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1891 ye Or. V. 1892
LO ! 7
THE

OTEAWA NATURALIST

BEING VOL. VII. oF THE

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

OTTAWA FIELD-NATURALISTS’ CLUB.

(Organized March, 1879. Incorporated March,- 1884. J

OTTAWA:
J: 2. TAYLOR, Book AND Jop PRINTER, 48 AND 50 QUEEN STREET,

Pa |

1891,

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Patron:
HIS. EXCELLENCY THE LORD STANLEY OF PRESTON,

GOVERNOR GENERAL OF CANADA.

President: Dr. R. W. ELLs.
Vice-Presidents :

ist, T. J. MacLAuUGHLIN, | 2ND, H. M. Ami.
Secretary: W. H. Harrincton, P. O. Department.
Treasurer: A. G. Kincston, Dept. Public Works.
Librarian; W. A. D. Lexs, P. O. Box 4071.
Conineilee - oe E. Botton, Miss G. HarMEr, Miss M. A. MILLs,
* \JamMes FLETCHER, WILLIAM Scort, R. B. WHYTE.

Standing Committees of Council :

Publishing—JAMES FLEYCHER, Hditor; W. H. Harrincton, A. G.
Kincston, W. A. D. LEEs, Asststant Editors.

Excursions—Y. J. MacLaucuuin, H. M. Ami, Miss G. HarMe™r,
Miss M, A. Mitts, R. B. WHyTE.

Sotrées—A. G. Kincston, Miss E. BoLron, JAMES FLETCHER,
WILLIAM Scott.

Headers :

Geology and Mineralogy—H. M. Ami,W. F. FERRIER, C.W. WILLIMOTT.
Botany—JAMEs FLETCHER, Wo. Scott, R. H. CowLey.
Conchology—F¥. R. LATCHFORD.

Entomology—T. J. MacLauGHLin, W. H. HARRINGTON, J. FLETCHER
Ornithology—A. G. Kincston, W. A. D. LEEs, PRor. J. Macoun.
Zoology—-\. BALLANTYNE, H. B. SMALL, W. P. LETT.

The Librarian will furnish the Publications of the Club at the
following rates :—
Transactions, —

Part 1, Not soid singly. |
“ 9, 26 cts. ; to members, 15 cts.| $1.00 for Vol. I.

ie fF 15 - To members, 70 cts.
‘
“ 4, 25 “e I “ee 15
ce ce (a9 20 “ a
2 4 see A rane $1.00 for Vol. II.
ee a i o ea. | ‘To members, 50 cts.
715 30 20

The Ottawa Naturalist, $1.00 per annum.
Monthly parts, 10 cents ; to members, 5 cents.
Quarterly parts, 25 cents each ; to members, 15 cents.
Extras — Bituincs, W. R. Paleontology. An elementary lecture.
Pp. aly 5c:
Exits, R. W. Asbestus ; its history, mode of occurrence and

uses. pp. 24, 10C.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Alexander, Mrs. J. Borden, F. W., M.D., M.P., (Can-
Alexander, Miss Isabel. ning, N.S.)
Allan, W. A. Boulton, Arthur.

Ami, H.M., 4.4., F.G.S., F.G.S.A. Boville, T. C., B.A.
Anderson, Liewt.-Col. W. P., C.L. Bowen, Miss Alice. (Quebec.)

MNCL. Bowerman, J. T.
Anderson, Mrs. W. P. Bristow, A. A.
Angus, Miss I.. Bristow, Mrs. A. A.
Archibald, Miss E. Broadbent, Ralph L.
Armstrong, John R. Brodie, R. J., #. App. Se., (Smith’s

Bailey, Prof. L. W., U.4., Ph. D., Falls, Ont).
F.RS.C., (Fredericton, N.B). — Brodie, W., Z.D.S. (Toronto.)

Baldwin, Miss E. G. Brough, James S.
Baldwin, Miss H. A. Brown, R. D.
Balland, Rev. J. B., O.M.I., D.D. Brown, Mrs. BR. D.
Ballantyne, J. Brumell, H. Pareth.
Ballantyne, Norman F. Burgess, T. J. W., 1.D., F.R.S.C.
Ballantyne, Miss I. M. (Montreal. )
Baptie, Geo., J/.A., .i/.D. Burland, J.H., 2. App.Se. £.C.S.,
Barlow, A. E., MW. 4. Butterworth, Miss Maria E.
Barlow, Scott. Campbell, A.M., (Perth, Ont.)
Barnston, Duncan ( , Ceylon) Campbell, Miss C.
Bate, C. Perey. Campbell, R. H.
Bate, H. Gerald. Carstairs, J., B.A. (Lroquois, Ont.)
Bate, H. N. Casey, M. W.
Beddoe, Chas. H. Chamberlin, Mrs. B.
Bell, E. B. Chant, C. A., B.A.
Bell, Robert, B App.Se.M.D.,LL.D., Christie, A. J., QC.
F_ES.C., £.G.S.A. Chubbock, C. E. D.
Bennetts, F. K. Cochrane. A. 8., C.E.
Bethune, Rev. U. J. S., M.A.,D.C.L. Code, R. G.

(Port Hope, Ont). Cornu, Felix, ”.D. (Montreal.)
Billings, B. B Coste, E., MH. (Buffalo, N.Y.)
Billings, W. R. Cousens, W. C., J.D.

Blanchet, C. A. Cowley, R. H., B.A.
Blanchet, W. H. Craig, Prof. J. A. (Madison, Wis.)
Boardman, Wm. F. Craig, John.

Bolton, /tev. C. E. (Paris, Ont.) Craig, Wm. (Russell, Ont.)
Bolton, Miss Eliza. Crawford, Mrs. Mary.

Creighton, J. G. A., b.A., B.C.L.

Darcy, Miss 'T.

Dawson, G.M., LL.D., D.Sc., Assoc.
R.S.M., F.G.S., PBSC.

Deeks, W. E., 5.A., (Montreal).

Deeprose, Mev. C. 8.

Devlin, R. J.

Dimeock, W. D., 4.4. (Truro, N.S )

Dixon, F. A.

Dowling, D. B., B. App. Se.

Elkins, A. W., C.#.,?.L.8., (Sher-

brooke, Que).

Biieiue W., OL.).)) F.GSLA.

Evans, Jno. D., C.£. (Copper
Ont.)

Ewart, D.

Faribault, E. R., C.£.

Ferrier, W. F., 5. App. Sc.

Fisher, S. A., B.4., J.P. (Knowl-
ton, Que.)

Fleming, Sandford, C.1/.G., U.#.,
Weel. FBS. C:

Fletcher, Hugh, &.A.

