when first born, to become en-
tangled, and so are easily laid upon and crushed by the mother.

It must be remembered that the pig when first born is very
tender, is wet, and therefore very susceptible to cold. We have
saved pigs born in February, when the thermometer was below
zero, by careful attention to the exclusion of ever}?- possible draught
of wind from the pen.

The same treatment of the mother, and sucking pigs the same
time of weaning; castrating should be adopted as was recom-
mended in the preceding extract from " Harris on the Pig."

Spring pigs, however, that are required to make choice pork
before winter sets in, want careful attendance during the summer.
They should have the run of a good clover field, and there, with
all the milk and slops that can be spared them, and a very small
but regular supplj?- of grain, and constant access to water, they
will thrive and grow during the hot months. As soon as ever the
crops are off*, let them be turned into the grain stubbles ; there they
will fill out and grow fat with amazing rapidity. As soon as ever
the stubbles become pretty well gleaned, if the pigs be not taken
up they will begin to lose fat by reason of the amount of exercise
that they will take in wandering over the field in search of the
shellings.

This must be avoided by immediately penning, and commencing
to cram them with hard grain, corn or peas. The stubbles are
generally cleared by the middle of October, when heavy pen feed-
ing with sound grain, for about four or six weeks, will bring
spring pigs into prime condition for the market, and of a quality
for which there is and ever will be a large demand in Canada.
Well-bred pigs of the improved breeds, such as Berkshire, Suffolk
or small Yorkshires, will at ten months* old, or by December, if
well fed, in the manner above indicated, from the day of birth,
dress from one hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds of prime
pork.

Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert give the following table : —

TABLE SHOWING THE WEIGHT OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF A PIG WEIGHING ALIVK

212| LBS. (average of 59 pigs.)

Parts. Actual Weight. Percentage.

Stomach and contents 2 lbs. 10 4 oz. 1'28

Caul fat 1 " 2-3" 54

Manual of Agriculture. 377

Parts. Actual Weight. Percentage.

Small intestines and contents 4 lbs. 8 4 oz. 2 ^O.

Large " " 8 '' 57 " 4 04.

Intestinal fat 2 " 56 " 1'06.

Heart and aorta 0 ** 96" 029.

Lungs and windpipe 1 ** 91 " 076.

Blood 7 " 10-1" 3-63.

Liver 3 " 45" TST.

Gall bladder and contents 0 " 21" 006.

Pancreas (sweet-bread) 0 " 6-6" 0.19.

Miltorspleen 0 *' 47" 0-14

Bladder 0 «' 2-5 " 008.

Penis 0 *' 7-1 " 0-21.

Tongue 1 " 02 " 048.

Toes 0 " 2-9" O'OS.

Miscellaneous trimmings 0 " 8*8 " 0-26.

Total oflfal parts 35 " 4-6" 16-87.

Carcase 176 " 5*3 " 82 57.

Loss by evaporation, &c 1 " 21 " 056.

Live weight after fasting 212 " 12*0 100 00.

From tliese and other experiments, Mr. Harris deduces the fol-
lowing : that

A moderately fat heifer or steer will dress 59^ per cent. meat.

" mutton sheep " " ... 59

pig

.824

Showing that a pig turns out twenty-three per cent, more meat,
in proportion to its actual live weight, than either the steer or
sheep.

Pigs, if properly attended to, and treated well and generously,
are the most profitable stock that the farmer can raise. They
realize the great commercial principle of profit, namely, " quick
returns," and, added to this, they have the qualities of rapid mul-
tiplication and early maturity.

Feeding Peas or Corn. — Peas contain in 1,000 parts —

264 parts of gluten, and 496 of starch, gum and sugar.

Com 123 " " 716

Barley 64 '* « 684

In our former chapter on the principles of feeding, we showed
that food containing large amounts of gluten was tiesh-forming,
while that into the composition of which enters largely starch and
sugar was fat-forming.

Hence, mixing peas and corn or peas and barley will be found
better for the purpose of fattening pigs than the same weight or
equivalent in money value of either of these grains fed separately.

Peas are the most valuable when the pig is first pvit up to fatten,
by filling up the flesh on the bones ; but when once the bones have
become well covered with flesh, corn will be found most efl&cient
in the formation of fat.

378

The Canadian Farmers

Sour Whey for Pigs. — It is calculated that about one pig can be
reared from sour whey for every two cows in the dairy. Sujjposing
a dairy to consist of fifty cows ; three breeding sows, reckoning
that each one would have eight young pigs, might be kept, giving
them the run in any rough grass under orchard trees not much
used for other purposes. These pigs, receiving as much of the sour
whey as they will drink, will make strong growing pigs. The whey
is much better for pig food when old, or at least some mixture of it
should be so ; and if it be used daily from the vat, which is as often
getting replenished from the dairy,it makes a very wholesome drink
for pigs, on which they will grow and do remarkably well. And
as the pigs are small to begin upon it, and do not drink as much as
afterwards, a stock collects for their large appetites ; and this, with the
wash which farm-houses must supply, with garden refuse thrown
in it in the summer in addition, is found enough to keep the num-
ber of pigs mentioned, viz., about one of the age and description
given, to every two dairy cows in milk. — " Morton.''

TABLE OF DENTITION OF PIGS.

At
Birth.

One
month.

4 central

Three
months.

Nine Twelve
months, months.

Eighteen
months.

Temporary incisors

4
4

8 central

and lateral

8 central
and lateral

4 lateral.

Permanent incisors

••

4 comers.

8 central
and cor-
ners.

12 central,

lateral and

corner.

Permanent tusks

••

4 (cutting)

Total in both jaws

SEVERAL MODES OF CURING BACON, HAM AND PORK.

Dry Salting. — Cut up into hams, shoulders and sides, and salt
well ; lay up for a time, and in about six weeks salt again. When
the salt has worked well through the pork, it may be hung up in
the kitchen to dry, and before the flies become troublesome in
spring, pack the salt in sifted wooda&hes or in oats. It will keep
sweet all summer.

In Brine. — Put a layer of salt at the bottom of the cask, at
least one inch thick, and then pack tightly one layer of clear pork,
each piece placed on its edge. Now put salt on again, to fill up
the interstices between the pieces and to make another layer of
salt over the layer of meat. Then add another layer of pork and
another layer of salt successively, till the cask is nearly full, put-
ting over the last layer two inches or so of salt. Now take cold
water and make a brine as strong as salt will make it, and pour
this brine over the meat, putting in enough to cover the upper
layer of meat with che brine.

Manual of Agriculture. 379

We have pork in our cellar now that was thus put away a year
ago, and which is as hard and as perfectly sweet as any one could
possibly desire. From the moment it is stowed and packed away
it needs no more attention or watching.

The top of the ban el should be made small enough to be put
over the meat, with a weight pressing it down. This gives easy
access to the pickled pork, and keeps it under the brine. No one
need fear usirg too much salt. Use it lavishly, and when the meat
is all gone, take the brine and scatter it over the manure heap,
just as it is being hauled out to the field. Used in this way it will
be worth to the farmer all that it cost him ; especially if applied
where early corn or early potatoes are being planted. Land that
has been dressed with salt manure has been put in grand prepara-
tion for a crop of turnips.

Sugar Curing. — Take fourteen pounds of good salt ; one half
pound of saltpetre ; two quarts of molasses, or four pounds of
brown sugar, with water enough to dissolve them. Bring the
liquor to a scalding point, and skim off all the impurities which
rise to the top.

When cold, pour it upon the hams, which should be perfectly
cool, and not frozen, and closely packed in a barrel ; if not suffici-
ent to cover them make up with pure water. For a flavour, pepper,
allspice, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace or cloves may be added.

Let the hams remain six or eight weeks in this pickle ; then
hang them up in the smoke-house, with the small end down, and
smoke for from ten to twenty days, according to quantity of
smoke made.

Keep the fire far enough away to escape all danger of heating
the hams. The Westphalia hams, a noted article in the world's
market, are smoked in a cool, dry chamber, into which the smoke
is carried from a cellar below by a flue.

Green maple makes the best chips for smoking, after which come,
in the following order, hickory, birch, corn-cobs, white ash or
beech.

To Keep Flies out of Cured Pork. — Cover each piece with a can-
vas bag thoroughly saturated with lime whitewash, or pack in
sifted ashes, dry oats or baked sawdust. Another plan is to dip
them in meat paint. This is made by stirring very fine ashes
into warm (not hot) water until the mixture is as thick as paint,
then dip in the meat pieces and hang up to dry. The flies will
not molest it.

ENGLISH MODES.

Westmoreland Hams, which are famous, are thus cured : They
are rubbed hard with bay salt, after which they are left on a
stone bench to drain off the brine. After four or five days the

380 ^^^ Canadian Farmer's

rubbing is repeated, with an addition of an ounce of finely-pow-
dered saltpetre to each ham, mixed with the salt. Then they are
suffered to lie about a week, and are then hung in the chimney to
smoke. Some hang them so that they may be dried solely by the
heat of the fire, without being exposed to the smoke ; while others
suspend them in the midst of the smoke, whether rising from
wood or peat, and leave them there until the weather becomes
warm, when they are packed up in oat chaff; though, to prevent
them from being fly-blown, they ought to be covered with bags
of coarse linen or paper.

In Hampshire, Berkshire, and some of the neighbouring dis-
tricts, when the hog is killed the first process is to " swale" him
or singe off his bristles, which is done by laying the carcase on
one side and covering it thinl}^ with straw, to be lighted on the
windward side, and renewed as it burns away, taking care, how-
ever, not to scorch the skin ; the other side is then turned, and
when the process of singeing is completed, the bristles are scraped
off dry. This is considered preferable to the usual plan of scalding
and scraping, which softens the rind, and is then thought to injure
the firmness of the fat. He is next cut into flitches, which are
effectually rubbed with a mixture of saltpetre and common salt,
and laid in a trough, where they continue for three weeks or a
month, according to their size, and are during that time frequently
turned, and when completely dried and cured on the game plan as
that of Westmoreland, noticed above, are either packed in oat
chaff or deposited on the kitchen racks for home concmmption.
They should be kept dry, and never be packed in cellars or damp
places.

On the European Continent it is common to strip off" the skin,
the hide being sold for saddles, and the bristles for brushmaking.
These parts afford some profit, and the flesh is said to take the salt
better when skinned ; but if cured, it is said that the bacon is
subject to become rusty, and to waste in boiling.

Piggeries. — We have not room in the present work to go into the
subject of piggeries, but we commend our readers to the excellent
portions on this subject contained in '' Harris on the Pig," a book
written by a practical farmer and the son of a fai'mer, as he says
in his preface, residing near Rochester, in the State of New York ;
and we have no hesitancy in saying that it is a work that should
be on the shelves of every enterprising farmer.

Catching a Pig. — Of all the animals to catch, perhaps a pig is
the most difficult, and the most provocative of canstant loss of
temper to the attendant.

However, as the more the temper is lost, the more perverse and
obstinate the animal becomes, we should advise as the fir^ essen-
tial *' to keep cool."

Common method. — To drive him round till the attendant is out

Manual of Agriculture. 381

of breath and the pig has done himself a gi'eat amount of damage
and lost a day's good food ; knock him down with a stick ; get bit-
ten, and frighten the animal so that he will not willingly approach
man for a month or so.

A better method is to fasten a double cord to the end of a stick,
and beneath the stick let there be a running noose in the cord ; tie
a piece of bread to the cord (it may also be done without any
bait), and when he opens his mouth to seize the bait, catch the
upper jaw in the mouth, run it tight, and back of the tusk, and
the animal is fast. Tie the other end to a post, and you may
approach and do anything to the pig without fear, even to slaugh-
tering. A pig tied by a cord, behind the tusks, and attached to a
stout post, will do nothing but steadily pull back with his whole
weight on the cord ; he will never come forward.

Another method. — Catch one foot in a running noose and draw
it off the ground, then throw a bag over the animal's head.

HORSES.

** The fiery courser, when he hears from far
The sprightly trumpets and the shouts of war,
Pricks up his ears, and, trembling with delight,
Shifts place, and paws, and hopes the promised fight ;
On his right shoulder his thick mane reclined,
Ruffles at speed and dances in the wind.
Eager he stands — then starting with a bound,
He turns the turf, and shakes the solid ground ;
Fire from his eyes, clouds from his nostrils flow •,
He bears his rider headlong on the foe !"

POINTS OF A GOOD HORSE.

We extract from " The Horse in the Stable and the Field," by
Stonehenge : —

" The Head. — Without a wide forehead (which marks the seat of
the brain) you cannot expect a full development of those faculties
known as courage, tractability, good temper, fee. The size of the
muzzle is partly regarded as an element of beauty, and partly
as a sign of good breeding.

" Hence, in the cart-horse a coarse jaw and thick muzzle are not
regarded. A large and patent nostril cannot be dispensed with in
horses intended for fast work, and should be desired even in the cart-
horse, for in drawing heavy loads on a hot day his breathing may be
rendered almost as laborious as that of the highly-tasked race-horse
or hunter. So also with the jaw : if there is not ample width be-
tween the two sides for the development and play of the larynx
and windpipe, the wind is sure to be affected, and, in addition, the
head cannot be nicely placed on the neck. * ^ * Xhe e^^e is
to be examined with a twofold purpose — first, as an index of tern-

382 The Canadian Farmer's

per, the nature of which is marked by the expression of this
organ ; and second, of its continuing healthy. A fuli and clear
eye, with soft, gazelle-like expression, is scarcely ever associated
with a bad temper, and will most frequently continue sound if the
management of the horse to which it belongs is proper in itself.
The ear should be of medium size, not too small nor too large ; nor
should it be lopped, though many good lop-eared horses have been
known, and some very superior breeds, like that of the celebrated
Melbourne, are notorious for this defect.

" The neck should be of moderate length, all beyond a certain
dimension being waste, and even a moderate-sized head at the end
of an extremely long lever being too much for the muscles to sup-
port. It should come out full and muscular, with a sweep between
the bosom and the withers, and should gradually diininish till it
runs into the head, with an elegant bend just behind the ear. A
very narrow throat, suddenly bent at the upper part, known as the
thropple, is apt to be connected with roaring, and on that account
is objected to by horsemen.

" In the fore qiiarters there are several points to be attentively
examined, and among these the shoulder is regarded as of most
consequence when the horse under consideration is intended for
the saddle. It is evident that unless there is length of the blade,
and also of the true arm, there cannot be a full surface for the
attachment and play of the muscles, nor can there be the same
amount of spring to take off the jar which follows each footfall.
The straighter the angle formed by the long axis of each of these
bones, the less spring there will be. So also, if the angle is not
sufficient, the muscles of the shoulder-blade will not thrust for-
ward the true arm, nor will the latter be sufficiently clothed with
muscles (without being loaded) to act on the fore arm, commonly
known by horsemen as the arm. Hence it is f(»unJ that, with an
upright shoulder, not only is the stride in all the paces short and
the action stumpy, but there is not that elastic movement which
enables the horse to carry his body along rapidly and evenly,
without rising alternately behind and before, and thereby jarring
himself or his rider. On the other hand, the upright shoulder,
loaded with a thick mass of muscles, is useful in the cart-horse,
and to a certain extent also in the carriage-horse, in both of which
the pressure of the collar requires a steady and comparatively mo-
tionless surface to bear it. * * * The point of the shoulder
should be well developed, but not showing any rough protuber-
ances, which are equally objectionable with a tiat or ill-developed
point. The length of the true arm is mainly dependent upon that
of the blade ; but sometimes, when this is oblique enough, the true
arm is short and upright, and the elbow stands under, or only a
little behind, the shoulder point. This is a very faulty contbrma-
tion, and is seldom attended with good action. The chief defect

Manual of Agriculture. 383

in the elbow is seen when it turns inwards, and rubs so closely
against the ribs that the finger can hardly be insinuated between
them and it. Here the elbow is said to be tied or confined, and the
horse is very apt to turn his toes out ; while the opposite forma-
tion is indicated by turned-in or ' pigeon toes,* and turn-out elbows,
frequently accompanying long-standing rheumatism of the shoul-
ders. A long and muscular fore arm is a sure accompaniment of
strong and sweeping action, and should be carefully prized ; in
other respects there is little to be noted here. Next comes the
knee, which should be broad, and, when looked at from the front,
should be much wider than the limb above and below. It should
taper off backwards to a comparatively thin edge, and should have
a good development of the pisiform bone, which projects back-
wards at its upper part. The leg, immediately below the knee,
should be as large as any other part, and not 'tied in' there, which
indicates a weakness of this part. A bending of the knee back-
wards is called a 'calf-knee,' and is not objected to in cart-horses,
in which it is by no means uncommon; but it is very apt to lead
to strains of this joint in the race-horse or hunter. A knee natu-
rally bending somewhat forward is much preferred by good judges,
though when it is the result of overwork, it is almost equally to
be avoided with the calf-knee. Flat, and at the same time large
cannon bones, without gumminess, are of great importance ; and if
attended with a full-sized suspensory ligament, and with strong,
clean, and free back sinews, the leg is to be considered faultless.
The fetlock-joint should be of good size, and clean, whilst the pas-
terns should form an angle with the ground of between forty -live
and sixty degrees. Lastly, the foot should be well formed ; but the
construction of this part being elsewhere more fully described, its
consideration here is omitted.

" In the Wiiddle-piece the w^ithers come first under notice. It is
usual to desire them high and thin, but they are very commonly
too much developed, and if the bony processes stand up like the
edge of a razor, without muscles in them, they are to be regarded
as objectionable rather than otherwise. * * * The volume
of the chest is the measure not only of the capacity of the lungs,
but of that of the large organs of digestion. Hence, unless there
is a middle-piece of proper size, the wind is seldom good, and the
stamina of the individual will scarcely ever be sufhcient to bear
hard work. * * * The capacity of the lungs is marked by the
size of the chest at the girth ; but the stamina will depend upon
the depth of the back ribs, which should be especiall}" attended to.

"A short hack, with plenty of ground covered nevertheless, is
the desideratum of every practical horseman. Unless the mea-
surement from the shoulder point to the back of the quarters is
somewhat greater than the height at the withers, the action is
confined, especially in the gallop, for the hind legs cannot be

384 The Canadian Farmer's

brought sufficiently forward on account of the interference of the
fore-quarter ; and, indeed, from the want of play in the back, they
are generally too much crippled in that respect. * * * Next
to these points in the middle-piece it is important to pay attention
to the upper line of the back, which should bend down a little
behind the withers, and then swell out very gently to the junction
with the loins, which can hardly be too wide and muscular.

" In examining the hind-quarters, so much depends upon the
breed, and the purposes to which the animal is to be put, that only
a few general remarks can be given. * * * Muscular quar-
ters and gaskins are desirable in all breeds ; for without strong
propellers, no kind of work to which the horse is put can be duly
performed. The judge of a horse generally likes to look at the
quarters behind, so as to get a good view of their volume, and
unless they come close together, and leave no hollow below the
arms, he suspects that there is a want of constitution, and rejects
the animal on that account. But not only are muscles of full
size required, but there must be strong joints to bear the strain
which these exert, and one of the most important of all the points
of the horse is the hock. This should be of good size, but clean
and flat, without any gumminess or thoroughpins, and with a
good clean point standing clear of the rest of the joint ; the 'curby
place' and the situation of spavin should be free from enlarge-
ment ; but to detect these diseases a considerable amount of prac-
tice is required. Lastly, the hocks should be well let down, which
depends upon the length of the thigh, and ensures a short cannon-
bone. The pasterns and feet should be formed in correspondence
with those of the fore extremity, to which I have already alluded."

Breeds. — There are certain fixed types of horses which have
the power to transmit their peculiar characteristics to their pro-
geny when crossed to common mares.

These are the thorough-bred Racer, Arab, Suffolk, Clydesdale,
and Norman or Percheron.

The Thorough-bred Racer. — We believe that a more liberal use
of the genuine horses of this type would be productive of a great
improvement in our present class of Canadian horses. The pecu-
liar features and characteristics of these horses are splendid wind
and great courage. We have them typified to a certain extent in
the descendants of " Lexington" in Kentucky and in " Scottish
Chief."

For general purposes there can be no breed so useful as the
cross between the stout, square-built and heavy farm mare and a
thorough- bred blood horse. From the one we obtain size of frame,
weight for the collar ; while from the otlier are derived endurance,
pluck and life.

21ie Arab has been used to advantage to produce the same
qualities as the type above spoken of.

Manual of Agriculture, 385

The Suffolk, usually called Punch, is a breed peculiarly adapted
to farm purposes in Canada. They have strength, beauty, docility,
are easily kept, and are fast walkers — good on the road or on the
farm.

The Clydesdale is heavy and unwieldy, excellently adapted for
heavy pulling at a slow pace, but it is not favourable for farm
uses ; a cross between a Clydesdale and a well-bred, fine-limbed
horse, is productive of a superior farm and general beast.

The NorrYian or Percheron is being fast introduced into the
States, and has made some foothold in Canada. The breed possess
great strength with stoutness, and is of moderate size and good
action.

Our French Canadian horse is from the pure Norman stock,
crossed on the Indian ponies of the habitants of the Lower Pro-
vince. For strength, toughness and sagacity, combined with
smallness of size and easy feeding qualities, there is probably no
superior breed in the world.

Trotting Horses. — The raising of trotting horses is in itself an-
tagonistic to the development of a good breed of general purpose
horses.

The trotter is of no breed, but owes his superiority in one par-
ticular part to the diligent training of himself and perhaps of his
ancestors in that particular gait.

The Morgans and Black Hawks, Tempest and Royal George, are
all mongrels, with an infusion of the blood of the racer, and in
very few cases has a superior trotting horse been found capable of
transmitting his qualities in that particular respect to his oft'spring.

When a common mare is put to a trotting stallion, the chance
of the colt turning out well on the track depends not so
much upon the trotting capabilities of its sire as upon the
infusion of blood inherited from his ancestors.

On this point Stonehenge says : — " The pure blood stallion had
no plebeian ancestors, and his colts, if not closely resembling him-
self, will still be good, inheriting the qualities of some ancestor,
while the colts of a trotting stallion are likely to take after some
dunghill grandmother."

A good trotting mare to a blood horse is almost certain to
produce a fast colt ; whilst a slow-gaited mare and a trotting
stallion are equally certain (if the trotting staL'ion be not of
good blood for several generations back) to produce an ordinary,
and in many cases an inferior colt.

An undue encouragement has been given to these trotting
stallions and trotting horses at our agricultural shows of late.

The ordinary farmer, who is the supporter of our agricultural
societies, does not want weedy trotters for his uses, but good, ser-
viceable, compact, easily fed and enduring horses.

Let the farmer, then, take a stand, and see to it that in our
25

386 The Canadian Farmer's

horse rings prizes are not awarded to some loose, weedy and leggy
trotter, that can "knock spots" out of better built and more useful
animals, when speeding round the puny ring, to the admiration of
outsiders and the shouts and yells of appreciative boys.

ETtiploy only stallions of pure blood, and beware of using any
of the classes of ill-bred trotting stallions now so numerous. The
fact of so many of these trotters having obtained premiums, and
having thus been advertised before the public, is due to the unjust
and harmful practice on the part of the judges at our agricultural
societies' shows, of awarding prizes to animals for an excellence in
what they have been trained to do, rather than in those qualities
which, inherent in the blood, they will vdthout fail transmit to
their progeny.

Stallions should be obliged to show a pedigree at our exhibitions.
This is just as important with reference to the horse, as it is to
the bull that is entered as a thorough-bred. We are particular
to know the exact descent of a bull, because we say blood is
everything. Equally as rigid should be the rule as to the pedigree
of the horse. An old writer has justly said : —

" The worst scrub of a hack of pure-blooded lineage will pro-
duce better colts than the handsomest mongrel that ever went on
a shodden hoof can do."

The Farmer's Horse is an animal of all work. He is required
occasionally to take the saddle or to draw the light buggy to town ;
to be lively enough, that the driver be not required to " work his
passage ;" and to be light enough, that an occasional trot along the
hard high road will not use up his feet or legs. As steady pulling is
required from the farmer's horse, a thicker and lower- set shoulder
must be looked for than on the road or purely carriage horse.
He wants weight enough to tell before the plough, and "go"
enough to drive with spirit before the light rig. Were the opera-
tions of farming confined to heavy, steady ploughing and cultivat-
ing, the heavy-built, all- weight horse might suit the farmer. But
in Canada the seasons are short, and we have in all our operations
to " hurry up." We want a horse, then, that will walk up with the
reaper and mower ; fetch the empty hay- rack and dung-waggon
back from the barn at a rattling pace ; in fine, one who is capable
of doing not only steady but fast work.

For these general purposes, a moderate-sized, strong, clean-
limbed and active horse will be found best suited, and to attain
such a class the half-bred horse with some blood in him will be
found necessary.

Mares are, as a class, better suited for farm purposes than geld-
ings. A mare, taking weight for weight and bulk for bulk, is usually
stronger and more lasting than a gelding, and the farmer can at any
time make her bring in a good income, not only from work but by
breeding. There is a constantly increasing demand for stout, able

Manual of Agriculture. 387

horses, clean in limbs and with blood in them, in Canada ; and we
know of no kind of stock in the raising of which there is
more profit at the present day, to the Canadian farmer, than that
of a good class of agricultural horse. A good colt at three years
old will fetch one hundred and fifty dollars, and will require little
more attention and feed than a three-year-old steer, worth pro-
bably from sixty to eighty dollars.

If a farmer owns a good, sound farm mare, and can find a three-
fourths or seven-eighths bred horse to which to put her, he need
not fear but that he will raise a valuable and saleable colt.

B}^ judicious management, the time taken from work for a
breeding mare need be very short ; for it has been proved over
and over again, that the mare does best when moderately and
steadily worked up to the very day of foaling. If a mare is put
in May, the foal will be dropped at a comparatively leisure season
of the working year.

The kind of mare from which to breed is very important; indeed
we have observed that, as a matter of practical every-day obser-
vation, the value of a foal depends, no doubt, greatly upon the
sire, but far more upon the mare.

So well aware are the Arabs of this fact, that it was for years
a matter of very great difficulty, and is yet no easy task, to
obtain a superior native Arab mare. They would part with
their stallions, but nothing could induce them to permit a good
mare to leave their country. The greatest evil has been done to
the race of agricultural horses in Canada by the too common
belief that " any mare will do to breed from," no matter how
old, undersized, blemished, broken-winded or otherwise unsound.
He says only that " a mare's a mare for a' that and a' that," and
he looks to the stallion to counterbalance in the colt her in-
herited imperfections. It cannot be too often or too deeply im-
pressed upon the farmer that from the dam comes the majority
of points and beauties in the colt. In the days when Greece was
at the head of civilization, an Athenian youth had entered
his horse for a race in the Olympian games : " What chance have
I of winning ?" asked the youth. The answer made by an expe-
rienced Greek who stood near was, " Ask the dam of your horse."

We are too apt to think that the fact of a mare having curbs,
spavins, contracted feet, roars, thick wind, heaves, blindness, &c., are
purely the result of perhaps hard work, neglect or some local cause.
In the great majority of cases, although these tokens of unsound-
ness may have been developed in the mare by hard usage or
other temporary causes, they are in her breed, and will be handed
down as hereditary to her colts. It is not safe to breed from un-
sound mares, unless such unsoundness be known as only resulting
from purely accidental circumstances.

" It is possible that cases may exist where it is safe to breed

388 The Canadian Farmer's

from an old mare. Two of the finest horses that reins were ever
drawn over were from a mare nearly thirty years of age, but she
was perfect in limbs and spirits ; had always been owned by the
same person, and fed with as much regularity as the owner's meals
were served ; she was never raced at a ' military muster,' or over-
loaded in any way, and at thirty-three years of age she and her
mate, of about the same age, were not only sound in wind and
limb, but were a pair to be proud of when one held the reins over
them. A pair of her colts, born after she was twenty -five, sold,
under our eye, for twice as many hundred dollars as other fine
horses about them brought ! A moderate old age should not,
therefore, absolutely exclude the mare from breeding, if she is right
in other particulars.

" The common practice for many years past, and one which has
become woven, as it were, into the habits of the people, so that it
seems as natural as the breath of life, is to keep the old mare for
breeding when she is unfitted for service on the road or on the farm.
This is where the evil commences. She is a favourite animal, was
handsome, spirited, and with a power of endurance almost beyond
belief But now she is seventeen years of age, has a spavin, a
slight touch of the heaves, and one or two other trifling matters
which are a little inconvenient for a working animal, but she will
make a good breeder, and about pay her keeping besides ! This
is the conclusion arrived at, and thousands of such cases exist
among us to-day.

" So the old mare, crippled by too early labour and disabled by
disease, is to become the progenitor of a race which is to occupy a cer-
tain locality, perhaps for a hundred years ! It is scarcely possible
that her young will not be injured before they see the light ; and
the strong probability is that each of them will bear the marks of
her imperfections; some with ringbone, perhaps, or asthma, or
spavin, or some lurking disease that had not developed itself in
the over-worked and disordered mother. We have seen a yearling
colt with a ringbone upon every foot ; well-formed otherwise, ap-
parently healthy, eating and drinking well, but sufiering and ut-
terly worthless." — New England Farmer.

Proofs have been piled upon proofs, that blindness, roaring,
heaves, thick wind, spavins, curbs, ringbones and founder, have
been bequeathed from dam to colt, sometimes escaping one gene-
ration and being developed in the succeeding ofispring. Hence
the necessity of some knowledge of the ancestry of horses from
which to breed.

In breeding, it is well to remember —

That peculiarities of form and constitution will be inherited from
both parents ; equally as much, aye, more, from the mare ; and
that out of a sorry mare, no matter how good the stallion may be,
no perfect colt can come.

Manual of Agriculture. 389

The parents, at the time of breeding, should be in full possession
of their natural powers and strength.

Strict confinement to one breed, or a system of breeding in and
in, too long persisted in, will result in deterioration.

Our stallions in Canada are not as good as they ought to be.
There are not enough with good blood in them travelling the
country, A few are owned by such men as Mr. Simon James, of
Hamilton, and the late Mr. Sheddon, but they are so few that their
service is placed at a figure far beyond the pocket of the ordinar}?-
farmer. We want more thorough- red sires. We have too many
of these prancing stallions, with a fine-sounding name, who have
not a drop of blue blood in their veins, and who, fed up and
pampered, are full of life and sliow, but whose fat hides all their
points, and about whose ancestors — many of whom were, doubtless,
broken -winded, spavined, curbed and what not — we know nothing.
They catch the eye by their fat, and prancing motions, but for the
purpose of vniproving our stock few of them are at all efficient.

The hrood mare is generally supposed to go with foal for eleven
months, but there is a great irregularity.

Some have been known to foal in less than ten months, whilst
others will run nearly, aye and over, the full year.

As we have before indicated, the end of May is the best time
at which to put the farm mare in Canada ; thus she comes in, in
the early part of June, when the work is slack and pasture plen-
tiful and tender.

It is better for the mare to work up to the day of foaling, though
after the wax has appeared on her teats, which will be from one
to two days before foaling, it may be as well to turn her into a
nice quiet and dry paddock, and for the last two weeks of her
pregnancy her work must be only steady draught, — no heavy
driving nor v/orking in deep soil, where she will have to strain
in pulling out her feet.

Abortion or Slinking of the Foal usually occurs when the mare
is about half through her time of pregnancy, or in the sixth
and seventh months ; they should in those months be carefully
watched, well fed, the bowels kept open, and have regular exer-
cise. Nothing is so apt to bring on abortion as standing idle in a
stable ; a mare is better at that time, if there be no work for her,
to be running out in the yard or in a large loose box. This will
be treated of more fully in our chapter on Diseases of the Horse.

Parturition in a mare is seldom accompanied with danger, if
she has been well fed and cared for during winter and spring, and
her bowels kept open (this is most important) at the expiration of
her term of pregnancy. Where, however, great difiiculty is mani-
fest, or there is evidently a false presentation of the colt, a quali-
fied veterinary practitioner should be called in, rather than risk
the lives of mother and foal by interference on the part of those
unskilled in such matters.

390 The Canadian Farmer's

As soon as the mare has foaled, let her have the run of a pad-
dock, with shelter at hand, and feed her plentifully, but not
heavily. This is the most important time in the life of the colt
If stinted in the first few weeks he will never recover lost ground
The mare should then be kept in a good flow of milk. Remember
that to suckle a colt without working, is quite as wearing, and
more apt to pull the mare down in condition than to work a
mare without a colt to suckle.

Let the colt learn to eat as soon as possible, by feeding the mare
in a trough on the ground.

Three weeks, or, when the work only consists of drawing hay,
or other light work, two weeks after foaling, the mare may be
again harnessed. The colt should not, however, be at first allowed
to follow the mare all day, or it will thoroughly tire itself out,
but should be confined in a stable, and each day allowed to run a
little longer with the mare. It will soon get used to it, and
become wise enough not to follow its mother all round the field,
but to wait and lie about.

We have seen colts not six weeks old allowed to run after their
mothers along a hot, dusty, and perchance stone road, to town
and back. Now, fourteen or twenty miles a day is rather too
much for a colt whose legs are not one quarter formed.

Aoain, the farmer should bear in mind that the mare who
works and suckles a colt at the same time is having the condition
drawn down at double speed, and she must be fed grain and fodder
in accordance.

Between the third and fourth week after foaling, the mare will
come in heat again, and she is more certain to " hold" the horse at
this season than at any subsequent one.

Weaning. — The colt should be weaned from five to six months
old.

The coJt should be kept away, as far as practicable, from the
mother, that they may not pine for one another ; she should be
fed drier food, and her milk drawn from her, and so gradually
dried off*.

Management of Colts. — The following remarks, from a corres-
pondent of the Rural New Yorker, are very pertinent : —

" We often, when travelling through the country in the fall, see
colts with a rough, staring coat ; eyes nearly closed, and a watery
matter exuding therefrom ; with a body shaped like a squash seed,
which, but a few weeks before, while running with the mare,
were possessed of a sleek, shining coat, eyes bright, and body as
round as a barrel. Now the question arises, what is the cause of
this ? I answer, in nine cases out of ten it is improper weaning.
Nearly every colt in a farming community is allowed to run with
its mother until about four or five months old, when, to suit the
convenience of the owner, it is turned into some distant field out

Manual of Agriculture. 391

of sight, and, if possible, out of hearing of its mother, there to run
and whinney and worry, until it brings upon itself a fever, which
weakens the constitution, closes the pores of its skin, and, in brief,
the whole organs of digestion become more or less diseased. All
of this can be avoided by a little care in weaning.

" My way of weaning is this : When my colt is four and a-half
months old, I put a strong leather halter upon him and place him
in a stall, and put his mother in an adjoining stall, with a par-
tition between, so arranged that they can see each other, and, if
possible, get their heads together. The first day I let the colt
nurse twice ; the next day, once. I feed the mare upon dry hay
and dry feed, and about half milk her two or three times a day
until dry. The colt I feed upon new-mown grass or fine clover
hay, and give him a pint of oats twice per day, and in about two
weeks I have my colt weaned and my mare dry, with my colt
looking as well as ever. When he is one year old, he has as much
growth and development of muscle as one two years old weaned
in the first described manner. When the mare becomes dry, colt
and mare may be turned out together again in pasture."

And — " Colts are very apt to be left to shift for themselves after
weaning. This is wrong. A year's gain in the usefulness of a
horse may easily be made by care and attention during the first
few months of its life. Then care should be exercised to keep it
growing. During the fall months some of the best early-cut hay
should be given to it ; and when the horses are stabled, let it have
a loose box or stall adjoining them, where it can see and become
used to the discipline of the stable. Everything around it should
be well secured, lest in rubbing itself it might get something loose.
A habit of breaking things and getting loose is easily and invaria-
bly formed at this time, and should be guarded against. During
winter, feed your colts as you feed your horses. Give them a
share of what is served out — oats, corn, or ground feed as it may be.
They cannot grow or fare well otherwise. ' Stinginess' don't pay
in rearing young animals. An addition of twenty-five or forty
dollars to its value may result in the winter's feeding and care of
one colt. Generosity here (of course exercised with judgment) is
only wise foresight, and will pay good interest on the investment.
Colts are better kept up than allowed to run around. They will
become more docile and tractable, and will learn fewer tricks.
Take them out only for exercise, except when at pasture, and then
be sure to have a secure fence, or they will inevitably learn to rub
it down or jump over it. Train your colt to walk, and keep it
walking. Farmers don't want fast-trotting horses as yet; we
have need, so far, of fast- walking horses ; great need, we may say,
for they are far too scarce. Therefore, train colts to walk at the
rate of four miles an hour at least. The time will come when a
horse that can walk his mile in twelve minutes will take a prize

892 The Canadian Farmer's

at an agricultural fair, equal in value to the best trotter. A team
of sunh horses could plough an acre of ground, with a furrow six
inches wide, in five hours, allowing time for turnings round. This
is above the quantity ploughed on the average now in a day of
ten hours. Horses of such capacity would be worth a large price,
and it should be our endeavour to produce them. We have a
breed that can transmit trotting capacity to its descendants ; why
could we not raise up a breed of walking horses ? Some one
might make a name and fortune in this." — American Agricultur-
ist

Breaking Colts. — We would only endorse the above remarks,
and to the importance of teaching agricultural horses to walk fast,
add the following summary : —

When first bitted, a bit should be selected that will not hurt his
mouth, and one smaller than in common use.

Allow him to pla}?^ with this bit, by champing it for a few days
an hour at a time.

Before putting him in with another horse, accustom him to
portions of the harness, and let the straps dangle round his legs,
gently at first ; and afterwards, let the tugs fall down and strike
him about the heels ; accustom him to stop at the sound ** Whoa,"
without any bit in his mouth, and to understand and obey every
word of command before he is put into harness at all.

If this custom of thorough training were more generally
adopted before breaking to the waggon, we should have less
" kicking scrapes" and fewer runaways.

Put him to a very light load at first, alongside of a steady but
on no account a slow or lazy mate. Before he pulls an ounce, let
him understand what " Get up," a chirp or a whistle means.

Directly he stops of his own accord, or when he is in the act
of stopping, call " Whoa ;" he will soon learn that that word means
stand. Drivers very frequently stop the horse by a pull on the
reins, and then call "Whoa." This is wrong; the word of command
should be always given before the manoeuvre is executed.

In teaching a colt to back — one of the hardest tricks, for it is a
trick — don't call " Back" unless he is able and willing to do it. It
is unnatural to him, and in this case the action of backing should
be performed by gentle pressure, not severe force, upon the bit, and
should be simultaneous with the cry of ''Back up"

How many horses do we find that if the reins should break will
not run away ; and yet it is as easy to train them to stop on the
break of the line and the call of " Whoa," as to teach them to keep
in the furrow or on the land when ploughing. Teach them when
young to travel under a gentle strain of the line, and that the
slacking of the line is meant to imply, equally with the word
" Whoa," stop.

Horses are not generally deai ; on the contrar}^ they have an ear

Manual of Agriculture, 393

exceedingly susceptible to every wave of sound. There is, theu, no
necessity to shout at a horse as if he was " hard of hearing."

When a colt shies, he does it not generally from vice, but
because he sees something that he never saw before. Don't beat
him for that, as you simply increase his timidity. He associates the
object, whatever it be, with a lash of the whip, and becomes still
more frightened of it. Reader, did you ever take a child out for
a walk, and meet some ugly animal, say an immense dog, at which
your child was frightened ? Did you beat the little one for its
foolish timidity ? We trust not. You rather coaxed it, soothed
it, and led him up to pat the big ugly fellow, thereby allaying his
childish fears by showing that there need be no cause of alarm.
The child was frightened because he saw an object for the first
time in his life, and couldn't realize what it was. You answer, " Of
course I petted the child ; do you think I'd be such an inhuman
brute as to whip the poor little frightened thing ?" And yet can you
with a clear conscience say that you never drew the whip across a
colt for exhibiting the very same fear as that which overcame
your child ? If you can answer this home question in the nega-
tive, then you have got the one great and practical lesson of
horse-training — to teach the colt, by the influences of affection,
salutary fear on his part, and steady determination, kindness and
common sense, exercised in almost exactly the same manner as
when brought to bear upon the early training of a little child on
your part.

The whip is needed for the colt, as it is for the child, at times —
administered rarely, but, when applied, used firmly — as a means of
correction, but very seldom for the pure purpose of coercion.

Before we enter upon the question of food for horses, we would
copy the following excellent summary, entitled —

"HINTS ON HUMANITY TO ANIMALS."

{From a work on " The American Horse,' by Robert MoClure

M.D., V.S.)

" 1. Warm the bit in frosty weather, before putting it into the
horse's mouth.

" 2. Let the horse lick a little salt out of your hands whenever
you offer to bit him.

" 3. Never startle a horse by suddenly striking him.

" 4. Uniformly gentle treatment will secure faithi'ul and steady
work. Anger, severity and sudden jerking endanger your harness,
your vehicle and your life, besides permanently injuring your
horse.

" 5. Be well provided with horse-blankets, especially at night.
If you are waiting for passengers, while you look for your own
comfort by a warm fireside, or in thick wi-appers, see that your
faithful brute companion is also protected from the chilly air.

394 The Canadian Farmer's

" 6. Wash the inside of the collar frequently with Castile soap
suds, and when it has thoroughly dried, gently warm the leather
and soak it with oil, so as to soften it ; but do not allow any oil
to remain on the surface of the leather unabsorbed.

" 7- If the shoulders are tender, feverish and disposed to chafe,
the}^ should be well rubbed, and afterwards washed with salt
water. This should be done after unharnessing, so that the parts
bathed may be dry before work is resumed.

" 8. Do not be tempted by over-pay to overload your team.
Overloading occasions blindness, spavin, splints, glanders, farcy,
and other painful and fatal disorders, and thus risks the loss of
capital, besides injuring yourself by encouraging a cruel disposition.

" 9. See that the harness fits tight in every part, and that the
shoes are tight and well put on.

" 10. Let your tones, when addressing the horse, be always gen-
tle, soothing and pleasant. Pat him often, and encourage every
sign of attachment that he gives.

"11. Every vehicle should be so arranged that the weight on
the neck is relieved when the team or horse is standing.

" 12. Curry, rub and clean ivell at least once a day. The effect
is worth half the feed. A dirty coat and skin, when the animal
is deprived of exercise in pasture and of rolling on the grass, can-
not fail to produce disease.

" 13. Never use a check rein. It is false taste to think a horse
more beautiful when his head is fastened in an unnatural position.
The bearing rein keeps a horse in a constant fret, makes him rest-
less and uneasy, and often prevents him from recovering himself
in case of a stumble or a fall.

" 14. Your stable should be perfectly level, or very slightly in-
clined ; well lighted, well drained, well ventilated, and well pro-
tected from draughts and from extremes of heat and cold. Keep
the crib clean and free from dust, and keep the hay or other fod-
der as far from the stall as possible, so as to be away from the
steam and breath of the animal.

" 15. If you use ground feed, remember that it is not unfrequently
adulterated when bought.

"16. If you suspect adulteration, usually done by the use of
plaster of Paris or marble, or the sweepings of canal boats and
barges, heat a portion of the feed to a red heat in an iron vessel.
After the whole has been reduced to ashes, if they contain plaster,
the ashes will soon set or harden, after being mixed with water to
the consistency of paste.

" 17. Do not urge your beast beyond a walk when the heat is
oppressive ; furnish drinking water often, and sponge the legs and
such parts as are liable to chafe b}^ perspiration or otherwise ; see
the harness is not oppressive and cumbersome.

" 18. In icy weatner keep your animal sharp shod, renewing the

Manual of Agriculture. 395

sharpening as often as the shoes become blunt. A few dollars
expended in this way will undoubtedly save your horse from se-
rious injury, and perhaps from loss of life.

" 19. Standing on fermented manure softens the hoof, produces
thrush and brings on lameness. Keep the litter dry and clean,
and cleanse the stall thoroughly every morning.

" 20. Sharp bits make the mouth tender at first and afterwards
callous, so that the horse becomes unmanageable.

''21. If your horse kicks and plunges on mounting, look to the
stuffing of the saddle, and see if it has become hard and knotty
with use.

" 22. Keep your wheels well greased.

" 23. Keep the feet well brushed out, and examine every night
to see if there is any stone or dirt between the hoof and the shoe.
Change the shoes as often as once a month.

" 24. Disease or wounds in the feet and legs soon become danger-
ous if neglected.

" 25. When a horse is hot and fatigued from labour, walk, him
about till cool ; groom him quite dry, first with a wisp of straw,
and then with a brush ; rub his legs well down with the hand to
remove any strain, soothe the animal, and detect thorns and splin-
ters ; and give him his grain as soon as he is cool, dry and willing
to eat.

" 26. On the evening before a long journey give double feed ; on
the morning of starting give only half a feed of grain, or a little
hay ; on the road, feed in small quantities about every two hours.

" 27. When horses are long out at work, pi'ovide them with nose-
bags and with proper food. The nose bag should be of leather at
the bottom, and of basket work or open texture above. On com-
ing home give a double feed of grain.

"28. Let the horse carefully into and out of a stable. Accustom
him to stand quite still until you are seated. Start at a walk,
and go slowly the first and the last mile.

"2.9. Never use the whip if you can help it. It will then be
always available as a last resort.

" 80. Be always on your guard, just feeling the mouth with the
bit, lightly and steadily.

"31. If a horse shies, neither whip him nor pat him, and let him
come slowly towards the object.

" 32. If you value your own life, the lives of others, or your
horse's, never drive fast in the dark, or in a town.

" 33. Never add your own weight to a load that is already heavy
enough. Get out and walk when you ascend a hill. If you stop
on an incline, put a stone behind your wheel ; and lock your
wheels going down steep grades with a load.

"34. Never tease or tickle a horse, nor suffer it to be done by
others.

396 The Canadian Farmer's

'• N.B. — The Ninth Avenue Car Line of New York, owning nearly
eight hundred horses, and the City Commissioners of Boston,
never allow a whip to be used with any of their teams."

Food for Horses. — If we would obtain full work from our
horses, they must be well fed at all times.

The best hay and provender produced on the farm should be
retained for the use of working horses, for such are in the end most
economical.