Fletcher, Miss C. F. 8.

Fletcher, James, 7.L.S., FRSC.

Fletcher, Mrs. J.

Fortescue, L.

Fortescue, Mrs. L.

5

Harrington, Mvs. W. H.
Harrison, Edward.

Hay, George.

Hay, W. H.

Hayter, F., B.A.

Henderson, Thomas.

Herridge, Rev. W. T., B.A., B.D.
filborn, W. W. (Leamington, Ont.)
Hodgins, John.

Hope, Jas.

Ingall, E. D. Assoc. t.S.M., ME.
Interior, Department of.

Jarvis, 8.

uff, Jenkins 8. J., B.A.

Johnson, E. V., C.E.
Johnston, Ro!.t. A. A.
Jones, C. J.
Kearns, J. C.
Keefer, Thos. C., C.E.
Keeley, D. H.
Kingston, A. G.
Laflamme, Revd. J. A. K., D.D.,
F.RS.C., (Quebec).
Lambart, Hon. O. H.
Lambe, L. M., F.G.S.A.
Lampey, Wm. G., 7.2.
Lampman, A., B.A.
Latchford, F. R., B.A.

Forward, Arthur J. (Iroqueis, Ont.) Law, John.

Fuller, Thos., 2.C.A.

Gemmell, R. E.

Gemmill, J. A.

Gilmour, T.

Giroux, N.J., C.H., F.G.S.A.
Glashan, J. C.

Gobeil, A.

Gordon, F. A.

Grant, Sir J. A., K.C.M.G. M.D.,

Lawson, A. C., Ph D., F.G.S.A.
( Berkeley, Cai.)

Lawson, Prof. G., LL.D., Ph. D
FRCL, FRSC. (Halifax.)

Lee, Miss Katharine.

Lehmann, A., B.S.A.

Lees, W. A. D.

Lees, Miss V.

Lees, Miss Jessie.

F.R.C.S., Edin., F.R.S.C., F.G.S.LeSueur, W. D., B.a.

Grist, Henry.

Grist, Miss Mary L.

Hardie, John.

Hardie, Miss Jessie.

Harmer, Miss G. (Hintonburgh,

Ont.)

Harmon, Miss A. Maria.

Harrington, W. H.

LeSueur, Mrs. W. D.
Lett,. W. P.

Lindsay, A.

Living, Miss A. Marion.
Loux, Wm. W.2.
Lovick, Miss G.

Lowe, John.

MacCabe, J. A., LL.D.

MacCraken, John I.
Mac)ougall, P. A., 4.0.
MacFarlane, T., .#., F.R.S.C.

M: 1cLaughlin, Tag

McC onnell, RG. BAS, FG. 8A;

McGill, A., B.Sc.

McElhinney, Mae

McEvoy, Jas., 2. App. Se.

McInnes, Wenn BoA GES.A

McLaughlin, 8.

McLean, J. D.

McMinn, W. J. R., B.A.

MeNab, Chas.

McNaughton, H. F.

Macoun, Prof. John, J/..1.,
FLBS.C.

Macoun, J. M.

Matheson, D.

Matheson, W. M.

Mearns, Cupt. K. A. (Fort Snelling,
Minn.)

Meneilly, W. J.

Mills, Miss Margaret A.

Moore, H. B.

Nelson, F., B.A.

Nicholls, Wiiliam

Nicholls, Rupert W.

O’Brien, S. E.

Oxley, J. M., B.

Panet, Maurice.

Paquet, F. X.

Parliament, Library of.

Parris, Miss Oriana.

Perley, Major Henry F., C £.

Peters, H. J. (Regina, N.W.T.)

Phillips, J. A.

Plunkett, J. M.

Ashore

RUS

6

Ross, W. A., J.0.C.

Rothwell, Miss Lin +.

Ryckman, Rev. E. B., D.D.

Saint-Cyr, D. N., (Quebec).

Saucier, F. X. R.

Saunders, Fredk.

Saunders, Prof. W., F.LS.,F.RS.C.,
[Pe GL.

Saunders, W. E., (London, Ont).

Scott, Colin A., B.A.

Scott, D. C.

Scott, Fred.

Scott, W.

Scott, W.., B.A.

Scott, W. L., B.A.

Selwyn, A. R.C., C.4.G., LL.D.

FRS., PRS G5 BG eG A

Senate, The

Senecal, C. O., C.#.

Shenick, Miss re B.Sc.

Shutt, F. Ty; Ay Pes

Simpson, Willibert

Small, H. B.

Small, H. Beaumont, J/. ).

Smith, D. E. (Churchville,

Smith, Miss Eloise.

Smith, Miss Ethel M.

Smith, W. H., C.#.

Smithson, Miss B. H.

Sowter, T. W. E.

Steacy, Miss Isabel.

Steckel, R., C.£.-

Stewart) Tol

Summerby, Wu. J., M. A. (Russell,
Ont.)

Surtees, Robert, C.Z.

Sutherland, Miss C. F. 8.

5, RS.

Ont.)

Poirier, Hon. P. S. (Shediac, N.B.) Sutherland, J. C., (Richmond, Que).

Pratt, H. ©. E:

Sweetland, John, J/.D.

Reed, E. Baynes (Esquimalt, B.C.) Symes, Miss KE.

Ripley, C. J.

Symes, P.B., A.K.C.

Robert, J. A., B.App. Sc., (Mon- Tanner, R. sp

treal).
Robertson, N.
Robins, R Ne
Hondend: Rev.
Ross, Niles G.

, (SherLiooke, Que).
Ss. ie A.

Taylor, ev. G. W. (Victoria, B,C.)
Thayne, E. Stewart.

Thompson, T. W.

Thorburn, Jobn, .W.d., LL.D.
Topley, W. J.

i

Topley, Mrs. W. J. White, W. R. (Pembroke, Ont.)
Treadwell, C. W., B.A., B.C.L. Whiteaves, J. F. #.G.S., F.R.S.C.
Tyrrell, J.B., B.A., F.G.S., F.G.S8.A. Whyte, Miss Isabella.

Varley, W. B., (Toronto.) Whyte, J. G.
Verner, J. W. D. Whyte, Miss Ethel.
Waghorne, /tev. A. C., (Harbour Whyte, Miss Marion.
Grace, Nfid). Whyte, R. B.