However nutritious may be the food of horses, they must have
bulk also ; for which reason, while we look to grain as a source
from which to gather nitrogenous food, hay or straw has to be used
to make up bulk.

Long fasting is very injurious to a horse. This is owing to the
peculiar characteristics of his constitution.

The horse has a very small stomach, and requires to be kept at
all times moderately full. " Little and often" is the safest rule of
feeding for the horse.

When allowed to go too long without food, the stomach becomes
empt}", the intestines more or less filled with gas or wind ; and
when, on reaching the stable, the animal is allowed to gorge him-
self with food or water, the consequence is an unnatural extension
of the walls of the stomach, confinement of air in the intes-
tines, incapability of digestion, and the consequent formation of
yet more gas in the internal organs, and the result is an attack of
gripes or colic, or, perhaps, staggers.

Oats are usually given whole, and in the case of young horses
we think that the process of mastication is not only good for the
teeth, but prevents " bolting," and consequent indigestion. In the
old horse, whose teeth are level and worn smooth, it is wise to
crush grain and to cut hay, for otherwise he will pass the oats
through without mastication, and their benefit is lost to his sys-
tem.

Feed. — Good hay stands first as general horse feed. Poor hay
produces colic, and is bad for the wind, both of which are the sure
followers of a diet of dusty hay or musty oats. Bad oats have a
peculiarly diuretic action, increasing to a great extent the secre-
tions of the kidneys, and consequently tending to weaken those
organs.

Pea meal, barley meal, corn meal, and wheat meal, are all, in an
uncooked state, bad feed for horses, as they are apt to cake in the
stomach, and often bring on feverish diseases. Barley is undoubt-
edly more nutritious than oats, but there are required other quali-
ties in food, besides a great proportion of nutritive matter, to
render food for a horse wholesome, strengthening or fattening.
Horses fed heavily on corn, peas, or barley are more subject to in-
flammatory affections than such as are kept chiefly upon oats.

This is in great measure shown by the practical observations of

Manual of Agricultme.

39:

many men, and we have ourselves frequently observed tliat there
are far more cases of colic amongst stabled horses, on Sunday
night or Monday morning, than on any other day of the week.

Horses will do well on straw, if it has been cut on the green
side ; but as it requires more digestion than hay, it should be only
fed when horses are moderately worked, and have in consequence
good appetites, or when turned out loose.

TABLE SHOWING AMOUNT OF VARIOUS FOODS GENERALLY SUFFI-
CIENT FOR WORKING HORSES.

ARTICLES OF FOOD.

1. Farinaceous substances, consisting of bruised or ground

beans, peas, wheat, barley or oats

2. Bran, fine 01 coarse

3. Boiled or steamed potatoes, mashed

4. Fresh grains (boiled barley) , .. .

5. Hay (cut)

6. Straw (cut)

With two ounces of salt for each class, "making

1st

2nd

3rd

Class.

lbs.

5
6

—

4th
Class.

lbs.

8
26

It will thus be seen that from twenty-six to thirty pounds of
food will be required for each horse per day to keep him in good
working order.

Of the four classes, we prefer, as conducive to the general health
of the horses, Nos. 1 and 2.

We again quote the excellent advice of Dr. McClure, under the
head of " Hints on Horse Food :" —

" 1. All horses must not be fed in the same proportions, without
due regard to their ages, their constitutions and their work — he-
cause such action is the basis of disease of every kind.

" 2. Never use bad hay on account of its cheapness — because
there is not proper nourishment in it.

" 3. Damaged grain is exceedingly injurious — because it brings
on inflammation of the bowels and skin diseases.

" 4. Chaff is better for old horses than whole hay — because they
can chew and digest it better.

" 5. Mix chaff with corn or oats, and do not give them alone —
because it makes the horse chew his food more and digest it
better.

" 6. Hay or grass alone will not support a horse under hard
work — because there is not sufficient nutritive body in either.

" 7. When a horse is worked hard, the food should be chieHy oats
and corn ; if not worked hard, his food should be chiefly hay —
because oats and corn supply more nutriment and flesh-making
material than any other kind of food ; ha}^ not so much.

" 8. For a saddle or coach horse, half a peck of sound oats and

398 The Canadian Farmer's

eighteen pounds of good hay per day are sufficient. If the hay is
not good, add a quarter of a peck more oats.

*' 9, Rack feeding is wasteful. The better plan is to cut fodder
and feed in manger — because the food is not then thrown about,
and is more easily digested and chewed.

" 10. Sprinkle the hay with water that has salt dissolved in it
— because it is good for and pleasant to the animal's taste.
jT' "11. Oats and corn should be bruised for an old horse, but not for

a young one — because the former, through age and defective
teeth, cannot chew them properly ; the young horse can do so, and
they are thus properly mixed with the saliva, and turned into
wholesome nutriment.

" 12. Grass must always be cut for hay before the seed drops
— because the juices that ripen the seed are the most valuable part
of the hay. If they (the juices) are sucked out by its ripening
and dropping, the grass will not turn into hay, but only wither
and grow 3^ellow.

"13. Vetches and cut grass should always be given in the spring
to horses that cannot be turned out into the fields — because they
are cooling and refreshing, and almost medicinal in their effects ;
but they must be supplied in moderation, as they are liable to fer-
ment in the stomach if given largely.

" 14. Water your horses from a pond or stream ratherthan from a
spring or well — because the latter is generally hard and cold,
while the former is soft and comparatively warm. The horse pre-
fers soft muddy water to hard water though ever so clear.

" 15, A horse should have at least a pail of water morning and
evening (we think three times a day), or (still better) four half
pails-full several times a day — because this assuages his thirst
without bloating him. But he should never be made to work
directly after he has had a full draught of water, for digestion
and exertion can never go on together.

" 16. Do not allow your horse to have warm water to drink —
because if he has to drink cold water after getting used to warm,
it will give him colic.

" 17. When your horse refuses his food after drinking, go no
further that Hdiy— because the poor creature is thoroughly beaten."

Water for the Horse. — " This is a part of stable management
little regarded by the farmer. He lets his horses loose night and
morning, and they go to the nearest pond or brook to drink their
fill, and no harm results ; for they obtain that kind of water
which nature designed them to have, in a manner prepared for
them by some unknown influence of the atmosphere, as well as by
the deposition of many saline admixtures. The difference between
hard and soft water is known to every one. In hard water soap
will curdle, vegetables will not boil soft, and the saccharine
matter of the malt cannot be fully obtained in the process of

Manual of Agriculture. 399

brewing. There is nothing in which the different effects of hard
and soft water is so evident as in the stomach and digestive organs
of the horse. Hard water, drawn fresh from the well, will assur-
edly make the coat of the horse unaccustomed to it stare, and it
will not unfrequently gripe and otherwise injure him. Instinct
or experience has made even the horse himself conscious of this,
for he will never drink hard water if he has access to soft; he
will leave the most transparent and pure well water for a river,
although the water may be turbid, and even for the muddiest pool.
He is injured, however, not so much by the hardness of the well
water as by its coldness, particularly by its coldness in summer,
and when it is many degrees lower than the temperature of the
atmosphere. The water in the brook and the pond being warmed
by long exposure to the air, as well as having become soft, the
horse drinks freely of it without danger.

"There is a prejudice in the minds of many persons against the
horse being fairly supplied with water. They think that it injures
his wind, and disables him for quick hard work. If he is galloped
immediately after drinking, his wind may be irreparably injured ;
but if he were oftener suffered to satiate his thirst, he would be
happier and better.

" It is a fact unsuspected by those who have not carefully
watched the horse, that if he has frequent access to water he will
not drink so much in the course of the day as another who, to
cool his parched mouth, swallows as fast as he can, and knows not
when to stop."

We have already recorded our opinion in the agricultural press,
that the care of horses lies in a nutshell ; thus : —

" Handle the colt from the time it is foaled. B}^ not workino-
the dam too hard, and by generous food, keep her in good flow of
milk. Feed well from the day of foaling ; never let it stop grow-
ing. Halter-break the first winter.

" Begin to work him very lightly when two years old. Don't put
him to heavy work until five years old. Feed him regularly,
evenly and generously, whether at work or idle. Keep his stable
clean., w^arm, well ventilated and light. Clean him every da}^
morning and night. Take off harness when brought to the stable
sweated from work. Don't let working hours encroach five
minutes on feeding times. Always put a lighter load than that
which you think the horse could pull at his best. Never check his
head up before a load. Keep your fences good, and your colt will
not learn to breach. Don't let shoes go until they fall off. Go
ten miles to a good horse-shoer rather than one mile to a botch.
If your horse is sick, and you are sure of the nature of the ail-
ment, attend to him at once ; if the attack is beyond your know-
ledge, send to an experienced surgeon. Never let a quack into
your stable. Ninety-nine out of every hundred colds, colics,

400 The Canadian Farmer's

heaves, blindnesses, strains, spavins, curbs, and other diseases and
accidents to a horse, are caused by gross neglect."

A FEW COMMON VICES.

To Cure a Kicker. — The following plan has been found, though
not always, yet in a majority of cases, to be effectual : —

" With a strong harness, hitch to a stout whiffletree, which has a
rope attached to it long enough to allow a man to hold the rope with
safety. Let one man hold a mare by the head, while another, holding
the rope slack but firmly, moves the trace or whiffletree against the
mare's legs, tempting her to kick. Allow the whiffletree to fly
high when she kicks, but bring it back every time. Let her play
with this arrangement until she is thoroughly tired of it and will
not kick at it. Without harnessing her in any other way, try the
same every day, until she will allow the whiffletree and traces, or
anything, to brush and strike against her legs without showing
any fright or dislike, even when fresh."

Or simply fasten a short trace chain about two feet long by a
strap to each hind foot, and let him do his own whipping if he
cannot stand still without it.

Give them a wider stall, or turn them loose in a box stall. If
neither is convenient to do, or fails to cure, take a piece of trace
chain about two feet long, and fasten one end of it with a strong
strap to the foot with which they kick. Or put a surcingle loosely
around the animal, and pass a cord from the kicking foot through
the girth, around the head, in front of one ear and behind the
other. Make the knots so that they will not slip tight, and give
length for necessary motions.

Balky Horses. — Horses know nothing about balking until they
are brought into ifcby improper management ; and when a horse
balks it is generally from some mism.anagement, excitement, confu-
sion, or from not knowing how to pull, but seldom from any unwil-
lingness to perform his duty. High-spirited, free-going horses are
the most subject to balking, and only so because drivers do not
properly understand how to manage. This kind of free horse in
a team may be so anxious to go that when he hears the word
he will start with a jump, which will not start the load, but
give him such a severe jerk in the shoulders that he will fly
back and stop the other horse ; the teamster will continue his
driving without cessation, and by the time he has the slow horse
started again, he will find the free horse has made another lunge
and again flies back, and now he has them both badly balked, and
so confused that neither of thein knows what is the matter or how-
to start the load. Next will come the slashing and cracking of the
driver's whip, till something is broken, or he is through with this
course of treatment. It takes a steady pressure against the collar

Manual of AgYicuiture, 401

to move a load, and you cannot expect him to act with a steady,
determined purpose while you are whipping him.

Almost any team, when first balked, will start kindly if you
let them stand five or ten minutes, as though there was nothing
the matter, and then speak kindly to them, and turn them a little
to the right or left so as to get them both in motion before they
feel the pinch of the load. But if you want to start a team
that you are not driving yourself, that has been balked, fooled
and whipped for some time, go to them and hang the lines on their
hames, or fasten them to the waggon so that they will be per-
fectly loose ; make driver and spectators stand off* some distance,
so as not to attract the attention of the horses, and unloose the
check reins, so that they can get their heads down if they choose ;
let them stand a few minutes in this condition, till you can see
they are a little composed. When you have them ready to start,
stand before them, and as you seldom have but one balky horse in
a team, get as near in front of him as you can, and if he is too
fast for the other horse, let his nose come against your breast ; this
will keep him steady, for he will go slow rather than run on you.
Turn them gently to the right, without letting them pull on their
traces, as far as the tongue will let them go ; stop them with a kind
word, gentle them a little, and turn back to the left by the same
process ; as you turn them again to the right, steady them in the
collar, and you can take them where you please.

If you want to break a horse that has long been in the habit of
balking, you ought to set apart a half day for it. Put him by
the side of a steady horse, have check lines on them, tie up all the
traces and straps, so that there will be nothing to excite them.
Do not rein them up, but let them have their heads loose ; walk
them about as slow as possible ; stop often, and go to your balky
horse and gentle him ; do not take any whips about him, or do
anything to excite him, but keep him just as quiet as you can ; he
will soon start off at the word, and stop whenever you tell him.
As soon as he performs right, hitch him to an empty waggon and
have it stand in a favourable place for starting. It would be well
to shorten the stay chain behind the steady horse, so that if it is
necessary he can take the weight of the waggon. The first time
you start them do not drive more than two rods at first ; watch
your balky horse closely, and if you see he is getting a little ex-
cited, stop him before he stops of his own accord, caress him a
little, and start again ; drive them over a small hill a few times,
and then over a larger one, all the while adding a light load. This
process will make any horse pull true.

Fulling on the Halter. — A writer in the Rural New Yorker

says that he breaks a horse from pulling by putting a rope

or strap halter over the top of the manger, and back through a

hole in or under the frame of the manger, and between the

402 '-I'he Canadian Farmer's

liorse's fore legs, through a surcingle, and back to the hind leg.
Buckle a strap with a ring on it around the ankle ; tie the halter
strap to this ring. Keep the horse tied in this way one week.

A correspondent of the Cincinnati Gazette says : " Tie the horse
with an inch rope in a stall with a floor in it ; have the floor
about three inches lower behind than before, and make the floor
wet, so that it will be slippery ; after tying the horse around the
neck with a knot that will not slip, get before the horse and take an
old white hat and scare the horse by hitting him on the nose with
the hat. When he pulls back from fright he will fall down, his
feet slipping from under him. He will not try it more than two
or three times before he will become afraid to pull, for fear of fall-
ing. Keep this up for a week or so, by making him pull until he
will at last stand as quiet as a lamb. The writer says he broke
two horses and two mules from pulling back in this way. He
once tied a pulling-back horse with a running noose around the
neck, and the horse pulled back and came very near choking to
death. It broke him so, that he would stand if hitched with a
string. Choking, in all cases, is not recommended, however."

Hard-mouthed Horse. — " Take a small rope, about three-eighths
of an inch in size, very strong, and about nine or ten feet long. Tie
a loop in one end, just large enough to admit a large hand. The
loop should be tieid by what is known as a " sailor's bowline
knot," which cannotslip or tightenup. Ifyou cannot tie the bowline
knob, you must make a loop as best you can, and secure it from slip-
ping by tying a cord around the knot to prevent any danger from
the loop tightening. Now stand upon the near or right side of
your horse, with the loop in your left hand ; place it well up into
the mouth ; reach with your right hand over the neck, bringing the
end over the neck towards you, passing it down through the loop
which you have placed in the mouth, drawing up tightly upon the
rope. Taking hold of the rope about three feet from the head,
give your animal about one half dozen short pulls — first upon one
side, then upon the other — in quick succession.

" Do not be afraid of hurting him ; on the contrary, be very severe.
Do not speak while you are using the rope, as your object is to
make the mouth governable. After a few pulls, let the horse stand
a few minules. Then stepping oft' to the end of the rope to one
side say, 'Come here,' and at the same time pull upon the rope
quickly and decidedly; then go upon the other side and repeat.
As soon as your horse shows signs of yielding to the slightest
touch, step up and caress him by way of encouragement. In the
same way teach him to yield to the slight touch of the rope,
whether you step eitlier to the right or left, in front or behind, at the
moment \ ou straighten upon the rope, accompanied by the words,
' Come here, sir.'

" After two of ohe above lessons, given in one day, you will pro-

Manual of jlgriculiure, 408

ceed to anotlier adjustment of the rope, viz. : make a loop just the
size of the collar your horse works in ; place it upon his neck, well
back, putting the other part of the rope into his mouth, and down
through the loop which you just placed upon the neck ; draw up
tightly, and proceed as described in the ca=;e of small loops. If
the above directions are strictly followed, with determination and
coolness, the worst and most unmanageable horse can be cured so
that any woman or child can drive him with comfort and safety."
— Cor. Western Rural.

To Drench a Horse. — An ox's horn, the larger end being cut
slantingly, is the best instrument for administering drink.

The noose of a halter is introduced into the mouth, and then,
by means of a stable fork passed through the noose, the head is
raised up high. Introduce the horn (or bottle if used, though it
is dangerous to put glass in the horse's mouth), and pour the liquid
in gently, and over the tongue. In order to make the latter point
sure, it will be as well always to draw out the tongue and hold it
with the other hand ; quickly take out the horn and let the patient
have the use of his tongue ; stroke the throat gently, and watch
the gullet to see if he has gulped down what has been given.
This may be repeated until the whole dose is taken. As the horse
is sometimes very obstinate about swallowing, especially any bit-
ter decoction like aloes, the head has often to be held up some
time. A sharp slap on the muzzle with the open hand will often
make him swallow.

Don't put too much into his mouth at a time, for it only makes
him splutter, and perhaps cough it up again.

To make a twitch for the nose, take a piece of stout lath about
three feet long ; bore a hole one inch from the end ; take a strong
cord, put it through this hole, and tie the ends ; put the lath in
his mouth, with rope over the nose, well up above the nostrils, and
this takes the place of the halter noose spoken of above. This is
the principle of The Ttvitch ; and by turning the stick round, the
horse may be caused such pain in the squeezing of his nose and
mouth as to have his attention fully taken up while any minor
operation is being performed.

Biting. — This habit is usually taught to the horse by the fool-
ish teasing of his attendants. It is a very dangerous habit, and
the tickling and pinching of a horse, looked upon as sport by some
idle and mischievous boy, has often in after years turned out a
vicious biter. In this case prevention is the only remedy. A
horse that lias once acquired the habit can never be cured of it.
He may be muzzled when in town, or where he is likely to do
mischief to strangers.

Getting the Bit tn the Cheek — This is a habit resulting from sheer
mischief on the part of the hcrse, and may be remedied by having
very large bit rings, or putting a stiff round leather on each side of
the bit inside the cheeks.

404 The Canadian Farmer's

Rearing is often brought on by a too free use of the curb. A
change from a severe to a more gentle bit will often cure this
habit. As to 'pulling a horse hackiuards, Youatt says : — " The
horsebreaker's remedy — that of pulling the horse backwards on a
soft piece of ground — is worthy of him, and would be practised
only by reckless and brutal men. Many horses have been injured
in the spine, and others have broken their necks, by being thus
suddenly brought over ; while even the horsebreaker, who fears
no danger, is not always able to extricate himself from the falling
horse. If rearing proceeds from a vice, and is unprovoked by the
bruising and laceration of the mouth, it fully partakes of the in-
veteracy which attends the other divisions of restiveness."

Runaway. — If this proceeds purely and simply from vice, there
is no cure. The horse has learned that he is stronger than the
man, and he has learned " a stubborn fact." Very sharp, punish-
ing bits will in many cases prevent their attaining a full know-
ledge of man's incapacity to hold them, if determined to bolt.
We have cured a young horse of this habit by giving him all the
running he desired, and a good deal more, by liberal use of whip
and spur on a clean trail and over heavy ground.

Bad to shoe arises from careless handling and often rough treat-
ment when first shod. Nothing but kind and encouraging treat-
ment will overcome the difficulty ; it is seldom a vice, but in most
cases is the result of timidity. It is a very awkward form of
timidity, full of danger to the smith ; and we can hardly blame the
mechanic if he sometimes pricks the foot of a horse that refuses
to stand still. If the fear becomes confirmed, the horse has gene-
rally to be cast.

Paiuing is a bad habit, for the cure of which shades wiU be
found the best remedy.

Rolling in the stall. — The habit once acquired cannot be broken ;
the only remedy is to tie him so short that he cannot lay his head
on the floor, for a horse cannot roll without he gets his head quite
down.

Shying. — In colts this proceeds from timidity ; as we have 'en-
deavoured to show above, gentle treatment and proving to the ani-
mal that the object at which he is frightened will not hurt him,
are the proper methods to be adopted.

It may arise from defective sight, in which case, if the eyesight
cannot be improved, the sooner the horse goes blind the better ; for
a horse that is deprived of sight is a safer beast to ride behind
than one who has only imperfect vision.

Where the habit arises from skittishness and a " good feeling" on
the part of the horse, the best plan is to take as little notice as
possible of him ; perhaps speaking a little sharply to him, but
never using the whip. In most cases it is a mere aflfectation — a
pretence of being frightened — on the part of the horse, and, like

Manual of A griculture, 405

affectation in man or woman, the best cure is to take no notice at
all of it.

John Lawrence, in his work on the Horse, gives the following
instances of this phase of shying :

"■ I recollect," says he, " having, at different periods, three hacks,
all very powerful ; the one made choice of a windmill for an object
or butt, the other a tilted waggon, and the last a pig led by a
string.

" It so happened, however, that I rode the two former when
they were amiss from a violent cold, and they then paid no more
attention to either windmills or tilted waggons than to any other
objects, convincing me that their shying when in health and spirits
was pure affectation ; an affectation, however, which may be speed-
ily united with obstinacy and vice. Let it be treated with marked
displeasure, mingled with gentle but decided firmness, and the
habit will be of short endurance."

Slipping the Halter. — Some horses will get almost any halter
off their heads at night. We once had a mare, upon whom, for the
purpose of confining her to one stall at night, a halter was utterly
useless. If you buckled the throat strap so tight that you could
hardly get a finger between it and the windpipe, she would have
that halter rubbed off before the middle of the night, and would
go the rounds of the stable, sharing food with each horse in turn,
and happy did she think herself if she could get at a bag or bin of
oats. Being once at a strange house, and having put the halter,
as we thought, very securely upon her, we found next morning
that she had got at an oat-bin and devoured — we should be ashamed
to put in print how many quarts of grain. Fortunately, we dis-
covered the matter before any water was given her, and by a good
dose and an injection, we managed to open a passage through her
for the mass, which came away apparently as whole as when they
lay in the grain- bin.

The only plan is to discard the use of a head-stall halter, and
fasten with a stout strap, buckled close around the neck, and
attached to a tie-strap by a ring sewed in.

Stunihlers. — When this arises from inveterate laziness or ill-
formed fore legs, it is useless to attempt to remedy the habit.
Such a horse is only fit for slow work upon soft places.

Interfering. — The remedy for this lies in the skill of the shoe-
ing smith ; if he can make nothing of it, a leather sock must be
worn.

Overreaching. — With horses having high hind quarters and
being low in front, it is often a phj^sical difficulty to raise the fore
foot from the ground in time for the hind foot to come down in its
place, without touching the fore as it is raised. It is sometimes
attended with disagreeable consequences. The abrasion of the
foot, the pulling off of the fore shoe, and in some cases the hind

406 The Canadian Farme/s

and front slioe, may lock and throw the animal -when at speed.
The remedy here again lies with the blacksmith, who should
shorten and round the toe of the hind shoe as much as possible,
while the fore shoe is made a little short in the heel. If it can be
done altogether on the hind shoe it is better, for no fault is so in-
jurious to the foot as any undue shortening of the heels of the fore
shoe.

Crih-hiting is one of the worst vices, or rather habits, that a
horse can engage in. It consists of sucking wind into the stomach
by placing the lips against a manger or any projecting woodwork.
In some horses the habit has become so firmly implanted, that
in lieu of a harder, better object, they will use their own forearm
for this wind-sucking. The causes are standing too long in the
stable without exercise, and, as many veterinarians also contend,
indigestion.

A peculiarity of this habit is, that horses will learn it from one
another; and if not checked in a horse, it will sometimes spread
amongst the greater proportion of his stable mates.

The remedies are plenty of exercise and regular feed. Also feed
his hay upon the ground, so that there are no projections in the
stall over Avhich he can place his lips. However, the habit becomes
so deeply rooted in some horses, that they will crib-bite in the
pasture field. A strap must then be buckled closely round the
neck in the smallest part; this prevents the swelling of the wind-
pipe large enough to admit of the passage of a large body of wind
into the stomach.

THE COMMON DISEASES TO WHICH THE FARM HORSE IS LIABLE.

The information contained in this chapter has been obtained
from the best authors on the Horse, and is confined to the more
general and commonly occurring diseases.

Should our reader's horse be attacked by any of those complicated
disorders not to be found in this work, he must call in the aid of
a practitioner.

Indeed, we do not wish these pages to take the place of the vet-
erinary, but in them the farmer will find many hints of use to him
in the case of simple disorders in the stable, and by reference the
right early treatment may often be adopted without delay.

Abscess. — A formation of matter just beneath the skin, generally
from inflammation, acute or chronic.

Symptoms. — Pain, heat and swelling, from the head of which
the hair falls off", showing a white, soft spot.

Remedy. — A})ply poultices and hasten the formation of matter,
then open it, and take-
Rain water 1 ounce. ) A 1 J J. • J

Chloride of zinc... C grains. \ ^Pl'^^ '^ ^°^°^ *^^^^ ^ ^^^^

Manual of Agriculture. 407

Accidents. — Rules for guidance of driver when his horse falls :

1. Hold the animal's head down with your knee.

2. Loosen the check rein and the parts of the harness attached
to the vehicle.

3. Back the vehicle, so as to be clear from the prostrate animal

4. Steady his head and call to him to rise.

5. Treat him kindly when he is up, and don't brutally whip him
for an accident.

Apoplexy, or Megrims. — Symptoms. — The horse falls without
a moment's warning, or runs round once or twice and then falls,
perfectly insensible, breathing heavy and low (or he may struggle
violently for a time). Tn five or ten minutes he will rise and pro-
ceed on his journey as if nothing had happened, except that he
will be duller than before. It will happen always without warn-
ing, and in severe cases the horse will die instantly. When a
horse is bad enough for this last (or apoplexy proper), he will
usually give warning in his general appearance. This warning
will be — head low, supported on anything near, like a manger ;
staggers and appears unsafe on his legs; sight and hearing are
affected. The horse will continue thus from one to twelve hours ;
he then falls ; grinds his teeth ; his eyes are open, protruded and
fixed ; pupils dilated ; twitchings about the frame ; muzzle cold ;
the vein of the neck swelled ; cannot swallow ; the drink is re-
turned by the mouth or nostril, and dung voided involuntarily ;
twitchings increase to strong convulsions, and soon result in death.

Causes. — Undue pressure of blood on the brain, or even rupture
of blood-vessels leading thereto ; too small a collar on a thick-necked
horse ; or sunstroke.

Treatment. — Apply ice to the head, and warm the limbs by
bandages and friction. Bleed, if it happens in the road, or where
other remedies cannot be obtained. McClure recommends a blis-
ter of —

Spanish fly (Cantliarides) a drachm.

Hog's lard 2 drachms.

Mix them well together, and rub the salve well in by hand on the
part just behind the ears.

If you want more medicine, get it from a qualified practitioner.
Feed the horse generously.

Bite from a Mad Dog. — If the bite is in the body, syringe out
the part immediately with a strong syringe — a hydrant fiow if
at hand— so that the very bottom of the wound may be cleaned.
If on a limb, put on a tourniquet between the wound and the
heart, so that the fiow of blood is stopped. Then wash out the parts
thoroughly ; next, cut a portion of the fiesh from the top, sides
and bottom of the wound, and apply caustic — the best caustic is
the " lunar caustic," or nitrate of silver ; or a few drops of nitric,
hydrochloric, or sulphuric acid may be dropped in the wound.

408 The Canadian Farmer's

The reason that horses more seldom die from hydrophobia from
bites, is simply that they know no danger. The imagination or
thinking that one has been bitten by a mad dog, has alone brought
on the disease in human beings in many authenticated cases. The
fact of a dog going mad after biting a person need be no cause of
fear. Unless the dog is rabid at the time, there is no danger ; yet,
precaution should always be taken.

Bleeding in the horse will never be entirely discarded. It is
very well for veterinary surgeons to tell us that it is an exploded
because erroneous system. Doubtless it is not necessary to have
recourse to the lancet and fleam to as great an extent as was once
the fashion ; but the horse is a different patient to the man. We
cannot lay our injunction on the horse, in certain cases where rest
is necessary, to keep quiet, but we must make him quiet by
physical means. When inflammation consists of increased flow of
blood to and through certain parts, the only practicable way, in
many cases, to abate the inflammation, is to lessen the quantity of
blood. " If we take away the fuel, the fire will go out." Blood
taken from the jugular, or bleeding at the neck, will lessen the
general quantity ; but where inflammation is local, more good will
often arise from taking away blood at the part where inflamma-
tion is developed.

The medical practitioners, not only veterinarians, but those of
man, appear to have run into the opposite extreme from the old-
fashioned constant bleeding, and now set their faces steadily
against the use of this remedy at all. No man can, however,
deny that blood-letting is a rapid way in which to allay inflam-
mation, and, what yet is of more importance, that medicines are
more rapidly absorbed into the system and their action has-
tened after thorough bleeding.

One quart of blood taken from the foot in cases of acute founder,
or an ounce of blood obtained by scarifying the swelled vessels of
an inflamed eye, will give more relief than a copious withdrawal
from the main vein.

A copious bleeding in the first stages of inflammation never yet
did serious injury to a horse. The horse will bear, and with advan-
tage, the loss of an incredible amount of blood.

The Operation. — The fleam is the safest instrument in inexpe-
rienced hands. A blood-stick, a piece of hardwood, is used to strike
the fleam into the vein. This must not be done with too great
violence, or the fleam may cut the opposite wall of the jugular
vein.

Blindfold the horse on the side on which he is to be bled, and
turn his head away. Smooth the hair along the course of the
vein by wetting it with the finger ; then with the third and little
fingers of the left hand, which holds the fleam, press on the jugular
so as to bring the vein well into view. Select a point about two

Manual of Agriculture, 409

inches below the union of the two portions of the jugular, at the
angle of the jaw. Place the fleam in a direct line with and
exactly over the centre of the vein, as close as possible, but its
point not absolutely touching, and strike a quick blow on the back
with the blood-stick. A fleam with a large blade is best, as the
blood requires to be drawn speedily.

A slight pressure on the vein is all that is required to cause the
blood to flow freely. Keeping the tongue in motion by introduc-
ing the fingers will also hasten the flow of blood.

When sufficient blood has been drawn, bring the lips of the
wound together, pass a pin through them, wrapping round it some
tow or a few hairs from the horse's mane or tail. When bleeding,
as a test and relief for inflammation, let the blood flow into the
centre of the pail, for if it be allowed to trickle down the sides it
will not afterwards properly undergo those changes by which the
experienced can tell the extent and nature of the inflammation.

The pin may be removed twenty-four hours after the bleeding.

Be careful to wipe fleams or lancets thoroughly immediately
after use, so as to ensure their freedom from rust.

For general inflammation or fever, the jugular is the better vein
from which to draw blood.

In affections of the shoulder, fore arm or foot, the jplate vein,
which comes from the inside of the arm, and runs upwards directly
in front of it towards the jugular.

In affections of the hinder extremities, blood is sometimes taken
from the saphoena or thigh vein, which runs across the inside of
the thigh.

In foot cases, from the coronet, or much more safely from the
toe of the frog ; " not by cutting out, as the farrier does, a piece
of the sole at the toe of the frog, which sometimes causes a wound
difficult to heal, and followed by festering, and even by canker ;
but cutting down with a fine drawing-knife, called a searcher, at
the union between the crust and the sole at the very toe, until
the blood flows, and, if necessary, encouraging its discharge by
dipping the toe in warm water. The meshwork of both arteries
will be here divided, and blood is generally obtained in any quan-
tity that may be needed. The bleeding may be stopped with the
greatest ease by placing a bit of tow in the little groove that has
been cut, and tacking the shoe over it."

Bowels, Inflammation of. — Symptoms. — Violent and continu-
ous pain in the belly ; getting no intervals of rest from pain ;
rolling, pawing, shifting about, sweating, and breathing fast, with
great fever and excitement ; cold extremities.

N.B. — The symptoms that are marked with italics are those
that are not known in colic, and by which inflammation of the
bowels and spasmodic colic may be distinguished the one from the
other, and respectively properly treated. (Further, see Colic.)

410 The Canadian Farme/s

Causes. — Sudden exposure to cold, vsevere exertion on the part
of an over-fed horse, and colic neglected or wrongfully treated.

Bemedies. — Bleed, taking away six quarts of blood ; we don't
like giving medicine by the mouth — if any, however, is given, let
it be about twenty-five drops of tincture of aconite.

Blister the belly ; cantharides as hereafter given in list of medi-
cines. Keep the extremities warm by bandaging and rubbing ;
keep the horse well clothed, but in a cool place. During the run
of the disease, bran mashes and green food should be given, and
all water warmed and made into a thin gruel with oatmeal.

Cly liters or injections will be found very beneficial in allaying
inflammation and making a passage — these are simplest made of
warm soft water, soap and sweet oil, beaten up into a lather ; or
where costiveness is known to exist, make a thin gruel, in which
put half a pound of Epsom salts or half an ounce of dissolved
aloes.

Broken Knees, caused by falling on hard substances and cut-
ting the skin over the knees.

Treatment. — Carefully wash and clean out all gravel and dirt.
Should the joint not have been opened, a linseed ponltice must be
applied. If the joint has been opened, the orifice must be closed or
the oil will escape and a stiff joint result. Place a smooth piece
of hot iron (heated in boiling water) over the wound — this will
cause the lips to swell — and close it. If a repetition of this does not
prevent the flow of joint oil, the animal will be rendered useless.
Use the following wash as soon as oil has stopped, or if it be only
a simple surface wound : — Sulphate of zinc, half an ounce ; rain-
water, eight ounces. Do not bandage.

Back Sinews, Sprain of. — Causes. — Sudden and violent exertion
acting on the tendons in the back part of the fore legs.

Symptoms. — Inflammation of the part, excessive lameness, and
pain to the horse at every motion of the fore leg.

Remedyij. — Foment the part well with warm water two or three
times a day, and half an hour each time ; between fomentations
enclose the leg in a linseed poultice. Vinegar makes a good addi-
tion to the fomentation.

When the horse gets better, and can bear his weight, take away
poultice, stop fomentations, and put on a thin flannel bandage,
kept wet with vinegar and spirits of wine (one pint of vinegar to
a quarter of a pint of spirits of wine). This bandage should be
tightened up every day. If there remains, after pain has gone,
any enlargement, a blister may be applied.

Blistering should never be applied to a part already inflamed.
When the heat and tenderness have disappeared, by the use of
cold lotions and fomentations, and the sprained part remains en-
larged, or even bony matter threatens to be de]:)Osited, w^e may be
justified in exciting inflammation of the skin by blisterinjv, in or-

Manual of Agriculture.

411

der to rouse the deeper-seated absorbents to action, and enable
them to take up this deposit.

Chill. — A shiver, usually a sure sign that some disease or fever
is imminent. The disease is sometimes arrested by stopping the
chill. Give twenty drops of aconite root in a wineglassful of
water, blanket the patient, rub the legs, and generally promote the
circulation.

Cold, or Catarrh. — Symptoms. — Discharge from nose and eyes,
coat roughened, a loss of appetite, and cough.

Treahnent. — Warmth, bran mashes, a few gentle doses of aco-
nite— and let him alone. If he gets worse, then give, three times
a day, in cold water, two ounces each of powdered gentian root,
powdered pimenta, powdered carbonate of ammonia. Mix this lot
and make twelve powders of it. Green cut food, when available, is
one of the best things for a cold.

CgUc. — Spasmodic Colic, or Gripes, or Belly-ache. — Symptoms. —
Comes on very suddenly, and continues in spasms, each succeed-
ing spasm being more severe until relief is obtained.

It is something like inflammation of the bowels, and in order to
distinguish the two diseases, we give their respective symptoms
below, and side by side : —

COLIC.

Sudden in its attack.

Pulse not much quickened in the
early period of the disease, and during
the intervals of ease, but fuller.

Legs and ears of natural temperature,
Kelief obtained from rubbing belly.

Relief obtained from motion.
Intervals of rest.
Strength scarcely affected.

INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS.

Gradual in its approach, with previous
indications of fever.

Pulse verymuch quickened, but small
and scarcely to be felt.

Legs and ears cold.

Belly exceedingly tender, and painful
to touch.

Motion evidently increasing pain.

Constant pain.

Rapid and great weakness.

Causes. — Drinking cold water, or feeding heavily with oats
when overheated.

Treatment. — Warm the stomach. Give a bottle of warm ale,
dnd mix in it three ounces of spirits of turpentine and an ounce
of laudanum. If relief be not obtained in half an hour, and it is
clearly a case of colic, repeat half the first dose with an ounce of
Barbadoes aloes dissolved in warm water. Rub the belly well
with a brush or warm cloth. Walk the horse about — and throw
up an injection of warm water, soap and sweet oil with a solution
of aloes. When relief is obtained, clothe him warmly, and give
him a bran mash for the next few days.

Gin, pepper and such hot things may do good, but are danger-
ous in gripes, as tending to turn it to inflammation of the bowels.
The attack generally gives way to the turpentine and laudanum.

Constipation, or the effect of continued costiveness. — Horses

412 The Canadian Farmer's

subject to such should be often supplied with mashes and soft food,
and constantly watched.

Cough. — Chronic. — The presence of an obstinate cough may be
traced to a hundred causes.

When the cause can be directly traced, as weakness of lungs,
bronchial affections, worms, &c., a plan to get rid of the cough
is to remove its cause {causa suhlata tulitur effectus) — a good
general reonedy is : —

Digitalis 4'drachm, )

Nitre i draclim, > 14 drachms to make

Emetic tartar i draclim, ) two doses,

and to be given once a day when very obstinate. A blister, extend-
ing from the root of one ear to that of the other, taking in the
whole of the channel and reaching six or even eight inches down
the windpipe, and even to the chest, will often prove effectual.

As prevention is better than cure, keep your horses from dusty
hay and musty oats.

Crib-hiting. — (See The Vices of Horses.)

Curb.— A swelling immediately below the point of the hock
joint, the result of a strain of the straight posterior ligament.
Cow-hocks very susceptible to curbs.

TreatTYient. — First foment with cooling lotions, equal parts
spii'its of wine, water and vinegar. If possible, keep a bandage
soaked in this on the hock.

Absolute and long-continued rest. Cut the hair off and blister
with an ointment of red iodide of mercury, applied once a week,
and keep the skin well greased to prevent cracking.

Catarrh. — (See Cold.)

Cataract — (See Eye.)

Chest founder. — Often confused with Feet founder, but is nothing
more than rheumatism in that part.

Corded Veins, or Farcy Buds. — A sure sign that farcy is in the
blood of the horse. — (See Farcy.)

Cow-hocks. — A bad shape for a horse's hind legs, always indicat-
ing a tendency, on any extra exertion, to throw out curbs ; and
liability to windgalls, fetlock sprains, thoroughpin, spavins, cut-
ting and knuckling.

Diarrhoea. — When it simply consists of a looseness of the bowels,
unaccompanied by gripes or other pain, leave it alone ; but when
the offensive passage continues, there will be some colic, and the
discharge must be stopped.

Treatment — If there be any pain, give twenty-live drops of
tincture of aconite in cold water ; then the following powder,
every two hours, until there is a change for the better : — Prepared
chalk, half an ounoe ; catechu in powder, one drachm ; opium in

Manual of jigricuUure. 413

powder, ten grains. Allow plenty of water to drink. Give bran
mashes for a few days, with cake meal or ground flax-seed.

DISTEMPER, EPIDEMIC CATARRH OR INFLUENZA.

Symptoms. — Shivering fits, to which succeed a hot mouth,
greater heat of the skin than is natural, heaving of the flanks, and
cough. The eyes are hesivy and red, and the membrane of the
nose red (but paler than in inflammation of the lungs).

Discharge from the nose ; at first watery, but soon thickening.
This soon becomes offensive and full of matter. The glands of the
throat and under jaw become enlarged, the membranes of the nos-
tril and throat inflamed and tender, and there is difficulty in swal-
lowing water, particularly if it be cold.

The horse coughs as he drinks ; the cough is painful, shown by
the horse stamping his feet in the act ; soon he becomes very weak,
staggers and almost falls, or supports himself by leaning against
the side of his box or stall.

Legs swell, and enlargements appear on the chest and belly.
The pulse is quickened. It rises to sixty or seventy, but the vari-
ation of the pulse depends entirely on the degree of fever that
accompanies the disease.

Cause obscure; the consequence of a bad cold, or more frequently
an epidemic in the district.

D. McClure, V.S., recommends for the distemper, as it appears in
America, as follows : —

" Place the horse in a cool (not cold) and airy place, put a light
covering on him, and give him twenty drops of the tincture of
aconite root in a little cold water every four hours until five
doses have been administered. Place plenty of cold water before
the horse, so that he can drink as much as he wants. When the
aconite has been all given, commence with fifteen-drop doses of
the tincture of nux vomica, which repeat every four hours, con-
tinuing it for a few days, and if the animal improves, and the ap-
petite returns, nothing more in the way of medicine need be given.

" Recovery being slow and the appetite poor, give the following
powders morning, noon and night : — Powdered carbonate of am-
monia, three ounces ; powdered gentian root, two ounces ;
powdered pimenta berries, two ounces. Mix, and divide into
twelve powders, and give them mixed in a little cold wa-
ter ; and drench the horse out of a strong-mouthed bot-
tle. The powders will have to be wrapped well, so as to keep
them from the air and prevent the loss of their strength conse-
quent on exposure. Twenty drops of commercial sulphuric acid
may be given occasionally in half a bucket of cold water, which
the horse will readily drink. Do not apply blisters or anything
to the throat, as is too often done ; they can do no good, but po-

414 The Canadian Farmer's

sitively much harm." (In our own experience we have seen the
glands of the throat much relieved by blisters. — The Author.)

EYE — DISEASES OF.

Floating spots. — Bathe with cold water.

Warts on the eyelids may be cut off with a pair of scissors and
the roots touched with caustic.

Th3 thickening of the haw can only be relieved by cooling
lotions, and physic to improve the general health.

Common Inflammation is generally sudden.

Symptoms. — The lid swells, eye partly closed, with some weep-
ing. The inside of the lid will be red, some red streaks visible on
the white of the eye, and the cornea slightly dimmed.

Treatment. — Look well to see that there is no object of irritation,
such as hay seed, in the eye.

Apply cool lotions to the eye; give mash diet and gentle physic.

Ophthalmia, or Moon Blindness. — If the inflammation has not
abated in several days, we may suspect periodical or specific blind-
ness.

This is a disease which may be relieved for a time, but never
cured ; in greater or less time, eyesight will become obscured.

For three or four weeks the inflammation will continue unabated,
when suddenly, without warning, the eye will mend, and the sight
be quite recovered. But before long the ophthalmia will come on
aofain, and after a succession of intervals total blindness will ensue
of one or both eyes.

Cool lotions and fomentations will give temporary relief

In examining the eye of a horse, when about to purchase, care
must be exercised that there are no traces of the existence of this
disease. They are a slight thickening of the lids, or pucker-
ing towards the inner corner of the eye ; a diflference in the
apparent size of the eyes ; a cloudiness, although perhaps
scarcely perceptible, of the surface of the cornea, or more deeply
seated, or a hazy circle round its edge ; a gloominess of the eye
generally, and dulness of the iris ; or a minute, faint, dusky spot
in the centre, with or without little fibres or lines diverging from
it.

Causes. — Bad ventilation and darkness in stables are the chief
predisposing causes to this disease.

Farcy is not glanders, but is very closely connected with it ;
their symptoms often mingle together, or the one disease will run
into the other. While glanders is incurable, farcy in its milder
and earlier stages may be successfully combated. It is a " scrofula"
acting on the blood vessels, especially upon those infinite smaller
ones that open upon the skin — thus it is known — or appears out-
wardly as a skin disease. The valves of the blood vessels are

Manual of Agriculture, 415

affected and get out of order ; hence the whole circulation being
impaired, the blood must be cleansed.

Symptortis. — An unhealthy coat, loss of flesh, impaired appetite
and general dulness, followed by, generally, the swelling of a
leg, hind or fore. The swelled leg is hot and painful, and soon
breaks out in " farcy buds ;" these buds may be distinctly felt, like
a lot of buttons on the leg, when the hand is passed down it ; gene-
rally found on the inside of the limb. It assumes all sorts of forms.
Sometimes these " buds" break into ulcers, spread round and are
difticult to cure ; or tumors are formed between the fore legs and
about the groin, or upon the lips, which ulcerate and spread.
When this stage is arrived at, watch carefully for glanders.

Causes. — Bad ventilation, inoculation or contagion from other
affected animals.

Treatment — Attack it in the first mild form, when it is only
" button" farcy. Remove the horse to a place by itself, and keep
him, his clothing, and everything used about him, from other
animals. Provide for a plentiful supply of fresh air.

English treatment. — In the first stage administer a mild dose of
physic ; examine buds carefully, and if any have broken apply
the budding iron, of a dull red heat.

Or if matter should be felt in them, showing that they are dis-
posed to break, they should be penetrated with the iron. These
wounds should be daily inspected, and if pale, foul, spongy, and
discharging a thin matter, wash frequently with a lotion composed
of corrosive sublimate., one drachun dissolved in one ounce of
rectified spirit When the wounds begin to look red, and the
bottom of them is even and firm, and they discharge a thick white
or yellow matter, /rmr's balsam will speedily heal them. Altera-
tives must also be used to attack the blood. The best will be
the corrosive sublimate, in doses of ten grains, gradually in-
creased to a scruple, with two drachms of gentian and one of
ginger, repeated morning and night till the ulcers disappear — un-
less the horse be violently purged or the mouth get sore, when a
drachm of blue vitriol may be substituted for corrosive sublimate.

Let the animal have plenty of carrots and green meat, with
some grain, and let him be daily exercised.

American treatment (McClure). — Give twice a day, a table-
spoonful at a dose, sulphite (not sulphate) of soda, continuing
this till the horse is well ; and for a few weeks after, two or three
times a week, will be of good service. While the blood is thus
being purified, . . . . give something to fcxcilitate the removal
of the effete matter from the body, without weakening the animal
with debilitating diuretics.

For this purpose the following medicine : —

Powdered sulphate of copper, three ounces ; Spanish fly [cantha-
rides), one drachm; powdered gentian root, four ounces. Mix,,

416 The Canadian Farmer's

and divide into twelve powders; and give one powder at night in
some good feed, with no more oold water in it than will keep the
particles of the feed together. These powders will do for two
weeks ; at the end of that time get more, and continue them till
the horse is well.

In addition; give grass and generous feed.

The English practice also recommends moderate bleeding, when
the farcy is attended at the outset by enormous swelling of any
limb.

FEET.

Grease. — A disease of the heels and legs of horses ; the result
of suppurative inflammation, making the heels and legs dry, cracked,
hot and swollen (more frequently behind than on the fore legs).

Causes. — Bad stable management ; neglect to dry off the heels
when the horse is brought in from muddy work, especially in the
early spring \ aided also by bad state of the blood.

Remedies (English). — Wash the heel well with carbolic soap
and tepid soft water ; then apply to the cracks, white ointment
composed of one drachm of sugar of lead, ruhhed down with an
ounce of lard ; or a lotion composed of a solution of two drachmas
of blue vitriol, or four drachms of alum in a "pint of water ; or a
"poultice of linseed meal, with an ounce of finely powdered char-
coal ; or a poultice of carrots, boiled soft and mashed.

Dressings. — An ointment composed of one part resin and three
parts lard, melted together, and one part calamine powder added
when the former begins to cool.

Remedies (American). — Keep heels dry and clean, and apply
twice in the twenty-four hours — water, one pint ; sulphuric acid,
two drachms ; corrosive chloride of mercury, one drachm. Mix, and
shake up before using. Or for dressing, use glycerine, or lard hav-
ing no salt in it. For obstinate cases —

Take one box of concentrated lye, and dissolve it in two quarts
of water, and bottle up for use when wanted in the following way :
Pour a wineglassful of the solution of lye into a small bucket of
cold water, and wash and bathe the heels and legs for half an
hour, morning and night.

N. B. by Author. — Don't wash farm horses' heels when they
come in from work, but rub them dry ; don't cut off the hair that
nature has placed over the heels. Keep the horse's blood and
water in good order ; and on the first appearance of a crack in the
heel, treat it just as common sense teaches you to treat chaps on
your own hands.

An excellent and simple remedy for scratches, cuts with shoe
corks, and most flesh wounds, is in use by the practical farmers of
my own neighbourhood, and is one that we can personally highly
recommend. Make a salve of gunpowder and lard and heat it over

Manual of Agriculture, 417

the stove, mashing it down so as to crush all the gritty particles
of the gunpowder, and apply it with the hand to the parts affected.
It is very healing and perfectly innocuous.

Founder. — Laminitis. — A hybrid word from the Latin lamince
or leaves, and the Greek affix itis. It is a fever of the leaves in
the foot, and when left to itself will become chronic.

Causes. — Cold water when the animal has been overheated ;
inflammatory tendency of the feet ; a sudden change of inflamma-
tion from some other organ to the feet.

Symptoms. — The horse refuses to move, stands upon his heels
with fore feet spread forward to take the weight off the foot.
Soon the horse, afraid at first to bring his feet under him to lie
down, will flop down on his litter, and experience thereby relief.
Feet hot.

In inflammation of the feet, the horse will lie down. In inflam-
mation of the lungs, he perseveringly and obstinately remains
standing.

Treatment (American). — Give good bedding, and the horse will
lie down. Give twenty drops of the tincture of aconite root in a
cupful of cold water, poured into the mouth from a bottle with a
strong neck. Kepeat the dose every four hours, till six or eight
doses have been given. Apply ice- water cloths to the feet. Take
oft' the shoes as soon as it can be done. Care should be taken in
removing the shoes that every nail be drawn before attempting to
pull off the shoe. Let the cold water be kept on constantly for
the first day, or until active pain gives way. Pare the soles of the
feet thin. Give plenty of cold water to drink. Feed on grass or
soft mashes, but do not keep the horse too low. Rerfiember, do
not bleed, neither from the neck, nor foot, nor from any other place,
in a disease of this kind. — D. McClure. ■

Canker in the Foot. — Causes. — Injuries to the sensitive sole by
nails, bruises, and other accidents, as a piece of sole being torn off
Treatment. — Removal of any diseased or dead sole or proud
flesh. If not all removable, or removed, reduce caustic potash
quickly to a coarse powder, as it soon dissolves on exposure to air.
Lay it upon the raw surface. This apply next day, if first application
has not removed sufficient or all of it. After proud flesh has been
entirely taken off, dress every day with Barhadoes tar, one pound ;
sulphuric acid, three drachms ; powdered sulphate of copper, half
an ounce. Mix well, and spread a portion on the sore foot, and
over this dressing a pad of tow or cotton, held firmly down on the
padding, so as to produce pressure. This can be secured by
thin splints from young wood placed across one another over the
pad, and the ends pushed in beneath the shoe. — McClure.

Contracted Feet. — An unnatural contraction of the back part of
the hoof As the hoof draws in, the parts beneath, particularly
the coffin bone and the heels of the coffin bone, diminish.
27

418 The Canadian Farmer's

Causes. — Want of proper knowledge, on the part of the owner and
horse-shoer, in injudiciously paring all feet alike ; keeping shoes on
too long ; standing too long in dry places, and thus depriving the
hoof of natural moisture (hence the benefit of stopping the shoe
with cow dung in the stables) ; inflammation of the little plates
covering the coffin-bone. Blood horses are particularly liable to
contraction of the feet, whilst overfeeding and close confinement
combine often to bring on many such local aflfections.

Treatment rests to a great extent with the shoer, and herein is
the skill and knowledge of such a mechanic displayed. When
contraction causes lameness, the case should be put in the hands
of a vet.

Corns. — A red spot on the inner portion of the heel of the foot.

Cause. — Pressure and bruising by shoe, when badly put on or
left on too long.

Treatment. — Let a skilful practitioner cut out the corns ; then
apply a few drops of commercial sulphuric acid to the part. Shoe
the horse sufficiently often to ensure even bearing to the shoe
upon the wall only of the foot. — McClure.

Pricks. — Treatment. — Pull the nail out and poultice the foot for
twent^'-four hours ; then make an opening through the horn, over
the place where the nail went in, so as to allow the pus to pass.
After an opening has been made properly, drop five drops of muri-
atic acid into the hole, once a day for a day or two. Poultice
every second night or day, and not oftener. — McClure.

Sandcrack — A crack in the hoof, into which sand or other grit
has got.

Causes. — Brittleness of hoof ; want of natural moisture generally
in the inner part of fore foot.

Prevention. — Apply to brittle feet equal portions of oil of tar
and cod liver oil, whale oil, or any fish oil, well rubbed in with a
brush on the hoofs a few times a week.

Treatment. — Considerably thin the edges of the crack ; wash
out well ; and if any fungus shows through the crack, destroy it
with chloride of antimony. Make a piece of iron red hot, and
then pass it rapidly across the hair just above the crack, so as to
make a scab ; put a pledget of tow in the crack and bind it down.

Navicular disease. —Behind and beneath the lower pastern
bone, and behind and above the heel of the coffin bone, is a small
bone called the navicular or shuttle bone. There is a great deal
of weight thrown on this bone, and its surface sometimes becomes
ulcerated.

Causes. — Constant work on hard roads, or inflammation neg-
lected, and ending in ulceration.

Symptoms. — Hard to discover; when there is lameness and great
heat, and none of the other diseases of the foot can be found, we
may generally conclude that the navicular bone is afiected.

Manual of Agriculture, 419

Remedy. — The bone is so deep-seated that cure is impossible,
though relief may be given by poultices and cooling applications.
The old writers on the Horse recommend blisters on the coronet,
setons run through the frog ; but the farmer must here call in
the surgeon. There is an operation called neurotomy, or the
cutting out of a portion of the nerve, that has been found success-
ful.

Thrush. — A discharge of offensive matter from the cleft of the
frog, caused by inflammation.

Causes. — Dirtiness of the stable management, and sometimes the
result or an accompaniment of navicular disease.

Rei)tedy. — The application of an astringent, of not too caustic a
nature. (English.) — The common Egyptiacum (vinegar boiled with
honey and verdigris) ; or, a paste composed of two ounces of blue
and one of white vitriol powdered as fine as possible, and rubbed
down with one pound of tar and two of lard. A pledget of tow
covered with it should be introduced as deep as possible, without
force, into the cleft of the frog every night, and removed before
the horse goes to work.

Treatment (McClure). — A few drops of muriatic acid forced into
the centre of the frog once a tlay for a few days. Keep the stable
and stalls dry and clean. A few doses of the sulphite of soda in
half-ounce doses, once a day for a few days, will do good by its
alterative and puritive effects upon the system.

Fever is generall}^ increased artei ial action, either without any
local affection, or in consequence of the sympathy of the system
with inflammation in some particular part.

Fever symptoms begin generally with a cold or shivering fit ;
the horse is dull, unwilling to move, with a staring coat, and cold
legs and feet. This is succeeded by warmth of the body ; unequal
distribution of warmth to the legs — one hot and the other three
cold, or some unnaturally warm and others unusually cold,
although oiot the death/y coldness of inflammation of the lungs ;
the pulse quick, soft, and often indistinct; breathing somewhat
laborious ; but no cough or pawing, or looking at the flank. The
animal will scarcely eat, and is very costive. Whilst pure fever
lasts, the shivering tit returns at nearly the same hour every day,
and is succeeded by a warm one, and that often by a slight sweat-
ing one ; and this goes on for several days, until local inflamma-
tion appears or the fever gradually subsides. No hoise ever died
of fever ; if he is not killed by inflammation of the lungs or bow-
els or feet, succeeding to the fever, he gradually recovers.

Fits, or Epilepsy. — Not common, but very awkward to the driver
or attendant. The attack is sudden.

Symptoms. — The animal sto|.-s, trembles, looks round vacantly
and fobs. The convulsions following may be sl'ght or terrible.
In a few minutes convulsions cease, he gets up, lookrf around him

420 The Canadian Farmer's

partially stupified, shakes his ears, urines, and eats or drinks as if
nothing had happened.

liemedy is to find the cause of the fits ; but, as a rule, the epi-
leptic fits become so frequent and violent, that the horse becomes
unsafe to use.

GLEET (nasal), OR DISCHARGE FROM THE NOSE.

The constant secretion of fluid which lubricates the membrane
that lines the cavity of the nose, is under catarrh or cold increased
in quantity and altered in appearance and consistency. We refer
here to an obstinate and violent discharge of thickened mucus,
even after all other trace of catarrh and fever has passed away.

If the discharge be not oflfensive to the smell, nor mixed with
any matter, it will frequently yield to small doses of blue vitriol,
from one to two drachms, and given twice a day. If fever or
cough remain, the medicine recommended for cough may be used
with the tonic. If the discharge be mingled with pus, and very
offensive, the vegetable tonics, gentian and ginger, may be added
to the blue vitriol, in doses of two drachms of the former and one
of the latter ; but there is then reason to apprehend that the
discharge will not be controlled, and will turn into glanders.

Glanders. — This formidable disease has been known from all
ages, and has been invariably considered incurable.

Symptoms. — In the majority of instances the horse wiU have
been dull, off his feed, losing flesh, and with staring coat, and
these preceding the actual and characteristic symptoms of glan-
ders for several weeks.

First, an increased discharge of mucus from one or both nostrils ;
this is different from the discharge of catarrh, because it is usually
lighter and clearer in colour, and more glutinous and sticky.
When rubbed between the fingers, it has, even in an early stage, a
peculiarly clammy, birdlimy feel.

It is not discharged occasionally, and in large quantities, like
the mucus of catarrh, but it is constantly running from the nostril.

This discharge, in cases of infection, may continue (and in so
slight a degree as to be scarcely perceptible) for many weeks or
months before the health and capabilities of the horse seem to be
injured.

It will remain for a long time almost transparent, yet gluey,
and then it will begin to be mingled with pus, retaining, however,
its sticky character, and being rarely offensive in the early stages.
The constant fiow of this secretion, with the absence of cough,
either before or during the discharge, will be the early symptoms.

Soon, however, the pus mingled with the discharge becomes
absorbed, and the giands beneath the jaw begin to swell. From
this swelling the disease has been named.

Manual of Agriculture.

421

The membrane of the nose will be either of a dark purplish
hue, or almost of a leaden colour, or of any shade between the
two ; or, if there be some of the redness of inflammation, it will
have a purple tinge ; but there will never be the faint pink blush
of health, or the intense and vivid red of usual inflammation.

Spots of ulceration will probably appear on the membrane cover-
ing the cartilage of the nose ; not simple sore places, or streaks of
abrasion, and quite superficial, but small ulcers, usually approach-
ing to a circular form ; deep, with the edges abrupt and promi-
nent.

See that these ulcers, however, do actually exist, for spots of mu-
cus adhering to the membrane have been often mistaken for them.

There is a form of chronic glanders which will continue for
years, the horse constantly discharging from the nose, but able to
work well. In this state, however, it is generally considered that
the horse is capable of propagating the malady.

When these ulcers have fairly appeared, other symptoms show-
ing an affected constitution will rapidly supervene : as loss of
flesh, tucked-up belly, unthrifty coat, cough, impaired appetite,
failing strength ; the discharge from the nose daily becomes more
purulent, discoloured, bloody and stinking ; the ulcers will become
larger and more numerous ; and the air passages being obstructed,
a grating, choking noise will be heard at every breath. The lungs
are now diseased ; they are filled with tubercles or ulcerations,
and the horse soon dies, a worn-out loathsome object.

Glanders has been confounded with Strangles and with Gold.

IN GLANDERS,

No cough in early stages. The swelling
below the jaws at first large, but sur-
rounding enlargement soon goes off
and one or two small distinct glands
remain, and they are not in the cen-
tre of the channel, but adhere closely to
the jaw on the affected side.

Ulceration of membrane.

The membrane a sickly hue — purple or
lead colour.

The discharge, commencing thin, trans-
parent, sticky, is constant^ and in-
creases to a purulent, bloody, stinking
state.

IN STRANGLES,

Which are peculiar to young horses, and
resemble common cold in early stages,
there is from the first some fever and
sore throat, a distressing cough, or
wheezing.

The enlargement below the jaws is a
swelling of the whole of the surface
between the jaws, growing harder
towards the middle ; after a time ap-
pears to contain a fluid in a tumor,
which bursts, and fever begins to
abate.

The mettnbrane of the nose is extremely
red.

The discharge is profuse and thick from
the first.

COMMON COLD

Is accompanied by fever, loss of appetite

and sore throat from the first.
Glands of the jaw, if swelled, are move-
able, with a thickening round them,
and are hot and tender.
Discharge thick and purulent.
It is well, however, to bear in mind that cold., and every disease
that has to a considerable and palpable degree undermined the

422 The Canadian Farmer's

constitution, is very apt to run on to glanders ; and man should
remember that inoculation by the pus of a glandered horse will
bring the disease of glanders on to the human being.

The action of this disease is simple : commencing with ulcera-
tion of the membrane of the nostril, the "pus formed sooner or later
is taken up by the neighbouring glands ; from them the whole
system is inoculated and becomes vitiated.

Causes. — Hereditar}^, or brought on by starvation, debilitating
diseases, &c. ; but most frequently from starvation, added to filthi-
ness in stable management. It may also be taken into a stable
by contagion.

Treatmient — McClure says in his lecture before the Veterinary
College : —

" To remove or neutralize the ferment or poison (absorption of
pus), give one-half to one ounce doses of the sulphite of soda, at
night, in cut feed, for several weeks, and five grains of powdered
Spanish fly along with it, which will act not only as a powerful
tonic, but as an agent whereby the product of the disease will be
removed from the body of the animal by the kidneys."

This treatment will not interfere with the other medicine, which
is powdered gentian root, three drachms ; powdered sulphate ot
copper, two drachms. Mix these articles, and give the whole for
a dose, and give one dose morning and mid-day. Remember y glan-
ders IS highly contagious to both man and beast.

Heaves. — Asthmatic in its nature.

Symptoms. — Either deep and incomplete respiration, or a double
beat at each breath.

Causes. — Debility of a nerve.

Treatment. — To allay the peculiar beating, give of powdered
sulphate of iron, one ounce ; gentian, one ounce ; ginger, one ounce.
This is a temporary relief, but the large dose of iron is injurious
to the horse. For a gradual and progressive improvement, five-
grain doses of arsenic, given once in the twenty-four hours for two
weeks ; then, after a week's intermission, commencing as before,
will soon cure many cases. Give the animal feed in small bulk.
Use as little hay or rough feed, in large bulk, as possible. Im-
prove the condition of the horse by every way or means, and you
will relieve the animal.

Hidebound. — A symptom that the horse is " out of sorts," woak,
&c. Where there is no apparent cause, such as cold, farcy, &c.,
the horse requires an alterative. Saltpetre, nitre and sulphur —
two parts of the first, three of the second, and four of the last —
a tablespoonful in feed every night ; or, the following powder iD
feed every night : —

Powdered sulphate of iron 3 drachms.

Powdered gentian root 4 drachms.

Mix.

Manual of Agriculture. 423

If the animal is fat, and yet hidebound, give —

Sulphuret of antimony 3 drachms.

Sulphurin flour 3 drachms.

Sulphite of soda ^ an ounce.

Mix, and give in one dose, repeating it every night for two weeks.

Feed generousl}^ with plenty of bran mash, and keep the bowels
open.

If possible, do without medicine, and use bran mashes, carrots,
boiled potatoes, and general change of diet.

Jugular Vein. — If, after bleeding, inflammation about the wound
should set up badly, remove the pin, and apply a piece of blue-
stone to the sore for a day or two, and once each day. Hot fo-
mentations or a small poultice may be applied to reduce inflam-
mation. Cut feed, and thus save movements of the horse's jaws
as much as possible.

Lamn'pas. — Prick the bars and put in a little table salt. Don't
burn the mouth.

LUNGS — AFFECTIONS OF.

Pneumonia. — An inflammation of the lung itself, sometimes
called Lung Fever.

Symptoms. — Generally preceded by chills and fever ; pulse op-
pressed and indistinct ; ears and legs cold ; the nostrils expanded ;
the head thrust out, and the flanks heave with a quick, hurried
motion, expressive of pain. The membrane of the nose is intenselv
red. Countenance anxious, and indicative of suflfering, with mourn-
ful looks directed at the flanks.

The horse stands stiff; with fore legs apart, and seems unwillincr
to move for fear of falling ; he obstinately stands, day after day,
and night after night ; or if he lies down from absolute fatigue, it
is but for a moment. (See Colic for comparison.)

Treatment. — Place him in a light, airy place ; bandage the legs
to keep them warm.

English : If bleeding is practised, a surgeon should stand by,
with his finger on the pulse, to mark the effect.

Give twenty-five drops of tincture of aconite root in a cupful of
cold water, and drench the horse. Repeat the dose every four
hours, till six doses are given.

Pleurisy. — Inflammation of the covering of the lungs.

Symptoms. — The pulse hard and full ; the extremities chilled
slightly ; nose red ; pain expressed by a grunt on the part of the
horse.

Treat as for inflammation of the lungs, but on second day fol-
low the aconite with five grains of powdered Spanish fly in gruel,
once in the twenty-four hours.

The services of a veterinary practitioner should be called in, as

424 The Canadian Farmer's

pleurisy may terminate unfavourably in water on the chest, or
adhesions.

Maggots.— To remove, apply equal parts of creosote and olive
oil, or a solution of corrosive sublimate.

Megrims. — A disease of the brain, occurring especially in hot
weather ; differs from epilepsy in the absence of spasms.

Causes. — Tumors in the choroid plexus, and enlargement of the
pineal gland.

Treatment. — Palliative ; use a Dutch collar.

Poll- Evil. — Causes. — Injury to the part, or disease of bone.
Make the abscess large enough that it can be swabbed out with a
piece of sponge or cloth on a stick, and the pus removed. Occa-
sionally syringe or squirt cold water into the sore, and swab it
out again until completely dry. Then apply the following, once
in a day, with a swab : —

Creosote 1 ounce.

Oil of olives 2 ounces.

Oil of turpentine 1 ounce.

Mix.

When the poll-evil is the result of diseased bone, ten drops of
sulphuric acid poured in the fistulous opening of the swelling or
sore will hasten recovery very much, and in many cases efiect a
good and speedy cure. Once a day will be often enough ; and if
there be more than one fistulous opening, drop the acid into one
to-day and the other to-morrow, and continue from day to day un-
til each opening ceases to discharge a whitish-grey matter, and a
dry-looking opening is presented. Afterwards use a solution of
the sulphate of zinc ; one drachm of the zinc to four ounces of water
will answer the purpose. The horse should be well fed and cared
for.

Polypi. — If small, touch them with a stick of lunar caustic ; if
large, cut them off, and apply a weak solution of bluestone to the
sore till healed.

Proud Flesh. — Sprinkle a little white sugar, powdered bluestone,
or a little red precipitate on the surface of the sore or wound.

Ringbone. — Cause. — Hereditary predisposition.

Remedy. — If of recent date, and the horse be young, remove all
heat and inflammation with cold-water cloths wrapped round the
parts for three days, taking them off at night. At the end of that
time get one drachm of the bin-iodide of mercury, mix with one
ounce of lard, and apply one-half of the salve, rubbing it in well
for ten minutes. Tie up the horse's head for a few hours, and the
next day wash off with soap and warm water, daily anointing
the parts with lard or oil for a week ; then apply the remainder
of the salve in the same way, and proceed as before.

Saddle Galls. — Use compound tincture of aloes. When sores
become hard and firm, use the ointment of iodide of mercury.

Manual of Agriculture, 425

Shoulder Lameness. — Usually produced b}^ a slip or side fall,
when the muscles of the shoulder are sprained.

Symptoms. — These muscles being deeply seated, we do not find
tenderness, heat or swelling. We assume that the lameness is in
the shoulder, in part, because we can find no hot or tender spot in
the leg or foot. The horse steps longer with the lame leg and
shorter with the sound one ; and, except in very severe cases, the
horse will not only point the leg out from the body, but carry it
along the side of the body. Now, in most sprains and diseases
in the foot, the leg will be pointed straight out, without any side
position. Take the leg which is lame by the pastern, and gently
carry or pull it straight out from the body of the horse, in front,
and gently also to the outside ; if it be shoulder lameness, the horse
will not only show evidences of pain, but will in many cases,
depending on the spirit or animation of the horse, get up from the
ground with the sound leg and endeavour to wrest the lame one
from you. Where the shoulder is bruised the horse will stand on
his toe.

TreatTuent. — Absolute rest, warm- water cloths applied for two
days, followed by cold-water cloths, in the same way and for as
many days.

Then a slight blister of Spanish fly may be rubbed into the skin
of the shoulder, taking care that none of it is put on at the situa-
tion of the collar.

Take Spanish fly powder, one drachm ; hog's lard, six drachms.
Mix, and make an ointment or salve, and rub the better half of it
into the skin. Next day wash off with warm water, and when
dry from washing, anoint the blistered parts with oil or lard daily
for a week.

Do not put the horse to work too soon after getting well from the
lameness.

Shoulder- joint Lameness. — A serious form. This is to the fore
leg what spavin is to the hock-joint.

Symptom^s. — The horse drags his toe along the ground. He
even stands with the toe resting on the ground, and in walking
he throws his leg out at every movement of the limb.

Treatment is unsatisfactory, for the cartilages are likely to be
destroyed and the bone beneath to become ulcerated. " In many
cases," says McClure, "a cure can be effected by the ointment of
red iodide of mercury, well rubbed in once a week for a few
times."

Take bin-iodide of mercury, two drachms ; hog's lard, two
ounces. Mix well on the bottom of a dinner plate, with a table
knife. Of this ointment take one-fourth, and rub well into the
joint, tying up the horse's head for a few hours. Allow bedding
for the front feet, as the horse will stamp with his foot on the
ground ; for the action of this ointment is said to be as painful as

426 The Canadian Farmer's

the hot iron, for about half an hour from the time it begins to act
till the parts begin to swell from its effects.

Daily oil or grease the parts for a week, then apply as before;
and remember, that to get all the benefits of this ointment, it must
be well rubbed in.

Side Bones. — Cause and treatment the same as for ringbone.

Sitfasts, or Warbles. — Rub in about the size of a bean of the
ointment of red iodide of mercury.

Baldness. — To make hair grow, use a weak ointment of iodine :
Iodine, half a drachm ; hog's lard, eight drachms. Mix, and apply
by rubbing with the hand once every third da}^, till there are
evidences of a growth of hair springing up.

Sores. — Healthy sores may be treated with the tincture of aloes,
or m3^rrh, or simple ointment. Unhealthy sores should be treated,
first by the application of some caustic, or powdered bluestone,
nitrate of silver (lunar caustic), or caustic potassa ; after which
they may be dressed with myrrh or simple ointment.

Spavin. — There are several kinds of spavins, all affecting the
hock.

(1.) Bog Spavin is situated in front of the hock-joint, and is a
soft, fluctuating swelling, which rarely ever causes lameness. It
is merely an enlargement or distension of the bursal cavity of the
joint, and is filled with joint oil, but increased in quantity and not
of natural quality.

(2.) Blood Spavin is a more extensive form of bog spavin, in-
volving the hock-joint on the inside, outside, and front side.

Causes. — Hard work and fast driving, especially in young
horses.

Treatment. — We should advise the application to a qualified
man. The one method adopted is to let the fluid out, but there is
always much danger of opening the cavity containing the regular
joint oil. An old-fashioned plan was to strike the joint sharply
with a wooden mallet ; the stroke was supposed to break the skin
confining the fluid, and by setting up adhesive inflammation, to
close the opening.

(3.) Bone Spavin is the formation of irregular bony matter on
the bones of the joint, which prevents their free action over one
another. Sometimes only one or two bones are thus affected,
while in other cases the whole of the bones of the joint are in-
volved in the spavin. Bone spavin is seen on the inside and front
of the joint.

(4.) Occult Spavin. — A disease similar to bone spavin, the bones
of the joint being diseased and stiff, while there is no apparent
enlargement. The cause, results and effects of this are the same
as bone spavin, and the treatment should be alike.

Treatment for both bone and occult (hidden) spavin (Mc-
Clure) : In young horses, the red iodide of mercury, in ointment ;

Manual of Agriculture. 427

one drachm of bin-iodide of mercury ; and one ounce of lard. Mix,
and apply once a week, and lard the parts once a day till the
next application.

Old horses should have a liniment applied once every second
day to the parts : Oil of olives, two ounces ; oil of turpentine,
one ounce ; creosote, one ounce. Mix.

This will relieve the pain, and to a great extent the lameness.

Uniform pressure will sometimes relieve bog and blood spavin,
by promoting the absorption of the fluid contained in cysts or
bags ; though difficult to attain in a joint subject to such varied
motion, yet it will be well to try a tight linen bandage to press
upon the part affected.

Repeated blistering may sometimes eflfect a cure, or even firing
may be tried.

Our only hope of cure in any of these diseases of the hock-joint,
blood, bog, bone, or occult spavins, is to attack them at once and
with vigour. Keep the horse up in good condition, and keep his
general health in good tone.

Splint. — A small, bony enlargement between the leg and splint
bones in young horses, and before the latter have attained to a
union. Always found on the outside of small bone, and generally
on inside of leg.

Causes. — Working horses at too early an age.

Treatment — One or two applications of the ointment: Red
iodide of mercury, or tincture of Spanish fly, one ounce ; oil of
croton, twenty drops. Mix, and apply with rubbing.

Sprains. — A twisting of a joint, with consequent injury to the
articulations, ligaments, tendons and their sheaths. These usually
occur to the pasterns, fetlock-joints, shoulder and its joint; hock,
stifle, back, loins, flexor tendon, suspensory ligaments, &c. ; and
are caused by slipping, falling, overwork, &c.

Symptom^s. — Pain, heat, swelling, and tenderness to touch.

Treatment. — Absolute rest. If there be any fever or irritation
on the part of the horses, tincture of aconite root, fifteen drops,
should be given three times in the day for two days.

For three days apply warm-water bandages or cloths, followed
by cold-water cloths, for three days, taking them off" at night.
The bandages, whether warm or cold, should be re- wetted every
hour or two — i.e., before the warm cloths become cold, or the cold
have become warm.

If the lameness and swelling have not ceased, apply for a few
days, once a day, the liniment : Creosote, one ounce ; oil of tur-
pentine, one ounce ; oil of olives, one ounce. Mix, and give plenty
of rest.

STAGGERS.

Stomach Staggers. — An attack of acute indigestion, brought on

428

The Canadian Farmer's

by overloading the stomach, the consequence being what in man
would be called a fearful headache.

Symptoms. — The horse stands, sleepy, dull and staggering ;
when roused, he looks vacantly around him, perhaps seizes a bite
of hay, and dozes again ere he has begun to grind it ; at length, he
drops and dies ; or the sleepiness passes off and delirium super-
venes, when he falls, rises again, drops, beats himself about, and
dies in convulsions.

IVeatment. — Between stomach and mad staggers there is little
difference in symptoms, and to distinguish between them we must
know the history of the horse for some days previously.

Give injections of warm water, soap and oil, so as to clean out
the bowels and obtain a free passage for the air.

To arrest the fermentation going on in the stomach, dissolve two
ounces of sulphite of soda in a little water, and give the dose once
every two hours. Also, drench with eight drachms of powdered
aloes in a little water.

Mad Staggers. — Infla'tnm.ation of the Brain, or Phrenitis.—
Symptoms. — At first, very like stomach staggers, but after a
while the horse suddenly begins to heave at the flanks; his
nostrils expand ; his eyes unclose ; he has a wild and vacant
stare, and delirium comes on rapidly ; he dashes himself furi-
ously about ; and such is his strength and the unconscious mis-
chievous actions of his delirium, that he becomes dangerous to all
who may be near him, and destructive to his stall or anything
within reach. This continues until either his first stupor has
returned, or he dies exhausted.

This may be confounded with Colic and Madness.

IN COLIC,

(See also under head of Colic, )

The horse rises and falls, but not with
much violence ; he sometimes plunges,
but more often rolls ; he looks fre-
quently at the flank with an expres-
sion of pain, and he is perfectly con-
scious.

The spasms come on at intervals, be-
tween which he eats and appears
quite well.

Treatment of Mad Staggers. — Remove him from anything valua-
ble or that can be broken, from all poin'os or angles against which
he may strike himself, and put a liberal allowance of litter under
him. If practicable, put him in a loose box with a dirt floor.

He can seldom be saved. Let him be bled until he faints or
drops ; open both the neck veins at once. The quickness with
which the blood is drawn is as important as the quantity. After-
wards, purge him with the croton nut, powdered at the time and
given in a drink, in the dose of a half drachm, and followed by

IN MADNESS,

There may be more or less violence.
There is always a set determination,
easily observable, to do mischief, and
there is also always consciousness.

Manual of Agriculture, 429

smaller doses of ten grains each, every six hours, with injections of
warm water, soap and oil, until the bowels have been well opened.

Staked. — If the bowels are injured, or any portion have escaped
through the opening and are torn, sew them with small, fine cat-
gut, and pass them back into their proper place. If the skin only
is wounded, it is but a simple sore.

If it is in a fleshy part, treat the wound with a weak solution
of bluestone, chloride or sulphate of zinc.

Stings froin Bees, Hornets, &c. — Take acetic acid No. 8, four
ounces ; powdered camphor, one ounce. Mix and dissolve ; then
rub a portion of the mixture in the parts most affected.

In about an hour, when the poison, swelling and irritation have
been arrested, anoint with sweet oil or lard. Instead of acetic
acid, strong table or white wine vinegar may be used without the
camphor, but the acetic acid is more effectual, if on hand.

Stifled consists of the displacement of the stifle, or patella, which
slides off the rounded heads of the bones.

The horse should be removed to a level pasture, and have him
shod with a shoe having a projecting piece of iron attached to the
toe, which will prevent the bones from sliding out of place and
knuckling at every step.

Stravgles is an abscess between the bones of the lower jaw,
brought on by a poison of the blood which few horses escape;
generally seen in horses at three or four years of age, and usually
in the spring of the year.

Treatment — Don't poultice but blister, if it is desired to hasten
the process of the abscess.

It should be lanced as soon as the abscess has been brought well
to head. If left to burst naturally, it is apt to form a bad, ragged
ulcer, which is slow to cure.

Stringhalt — Causes. — The loss of nervous influence in the leg,
or the peculiar anatomical structure and articulation of the hock-
joint of some horses.

Treatment. — There is no remedy, but occasionally, at a very
early stage, the nervous influence may be restored by generous
feed and, say, one grain of strychnia (nux vomica) given daily, for
six weeks, in the horse's feed.

Sunstroke (Coup de Soleil). — Symptoms. — Exhaustion and
stupidity ; the animal falls, and can go no further.

Prevention. — In very hot weather, always use a sunshade for
the horse.

Treatment. — At once remove the horse to a cool, shady place.
Give two ounces of sulphuric ether ; twenty drops of the tincture
of aconite root, and a bottle of ale or porter as a drench.

Place chopped ice in a coarse towel or bag, and apply it between
the ears and over the forehead, and secure it there. Warm the
legs if they be cold.

430 *The Canadian Farmer^s

Swelled Legs are usually the result of an impure state of the
biood. Diuretics or alteratives should therefore be administered.
(See Medicines.)

ThoTOughpin. — An enlargement above the hock, between the
tendons of the flexor of the foot and the extensor of the hock.
Necessarily projecting on both sides of the hock, in the form of a
round swelling, it is called a thoroughpin.

Cause. — Overwork.

TTeat7)ient — The same as for Windgalls, which see.

Thrush. — (See Feet.)

ULCERS.

Healthy Ulcers. — Every sore that suppurates becomes a healthy
ulcer. Generally they will heal themselves. To hasten the heal-
ing, if such is desired, apply a solution of bluestone, or chloride of
zinc, as follows : —

Chloride of zinc 4 grains.

Rainwater 1 ounce.

Mix.

Or—

Powdered bluestone 2 drachms.

Rainwater Bounces.

Mix.

Apply either of these once a day, to moisten the lips of the sore
and to arrest the formation of proud flesh.

Where proud flesh has grown up badly on neglected sores, caus-
tic must be used.

Touch with the caustic potassa a few times, until the proud flesh
blackens. Repeat if necessary.

N.B — Caustic potassa must be kept in a tight bottle when not
in use ; if not so preserved, it will become liquid.

Never use adhesive plasters if they can be avoided.

Indolent Ulcers, — These are such as are found on horses' le^ijs
and heels in such diseases as grease, farcy, &;c.

Cause. — General debility, poor feed, or bad state of the blood.

Treatment — Apply powdered bluestone to the ulcer, to eat off
the unhealthy surface ; then apply a poultice for the night, made
of boiled turnips, carrots, or any soft material. Cover the face of
the poultice with brewers' yeast, or charcoal pow^dered.

Feed the animal well, and give half-ounce doses of sulphite of
soda once a day, to purify and enrich the blood.

Irritable Ulcers, such as sores caused by flies, heat and sweat. —
These are of the nature that they cannot be touched without
bleeding ; are red, angry-looking, and very painful ; highly in-
flamed and extremely vascular.

Treatment — Keep away flies. Dress the sore with oil of olives.

Manual of Agriculture. 431

one ounce ; creosote, half an ounce. Mix, and apply to the sore
with a piece of soft cloth once a day.

Warranty. — A certificate of warranty need not be a document
of extreme and exact legal formnlity.

The law will see that if A. warrants to B. an animal to be sound
wind and limb, quiet to ride and drive, and of a certain age, B.
will receive his remedy should he be able afterwards to prove that
at the time of the purchase the horse was not as A. had warranted
it.

Such a form as the following is as binding in law as any of far
greater formality : —

Eeceived from A. B, one hundred and fifty dollars for a bay horse, warranted
only five years old, sound, free from vice, and quiet to ride or drive.

$150. C. D.

Windgalls are soft, elastic swellings, oftener found on the hind
than the fore leg, and near the fetlock.

Treatment. — Bandage tightly with a soft pad over each tumor ;
wet the bandages with vinegar, to each pint of which a quarter
of a pint of spirits of wine has been added ; or, more severely,
blister the tumors. For these, the last process of "firing" has
occasionally to be adopted.

Worms. — Stomach Worm. — These are the products of e<rgs laid
by the bot fly in summer about the legs of the horse, and trucked
in by him in the process of licking himself

Symptoms of their presence are an unthrifty coat and loss of
flesh.

Treatment. — Improve his condition by extra feed. In addition,
give iron and gentian — thus : Powdered sulphate of iron and
gentian root, each three drachms. Mix, and make one dose, to be
repeated twice a week.

Fundament Bot. — These will be found sticking about the anus
and under the tail.

Treatm.ent. — Injections of linseed oil.

Warts. — -Either cut thera ofl" with a knife, or take arsenic, one
drachm ; hog's lard,four drachms. Mix, and make into an ointment ;
rub a portion in and around the wart once a week. In a short
time it will fall ofl*.

Washy Horses.—Such as are not well-ribhed home (having too
great a space between the last rib and tiie hip Lone). 'J hese
horses are subject to purging if more than usual exertion is re-
quired from them. They may be free and fast, but cannot have
" stay."

Wolf Teeth. — Sometimes, at two years old, the second teeth do
not rise immediately beneath tlie first or milk tceih, but some-
what to one side, and tlien, instead of the natural and gradual ab-
sorption of the latter, the whole tooth is pushed out of its place to

432 The Canadian Farmer's

the fore part of the first grinder, and remains for a considerable
time under the name of a wolfs tooth, causing swelling and sore-
ness of the gums, and frequently wounding the cheeks. As the
very slow natural absorption of these displaced first teeth is often
accompanied by pain to the horse, it is proper to get rid of these
diminutive teeth, either by punching them out or by drawing
them.

SOUNDNESS.

The following affections render a horse unsound: —

Broken Knees, if after healing the action of the knees is inter-
fered with.

Gapped Hocks.

Contraction of the feet does not necessarily entail unsoundness,
but where present the feet should be closely examined.

Corns, and are seldom radically cured.

Cough. — As long as this disease hangs on a horse he is unsound.

Roaring, Wheezing, Whistling, High-blowing and Grunting, and
Broken Wind — all being affections of the air passages, and interfer-
ing with perfect freedom in breathing.

Crih-hiting, although not always so considered, yet is undoubt-
edly a form of unsoundness.

Curb, as long as the swelling remains, is partial unsoundness,
for a horse that has once thrown out a curb is always liable to do
so again on slight extra exertion.

Cutting can hardly be called unsoundness, but must be closely
watched

Enlarged Glands. — If very large and tender, we should hesitate
before we pronounced the horse sound, especiall}'' should the
lining of the nose be red, and the gland at the root of the ear par-
take of the enlargement.

Enlarged Hock. — Will always be lamed by a few days of extra
hard work.

The Eyes. — Proofs of unsoundness of the eyes are : a pucker-
ing of the lid towards the inner corner of the eye ; a difference in
the size of the eyes ; a gloominess of the eye ; a dulness of the
iris ; a little dulness of the transparent part of the eye generally ;
a minute, faint, dusky spot deep in the eye, and with little radia-
tions of white light proceeding from it ; starting at objects, if not
proved to be a trick.

Lameness from any cause, as long as it remains.

Quidding. — If the mastication of food gives pain to the animal,
he will drop it before it is perfectly chewed. This, an indication
of disease, is a form of unsoundness.

Quittor is unsoundness.

Ringbone. — So far unsound as tending to the spread of inflam-
mation and disease.

Manual of Agriculture. 433

Sandcrack is unsoundness ; but it must have occurred before or
at the exact time of sale to entitle the purchaser to remedy, for it
occurs very suddenly.

Spavins of all kinds constitute unsoundness.

Splint — Only unsoundness if in the neighbourhood of and in-
terfering with the action of any joint.

Stringhalt. — An ugly appearance, but not necessarily a princi-
ple of unsoundness.

Thickening of the Back Sinews. — If of any lengthened continu-
ance, becomes a token of unsoundness. Must, however, be distin-
guished from guKYiminess or natural roundness of some legs.

ThoToughpin. — Only unsound if it is of great size. Where it is
found, the hock should be carefully examined.

Thrush. — Veterinarians disagree on this point. We should
consider its presence indicative of unsoundness.

Windgalls constitute unsoundness only when they cause lame-
ness.

THE ORDINARY DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Abortion, or Slinking. — The period of abortion is usually from
the fourth to the seventh or even eighth month of pregnancy.

Syr)iptoms. — The cow is somewhat off her feed ; rumination
ceases ; listless and dull ; milk diminishes or dries up ; the motions
of the foetus become more feeble, and at length cease ; a slight but
visible enlargement of the belly ; a little staggering in her walk ;
when down she lies longer than usual, and when up she stands
motionless. As the abortion approaches, a yellow or red glary
fluid runs from the vagina (this is a certain symptom) ; her breath-
ing becomes laborious and slightly convulsive.

The belly has for some days lost its natural roundness, and has
been falling ; she begins to moan ; the pulse becomes small, wiry,
and intermittent ; at length labour comes on, and the abortion
takes place.

Causes. — Sympathy with other cows that have aborted ; extra-
vagantly high condition, resulting in inflammation of the uterus ;
a constant repetition of the affection known as "hoove" or "bloat ;"
fright, blows, and brutal usage ; running with the bull soon after
conception. It is also epidemic, occurring in a greater or less
degree in different seasons.

The Prevention of this disease may be readily inferred from a
review of the above causes.

When it has occurred, treat the cow as after calving (reviewed
in our chapter on Milch Cows), and be sure to remove the foetus
immediately, and bury it away from the cow pasture.

Let the parts of the cow be well washed with a solution of
chloride of lime, and let this be also injected up the vagina.
28

434 The Canadian Farmer's

To prevent, as far as possible, the spread of abortion by sympa-
thy amongst the other cows, let the cow-house be well washed
with some disinfectant, and every taint of smell from the foetus
and its accompaniments be thoroughly got rid of

When abortion has once occurred to a cow, she should not be
allowed again to breed, as it is almost sure to be repeated in her
case.

Aptha, or Thrush. — An eruption in the mouth.
Cause. — Irritation caused by teething.

TreatTYient. — A wash made of a weak^ solution of vinegar and
cold water, applied to the mouth twice a day.

Black Quarte^y, Joint Felon, or QuaMer Evil — Peculiar to young
cattle, and occurring in the spring. A hind leg and thigh become
congested and black with coagulated blood. It is sudden in attack
and very fatal.

Causes. — A plethoric condition and fulness of blood.
Treatment. — The disease must be taken early. On its first ap-
pearance give the whole herd of young cattle a good brisk purge —
say half a pound of Epsom salts in two bottles of water, sweet-
ened with molasses, and add a teaspoonful of ginger.

Take the young cattle out of very rich pasture and put them
in high, dry land.

Brain Diseases. — Phrenitis. — The same as mad staggers in the
horse.

Causes. — Overfeeding in long, wet grass.

Symptoms. — The animal is dull ; quickened breathing ; excite-
ment and delirium, with bloodshot eyes.

Treatment. — Give an active purge : one pound of Epsom salts
and one pound of table salt, dissolved in four quarts of cold water,
and sweetened with molasses. Apply ice to the forehead ; warm
the extremities and clothe the body.

Bronchitis. — An inflammation of the windpipe, sometimes ex-
tending to the lungs. Generally comes in epizootic form, attacking
a whole herd.

Causes. — A peculiar state of the atmosphere, making it epidemic,

Symptoms. — A slight husky cough, with weeping from the eyes,

and a watery discharge from the inner corner of the nose ; a slight

rough and grating sound will be heard in the windpipe. It is the

forerunner of pleuro-pneumonia.

Treatment. — If the disease be discovered within forty-eight
hours of the attack, take from four to five doses of the tincture of
aconite root — twenty-five drops to a dose — and give one dose
every four hours. If there be uncertainty as to whether the dis-
ease has existed longer or shorter, to save time the aconite may
be given along with the following powders three times a day: —

Powdered sulphate of iron 3 drachms.

Powdered gentian root 4 an ounce.

Manual of Agriculture. 435

Powdered ginger root ^ an ounce.

Powdered sulphite of soda 4 ^^ ounce.

Mix, and make a drench.

This medicine is to be continued (omitting the aconite after the
fifth dose) until the animal is well, or looks brighter and eats all
it gets.

In addition to the above medicines, give, once or twice daily, half
an ounce of commercial sulphuric acid, largely diluted, or mixed
in half a bucket of cold water.

In feeding, care should be taken not to give too much, so as to
bring on dangerous indigestion. Give cold water and plenty of
pure air.

Constipation. — Treatment — When the costiveness is symptom-
atic of some derangement, purges are unnecessary, but the tone
of the health must be generally improved. As for example : sup-
pose the animal constipated, the whole of the eye tinged yellow,
head drooping, and the animal drowsy and off his feed, then give
the following : —

Powdered mandrake 1 teaspoonful.

Castile soap (shaved) |: of an ounce.

Beef's gall -i a wine glass.

Powdered capsicum ^ of a tablespoon.

Dissolve the soap in a small quantity of hot water, then mix
the whole in three pints of thin gruel.

If the bowels be only torpid, say in the case of inflammation of
the brain, we must combine relaxents with antispasmodics, thus ;

Extract of butternut ^ an ounce.

Powdered skunk cabbage ^ an ounce.

Cream of tartar ^ an ounce.

Powdered lobelia 2 drachms.

Choking. — Many cattle have been lost by a potato or portion of
some root lodging in the upper or middle third of the gullet.

Methods for dislodging it. — 1st. Hold the mouth open with a
balling iron, or some other contrivance ; let a person with a small
hand endeavour to pass a line with a loop round the obstruction
and draw it up ; at the same time assisting the process by mani-
pulations on the outside of the -throat. If this fails, —

2ndly. Pour small quantities of oil or melted lard down the
throat. If this fails, —

3rdly. Use the probang, or in its stead a cane or rattan may be
tried (never use a whip stock ; many a cow has been killed by
the use of the latter) ; but let the end of the cane be well wrapped
with linen, thick, and in a ball shape. See that the linen is tied
on tight, so that it cannot be left in the throat. Introduce the
cane very gently, and if coughing is set up, remember it has

436 The Canadian Farmer's

touclied the air passages, and remove it immediately, and see that
it goes down the right channel. Gently and steadily work at the
obstruction until it is pushed down.