Wait, F. G., B.A., Whyte, Mrs. R. B.
Warwick, F. W., B. Sc. (Bucking- Willimott, Chas. W.

ham, Que.) Willing, T. N., (Calgary, N.W.T).
Watters, Mrs. A. Wills, J. Lainson, M.£., F.G.S.
Watters, Henry. Wilson, C. W., .D. (Bucking-
Watts, J. W. H., B.C.A. ham, Que.)
Weldon, Prof. R.C., /.P.,(Halifax) Wood, Josiah, WM. P., (Sackville,
Weston, T. C. N.B).
Wheeler, A. O., D.7.S. (New West- Wright, W. R.

minster, B.C.) Young, Rev. C. J., M.A. (Lans-
White, Geo. R. downe, Ont.

White, Liewt.-Col. Wm.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Epwarps, Henry, 185 East 116th Street, New York, U.S.
Hi, Apert J., V.A., C.L., New Westminster, B.C.
Merria~, Dr. C. Hart, Department ot Agriculture, Washington, U-S.

Ormerop, Miss E. A., 7.2. Vet. Soc., Torrington House, Holywell
Hill, St. Albans, England.

PRovVANCHER, ABBE, Cap Rouge, Que.
Smiru, Pror. Joun B., Rutger’s College, New Brunswick, N.J.

8
TREASURER’S REPORT—1891.

GENTLEMEN, —I have much pleasure in reporting that the finances
of the Club are in a very satisfactory condition. A far larger amount
has been collected during the past year for subscriptions than has ever
before been the case. An amount of $25.00 not yet paid out, has been
put aside by the Council to finish the publication of the Alora Ottawa-
ensts. 1 beg again to draw the attention of the members to the names
of the firms which assist the Club by advertising in the Orrawa NATUR-
ALIST. It is not too much to say that these firms are equal to, or the
best, in their several lines, and I trus] that the members will endeavour
to show them that it is a paying investment to assist the Club. In con-
clusion I would draw attention to the fact that nearly $6.00 has been
unnecessarily expended in postage by the Treasurer in writing for sub-
scriptions. The fees are payable in advance on the third Tuesday in
March. If this were attended to by all the members, not only would
it save much trouble and expense; but they would get much better
valve for their money. During the past year owing to the fact that sub-
scriptions were paid in more promptly, no less than 38 pages were added
to the Orrawa Naturatist. Had everyone paid up this number
might have been doubled and the /Vora Ottawaensts would have
been finished. As it is impossible for me, owing to my official duties,
to again accept the post of Treasurer I lay this matter before the meet-
ing and beg that you will assist my successor to this extent.

‘TREASURER’S BALANCE a E Grae Ot.

RECEIPTS. EXPENDITURE,
1890. 1891.
March 18; Balances... bee -pedee $ 30 §52|| March 17, Ottawa Naturalist,
1891. Vol. iv.. $254 49
March 17, Subscriptions Postage... Il 26
1890-91.. $212 00 ——— $265 75
Arrears.... 48 00 Extras. Flora
——-- 260 00 Ottawaensis 26 00
Advertisements...... 37 00 » Authors’ 16 12
Authors’ extras...... 975 ——— 42 12
Transaction sold..... 18 39 General printing. . 2.95
Excursion receipts... 159 55 General postage. . 8 77
Stationery......... ee
Gratuities: s--4- sn 6 oO
Library—
Shelves.... 6 00
Binding.... 10 00
16 oO
Excursion expenses. 157 39
Balance... soete see ny, 12
$515 21 $515 21

JAMES FLETCHER,
Ottawa, March 17, 1891. Treasurer.

DRINKING WATER.

WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE OTTAWA CITY SUPPLY.

A Lecture by A. McGill, B.A., B.Sc., Assistant Analyst to the
Inland Revenue Department.

A very little thought given to the subject will convince us of the
hopelessness of seeking for absolutely pure water as a natural product.
The great solvent power of water, together with the universal presence
of substances, gaseous liquid or solid, which it can take into solution,
are conditions which amply suffice to explain the contamination of all
natural sources of supply. The whole of the fresh water on the face of
the earth has fallen as rain on field, forest, city, street, swamp, or other
more or less similar gathering-ground, except such insignificant fraction
as falls directly into river or lake. ‘he soluble impurities present in
such gathering grounds are conveyed to the storage centres in river,
lake or well, and it is fortunate for us that nature has provided, in the
course of natural filtration to which such supplies are necessarily sub-
jected, a means of reducing ina great degree the pollution due to
organic matter, as will be hereafter explained more fully. The mineral
content remains to give so-called “hardness,” or other specific character
to the supply of each locality. Even before the rain has reached the
surface of the earth, however, it is far from pure, since there are always
present in the atmosphere particles of organic and inorganic dust, ill-
smelling and often poisonous gases, the products of decay, microscopic
germs, and other impurities which are washed out of the air by the rain,
and make it,—especially the first portion of each shower,—decidedly
polluted and unfit, without filtration, to be used as a food supply. The
conditions which influence the solubility of solids in water are essen-
tially three, namely, the specific nature of the substance, the tempera-
ture of the water, and the presence of other bodies in solution. Even
among quite soluble substances very marked and interesting specific
differences may be observed. In the six flasks before you I have sus-
pended, in muslin bags, equal quantities (1 ounce) of six different salts,
themselves having importart relations in the subsequent treatment of
this subject, all of them decidedly soluble, and powdered to an approxi-

10

mately equal degree of fineness. I will now add to each flask one
pint of pure water at the ordinary temperature and set them aside for
about half an hour. ‘The salts I have selected are 1st, Nitrate of Am-
monia, a proximate form taken by much of the decaying animal matter
on the egarth’s surface. This salt will be found to dissolve with extreme
readiness, znd, Common Salt, or Chloride of Sodium, which exists in
vast stratified deposits on every continent and is brought to the surface
by natural agencies, such as mineral springs, or artificially by pumped
wells (as in the St. Clair Flats, at Goderich, Seatorth, etc.), or by mining
as at Cracow and elsewhere. ‘This salt forms the most universal condi-
ment and anti-putrescent agent in the preservation of human food, and
as a consequence is present in all sewage, forming a most important clue
to the identification of sewage and the tracing of its course where it _
enters rivers or lakes. Although quite soluble, this salt dissolves only
to about one-sixth the amount of the last named. 3rd. Epsom Salts,
or Sulphate of Magnesia, and 4th. Glauber’s Salt, or Sulphate of Soda,
two substances which are very extensively found in mineral waters, and,
in ,fact, give their cathartic properties to most medicinal springs and
wells. Epsom Salts dissolves to about the same extent as common
salt, while Glauber’s Salt has only half this degree of solubility. 5th.
Washing Soda, or Carbonate of Soda, and 6th. Bi-carbonate of soda, or
Baking Soda, which occur—especially the latter—in many effervescing
mineral waters, as in the Vichy and Apollinaris waters, although they
are of very much greater importance as manufactured salts. Washing
Soda is practically of equal solubility with Glauber’s Salt, while bi-car-
bonate of soda is much less soluble. ‘The solubility of these six salts
is seen to be inversely in the order in which I have named them.