There are cases when the gullet must be opened to get at the
obstruction. This should be done by an experienced practitioner.

If choking lasts long, the throat is apt to swell and the gas
accumulate in the first stomach. This will be treated of under
the head of " Hoove," or " Bloated."

Colic will also be treated under the head of " Hoove."

Cow Pox. — This is a contagious eruption on the skin of the
udder, which runs a fixed course and is attended by slight fever.

Symptoms. — Teats painful, slightly swollen ; a faint blush upon
the udder, and in a few days red, hard spots are seen, succeeded
by red patches, which, in from a few days to a week, form bladders
containing the vaccine lymph.

Treatm^ent. — Warmth, nursing, and the drawing of the milk
carefully from the udder.

Cud, Loss of the. — This is a sure symptom of disease. When
apparent, look out for other diseases, such as bronchitis, pleuro-
pneumonia, aptha, &c. On the other hand, after illness the renewal
of the process of chewing the cud is a sure sign of permanent im-
provement.

Diarrhoea. — Simple diarrhoea seldom calls for treatment ; it may,
however, be well sometimes to give a few powders composed of
prepared chalk, two ounces ; ginger, half an ounce ; opium, one
drachm ; mixed, and given as a drench in wheat fiour gruel.

A change of pasture will often have the necessary effect.

Acute or Chronic Diarrhoea. — Causes. — The abuse of purgatives,
by their being administered in too active a form ; feeding on cer-
tain poisonous plants ; sudden change of food from dry to green ;
excess of food ; bad water ; or an unhealthy state of the atmo-
sphere.

Treatment. — Give generous diet, with linseed cake. McClure
recommends commercial sulphuric acid, gentian, and sulphate
of iron, as the medicines for this trouble. He also says : " I
would advise weekly inhalations of sulphurous acid gas."

Diarrhoea in Calves. — Treatment. — Give three drachms of car-
bonate of soda in well-boiled wheat flour gruel once a day ; or,
give a tablespoonful of common rennet after each feed of milk.

Epizootic Aptha. — (See Murrain.)

Eye. — Cancer in the eye is incurable.

A pustular eruption on the edges of the eyelids must be dressed
with the mild nitrated ointment of mercury, and the following
alterative medicine may be given in a mash : One part of salt-
petre, two of nitre, and four of sulphur.

Warts on the eyelids may be removed with the scissors, and the
roots cauteiized with lunar caustic.

Manual of Agriculture. 437

General inflammation of the eye should be treated by bathing
with diluted tincture of opium, or Goulard's wash. Or, if the
haw of the eyelid swells and a fungous growth springs up, use a
zinc lotion diligently, viz. : Two grains of white vitriol (sulphate
of zinc) dissolved in one ounce of water, and the vitriol gradually
increased to four grains, the liquid not being suffered to get into
the sound part of the eye.

An obstruction in the eye, as gravel, straw, barley beards, &;c.,
sometimes leaves a thickened eyelid.

Fomentations should be used to allay the enlargements, and an
alterative given, for the swelling indicates a bad state of the
blood.

Fever sometiuies lasts only a day, and will yield to gentle physic
and a mash. When fever does not yield to mild treatment, it is
apt to terminate in hoove or murrain, or some other diseases. The
symptoms for these must be carefully looked for, and as soon as
they appear, be treated.

Flooding (from the womb), though rare, may follow natural
parturition.

Treatment. — Apply cold cloths to the loins. Dissolve a pound
of nitre in a gallon of water, and keep the cloths wetted with the
solution; or, if in summer, use ice cloths. Let her drink all the
cold water she will take, and give large doses of opium (two
drachms every hour). Elevate the hinder parts of the cow ; keep
her perfectly quiet, and do not permit the calf to suck. Anything
but absolute rupture of the womb will yield to this treatment.

Garget. — Mammitis,or Inflammation of the Udder. — Causes. —
The bag allowed to become too full and hard after, or sometimes
before, calving.

Symptoms. — A teat or quarter becomes enlarged, hot and ten-
der, and begins soon to feel hard and knotty ; and little distinct
hardened tumors are felt inside the teat. This is apt to spread
over the whole udder and to the other teats.

Treatment. — In the early stage, let the calf be allowed to suck
and knock about and soften the udder. This will generally re-
lieve her, by promoting a flow of milk.

If inflammation continues, or the udder is so sore that the
mother vrill not allow her calf to suck, refuses to eat, or ceases to
ruminate, becomes feverish, the milk is discoloured and mixed
with matter and blood, the case is serious.

Then apply warm poultices to hasten suppuration. This may
force the pus to evacuate itself. When properly discharged, use a
healing ointment on the sores which will be left.

If the garget appears chronic, i.e., the heat and redness be not
followed by swellings containing pus, use cold applications, if pos-
sible ; if that is not effected, bring on suppuration by poultices,
and treat as above. Whatever treatment be adopted, be sure to

438 The Canadian Farmer's

milk the udder severely, and, if possible, put two strong calves to
suck.

Hidebound. — An indication of a bad state of the digestive or-
gans, and general " out of sorts."

Treatment. — A dose of physic, say : Epsom salts, one pound ;
ginger, half an ounce — in two bottles of cold water, and sweetened
with molasses ; or, sulphur, eight ounces ; ginger, half an ounce — in
a bran mash. After the physic has acted, give the following pow-
ders : —

Powdered ginger 1 ounce.

Fenugreek 1 ounce.

Carraway seeds 4 ^n ounce.

Mix, and give in one dose, daily, for a week.

Hoven, — Tympanitis, Bloated or Drum Belly. — This is simply a
mechanical ailment, and is caused by the generation of a large
amount of carbonic acid gas from a mass of partially decomposed
food in the stomach, which has been allowed there to accumulate.

The paunch is distended or bloated ; the skin drawn as tight as
a drum ; and if the gas be not evacuated, the internal organs are
pressed upon and death ensues.

Treatment. — Must be rapid ; time is everything. First, try
mild methods. Give half a pound of table mustard and an ounce
of chloride of lime, mixed in a little cold water ; or, if handy, give
freshly powdered carbonate of ammonia, in cold water ; or, dash
cold water over the loins, and move the animal gently about.
The best of all the milder remedies will be found in an injection
of raw linseed oil, soap and warm water.

If the gas is not soon evacuated by the anus, an operation must
be performed. Every farmer should own a trochar and canula,
the proper instruments to be here used. In default of these, and
where the case is urgent, at once plunge a dinner knife, well
sharpened, into the side, or at equal distance from the hip bone,
short rib and spine, and on the left side of the animal.

Where the trouble has become chronic, i.e., a return of this
complaint is constantly taking place, it shows a debilitated con-
dition of the walls of the rumen, and the following powder should
be given for a few days, morning and night, in a mash : —

Powdered ginger 4 ^ii ounce.

Gentian 4 ^n ounce.

Fenugreek | an ounce.

Inflammation is not common in cattle, but when it occurs may
be treated as described before for the horse.

Jaundice, or the Yellows. — Cause. — An obstruction of the pas-
sage of bile from the gall bladder, and its absorption in the stomach,
from which it sprep,ds throughout the whole system.

Symptoms. — A 3^ellow colour of the eyes, of the skin generally,

Manual of Agriculture. 439

and of the urine ; seen plainly in the lining of the mouth and nose.
In bad cases, the general health is seriously affected, causing gen-
eral irritation and fever, quickness and hardness of the pulse,
heaving of the flanks, excessive thirst, and suspension of rumina-
tion ; costiveness, with the dung of a whitish or straw-coloured
look. If it be not bad, give plenty of soft food, slops, «fec. If it
assumes an acute kind, a good dose of purgative medicine may be
^ven : —

Epsom salts 1 pound.

Table salt 4 pound.

Ginger 4 ^ii o^^ce.

Mix, and dissolve in four bottles of water, sweetened with mo-
lasses.

Lice. — (See chapter on Cow Stables.)

Milk Fever occurs from the first to the third day after calving.
It is inflammation of the womb, which sometimes extends to the
bowels.

SymptoTiis. — Loss of power over the hinder limbs, and conse-
quent falling down of the animal ; loss of appetite and suspension
of rumination, resulting in the affection of the brain, and in a short
time death.

Causes. — Too high condition at time of calving ; overfeeding
before or after calvinor.

Treatment. — To lessen the probability of this trouble, give, a
week or so before calving, the same medicine recommended above
for jaundice, and feed plentifully with slop mashes, giving no meal,
grain, or heating food.

When the disease has set in, give, according to McClure, thirty
drops of the tincture of aconite root, and half an ounce of the pure
opium, in powder, in a bottle of thin gi'uel. The aconite must be
repeated every four hours, without the opium, until four or five
doses are given. Place chopped ice in a bag on the forehead,
renewing it when wanted. At more leisure, give the Epsom salt
purgative as above recommended. Keep the cow as quiet as pos-
sible ; her legs and body warm. Give pure aii', and as much cold
water as the animal desires.

All writers insist that the boicels must be opened ; clysters of
warm water, soap and oil wiU help this greatly.

MURRAIN — THE MALIGNANT EPIDEMIC.

McClure is very hard upon the cow leeches for calling any dis-
ease Murrain, which name means to die ; but although " by
classical scholars, orators and poets, the use of the word murrain
may be taken as an indication that they have read Virgil, Homer
and Horace, yet when cow doctors talk about the murrain, it con-

440 The Canadian Farmer's

veys the reverse idea to that entertained when used by the orator
and poet." Yet we would remind Dr. McClure that a very well-
known and revered, classical scholar and poet has handed down for
universal quotation the couplet: —

"What's in a name ?
A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."

The disease may be the consequence of " Epidemic catarrh, epi-
zootic aptha {de la fievre aptheura) in a malignant form, on account
of the great vascularity of the system, and intensity of febrile
action, and consequent vital exhaustion," &c., &c. ; but of one thing
we are well assured, that as murrain it was known to the old
world, as recorded in the Book of Exodus (Chap, ix.); to Homer,
900 years before Christ ; to Hippocrates, who flourished 500 years
yet before Homer ; to Plutarch, who speaks of it as occurring dur-
ing the reign of Romulus ; to Livy ; to Virgil, in his pastoral
" Georgics," about 50 years before the Christian era (see Georg.
lib. iii. V. 478, &;c.) ; to the historian. Cardinal Baronius, who refers
to it as murrain in the year A.D. 376 ; to the Emperor Charle-
magne, the whole of the cattle in whose army was destroyed by
murrain in A.D. 810 ; to the Venetian States, which were ravaged
in 1514 and 1599 ; to the Journal des Savans, in 1682 ; to Dal-
matia and Italy, in 1711, whence it spread to Piedmont, thence
to France, Germany and England.

In 1743, the disease, still known as the murrain, again broke out
devastating France, Holland and Germany, when in Holland alone,
more than 200,000 cattle perished with it : and again came over to
Britain, and for twelve years laid waste the herds of the islands.

In the year 1747, as murrain, it destroyed 40,000 cattle in the
two shires of Nottingham and Leicester ; and in Cheshire alone
30,000 cattle died in six months.

As the murrain it is now known to farmers, veterinary prac-
titioners, " intelligent persons" and " ignorant pretenders ;" and for
such, when once fairly afloat, there is no remedy but extreme
measures to prevent its spread — total stamping out — and keeping
herds carefully in good healthy condition. We trust we may
never see the murrain in Canada.

Pleuro-Pneumonia. — Affection of the covering or pleura of the
lungs and of the lungs themselves. At first.

The symptoms are scarcely observable. When, however, the
constitution is no longer strong enough to resist the ravages of the
disease, there appears diminution or irregularity of appetite. Soon
afterwards, a frequent and dry cough, which becomes feeble and
painful as the disease proceeds. The dorso-lumbar portions of
the spine become tender, and the animal flinches when that part
is pressed upon, and utters a peculiar groan or grunt, indicative, to
experienced ears, of an affection of the pleura. Soon after, the

Manual of Agriculture, 441

movements of the flanks become irregular and accelerated, and the
act of respiration seems to be sympathised in by a motion of the
whole body. The sides of the chest and the loins become quite
tender ; the elbows are bent out from the chest ; the pulse becomes
feebler ; the muzzle is hot and dry alternately ; rumination is
partially or entirely suspended. The foeces are harder than they
should be ; the mouth becomes dry. In most cases the disease
pursues its course with little remission towards its fatal termina-
tion, every symptom gradually increasing in intensity. The respi-
ration becomes more painful ; the head more extended ; the eyes
are brilliant ; every expiration is accompanied by a grunt and a
kind of puckering of the angles of the lips ; the cough becomes
smaller, more suppressed, and yet more painful ; the tongue pro-
trudes from the mouth, and a frothy mucus is abundantly dis-
charged ; the breath becomes offensive ; a purulent fluid of a
bloody colour escapes from the nostrils ; diarrhoea, profuse and
foetid, succeeds to constipation ; the animal becomes weaker ; it
is a complete skeleton, and at length dies of utter prostration.

Causes. — Atmospheric influences cause this disease to assume
the nature of an epidemic ; sudden and severe changes of tempera-
ture, easterly winds, &c., and many other such uncontrollable con-
ditions of the times. Also a predisposing cause which resides in
the individual patient. A very fruitful source of predisposing
causes may be found in the imperfect ventilation of cow-houses
and stables ; close contiguity to the smoking and fermenting dung-
hill ; over-heated stables ; too stimulating feed, and turning the
cow suddenly from a heated temperature out into the cold.

Treatment. — The disease is far more fatal in cows heavy with
calf, and in animals who are in low condition. McClure says : —
"If the disease has been observed within forty- eight hours from
the time of attack, give the following powders every four hours,
between six o'clock in the morning and ten at night, or at six,
ten, two, six, and ten o'clock : —

Tincture of aconite root 24 drachms.

Powdered gentian root Bounces.

Powdered ginger root Bounces.

Sulphate of iron 2 ounces.

Mix well, and divide into five powders, to be given as above
directed. After the five powders have been given, continue with
the same powders, but without the aconite, and give them only
three times a day. Half an ounce of the sulphite of soda may be
added to each powder with advantage. The powders will have to
be mixed in a large bottle of water and sweetened with molasses.
Allow plenty of pure air, cold water and good strong feed, but not
too much at a time. * * * In the early stages of the disease,
the carbonate of ammonia given in three-drachm doses along with.

442 ^^^ Canadian Farmer's

the other powders, will do much good. There are two points I
have ever sought to obtain in the treatment of this disease : —
1st. To maintain the appetite ; 2nd., to restore and maintain it,

if lost.

Red Water. — This disease usually occurs to cows a few days
after calving.

Cause. — During the period of pregnancy there has been con-
siderable determination of blood to the womb ; the condition of the
blood is then, first locally, and soon after generally altered ; the
red globules are broken up, and the colouring matter, or hematosin,
escapes into and is passed out in the urine.

SymptoTYis. — General disorder, shown by suspension of rumina-
tion ; suffering ; diarrhoea followed by constipation ; and the urine,
with difficulty discharged, is highly tinged with blood-red, and in
the last stages is of a black colour.

Treatment. — First, a purgative : A pound of Epsom salts, a
pound of common salt, half an ounce of ginger dissolved in water,
and sweetened. Give plenty of mashes. The animal 77ius^ he purged
if constipation has set in. When the purging has been effected,
D-ive no astringents, but rather administer stimulants and medicines
that act upon the blood and kidneys. Common turpentine or
spirits of turpentine, guarded by a few drachms of laudanum, will
be given with advantage. Or, by way of precaution, it has been
well recommended that the bowels be carefully kept open before,
during and after calving, by occasional doses of common salt dis-
solved in water ; and as a cure, give twenty ounces of Epsom salts
in warm water, and half an hour afterwards two quarts of gruel
with half a pound of butter dissolved in it; half the quantity of
gruel and butter to be repeated every two hours ; the purgative
to be repeated, if necessary, at the end of twenty-four hours ; and
should the constipation prove obstinate, injections composed as
follows should be frequently administered : Boil an ounce of ani-
seed in a quart of water, strain the clear liquor, and dissolve in it
four ounces of butter and a tablespoonful of salt.

Ringworm. — A parasitic disease, consisting in the growth of
cellular tumours on the skin.

Treatment. — Use the oxide of zinc ointment.

Teats are subject to local affections, besides the inflammation of
the udder, or garget (which see).

Milk Stones sometimes stop the channel. For their removal
take a silver probe or a knitting needle, and if possible, by gentle
pressure, force the obstruction up into the udder.

Strictures of the channel cause a small stream of milk to flow.
Commence with a small silver probe or needle, and gradually use
thicker ones till the channel is made of a proper size. The opera-
tion may take a week or fortnight, using the instrument once or
twice a day.

Manual of Agriculture. 443

Warts may be removed by sharp scissors and the roots touched
with caustic.

Simple Sore Teats, in the form of excoriations or small cracks
or chaps, are cured by fomentations and a dressing with the fol-
lowing ointment . Take an ounce of yellow wax and three ounces
of hog's lard ; melt them together, and when they begin to get
cool, rub well in a quarter of an ounce of sugar of lead and a
drachm of alum finely powdered.

Thrush. — (See Aptha.)

Warbles. — The larva of the ox-fly {oestrus hovis), which deposits
its Qgg just beneath the skin, generally about the back, or where
the beast cannot lick. Squeeze the tumour and force the larva out.

Yellows. — (See Jaundice.)

THE ORDINARY DISEASES OF SHEEP.

Sheep are difficult patients to deal with in sickness; but as
many sheep are yearly lost from the effects of simple ailments, we
shall refer shortly to the treatment c»f some of these.

Colic, or Stretches — Causes. — The same as induce bellyache
or flatulent-colic in all animals, most frequently the result of
costiveness.

Symptoms. — The sheep keeps rising and lying down, constantly
stretches its fore and hind legs as far as possible apart, until the
belly almost touches the ground , is in pain, and refuses aU food.

Treatment. — Give a dose of linseed oil, or —

Epsom salts i an ounce.

Powdered ginger 1 drachm.

Peppermint essence 60 drops.

Costiveness. — For this give castor oil, two tablespoonsful every
twelve hours until relieved ; or Epsom salts, one ounce. It will be
well also to give an injection of sweet oil, warm water and soap
suds.

Chronic Cough is often noticeable in more or less of the sheep
in a flock. This is nearly always cured by a complete change of
pasture, accompanied by regular feeding with salt. If not so cured,
it will generally be found symptomatic of some worse disease.

Eruptive Disease. — Sheep are subject to an eruption of the skin
which gradually extends along the chine, and if permitted to be-
come universal may prove dangerous.

Treatment. — Give daily drinks of half a drachm of cream of tar-
tar, and one drachm of sulphur, in four ounces of camomile de-
coction. Anoint also with mercurial ointment.

Foot Hot. — Very prevalent amongst high-bred sheep. Sheep
have a secretory outlet between the claws of the foot, which, when
the hoof grows too fast, is apt to be obstructed, or may be closed

444 The Canadian Farmer's

up by sand, gravel, &c. Hence, inflammatory action is set up
amongst the laminse of the foot, and there is a secretion of foetid
matter.

When a sheep is observed to go lame, examine the foot, clean
out from it all sand, gravel and filthy matter ; cut off all loose and
ragged portions of the horn of the hoof, and apply to the sore por-
tions an ointment composed of two parts of tar and one of oil
of turpentine, which having mixed, add one part of muriatic acid,
and afterwards add four parts of blue vitriol. Or, the ointment
may be made thus (McClure) : —

Oil of turpentine 2 ounces.

Sulphuric acid jounce.

Olive oil 1 ounce.

Mix.

Apply with a sponge or cloth ; where sores occur on the di-
visions, touch them with nitric acid or a little of the butter of
antimony (terchloride of antimon}^) by means of a feather,

Grub in the Head, or Frontal Worms. — Cause. — This is the lar-
vae of the oestrus ovis, or gad-fly of the sheep. It lays its eggs on
the inner margin of the nose, which having become hatched, the
larvae or grubs creep up into the frontal and maxillary sinuses to
the torment of the sheep, and at times to their destruction.

Symptoms. — The fly, laying its eggs in July, August and Sep-
tember, may be observed by the action of a flock of sheep, which
collect in close clumps, with their heads inwards, and their noses
thrust towards and often into the ground. During the ascent of
the larvae, the sheep suffers great torment ; stamps, tosses his
head, and often runs wildly off" over the field. The larvae, when
once established, create no more trouble until in the succeeding
spring, when they begin to crawl down again, causing more agony
to the sheep than when they ascended.

Treatment. — As a preventive, smear the nose with tar, or
take half a pound of Scotch snuff", and two quarts of boiling water ;
stir and let stand till cool, then squirt an injection of this up each
nostril, two or three times between October and January.

N.B. — There is no actual danger from this grub, except in so
far as the irritation makes the sheep liable to catai-rh and other
diseases of the head, and causes the poor animal considerable tor-
ment.

Inflamr}iation of the Bowels, 'known SisBraxy. — Causes. — Eating
noxious vegetables ; being turned too long or suddenly on turnip
fields or turnip tops half rotten ; exposure in cold weather.

Sym'ptoms. — Uneasiness, loathing of food, frequent drinking;
carrying the head down ; drawing the back up ; swollen belly ;
and avoidance of the flock.

Prevention. — ^Warm, dry shelter and nutritious food.

Manual of Agriculture. 445

Treatment to be successful must be prompt. Give two ounces
of Epsom salts dissolved in warm water, with a handful of com-
oion salt. If unsuccessful, give a clyster, made with a pipeful of
tobacco boiled for a few minutes in a pint of water. Administer
half, and if not effectual, follow with the rest. Assist the purga-
tives with warm gruels and laxative feed.

McClure says: "Give castor oil, two ounces; calomel, five
grains ; laudanum, two drachms ; molasses, two ounces. Beat up
with an Qgg, in warm water, and give it as a drench ; repeating in
half doses every six hours."

Rot. — A fearful disease.

Causes. — There have been no satisfactory causes given for this
disease.

Symptoms. — Loss of flesh ; what remains is flabby and pale ; the
animal loses all vivacity ; the lips, tongue, and all mucous mem-
branes are livid, and in the advanced stages are alternately hot
and cold. The eyes look sad and glassy, the breath is foetid, the
urine small in quantity and highly coloured ; the bowels are at
one time costive, and at another afl'ected with a black purging ;
the pelt will come ofl" with the slightest pull.

Treatment, never successful unless commenced very early, or
when the disease is of a mild nature.

1st. There must be a total change of food, and to that of a dry
and nutritious character ; all the farinse are good, as wheat, barley,
oat or pea meal. Give salt in water from the first.

In the more advanced stages, give every morning —

Watery tincture of aloes 4 ounce.

Decoction of willow bark 4 ounces.

Nitric acid 25 drops.

Scabs, or Scabies, or Psora. — This is not a common disease in
Canada, but it occasionally runs through a flock. It is a cutane-
ous or skin disease similar to the mange of other beasts. Some-
times they appear in the form of erysipelatous eruptions, and at
others as psoric or mangy ones. In the former instance they are
universal and very red, and may be cured by nitre administered
quickly, and a change of food. In the latter form, as scab, other
remedies are required.

Symptoms. — The sheep is very restless, rubs against trees, stones
fences, &;c. ; scratches itself with the feet, bites its sores, and tears
ofl* the wool with its teeth. The animal must be relieved, or under
the torture it will pine away.

Treatment. — Separate the aflfected sheep. Cut off" the wool in
the neighbourhood of the scabs ; wash them with soapsuds, rubbed
hard in with a brush ; make a decoction of tobacco, to which is
added one-third, by measure, of a strong lye from wood-ashes,
hog's lard, and a little tar, and about one-eighth of the whole, by

446 The Canadian Farmer^s

measure, of spirits of turpentine ; rub this upon the scabs and
around them, after they have been broken and cleansed with the
soap suds.

Or, first wash with soap suds, and then dip in an infusion of
arsenic, in the proportion of half a pound of arsenic to twelve
gallons of water. See that this does not get into the nostrils.

Or, take common mercurial ointment and mix with from five
to eight times its weight of lard ; apply the ointment all along the
back, and in a few lines along the sides of the sheep, first parting
the wool carefully where the ointment is to be rubbed in.

A lamb requires one-third as much as a full-grown sheep ; or,
two pounds of lard oil, half a pound of oil of tar, and one pound
of sulphur. Gradually mix the last two ; then rub down the com-
pound with the first. Apply ointment as before. Or, take of —

Corrosive sublimate 4 pound.

White hellebore (powdered) | pound.

Whale or other oil 6 gallons.

Resin 2 pounds.

Tallow 2 pounds.

Mix, and melt together.

This is powerful, and must be used with caution.

Scouring, or Diarrhoea. — Causes. — Bad hay, or rapid transition
from one kind of food to another ; overloading the stomach ; or a
change of weather.

When not of long continuance, it is better left alone ; it is sim-
ply nature's treatment for the removal of an overplus of bile from
the system. When, however, the trouble continues so long as to
very much weaken the sheep, and, consequently, make it subject
to other and worse forms of sickness —

Treatment. — Change of pasture, or confinement to dry food.
When medicine becomes requisite, give first a gentle cathartic,
especially if any mucus or matter be observed in the foeces ; either
half a drachm of rhubarb, or an ounce of linseed oil, or half an
ounce of Epsom salts — these to a lamb ; give double quantity to
a full-grown sheep. After this gentle cathartic, an astringent will
be required. Give prepared chalk, a quarter of an ounce in half a
pint of lukewarm milk, once a day for two or three days. Or, to
combine both cathartic and astringent, give in the first place —

Powdered opium 2 grains.

Powdered gentian 1 drachm.

Powdered ginger 1 drachm.

Mix, and give in an infusion of linseed.

Also, it has been recommended in cases that do not yield to the
simple chalk and milk, to take —

Manual of Agriculture, , 447

Prepared chalk 1 ounce.

Powdered catechu jounce.

Powdered ginger 2 drachms.

Powdered opium 4 drachm.

Mix with half a pint of peppermint water. Give to a grown
sheep two or three tablespoonfuls morning and night ; to a lamb,
half that quantity. This mixture is known as " Sheep's Cordial.'^

Staggers, Gid, Turnsick, Goggles, Sturdy, Watery Head, and
Pendro, are all popular names for hydatids on the brain.

Cause. — An hydatid is formed upon the brain, being a parasite
which in some unaccountable manner finds its way to the inside
of the sheep's head.

Sympioms. — Stupidity ; a disposition to sit on the rump, to
turn to one side, and to incline the head to the same when at rest.
The eyes glare and the pupils become rounded. A softness will
now, by close examination, be found upon some part of the skull,
generally on the opposite side to that on which the animal hangs
the head. When no softness is found, the hydatid is in one of
the ventricles, and death is near at hand. When a softness of the
skull is in any spot apparent, death may be a long time coming.

Treatment — This disease has been cured by practitioners by a
removal of the hydatids ; but as such is, at the best, but an experi-
ment, the better plan is at once to make mutton of the subject.

THE ORDINARY DISEASES OF THE PIG.

Drenching. — Whenever possible, let all medicines be given in
food ; sometimes, however, the patient is off his feed, and drench-
ing becomes necessary.

Let a man get the head of the pig firmly between his knees,
while another secures the body ; then take hold of the head,
raise it a little, and incline it to one side. Separate the lips on
the opposite side to form a hole, into which gradually pour the
drench. Directly the pig snorts or chokes, release his head for
a few seconds before pouring more into his mouth.

Remember, a pig has a small gullet and may easily be choked.

Do all kindly ; no hitting, shouting and wrenching because the
pig is obstinate. The man should show himself as obstinate, and
he is but a poor man whose obstinacy takes the form of that of a
pig rather than the quiet determination of a superior being en-
dowed with reasoning faculties.

The weapon of the lower animals is brute stupidity ; if we can
only meet him with his own weapons — brutality and bad temper —
then will he assuredly obtain the mastery.

Catarrh or Cold. — Causes. — Exposure in a stye full of draughts.

Symptorns. — An inflammation of the lining of the nose, and
general duiness.

448 The Canadian Farmer's

Treatment. —0\^em.ng medicines in warm bran mashes; give
succulent food, and stop his allowance of rich meals, &c.

Cholera. — This disease has been very fatal in the United States,
and we have had many cases of late years in Canada.

Causes. — The filthiness, not of the hog, but of his attendant,
who persists in making the proverbial filth of a hog his excuse for
possessing pig pens that, one mass of accumulated rottenness, are
in themselves cesspools in which the most virulent diseases are
generated. It has, so far, when once fairly established in a neigh-
bourhood, proved fatal to all pigs attacked. We must look to its

Treatment hy preventives. — Cleanliness in and about pens ; a
liberal use of whitewash, chloride of lime, carbolic acid, and such
disinfectants. When one pig is struck down by cholera, kill him,
remove him and thoroughly disinfect his stye. Give the rest the
following ; take an iron mortar and grind up together : —

Flour of sulphur 6 pounds.

Animal charcoal 1 pound.

Sulphate of iron 6 ounces.

Chincona (pulverized) 1 pound.

And feed at the rate of a tablespoonful to each animal, in food,
three times a day for a week.

Diarrhoea. — A change of diet from succulent to more binding,
will generally stop this trouble. Acorns, at the right season, will
generally stop it.

If medicine is required, mix in their food chalk or powdered
Qgg shells, with a little rhubarb.

Fever. — Symptoms. — Redness of eyes ; dryness and heat of lips,
nose and skin ; loss of appetite and violent thirst.

Treatment — In this case it will often be well to bleed at once.
See that the pen has plenty of fresh air, and allow all the cold wa-
ter the pig requires. If he is costive, give castor oil or linseed oil,
but not unless. These measures will usually break the fever. If
not, little else can be done.

Inflammations {Internal) or Heavings. — Causes. — Cold caught
in damp pens, dirtiness and impure air. It is infectious. " Harris
on the Pig" recommends a mild blister ; foment the body, under
the fore legs, for an hour or so, with cloths wrung out of hot
water, and rub on a little saleratus or soda occasionally during
the operation, to soften the skin ; then apply crude petroleum.
This will act as a mild irritant, and heal at the same time.

When inflammation has once set in, the symptoms of which are
the same as described for the horse or cow, success is very doubt-
ful.

Jaundice. — Symptoms. — Yellowness of the white of the eye, the
lips and skin generally.

Treatment. — Diminish the quantity of food and give aloes.

Manual of Agriculture, 449

Mange or Itch is caused by the same acarus as the similar affec-
tion in other animals.

Use such applications as diluted carbolic acid, crude petroleum,
&c., on the posts, sides of the pens, and in a weak form on the pig
itself

Give also sulphur in the food. Except as a last resort, have
nothing to do with arsenic, corrosive sublimate, or mercurial oint-
ments.

Measles. — A common disease amongst high bred and highly fed

Causes. — In-and-in breeding, dirty pens, &;c. It is a parasitical
disease, and measly pork is a fruitful source of tape- worms, and is
utterly unfit for human food. Is often brought on by feeding raw
flesh to pigs, and by the habit, not uncommon to sows, of eating
their own offspring.

Symptoms. — Red eyes ; foul skin and general dulness ; loss of
appetite ; pustules about the throat, and a blotchy, red, eruptive
appearance of the skin ; cough, fever, running from the nose, and
a weakness of the hind legs.

Not a fatal disease, unless neglected. Give nutritious and easily
digested food, and mix in it sulphur, saltpetre, Epsom salts, and
other gentle aperients. Thoroughly cleanse the pen.

Protrusion of the Rectum. — A very common affection of young
pigs when highly fed, being a sort of piles, and generally the re-
sult of severe diarrhoea.

Treatment. — Wash the protruding gut with warm water ; rub
on a little laudanum, and gently force it back into its place.

Staggers. — A termination of blood to the head.

Treatment. — Bleed freely and give a strong purgative.

Surfeit or Indigestion. — Cause. — Indigestible food.

Symptoms. — Loss of appetite, panting, swelled stomach and
vomiting.

Treatment. — K it does not naturally pass off by starving for
some hours, give bran marshes in small quantities, and for several
days give nothing but washy and easily digestible food.

Tumors, or hard swellings, which sometimes appear in various
parts of the body.

Treatment. — Give sulphur, saltpetre and nitre in the food, as
alterative medicines ; and if the swellings become large and soft,
open them with a knife or lancet and press out the contained pus
or matter.

Rheumatism. — Common to thorough -bred pigs.

Cause. — Same as in the human subject : exposure to damp, or
sudden changes of food, ill ventilation, &c.

Treatment. — Liberal feed and Rochelle salts. Give the salts for
two or three days, in doses of one ounce a day for a moderate-

450 The Canadian Farmer^s

sized pig, and more or less according to the weight of the animal ;
and then omit for a few days, and if necessary give again.

MEDICINES IN COMMON USE FOR HORSES, CATTLE

AND SHEEP.

ASTRINGENTS.

For stopping discharges, as in diarrhoea.

It may be borne in mind that, with the exception of acrid sub-
stances, as mineral acids, &c., which no cattle bear with equal im-
punity with the horse, the remedies given require about the follow-
ing proportions : —

A large ox will bear the proportions of a moderate-sized horse ;
a moderate-sized cow, somewhat less ; a calf, about a third of
the quantity ; and a sheep, about a quarter, or at most one-third,
of the proportions directed for a cow.

For move particular information, see our chapters on the Diseases
of Horses, of Cattle, of Sheep, and of Pigs. The most of these
remedies are compiled from the older veterinarians, such as Youatt,
and from modern American writers.

The degrees of strength of the different recipes are usually
regulated by their numbers, the mildest standing first.

ALTERATIVES.

(Old.) — 1. Levigated antimony, two drachms ; cream of tartar,
half an ounce ; flour of sulphur, half an ounce.

2. Cream of tartar, half an ounce ; nitre, half an ounce.

8. (Ethiops mineral, three drachms ; levigated antimony, three
drachms ; powdered resin, three drachms. Give in a mash, or in
oats and bran a little wetted, every night, or make into a ball
with honey.

American. — (Sulphite of Soda.) — For horses and cattle, from
half an ounce to an ounce, given daily.

Alteratives, Tonic. — 1. Gentian, aloes, ginger, blue vitriol in
powder, of each one drachm ; oak bark (powdered), six drachms.
Give every morning.

2. Powdered bark, three drachms ; powdered green vitriol, one
and a half drachms ; powdered gentian, three drachms. Give
every morning.

3. White vitriol, one drachm ; ground ginger, two drachms ;
powdered quassia, half an ounce ; ale, eight ounces. Mix, and give
as a drink.

4. Arsenic, ten grains ; oatmeal, one ounce. Mix, and give in
mash nightly.

Manual of Agriculture. 451

Astringent Mixtures for Diarrhoea, Scouring, <&c. {Old.)
1. Powdered ipecacuanha, one drachm ; powdered opium, half a
drachm ; prepared chalk, two ounces ; boiled starch, one pint.

2. Suet, four ounces ; boiled milk, eight ounces ; boiled starch,
six ounces ; powdered alum, one drachm.

3. (For horses and cattle :) Glauber salts, two ounces ; Epsom
salts, one ounce ; green vitriol, four grains ; gruel, half a pint.

4. (When the scouring approaches the nature of dysentery) :
Castor oil, four ounces ; Glauber salts (dissolved), two ounces :
powdered rhubarb, half a drachm ; powdered opium, four grains ;
gruel, one pint.

American. — Carbonate of lime or prepared chalk, one to two
ounces for horses and cattle ; and two to three drachms in wheaten
gruel, with a drachm of ginger, for calves.

Or, for horses and cows : Catechu, two to five drachms ; pre-
pared chalk, one to two ounces ; powdered opium, ten to thirty
grains. Mix in wheat-flour gruel. Or, a tea made from the bark
of slippery elm.

Or, nut galls, from four to six drachms in a dose.

Or, sulphate of iron (not when fever is present), in doses of two
or three drachms, with an equal quantity of powdered gentian,
twice or thrice a day, in plenty of cold water. Drench, or mix
with cut feed.

Or, logwood chips, two ounces; boiling water, one pint, cooled
and strained through a cloth, and given in doses of the whole for
horses and cattle ; from one to three ounces for calves.

Or, mercury with chalk (grey powder) given to calves in doses
of from ten to fifteen grains, with a little ginger and in wheat-
flour gruel.

Or, oak bark (boiled), half an ounce to a pint of water, and
given in doses of four drachms to calves.

Or, starch with a few grains of opium and a little ground gin-
ger.

Or, tannic acid, from a half to one drachm for cattle, and from ten
to twenty grains for calves ; and mixed in wheat-flour gruel.

Astringent Balls for Diabetes or Saccharine Urine. — Catechu,
half an ounce : powdered alum, half a drachm ; sugar of lead, ten
grains.

Astringent Paste for Thrush, Foot-Rot, c^c.—(0^(i.)— Prepared
calamine, half an ounce ; verdigris, half an ounce ; white vitriol,
half a drachm ; alum, half a drachm ; tar, three ounces. Mix.

Astringent Washes for cracks in the heels, wounds, sprains,
&c., &c.

(Old :)

1. Sugar of lead, two drachms ; white vitriol, one drachm ;
strong inlusion of oak or elm bark, one pint. Mix.

452 The Canadian Farmer's

(American :)

2. Green vitriol, one drachm ; infusion of galls, half a pint.
Mix, and wash thrice a day.

LOTIONS, LINIMENTS EMBROCATIONS, &C.

General. — Alcohol or Spirits of Wine, is the foundation of many
lotions and liniments.

For Sprains. — Acetic Acid. — Add one ounce of camphor to four
ounces of the acid.

Or, Tincture of Arnica, one ounce ; water, two ounces.

For Wounds and Sores. — Muriatic Acid, or Spirit of Salt. —
Pour a few drops into sores in the feet, nail holes, or poll-evil, &c.

Burnt Alum, with which to touch indolent sores.

Borax, dissolved in sixteen times as much water. Good for ring-
worm.

Lime Water and Calomel, the Yellow wash, and lime water and
corrosive sublimate, the Black wash ; both good for unhealthy
sores.

Sulphate of Copper. — Ten grains to an ounce of water.

Creosote. — Good for all wounds and sores.

Elm Bark (Slippery), scalded with hot water, makes a good
poultice for wounds, ulcers and sores.

Glycerine. — Good for sores, especially scratches.

Tincture of Marigold.— Good for all sores ; applied by wetting
cloths. Good for burns and scalds.

Tincture of Myrrh. — For sores, sore mouth, &c.

Neats' Foot Oil. — To be used after blisters.

Oak Bark boiled in water, and applied to running sores,
greasy heels, &c.

Sulphate of Zinc (White Vitriol). — For healing up wounds
and sores. As a wash, one part of zinc to about twenty parts of
soft water.

Tannin^ mixed with water, is good for running sores.

Chloride of Zinc dissolved in waiter, also for healing wounds,
prevents the formation of proud flesh.

For Bruises. — Tincture of Arnica as above.

Eye Lotions. — Plain cold water generally the best.

Sulphate of Copper, three grains ; rain water, one ounce. Apply
with a feather or camel's-hair brush.

Acetate of lead (sugar of lead) in solution.

Chloride of Zinc, two grains ; rain water, one ounce.

For the Feet. — Terchloride of Antimony (Butter of Antimony)
— Good for foul claw in cattle, or sores in feet of horses or sheep.
Laid on by moistened rags.

Calomel. — Inserted in the cleft of the frog of a horse in
thrush ; used for foul claw and sore feet in sheep.

Manual of Agriculture. 453

Tar. — For stopping horses' feet ; also to keep flies off any wound,
sore or raw spot ; and to keep out cold in winter.

OINTMENTS.

Collodion. — A solution of gun-cotton ; for dressing wounds and
cuts, in the place of plaster.

Friar's Balsam. — Applied to wounds and sores.

Iodine Ointment. — One part of iodine to eight parts of lard,
orood for soft swellings.

o o

Iodide of Mercury. — Same proportions as above.

Nitrate of Mercury. — Good for ringworm ; but spoils with long
keeping.

Oxide of Mercury (Red Precipitate). — Used for unhealthy
sores and ulcers.

Brewers' Yeast. — Good for unhealthy sores or ulcers.

Oxide of Zinc. — Good for scratches, and such shallow sores.

Carbonate of Zinc (Calamine). — One part to four parts of
lard ; good for healing sores.

BLISTERS.
(Old :)

1. A general one : Powdered Spanish fly, two ounces ; Venice
turpentine, two ounces ; resin, two ounces ; lard, two pounds.
Melt the latter together, and when warm stir in the cantharides.

2. A strong, cheap blister, but not to be used in fever or inflam-
mations of bowels, lungs &c. : Euphorbium powdered, one ounce;
oil of vitriol, two scruples ; Spanish fly, six ounces ; resin, one
pound ; lard, one pound ; oil of turpentine, three ounces. Melt
the resin with the lard. Having previously mixed the oil of
vitriol with an ounce of water gradually, as gradually add this
mixture to the melting mass, which again set on a very slow fire
for ten minutes longer ; afterwards remove the whole, and when
beginning to cool, add the powders, previously mixed, together.

3. A mercurial blister for splints, spavins, ringbones, &c.

Add to four ounces of either of the above blisters, half a drachm
of finely powdered corrosive sublimate.

4. A strong liquid blister : Powdered Spanish fly, one ounce ;
oil of origanum, two drachms ; oil of turpentine, four ounces ;
oli e oil, two ounces. Steep the cantharides in the turpentine for
three weeks, strain off and add the oil.

5. A mild liquid or sweating blister : Of the above No, 4, one
ounce, with an addition of one and a-half ounces of olive oil or
goose grease.

(American :)

Tartarized Antimony (Tartar Emetic). — As anointment, to be
used about the kidneys where Spanish fly blister must not be used.

454 The Canadian Farmer's

Iodide of Mercury. — For swelling of the neck glands, for
tumors, for splints, ringbones, spavins, windgalls, shoulder-joint
lameness, thoroughpin, &c., &c., and is a good general ordinary
blister.

The horse must be prevented from getting at it with his lips.

Mustard Seed. — A good blister on the belly and over the loins ;
for lumbago, sprains of the back and bowels, &c., a mustard plas-
ter is highly recommended.

Savin, or Oil of Juniper. — One part to sixteen parts of lard ;
good for keeping up the action of blisters.

Spanish Fly, or Cantharides. — Ground up and mixed with oil or
lard, thus : Spanish fly powdered, one drachm ; lard, six drachms.
Also used for application to splints or soft tumors of the legs,
thus : — Tincture of Spanish fly, one ounce ; croton oil, twenty
drops.

CLYSTERS OR INJECTIONS.

(Old :)

1. Thin gruel, five quarts ; Epsom or common salt, six ounces.

2. For Gripes or Colic. — Mash two onions ; pour over them oil
of turpentine, two ounces ; pepper, half an ounce ; thin gruel, four
quarts.

3. Nutritious Clyster. — Thick gruel, three quarts ; strong sound
ale, one quart.

4. Strong broth, two quarts ; thickened milk, two quarts.

5. Astringent Clyster, in Diarrhoea, &c.) — Tripe liquor, or suet,
boiled in milk, three pints ; thick starch, two pints ; laudanum,
half an ounce.

6. Alum whey, one quart ; boiled starch, two quarts. A simple
injection, useful in nearly all cases of colic or costiveness, is com-
posed of warm water, soap and sweet oil, beaten up into a lather.

CORDIAL BALLS.

(Old:)

1. Powdered gentian, four ounces ; powdered ginger, two ounces;
coriander seeds powdered, four ounces ; powdered carraway seeds,
four ounces ; oil of aniseed, a quarter of an ounce ; make in a mass
with honey, molasses or lard, into balls of from one ounce to one
and a-half ounce weight.

STIMULANTS.

Ammonia. — Two drachms to half an ounce in water, as an an-
tispasmodic in cases of flatulent colic.

Carbonate of Amimonia. — Two drachms, given three times a
day in thickish gruel ; good in cases of weakness and general pros-
tration.

Manual of Agriculture. 455

Chloroform. — Good for chills or in case of colic. From one to two
drachms in weak whiskey every two or three hours until colic is
relieved.

Fenugreek. — In one ounce doses, good for loss of appetite, &c.

Juniper Berries. — Good also in loss of appetite.

Magnesia. — Also in loss of appetite in young animals. Give
about four drachms with a little ginger, to prevent the magnesia
griping.

Spirits of Wine (Alcohol). — A good stimulant ; far better to give
in colic than bad whiskey.

Oil of Turpentine. — Very excellent to relieve spasms in colic.

COUGHS AND COLDS.

(Old:)

Chronic Cough Balls. — 1. Calomel, one scruple ; gum am-
moniacum, two drachms ; horse radish, two drachms ; balsam of
tolu, one drachm ; squills, one drachm. Beat all together and
make into a ball with honey, and give every morning, fasting

Drink for Chronic Cough. — 2. Tar water, half a pint ; lime
water, half a pint ; tincture of squills, half an ounce.

Powder for Chronic Cough. — 3. Tartar emetic, two drachms ;
powdered foxglove, half a drachm ; powdered squills, half a
drachm ; calomel, one scruple ; nitre, three drachms. Give every
night in a mash.

(American :)

Elecampane. — Make a tea of this, and give it as a drink.

Henbane. — A relief for cough or irritation of the throat or wind-
pipe. One or two drachms of the extract of henbane forms a
dose.

CAUSTICS.

(American:)

Sulphate of Copper. — To destroy proud flesh — used in crystals
or in solution.

Caustic Potash. — Very quick reducer of proud flesh.

Lunar Caustic (or Nitrate of Silver). — A common caustic for
unhealthy sores or ulcers. Also Verdigris, or subacetate of copper
— a mild caustic.

COLIC REMEDIES OR ANTISPASMODICS.

Ammonia. — (See under the head of Stimulants.)

Calcium., or Quicklime. — For flatulent colic, where there is bloat
present: For horses and cattle, from one to two drachms. When
used in the fornl of lime-water, give five ounces.

Chloroform. — (See Stimulants.)

Ginger should enter every dose for gripes or colic. From one

456 The Canadian Farmer's

to two ounces for horses and cattle ; for sheep, two drachms ; for
calves, one drachm and under.

Laudanum given in conjunction with turpentine, and in quan-
tities not exceeding one ounce.

Pepper given in combination with ammonia from three to five
drachms ; and of cayenne pepper, from twenty to thirty grains.

Spirits of Wine. — (See Stimulants.)

Turpentine.— (See Stimulants.)

DIURETICS.

Medicines which increase the flow of urine, by action upon the
kidneys.
(Old :)

1. Diuretic Ball. — Resin, one pound ; nitre, half a pound ; horse
turpentine, half a pound ; yellow soap, a quarter of a pound.

2. Diuretic Powder. — E-esin powdered, four ounces ; nitre pow-
dered, eight ounces; cream of tartar, four ounces. Given in six,
eight or ten-drachm doses, nightly, in mash.

3. Drink for action on the urine. — Glauber salts, two ounces t
nitre, six drachms. Dissolve in a pint of warm water.

(American :)

Oil of turpentine, from one to two ounces, mixed in an equal
amount of any oil.

DISINFECTANTS, OR PURIFIERS.

For Fumigation. — Manganese, two ounces ; common salt, two
ounces ; oil of vitriol, three ounces ; water, one ounce. Put the
mixed manganese and salt into a basin ; then, having before
mixed the vitriol and water very gradually, pour them by means
of a tongs, or anything that will enable you to stand at some dis-
tance, on the articles in the basin, gradually. As soon as the
fumes rise, retire, and shut up all doors and windows tightly. Or,
set fire to sulphur and let fumes rise.

Quicklime is, in whitewash, or thrown about in a powdered
state, an excellent disinfectant.

Carbolic Acid. — Add a tablespoonful of the greatest strength
solution to a bucketful of whitewash, and thoroughly wash every
part of stables or pens.

Chlorine Gas. — Pour hydrochloric acid on an ounce or so of
black oxide of manganese ; put a spirit lamp under them, and
shut the fumes in.

Chloride of Lime. — Sprinkle about.

FEBRIFUGES, OR MEDICINES FOR FEVER.
(Old :)
1. A Poiuder. — Tartar emetic, two drachms ; nitre, five drachms.

Manual of Agriculture. 457

2. Antimonial powder, two drachms; cream of tartar, four
drachms ; nitre, four drachms.

8. A Drink. — Sweet spirits of nitre, one ounce ; mindererus
spirit, six ounces ; tartar emetic, three drachms.

4. Epidemic Fever Drink. — Sweet spirits of nitre, one ounce ;
simple oxymel, six ounces ; tartar emetic, three drachms.

5. Malignant Epidemic Fever Drink. — Simple oxymel, four
ounces ; mindererus spirit, four ounces ; beer yeast, four ounces ;
sweet spirits of nitre, one ounce.

(American :)

Sulphuric Acid. — Forty to sixty drops very largely diluted with
water. In mixing, add acid to water, not water to acid.

Aconite. — Never carry this medicine, which is a powerful
poison, being a sedative, too far. Never give more than eight doses
of twenty drops, or six doses of twenty-five drops.

Aniseed. — One or two ounces daily, in conjunction with fenu-
greek or cardamons.

Cardamons. — One or two ounces.

Caraway. — Do. do.

Fenugreek. — Given in one-ounce doses.

PURGING MEDICINES,
(Old :)
Balls. — (Very mild:)

1. Powdered aloes, six drachms ; oil of turpentine, one drachm.

2. (Moderate.) — Powdered aloes, three drachms ; oil of turpen-
tine, one drachm.

3. (Strong.) — Powdered aloes, ten drachms; oil of turpentine,
one drachm — made into a ball.

(Liquid.) — Epsom salts (dissolved), eight ounces ; castor oil, four
ounces ; watery tincture of aloes, eight ounces.

(American :)

Aloes. — Six drachms, made with powdered ginger and molasses,
two drachms, into a ball.

Castor Oil is decried by American writers, as tending to bring on
inflammation.

Croton Oil. — A dangerous medicine, but very rapid to open the
bowels; only to be used in extreme cases. For the cow (only), ten
to fifteen drops, given along with Epsom or Glauber salts.

Epsom Salts. — Valuable and safe, especially for cows — one to
two pounds, largely diluted with water. For calves, from one to
four ounces ; for sheep, from four to six ounces.

Glauber Salts, or Sulphate of Soda. — Good for cattle and sheep.

Linseed Oil. — The safest oil as a base in which to give purges,
and as a lubricator of the throat in cases of chokins: — from one to
two pints at a dose.

Salts. — Chloride of Sodimn or Common Table Salt is a laxative
or gentle purge.

458 ^^^ Canadian Farmer^s

POULTICES.

Bran and Goulard water.

Boiled and mashed turnips, carrots or parsnips.
Hemlock. — For cancerous sores.
Linseed. — The very best poultice.
Hops or Yeast from the brewer.

N.B. — Never bind a poultice on tightly, so as to stop the circu-
lation of blood.

RHEUMATIC APPLICATIONS.

Colchicum {Meadow Saffron). — The seeds and root can be
bought as a tincture. Given internally, from one to two drachms
for horses and cattle.

Tincture of Guaicuon. — A resin ; give half an ounce twice a day
in cut feed, or as a drench in cold water.

SEDATIVES {to allay excitement).

Tincture of Aconite Boot. — (See Febrifuges.)

Belladonna. — Used as a substitute for opium in many cases, as
a milder medicine. Used in doses of half a drachm, in half an ounce
of sweet spirits of nitre, two or three times a day.

Chloroform. — (See Colic.)

Digitalis. — A dangerous drug, not often now used. Acts too
suddenly on the heart.

Gum Tragacanth. — A resin. From one to two ounces for horses
and cattle ; four drachms for calves or sheep, dissolved in warm
water as a drench.

N.B. — In the use of sedatives, care should be exercised that they
are not carried too far.

STYPTICS (or applications to arrest bleeding).

Cohvjehs. — Gathered in a mass and applied.

Perchloride of Iron, applied with a soft brush, or pledget of
soft cloth or cotton saturated and bandaged over the wound.

Tannin. — The hot Iron and Bandages.

N.B. — When an artery or large blood vessel is severed, the sur-
geon must be brought.

Should an artery on any of the limbs of man or beast be cut,
bind tightly round the limb between the wound and the heart ;
put on a tourniquet, or twisting stick, and draw the bandage so
tight that the flow of blood is arrested.

Difference between the flow of blood from a cut vein and a cut
artery :

Manual of Agriculture. 459

The blood flows steadily from a cut vein.

The blood flows in jets with every pulsation from a cut artery.

SKIN DISEASES — APPLICATIONS.

For Mange. — Sulphur vivum, eight ounces ; arsenic in powder,
two drachms ; mercurial ointment, two ounces ; turpentine, two
ounces ; lard, eight ounces. Mix and dress.

Note. — We think this must be effectual, but a very dangerous
and poisonous application.

(American :)

Benzole.

Iodide of Sulphur. — In all applications of sulphur keep the
patient from getting cold or wet.

Bichloride of Mercury (Corrosive Sublimate) should only be
used in ringworm and very bad mange, being a dangerous poison.

Peach Leaves, infused like tea in water, are good for itch and or-
dinary skin diseases.

Petroleum (Crude). — Good to destroy lice. Is apt to bring the
hair away ; for which reason should be mixed with other oil, say
linseed.

Sulphuret of Potash (Liver of Sulphur). — Dissolve an ounce in
a pint of water, and after having rubbed the affected parts well
with a hard brush to expose the acarus, apply the solution.

Sulphur. — The safest article to use, in all shapes ; only as it opens
the pores, it leaves the patient subject to take cold, which must be
guarded against.

TONICS.

To increase the general tone of the system.

Muriatic Acid (Spirit of Salt). — Forty to sixty drops given,
largely diluted, three or four times a day.

Nitric Acid (Aquafortis), — Also veiy largely diluted.

Arsenic. — A poison, but a splendid tonic ; two and a-half grains
per day are ample ; given well mixed, in a very large hulk of cut
feed.

Camomile. — A mild tonic.

Coriander Seeds. — Especially good for calves ; two drachms in
their milk feed.

Iodide of Iron. — One or two drachms in cut feed, twice a day.

Sulphate of /rou.— Always combined with some vegetable
tonic, as gentian or ginger root ; two or three drachms to the
horse and cow, mixed with feed.

Strychnine. — Very dangerous poison. For horses, one grain
once a day is ample, given in cut feed or in a gruel drench ; the dose
may be gradually increased to three grains.

Kemember, twelve grains will kill a horse.

460 The Canadian Farmer's

Pariera Brava. — A root ; one ounce to be sliced and boiled in a
pint of water; let cool and strain, and give on cut feed, half a
pint at a time.

Sassafras. — Given as a tea ; very excellent in the spring of the
year.

Snake Root— Given in the same manner.

Willow Bark. — Dried, boiled down in water, and given in feed
in the spring of the year.

VERMIFUGES (for the Expulsion of WorTns),

Assafcetida. — A gum resin. About two drachms.

As-arabacca. — For worms in the nasal air passages. Blow a
drachm up each nostril ; take care that the operator does not
inhale it. For sheep, put them in a close pen and scatter it in the
air, to make them sneeze.

Fern. — For horses and cattle, one pound of the root in powder ;
for sheep, from three to five ounces.

Pumpkin Seeds.

Savin. — For horses and cattle, three to four drachms.

Manual of Agriculture. 461

FARM IMPLEMENTS.

It is impossible in a work of the present size to enter into a
full description of the various implements and tools made use of
in Canadian agriculture.

Suffice it to say, that good tools and implements are necessary
adjuncts of good farming. The carpenter cannot make neat and
fast work with blunt chisel or ill-set saw ; neither can the hus-
bandman till his fields neatly and thoroughly, nor perform his
farm operations with speed, unless he has provided the best of
implements.

The power of the horse can only be used in one uniform direc-
tion, viz., by draught in a nearly horizontal position.

Our implements must be so adapted to this uniform " pull," as
to perform themselves, under such influence, the varying operations
which go to make up cultivation, harvesting and carrying.

Man is endowed with but a very small amount of strength, and
can adapt his physical exertion but in a very few directions. The
head must be used to utilize forms and shapes, material, and the
fundamental laws of nature, for the performance of the greatest
amount of actual work with the minimum exertion and expendi-
ture of his physical force.

By the subjugation of natural laws to the use of man, he is en-
abled to produce excessive motion and multiplied strength with
an expenditure of but little original force.

The grand principles to be ever kept in view by the farmer and
the manufacturer, the user and the maker, must be to produce
such implements as will, with the least exertion on the part of
man or beast, produce the most perfect results in the shortest pos-
sible space of time.

We shall therefore, in this chapter, rest content with a passing
indication of those principles which should be especially developed
in the several tools and implements necessary to the use of the
farmer in the pursuit of a course of mixed husbandry.

The invention of agricultural implements must have been coeval
with the early days of the world, and as far as history leads us
back, their origination was due to the ancient Egyptians. Anti-
quarians agree that the primeval instruments used in cultivating
the soil must have been of the pick kind, and medals of great
antiquity dug up at Syracuse, in Sicily, in Egypt and Arabia, all

462 The Canadian Farmer's

point to this fact. From the days when the Israelites were under
Egyptian bondage, an improvement in implements of tillage has
been gradually progressing, and yet in the present age — the
vaunted nineteenth century — we are in this department, after so
many centuries of invention and improvement, yet in our infancy.
There is no field which affords so wide a scope for the genius of
the mechanic of the present date as the improvement of agricul-
tural implements and machinery. Every new tool for the use of
the farm that can fairly stand the test of practical trial, and in
that trial prove itself worthy of public confidence, is readily
adopted by the farmer.

D. G. F. Macdonald, an able English agricultural writer, calls
attention to the ingenuity shown in America in the invention of
agricultural machinery. " See," says he, " how the Yankee inge-
nuity of the farmer of the Western States devises implements for
the more economical and rapid prosecution of labour." We are
driven to exercise our ingenuity by the want of hand labour. We
have horses in abundance, and we must make them do all the
labour possible, and thus are we driven to the use of horse machines
even where the cost of such shows no great advantage over the
old-fashioned plans of manual work.

In the old countries, the economy of general agricultural machi-
nery is very generally recognised ; how much more necessary does
it appear to us in a land where seasons are short, farm hands
scarce, and wages very high.

Let us for a moment illustrate this point by one implement,
seldom seen a few years ago, but now coming into very general
use in Canada — the hay and straw cutter. The author had occa-
sion to notice this point a few years ago in the volumes of the
Canada Farmer, thus : —

" On this subject the following pertinent remark was made to
me a few days since by a farmer who generally feeds from twenty
to thirty head of cattle gwoyj winter : ' I might as well have no
barn in which to house my fodder as no machine to cut it up with.
In the one case I should lose, perhaps, twenty per cent, by expo-
sure to the weather ; and in the other case I should lose the same
or more by the wastefulness of my men and the daintiness of my
well-bred and highly-fed cattle.'

" In Canada, owing to the length of the season in which we are
compelled to supply dry food to our cattle, it is of the greatest
importance that we utilize every particle of both hay and straw.
Moreover, cattle feeding is now fast becoming the most profitable
part of husbandry to the Canadian farmer, and an increase in this
branch of farming certainly exercises a great improving influence
upon the heart of our lands, in that we thus return a greater pro-
portion of the produce of the farm to the soil in the shape of ma-
nure.

Manual of Agriculture, 463

" Without going into the advantages of steaming cattle food, I
propose to review the great saving of fodder effected by the use of
the chaff-cutter.

" "When straw alone is not considered rich enough fodder for
stock, it is often advantageous to mix it with hay. This mixture
cannot be fed in its long state, for the cattle will pick out the hay
and throw aside the straw ; but when the two are cut and tho-
roughly mixed, they will be consumed together, and will thus
answer the required purpose. Moreover, the beasts will digest the
same proportion of fodder in less time, and thus cattle will be able
more thoroughly to perform that process of chewing the cud so
necessary to their perfect digestion. Again, when hay has been
kept long in the barn, or has been cured in rainy weather, there
is always a certain proportion of dried up and inferior stems;
these when cut into chaff may be thoroughly mixed with the
more juicy part of the hay, and will not then be set apart and
wasted by the animal when feeding.

" The saving in fodder thus effected has been variously estimated.
My own experience leads me to consider that 15 cwt., when it
has passed through the chaff-cutter, will fodder cattle thoroughly,
where it would require a ton of long hay. Allowing the standard
price of clover hay to be ten dollars per ton, we should thus effect
a saving of ten dollars in every four tons fed. The expense of
cutting is very slight, for enough chaff can be worked up in one
day by two teams and three hands to serve fifteen or twenty
head of cattle for a full month. The cost of a good serviceable
chaff-cutter, which can be worked by hand or horse-power, such
as are made by Messrs. Maxwell & Whitelaw, of Paris, Ont., is
about forty-five dollars.

"Ten head of fatting cattle will consume about four tons of

clover hay in a month. If these cattle are put up for two months,
we shall have saved twenty dollars directly by economy in feed-
ing, and more in that better fitness for the butcher which is the
result of allowing them plenty of time to lie in their boxes."

Canadian Tools, hnjpleinents, and Agricultural Machinery are
many and varied, and show an immense amount of enterprise on
the part of our manufacturers. The show of implements at our
agricultural exhibitions would not disgrace a far more populous
and richer country, but there is one want sadly felt by the farmer
— a want of solidity and durability. Competition is keen, and the
desire of manufacturing numbers, and the rapid demand upon new
inventions, as soon as their practical merit is proved, have led too
many of our makers to neglect the staple of their material, and
turn out work from inferior iron and badly selected wood. This
is more especially the case with Canadian reapers and mowers.
As soon as the name of any particular patent has made itself felt,
there is a rush of demand. The reaper or mower is called upon to

464 The Canadian Farmer's

do very heavy work. Put into rough fields and subjected to care-
less handling, to stand for any length of time it must be of the
very best material, both iron and wood. And yet we regret to
say that too many of our manufacturers are not particular about
the quality of wood, and in too many cases use old stoves and
iDurnt up irons for the purposes of castings for their machines. Is
it then any wonder that every season we see farmer after farmer
flocking into towns, wasting the precious hours of harvest, to obtain
new castings for their machinery ?

The reaper and mower for which we pay one hundred and fifty
dollars ought to be a first-class article, and should have no flaw
in it, for at that price, allowing a generous commission to the
agent, the manufacturer makes an immense profit.

We want greater durability in our tools and implements. It is
useless to disguise the fact, that too many of the farmers use their
implements shamefullj^, exposing them to rain and sun ; but
there is altogether too much inferior material in their construction,
and too little care exercised in the several departments of manu-
facture.

The drawback to a greater expenditure on the part of the far-
mer in improved implements arises not only from their first cost,
but the subsequent expense entailed by wear and tear.

If a farmer buys eight hundred dollars worth of agricultural
implements and machinery, and they give out in eight years, it
will readily be perceived that one hundred dollars per annum on
eight hundred dollars is a very severe interest actually lost to the
farmer's pocket.

At the same time, a high-priced article, if really good, is cheaper
at almost any price than one of inferior quality ; and we should
be glad if the judges at shows would look more closely to the
durability of the articles shown when awarding prizes, which are
afterwards used as a widely circulated medium of advertisement,
and by which the choice of the buyer is in no small degree influ-
enced.

A farm waggon, three-fourths worn out, at a cost of fifty dollai's,
is money almost thrown away, when one new from the shop can
be obtained for one hundred dollars ; and so is it with many ma-
chines. There are many farmers who seem to suppose that if
they can buy a machine cheap they have done a good thing.
Now, it is very true that one may easily lay out too much money
on his mower or reaper, or rake or cultivator, or thresher, or any
other implement he has to buy. The best of these may be dearly
bought. But we speak of the purchase of cheap articles simply
because they are cheap. Nearly always these are the dearest in
the end. They seldom work well, get out of order easily, are of
poor material, and soon break up or wear out. The best way is
to work along and shift as you can until you are able to purchase

Manual of Agriculture. 465

a first-class and reliable article, and when you have bought, use
carefully, and house it when not in use.

By such a course as this, a farmer will in a few years provide
himself with excellent machinery and tools. With these he can
do his work well and rapidly, and easily and with comfort. A
poor tool with which one has much to do had better be thrown
away than continued in use. How a poor scythe or a poor axe
worries the one who wields it ; and how it acts like a brake upon
the wheels of labour ! So it is with every other implement of
labour that is inferior or imperfect. Many a farmer is behind-
hand and feels his labours to be drudgery who might see a chief
cause of this in his failure to provide himself and his help with
suitable tools.

Let him carefully calculate the difference of ability to execute
between good tools and poor ones, and he will no longer doubt
that economy demands the use of the former. The loss of time
and muscle, and the failure to do rapidly and well, charged to the
account of poor tools, will show him that he who would thrive
must secure implements of the best quality with which to do his
work.

We are happy to have hailed some years ago the establishment
of an agricultural warehouse, in Canada, devoted entirely to the
importation of and agency for the best and newest agricultural
implements.

This establishment, in the hands of Mr. Rennie, of Toronto, and
under his able management, has, we believe, proved a pecuniary
success to the proprietor, and is of value to the farmer.

We object to no such middleman as he ; unlike the perambu-
lating agents who make a commission by hawking some particu-
lar invention, or puffing his own employer's machinery, Mr.
Rennie admits all implemeiits of an improved kind into his ware-
house ; gives all a fair and honest description in his catalogues; and
will give a straightforward explanation of the peculiar advan-
tages, and will not fear to point out any of the disadvantages, of the
various implements under his charge.

There is also, under the management of Mr. Weld, of London,
Ontario (a practical farmer, and an enthusiast in all matters
appertaining to the farmer's calling), established an emporium
which has already done good W(>rk in the dissemination of seeds
and of agricultural implements a ad machinery.

We have also heard of sever* 1 depots of a similar character
which have lately or are about to be established; and we would
beg our farmers, in their own interest, to extend their patronage
in a free and liberal manner to all such as may be founded in the
several parts of the Dominion.

466 The Canadian Farmer's

PLOUGHS.

Of ploughs there are two distinct kinds — those that are mounted
on a wheel or wheels and are called wheel 'ploughs^ and swing
ploughs.

With the ordinary class of ploughmen, and considering that we
in Canada, in choosing our workmen, cannot be very particular as
regards their qualifications as ploughmen, we may look upon the
wheeled plough as an instrument by which a comparatively inex-
perienced ploughman can make good work ; while the performance
of the operation with the swing plough, except in the hands of a
man of some experience, will prove a bungling job.

On the other hand, the swing plough is capable of doing actually
better work than that mounted on wheels, and the friction and
draught are undoubtedly proportionately lighter.

There is no wheeled plough in the world, not even excepting the
" Howard," that can compete in the essential qualifications of neat
furrow slices, control and easy draught, with the Improved Scotch
swing plough in the hands of a good lowlander ; but we have
ourselves seen better work done by means of the " Howard " in
the hands of a greenhorn, than that by a superior Improved Scotch
held by a man of mediocre ability as a ploughman.

On the whole, take ploughmen as they are, and ploughs as they
are generally constructed, it will be found in Canada that the
work is generally neater in those districts where the wheel ploughs
are in use ; whilst, on the contrary, in townships where the swing
plough is common, the workmen wiU be found superior handlers of
the plough.

In the construction of a plough there are certain general prin-
ciples that must be carefully regarded.

These have reference to the laws of formation of the various
parts as adapted to their special uses.

First, the throat or breast, or that part which enters and per-
forates the soil. In this portion lie the greatest points of resist-
ance, and the form must, in order to reduce such resistance to a
minimum, be of a long, narrow, tapering, sharpened nature, while
friction is greatly reduced by the amount of polish or smoothness
of the material employed.

The mould board, being that portion which regulates the posi-
tion of the furrow slice, must be of that hollowed-out and twisted
form which not only tends to lessen resistance, but gives form and
shape to the turned-up soil.

The beam and muzzle require to be of that length, substance
and shape which allows of the moving power being attached in
the most advantaofeous line of draught.

The stilts or handles are but levers ; and the mechanical princi-
ples of leverage must be brought into action, in order to place the

Manual of Agriculture. 467

power under full control of the driver, that he may, by the slight-
est exertion of force, alter the direction, and that such force used
by the holder may be applied to the instrument without unduly
affecting the draught.

The land side is of no less importance than the mould board,
for here in many ploughs is to be found a useless friction. This
portion is the fulcrum on which the leverage of the stilts is ex-
erted, and all that is required is that it should, when necessary,
afford a steady purchase on which to bear the handles in shifting
the direction of the moving plough.

Line of draught must be at right angles, in the case of horse-
power, to the slant of the animal's shoulders. When the horse is
pulling, the collar, pressing tightly upon the shoulder, is of a slightly
circular form. The point of draught is then where the trace is
attached by the hames to the collar.

The direction of draught, starting from this point and at right
angles with the slant of the shoulder (shown by a line drawn
from top to bottom of collar), should pass directly through the
plough-bridle, and cut a point in the coulter at half the depth of
the furrow.

Now, ploughs are to be seen any day in the right season in Ca-
nada, in which such a line of draught from the collar would pass
almost over the beam and to some part of the stilts; such a varia-
tion must cause the plough to dip, and thus give a very great ex-
tra amount of friction. In other cases the line of draught will be
found to strike the earth before the coulter reaches the spot, and
such entails a form of share which not only keeps the plough in
the ground, but affords extra and useless resistance to the draught,
which exerts a constant force to lift the plough out of the soil.

The beam serves as a line of connection to which is attached
the various parts of the plough — hence it is the basis of the whole
construction, and its shape is of the utmost importance — and of
whatever material it is made, it must be stoutly built.

If we take the angle which the horse's shoulder makes with a
perpendicular from the horizon, and continue another line at right
angles to it, or in the line of draught, the length of the line from
the horse's shoulder to where it meets the coulter at half the
depth of the furrow will be about twelve feet for ordinary-sized
horses.

If the plough be properly made, this line of draught will pass
through the middle of the lowering and heightening holes of the
muzzle ; and the length of the beam, in accordance with these prin-
ciples, should be from six feet six inches to seven feet, in order to
give it a proper height for the bridle.

Land side should be a perfect plane, and run exactly parallel to
the line of draught. How often are ploughs made with a land side
turned off two or three inches at the hind end and outwards.

468 The Canadian Farmer's

Such a form is worse than useless, for it entails a considerable
amount of unnecessary friction. The effect of such a shape is,
that the plough is thrown off towards the furrow, and the mould
board pressing with undue force upon the slice breaks and crum-
bles it, besides giving extra exertion to the horses or cattle.

The coulter should be as nearly as possible at an angle of 45°
with the surface of the ground — for if it is more oblique, it picks up
stubble and grass roots which choke under the beam ; and if less
oblique, it will be apt to drive stones and sods and other obstacles
before it, causing an increase to the amount of draught.

The Mould Board. — This part of the plough must vary in shape
according to the nature of the soil and the various kinds of
ploughing.

For working fallows and light lands, a slightly convex surface
is most effectual.

For clover leys, sods, pasture fields and clayey land, an almost
even plane is better; and for stiff clays, a concave form is necessary
in order that the surface may clear itself

A land side, if too short, renders the plough unsteady, being
easily disturbed by any obstacles in the soil ; whilst too long a land
plate affords a great friction when the leverage of the handles to
turn the plough is put in force.

TheHandles. — Long handles are necessary to give power over his
implement to the ploughman. They should at the end be of such a
height that an average-sized man has neither to bend the arm when
holding them, nor to stoop in order to lift upon them.

The Share varies in form with the different sorts or styles of
ploughing generally required ; but it should be of steel, that it
may be always bright ; and it is as important to the horse that a
share be sharp, as to the mower that his scythe blade be well
whetted.

Swing Ploughs. — Of these in Canada there is an endless va-
riety, and every township or section appears to take to its own
special favourite. We shall here merely indicate a few of the
newer kinds.

GRAYS CHAMPION SINGLE FURROW PLOUGH.

This plough is made of wrought iron throughout with the ex-
ception of mould boards, which are of steel or cast iron.

Manual of Agriculture,

469

In the trial of ploughs at Paris, in 1871, under the auspices of the
Provincial Agricultural Association of Ontario, it was awarded the
first prize. Under the dynamometer, this plough, itself weighing
180 lbs., showed an average draught of 500 lbs., and it was observed
that on ascending a hill this draught was only increased by about
25 lbs.

The same maker has also put out what he calls
" Gray's Light Canada Plough^' of the same form as the above,
but of lighter make. It is made of wrought iron, with a cast
iron head, steel mould board and steel shares.

THE COMBINED CAST BEAM PLOUGH

Does not make the work that such ploughs as above described are
capable of, but is adapted to every style of ploughing.

YANKEE NO. 22 JOINTER (TWO OR THREE HORSE).

Of the Jointers, for deep ploughing, cross ploughing and break-
ing up old tough sods, we select one manufactured by Mr. Wat-
son, of Ayr, Ont., adapted for two or three horses, according to
the depth required to be turned up and the nature of the soil.

470

The Canadian Farmer^s

THE ANTI-FRICTION WHEEL PLOUGH.

A new plough has lately been introduced by Mr. Rennie, known
as the Anti-friction Wheel Plough. He says :

"The superiority of a rolling to a sliding motion in the construc-
tion of ploughs is easily understood, as securing lightness of
draught and ease of management.

" The Anti-friction Wheel Plough is fully a third less draught
than the ordinary single-furrow plough.

"It can be worked in any soil with two horses the same depth as
can be done with three horses, besides making more regular work.

" This plough is easily adjusted to any required size of furrow or
style of ploughing, and when so adjusted is self-acting, following
the horses without the guidance of the ploughman.

" When the ridges are struck out by a competent ploughman, the
work can be carried on by a boy, the stilts or handles being used
merely for turning at the ends and for passing obstructions in the
soiL"

THE SWIVEL OR SIDE-HILL PLOUGH.

Is built in a series of several sizes, from a light one-horse to a
heavy or four-horse plough.

Manual of Jlgriculture.

471

They are so constructed that the mould board can be instantly-
changed from one side to the other, enabling the operator to per-
form the work horizontally upon side-hills, going back and forth
on the same side, and turning all the furrows downward.

They are employed by many for level ploughing, as this leaves
the field without any centre, dead or finishing furrows ; thereby
allowing the mowing machine, horse rake and hay tedder to work
to best advantage.

hill's patent plough

Is one of the very best swing ploughs made in Canada, and we give
it as such a place in this chapter.

The advantage which it specially possesses is, that it is equally
serviceable as a sod plougli or as a jointer when the skim coulter
is attached.

GRAY*S DOUBLE FURROW PLOUGH.

As economizers of labour, both manual and horse, these ploughs
have for several years been widely used in the old countries, and
for the last two years a great number have been sold in Canada.

Every farmer who has bought one has been well satisfied with
his investment.

They have become deservedly popular, owing to the saving
effected in draught, manual labour, and wear and tear.

472 The Canadian Farmer's

This plough is imported from Mr. Gray, Scotland, but we trust
before long our Canadian manufacturers will turn out a similar
implement.

They are wholly carried on large angular rimmed wheels, which
not only carry their weight, but also resist the pressure exerted in
lifting and turning the furrow. They have neither side nor sole
plates, and hence are free from all friction caused by the rubbing
action of the same ; the cutting part of the coulters and shares
are so constiucted and arranged that they make room for the rest
of the plough, and no part of it touches the soil or mould board.
By this arrangement the power required to work the plough is re-
duced fully a third.

The double-furrow plough can be drawn on heavy soil with
ease by three horses, and on light soil by two.

Among the advantages these ploughs possess are the following : —

The work can be accomplished by fewer horses. On moderately
heavy land the double-furrow plough drawn by three horses, will
plough three acres per day of nine hours, thus securing to the farmer
a saving of not less than 30 per cent., or affording him the oppor-
tunity of having his ploughing done quicker when a suitable sea-
son occurs.

With one of these double-furrow ploughs one man can do the
work of two, if using the ordinary plough, and with far more ease,
as they guide themselves, and only require attention in case of
anything unusual in the soil.

The shares are made of steel, and are so cheaply constructed,
and keep sharp so long, that the whole cost of keeping them up
does not exceed the cost of sharpening the old iron share.

These ploughs raise and loosen the land more thoroughly ; from
their construction they turn a deeper and broader furrow, and
press it more closely than the ordinary ploughs. There being no
sole plate, the subsoil is not glazed and hardened as hy the com-
mon plough, the advantage thus gained being great in all cases,
but especially in damp soils.

It is suitable for all kinds of ploughing, and will also rib up to
18 inches in width.

The two lifting levers afford additional fecilities for throwing
the plough over fast stones or other obstructions in the soil, and
the adjusting screws on both right and left hand levers make it
easily adjustable to any inequalities of the surface.

On light land, or for ribbing, it can be worked by two horses,
and on heavy and rocky land three horses can be used with safety.

It is easily adjusted to plough any required width of furrow.

This plough, when once adjusted, is self-acting, following the
horses without any attention from the ploughman, and works well
in any kind of land.

Manual of Agriculture. 473

gray's triple-furrow plough. — (See Appendix.)

This extraordinary economizer of labour is similar in construc-
tion to the double- furrow plough, having the new governing
steerage, and is made so that in heavy work it can be readily
changed in a few minutes to a double-furrow plough.

At a time when facility for getting through work is of such ur-
gent necessity, farmers will readily observe and appreciate the
importance of this triple-furrow plough.

In ploughing loose land for wheat, and in cross ploughing for
root crops, it does the work of three common ploughs in superior
style, and saving two men and three horses.

It has also been successfully used in making two drills at a time
for root crops, by merely withdrawing the centre plough.

The lightness of draught is, in the case of this triple-furrow
plough, exhibited in a most marked manner, the dynamometrical
tests having shown an average draught of one horse power jper
furrow, at the usual depths ; so that, except in stiff heavy lands,
this plough can be worked by three horses.

Amongst our other ploughs we have " Barrowman!' " Wilkie'
" Murray;' " McSherry," " Britannia" " Morley;' " Model," " Gem
of Ayr" (Watson), '' Scotch Canadian;' ''Highland Mary;' and
very many others, varying in forms and prices.

HARROWS.

An instrument of nearly as much importance as the plough, and
of quite equal value in cultivation.

" Any man can make a set of harrows," is an expression not
uncommonly heard. It is, however, very far from correct ; for, as a
matter of fact, very many who professionally are engaged in their
manufacture do not construct them properly. The shape of a
harrow and the relative position of its teeth are governed by ar-
bitrary mathematical laws, the slightest variation from which will
result in an imperfect implement.

The shape of the harrows commonly in use is either a V or
rhomboidal, and the best angles for the rhomboid are a smaller
angle of 75° and a larger angle of 105°.

The object in making a harrow of this shape — i.e., on these an-
gles— is to bring the furthest point of the rear as near as possible
to the horses.

The rectangular frame can only be brought not to track by
allowing one corner to fall far behind the opposite angle, and thus
so much of the harrow is at a great distance from the horses, and
draught is increased ; for the nearer a horse is to his work, the
easier the draught. (For Diagrams see Appendix.)

It will thus be seen that there is a rhomboid, having the two

474 The Canadian Farmer's

angles at one side respectively 75° and 105°, which will theoreti-
cally cause the resistance of the earth to allow of the harrows
riding parallel to the double tree, or at right angles to the line of
draught ; whilst practically, the more closely the framework and
the setting of the teeth approach this shape, the easier and lighter
will the draught be upon the horses.

In the before mentioned diagrams the one being a set of harrows
in the form that we have recommended, and which ride squarely
forward ; and the other being square-framed, and consequently
having to be drawn as it were "askew" — it will be plainly perceived
that whilst each harrow covers the same amount of ground, and
the distances between the tracks of each tooth are the same, the
main portion of the square harrows is very much further from the
horses, and consequently that the draught is proportionately
greater than that of the first or rhomboid-shaped implement.

In order to enable harrows to ride squarely forward, it then
becomes necessary to build wooden frames on the above principle.
The square body has, however, been adapted in the iron frame, to
draw parallel to the double and whiffletrees of the team, as shown
in the plate. — (See Appendix.)

The Chain Harrow is a form which will be found excessively
useful ; being composed altogether of iron links, working loosely
into each other, they clear themselves well.

They will be found excellent tools for harrowing in grass seeds,
following the grain drill to smooth off the surface of a seed bed,
and for spreading top dressings of any kind, whether barn-yard
manure or other rough deposits ; and above all, they are very light
on the horses.

The Rotating or Revolving Harrow is an ingenious contriv-
ance. They are to be had, we believe, from some American manu-
facturers; the best that we have ever seen are two of English make,
being GrossJdWs harrow and Ashhy's harrow.

By the use of this tool we obtain a rotary as well as forward
motion. They have been found excellent devices for cleaning out
couch grass and such weeds, and leaving them free of adhering soil
when exposed to the hot summer suns.

The Brush Harroiu is also a good, simple and cheap contrivance
for dispersing top dressings and covering grass seeds. Small
branches (beech are the best) are interwoven in a rough frame,
made of scantlings, using three or more cross pieces, into which
the brush is twined in such a manner as to leave the lower part
rough and bushy. This drawn over pulverized land will cover
grass seeds better than any other kind of harrow ; and it has this
advantage, that any farmer can go to his woods and make one in a
very short time.

Our practical experience in the use of this ready home-made

Manual of Agriculture.

475

harrow, especially for covering grass seeds, has been always en-
tirely satisfactory.

GRUBBER OR CULTIVATOR.

These implements, though known under very many names, as
scufflers, scarifiers, extirpators, &c., &a, have but one object, and
may therefore be considered conjointly under the above caption.

The introduction of cultivators as substitutes for the plough is
of comparatively recent date. Previous to the nineteenth century
they were little known, and by no means generally used. Their
adoption has, however, brought about a revolution in the system
of cultivation, and in the present day we probably do very much
more work with the cultivator in the season than with the plough.

The principles to be secured in the construction of these imple-
ments are : play to secure an even grubbing of knolls and hol-
lows, a thorough uprooting of every particle of soil in their pas-
sage, the minimum amount of draught to the horses, and the
formation which shall ensure a rooting up of weeds and grasses
and sods without choking up the machine.

To ensure play for hollows and knolls, and to allow of collected
sods, weeds, &c., escaping from under the machine after being
rooted up, the frame must be hung on the axle, that it may have
swing.

To ensure easy draught on the horses, the centre of resistance
when at work must be known by the maker, and that point
brought as near as possible to and in the natural line of the trace
and collar.

We have seen such grubbers as take too firm a grip on the soil,
and entail extra exertion on the part of the team to keep them
out of the land, whilst others again are so badly constructed that
an extra hold must be taken of the soil to prevent the horses
drawing them to the surface. These are two very important
points which have been often overlooked by judges. It is a com-

476

The Canadian Farmer's

paratively easy matter to make an instrument that will clear itself
well and grub thoroughly ; the skill of the inventor and mechanic
is more severely tested in reducing the draught to a minimum, and
in obtaining the proper direction of draught from the centre of re-
sistance to the motive power.

The old country cultivators are very effective, but are nearly
all horse-killers.

We choose for illustration the Scotch Grubber and a Canadian
two-horse cultivator.

The Grubber is a heavy draught implement, but will be found
none too strong in land badly infested with couch grass ; while the
other cultivator is better for summer fallow stirring and general
cultivation.

MOKGAN S TWO-HORSE CULTIVATOR.

PATENT FLEXIBLE IRON CULTIVATOR

Manual of Agriculture.

477

GANG PLOUGH.

The Gang Plough is the double or treble-furrow plough in min-
iature; that is, it ploughs again perfectly to a depth of a few
inches in loose soil, already ploughed, two or three furrows at a
time. This implement is specially adapted for preparing fall-
ploughed land for spring grain, or for covering peas or wheat that
are to be sown on such land broadcast.

With this, on any but very stiff clay, an ordinary team can turn
over from four to six acres a day. It has wooden handles and a
short beam, but a tougue may be put in instead of beam and
handles; it is with a tongue better under command, especially
where the land is rolling. With steel mould boards and chilled
shares this implement is easily worked by an ordinary team for
the purposes of second ploughing.

FIELD ROLLER.

478 The Canadian Farmer^s

The roller has been a much-neglected implement in Canada.

It is indispensable to good cultivation. Dry land will mellow-
quicker under the roller than by the action of the harrows. Finely
pulverized seed beds will retain their moisture longer after rolling
than when left by the harrows.

All grass land ought to be rolled in spring, to level meadows for
the future passage of the mowing machine and to press into the
ground such roots as have been " heaved " by spring frosts and
thaws.

Barley and spring grains, a week or so after coming up, fre-
quently suffer from hot air obtaining access through a loose siu*-
face soil to their roots. The pressure of the roller is for this an
effectual remedy. In fact, a farmer may as weU discard his har-
rows as his roller, and no cultivation can be thoroughly and
properly completed without the aid of this implement of tillage.

EXPANDING HORSE HOE.

In these implements there has been for several years past an
ever-increasing improvement.

Every section has now scattered through it many styles and
patents, amongst which it would be invidious and indeed impossi-
ble to distinguish.

We give one illustration of the expanding horse hoe, which may
be used for cleaning between rows of roots, earthing up potatoes,
or simply stirring the soil. Expanding hoes of this nature are
often supplied with a double mould board better suited to the
earthing up of potatoes and corn.

MACHINES FOR SOWING.

Grrain Drills. — In a former chapter the question of the respec-
tive advantages of broadcast and drill sowing has been considered.

The points to be secured in the construction of a perfect grain
driU are —

Manual of Agriculture. 479

That every seed shall be distributed at the exact depth required^
or that depth the most favourable to its germination and growth.

That the seeds be evenly and regularly deposited, and that none
be left on the surface.

That the delivery of the seeds be uniform, and that the grain
be not cut in passing through the feeding apparatus. (N.B. — These
two points can be fully tested on a barn floor.)

That the gearing apparatus be so constructed that the delivery
may be immediately arrested, and that the delivery be instantly
again started on motion of the driving wheels.

IMPROVED GRAIN DRILL. — (See Appendix.)

Broadcast Sower of Plaster, Guano and General Fertilizers.
(See Appendix.)

Drills for sowing Turnips, Carrots, &c.

There are but few important principles to be regarded in the
turnip drill. These are, that the drill shall not flatten down too
much the ridge of earth ; that the delivery be uniform and con-
stant, and plainly visible to the operator ; that the delivery be in-
stantly stopped when required, as at the headland in turning, and
as instantly commenced again; and that the covering of the seed
be perfect.

Amongst the many excellent machines now turned out by our
Canadian implement manufacturers, the undermentioned from the
shops of Mr. John Watson, of Ayr, Ont., is very perfect in all
these qualifications.

The concave rollers in front shape the drill, and are moveable
upon a rod, so that they readily adjust themselves to various
widths ; they carry the sowing tooth along with them in such ad-
justment, so that seed is always dropped in the centre of the drill.
The two iron rollers that follow cover the seed and press the soil.

The sowing apparatus consists of two tin canisters mounted on
a shaft, and by regulating holes will deliver seed of various kinds
and at different rates.

IMPROVED TURNIP AND SEED SOWER. — (See Appendix.)

Hand Drills for Root Seeds. — There are also several hand drills,
which, being cheaper, commend themselves to the use of those
who work small areas.

Amongst them are the Wethersfield Seed Drill, which marks its
own row, drops, covers and lightly rolls the earth upon the seed.

480

The Canadian Farmer^s

WETHERSFIELD SEED DRILL.
A BROADCAST SOWER OF AMERICAN INVENTION.

This ingenious implement, known as Gaboon's Broadcast Sower,
the author has himself used and, whilst unwilling to condemn it
for practical use, cannot take upon himself to recommend it.

It is capable of sowing, in the hands of a stout man, a very large
average per day. Our experience with it has been varied. One
field we sowed came up with beautiful regularity, while another,
sown in a wind, was a failure as far as even distribution was con-
cerned. It doubtless requires some experience upon the part of
the sower ; and while some farmers have entirely discarded it,
others have been well pleased. It has taken a firmer foothold in
the States than in Canada.

CAHOON S BROADCAST SOWEK.

Manual of Agriculture.

481

GRASS SEED SOWER.

This long box is worked on a simple principle, and is attached
to all the improved grain drills, by which the grass seed is sown
with the grain and by the same power.

A small lever handle works it ; when used by itself, it is so
regulated that by opening wider or closing the distributing holes,
any desired quantity per acre may be sown.

WAGGONS.

There is no implement in more common use than the farm wag-
gon. It is an indispensable part of the farm stock.

The waggon as used in America is a superior vehicle, from the
fact that it can be adapted to a great variety of objects.

The chief points of variation in the waggon are in the several
axles used. Of these there are the iro?i, the arm, and the wooden
axles.

The wooden axle is the lightest runner, and when the waggon
is kept entirely for farm use is probably more generally serviceable
than any other kind. It will not, however, stand much road work,
and for this or for use upon the road and in the fields we must
choose between the arm and the iron axle.

The iron axle is solid iron throughout ; on the outer ends is a
thread, on which a " burr" secures the wheel in its place.

This undoubtedly makes the strongest waggon, but is very
heavy. It is only adapted for constant use under heavy loads and
on metalled or other hard but smooth roads.

It is also very liable to break under the effect of frost in winter.

For general purposes the " arm" " patent skein" axle is the best.
This being wooden with iron extremities, on which the wheel runs
and on which the skein for the nut to secure the wheel is made, is
an easy runner, giving to the ground and not shaking itself to
pieces, whilst the draught is light upon the horses.
31

482 The Canadian Farmer's

It is capable of carrying as heavy loads as the ordinary farmer
requires to market, and, except for constant travel upon the har'd
high road,is in every way better adapted for general purposes than
either of the other forms spoken of

Good material, well seasoned, and true workmanship about the
wheels and running gear, will ensure very many years' last to such
a waggon if fair usage is accorded it by the farmer.

Such a waggon, not overloaded or too often " run," kept well
painted and protected when not in use, will last from ten to twenty
years.

The Size of Wheels. — As to the relative size of wheels, the Ame-
rican waggon is practically perfect.
An authority says : —

" If the load be placed in the body of a waggon, on the fore and
hind wheels, in the proportion that their diameters bear to one
another, nearly all the advantages of having wheels of eqvbol dia-
meter (as in a trotting skeleton waggon) will be obtained.

" This proportioning of the load cannot at all times be obtained
in waggons of the ordinary description, even if wished ; because
the body of the waggon must be equally filled with goods, or a
great loss of room would occur."

As the load is usually distributed, the greater part is, especially
in the case of a load of hay, on the hind axle.

Should we distribute our load equally, the fore and hind axles
would require to be far apart, and hence the point of resistance of
the hind wheel being far removed from the horse, the draught
would be increased.

To overcome this, we increase the diameter of the hind wheel
and thus admit of the heaviest of our load being placed aft of the
centre of the waggon,

" The ease with which logs, &c., may be removed on a pair of
wheels of large dimensions has been long a well-established fact.
In passing over a rough and uneven road, a small wheel sinks into
every little hollow, and the axle, if noticed, will be^found to de-
scribe a line almost as curved and irregular as the surface of the
road. A large wheel on the same load partakes but slightly of its
inequalities, and the line described by the axle will be found to
deviate but little from a straight line ; indeed, with a wheel suf-
ficiently large, the axle will describe a perfectly straight line. In
the latter case the friction, and consequently the draught, will be
little more than if the carriage should run upon a railroad ; the
larger, therefore, we use the wheels, the nearer we approach this
point of effect."

In practical use, a certain limit of size has to be applied to the
wheels of a waggon, on account of the difficulty which, in one
mounted on very high wheels, would result to the process of
loading.

Manual of Agriculture. 483

Dishing of Wheels. — This absurd process is pretty well exhausted
now, and the only excuse given at the present day — and it looks
decidedly lame — is, that a certain " dish" outwards from axle to
rim is necessary to prevent the tightening of the tire from dishing
the wheel inwards.