As illustrations of naturally occurring salts which are difficult of
solution, and yet dissolve to an appreciable extent in natural waters, I
can select no better examples than gypsum and chalk, the sulphate
and carbonate of lime. Five hundred parts of water are required to
dissolve one part of gypsum at the ordinary temperature, so that if a
gallon of water fully saturated with gypsum were evaporated to dryness
the residual gypsum would weigh only 140 grains, or less than one-
third of an ounce. Yet this salt occurring in natural hard waters in
very much less amount than is needed to saturate them, is a most

11

troublesome and harmful impurity when steam boilers are supplied
with it. Chalk is as nearly insoluble in pure water as most substances
with which we are acquainted, one million parts of water dissolving
only eighteen parts of chalk. That is, were a gallon of water fully
saturated with chalk to be evaporated to dryness the residue would
weigh only about 114 grains. We shall see, however, that under con-
ditions quite commonly found in nature the solubility of chalk may be
increased to 880 parts per million, 2. e., a residue of 62 grains would be
obtained from a gallon of water saturated under these circumstances.
The condition referred to is the presence of free carbonic acid in the
water. Before illustrating this, let me indicate the laws which govern
the solution of gases in water. ‘These are, briefly, (1st), the specific
nature of the gas; (2nd), the temperature ; (3rd), the pressure. The
two gases, of which our atmosphere is essentially composed, are soluble
in water only to a very slight extent. At the ordinary temperature and
pressure of the air 100 gallons of water dissolve about 3 gallons of
oxygen, and nitrogen is only about half as soluble as oxygen. A fourth
law of gaseous solubility applies when a mixture of gases is exposed to
a solvent, as in the case of air and water. Each gas is dissolved just in
such proportion as it would be were the other gas not present (the
pressure, of course, being correspondingly reduced). A consequence
of this is that while oxygen and nitrogen are present in air in the ratio
of 1 to 4 they are dlssolved in water in the ratio of 1 to 2. ‘Thus the
atmospheric gases present in water form a mixture very much richer in
oxygen than is the air, and the important consequences that follow from
this are not far to seek. It is from this dissolved oxygen that fish and
all water-breathers obtain the supply to arterialize their blood, and,
what bears more directly upon our subject to-night, it is by means of
this dissolved oxygen that the various processes by which the harmful
and even poisonous organic impurities of natural water are changed to
innocent substances, are carried on. So emphatically is the presence
of oxygen in solution an essential condition of purity in a surface
water, that many chemists always estimate the dissolved oxygen in
water analysis. In illustration of this point I may quote the following
figures from a report upon the river Seine, above, at, and below
Paris :—

12

Corbeil (20 miles above Paris)........ Dissolved Oxygen = 9.32 CC per litre.
Epinay (below all the sewers)......... $f St SS ORS <
Pont de Poissy (49 miles below Paris). . << “ =46.12 4° ‘6
Pont de Meulau (58 miles below Paris). Ee se Sy Ady oe ss
Mantes (68 miles below [aris)........ : f = Ko a i
Vernon (94 miles below Paris)........ cs > =H io top va

These numbers are very easy to explain when we consider that the
decaying organic matter brought into the river by the sewage of Paris
consumes the dissolved oxygen, and is by this consumption of oxygen,
converted into other and comparatively harmless compounds, so that, at
a point go miles below the city and 70 miles below the sewer mouths,
the river regains its normal condition as far as this factor is concerned.

Carbon di-oxide, or carbonic acid gas is much more soluble than
oxygen. Roughly we may say that water dissolves its own volume of
this gas. The only other gas which [ shall mention is ammonia, and
the extreme solubility of this gas in water is well illustrated in the ex-
periment before you, in which the first portions of water entering the
large flask filled with ammonia gas dissolve the whole of the gas there-
by creating a vacuum into which a fountain plays—the red liquid (a
slightly acid solution of litmus in water) being constantly changed into
blue in the fountain jet, and thus bearing witness to the alkaline char-
acter of the ammonia.

The solubility of gases in water becomes less as the temperature
rises. It is for this reason that water that has been boiled and allowed
to cool makes so flat and insipid a beverage. The atmospheric gases,
and particularly carbonic acid gas, have been expelled at the boiling
temperature, and the water requires artificial aération before it can
become again a sparkling and palatable drink. Under increased pres-
sure a very much larger amount of gas can be held in solution. Effer-
vescing drinks like soda-water, ale and champagne are kept in strong
bottles with corks wired down. When the bottle is opened, and ordi-
nary atmospheric pressure applied to the surface of the liquid, the excess
of gas which could only be kept in solution by abnormal pressure
escapes, and gives the sparkling effervescence characteristic of these
beverages.

Unlike gases, a rise in temperature is usually attended with a

13

marked increase in solubility in the case of solid bodies. The follow-
ing diagram (see Roscoe and Schorlemmer’s Treatise on Chemistry,
vol. ii., p. 45) will serve to illustrate graphically this point. You will
observe that while the rate of increase in solubility for increased tem-
perature varies with the specific nature of the salt, it is pretty generally
true that the solubility increases as the temperature rises. In the case
of sulphate of soda we have a peculiarity in that the maximum of solu-
bility is found at about go° Fah. In common salt we find another
interesting peculiarity in that for temperatures between the freezing point
and boiling point of water the solubility is practically constant at about
four pounds of salt per gallon of water. In the case of sulphate of lime
we find the very slight solubility of this salt in cold water is even lowered
as the temperature reaches the boiling point, although the decrease in
solubility is too small to be well marked. However, did this diagram
indicate temperatures as high as those found in steam boilers, where
water boils under artificial pressure, we should find that at 270° Fah., a
temperature which corresponds to the boiling point of water under a
pressure of two and a half atmospheres, or about 40 pounds per square
inch—a very ordinary boiler pressure—the solubility of gypsum is
reduced to one-twentieth part of its solubility at 212° Fah.: and as a
consequence of this nineteen-twentieths of the sulphate of lime in solu-
tion in a feed-water is deposited as a coherent and very hard crust on
the inner surface of the boiler.