The use of wheels is to lessen the resistance to the draught
by reducing the friction, or changing that friction from the nature
of a grind or rub to that of a rolling motion, thus admitting of the
smallest-sized point of resistance to be pressing on the ground at
one time.

That resistance is naturally least when the ground is hard and
smooth, as on an iron rail or a board floor ; it increases when the
ground is soft and rough, and still more in an ascent, because
the power of draught is partly exhausted in an effort to lift the
waggon in an opposite direction to the force that pulls downward
— that of gravity.

When the wheels are dished, they plough the soft ground and
grind the hard ground, and thereby they increase the power of
resistance, and require more power of draught to overcome the
resistance afforded simply by the absurdity of their own form.

Narrow wheels are drawn more easily through loose stones, but
upon every other kind of ground the broader wheel is drawn
with less power, and acting as a roller benefits the roads.

If a system of broader wheels were adopted in Canada for farm
waggons, our roads would not be so terribly cut up as they are at
times.

High broad wheels do not sink as deeply into soft ground as do
low wheels (it is nearly always the fore wheel of the Canadian
waggon that sticks the team in a mudhole) but if the low wheels
be made broader, the benefit obtained will be in proportion to the
additional breadth.

High wheels turn seldomer round in a given distance than do
small ones, which is an advantage. High wheels are heavier than
low wheels which is a disadvantage. The happy practical medium
will be found between extra height and too small diameter.

High wheels are useful to carry great stones, or great logs slung
under the axles, while loads of every kind ought to be hung as low
as possible.

The placing of loads upon springs (as in the city "lorries,") allows
the carriage of them to be lighter ; and the lower the weight be
hung, so much the less chance that the line of gravity will fall out-
side the base and the load tip over.

Now, the principle upon which the force of resistance of the
wheel works is very simple, and yet mathematically exact.

Let us examine the theory : — Assuming the road to be level,
the wheel being a circle, the centre will always remain at one
height, and consequently will move parallel to the plane surface

484 The Canadian Farmer's

in a perfectly regular line. If any weight be attached to or sus-
pended from the centre, this will also move in a continued straight
line without rising or falling, and consequently, when once put in
motion, there is nothing to check its progress (neglecting for a
moment the slight resistance of the air) and it will require no
force to keep up the movement so long as the wheels continue to
turn.

We have, therefore, in this case only to examine into the force
necessary to turn the wheels. The wheels, if left to themselves,
would roll on with perfect freedom whatever might be their weight
or whatever weight might be attached to them, provided nothing,
in the mode of attaching that weight, impeded their revolutions;
but, in practice, we cannot admit of the load revolving with the
wheel, and we have no means of suspending it to the wheel,
except b}^ means of an axle fixed to the load, and passing through
the centre of the wheel. The axle presses upon the lower surface
of the hole ; and consequently, when the wheel revolves, causes
a friction proportionate to the load upon the wheels, under the
circumstances here supposed ; and it is the action of this friction,
the degree in which it affects the draft, and b}' what means this
effect is increased and diminished that we must consider.

Let C be the centre of the wheel, of which CD is the radius ;
and GA that of the axle passing through the wheel, and which
being fixed to the load does not revolve with the wheel.

If the force GB be applied to the centre of the wheel tending
to advance it in the direction of B, the point D being in contact
with the ground, the wheel is compelled to roll over, and the force
GB in turning the wheel acts with a leverage equal to GD, but
the friction between the axle and the wheel is at the point
A, and in preventing the turning of the wheel it acts only
at the extremity of the lever GA ; consequently, if GD be ten
times as great as GA, the force GB, need only be equal to one-

Manual of Agriculture. 485

tenth of the amount of the friction ; and, as a general rule, the
radius of the axle, and the friction remaining the same, the force
necessary to overcome the resistance arising from this friction
will be inversely as the radius or the diameter of the wheel ; or, in
other words, the draught will in this case diminish exactly in
proportion as the size or diameter of the wheel is increased.

The exact amount of friction at the axle depends somewhat
upon the nature of the substances in contact.

Thus the friction between metals is less than that between
woods ; and where the parts are in proper order, greased, &c., the
friction becomes practically very much less.

It has been laid down as a general rule, that in the case of an
iron axle in contact with an iron box in the hub and well greased,
the friction amounts to about one-eighth, or at the most one-fifth of
the pressure or weight.

Example. — Suppose it one-sixth ; andif the diameter of the wheel
is to that of the axle as 18 or 20 to l,the whole resistance aris-
ing from friction at the axle will be ^ of ^, which is equal to ^^
So that to move one ton would require a force of traction of about
17 lbs.

So much for the resistance offered by the axle and hub. In
practice, however, this friction is by no means the most consider-
able power of resistance to the draught.

We have hitherto, for the purpose of considering friction alone,
supposed the road perfectly level. It is needless to say that this
is only a bare supposition, seldom or never found in practice.

But on an uneven road the friction remains about the same.

There is yet another impediment to the movement of the wheel
— obstacles in the road, or yielding materials.

It was found in England by practical experiment that the force
required to move a four-wheeled vehicle weighing 1,000 lbs.
shewed, after repeated trials, the following results : —

Force of traction required
Description of Road. to move the vehicle (1,000 lbs.).

1. Turnpike road, hard and dry 3O5 *'

2. Ditto muddy 39 **

3. Hard compact loam ., 53 **

4. Ordinary by-road 106 **

5. Road newly gravelled 143 **

6. Loose sandy road 204 "

The wheels were upon wooden axles, and being nearly constant,
probably absorbed at least l-80th of the weight, or 12 J lbs. of the
force of traction, leaving therefore for resistance caused by road on
half a ton on wheels —

Turnpike road, hard, dry, about 18 lbs.

dirty 264"

" newly gravelled 130^ '"

Loose sandy road 1914 "

486 The Canadian Farmer^s

In passing, let us not neglect to take particular notice of the
fact that the sandy road offered ten times the resistance of the
turnpike road, and from such a fact deduce a lesson of the vast
importance to the farming community of good high roads to mar-
ket.

MOWING AND REAPING MACHINES.

Mowing Machines. — The combination of mowing and reaping
machines is fatal to the perfection of either operation, or at any rate
to that of cutting grass.

The operation of cutting grass and that of reaping grain are
very different, and it is impossible to combine the necessary quali-
fications for each class of work in any one machine without we
have more extra and unnecessary friction and weight than is ab-
solutely necessary for either operation.

A mower should be specially adapted to the cutting of heavy
grass in a wet or dry state. To effect this is required great rapi-
dity of motion and light draught. The reaper does not require as
rapid a motion of the cutting parts, and therefore the use of the
same pinion wheel for reaping and mowing either necessitates ex-
tra speed on the part of the horses in the one case, or entails use-
less rapidity of revolution, and therefore waste of power, in the
other.

A mower requires to be light, compact and strong, for it is sub-
ject at all times to a very great resistance, cutting in wet grass
and close to the ground, entailing also a rapid multiplication of
motion between the driving wheels and the pitman shaft. A
reaper meets with little resistance from the grain, cuts high off
the ground, and therefore entails in itself but little extra draught,
were it not for the softness of the ground. Nowadays, the addi-
tion of the heavy platform and the solid self-raking apparatus in-
creases the draught immensely, and hence the necessity of reduc-
ing as much as possible all useless multiplication of motion.

The first invented machines were reapers, and, as is generally the
case with new-fangled notions, they were received with disdain
by the farmer, who would cut his grain " as his father did before
him;" and yet in the present day there is not a farm of 100 acres
in Canada, a new country, on which the occupant feels secure of
his harvest without the use of a reaping machine.

We pride ourselves upon our ingenuity in the invention of ma-
chines, yet the principles of the reaper have undergone no radical
changes since the days when, at the commencement of the present
century, the Rev. Patrick Bell put his new invention into practice.
Our skill has been shown rather in modification or simplification.

To Mr. Smith, of Deanston, who, in response to an offered pre-
mium by the Dalkeith Farmers' Club, brought out a reaping ma-

Manual of Agriculture. 487

<;hine in 1812 ; to Mr. Scott, of Ormiston, who made an attempt
in 1815 ; to Mr. Mann, of Eaby, in Cumberland, England ; to
Mr. Ogle, of Rennington, near Alnwick, England ; but especially to
the Rev. Mr. Bell, whose machine, invented in 1828, has been in
use ever since, we owe the first introduction of the horse reaper.

The principles of this early and very complete machine are the
same as those of the present day, though the form has been ma-
terially altered. We find the driving wheels attached to the axle,
and motion communicated thereby to the reel for knocking down
the grain, the cutter bar, knife and triangular sections ; but the horses
walked behind the machine, and so propelled it in front of them.

An estimate of the probable value of this early machine may be
formed from the reports signed by numerous practical farmers,
who were spectators to different trials made in 1829 and 1830. In
1829, the machine was tried at Powrie, in Forfarshire, Scotland,
before about fifty landed proprietors and practical agriculturists,
who signed a declaration declaring that " the machine cut down
a breadth of five feet at once, was moved by a single horse, and
attended by from six to eight persons to bind up the corn ; and
that the field was reaped by this force at the rate of an acre per
hour."

In September, 1830, the machine was again publicly tried at
Monckie, in Forfarshire, in the presence of a still greater number
of persons, who attested that it cut in half an hour nearly half
an acre of a very heavy crop of oats, which were lodged, thrown
about by the wind, and exceedingly difficult to harvest. Th'e
price of the machine was from £30 to £35. It may be seen that,
with the exception of the self-rake and self-binder, the present
inventive age has neither improved upon capacity of cutting, nor
upon price.

Indeed, even our new inventions are not so very original, for in
1822 a machine for reaping and sheaving (laying in sheaves) corn
was invented, but, owing to the apathy of the farmers, could not
be put into general use. This machine operated satisfactorily,
and would cut fourteen acres a day.

The essential qualifications of these machines are —

Speed of motion, communicated with the least extra exertion on
the part of the motive power.

We know of only one machine in Canada — viz., that of the
Messrs. Noxon, of Ingersoll, Ontario — in which the speed of the
cutting knife can be changed without increasing or diminishing
that of the horses. This is very necessary. In all fields we shall
find spots where grain is badly lodged, or green, or where there
is a rank growth of grass or even weeds ; in such places we re-
quire an extra amount of speed to the knife, and unless we can
obtain such by the multiplication of the revolutions of the pinion
on the machine itself, we must secure it by urging forward the

488 The Canadian Farmer's

team. Now, the ordinary farm team naturally gets into a certain
gait whilst performing such an operation as that of reaping, and
it is not always an easy matter to increase the speed of their walk
at the proper time and place ; whilst, if we keep them at full speed
all the time, we waste much power upon the higher parts of the
field, where probably the resistance to the cutter is very much
less.

In cutting down hill, all steady teams exhibit a tendency, in
holding back, to pick their steps very slowly, and I have myself
frequently had the motion entirely stopped by this tendency on
the part of my team to crawl down hill. Hence the advisability
of control over the speed of the cutter, independent of the horses.

It is well known that the wear and tear is greater on a machine
cutting at extra speed in light grain or grass, than where the re-
sistance and the cutting power are about equally balanced.

This is well illustrated by the case of a man who should hit out
from the shoulder and his blow meet no resistance ; such an effort
will hurt or strain the arm more than if he should meet with some
soft object at the extremity of his stroke.

Hence the importance of a power to change the rapidity of the
cutting motion.

Changing the Height of Cut. — This is a very important com-
mand to be secured.

In all fields there will be found lodged spots of grain ; it is very
advisable that the cutting bar can be so lowered that it may pick
such up.

Again, the relative position of the horses to the machine, and
the consequent altered direction of draught, will, in a hilly field,
cause the machine at one time to plough the ground, and at
another, in light grain, especially oats, to bend the crop before it
and to pass it over uncut.

Obstacles also occur on the surface of the land which would
very greatly retard a day's work had the operator to remove each
one.

The raising of the heel of the reaper and mower has been
brought well under control, but a better arrangement to raise the
extreme point of the bar, without stopping the team or leaving the
seat, has yet to be secured.

The best we have seen is upon the " Kir by" as a mower. The
same principle was applied to the reaper put out by Mr. Forsyth,
of Dundas, in his reaper, on the Buckeye principle, but not prov-
ing satisfactory in practice, it has been for the present withdrawn.

The correct position for the cutting apparatus has been a sub-
ject of hot discussion amongst manufacturers. We incline to side
with those who claim the rear as the proper position. The advo-
cates of other positions rest their claim chiefiy on the advantage
that " when" the di'iver is thrown from his seat he runs less danger.

Manual of Agriculture. 489

This we think a weak argument. They admit the liability of per-
sons being thrown off in a forward cutting machine, and we think
that there is more chance of being so pitched out in such on the
same principle as that which throws the handle of the plough up
and the person forward on to the stilts, when a stone or root is
suddenly struck.

For our own part, we would sooner be thrown in front of the
knives than on top of them, the latter being to our mind the proba-
ble position into which the driver would be thrown in the forward
cutting machine, by a very sudden and severe jar.

We have worked a machine with the cutting apparatus to the
rear, and also one where the bar was forward, and the above is
our own practical opinion upon this subject.

Again, obstacles may, in the rear position of the bar, be seen
before the knife is upon them, and so avoided. It is, however,
claimed that there is less side draught where the bar is in front.
This is, doubtless, to some extent true, but by a judicious placing
of the pole to the opposite side of the machine this side draught
is reduced to a minimum.

Now, we believe that, as a matter of fact, it requires less power
to work a machine with the cutting apparatus to the rear, and
that the application of a given amount of draught power exerts a
greater force to drive the knives. Where this portion is in front,
and resistance is met with, the effect of that resistance as against
draught is to force the face of the bar downwards, and, if set very
low (an important object in mowing), into the ground, and thus
the traction of the wheels is weakened just when most needed,
and the whole action reversed from that which is sought.

Levers. — The machine requires two levers — one to raise the whole
bar over obstacles, and another to simply change its angle, and,
by depressing the points of the guards, allow them to pick up
and press to the knife lodged hay or straw.

The driving wheels of most of our machines are too small, and
in reaping sink deeply into soft ground. Why manufacturers
should heretofore have found it impracticable to make their driv-
ing wheels larger, we have been at a loss to conceive. We are
aware that the relative proportions of the several gearings require
to be changed with any heightening of the axle, but no alteration
of principles is involved.

The materials used by too many of our makers are very infe-
rior. We call upon the mower and reaper to sustain very severe
shocks and strains, and none but the best material can give satis-
faction to the farmer.

Many a manufacturer has lost custom, in spite of the excellence
of the principles upon which his machine works, by the use of in-
ferior castings and bad steel.

The farmer does not look much to mechanical principles. Give

490 The Canadian Farmer's

him a machine which will stand his work, and he does not care
much for any other qualification.

The harvest time is short in Canada. Let the report once be
fairly credited in a section, that a certain manufacturer's imple-
ments are always " breaking," and he may withdraw his agents.

Give us castings, not made from old stoves, but from such ma-
terial as that of the railroad car wheels ; give us good steel, well-
seasoned wood, and firm at that, and we will excuse high painting,
aye, and will not look too closely at the quality of the harvesting.
What we desire — and the manufacturer who in this accords with
our wishes, will find it to his advantage — is a machine that will
stick to its work da}" in and day out.

We do not like the six-acre per day^cradlers, but steady men
who stick to their work day by day ; neither do we care whether
a machine does ten or twelve acres a day ; but we want one that
will last to do its average every day.

It is not necessary to mention name or locality, but we know of
a locality in which one machine, in one year, entirely cut another
out, not for any superior qualities in principle or work — indeed, it
could not harvest as large an acreage per day, nor did it lay the
gavels as well — but it was made of the best of materials, tho-
roughly tested before sent out, and the farmers recognized the
advantages of a machine that was not in the weekly or daily
habit of "breaking a casting."

Simplicity we also require. Farmers are not mechanics, and
must have a machine the principles and working of which are not
difficult to comprehend.

There are various machines in the field of competition in Cana-
da. The following is a brief resume of the great trial held at
Paris, Ont., in 1871, under the auspices of the Provincial Agricul-
tural Association.

Of twenty mowers that were entered, only eight came out for
competition. The ground was hilly and rolling ; the crop, mixed
clover and timothy, was light and over ripe.

The competitors were :

''The Cayuga Chief!' Brown &; Patterson Whitby, 0.

" Wood's Patent,'' Massey Newcastle.

" Ohio Buckeye!' Noxon Bros Ingei'soll.

" The Humming Bird," ...J. Watson Ayr.

'' The Clipper',' Do Do.

" The Sprague," Maxwell & Whitelaw Paris.

" Buckeye," Bell & Son St. George.

" Wood's Patent," ....L. D. Sawyer Hamilton.

The first half acre was cut by Mr. Noxon 's " Ohio Buckeye " in
eighteen minutes, but the others were not far behind in speed.
This, however, depends in great part upon the horses and driver.

Manual of Agriculture. 491

SINGLE MOWER WITH FORWARD CUTTING BAR. (See Appendix.)
SINGLE MOWER WITH CUTTING BAR IN REAR. (See Appendix.)

THE CAYUGA CHIEF. (See Appendix.)

The test of draught which was very carefully performed resulted
as follows : —

Name of Machine. Width of Cut. Draught.

" Cayuga Chief." 4 ft 180 lbs.

'' Wood's Patent'' (Msissej) 4 ft. 2 inches 190 ''

" Do. do." (Sawyer) 3 ft. 10 inches 233J "

*' Ohio Buckeye" 4 ft 193i "

*' Humming Bird" 4 ft 165 "

''Clipper" 4 ft 6 inches 175 "

''The Sprague" 4 ft 145 "

"Buckeye" 4 ft 2 inches 200 "

The prizes in this class were awarded thus : —
1st, to " The Cayuga Chief ;" 2nd, to " Buckeye ;" 8rd, to
" The Clipper."

Combined Mowers and Reapers turned out in stronger force,
there being 14 in the competition, and the test showed as
follows : —

AYR CLIPPER (mowing),— (See Appendix.)
AYR CLIPPER (reaping), — (See Appendix.)

TEST IN MOWING.

Width nr«.,^i,f Draught per

of Cut. Draught. inco of Cut.

Oswald & Patterson Ohio Buckeye 4 ft. 3 in... 275 lbs. .5^ lbs.

J. Bingham Ohio Buckeye No, 1 .. 4 "

J. Bingham Ohio Buckeye No. 2 ... 4 "

J. H. Grout Ohio 4 '*

Noxon Bros Noxon's Standard 4 "

Noxon Bros Ohio Buckeye 4 "

J. Watson Ayr Clipper 4 *'

Harris & Son Kirby 4 *'

L. D. Sawyer Ball's Ohio 4 *'

J.Forsyth Ohio Buckeye 4 "

J. Forsyth Ball's Ohio 4 "

H. A. Massey Hubbard 4 "

Eastwood & Co Ohio Buckeye No. I... 4 "

Eastwood & Co Ohio Buckeye No, 2... 4 '*

.250

.4 9-10

.251

((

.4 9-10

((

..240

((

.4 7-1 0

((

..230

((

.Ak

.220

,.4i

((

.205

((

..34

.280

((

..54

((

,225

..4 3-7

.225

((

,..4i

..240

((

...4f

..275

.5 1-11

((

..250

,.4 9-10

((

,.250

((

,.4 9-10

492 The Canadian FarmeVs

The following is the result of the test in reaping :

^^^^^ DrauD-ht Draught per
of Cut. i^raught. jnchofCut.

H. A. Massey Hubbard 5 ft. 6in.,..225 lbs. 3 3-71bs

J Binc^ham Ohio Buckeye, Dodge R., • 5 ft. 6 in. ..241 " 3 7-11 **

J. Bingham Ohio Buckeye No. 2, Dodge R.. 5 " 225 " 3|

J Forsyth Ohio Buckeye, Johnson Rake .. 5 " 233 " 3 9-10 "

J.Forsyth Ball's Ohio, Johnson Rake 5 " 225 " 3| **

Harris & Son Kirby,Dodge R., sing. dr. whl. 5 " 208 " 4 6-10 "

L.D.Sawyer Ball's Ohio, Dodge Rake 4 "6 in.. ..250 " 4 6-10 *'

J. Watson Ayr Clipper, Johnson Rake, .. . 5 ** 233 " 3 9-10 "

Noxon Bros Ohio Buckeye, Johnson Rake... 5 "6in...225" 3 3-7 "

Noxon Bros Noxon's Standard, Johnson R . 5 "6in.,..233" 3^ "

J. H. Grout .Ohio, Dodge Rake 5 " 150 " 4 1-6 "

Eastwood & Co Ohio Buckeye No. 1, Dodge R. 5 " 222 " 34

Eastwood & Co Ohio Buckeye No. 2, Dodge R. 5 " 225 " 3| "

Oswald & Patterson... Ohio Buckeye, Dodge Rake 5 *' 236 " 4 "

The prizes were awarded thus : —

IN MOWING.

First prize J. Forsyth Ohio Buckeye.

Second prize Noxon Bros Noxon's Standard.

Third prize Harris & Son The Kirby.

IN REAPING.

First prize J. Forsyth Buckeye, (Johnson rake).

Second prize Noxon Bros '' Standard " (Johnson rake).

Third prize J. H. Grout Ohio (Dodge rake).

It is observable that the Buckeye gearing and Johnson rake,
received first favours.

THE JOHNSON SELF-RAKE. — ( See Appendix.)

THE KIRBY COMBINED AS A SELF-RAKING REAPER. — '' Dodje Rake.'

(See Appendix.)

Thrashing Machines. — The origin of the threshing machine is
due to Scotland, where a century ago the iirst attempt was made to
construct one driven by a water-wheel, which put in motion a
number of Hails of a similar kind with those used in threshing by
hand. It soon fell into disuse, and it is now about sixty years
since the invention was brought nearly to its present perfection
by an ingenious mechanic named Andrew Meikle.

Manual of Agriculture.

493

There are but two kinds of threshing machines now in general
use in Canada ; they are the " Separator" and the " Vibrator T

The several qualifications of the first are : —

The frame is solid and well braced, the very best iron or steel
being used in the shafting.

That it threshes cleanly, quickly and thoroughly — i.e., that the
light grains and weed seeds are entirely sifted from amongst the
plump grain ; that it will thresh at least 250 bushels of wheat per
day, and that no grain goes over in the straw ; and that it responds
easily to the revolution of the cylinder.

The cylinder is no unimportant portion of a " Separator ; " the
best material should be in the teeth and the cylinder itself should
in all cases be bound wdth a centre head.

IMPHOVED THRESHER AND SEPARATOR.

The only difference of any moment between the several ma-
chines of this class, is found between those that are run chiefly by
belting and such as are geared all through.

IMPROVED TEN-HORSE pitt's SEPARATOR. (See Appendix.)

We are indebted to Mr. Watson, of Ayr, for the following plate
of his "Improved Ten-horse Pitt's Separator," which, as will
be seen, is geared all through. — See Appendix.

The Little Giant Thresher and Separator, which has now been
before the Canadian public for four or five years, is a very useful
implement.

It will thresh over two hundred bushels of wheat, of a good fair
crop, in a day, and we have seen it do its work as cleanly as any
of the large ten-horse power separators. The straw and chaflf are
taken from the cylinders by rakers ; the straw is then carried out
of the machine by an ingenious contrivance worked by cranks,
which serves to give the straw an additional shake, so that no
§rain is carried out. The chaflT and wheat are shaken down on

494 The Canadian Farmer's

the grooved and slatted shoe, by a rock roller, which also riddles
through a comb when the blast from the fan strikes, the same as
in other machines.

The cylinder measures 2 feet 4 inches longitudinally, with a
13J-inch diameter ordinar}" open cylinder, with eight bars, teeth
in every bar, and two centre heads.

The length of the machine over all is, without tongue, 12 feet.
It is made for a six-horse power, but two teams can drive it without
distress.

For this machine there is in use a new style of power, to which
allusion will be made under the head of Motive Power.

The Little Giant is a very handy machine for a farmer's private
use. His own teams can run it. It is very compact, does excel-
lent work, is very simple to manipulate, and is stowed away in
small space. It is a great advantage to have a machine at hand
at all times through the winter. When no other work presses we
can thresh. Straw is better for feeding purposes when freshly
threshed. There need not be a single pound of straw wasted
through the winter.

Its cost is one hundred dollars — little more than the price of a
lumber waggon — and if the farmer will allow a sinking fund of
the percentage per bushel that he pays to the hired thresher, he
will in two or three years save enough to purchase this very use-
ful little machine.

We have no hesitancy in recommending this machine to any
farmer growing on an average over fifty acres of grain a year.
Being easily portable, two neighbours could very well buy one
together and share its work. It is a great favourite already in
some sections of the country.

THE LITTLE GIANT THRESHER AND SEPARATOR. (See Appendix.)

The Agitator. — For this machine the manufacturer claims the
following advantages : —

That it has facilities for separating and saving grain which it is
impossible to apply to other styles of separators ; that while its
capacity for threshing is equal to that of any other machine, it is
simpler in its construction, more durable, easier managed, and
lighter on the horses.

The teeth of the cylinder are distributed equally over all the
bars, causing it to run steadily, feed regularly, and retain its ba-
lance equally. It is 31 inches longitudinally, 16 J inches in diame-
ter, and weighs 270 lbs., mounted and balanced on a steel shaft.

There is also what is called an improved concave regulator.

■ This consists of two concave ends, with a disc working in each ;

a square iron rod passes through these two discs, and is operated

by means of a handb at the feeder's hand, retained in place by a

Manual of Agriculture. 495

ratchet and pawl ; the iron being turned operates the discs and
causes the concave to rise and fall as may be desired, both ends
rising and falling together, keeping the concave always parallel to
the cylinder. By this arrangement the feeder has complete con-
trol over the concave ; so that should the grain be throwing over
in the straw, he can set it closer to the cylinder, or in very dry
sheaves can set it wider and feed faster, both which operations
can be accomplished without stopping the machine, removing the
feed board, or unscrewing nuts, as is the case in the ordinary
machine.

THE AGITATOR. (See Appendix.)

Immediately on leaving the cylinder, the straw is received on a
long box or trough, about six inches deep, with the bottom formed
of slats set edgeways, in the manner of Venetian blinds, through
which the grain passes. It is furnished with a succession of agi-
tating finger bars, with long projecting fingers in each. The box
or trough is moved with a vertical motion by means of a crank
shaft; and by a simple arrangement on the ends of the finger bars,
the vertical motion of the box communicates to them a motion
very like that of a pitchfork in the hands of a person pitching
straw after the old open cylinder, in order to separate the con-
tained grain.

Having passed over one set of these fingers, the straw is imme-
diately received upon a second set, where it undergoes a similar
process, and so on over the whole series of sets ; so that when it
reaches the stacker every kernel of grain has been shaken out.

The grain falls through the slatted bottom of the upper trough
or section into a second one, with a close smooth bottom, reaching
from under the concave to about the middle of the shoe, and with
sufiicient of a decline to carry the grain freely to the shoe. This
second or lower section has likewise a vertical motion, and that
part of it which overhangs the shoe is perforated with holes,
through which the grain is delivered evenly and regularly over
the riddles.

The two sections move in opposite directions — one going for-
ward while the other goes backwards. They thus counterbalance
each other, so that no jar is caused to the machine.

The shoe is much larger and more capacious than in the ordi-
nary separator, and the grain is evenly distributed over it. There
is plenty of blast and sufiicient sieve room to take care of all the
grain that can be got through the machine, and the maker claims
that there need be no " poking" or ''' scraping" to clear the shoe.

There are but four belts on this machine, and only one of special
moment — i.e., the main or cylinder belt, leading from the cylinder
to the crank shaft and fan. This, in the machine that we have

496 The Canadian Farmer's

seen, is supplied with a tightening pulley, operated by a lever at
the feeder's side, by means of which he can tighten it without
stopping to unlace. He can likewise stop the whole machine
back from the cylinder.

It is very much cleaner than the common separator in one way,
for it leaves but little litter on the ground beneath and around it.

It is likewise claimed that no dust is thrown out from the cylin-
der, but is all carried through with the straw to the back end.

Having a less number of pulleys, shafts and other working parts,
the friction is naturally reduced, and therefore the -'Agitator"
requires a less amount of motive power than the older-fashioned
separator.

" In the older kind (alluding to the ordinary style of separator)
there are four shafts, one canvas belt, one picker, one slatted belt,
twenty-six pulleys, and four belts required for merely separating
the grain, apart from the fan, elevator and shoe ; while in the
' Agitator' the separation is much more effectively performed by
means of the oscillating trough or box and fingers, driven by one
crank, thus dispensing with all those shafts, pulleys, &c."

The "Agitator" is also so arranged that the carriers may be
attached either above or below the shoe, and either save the chaff
or carry it along with the straw.

Clover Threshers. — The following is a simple plan, in the absence
of a clover huller, to thresh clover by means of a threshing ma-
chine ; — Elevate the concave, or depress the cylinder so that there
remains barely room for the ends of the cylinder teeth to pass
clear of the concave ; then attach a board in front, on the left side
of the cylinder, and half the width of the cylinder.

Back of the cylinder, and opposite where the clover enters, a
similar board. The clover passes through the opening in front,
strikes the back board, and rebounds back over the cylinder, strik-
ing the front board and passing out ; thus each feed is struck or
threshed twice, and thoroughly.

When winnowing, if the screen is too coarse, cover it with wrap-
ping paper, secured to the sides of the screen with tacks. In the
fan shoe attach an oats and a four or six mesh riddle. The seed
will pass down the heads amongst the tailings, and the loose chaff
will fly off. If not satisfactorily threshed, pass the heads through
the threshing machine a second time.

Threshing Grasses. — If the straw is long, remove the fenders;
if short, on the contrary thresh and winnow as directed for
clover, but the blast of wind will require to be reduced.

MOTIVE POWERS.

Horse Power. — The subject of motive powers has given rise to
endless discussions amongst scientists, but to the farmer the real

Manual of Agriculture. 497

question at issue is, what form of power will do his work best and
most economically ; and this question can only be answered by
each individual for himself, according to his own special circum-
stances.

It will, then, be of more value if this portion of the chapter be
rather devoted to pointing out the horse powers, steam powers,
and wind powers to be obtained, and the special advantages of
such as are now upon the market.

For heavy work, such as driving the threshing machine, there is no
power in the Canadian market equal to the Improved Pitt's Horse
Power. In some cases they have failed, but this has been simply
owing to carelessness in their construction ; and on the other hand,
where the principles of their operation have been carried out with
mechanical precision, and good material has been employed, this
patent has given universal satisfaction.

In buying a horse-power, the purchaser should look closely to
the following points : — That the castings are true, and that there
is ample provision for overcoming any tendency to mash cogs
which may appear in running : that the material employed is of
the best, the castings not made from old stove plates, and the pins
and journals of the best steel. Look well to the bevel wheels ; on
them there is great strain.

Whilst on the subject, no farmer should allow in his barn any
tumbling rods that are not furnished with slip-knuckles and rings
with riveted bolts, or some similar contrivance, to prevent the pro-
tuberance of bolt ends and keys that have been so often the cause of
fatal or serious accidents. (See Act of Parliament passed in 1874.)
See that all boxing is lined with a good thick layer of Babbitt
metal, and covered with dust covers ; that the frame is well braced,
to prevent any chance of straining. The transverse and friction
rollers should be faced. The newer kind of rollers are made much
larger than formerly, and in consequence, revolving more slowly,
they wear less.

TEN-HORSE POWER. — (See Appendix.)

A little power has been lately constructed which is invaluable
to the farmer. It can be used with two, four or six horses. It is
light, compact and substantial, and being accompanied by a jack,
plenty of motion can be obtained from four horses to run straw-
cutter, grinder, drag saw, &c., &c.

farmer's horse-power. — (See Appendix.)

The Totman Horse-power is also another form, of very great
general use to the farmer. It is calculated for one or two horse
and can be easily covered in or readily removed from place to
32

498 The Canadian Farmer^s

place at any season of the yea,r. By means of a shaft and pulley
in place of the pitman, this power, which was originally designed
only for application to a drag saw, can be applied to a chaff-cutter,
grain crusher or any light machinery. There is also another pat-
tern made on the same principle, to which four horses may be
attached. — (See Appendix.)

TOTMAN POWER APPLIED TO A STRAW CUTTER. — (See Appendix.)
TOTMAN DRAG GROSS-CUT SAWING MACHINE. — (See Appendix.)

The old Tread Power we hope is now discarded, as fit to be
classed only amongst those works wliich are brought within the
scope of the Act for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. (See
Appendix.)

Fanning Mills. — The principles of a good fanning mill are, easy
change of the shake, thorough control of the draft or blast, and a
careful sizing of sieves.

The sieves and screen should be made, if possible, to shake in-
dependent of one another, and there should be a contrivance to
regulate the angle at which the sieves dip.

The less gearing the lighter will be the run. There should also
be an ample area for screening.

We hope the day is not far distant when our threshing ma-
chines will be so improved as to dispense with the necessity for a
second operation in the hand mill.

Corn Shellers. — Of these there are several patents, American
and Canadian.

The Canadian Chief Corn Sheller, it is claimed, will shell a
bushel in two minutes, and can be run by hand or horse power.
This machine in competition with American machines obtained
the first prize at the Buffalo International Exhibition.

Grain Crushers. — In these days when our coarse grains are
readily sold for cash, and when economy of feed is the only way
in which to make the fatting of stock profitable, every man, who
winters cattle, should be possessed of one of these useful imple-
ments.

The amount paid in toll to the miller will pay on most farms
in one season the first cost, and the farmer is assured that his feed
is the pure article, which, made under his own eye, cannot be adul-
terated without his knowledge.

By the one item of bruising oats for horses there is a great sav-
ing. Even with young horses a saving of 25 per cent, is effected
by feeding them crushed oats, while in the case of old horses,
whose powers of mastication are reduced, it becomes necessary
that their feed be softened.

Manual of Agriculture,

499

PATENT WOOD FRAME GRAIN CRUSHER.

These implements are made in various forms, some on wooden
frames and others upon iron, varying also in capacity of work and
crushing power.

STRAW-CUTTER — FOR TWO MEN OR HORSE-POWER.

The hay and straw cutter is an indispensable article in the list
of farmer's stock.

We, ourselves, bought one of the improved kind last year, and
know that we saved thereby at least five tons of hay, which rul-
ing at about $15 per ton in the barn was a gross saving of $75 in
the one winter. We gave $40 for the implement and, adding 25
per cent, for wear and tear, we effected a net profit of $25 by our
investment.

Of late years, fodder has been scarce, and farmers have gener-
ally become convinced of the utility of the straw cutter, which
prepares coarse food in such a manner that all animals will readily

500

The Canadian Farmer^ s

eat it, thus saving much waste. Nearly all our agricultural im-
plement makers are now engaged in their manufacture, and yearly
many hundreds are sold throughout the Dominion.

Some are made for hand power, and others to be run with horse
power. The former are fit only for the use of private gentlemen
who keep perhaps a single horse and cow, but to any farmer with
a reasonable live stock, the straw-cutter will be found as profitable
an implement as he can have in his shed.

Root Fulpers. — Of root cutters there are a vast number, but the
principle of cutting roots is, in practical benefit, far behind that of
pulping.

It is well known that the best form of feed to fatting cattle, is
that in which it has been reduced to a certain stage of fermenta-
tion. To effect this, the most rapid and economical process is, to
reduce the roots to a pulp and mix with cut fodder.

The only root pulper we have at present in Canada is the Ben-
thall, an English patent, and they are imported.

Whilst on this
subject, we pass to
the Agvicudtural
Steamer. — An opi-
nion on the advan-
tages to be derived
from steaming food
will be found in a
preceding chapter
on Cattle Feeding.

The accompany-
ing Figure repre-
sents a steamer well
adapted for the pur-
pose, sold by Mr.
Rennie, of Toronto :
This is used for
cooking food, heat-
ing water, &c., by
steam, though useful
on the farm and
elsewhere for many
other purposes.

It is made in two
sections, the lower
one being the caul-
dron, and the upper
one the steam at-
tachment, wh ich has
AGRICULTURAL STEAMER AND BOILER. a pipe that leads

Manual of Agriculture. 501

into a large barrel that stands near it. Both sections are des-
igned to be used separately from or conjointly with the stove,
or on an arch, as may be preferred. For indoor work this steamer
will be found very valuable, as it is perfectly secured from all
danger of commiinicating fire, and, by an improved combined
vacuum and pressure safety-valve, from danger of explosion. The
furnace is made of wrought and cast-iron. The stove is of heavy
boiler iron, and the base, flues, &;c., of cast iron. The cauldrons
stand from three and a-half to four and a-half feet high, with a
diameter somewhat less than the height.

Three sizes are made, to steam from twenty to one hundred
bushels of cut feed per day, and to hold from one to two and
a-half barrels of water.

There are also various implements of less common use, but all
labour-savers.

The StuTYip-Puller. — Of these, the most powerful and probably
the best for general use is that made upon the screw principle.
The screw and the screw-box is the only part of the machine that
cannot be made by any farmer.

SCREW STUMP MACHINE. (See Appendix.)

We find the following simple stump machine in the columns of

the American Agriculturist : —

A SIMPLE STUMP-PULLER.

It is worked by a lever, moved preferably by a stout yoke of
oxen. The end of the lever is supplied with a strong clevis, suffi-
ciently long to pass around so as to be used on either side. The
fulcrum of the lever consists of a chain which is to be fastened to
the largest stump near (a) ; on each side of this is a clevis, with a

502

The Canadian Farmer's

short chain and hook attached. To work the machine, fix a chain
to the stump to be pulled, hook on to one of the short chains of
the machine (6), draw up the oxen until that chain is tight ; hook
on the other chain (c), turn the team, and draw up as far as they
can go ; hook the chain {h), turn and draw again, and so repeat
until the stump is drawn out. Then fasten on to another, and
repeat the process until all the stumps are out within reach of the
one the machine is anchored to. The machine will then have to
be moved to another anchoring place, and so on until the field is
cleared. The last stump left must be grubbed out. It will be
necessary to remember that the power of this lever is very great,
and stump pulling requires stout implements and chains. A
breakage may not only cause delay, but a blow from a snapping
chain may very easily be fatal ; it is therefore absolutely necessary
for safety that the chains be made of the best iron, with the best
workmanship, and strong enough to hold against all the resistance
they may meet. The lever should be strengthened with iron
plates in those parts where the holes are bored for the clevis bolts.

Horse Rakes and Tedders. — For horse rakes, there is none equal
in perfectness of execution to the American Revolving Rake, now
in common use ; but it is a man-killer.

The Sulkey steel- toothed rakes are coming into use, and are very
generally liked in the older portions of Canada, or where the fields
are well cleared of stumps, and are moderately smooth.

We have seen an application of the Revolving rake to the Sulkey
principle. It is manufactured by Mr. Forsyth, of Dundas. Ac-
companying is an illustration.

SULKEY REVOLVING HORSE RAKE. — (See Appendix.)

LOCK-LEVER SULKEY HAY RAKE. — (See Appendix.)

DICKS PATENT POTATO DIGGER.

It Ik

Manual of Agriculture.

503

DRIINTNG TOOLS.

Draining Spade. — This is the proper shape for finishing off' the
tottoms of drains in which tiles are to be laid.

ENGLISH DRAINING SPADE.

carter's improved ditching

MACHINE.

This ditching machine was
first introduced to the public
in the summer of 1869. It
has been awarded the highest
premiums wherever exhibited,
both in Canada and the United
States. Indeed it has in every
instance, when brought into
competition with others, prov-
ed itself to be far superior to
any other machine of the kind
yet invented.

Its principal parts are an iron wheel four feet in diameter and
eight inches wide, with two flanges of five inches projecting from
its edges. Between the flanges, on the circumference of the wheel,
are cogs five inches long, arranged in rows of two at points twelve
inches apart around the wheel. Immediately in the rear, and in
close proximity to the bottom of the wheel, is a steel plough-shaped
cutter, arranged in such a manner that the earth continues its up-
ward progress to the top of the wheel, where the cogs pass through
a comb, and the earth is discharged into a polished steel spout,
and falls at a convenient distance from the trench. The whole is
connected with a car upon which the operator stands, who has the
power of regulating the cutter for the purpose of levelling the
bottom of the ditch — quite a desideratwn.

The machine is drawn to and fro in the same track, cutting
from two to five inches each time (at the will of the operator)
until the ditch is the depth required.

The machine is simple in construction, very strong, and not
liable to get out of order.

It will work satisfactorily in the hardest as well as the toughest
and most adhesive clay soils ; will also work admirably in sandy
or light soils.

Two men and from two to four horses are required to work it,
cutting from one hundred to two hundred rods (according to soil)
of ditch, three feet deep, eleven inches wide at the top, and eight
inches at the bottom, per day.

504

The Canadian Farmer's

Official authorities certify that it does the work of from twenty-
five to thirty men per day, and saves fifty per cent, of the former

cost of draining.

CARTER S OPEN DITCHER, ROAD GRADER AND SUBSOILER.

This machine is quite simple. The main fixture is that of a
plough driven and used in the ordinary manner. Attached to
this is a large wheel, which lies on its side, and revolves as the
plough cuts a furrow, takes the earth from the plough, and, carry-
ing it round the flange of the wheel, drops it in the middle of the
road, a distance of seven feet from where it originally lay.

Thus the machine cuts a ditch on each side of the road to any
required depth, and throws the earth into the middle, not in large
quantities, but equally distributed across and along the road. In
this operation the two machines, which are usually employed on
such work, are combined in one, and the work done in the same
time as an ordinary plough would take to cut a ditch.

It is an excellent machine upon the farm for making open
ditches, and may, indeed, be used in some cases for subsoiling. It
is supposed to effectually grade from three-quarters to one mile of
road per day, and the same amount of open ditch.

Manual of Agriculture. 505

TABLES, &o.
Measures of Length (Gunter's Chain) used in land surveying.

792, or nearly 8 inches = 1 link.

25 links, or 198 inches = 1 pole.

4 poles = 1 chain.

10 chains, or 7,920 inches = 1 furlong.

8 furlongs, or 63,360 inches = 1 mile.

A chain is equal to 100 links, or 702 inches, or 22 yards, or
66 feet.

Measures of Surfaces, or Square Measure.

144 square inches = 1 square foot.

9 square feet = 1 square yard.

40 J square yards , = 1 sq. pole or rod.

40 square poles = 1 rood.

4 roods = 1 acre.

Note. — An error is often made which should be guarded against
in supposing the terms " square inches" and " inches square" to be
synonymous — denoting, in fact, the same thing ; but there is a
great difference between them. " Twelve square inches" is only
the twelfth part of a square foot, but " twelve inches square" is
144 square inches.

Land — Square (or Gunter's Chain) Measure.

62*726 square inches = 1 square link.

2295 square links = 1 square foot.

20-661 " " = 1 square yard.

625 " " = 1 square pole.

10,000 « " = 1 square chain.

2'5 square chains = 1 square rood.

10 " " = 1 square acre.

640 square acres = 1 square mile.

Cubic Measures of Solid Bodies.

1,728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot.

46,656 " or 27 cubic feet = 1 solid yard.

506

The Canadian Farmers

^^^ Note. — While square measure is based upon the square of
numbers, which is found by multiplying any number into itself, as
4x4=16, which is the square of 4; cubic measure is based by
multiplying any number twice into itself, as 4x4x4=64, which
is the cube of 4. Surface has only length and breadth ; a solid
body has length, breadth and thickness.

Avoirdupois Weight.

27'343 grains = 1 drachm.

16 drachms - 1 ounce.

16 ounces = 1 pound.

28 pounds = 1 quarter.

4 quarters = 1 cwt.

20 hundredweight = 1 ton.

14 lbs. (English measure) = 1 stone.

Bread Weight.
4 pounds is the full-sized 4 lb. loaf.

Dry Measure, or Measures of Capacity.

4 gills = 1 pint.

2 pints = 1 quart.

4 quarts = 1 gallon.

2 gallons ,. = 1 peck.

4 pecks 1 bushel.

8 bushels (English) = 1 quarter.

Measures of Time and Motion.

A mean solar day is the mean apparent time of one revolution
of the earth on its axis ; and it is divided into 24 hours, an hour
into 60 minutes, and a minute into 60 seconds, &;c. ; hence the
mean daily apparent motion of the sun is 15 degrees per hour, or
1 degree in 4 minutes of time. A sidereal is the real and invaria-
ble period of the diurnal rotation, and contains 23 h. 56 m. and 4
1-1 0th seconds of mean solar time. A tropical year is the period
of one revolution of the earth in its orbit, and contains 365 d. 5 h.
48 m. 49*19 seconds of mean solar time. The seconds' pendulum
makes 86,400 vibrations in a mean solar day, at the same place on
the earth's surface. A lunar day is 24 h. 48 m. The eidereal is
3 m. 56 sec. less than the solar day.

1 -k

Manual of Agriculture,
Commercial Numbers.

507

12 articles

• • .

12 dozen

• • •

20 articles

5 score

• . .

4 quarters ...
24 sheets paper
25

20 quires
211 «

« • •

2 reams

. .

10 reams

t • •

5 dozen skins parchment
100 words in law make

1 gross.

.. 1 score.

... 1 common hundred

.. 1 hundred.

1 quire.

.. 1 printer's quire.

1 ream.

. . 1 printer's ream.

.. 1 bundle.

... 1 bale.

.. 1 roll.

.. 1 folio.

Capacity of Cisterns.

Supposing the annual rainfall to average about three feet, it will
furnish to each square foot of surface 2 2 4 4 gallons ; so that in
calculating the capacity of a cistern to hold the water shed from
any sized roof, find the number of square feet of surface that the
roof covers, and multiply by 22'44 ; the result will be the number
of gallons that will, on an average, be supplied in a year.

Example. — The roofing covers a building of the size of 30 x 40
feet, or 1,200 square feet ; multiply this area by 2244, and you
have 26,928 gallons. As you are constantly drawing this water,
cistern room to hold one-half, or 18,464 gallons, will be ample.
Now to find the requisite sized cistern.

If circular, take the diameter in feet, square that, and mul-
tiply by •785398 ; that gives the area in feet : multiply this by
1,728 and divide by 231, and you will have the number of gallons
capacity of one foot in depth of the cistern ; from this calculate
the depth.

If square or rectangular, multiply length by breadth, and
proceed to multiply result by 1,728 and to divide by 231, as
iDefore.

In this way we find that each foot of depth of a

CIRCULAR CISTERN,
5 ft. in diameter, holds

4-66 bbls.

6-71 "

9-13 "

11-93 "

1510 "

18-65 "

5 ft. bv 5 ft

6 " 6

7 " 7

8 " 8

9 " 9
10 " 10

SQUARE
holds.. ..

CISTERN,

5-92 bbls.

6 " "

8-54 "

7 " "

11*63 "

8 " "

15-19 "

9 ♦' "

19-39 "

10 " «

23-74 *'

508 The Canadian Farmer^s

Capacity of Bins, etc., etc.

The capacity of the bushel of grain is 2,150 inches.

To Pleasure the Number of Bushels of Grain in a Bin. — Multi-
ply height, breadth and length in inches, and divide by 2,150.

Example. — Given a bin 10 feet long, 4 feet wide ; how much
grain will there be if filled to a depth of 3 feet ?

120 in.x48 inches X 36 inches = 207,360 inches.
207,360-h2,150 = 96| bushels.

To Measure Corn in the Ear. — Multiply the length, width and
height of bin in feet together, and the result by 4 ; cut off the last
right hand figure {i.e., divide by 10), and those left express the
number of bushels of unshelled corn.

Example. — Given a bin 20 feet long, 8 feet wide ; how many
bushels of unshelled corn will fill it to a depth of 6 feet ?

20 ft. X 8 feet + 6 feet = 960 ft.
960 ft. X 4 -H 10 = 384 bushels.

To Measure for Roots. — Allow one cubic [foot and two-thirds
(If) for each bushel, or 16f feet (in decimals about 16"66) for
every 10 bushels. An easy mode of reckoning will be to use the
rule above for measuring corn in the ear. Td the quotient thus
obtained add one-half the amount, and you will have about the
number of bushels of turnips to be allowed for these dimensions.

Example. — Find the capacity for roots of a bin 10 ft. x 20 ft.
X8 feet. 10x20x8=1,600 ft. Multiply by 4, or 6,400 feet,
leaving 640 bushels as the capacity for unshelled corn. Add half
to this: 640 + 320=960, the number of bushels of turnips required.

The relative bulk of corn in ear, roots and grain may be calcu-
lated in reference to the first, as half as much again as the second,
and twice as much as the last. In other words, a space that would
hold twenty bushels of corn in the cob would contain thirty
bushels of roots, and forty bushels of other grain.

Manual of Agriculture.

DISTANCES OF DRAINS.

509

'^ bo

of turns of
gh (18 in.
the land.

General Character of the Soil.

Distance from Drain to Drain,

1=1^

^ ^ o

in common use.

2^^

S o^

-§ ^^

i a' '2

feet, in.

7 6

Tenacious and uniform clay.

7 ft. 6 in., 15 ft., 21 ft., or every
furrow, every other furrow,
every third furrow, &c.

16 6

Same as above, fine and sil thing
clays, with beds of fine sand in-
terspersed.

Drains 1 rod apart.

18 0

Clays containing coarse sand and
grit.

Drains 16J feet or 1 rod apart.

21 0

Calcareous soils and clays, lighter
than the above, with frequent
intermixtures of sand and gra-

Drains 21 feet apart.

vel.

24 0

Clays similar to the above, with Drains 24 feet apart.

rotten sandstone rock, and more

frequent intermixtures of gravel,
&c.
The lighter description of clays

30 0

Drains 30 feet apart.

and clay gravels.

33 0

Stony, gravelly, and sandy soils,
and the lighter description of
lands, usually springy soils.

Drains 33 feet or 2 rods apart.

36 0

Drains 41ft. or 2i rods apart.

Table of the Diameters of Pipes through which a required quan-
tity of water may he discharged in a given time.

Cubic feet
per minute.

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
18
20

Diameter in
inches.

II
li
1

Cubic feet
per minute.

100

110

120

130

140

150

Diameter in
inches.

51
6

9i
91

10^

11
111

Cubic feet
per minute.

160
170
180
190
200
225
250
275
300
350
400
440
529
625
729
841
900
1000

Diameter in
inches.

510

The Canadian Farmer's

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF LINSEED CAKE.

Moisture

Oil

Albuminous compounds*

Mucilage and other carbonaceous principles

Phosphate of lime, magnesia and other mineral constituents o£food+

Woody fibre

Insoluble earthy matters

*Containing nitrogen

I " phosphoric acid

" potash

per cent.
12-70
11-32
28-21
29-42

4-84
12-46

1-05

100-00

per cent.
4-50
1-28
1-34

per ton,
284 -5 lb
253-5 "
631-9"
659-0"
108-4 "
279-2"
23-5 "

2240-0

per ton.

100-8 lb
28-7 "
301 "

COMPOSITION OF RAPE CAKE (SIBSON).

Moisture

Oil

Albuminous compounds*

Non-nitrogenous matters ,

Phosphate of lime, magnesia, potash and other mineral constituents

of food

Woody fibre

Insoluble earthy matterst

*Contaimng nitrogen .....

•j- " phosphoric acid

" potash ■■

per cent.
5-66
1-17
1-54

per

252

250-

684-

637-

25-

257-

31-

tcwi.

•71b

2240-0

per ton.

137-8"
26-2"
34-5 "

COMPOSITION OF WHEAT, BARLEY, AND OATS.

Moisture

Albuminous compotmds* ....
Starch, sugar and other car-
bonaceous matters

Woody fibre

Mineral mattersi*

WHEAT.

BARLEY.

per cent.

15-26
11-54

68-47

2-61
1-75

100-00

*Containing nitrogen

•f* " phosphoric acid . ,
" potash ...,

perton. per cent. I
lbs.

1-86
0-80
0-52

341-4

258-5

1533-7

67-2
39-2

2240 0

41-6
17-9
11-6

One ton equal to
37^ bushels, at
60 lbs.

14-65
10 84

68-31

3-45
2-75

100 00

1-73
0-97
0-42

per ton.

lbs.

328-2

242-8

1530-1

77-3
61-6

2240 0

38-7

22-4

9-4

One ton equal to
4U bushels, at 54
lbs".

OATS.

per cent,

15 09
11-85

63 34

7-02
2-70

100-00

1-89
0-67
0-40

per ton.

lbs.

338-0

265-4

1418-8

157-3

60 5

2240 0

42-6

15-0

8-9

One ton equal to
56 bushels, at 40
lbs.

Manual of Agriculture.

COMPOSITION OF PEA AND BEAN STRAW.

611

Water

Fatty matters

Albuminous compounds*

Gum and other carbonaceous principles

Woody fibre —

Mineral mattersf

*Containing nitrogen

*t' " phosphoric acid
" potash

PEA STRAW,

per cent.

16 02

2-34

8-86

25-06

42-79

4-93

100-00

1-41
0-41
0-59

per ton.
lbs.
358-8
52-4
198-5
561-3
958-5
110-5

2240-0

31-6

9-2

13-4

BEAN STRAW.

per cent.

19-40
1-02
3-36
6-93

65.58
3-71

100-00

•54

•27
-78

per ton.

lbs.

434-5

22-8

75-3

1.55-2

1469 0

83-2

2240-0

121

6-0

17-5

COMPOSITION OF MEADOW GRASS.

Per Cent.

Water 76 52

Fatty matters, chlorophyl, &c 1-4.0

Albuminous compounds* 2*25

Sugar, gum, cellular tissue, &c 12-68

Woody fibre 4-97

Mineral matterst 2-18

Per Ton.

100-00

*Coiitaining nitrogen -SB

t " phosphoric acid '12

" potash -56

1714 lbs

31 **

50|"

2844 "

111 "

49 "

2240-0

8 «

2.i «

124"

COMPOSITION OF GREEN RYE.

Per Cent.

Water 75 -42

Fatty matters 0-89

Albuminous compounds 270

Cellular tissue, &c 9-13

Woody fibre 10"48

Mineral matters 1-35

10000

COMPOSITION OF VETCHES.

Per Cent.

Water 81-30

Albuminous compounds 3-60

Carbonaceous principles 8 "80

Woody fibre ._ 4 4(5

Mineral matters 184

100 00

512 The Canadian Farmer's

COMPOSITION OF WHITE TUENIPS (SIBSON).

Per Cent. Per Ton.

Water 9043 2025-61bs.

Albuminous compounds* 104 233 "

Pectin, sugar and other carbonaceous principles 5 45 122*1 •<

Woodytibre 2*44 54'9 "

Mineral matterst.. "63 14-1 "

100 00 22400

* Containing nitrogen '16 3'6 '*

t " phosphoric acid "OB 1-34"

«« potash -23 5-2"

COMPOSITION OF SWEDES.

Per Cent.

Water 89-46

Albuminous compounds* 1'34

Pectin, sugar and other carbonaceous principles . . 5-93

Woody fibre 2-64

Mineral matterst '62

100-00

* Containing nitrogen '21

+ " phosphoric acid *06

* potash *22

COMPOSITION OF POTATOES.

Water 750 16800

Albuminous compounds* 2*3 61-5

Starch, &c 18-7 418-9

Woody fibre 3-0 67-2

Mineral matterst ^'^ 22-4

■ ^— — — —

100-0 2240 0

* Containing nitrogen *37 8*28

+ *' phosphoric acid '14 3-13

potash -48 10-75

((

Per Ton.
2003-9 lbs.

30-9
132-8

59-4

13-9

2240-0

4-7

1-34

4-9

COMPOSITION OF PABSNIPS AND CARROTS.

Parsnips. Carrots.

Water 8205 87-33

Albuminous compounds 128 66

Sugar, pectin, starch and cellular fibre 15-74 11*27

Mineral matters '93 -74

100-00 100-00

Manual of Agriculture,

513

COMPOSITION OF ASH OF GRASS (sIBSON).

Per Cent.

Potash 25-40

Lime 1521

Magnesia 530

Soda 6-24

Oxide of iron 018

Phosphoric acid 5'45

Sulphuric acid 7 08

Silicic acid 24-30

Chlorine 4 76

Carbonic acid and loss 6-08

100 00

COMPOSITION OF RICH AND POOR MILK.

Water 8520

Butter and fatty matters 4*96

Casein or cheesy matters 3 68

Sugar of milk 5 03

Mineral matters 1-13

10000

89 00

2-47

2-69

5 08

•76

100 00

Table showing the estimated value of the manure obtained from
the consumption of one ton of different articles of foody, each
supposed to he of good quality of its kind.

Estimated money value of the
Description of Food. manure from one ton of

each food.

1. Decorticated cotton-seed cake $3150

2. Rape cake 2300

3. Linseed cake 22-00

4. Linseed 17-25

5. Tares or vetches 17*35

6. Peas 1500

7. Oats 8-36

8. Wheat 811

9. Indian corn 861

10. Malt 8-61

11. Barley 7-11

12. Cloverhay 1091

13. Meadowhay 7-29

14. Oat straw 337

15. Wheat straw 312

16. Barley straw 2-55

17. Potatoes 175

18. Mangolds 1-20

19 Swedish turnips 1'05

20- Common turnips LOO

21- Carrots . 100

614

The Canadian Farmer^s

FEEDING.

a 6
.5 ^

o u
c s

Quantities containing

about an equal amount

of real food.

Albuminous com-
pounds in 100 parts
natural produce.

Carbonaceous princi-
ples in 100 parts natural
produce.

Proportion of albumi-
nous to carbonaceous
principles.

Wheat grain

82-1

81-9

Sl-9

81-9

81-3

80-0

79-9

77-8

75-6

75-2

73-9

65-7

56-3

41-2

23-8

22-5

22-0

18-5

18-2

14-1

12-7

12-5

li-0

9-9

9-2

9-4

7-9

7-1

1-0
1-0
1-0
1-0
1-0
1-0
1-0
10
11
1-1
1-1
1-2
i-4
2-0
3-4
3-6
, 3-7
1 4-4
4-5
5-8
6-4
6-5
7-4
8-2
8-9
8-6
8-7
10-4
11-5

11-54

10-84

7-72

41-25

24 44

11-27

11-84

30-54

13-88

23-30

28-21

8-08

14-34

8-86

2-75

2-93

2-30

2-25

4-43

2-70

2-35

3-19

1-54

1-28

0-66

1-50

3-13

1-34

1-04

68-74

68-31

72 44

54-90

112-30

67-50

63-30

55-:^,0

55-50

48-50

55-75

49-8T

.34-50

27-40

15-05

15-40

18-70

14-03

9-57

10-02

8-23

7-69

8-54

7-71

7-80

7-09

4-64

6 93

5-45

1 to 6-0

Barley grain

1 to 6-3

Beans

1 to 9-4

Cotton-seed cake

1 to 1-3

Lin seed

1 to 4-5

Indian corn

1 to 60

1 to 5-3

1 to 1-8

Bran . .

Bean meal

1 to 5-3
1 to 2*1

Linseed cake

1 to 1-9

Hay (meadow)

1 to 6-0

Hay (clover)

1 to 2-4

Pea straw

1 to 31

Oat straw

I to 5-7

Wheat straw

1 to 5-2

Potatoes

1 to 81

1 to 6-2

Barley straw

1 to 2-2

Green rye

1 to 35

1 to 3-5

1 to 2-4

Mano-olds

1 to 5-5

1 to 0 0

1 to 11 8

1 to 4-7

1 to 1-5

Swedes

1 to 4-4

White turnips

1 to 5~2

The fresh ashes of wheat contain in 100 parts

Phosphate of potash 36'51

of soda 32-13

«* of lime 3-35

** of magnesia 19 61

Perphospliate of iron 3 04

Silica '15

Coal and sand 4'99

— Fresenius.

The ashes of rye contain in 100 parts : —

Phosphate of potash 52*91

of soda 9-29

" of lime 5-21

** of magnesia 2691

Perphosphate of iron .. ' TSS

Suljihate of potash and common salt 298

Silicate of potash '34

Sand -50

— Fresenius

Manual of Agriculture, 515

The ashes of peas contain in 100 parts : —

Phor.pliate of potjvsh 52-78

" of soda 5G7

" of lime 10-77

** of magnesia 1378

** of iron 2-4G

Sulphate of potash 9 (j9

Common salt 3 9G

- Will.

The ashes of barley contain in 100 parts : —

Potasli 18-00

Phosphate of lime 9-20

Chloride of potassium "25

Sulphate of potash 1'5

Earthy phosphates 32-5

Silica 355

Metallic oxides 25

Loss 2-80

— Saussure.

The ashes of oats, 100 parts: —

Potash 600

Soda 500

Lime 3-00

l^J agnosia ... 2 '50

Alumina '50

Silica 70-50

Sulphuric acid 1-50

Phosphoric acid 3 00

Chlorine , 'oO

— Johnston.

Ihc ashes of wheat straw, 100 parts : —

Potash 12-5

Phosphate of lime 5*0

(■hlorido of potassium 3*0

Sulphate of potash 2 0

Karthy ]^hosi)hates 6'2

Earthy C-irbunates 10

Silica 61-5

Metallic oxides 10

Loss 7-8

— Saussure.

The ashes of barley straw, 100 parts : —

Potash 160

Chloride of potassium -5

Sulphate of soda " 3 "5

Earthy phosphates 7'75

Earthy carbonates .. 125

Silica 35-5

Metallic oxides . '5

Loss 2 25

—Saussure.

516

The Canadian Farmer's

The ashes of pea straw, 100 parts ;—

Carbonate of potash 4'16

Carbonate of soda 8'27

Sulphate of potash 10-75

Common salt 4*63

Carbonate of lime '. 47 81

Magnesia 405

Phosphate of lime 5*15

Phosphate of magnesia 4'37

Phosphate of iron and alum 2'10

Silica 7-81

The ashes of good meadow hay, 100 parts : —

Silica, 60*1

Phosphate of lime 16*1

Phosphate of iron 5.0

Lime 2*7

Magnesia 8'6

Gypsum 1 "2

Sulphate of potash 2*2

Chloride of potassium 1'3

Carbonate of soda 2*0

Loss *8

The ashes of clover, 100 parts : —

Silica 5-438

Sulphate of potash 3-080

Chloride of sodium 1-670

Carbonate of potash 12-728

Carbonate of soda 13 528

Carbonate of lime 38-216

Magnesia 4-160

Phosphate of iron 1-240

Phosphate of lime 11-970

Phosphate of magnesia 6-790

Carbonaceous matter 0160

— LiBEIO.

The ashes of the hran of wheat, 100 parts ;—

Potash 14-0

Phosphate of lime 7'0

Chloride of potassium '16

Earthy phosphates 46-5

Silica "5

Metallic oxides '25

Loss S'^^

AU8SUP.E.

Manual of Agriculture.

517

Analyses of several kinds of farm 'produce, 100 yarts of each,

extremely dry : —

Wheat

Rye

Oats

Wheat straw

Rye straw

Oat straw

Potatoes

Beet

Turnips

Peas

Pea straw

Red clover stalk

Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Nitrogen. Ashes.

46 1

5-8

43-4

2-3

2-4

46-2

5 6

42-2

1-7

50-7

6-4

36-7

2 2

4 0

48-4

5-3

38 9

0-4

7-0

49-9

5-6

40-6

0-3

3-6

50-1

5-4

39 0

0-4

44 0

5-8

44-7

1-5

42-8

5-8

43-4

1-7

6 3

42-9

5-5

42-3

1-7

7-6

46-5

6-2

400

4-2

45-8

5-0

35 6

2 3

113

47 '4

5 0

37-8

7-7

Analyses of dry heef and ox blood, by which their constituents
appear to be the same : —

Beef. Ox Blood,

Carbon * 5183 51'95

Hydrogen 757 7'17

Nitrogen 15*01 15-07

Oxygen 2137 2139

Ashes 423 4 42

— Playfaib.

TABLE OF SOILS AND THE TREES SUITABLE TO THEM.

SURFACE SOIL.

Heavy and gravelly loams

Sandy loams

Flinty strong loams

Gravelly and sandy loams

Flinty, dry, poor, grav- )

elly loams )

Black loam

Gravelly loam ,

Sandy gravel

Gravelly loam . . .
Wet spongy land
Drier than above

SUBSOIL.

Heavy loam.

Ditto

Gravelly loam

TREES.

Oak, ash, chesnut, willow,

lime, walnut.
Elm, beech, pine, spruce.
Willow, chesnut.
Ash, beech, oak, hazel,

chesnut.

Ditto I Beech, oak, larch, etc.

Dry sandy gravel ....
Heavy and poor loam.

Sand and gravel

Gravelly, stony loam
Moist, boggy earth...
Ditto, more dry

Birch, elm, ash.

Oak, ash, hazel, and

beech.
Pine, larch, chesnut.
Oak, chesnut.
Alder, willow, osier, etc.
Poplar, willow, black ash.

518

The Canadian Farmer's

Table shoiuing the niimher of plants which may he planted on an
acre = 160 rods — 4,840 square yards = 43,560 square /ee^.

Feet Apart.

No. of Plants.

1 43,560

n 19,360

2 10,890

24 ; 6,969

3 4,840

34 3,556

4 2,722

4i 2,151

5 1,742

6 1,210

7 889

8 680

9 537

Feet Apart.

No. of Plants.

10 435

11 360

12 302

13 257

14 222

15 193

16 170

17 150

18 134

19 120

20 108

25 69

30 48

How to make a hotbed. — " Sow in heat — Sow in a hotbed,"
are directions so commonly to be found in the notices of half
hardy annuals, that we feel we shall be materially aiding those
who are their own gardeners if we give a few simple directions on
the subject of a hotbed, composed of stable manure, the most fre-
quent and useful form in which it is to be found.

The preparation of the dung is a matter of great importance,
and if the bed be expected to retain its usefulness for any length
of time, it should be well worked previous to being used. If ob-
tained fresh from the stable-yard, and found to be too dry, it should
be well watered and thrown lightly together to ferment ; this will
take place in the course of a few days, and three or four days
afterwards it should be completely turned, well shaken and mixed,
keeping the more littery portion to the interior of the heap ; a
second turning and watering may be necessary, although one
will be generally found to be sufficient ; when thus cleaned of its
rankness the bed may be made.

The situation for this should be dry underneath, sheltered from
the north as much as possible and fully exposed to the sun ; it
should be built Up from two feet six inches to four feet bigh, and
wider by six inches every way than the frame to be placed upon
it. The dung should be well shaken and mixed while being
put together, and firmly pressed by the feet. The frame
should be kept close until the heat rises, and three or four inches
of sifted sand or ashes should be placed on the suriace of
the bed ; in a few days it will be ready for use ; but air
ohould be given night and day while there is any danger from the

Manual of Agriculture. 519

rank steam, and if the sand crashes are drawn away from the side
of the bed, they should be replaced.

"When the hotbed is used for seeds only, nothing further is
necessary ; they are to be sown in pots or pans, placed or plunged
in the bed, the heat of which will soon cause them to germinate.
As this will, after some time, decline, what are called linings
should be added, that is, fresh, hot, fermenting (but not rank)
dung applied about a foot in width all round the bed ; this renews
its strength, and will greatly aid its successful management.

A cold frame is formed by placing the ordinary hotbed frame
upon a bed of light, rich soil, in some place in the garden where it
will be protected from cold winds. They should both be shaded
from the sun by mats during the middle of the day.

How thick the ground is covered hy certai/n soivlngs. — A bushel
of wheat contains 660,000 grains. If this quantity should be
spread equally over an acre of ground, it would give nearly 10
square inches of space for each plant ; each plant would be a little
more than 3 inches from the next, and there would be 15 plants
to each square foot. If the seed were sown in drills 9 inches
apart, there would be a plant to each inch in the drill. It is well
known that in broadcast sowing much of the seed is covered too
deeply, and some not sufficiently, and thus possibly a half of the
seed sown is wasted. In drill-sowing a much greater proportion
of the seed produces returns, because of its even covering and
more regular germination. If each seed should produce but
one perfect ear, the yield would be over 30 fold, but it is safe to
say that every healthy wheat plant will produce at least three
stalks ; so that, should the whole of the seed sown mature, a crop
of 90 bushels would be the result. There is no doubt but drill-
sowing will produce a better yield than broadcast sowing, as much
more of the saed will successfully germinate, and the expense of
drill-sowing being less than hand-sowing and harrowing after-
wards, we would advise all those who can buy or hire a drill to
abandon broadcast sowing.

520

The Canadian Farmer's

FARM ACCOUNTS.

" No one need he ruined who keeps good accounts"

The following system of keeping farm accounts is thorough,
and at the same time plain and simple in form.

There is a place in which may be entered every transaction
which it is necessary to record.

A boy who can read and write may understand the principles,
and by devoting five minutes of every evening to the task, may
>2ep the accounts thoroughly posted.

The book shows at a glance the following : —

What cash has been expended or received.

What the owner's liabilities are, and what is due to hira, at any
date.

The day on which a cow or other animal may be expected to
* come in,"

The amount of feed that is being consumed on the farm.

The amount of hay, grain, roots, live-stock, milk, butter, or
other produce that has been sold, or is at any time on hand.

Provision is made for opening an account with the grocer, black-
smith or any other tradesman or person.

From the columns of the main book, the actual expense of cul-
tivation in any given field and of any given crop can be readily
and exactly computed.

Finally, it is plain and simple.

If the farmer who has never been accustomed to making any
regular entries of his farm transactions does not care to keep the
accounts himself, let him entrust them to his son. It will be found
a practical education of the very best and most useful kind.

breeder's calendar.

The following is the basis upon which the time is computed in
entering in the page devoted to Breeder s Memorandum : —

Species.

Mare
Cow..
Sheep
Sow..

Premature Labour.

11 months or S30 days
8 " or 240 "
A\ " or 135 "
3§ " or 110 "

Regular Laboxir.

11^ months or 340 days
9i " or 285 "
4 4-5 " or 144 "
4 " or 120 "

Protracted Labour.

14 months or 420 days
11 " or 330 "
5^ " or 160 "
4i " or 130 "

Manual of Agriculture,

CALVING TABLK

521

Day Bulled

Will Calve.

Day Bulled.

Will Calve.

Day Bulled.

Will Calve

Day Bulled.

Will Calve.

Jan. 1

Oct. 8

April 1

Jan. 6

July 1

April 7

Oct.

July 9

" 7

" 14

" 7

" ]2

" 7

" 13

" 15

" 21

" 14

" 19

" 14

" 20

((

" 22

"21

" 28

" 21

" 26

" 21

" 27

" 29

"28

Nov. 4

" 28

Feb. 2

" 28

May 4

Aug. 5

"31

" 7

" 30

" 4

" 31

" 8

Feb. 1

" 8

May 1

" 6

Aug. 1

" 9

Nov

. 1

" 9

" 7

" 14

" 7

" 11

" 7

" 15

. "14

" 21

" 14

" 18

" 14

" 22

" 21

"21

'' 28

" -21

" 25

" 21

" 29

((

" 29

"28

Dec. 5

" 28

Mar, 4

" 28

June 5

Sept. 5

Mar. 1

" 6

" 31

" 7

" 31

" 8

" 7

.. 7

" 12

June 1

" 8

Sept. 1

" 9

Dec.

" 8

"14

" 19

" 7

" 14

" 7

" 15

'• 14

"21

" 26

" 14

" 21

" 14

" 22

" 21

"28

Jan. 2

" 21

" 28

" 21

" 29

" 28

"81

" 5

" 28

April 4

" 28

July 6

((

Oct. 5

" 30

" 6

" 30

'• 8

" 8

522

The Canadian Farmer's

BUTCHERED OR DIED.

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The Canadian Farmer's

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Manual of Agricidture.
Dairy Account.

527

Amount of Milk.

Tnfnl

BUTTER.

No. of
Milch

Date.

E em arks.

Morn'g.

Evening

Milk.

PI
O

t3
o

Cows.

Sunday.

Monrl ay-

Tuesday

Wed'y..

Thurs'y.

Friday..

Sat'day,

WeeklyTotal

<
<

Sund

1 •

•

^y.| 24

]\1 ond ay 25

Tuesday 2G

Wed'y.. 27

Thurs'y.' 28

Friday..! 29

Sat'day.j 30

WeeklyTotal

Mon'ly Total

•

N.B.— Each slieet may thus be made to account for Dairy transactions of one
month of four weeks.

528 The Canadian Farmer's

BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS.

PURCHASE OF PROPERTY.

Few men will buy a property without first consulting a solici-
tor ; yet we have seen men badly taken in at auction land sales.
Often because they did not, before bidding, make themselves pro-
perly acquainted with the terms of sale. These terms, it is reason-
able to suppose, will in most cases be drawn as favourably as pos-
sible to the interests of the vendor.

Re^nember, when attending an auction sale, that the conditions
of sale, whatever they are, will bind the purchaser, for by one of
those legal fictions which abound in our law, the auctioneer, who
is certainly the agent of the seller, becomes also (in conjunction
with his clerk) the agent for the buyer. The fall of the hammer
is the acceptance of the offer which completes the agreement to
purchase.

No trustee or assignee can purchase property for himself, in-
cluded in the trust, even at auction.

The only circumstance that can vitiate a purchase, which has
been reduced to a written contract, is proof of fraudulent repre-
sentation as to an encumbrance of which the buyer was ignorant,
or a defect in title, but every circumstance which the buyer could
have learned by careful investigation, the law presumes that he
(the buyer) did know.

Interest on a purchase is due from the day fixed upon for com-
pleting; where it cannot be completed, the loss must fall upon
the party with whom the delay has arisen and rests.

In agreeing to buy, say a house, see that the insurance is pro-
vided for between the agreement and the completion of contract.

Common fixtures pass with buildings, when nothing is especi-
ally agreed with regard to them.

THE RELATIONS OF LANDLORD AND TENANT.

Letting is performed by a proprietor of house, land, or house
and land in three ways. By a tenancy-at-will, a yearly tenancy,
or by lease.

A tenancy-at-will may be created by word or by written agree-
ment ; and as the tenant may be turned out when his landlord
pleases, so may he leave when he himself thinks proper. This is
a very inconvenient arrangement and is seldom resorted to.

Manual of jigriculture, 629

When an annual rent is attached to a tenancy, a lease without
limit is, in the eyes of the law, a lease from year to year. In such
at least six months' clear notice must be given by the landlord to
eject the tenant, or by the tenant to release himself from payment
of regular rental and from the binding covenants of the lease, and
the six months must be before the expiration of the current year,
for it can only terminate at the end of any whole year from the
time at which it began, so that a tenant entering say on the first
of April, the notice must be served upon or by him, so as to termi-
nate on the first of April in the current year.

Thus, if once in possession, the tenant has a right to remain a
whole year, and if he receive no notice at the end of the first half
year of his tenancy, he has a right to remain two years and so on
for any number of years.

It is usual to stipulate that the tenancy may be determined bv
three or six months' notice, as the case may be, to expire on either
of the quarterly or half yearly days appointed for pa3^ment of
rent.

Tenancy hy sufferance. — This is a form of tenancy that very
frequently arises in practice.

On the expiration of a lease or agreement, if neither party take
the initiative in a decided course for leaving, the tenant, remain-
ing thus in possession becomes by sufferance, a tenant from year to
year, which can only then be terminated by one party or the other
giving the necessary six months' notice to quit at a time corres-
ponding with the original tenancy.

LEASES.

A lease is a writing or instrument by which one person grants
to another the use of certain lands or tenements for a certain term
and in consideration of the receipt of certain considerations.

The proprietor is known in law as the lessor and the tenant as
the lessee. The lessor grants the lease, and the lessee accepts
that lease with all its conditions.

When leases are burdened with a covenant not to underlet
without consent of the landlord, an underletting to mere inmates
or lodgers is not included.

A lease for any term beyond three years must be under seal
and in triplicate ; but a verbal lease m.ay be made for three years
and under.

All signatures to leases, deeds, and indeed to agreements, should
be witnessed.

The main agreements or covenants of a lease'are on the follow-
ing points : — Rent, term, insuring and rebuilding in the event of
fire, cultivation in a husbandlike manner (the manner generally

530 The Canadian Farmer's

being more specifically stated as to selling straw, taking two wheat
crops after one another, keeping up fences), &c.

Noxious trades. — It is generally customary to introduce a clause
against the carrying on of certain trades, or noxious trades in
a house.

The trades, that are to be tabooed, should be mentioned, for we
remember a case in England, where it was held, that this cove-
nant had been violated by the opening of a school, while an asylum
was found admissible.

Fixtures. — The articles that may not be removed by a tenant
are subject to considerable doubt, and are a fruitful source of dis-
pute.

Removable articles have been defined as all articles " slightly
connected with one another, and with the freehold, but capable of
being separated without injury to the freehold. All goods and -
chattels, articles fixed to the freehold by nails and screws, bolts or
pegs ; but when sunk in the soil or built on it, they are integral
parts of the freehold and cannot be removed."

Thus a greenhouse or conservatory attached to a house by a
tenant is not removable ; but the furnace and hot water pipes by
which it is heated may be removed. A brick fine must remain.
Window blinds, and every thing he has placed which can be re-
moved without injury to the freehold, he may remove if they are
separated from the tenement during his term, and the place made
good. But all fixtures of this nature must be removed before the
termination of the lease.

Notice to quit. — In the case of leasing for a specified term, no
notice is required or if, by tacit consent he remains paying rent
as heretofore, he becomes a tenant on sufferance or from year to
year.

A notice may be given verbally, if it can be proved that the no-
tice was definite or given at the right time, but it is better to give
it in writing.

Recovery of rent may be by action at law, distress on the
premises, or on goods away from the premises which have been
removed therefrom after rent was due, and within thirt} days
after their removal — or by action of ejectment, under various cir-
cumstances.

As these are all serious matters in which to make a false step,
the landlord should commit them to his lawyer.

Of one thing we should take notice that the law does not regard
the day as consisting of portions, and the popular notion that a
notice to quit should be served before noon is an error.

The landlord may also remember that he is himself responsible
for the illegal acts of the agent whom he may employ, though he
would have a remedy against that agent.

. Manual of Agriculture, 531

AN I.O.XJ.

The law is not particular about spelling, indeed it distinctly re-
fuses to be governed by stern rules of orthography.

The law in most cases insists on having everything written, but
its decisions go by reading.

Therefore you may sue John Tichborne, by the name of Tickle-
bun, and if you can show that he is the party in default, the deci-
sion will be awarded, whether you have spelt his name ill or well.
Thus no stretch of orthography could convert " I owe you," into
I.O.U, but the law allows this phonetic system to be binding.

Thus the following, being an admission of debt is as binding
as any longer document.

1 August, 1873.
To Mr. Smith,

I. 0. U.,
$25.50 Twenty-five -{^ dollars cash.

JAMES WALKER.

Should you however affix the time of payment, say a month,
your memorandum is useless, for it is illegal, as it must be stamped
if its value is $25.00 or more.

It then becomes a promissory note, and if stamped to its proper
value, may be sued on default of payment

THE TABLE OF STAMP DUTIES (1873).

On every promissory note, draft, bill of exchange, not less than
$25, one cent ; over $25 to $50, two cents ; over $50 to $100,
three cents ; on every promissory note draft, bill of exchange
executed singly, for the first $100, three cents ; for every addi-
tional $100 or fraction of $100, three cents.

These duties are to be paid by bill stamps (not postage stamps)
to the requisite amount affixed to the note &;c. And the person
affixing the stamp must, at the time of affixing the same, write or
stamp thereon the date at which it is affixed, and each stamp
shall be held "prima facie to have been affixed at the date stamped
or written thereon, and, if no date be so stamped or written
thereon, such adhesive stamp shall be of no avail.

Penalty for neglecting to affix stamps, or for wilfully writing or
stamping a false date thereon, $100.

Stamped paper for the purposes of this Act may be prepared by
direction of the Governor in Council.

HUSBAND AND WIFE.

When married, a husband is lia^ le for his wife's debts contracted

532 The Canadian Farmer's

before marriage. In such a case, a creditor should proceed against
both.

The husband is liable for debts of his wife contracted for neces-
saries while living with him.

If she voluntarily leaves his protection and lives in adultery, this
liability ceases. He is also liable for any debts contracted by her
with his authority ; and the law implies his authority where the
debt is for necessaries, or in the common course of house-keeping,
unless the contrary be proved. In civil cases a wife may give evi-
dence for or against her husband ; in criminal cases she cannot be
a witness, with the exception of the case of assault by him upon
her.

A man used to be allowed to " correct" his wife with " a stick
not thicker than the thumb." But this barbarity has gone the
way of all such customs. But he may keep her under restraint to
prevent her leaving him, provided he exercise no cruelty.

There are laws by which a wife can obtain security for her
lawful earnings if her husband desert her.

WILLS.

Always let your will be drawn by a lawyer. More litigation
and endless Chancery suits have arisen from wills drawn by in-
competent persons, than from almost any other source of error.
Better draw your will in common sense, every day conversational
English, as, " I, John Smith, leave to to be paid

at my death, by who I hereby appoint my

executors," and let it be well witnessed, than allow intermeddlers
who have a smattering of the wording of legal forms, to lead you
into endless mistakes.

Depend upon it, much as it may be the fashion to upbraid the
apparent contradictions and quibbles of the law, common sense
English will generally be fairly construed by impartial judges and
sensible juries.

There are a few ordinary points however to be borne in mind.

The witnesses must subscribe in the presence of the testator,
and of themselves ; and the testator must at the time be of sound
mind.

A will may be revoked or annulled, but only by burning or
entirely destroying, or by adding a codicil, or by making a subse-
quent will duly attested.

The act of running a pen through the signatures or down the
page is not sufficient to cancel a wiD, without a written declara-
tion to that effect signed and witnessed.

A will made before marriage is revoked thereby.

Any persons who can write their name, are qualified to witness

Manual of Agriculture, 533

a will, but such witnesses cannot be benefitted by the will. A be-
quest made to the husband or wife of a witness is void.

It is advisable to make a will in duplicate, and intrust one copy
to the keeping of your executor, or some other person, in whom
you have confidence, as it has not unfrequently happened, that a
will has been suppressed or destroyed, or has not been forthcoming
when required.

ACCOUNT BOOKS.

Cannot be received as evidence, unless their contents have been
brought under the notice of and been admitted correct by both
parties, as is usually the case with " pass" books, but complainant
may be compelled to show his books.

534 The Canadian Farmer's

A FEW WORDS TO EMIGRANTS.

Canada is yet young. Nearly all her population are emigrants,
and have within the last century migrated from some other
country. Let us for a moment dwell upon the inducements to
emigrate.

It is a natural ambition that prompts the majority of men to
seek the possession of a piece of land.

In Canada that ambition may be gratified by any man, who in
the possession of health and strength, lives industriously and
soberly.

In Canada we possess " elbow-room!' For this reason, the new
countries are the most suitable fields for the poor and for the man
of mediocre abilities. In Europe, say in England, the poor man
who rises to a position of eminence, must be possessed of no ordi-
nary gifts. His success must be attained over the heads of his
contemporaries.

In these cro^^ded countries, he who would attain position finds
every step thronged, and like the individual, who, in a crowded
hall, seeks to escape by a thronged up door from dread fire, he
must not care, though in the frantic struggle to save his own life,
he crush through regardless of all others, and trample upon
those who, weaker than himself, have succumbed to the frightful
pressure. Take the poor labourer of England, suppose him to be
the most economical and saving man ; suppose him to have amassed
a little fortune from his scanty earnings, he cannot become an em-
ployer of farm labour.

When a farm falls vacant, there are many applicants in the
field, the rent is to all intents and purposes put up to auction, and
his little capital is but as a drop in the bucket, compared with
the many who, rich themselves, and having rich friends at their
backs, will secure the tenancy or property at any price.

The poor man's capital is labour. In crowded countries, capital-
ists of this class are so plentiful, that they must, perforce, cut down
on one another. As all capital, when plentiful becomes cheap, so
the poor man's capital — labour — when abundant becomes also
cheap.

But what do we find on this side of the Atlantic. Here labour
is wanted.

Money capital is actually hampered because we have not labour
to employ it. Labour is the capital required in Canada, and with-
out it our vast resources cannot be brought to light.

Manual of Agriculture. 535

Thus are we suffering for want of labour ; and we will give a
high price to obtain it.

This work may meet the eye of some who freshly landed in
Canada, and led away by specious promises and delusive hopes,
are thinking of throwing up the younger country and proceeding
onward to the States. We ask any such to pause before they do
so.

Canada is in possession of all the advantages of the United
States, and in addition, she has many superior prospects.

The United States, governed by a Republic, is cursed by the
abuse of the elective franchise.

The consequence is every day becoming more apparent that the
" Almighty dollar" rules her, that corruption is rife in every de-
partment, and in none more so than in courts of justice ; her
judges, the executors of her laws — have been over and over
again convicted of receiving bribes for which their judgments have
been falsely given.

In this Dominion, no such cases have ever been proven or sus-
pected. Justice in Canada still wears her bandage, and her scales
have no false balances.

In Canada, our taxes ( amounting in most municipalities to two
or three mills on the dollar) are as nothing compared to those of
the United States.

The money wages of the States are greater on their face value
than in Canada. But when contrasted, as all wages should be,
with the taxes and expenses of living, it will be found that Cana-
dian wages are at least equally high.

The States parade the principle of Equality, Fraternity and Li-
berty. We have all three in the most perfect and practical form.

Our Liberty is only curtailed when we break the very laws that
we have ourselves laid down for the guidance of the community.
Our Fraternity is pure and genuine, grounded on a love for all
that is Canadian, and supported by a respect for those, who, pos-
sessing genuine talents, have by the destiny of providence and
their own pluck and perseverance, raised themselves to fill a high
position in the social scale. The law is readily accessible to the
poor as to the rich, and is administered without fear or favour,
ungoverned by bribery, intimidation or corruption.

As for Equality — we are as equal as God, in his all wise Provi-
dence, intended his creatures to be, as equal as are the various
animate and inanimate works of nature, or as are the intellectual
powers of different individuals.

The Emigrant naturally asks himself — Is there elbow-room for
me in Canada ? Aye, indeed there is and ample in every line of
life ; ranging from the parson to the crossing sweeper.

536 The Canadian Farmer's

SIZE OF CANADA. SIZE OF UNITED STATBS.

Sq m'les. Sq. miles.

Nova Scotia 18,660 United States 2,933,588

New Brunswick 27,500 Alaska 577,590

Quebec 377,045

Ontario 121,260

Manitoba 14,340

North West Territory 2,750,000

British Columbia 220,000

Dominion 3,528,805

Uuited States (exclusive of
Alaska) 2,933,588

Thus the Dominion is nearly six-hundred thousand square
miles greater in area than the United States.

ACREAGE AND POPULATION OF ENGLAND AND WALES COMPARED WITH THOSE OF

CANADA.

Population,
England and Wales in Acreage,

1861 18,954,444 32,590,397.

Canadainl871 3,576,656 2,258,435,200.

NUMBER OF INHABITANTS TO EVERY SQUARE MILE.

In England and Wales 3722.

In Canada One.

The Canadian farmer must have labour and will give any
wages in reason to the labourer.

There is not at present an average of three able bodied men to
every hundred acres under cultivation.

Every acre additionally reclaimed from the forest requires extra
labour in the country.

If you visit Canada and find our average crop below what you
have been accustomed to at home, remember it is due to a want of'
sufficient labour, and not to any deficiency in quality of soil nor
to bad climate.

In one Province — Ontario — every farmer, on 20,000,000 acres
of land, is crying for more labour, and will pay for it as soon as
it can be obtained.

Therefore in Canada, the working man, may be certain of work
whenever he requires it, and of remuneration at a high rate.

There is a constant demand for labourers to work on railways.

What chance is there for a labourer becoming a farmer for
himself?

Out of 78 million acres of good farming land in one province,
only about 20 millions are yet occupied. There are yet 50 millions

Manual of Agriculture 537

of land to be taken up by the men who possess the capital of
stout hearts and strong arms.

There is no end to the absorption of labour. Every new labourer
helps to clear new land ; all that we can raise will find ready sale
in the markets.

Let the Emigrant observe carefully three points ere he steps
over the line to the south.

Our average soil is better than the average soil of the States,
such soil as is poor amongst us has been made so by imperfect
tillage.

We have abundance of water, and in this are far ahead of the
Western States, the Australian Colony and New Zealand, all of
which countries are extremely subject to droughts.

Not only have we plenty of water, but we have no stagnant
water ; and hence there is little or no fever and ague, such as is
prevalent in many portions of the Western States.

The lie of our whole land is a gradual slope from the Lauren tian
range or watershed, north to Hudson's Bay and south to our five
great lakes ; from the E-ocky Mountains, east to our lakes and
west to the Pacific.

That the climate is very healthy may be readily seen by our
registrations and the general appearance of the people, which is
very different to that of the sallow westerner.

Advice to Emigrants. — Work hard. There is before any man
in Canada a noble chance to obtain for himself a respectable home,
to educate his children and to lay by for hie old age. But the way
of obtaining such lies through steady industry and strict sobriety.

Be careful of what little store of money you may bring.

The Canadian dollar and the U. S. gold dollar are of equal
value ; but U. S. paper is not equivalent in face value to gold
or to Canadian paper.

The British sovereign is equal in Canadian money to about four
dollars and eighty-six cents. There is a slight fluctuation, however
in its value, but never more than a few cents.

Therefore to bring sterling pounds into dollars, multiply by 73
and divide by 15; dollars are brought into pounds sterling by the
reverse process.

EXAMPLE.

50 X 73

£50 0 0 = = $243.33

$243-33 X 15

And $243.33 = £ = £50 0 0

588

The Canadian Farmer's

Under this head, we show the Government Return of the
average wages paid to labourers, and the price of living : —

Return of the Average Wages paid to Labourers,

Mechanics, &c.

General Trades.

Bookbinders and Printers

Blacksmiths

Bakers

Brewers

Butchers

Brickmakers

Bricklayers or Masons

Carpenters, House

Do. Carriage

Cabinetmakers

Coopers

Coachmen and Grooms

Curriers

Engine-Drivers, per trip

Farm Labourers, skilled

Farin Labourers, common

Gardeners

Millwrights

Millers

Painters, House

Do. Carriage

Plasterers

Plumbers

Shoemakers

Sawyers

Shipwrights

Stonecutters

Saddlers

Stokers, Railroad, per trip

Tanners

Tailors

Tinsmiths

Trimmers, Carriage

Wheelwrights

Whitesmiths

Boilermakers

Fitters

Moulders

Patternmakers

Eivetters

Turners

Foundries and Machine Shops.

Carders ,

Designers

Dyers

Finishers

Fullers ,

Spinners

Warpers

Weavers

Woollen Assorters

Woollen Factories.

By month,
with Board.

15 to 20
20 to 25
15 to 20
15 to 20
15 to 20
25 to 30
25 to 30
20 to 25
20 to 25
20 to 20
15 to 20
15 to 20
15 to 20

15 to 25
10 to 15
15 to 20
20 to 25
15 to 20
20 to 25
20 to 25
20 to 25
20 to 25
15 to 20
15 to 20
20 to 25
25 to 30
20 to 25

15 to 20
15 to 20
15 to 20
20 to 25
20 to 25
20 to 25

20 to 25
20 to 25
20 to 25
20 to 25
20 to 25
20 to 25

20 to 25
20 to 25
15 to 20
15 to 20
15 to 20
15 to 20
15 to 20
15 to 20
15 to 20

Manual of Agriculture,
Return of Average Wages, &c. — Continued.

539

Per Diem.

By month,
with Board.

Cotton Factories.
Card Room Hands

1 00
1 50
1 00

15 to 20

Overlookers

20 to 25

Weavers

15 to 20

Females.
Cooks

8 to 12

Dairymaids

4 to 6

Dressmakers and Milliners

8 to 12

Household Servants

4 to 6

Laundry Maids

6 to 8

^p° Take the first reasonable offer you get, until you become
better acquainted with the wages of the country.

Cost of Living.

List of Retail Prices of ordinary articles of Food and Raiment
required by the Working Classes : —

Provisions.