The remaining condition which affects the solubility of solids in
water is the presence of other substances in solution. There is pro-
bably no exception to the statement that the solubility of a solid is
influenced more or less by the presence of other dissolved bodies. All
the phenomena of precipitation depend upon this principle. I shall
have occasion to illustrate this in the course of the evening, but I may
now ask you to observe how promptly chlorides are thrown out of
solution by salts of silver, saits of iron by ammonia or other alkali, lead
salts by carbonates or sulphates, all of which reactions are of great value
to water consumers, whether the water be used for household or manu-
facturing purposes. I can only make detailed reference to two cases of
great importance in this connection. ‘The first is the solubility of lead
in water, and is of great importance from the extensive use of lead

14

pipes for conveying water in dwellings. The conditions under which
lead is dissolved by water are very complicated, and by no means
perfectly understood, but the following broad generalizations are justi-
fied by facts. Where water contains nitrates in any considerable
amount, and in general where water is essentially soft in character—
such as rain-water—the danger of lead being dissolved from the p'pe is
very great, and poisoning has frequentiy occurred from this source, as
little as one-tenth of a grain per gallon being a poisonous quantity
when the water is continually used, since lead is a cumulative poison.
Water containing less than one-fourth of this amount has been known
to cause serious and dangerous illness. In presence of carbonates,
sulphates or phosphates, a thin coating of the carbonate, sulphate or
phosphate of lead is formed on, and adheres to, the inner surface of
the pipe. Since these salts are practically insoluble they protect the lead
pipe from contact with the water and render its use quite safe. Fortu-
nately most natural waters contain a sufficient amount of dissolved car-
bonic acid or carbonates to prevent danger from the use of lead pipes
in their conveyance. It is, however, advisable always to allow water to
run freely for a short time where it has been stored in lead service
pipes over night, or for any considerable time, especially at a tempera
ture such as is usual in dwellings.

The second illustration of increased solubility due to the presence
of a substance in solution is the case of chalk in water containing free
carbonic acid. The large glass vessel before you contains water par-
tially saturated with slaked lime. On passing carbonic acid gas from
the generator into this water the first effect is the conversion of some
of this lime into carbonate of lime or chalk ; and the great insolubility
of this compound causes its separation with formation of a dense white
precipitate which gradually settles down to the bottom of the vessel if
allowed to stand at rest. On continuing, now, to pass the carbonic
acid gas, after all the lime has been converted into carbonate, we
observe this curious effect. The liquid gradually loses its turbidity,
and in a few minutes is as clear and transparent as at the first. The
excess of carbonic acid gas has caused the precipitated chalk to
pass into solution. We have now what is known as ard water,
and its effect with soap will be apparent from the following

15

experiment. In the first of these two cylinders I put a pint of
ordinary soft water; in the second cylinder I put the same qnantity
of the hard water which we have now prepared. To each cylinder
I now add the same volume of a solution of soap and shake vigorously
half a minute. A bulky and persistent lather, nearly filling the cylinder,
is formed by the soft water, while the hard water shews merely a thin
pellicle of scum, the product of the destruction of the soap added. You
will observe that it is necessary to add nine or ten times as much soap
to the hard water in order to get a lather comparable with that obtained
iu the first cylinder. It is evident that hard water causes a waste of
soap, and the amount of waste is strictly proportional to the amount of
lime in the water, since a perfectly definite decomposition takes place
between the soap and the lime salt present. Were the lime present as
sulphate the destruction of soap would still occur, with this difference,
that in that case no simple and inexpensive mode of softening the
water could be applied, and the water would be what is usually called
permanently hard. ‘The only practicable remedy in such a case is the
use of washing soda, for although such remedies as soluble barium salts
are very effective in throwing the sulphates out of solution, yet the
poisonous character of barium salts, to say nothing of their cost. makes
them unavailable in ordinary circumstances. In the case of water
which possesses only temporary hardness, 7.¢., hardness due to car-
bonate of lime, not only may we use washing soda to cure the evil, but
two other processes deserve mention. By boiling the water we drive
out of solution the carbonic acid gas, in virtue of which the carbonate
of lime is held in solution. On now allowing it to settle, the almost
insoluble chaik is deposited, and the soft water may be drawn off. The
second and very ingenious plan of softening such water is due to the
late Prof. Clarke of Aberdeen, and is usually known as Clarke’s pro-
cess. It consists in adding slaked lime to the water in proper amount
to form chalk with the free carbonic acid, which is therefore withdrawn
from solution and precipitated along with the now insoluble lime salt
originally present in the water Many large towns and cities in Eng-
land and elsewhere now soften their whole supply in this way. The
water of the Ottawa River is remarkably soft since the gathering ground
is essentially free from limestone rocks. ‘lhe Upper Ottawa region is

16

characterized by its granites and allied siliceous rocks, with a soil which
has resulted from their weathering and destruction by glacial and other
agencies. ‘The peaty character of large areas of this gathering ground
is evidenced in the brownish colour of the water of the river ; a colour
which is due not to the presence of dissolved salts, but to the products
of decay of vegetable matter. The results of many analyses of the
Ottawa River shew it to contain less than ove part of solid matter for
ten thousand parts of water, or less than seven grains per gallon in solu-
tion. At certain periods of the year it, however, contains solid matter
suspended in the water, causing a turbidity which you must often have
remarked. This is particularly characteristic of the river in spring,
when the swelling of the smaller streams which feed it and the fine
particles of clay and sand washed down from fields and roads, suffi-
ciently account for its muddy appearance, while its current is rapid
enough to prevent the settling of this mud to the bottom. In respect
to suspended solid matter, however, the Ottawa River compares very
favourably with many others—I might say with any other river of its
size. The sources of the Ottawa are situated for the most part in a
rocky region where there is comparatively little soil to be washed into
its waters by spring freshets. It is quite otherwise with such rivers as
the Red River at Winnipeg, which gets its name from the highly
coloured ferruginous clay, which it carries in suspension ; or with the
Missouri and Mississippi, whose waters, joining at St. Louis, sometimes
contain the enormous amount of 1,225 grains of solid matter (or nearly
three ounces) per gallon. Yet it is from this water that St. Louis takes
its supply ; and it will not surprise you to learn that four settling basins
of large size have to be provided, so that while one is being drawn
from another is being filled, and the other two are settling for use in
their turn. Either by subsidence, as at St. Louis, or by simply cor-
structed filter beds, such suspended matter may be got rid of. Of
the principles involved in the construction of filter beds, I shall
speak later. ;

From what has been said it will appear that absolutely pure water
is not to be sought for in nature. In order to prepare it we must
resort to the process of distillation ; and one method of carrying out
this process is illustrated by the apparatus before you. ‘The water

17

which is boiling in the flask upon the left contains sand and clay in
suspension, sulphate and carbonate of lime in solution, as well as salts
of ammonia and common salt. We shall look in vain in this distillate
(the condensed steam) for any traces of these, and although we may
find traces of carbonic acid and ammonia, since these readily volatile
substances may come over with the first portions of the water vapour,
yet if we reject the first portion of distilled water, we shall find the
retnainder to be absolutely pure, since the salts mentioned above are
not converted into vapour at the temperature at which water boils, and
they ther2fore remain behind in the flask. Even the ammonia might
have been prevented from coming over had we taken proper precau-
tions in treating the water before applying heat. It will, however, be
evident that distillation is too expensive a method to be practically
available on the large scale for water purification ; and it is only in such
cases as On shipboard that water for drinking purposes is obtained in
this way. A process quite analogous to this is, nevertheless, carried on
by natural agencies on the large scale. The formation of clouds, and
the precipitation of their watery burden, as rain, snow, etc., is but a
vast distilling of the surface waters of the earth; and were it not for
the impurities washed out of the air by it, rain water would be quite as
pure as the distilled water flowing from this condenser. Indeed, were
proper pains taken to reject from cisterns the first portions of each
shower, as containing the bulk of the impurities of the air, and the dust
and dirt from the roofs on which it falls, rain water might be collected
and stored so as to form a perfectly wholesome and even palatable
drinking water, since it is well aérated, and the insipidity due to absence
of dissolved solids is less and less noticed as people become habituated
to its use. I have figured in this diagram two original devices, by
means of either of which a definite portion of each rain-fall may be
automatically prevented from entering the cistern, and only the later
portions of the shower allowed to flow into it; and I think that every
cistern should be provided with a contrivance fitted to effect this
separation of the earlier from the later portion of each rain-fall.

For purposes of brevity I shall omit any mention of sea water, or
lake water; and devote the remainder of the evening to some remarks
upon river and well waters; and in order to make it possible to define

18

the character of a sample from the results of its analysis, 1 propose to
indicate here the essential features of the operations collectively known
as Vater Analysis.—

Naturally the first tests made are those which require only the
direct use of the senses: taste, smell and sight.

1. Zaste.—It is only in rare instances that this character is suf-
ficiently definite to be of any value. When the taste of a sample is so
markedly unusual as to attract attention, as, for instance, to its saltiness
or its sulphur flavour, or its sharpness or pungency, as is the case of
come mineral springs, it may be safely asserted that such a water, how-
ever useful medicinally, is unsuited to ordinary household purposes.

>. Smell.—It is rare that a natural water exhibits any smell at
the ordinary temperature. Certain spring waters contain sulphurous
gases in solution and these have a more or less nauseating smell, at
times intense enough to remind one of rotten eggs. Many samples,
however, which are quite odourless when cold, become distinctively bad
smelling when heated. A pint or so of the water may be placed in a
glass stoppered bottle and the whole heated to about 100° F., when, if
the stopper be withdrawn and the bottle immediately applied to the
nose, peaty waters will often betray themselves by a characteristic smell,
and water from surface wells to which sewage has access will frequently
be found to have quite a stinking odour.

3. Colour.—It is pertectly wonderful how many different tints of
colour are exhibited by natural water from different sources; indeed it
would scarcely be overstating the case to say that no two water samples
have the same tint. True it may not always be possible, even with the
refinements of science, to distinguish with absolute exactitude the nice
differences that occur, yet, when we employ a colour comparer of the
model exhibited, and look through a column of water 24 inches deep,
it becomes possible to distinguish very slight differences indeed. The
first of these tubes contains distilled water, and seems quite colourless ;
the second contains ordinary Ottawa river water and looks quite brown
by comparison. In the third tube I have a sample of Ottawa water
which has been treated with 10 grains of common alum to the gallon,
and you will note that although not as colourless as distilled water, it

19

has been very greatly improved in this respect. The brownish tint of
the Ottawa river water, in common with many other Canadian rivers, as
the Richelieu, the Yamaska, etc., is due chiefly to dissolved vegetable
matter of peaty origin. Alumina has the property of precipitating such
colouring matter, hence the improvement on adding alum. In reference
to this feature, namely, colour in water, I may say that while it is
desirable on zsthetic grounds that a drinking water should be as
colourless as possible, we know of no positive reason for condemning a
highly coloured water as unwholesome. I shall show later that the pre-
sence of much organic matter, even though only of vegetable origin, and
innocent enough in its character, is cause for anxiety and possible dan-
ger, and of course so far as colour helps us to ascertain the presence of
such matter it becomes a valuable factor in the analysis ; still we must
remember that it is only as potentially, not as actually dangerous, that
we object to the use of peaty waters, and we cannot therefore condemn
them on the ground of high colour alone. The observation and record-
ing of colour in water is of greatest consequence when the same water
snpply is studied from day to day. Then indeed, a change in tint cor-
responds always to a change in character ; and the cause of this change
must be looked for, if necessary, by a complete analysis of the water.
For purposes of registering the observed depth of colour nothing better
is known to me than the scale devised by Lovibond, in which a set of
glass slips of fixed and comparable colour values is employed. I am
able to shew you the standard glasses, but a full illustration of the mode
of using them would require more time than we have to spare. The
depth of colour is expressed in terms of this scale in Bulletins 15 and
18 of the Inland Revenue Department.

4. Turbidity and Clearness are due to matter in suspension or its
absence, and vary according to conditions which have already been
explained,

5. Oxygen in Solution becomes a valuable factor in the analysis of
the water of the same stream at different points of its course, as I have
already illustrated in the case of the Seine at and below Paris. The
estimation is, however, of no value when a single sample is concerneds
since the amount which may be present in a perfectly pure water varies

20

with so many conditions. Water from deep artesian wells is sometimes
nearly free from dissolved oxygen, and is yet of the purest possible
description.

6. The Dissolved Solids are estimated by evaporating a known
volume of the water to dryness in a platinum dish and weighing the
residue. The drying of the residue is effected at 100° C. (==-onzeurr.),
a temperature high enough to drive off all except chemically combined
water. This residue is then ignited in the dish, and the resulting ash
is weighed ; the loss of weight is usually stated in a separate column in
reporting the analysis, although a much less value is attached to this
number than was the case some years ago. ‘The loss was then supposed |
to be essentially due to organic matter which had been burnt away, and
was hence thought to be a measure of the impurity of the water
analyzed. Now, we know that far more importance must be attached
to the kind of organic matter present than to the total amount of it,
and since the loss on ignition gives no information on this point its
indications are of correspondingly small moment. Besides this, the
loss is partly due to escape of carbonic acid gas irom carbonates, and
to loss of water which has been combined in such a way that it was not
driven off by heating to 100° ©.