Bacon, per lb

Bread, best white, brown

Butter, salt

Do. fresh ,

Beef, Mutton, Veal, Pork

Beer, per quart

Candles

Cheese

Coffee

Corn Meal, per 100 lbs

Eggs

Flour, per baxTel, first quality ...
Do do 2iid do

Do Buckwheat, per 100 lbs. . . .
Fish, dry or green Cod, per cwt.

Firewood, per cord

Ham, per lb

Shoulders, per lb

Herrings, per barrel

Mustard, per lb

Milk, per quart

Oatmeal, per 100 lbs

Pepper, per lb

Potatoes, per bushel

Rice, per lb

Soap, yellow, per lb

Sugar, brown

Salt, per bushel

Tea, black

$cts.
0 14
0 14
0 20
0 25
0 12
0 10
0 20
0 15
0 25
3 00
0 25
6 to 7 00
5 to 6 00
3 00

6 00

7 50
0 15
0 14
5 00
0 20
0 05
3 00
0 20
0 40
0 05
0 05

0 10

1 00
0 80

Tea, green.
Tobacco....

Clothing.

Coats (under) Tweed

Do (over) do

Trousers, do

Vests, do

Shirts, Flannel

Do Cotton

Do (under) "wove"

Drawers, Woollen, do

Hats, Felt

Socks^ Worsted

Do Cotton

Jilankets

Rugs

Flannel, per yard

Cotton Shirting, per yard ....

Sheeting do

Canadian Cloth do

Shoes, Men's

Do Women's

Boots, Men's

Do Women's

India Rubber Overshoes, Men's
Do do do Women's

Sets.

0 80

0 30

6 to 12 00

8 to 12 00

4 to 6 00

2 to 4 00

1 to 2 00

1 00

1 50

0 50

0 25

4 to 6 00

2 to 4 00

0 30

0 20

0 25

1 00

3 00

2 00

4 00

3 00

1 00

0 75

540

The Canadian Farmer's

Rents are moderate, and good board and lodging may be ob-
tained for about $3.00 per week.

Clothing is about 25 per cent, dearer than in Great Britain ;
but good clothing, suitable to the country, may be obtained at
reasonable prices.

In short, living in Canada is cheap, when compared with Great
Britain or the United States.

The Proportions of the Principal Nationalities from
WHICH THE Inhabitants of Canada are drawn are : —

Ontario.

Quebec.

New-
Brunswick.

Nova

Scotia.

African or Negroes

Dutch

13,435

19,992

439,429

559,442

328,889

5,282

75,383

' 1.58,608

12,978

7,365

148

798

69,822

123,478

49,458

283

929,817

7,963

6,988

2,687

1,701

6,004

83,598

100.643

40,858

1,096

44,907

4,478

1,403

903

6,212
2 868

English

Irish

113,520

62,851

130,741

1,112

32,833

31,942

1,666

Scotch

Welsh

French ,

German

Indian ,

Jews

Other Nationalities

4,055

1,620,851

1,191,516

285,594

387,800

The Proportions of the Principal Religious
Denominations.

Ontario.

Quebec.

New
Brunswick.

Nova
Scotia.

Church of En
Catholics, Ro

gland

330,995

274,162

8,128

286,911

92,128

24,045

30,889

1,824

18,225

239

4,650

548,392

1,620,851

62,449

1,019,850

4,363

26,737

1,274

1,546

104

376

74,697

45,481

96,016

3,4.39

26,212

55,124
102,001

man

f Methodists

1,662

Wesleyan

38,683
403

Episcopal

Methodists.. -

Primitive

New Connection..
British Episcopal.
Calvinists

.Bible Christians..
( Atheists

121

Without Cree<
Other Denom

Js..s Deists

i No Religion,,
inations

114,110

189,688

1,191,516

285,594

387,800

Manual of Agriculture,

541

Imports and Exports,
Showing the rapid progress of Canada in 20 years.

Years. Total Trade.

1850 $29,703,497

1851 34,803,401

1852 35,594,100

1853 55,782,739

1854 63,548,515

1855 64,274,680

1856 75,631,404

1857 66,437,222

1858 52,550,461

1859 58,299,242

Years. Total Trade.

1860 §68,955,093

1861 76,119,843

1862 79,398.067

1863 81,458,335

1864— half-year 34,586,054

1864-5 80,644,951

1865-6 96,479,738

1866-7 94,791,860

1867-8 119,797,879

1868-9 130,889,946

Mark the last three years.

1869-70 $148,387,829

1870-71 , 170,266,589

1871-72 194,070,190

The increase alone in these three years is almost as large as the
total trade in 1850.

Exports in 1871-2.

Products of the Forest $23,685,382

Do Agriculture 13,378,562

Animals and their Products , 12,416,613

Produce of the Fisheries... 4,348,508

Do do Mines 3,926,608

Manufactures 2,389,435

Showing the Value of the Forest Produce Exports.

Ashes—Pot " $578,814

Do Pearl 59,430

Timber— Ash 68.499

Birch 173,045

Elm 229,849

Maple 4,429

Oak 1,280,420

White Pine 4,155,974

Eed do 387,976

Tamarac 9,720

Walnut 51,003

Basswood — Butternut — Hickory 524 , 510

Standard Staves 16,538

Other Staves 296,290

Battens , 2,838

Knees and Futtocks 3,433

Scantlings 256.343

Deals , 5,113,978

Deal Ends 25,193

Planks and Boards 8,527,249

Spars 227,602

Masts 13,225

Handspikes 149

Laths 161,145

Lathwood 9,490

Firewood 469,781

Shingles 240,730

542 The Canadian Farmer's

Shingle Bolts 31,908

Stave Bolts 7,440

Oak Logs 8,028

Spruce Logs 27,559

Pine Logs 28,763

Sleepers and Railway Ties 194,698

Qg^j.g 2 451

other'woods !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!.!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! 496U65

$23,685,381

■ THE FINANCIAL ASPECT OF CANADA.

The net debt of the Dominion in 1871, deducting assets, was
$77,706,517.65 ; the net interest $5,302,812.80 ; the average rate of
interest 5 54 per cent.

The net debt amounts to $21.72 per head of population, and the
net interest to 1.20 per head.

The whole debt has been incurred for the construction of prac-
tical public works ; none by war.

THE STATISTICS OF BANKS.

Years. Paid up capital. Deposits.

1868 $28,529,048. $30,168,536.

1869 29,651,674. 36,671,432.

1870 ..... 31,450,597. 50,229,788.

1871 36,415,210. 55,763,066.

1872 45,134,609. 64,720,489.

The combined Government and Bank circulation at the end of
the last Fiscal year 1871-72 amounted fco $35,090,348.

The Climate we will dwell but shortly on.

The most southern part of Canada is on the same parallel as
Rome, in Italy; Corsica in the Mediterranean, and the northern part
of Spain. The Northern shores of Lake Huron are in the latitudes
of Central France, and vast territories not yet surveyed, embracing
many million acres of land of good quality lie south of the parallel
of the northern shores of Lake Huron where the climates are
favourable to the growth and ripening of all the staples of the
temperate zones.

But it is more practical to test the climate by what will grow
under its influence.

WHAT WILL GROW TO PERFECTION IN CANADA.

Wheat — A. 1. Canadian Flour is equal to any, and superior to
most samples in Liverpool market.

Manual of Agriculture, 54B

Barley. — Sown in spring, a certain crop ; and forms a regular
crop in most rotations.

Feas and oats grow and mature well ; the former much grown
for the value of its straw.

Indian com or maize ripens with certainty and produces from
20 to 40 bushels per acre, according to cultivation.

Flax, hem'p, tobacco, buckwheat, Hungarian grass, millet,
and artificial grasses ; also every kind of roots, potatoes, turnips
carrots, sugar beets, mangolds &c., <&c., with tomatoes, peppers,
Chinese yams and other tropical roots and vegetables.

Apples. — Can rival the whole world.

Grapes, peaches, plums, melons, cucumbers, tomatoes, pump-
kins, strawberries, and all the berries grow and ripen in the open
air.

Now to quiet the doubts of those who are doubtful as to
which choice they will make, the United States or Canada, we
will quote from a lecture delivered by the author in 1870, before a
large audience in Gloucester, England.

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE U. S. AND CANADA.

In nine years, we found that Ontario added from 46 to 65 per
cent, to her population, while in the same nine years the United
States only added from 35 to 58 per cent. That in nine years
she added sixty-four cultivated acres to every hundred acres in
cultivation in 1852, while the United States and territories, in ten
years from 1851, only added forty-four acres to every hundred.

That the cash value of her farms per head of her population
was greater in Canada than in the United States. That the
value of her farms was greater by nearly six dollars per acre.

That the capital invested in agricultural inplements was greater
in Ontario than in the United States in proportion to the breadth
of land cultivated in each country. That she grew more wheat in
1860 (the year of the census) than any State in the Union. That
she was greatly a-head even of the Western States as a wheat pro-
ducing country. That in proportion to population she had
more capital invested in live stock than the United States.
That for every 100 of her population Ontario owned twenty-
seven horses, and the United States only twenty ; of sheep
eighty-four and the U. S., only seventy-one ; of milch cows
thirty-two, and the U. S., only twenty-seven. That in 1860,
she produced more than 19 lbs. of butter for every inhabitant
and the U S., only 15 lbs; of wool 2f lbs., for each inhabitant,
and the U.S., 2 lbs.

THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
Is of such a nature, that the poorest may, indeed must, for the com-

544 The Canadian Farmer's

pulsory clause is now law, obtain a sound practical education for
his children,

THE WAYS OF OBTAINING LAND.

First — By Free Grant from the Government.

Second. — By purchase of wild lands now in the hands of private
individuals or companies.

Third. — By purchase of improved farms, varying in price accor-
ding to their situation and state of improvement.

Free Grants. — In the Provinces of Quebec, Ontario, New Bruns-
wick, Nova Scotia and British Columbia, the free grant lands are
held by the several Provincial Governments.

In Manitoba. — The.valley of the Saskatchewan and the rest of
the North- West Territory, the free grant lands are yet held by the
Dominion Government.

In Nova Scotia. — There are now nearly four million acres of
ungranted lands. The price of these lands is $44, ( £8.1Gs. sterling)
per 100 acres. No distinction is made in the price between 100
acres and smaller lots. Any quantity over 100 acres must be paid
for at the rate of 44 cents per acre. The cost of survey is defrayed
by the Government.

In Quebec, there are now nearly six million acres of farming
land offered for sale by the Government at the rate of from 30
cents to 60 cents per acre ( 15d. to 2s. 5jd., sterling). The terms
of sale are : One fifth of the purchase money is required to be paid
on the day of sale, and the balance in four equal annual instal-
ments,, bearing interest at six per cent. The surveys and roads
are at the expense of the Government.

The purchaser must take possession of the land sold within
six months of the date of sale, and must occupy it within two
years. He must clear, in the course of ten years, ten acres for
every 100 acres held by him, and erect a habitable house of the
dimensions of at least IG feet, by 20 feet. The letters patent are
issued free of charge.

On eight of the great Colonization Koads, 84,050 acres are set
apart as Free Grants — in lots of 100 acres each. Any person
over eighteen years of age may demand a permit of occupa-
tion from any Crown Lands Agent ; and if, at the end of four
years, he has cleared twelve acres and built a house, the land is
freely granted to him under a Crown Patent.

The parts of the Province of Quebec, now open to colonization,
are the valleys of the Saguenay, St Maurice, and the Ottawa, the
Eastern Townships ; the Lower St. Lawrence, and Gaspe.

Province of Ontario. — Has thrown open about three million
of acres, included in fifty-three townships, as/ree grant lands.
Every head of a family can obtain, gratis, two hundred acres of
land, and any person, of eighteen years of age, may obtain one

Manual of Agriculture, 545

hundred acres in this district. As this offer is made without dis-
tinction of sex, a large family may obtain a large block of land.
These free grants are made under certain settlement duties, which
are : to have fifteen acres on each grant of one hundred acres
cleared and under crop, of which, at least two acres must have
been cleared and cultivated annually for five years ; to build a
habitable house, at least twenty feet by sixteen feet ; and to re-
side on the land at least six months in every year.

Province of Manitoba. — In this Province the Government of
the Dominion gives free grants of one hundred and sixty acres,
subject to conditions similar to those imposed by. Ontario under
the free grant system, with the exception that the age must be
twenty-one, and the number of years to elapse before the issue of
a deed from the Crown to be three years.

Dominion Lands, in the Province of Manitoba and parts adja-
cent, may be purchased at any time at the rate of $1 (4s. 2d. ster-
ling) per acre, but not more than six hundred and forty acres,
being one square mile, may be purchased by one person.

For further particulars, let the emigrant apply to the Govern-
ment Agents, whose instructions are to give him every informa-
tion.

ADVICE TO EMIGRANTS.

There is much hard work before any man who would shoulder
his axe and locate himself in the backwoods.

There are not many emigrants who are suited to follow out such
a course. The art of chopping, the mysteries of logging, burning,
clearing, and, above all, living in the backwoods, have to be learn-
ed. Should the emigrant determine to proceed direct to the bush
he must purchase his experience ; and it should then be his object
to buy such as cheaply as possible.

The backwoods are the natural heritage of the Canadian, and
life in them should not be lightly undertaken by any but such
men as have served their apprenticeship to Canadian habits and
ways.

On the other hand, the ambition that prompts the emigrant to
go to the woods and hew out a home and an independence is worthy
of all encouragement.

After five years have expired, and the duties have been per-
formed in regard to settlement (and these must be years of steady
work and close economy), then the emigrant will have a consider-
able clearance, a warm house and comfortable "buildings, and a
properly, his own absolutely, with an unimpeachable title direct
from the Crown ; and, should the locality have been chosen with
judgment, the property will be ever increasing in value, as emi-
gration increases, roads are made, and markets are opened up.

But the backwoods settler cannot £>'o into a new iirant devoid
o- ^

546 The Canadian Farmer's

of cash. He should have at least £50, because it is evident that
upon his wild land he can have but very small returns of crop
for the first year or so.

We should strongly advise the emigrant, who brings out such ar
sum or even more, to place it in a savings bank, where it will be
perfectly safe, and will draw from four to five per ceat., and hire
himself out, at least for a year, with a farmer, before he attempts
to go to the backwoods.

It is true that he will thus be retarded somewhat in gaining
the object of his ambition — a clear title to a property — but that
year will be very profitable to him in affording such experience
as will save him many a shilling when he finally settles in the
bush.

The following are a few of the many advantages to be gained by
following such a course : —

First. — He will learn to know one kind of wood from another,
an indispensable knowledge, for the only means of judging of the
nature of the soil, are by the quality and class of the timber
which naturally grows thereon.

Secondly. — In a choice of land from among some millions of
acres, the experience gained by a year's residence in Canada will
be found of immense advantage.

Thirdly. — It is upon the settler's judgment in his choice of
locality that his future prospects will very greatly depend.

Fourthly. — He requires to have very many old-country preju-
dices rubbed off" before he mix in the society of Canadian forest
pioneers.

Fifthly. — He will obtain an insight into the value of staple arti-
cles, a ready knowledge of the currency of the country, and of the
kind, amount and quality of stock to be laid in for a residence in
the remote settlements.

Sixthly. — As an old countryman, " unco canny ** though he may
have been at home, he is green and inexperienced among back-
woodsmen, and there are many, even amidst the innocence and
natural purity of the woods, that would not hesitate to take ad-
vantage of him.

Seventhly. — It is far more profitable to be paid, whilst obtain-
ing necessary experience, than to be compelled to purchase it.

Eighthly. — After working in Canada for a time, the emigrant
may change his mind, and consider that the profits to be saved
from wages, added to his little capital already in security, hold
out sufficient inducements to persevere as a hired man, and in the
future rent a farm in a more improved section of the country, or
enfyage in some other business.

When the locatee — to use the Government name for a settler —
is installed ; his first duty will be to build a habitable dwelling,
and to lay in such a stock of necessaries as may be requisite.

Manual of Agriculture, 547

September is the best month in which to settle, for there is
then time, and the harvest being over, he can obtain help to
build a house and get comfortably ensconced ere the cold winter
set in.

A log house, such as is usually built in the backwoods, would
cost, if put up by contract, about £5 sterling ; but with the assist-
ance of the neighbours, which is always readily exchanged, it may
be erected for very much less.

The walls of the shanty are composed of rounded logs, generally
oak or elm, cut in the woods, of the full length of each side, let into
and resting on one another at the extremities.

The interstices are filled with mud, and the inside roughly
plastered.

The roof is covered with birch bark slabs, or basswood troughs
or wooden shingles.

The chimney and the requisite furniture put a finish to the
house, rough, it is true, but warm and comfortable.

There are required for the winter, a supply of cured pork, a few
hundredweight of flour, and a stock of oatmeal, potatoes and
groceries.

To keep the potatoes, a roothouse is generally built.

A yoke of oxen, a milch cow and a couple of hogs, make the
usual live stock with which to commence operations.

But there is a time in the dreary lengths of winter, when every
settler must feel lonely, and perhaps becomes home-sick ; at
times, he will be shut out, for days, by impassable roads, from al!
communication with his neighbours.

Beware of whiskey. Whiskey is the curse of Canada. Not
only is the habit of intemperance a stumblingblock in the way of
success in life, and the ruin of man, both here and hereafter, but
the stuff* that is in America dignified by the name of " spirits " is
so adulterated that it can be rightly called by no other name than
" rank poison."

Canada shows, in proportion to her population, an immense amount
of crime, disease, accidents and loss of life, through the agency of
drink ; and it has been a fact well observed, that the drunkard
who soaks himself with Canadian whiskey very quickly runs his
course.

It takes but a short time for that poison to convert a strong,
healthy man into an object upon whom is plainly stamped the fate
of a premature and loathsome death.

Let the settler work steadily and keep sober, a slow but sure
and happy independence is before him.

To-day the settler is one of a few isolated inhabitants ; in a few
short years his neighbours will have increased by the score.

Let him take care to assume that lead which his position offers.
Let him work for his own good and for the general welfare of

548 The Canadian Farmer's

his neighbourhood, that he may earn the right to be considered
the brave pioneer to those who will undoubtedly soon follow him
to the woods and, in his wake, will convert the wild waste places
into a flourishing and influential section of the country.

It will be his duty to introduce the regular worship of God in
the new land.

A few energetic members will soon raise and support His holy
temple, even in the depths of a Canadian bush.

Look around you when you first land in Canada. As you travel
through the richest, most perfectly cleared and best cultivated
section of the agricultural portions, remember that forty years ago
these noble farms were but slashings in the deep woods, that the
men who now live in those handsome houses, that own those
large and valuable herds, and whose sons now fill the senate and
the bar, the pulpit and the counting house, were, not so very
many years ago, but poor emigrants like yourself

They struggled through difficulties, avoiding extravagance and
intemperance, to wealth and sterling independence. Your chances
in these days of wealth and railway enterprise are far better than
were theirs.

BUYING FARMS IN CULTIVATED PARTS.

To the Old Country Farmer as an Emigrant

There are many tenant farmers in England who would gladly
move to a new country, but they cannot summon up sufficient cou-
rage to leave their old homes, break oflT their old habits, and com-
mence life again in a far, and to them unknown land.

Let such, or any who should bring out capital to inv^est in farm-
ing in Canada, beware of some of the errors, to which they are
liable in this new sphere of action.

Bigotry and prejudice must be cast aside by any man who would
lead in a new country. What our fathers and our fathers' fathers
did in England will have no weight, apart from that given by in-
trinsic worth, out here.

If you come to Rome, you must adapt yourselves to Roman
customs.

We live under a different clime. Your ways must be adapted
to our manners and customs.

You cannot get us to array ourselves blindly under your old
fashioned ideas of socialism or of agriculture. Cast off" aU your
old fashioned prejudices.

As you come to labour on a different soil, and under a different
face of nature, you must adapt your ways to those of a different
country.

You, who have been accustomed to have everything done for
you by servants, must turn to with a will yourselves out here.

Manual of Agriculture. 549

Labour is very scarce in all new countries, and men, if they have
reason to dislike a place, have no difficulty in obtaining new sit-
uations. Farm labourers here are accustomed to see the farmer
work ; here we have to lead, and cannot put our trust altogether
in orders. It wiJl not pay in haying and harvest to ride round
the farm on " the cob/' and pay ten shillings a day and board to
your substitute.

The season for securing is short, wages are high, and labour at
that time inv^ariably scarce : every available hand is then required
to safely house the crops.

Beware of high improve^ment. It will unquestionably pay in
the end, but labour is scarce and wages dear. High farming must
be cautiously engaged in.

The money required at home to properly stock a rented farm
will purchase a good farm in Canada and yet leave sufficient capi-
tal with which to stock and on which to work for a few years,
until the new comer gets into the ways of the country.

liCt a man liave been ever so good a husbandman at home, and
understand thoroughly both the theory and practice of farming
there, yet he has much to learn in a new country, much that can
only be bought by experience. We know how different are the
systems of farming in the Severn valley and that adopted on the
plains of Norfolk.

Equally distinct are the s^^stems upon which Canadian and old
country agricultures are based ; and there is moreover to be
learned the differences of customs, of manners and of habits.
To the man who is ground down under a harsh landlord, or who
feels that the rent which he pays is far beyond its proper rate, we
would say, by all means, come to Canada : but remember that, with-
out steady industry, sober habits, and above all, a determination
to study and fall in with the ways of the country, he cannot better
himself by emigration.

Follow these, and you cannot fail to become a substantial yeo-
man, perfectly independent, and in a position to better your cir-
cumstances every year ; and by giving your children the benefits
of a good education and a fair start in the world, will live to
bless the day when you became a landowner in the new country
in place of a tenant in the old.

Good farms may be bought at various prices. Near our best mar-
kets, say on the lines of the main railways, at the ports and neai' the
centres of trade, farms are usually w^orth from £10 to £20
per acre, the price var^'ing with the state of cultivation and the
value of the permanent improvements.

Moving back into a rougher, i.e., less thoroughly cleared coun-
try, land may be bought, moderately well fenced, with or without
buildings, at figures ranging from £4 to £8 per acre, the value
being in great part governed by the species and quantity of the

550 The Canadian Farmer^s

timber, the quality of the soil, and the amount of land under cul-
tivation.

There are also government lands and lands in the hands of
private companies sold at prices of about one dollar or (4s. 2d.
sterling) per acre.

THE YOUNGER SONS OF ENGLISH GENTLEMEN, AS FARMEES IN

CANADA.

Many gentlemen in England, who have younger sons to start in
life, turn for that purpose to the Colonies. Many younger sons
of gentlemen have, of late years, come to Canada.

Many of such men (especially where they have been brought
up in towns) are scarcely fitted for the position of a Canadian
farmer.

Their appreciation of the freedom and happiness of a country
life is not generally sufficient to compensate for the loss of society,
the steady hard work, economical habits, and very gradual inde-
pendence which accompany the career of the Canadian farmer.

Unless a man becomes wedded to his farm, loves to be at work,
and takes the greatest interest in the welfare of his stock and the
growth of his crops, he simply throws himself away in coming to
farm in this country.

Some have bought farms, settled down, and are doing well ;
others have become disgusted, and have either sought situations
in towns, where, be it remembered, they have no influential friends
to back them, or have returned to their homes.

Of the last two classes, the latter have, doubtless, been the
wiser, for they have tasted colonial life and will, at least, know
how to value any good thing that they may drop into at home.

Experience has been bought, and, if not paid for at too dear a
rate, parents need not consider their money to have been alto-
gether wasted.

For our own part, we consider that the gentleman who lives on
his farm here has no reason to envy the man in the best of situa-
tions ; but to act up to such a way of thinking, steady industry
and strict economy must be practised.

Any young man coming out here to practise farming must be
determined to work hard and live cheaply, or he cannot succeed.

Gentlemen must remember that their sons who come to farm
in Canada lose many of the luxuries of home life, will see but little
society, and will, in everyway, lead a widely different life from
that to which they have been accustomed.

Parents cannot be too careful not to force their sons to a farm-
er's life in Canada, for there are few countries in which there are
less restraints upon a young man, or more temptations to lead him
"to the dogs."

Manual of Agriculture. 551

At the same time, a year or two in Canada, should he remain
no longer, will be found no bad " finish " to a gentleman's educa-
tion.

THE LABOUR REQUIRED IN CANADA.

The Department of Agriculture caused a number of circulars to
be sent to different parts of the Dominion, to ascertain the number
of immigrant labourers, of various kinds, required. The returns
were imperfect ; but, from a compilation of those sent in, we find
the following numbers were required :

Province of Ontario 91,621

" *' Quebec 27,336

*• ♦« New Brunswick 13,476

«* •' NovaScotia 13,870

" "Manitoba 312

Total. 146,615

These figures do not include the requirements of contractors for
'he public works (Pacific Railway, &c.) to be undertaken.

APPENDIX.

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Appendix.

RHOMBOID AND STEAIGHT-DRAWING HARROWS. (See p. 473.)

CHAIN HARROW. (See p. 474.)

Appendix.

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TOOTH OF EYEil's PATENT HARROW. (See p. 474.)

556

Appendix.

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Appendix.

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Appendix,

559

SINGLE MOWER, AVITH FORWARD CUTTING BAK. (See p. 491.)

The Sprague Mower was introduced in Canada b}' Mr. William Rennie,
Toronto, about four years ago, and which he continues to offer at Agricultural
Warehouse and Seed Store, corner x\delaide and Jarvis Streets.

560

Appendix.

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Appendix.

561

? AYR CLIPPER, MOWING. (See p. 491.)

Manufactured by John Watson, Ayr, and for sale by -Mr. William Rennie,
Toronto, Ont.

562

Appendix.

AYR CLIPPER, REAPING. (See p. 491.

Manufactured by John Watson, Ayr, and for sale by Mr. Wm. Rennie,
Toronto, Ont.

Appendix.

563

THE JOHNSON SELF-RAKE. (See p. 492.)
Address orders to Mr. William Reniiie, Toronto, Out.

•4f

564

Appendix.

565

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Appendix.

THE LITTLE GIANT THRESHER AND SEPARATOR. (See p. 494.)

Mr. William Rennie, Toronto, Ont., gives further information respecting
this Machine on pages 55 and 56 of his Illustrated Catalogue (Fifth Edition),
a work to which our readers are referred.

THE KIRBY AS A MOWER, WITH CUTTING BAR IN REAR. (See p. 491.)
For sale by Mr. Wm. Rennie,. Toronto, Ont.

Appendix.

567

568

Appendix.

TEN HORSE POWER. (See p. 497.)

Horse and Dog Powers of several styles and numerous sizes are offered by
Mr. Rennie, Agricultural Warehouse and Seed Store, Corner Adelaide and
Jarvis Streets, Toronto.

farmers' horse power. (See p. 497.)

Manufactured by John Watson, Ayr, for sale by Mr. Wm. Rennie, Toronto, Ont.

Appendix.

569

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Appendix.

5=^-

7B4L£BPOS

SCREW STUMP MACHINE, (See p. 501.)

This Stump Machine is manufactured, either complete with wood work,
&c. ; or iron work ; or Fcrew, nut and cap only. Address orders to Mr. Wm.
Rennie, Agricultural Warehouse and Seed Store, Adelaide Street East,
Toronto, Ont.

Appendix.

571

SULKEY REVOLVING HORSE RAKE. (See p. 502.)
For sale by Mr. Wm. Rennie, Toronto, Ont.

LOCK LEVER SULKEY HAY RAKE. (See p. 502.) .'^^j^;

Manufactured by John Watson, Ayr, and for sale by Mr. Wm. Rennie,
Toronto, Ont.

Advertisements.

JOHN A. BRUCE & CO.,

SEED WAREHOUSE, -
SEED FARM, - - - -

ESTARLISHED 1850.

Comer King and McNab Streets,
Main Street East,

HAMILTON, ONTARIO.

Brace's Selected East Lothian Swede Tumip.

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The following CATALOGUES are published during- the year, and ^ill be forwarded post free to all applieants :—

No. 1.— Illustrated Seed Catalogue, imblitihed 15tli Jaiiiisiy, a descri) tive list of Agricultuml Vegetable and
Flower Seeds, Culinary Roots, Garden Implements, S)iving Uovcrinf: I-iills, &e.

No. II.— Wholesale Catalogue of Seeds, <Sc. (for the Trade only), published 16th January.

No. III.— Bulb Catalogue, published September Ist, eontaining a (•lioice eollection of Double ajid Single Hjaeiutlii,
Tullpa, Polyanthus Narcissus, Crocus, Snow Drops, Crown Imperials, Jonquils, Lilies, Ac., 40.

PLANTS AND SEEDS CAREFULLY PACKED FOR ALL CLIMATES.

Advertisements.

CAPITAL,

$1,000,000.

OFFICE-

34r5 St. James Street, Montreal •

President.
COL. A. C. DeLOTBINIERE-HARWOOD, D.A.G.

Vice-President.
WM. ANGUS, ESQ.

Managing Director and Secretary.
EDWARD H. GOFF, ESQ.

Directors.

Col. A. C. D'L. HARWOOD, D.A.G., Montreal.
Rev. P. LEBLANC (Bishop's Palace), Montreal.
A. DESJARDINS, Esq., Montreal

{Proprietor Le Nouveau Monde).
WM. ANGUS, Esq., Montreal

{President Canada Paper Co).
J. B. POULIOT, Esq., M.P., Riviere du Loup.
L. MOLLEUR, Esq., M.PP , St. Johns

{President St Johns Bank).
G. BABY, Esq., M.P., Joliette.

EDWARD H. GOFF, Esq., Montreal.
ARTHUR DANSEREAU, Esq., Montreal

(Editor La Minerve).
Col. A. A. STEVENSON, Montreal.
THOS. LOGAN, Esq., Sherbrooke,
T. H. MAHONY, Esq., Quebec.
L. B. CHARLEBOIS, Esq., Laprairie.
CHS. FRS. PAINCHAUD, Esq., M.D ,Varennef.
L. H. BLAIS, Esq., Montmagny.

THIS Company is organized for the express purpose of insuring Farm
Property and Private Residences, and it is the determination of its
Directors to confine its operations strictly to this class of business, thus

avoiding heavy losses from sweeping fires and hazardous risks.

An arrangement has been completed by which this Company has the benefit
of the renewals and business here of the "Agricultural of Watertown," which
at once places the Company in possession of a large and profitable business.

The Stockholders, at the general meeting, held at the Company's Ofiice,
March 12th, 1874, having decided to increase the capital stock to $1,000,000,
the Stock books will be open at the ofl&ce of the Company for the next sixty
days (unless sooner closed by the Executive Committee^^ for the subscription
of the increase of Capital Stock. Capitalists and others desiring a safe and
remunerative investment are respectfully invited to call at the Company's
Office and enquire into the advantages offered.

.:^^" Farmers and others will consult their own interests by insuring in
this Company. For further information, please to address the Secretary.

Advertisements.

C. & A. SHARPE,

WHOLESALE AND RETAIL j

GUELPH, ONTARIO.

Importers and Dealers in all kinds of

GARDEN, FLOWER AND AGRICULTURAL' SEEDS,

Clover, Timothy, Hungarian and all kinds of
Grass Seeds for Permanent Pasture.

TOP, DUTQH SETT, AND OTHER VARIETIES OF ONIOXS.

VEGETABLE PLANTS, of all varieties, in season.

Growers of the Celebrated

C (^ A, SHARPE, Seed Merchafits, Guelph.

Advertisements.

W. HEWITT & CO.,

CORNER YONGE AND ADELAIDE STREETS

TOROIsTTO.

PATENT TREE PRUNER,

SIMPLE AND DURABLE.

More and better work can be done with it in one hour than
by the old system in three.

MTENT EXTENSION LIDDBRS.

An Eight feet step Ladder extends to Fourteen feet.
Other Sizes in proportion.

PATENT BAG TIES.

,Horse Pokes. Sheep Shears.

Wheelbarrows. Butter Bowls.

Draining Spades. Plough Lines.
Manure Forks. Horse Brushes.

Hay Forks. Curry Combs.

Spading Forks. Breast Chains.

Scythes. ' Bill Hooks. ♦

Rakes. Hoes.

WSO)^®®^^® M

Adverhsements.

JON

TS©

Ayr Agricultural Works

MANUFACTURE8-

Reaping, Mowing
and Threshing Machines,

SULKY HAY RAKES,

Drag and Circular Saivs,

STRAW & ROOT CUTTERS,

CHOPPING MILLS,

AND ALL KINDS OP

Agricultural Machines and
Implements

OF THE VERY" BEST PATTERNS.

Having taken FIRST PRIZES at every Provincial Exhibition
for the last fifteen years, I, last year, gave up the idea of compet-
ing, and entered for exhibition only. But, with the view of test-
ing the merits of, my machines, I entered my Straw and Root
Cutters at the Buffalo International Exhibition, competing
against the First Prize Canadian as well as the best American
Machines, and was awarded the Medals and Diploma.

Catalogues and all information sent by mail on application.

joHisr 'vr^Tsoi^.

Ayr, Ont.,
24th April, 1874.

Advertisements.

immmr to umm ^ cowkeephbs.

The old.laborious and tedious process of Hand-milking superseded.

i\EW IMPROVED SELF-ACTING COW MILKER,

FTice^$1.50 upwards. No Farmer should he without them.

Manufactured and Sold afc

THE CANADA TRUSS FACTORY,

690 CRAIG STREET, MONTREAL.

Syjr»m%tting amount, and 13c. for postage, a complete set will be forwarded by parcel post.

SOHO FOUNDRY & AGRICULTURAL WORKS,

SAVE MONEY, and use the celebrated "Paris Chaff Cutter,'' Manufactured by

A. WHITELAW, fe Proprietor, - Paris, Ont.

Advertisements.

(In connection with the Medical Faculty of McGill University).

Under the Patronage of the Council of Agriculture, P.Q.
ESTABLISHED 1866.

Lectures commence in October and terminate in March,

Veterinary Anatomy — including Dissection D. McEachran, M.R.C.V.S.

Institutes of Medicine (Physiology and Pathology) Prof, Drake.

Chemistry Prof. Craik,

Botany Prof. Dawson.

Veterinary Medicine and Surgery D. McEachrax, M.R.C.V.S.

Veterinary Materia Medica 0. Bruneau, V.S.

For Prospectus apply to
Gbo. Leclere, Esq., M.D., Secretary, Council of Agriculture, Montreal; or to

D. McEACHRAN,

Member Royal College Veterinary Surgeons,

England ; Crraduaie Edinburgh Veterinary

College, &c., dec.

OFFICE AND INFIRMARY:
679 Craig Street, near Bleury

RESIDEN(^E :

676 Dorchester Street.

C3 ««

CHiS^HLElS TH^TIsT,

MANUFACTURER OF

ANDERSON'S PATENT VIBRATING CULTIVATOR.

AUo always on hand, a good selection of common Ploughs, Horse Hoes, Churns, etc., etc., etc.

The above articles will be found all Al. Farmers In want of either can havo all information by calling, or

addressing a card to

OHAS. THAIN, Agricultural Implement Manufacturer, Guelph, Ont.

Advertisements.

THE use of Spring Beds is becoming
-*■ universal on account of cheapness,
convenience and comfort. The cheapest-
must therefore maintain the supremacy
in view of the ever-increasing demand.

WHITESIDE'S PATENT,

in use about five years, has established
and maintains an

UNRIVALLED [SUPERIORITY !

^=^"^ Tt is Durable, Comfortable, Cleanly, and
the price Lower in proportion than any
in the world.

It is a most satisfactory substitute for filth-producing straw on the one hand, and
the old cumbrous and expensive spring mattress on the other. It induces

SLEKP, REST, and HEALTH!
and is a luxury within the reach of the poor, while a domestic necessity to all.

SOLD IN EVERY CITY AND TOWN THROUGHOUT THE DOMINION.

Manufactory, "Old College Buildings," St. Paul Street, (west of McGill)

mOI^TRE AL..

HE. ^W^HITESIDE cfe CO.

N. B. Price Lists to the Trade supplied on application for Bedding, Spring Beds and Children's Carriages-

It destroys the Ticks, promotes the
growth of the wool, and improves the con-
dition of the animal. Every day bringfs
additional testimony of its thorough effect-
iveness. No flockmaster should be with-
out it.

Sold Everywhere. In boxes at 35c. 70c.
and $1. A 35c. box will clean 20 sheep or
35 lambs.

HUGH MILLER & CO.,
Agricultural Chkaiists, - - Toronto.

YORKSHIRE
CATTLE FEEDER

Is highly recommended by the Professors of the
Veterinary Colleges of Great Britain, and is held
in high reputation bj' all first-class Breeders of
Stock throughout Europe and Canada. It is a
remedy of renowned worth, possessed of purely
Vegetable Extracts in a condensed form. It is
Tonic and Stomachic. It regulates and keeps the stomach in a hcaltliy condition. . It has been
proved by experience that animals fed with the Yorkshire Cattle Feeder fatten more rapidly,
consequently a great amount of food is saved. Stock fed with the Yorkshire Cattle Feeder have
in every in.stance, wherever exhibited, taken First Prizes. It has been awarded special prizes and
congratulatory recommendations from Agricultural Societies, for the great benefit they have derived
from it in the raising of Stock.

HORSES fed with this Composition are not susceptible of disease, such as Broken Wind,
Heaves, Farcy, Scratches, &c. They gain strength and life which cannot be surpassed.

FOR MILK CA TTLE it is well adapted, as it contahis a great amount of nutriment, which
produces more milk and butter than any other known remedy, and at the same time it improves
the health and condition of the animal.

FOR FA TTENING CA TTLE it has no equal ; it purifies the blood, improves the appetite,
and strengthens the whole svstem, fattening them in one-fourth the usual time.

FOR FATTENING PIGS. The unparalleled success it has met with in fattening these
animals is surprising. We strongly i-econunend its use.

Sold in Boxes at 25 cents and $1.00. Sold everyichere.

A Dollar Box contains Two Hundred Feeds !

Prepared in Canada onlv bv

HUGH MILLER & CO., AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTS, TORONTO.

Advertisements.

Send for my

ANNUAL DESCRIPTIVE SEED CATALOGUE

of Field and Garden Seeds, Fertilizers, &c.

AGRICULTURAL WAREHOUSE AND SEED STORE,

Corner Adelaide and Jarvis Streets, Toronto.

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Advertisements.

■s

Wrought Beam Plough, suitable for general purpose work, substantially made, for two horses.

HORTICULTURAL REQUISITES,

A General Assortment of Best Manufacture, comprising the Most Approved Styles,

for sale at the

AGRICULTURAL WAREHOUSE & SEED STORE.

Pruning Saw.

VS^ILLIAM RENNIE,

Corner Adelaide and Jarvis Streets, - - Toronto.

LAWN MOWERS.

The Philadelphia Lawn Mower is now well
known, and its reputation so fully established,
that I have no hesitation in again offering it
as the best without exception. Since the in-
troduction of 6j inch Drive Wheels on this
machine, in various contests with other Lawn
Mowers, the Philadelphia has alwa5'S been vic-
torious, and may be seen in operation during
the season, at all the principal public Gardens,
Ayenues, and parks of this City.

The Philadelphia Lawn Mower, No. 1 Jr. or 14 inch.

Advertisements.

FAIRBANKS' SCALEIS.

THE STANDARD.

Vv'CWwWJia.^t

0ighe§t Prize, Canada.

Highest Prize at Pari$«, 1§67.

Highest Prize at Vienna, 1873.

ADAPTED TO THE STANDARD OF ALL NATIONS,

AND PACKED READY FOR SHIPMENT.

The question with every merchant, manufacturer ar.d farmer should be, not, " Can I afford to have
one of those accurate and durable Scales ?" but, " Can I aflford to be without it?"

FAIRBANKS & CO.,

403 St. Paul Street, - - - - Montreal.

i¥4:

'wfeman t0 \\t €m\\ of l^grictitere

FOR THEJ PROVIiSrCE OP QUEBEC,

WAREHOUSES, Nos. 89, 91 and 93 McGill Street, corner 106 and loa
Foundling Street, and over St. Ann's Market,

MONTREAL.

Agricultural Implements of Every Description, Grain, Field, Garden and
Flower Seeds, Guano Superphosphate and other Fertilizers. ^

Nurseries and Seed Farm at Cote St. Paul, near Montreal.

Fruit and Ornamental Trees, Shrubs, Roses, Green-House and Bedding Plants,
Vegetable Plants, Small Fruits, &c.

Special quotations given for Clover and Timothy Seed. Seed Wheat, B.\rley,
Oats, Peas, Flax, &c., of w^hich large Stocks are kept by the Proprietor during the

season.

Advertisements.

EWING BROTHERS,

SEED MERCHANTS,

100 MeGill St., Montreal,

OFFER FOR SALE

FA.RM SEEDS

Of all the different kinds. They are selected only from the stocks of growers
who are celebrated for the growth of particular varieties. We take the great-
est care possible to have the best stocks of everything ; and .our efforts in
this direction have been appreciated by Farmers, as we have a large and
constantly increasing trade in " Farm Seeds." In Grain, Grasses, Clover,
etc. , we are always happy to send samples and prices when requested.

Garden seeds.

Our stock of those is large and well assorted. Supplying, as we do, the
leading Gardeners and Market Gardeners in Lower Canada, and many in the
•other Provinces, in such a way as to give them satisfaction, is proof enough
that we must have "pure stocks." We prove the growth of everything
before sending out, and thus purchasers can rely on getting Seeds from us
that will vegetate freely.

FLOWER SEEDS.

Our assortment embraces all the leading varieties of Annuals, Bien-
NLA.LS, and Perennials. In " Florists' Flowers " we offer very choice strains.

Our ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE of
Seeds, etc., will be mailed, FREE, to any one
asking us to do so.

Advertisements.

1874

1874r

GEO. LESLIE & SONS, PROPRIETORS.

These Nurseries now cover an area of 160 Acres, exclusively devoted
to the purposes of the bu'siness. The stock is always kept replete with
the NEWEST as well as the old favorite varieties of —

APPLE TREES-STANDARD AND DWARF.

PEAR TREES do. da

PLUM TREES do. do.

CHERRY TREES do. do.

GRAPE VINES-HARDY AND FOREIGN,

CURRANTS, STRAWBERRIES, RASPBERRIES,

AMERICAN AND ENGLISH GOOSEBERRIES, RHUBARB,

ASPARAGUS, SEA-KALE ROOTS, &c., &c.

ORNAMENTAL DECIDUOUS TREES,

ORNAMENTAL WEEPING TREES,

ORNAMENTAL EVERGREEN TREES,

FLOWERING SHRUBS.

HYBRID PERPETUAL, MOSS AND MONTHLY ROSES, in pots or

from open ground.

DAHLIAS, HEDGE PLANTS, &c.

BEDDING PLANTS in great variety, during April, May and June.

J8®" Everything grown with a view to its adaptability to the Climate. "®6

We pack all stock to carry safely to smy part of the world. Priced Descriptive
Catalogue mailed on receii^t of Ten Cents in stamps.

GEO. LESLIE & SONS,

Leslie P. C, Ont.

We are building GRIST MILLS that we will guarantee to grind One Hundred Barrels
of Flour with ONE AND A HALF CORDS OF WOOD.

Our Engines are making Steam Grist Mills a great success, from their GREAT ECONOMY
in Fuel in driving our LIGHT RUNNING BELTED MILLS.

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"We keep constantly in stock Climftx Emery Wheel Saw Gur. mer, Stone's Orlpinal Mid Kclipso aumnuT, ~) fj U
Ooddard Emery 'WTicel. Oummer Bits, all sizea, Belt Studs, Belting: Files. Cant Hooks, luid seven differ- p'. XA'
ant styles of Saw Swages. Send for Illustrated Saw Furnisliinp Circular, coiitrining Taluable lufonna- »
«0B how t« hang and run Circular Saws ; alio large Machineiy Tamphlet, to /

WATEROUS&CO.
Brantford.Ont

TUNING RED RASPBER
BUSHES.

A. O. — ^Raspberry bushes were pla
in the early spring and have grc
ill. I have cut out the old ca;
d about about half of the n
owth. Should the new shoots t
e cominjj up be removed?
A.ns. — The raspberry canes or sh(
lich gro wthis year will bear
.lit next year, hence you «hoi
ive the new shoots and only renri-
5 canes which bore this year, wl
5 after fruiting. As the plants .
ler, however, more shoots come
m it is desirable to leave. T
» weakest ones are removed at
d of the growing season each y
d also the canes which bore ,;
out seven o fthe strongest new ca
t to bear the fruit.— W. T. M. -

SMALL RHUBARB STALKS.

R. D., B.C.—Rhubarb of the Yict«
riety was grown from seed. '-
ilks are very slender and I wist
t them to grow thicker. The .
light with gravelly subsoil.
Ans. — Rhubarb requires rich soil
well, and we should advise pla
f on heavier soil or else keeping
Dund enriched by heavy applicatl
barnj-ard manure. If, however,
il is very dry this also would
lin why the stalks are small,
nbarb needs a good supply of nv.
•e.— W. T. M.

FROvmcmt

Besides innum

UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA LIBRARY

DATE DUE

101-iaM-5-54-V.S.

In addition to receiving tlie

w^, laatl

ONLY MEDAL EVER AWARDED

For Reed Instruments at any PROVINCIAL EXHIBITION, our Organs have

received

Iniveml CCommendittion in all parte of %^u\ gntaiiu

For Price Lists of these celebrated Instruments, address-

W. BELL & CO.,

Giielpli, Out.

CABBAGE MAGGO'

L TT AUa— Will you T>i

i B. H.. AU^; ^^st way
sots

Advertisements.

of the t»esi. w-v
. of the cabbage^^i^ ^^^

rid
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ninncn.. "— "lACTURERS,

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AGRICULTURE
FORiESTRY ° s
tlBRARY„ -

T. 133

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LIBRARY

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■ favors, by the

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.terial of the

f whom have

)le being im-

upervision.

we are very

ily tested it.

s to examine

r purity and

nish of case,

lN," is placed
3d -by us, and,
tioned not to

lly warranted to
in every respect.
nt on applu^ation,

& CO.

I, CUELPH, OUT.

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Full text of "The Canadian farmer's manual of agriculture : the principles and practice of mixed husbandry, as adapted to Canadian soils and climate"

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