I may here mention that it is possible to burn away the organic
matter from the residue in such a way as to collect the products of
combustion, and from them to calculate the amounts of carbon and
nitrogen which the residue contained. Since nitrogen is, as a rule,
present to a larger amount in organic matter having an ‘animal origin
than in that having a vegetable origin, it is possible from the relative
amounts of nitrogen and carbon to get an idea of the proportion of
animal impurities existing in the sample analyzed. ‘his process is a
very tedious and troublesome one, and requires the utmost care in its
execution that results of any value may be obtained. It was employed
by Dr. Frankland in the analysis of the waters of Great Britain (1868—
1876), and he concludes that surface water or river water containing
2 parts of organic carbon, or 0.3 parts of organic nitrogen per million,
should be rejected where possible. I have not employed the process in
the analyses of Canadian river and well waters which I have made within

21

recent years, nor am I aware that it is in use by any Canadian analyst
at present. Prof. Marsan, in December, 1888, found 9 parts organic
carbon and 0.47 parts nitrogen per million in the Ottawa city supply,
and did not consider these numbers to condemn the water for domestic
use.

The ignited residue contains the inorganic salts, sand, etc., which
were present in the water. Unless these are in excessive amount their
discrimination is not necessary, since in ordinary water samples they
consist of lime, magnesium, or soda salts, quite harmless in character,
unless, as I have already explained, the water is wanted for boiler
supply. Many analyses of the Ottawa river water shew the ignited
residue to vary from 20 to about 80 parts per million, according to the
season of the year, and the part of the river from which the sample is
collected. Other rivers show a much higher inorganic content, as, for
instance, the Grand River, at Brantford (Noy., 1889), 348 parts per
million, and the Assiniboine, near Winnipeg (May, 1888), which gave
1088 parts per million.

In this residue, however, we always look for phosphoric acid, since
phosphates are highly characteristic of sewage, and their presence in the
minutest traces is a very suspicious indication.

7. Mitrogen existing as ammonia in water is present in consequence
of the fact that whenever organic matter containing nitrogen undergoes
decay a considerable proportion of this nitrogen takes the form of am-
monia, and the exceeding solubility of this gas in water causes it to be
at once dissolved. You are, many of you at least, acquainted with the
fact that the atmosphere of a stable, unless kept very thoroughly cleaned,
has a decided smell of spirits ot hartshorn. This odour is due to the
decomposing nitrogenous matters present, and the formation of ammo-
nia as one of the products of decay. ‘The universal occurrence of organic
decay makes. it practically impossible that a natural water should be
absolutely free from ammonia. When, as in some tables of analysis,
you find nitrogen as ammonia stated to be absent, you must understand
this to mean that the amount present is too small to make its quanti-
tative estimation possible. Yet it is wonderful with what certainty we
can measure minute traces of ammonia. When you find tables in which
the nitrogen existing as ammonia is stated to three places of decimals,

99)
ac

the results being given in parts per million, this means that we aim at
estimating one part of nitrogen in one billion parts of water, or less than
one-ten-thousandth of a grain per gallon. In order to give you some
‘dea of how this is done I place in one of these tubes a column of 24
inches of water quite free from ammonia, and in another I place an
equal quantity of water to which I have added ammonia in the propor-
tion of one part nitrogen to one million parts of water. The two sam-
ples as reflected to you from the mirrors are of course quite indistin-
guishable from each other. To each I now add a small quantity of
a prepared test liquid called Nessler’s solution, and you will observe in
the course of a minute or two that while the contents of the first tube
are unchanged in colour, a faint brownish yellow colour gradually
developes itself in the second tube. Of course it is possible in the
laboratory to apply this test in such a way as to obtain still greater
sensitiveness, but the illustration will serve to give you confidence in
numerical statements of the results of analysis even when fractional
parts of a million are expressed.

8. While the simpler organic bodies containing nitrogen yield this
nitrogen as ammonia during decomposition, many of the more complex
substances which enter into the composition of animal structure, such
as albumen, fibrin, etc., form other proximate products of decay, these
possessing the common property of being converted into ammonia when
boiled with a strongly alkaline solution of permanganate of potash. The
ammonia obtained by treating a sample in this way, after the ammonia
already present in it has been taken off, is called “ Albuminoid” am
monia, as suggested by Wanklyn, the author of the process, and is pro-
perly considered as a most important factor in the analysis. Indeed, if
it were ever allowable to adjudge a sample of water for drinking pur-
poses upon the indications of a single factor in the analysis I would
select this estimation as the critical one. The author of the process,
who in conjunction with other analysts, worked upon a very large
number of samples of all degrees of badness, concludes from his experi-
ence that “o.ro per million begins to be a very suspicious sign, and
0.15 per million ought to condemn a water absolutely.” This standard
would go hard with Ottawa river water, which in 1888 gave from 0.12
to 0.27 in different samples ; in March and April of last year gave 0.15

23

and 0.16 ; and in August last gave 0.125 albuminoid nitrogen per mil-
lion. We must not forget that these are English standards and on that
account are questionably applicable to American rivers, which flow for
very great distances over forest and marshy regions where contamination
by sewage—in the ordinary acceptance of this term—cannot occur,
We must, I think, concur in the wisdom of Prof. Mallet’s decision that
“local standards of purity should be adopted, based on sufficiently
thorough examination of the water-supply in its usual condition.
Unfortunately no systematic and continuous examination of our city
supply has yet been undertaken, and it is impossible for me to state,
except in a very imperfect way, what the normal composition of the
Ottawa water is. It must, of course, be expected to vary for different
months ; but we should have a series of analyses made at weekly inter-
vals for a number of years; and from the averages so obtained it would
be a simple matter to determine the mean character of the water for
any period. When we consider that water is a universal food substance
that it enters into the preparation of every article of food ; that from the
nature of its production and storage, it is peculiarly liable to contamina-
tion in various ways, and that the most fatal diseases have been fully
proven to have become epidemic, through its agency, we shall, I think,
agree that a constant and careful examination of the supply of a city
like ours is but a reasonable and necessary precaution.

g. When organic matter containing nitrogen has been exposed for
a sufficiently long time to the ameliorating influences that are always
at work in nature, the nitrogen takes the form of nitric acid, and when
this is once formed and enters into combination with bases as nitrates,
the condition of the nitrogen is fairly stable, and the nitrates so formed
may exist as such for an indefinite length of time. Complex organic
substances like albumen are thus changed into simple inorganic sub-
stances, perfectly harmless, and only interesting to the analyst as serving
to measure the previous sewage contamination of the supply. For
where much sewage has found entrance to a well-water, for example,
although little or none may be now pzesent as sewage, the tell-tale
nitrates serve to prove past contamination. I need scarcely say that
such wells as those quoted below are undoubtedly infected by
sewage :—

24

NITROGEN PER MILLION PARTS, AS

Albuminoid | Nitrates and

Ammonia,

Free, &c. Ammonia. Nitrites.
Inland Revenue Department, bulletin 5, |

SOCIO NOs TOMAAt ese tals sae 0.033 0.305 | 11.967
Inland Revenue Department, bulletin 5,)

Peevey Ls ONG WASP on Sort see oets obs 0.090 0.165 15.909
Inland Kevenue Department, bulletin 13,|

PaAveios NON O Otc ett). aie 0.000 0.148 27.357
Inland Revenue. Department, bulletin 13,

PAGE TRS INO AR oa a.xtniny obs: ye trace. Oo 050 39.000

In order to guard against miscomprehension I must mention here
that nitrates although fairly stable compounds, are not absolutely such ;
but may, under certain conditions, be again resolved into ammonia or
nitrogen.

to. I have already referred to the universal employment of com-
mon salt as a condiment and preservative ; a fact which accounts for its
presence in sewage, and makes a search for it in water analysis a very
important step in the examination. The readiness with which minute
traces of kitchen salt can be recognized will be evident to you from
this experiment. When nitrate of silver solution is added to this solu-
tion of chromate of potash, a few drops of this weak solution ts sufficient
to produce a decidedly reddish tint, due to the bright red chromate of
silver formed in the re-action, the particles being suspended through
the water in the tube. I will now repeat the experiment, taking the
precaution to add a very small amount of common salt to the chromate
solution, before adding the silver, drop by drop, fora very long time
without producing any red colour in the liquid ; in fact, no chromate of
silver will be permanently formed until enough silver has been added
to decompose the common salt present. On this principle is based a
method by which we can detect less than 1 part of salt in 1 million
parts of water. Wherever sewage is present chlorides will be found.
In the four wells whose nitrates indicated past sewage contamination,
the chlorine in chlorides was found to be 148, 134, 65 and 143 parts
per million respectively. A large number of good wells whose analyses

25

are to be found in the bulletins of the Inland Revenue Department
will be seen to contain chlorine in varying amounts from 1 to ro, or
more parts per million. We must not, however, forget that in many
parts of Canada salt is found in the soil, and in various deep-seated
springs, and it is therefore absolutely essential that the location and
surroundings of the well should be known to the analyst before he pro-
nounces an opinion on the results of chlorine estimation. Many wells
in Winnipeg and other parts of Manitoba contain from 200 to 300 parts
of chlorine per million, and are yet free from sewage pollution.

11. The only other feature in water analysis to which I need refer
is the estimation of dissolved organic matter essentially non-nitrogenous
in character, in other words, of vegetable origin. Such organic matter
is with difficulty destroyed by oxidation and requires the employment
of the most powerful oxidizing agencies we know to effect its decomposi-
tion. For the purpose we always use permanganic acid, a sample of
which I show you in solution. Observe its beautiful deep purple colour
and see how the addition of a very small quantity of water, impure from
decomposing organic matter in solution, serves at once, or at least in a
very short interval of time to cause the purple to become less and less
intense, and shortly to disappear altogether, Now, by using a solution
containing a known amount of permanganic acid, and adding it in
excess toa measured quantity of the water to be examined, we can
easily, at the end of, say four hours, estimate the excess of permanganic
acid by chemical means, which need not be here explained, and thus
obtain by difference the quantity used up in oxidizing the organic matter
present in the sample of water. Since pemanganic acid gives up a
definite amount of its oxygen to this purpose, it is convenient to state
the results of the examination as so many parts by weight of oxygen to
the million parts by volume of water. The observation is usually made
for two periods, viz., intervals of 15 minutes and 4 hours; the more
easily oxidized organic matter being attacked in the shorter interval,
and this part always includes any animal or more objectionable matter
present. The following uumbers quoted from Bull. v of the Inland
Revenue Department will serve to give an idea of the indications
afforded by this test :—

OXYGEN CONSUMED PER

1,000,000 PARTS WATER.

15 Minutes. 4 Hours.
Bake Ontadonats Hamiltonian ete ca « «iors. cceioee ee 0.120 0.440
River St. Lawrence, at Brockville....:.....:5....... 0.276 0.612
River Richelieu;jat St. John’s; Ques). 4243.0 4 secs Jc 0.740 {.668
Bay off @uinte, atBellevilles (0!) ie, Pt, HS ee 1.420 3.040
River St. Maurice, at Three Rivers, Que. .......... 2.612 4.456
Ottawa River, Bebruanys TSoo ocean eee cider ocie oe 2.808 5-760

Moncton Supply, New Brunswick .................. 5-436 10.444

The place occupied by Ottawa river water in this list is certainly
one of dad eminence. As this water has been examined at irregular
intervals since 1888, I may add the following results :-—

Oftawaiversy Apr) SOO egy. acters oesb goss Es 3.060 4.886

+ Fifi}. Aligust,| \ISQO UM yaa ecpshiseiA Nes. Leer 3-747 6.387

It will be seen from these numbers that while the amount of
oxidizable organic matter in the river varies from month to month as
might be expected, and according to a law which we have not the
necessary data to to discover, the amount is at all times very large, and
it behoves us to examine the conditions under which a_ water
containing so large a quantity of dissolved organic matter is safe as an
article of food. ‘That the organic matter is not fer se of an injurious
nature is sufficiently evident from the fact that we and our fathers do use
it and have used it with impunity. Let me ask your attention for a few
moments to another matter. There is a large class of diseases generally
spoken of as zymotic which have this property in common. Whenever
a single case of such a disease occurs in a locality we may be pretty
sure that immediately in its vicinity, and gradually further and further
from that point as a centre, we shall find the disease spreading until it

27

becomes an epidemic. That is to say, such is the normal tendency of
this class of diseases, and I may instance cholera, typhoid fever, diph-
theria, influenza and la grippe as examples. ‘There can be little doubt
that the plagues and pestilences, such as the Black Death which visited
England in the 14th century after having spread all over Europe and
caused the death of twenty five millions of people, were other instances
of zymotic diseases ; and the fact that such plagues and pestilences are
of so much less frequent occurrence now-a-days, and so much less malig_
nant when they occur in the more civilized parts of the world than else-
where, gives us the first important ciue to their comprehension, and we
may hope to their extermination. For it has been and is just in pro-
portion to the cleanly habits of a people that these diseases lose their
fatal character. This suggests a close connection between filth and dis-
ease, and the more carefully that we look into the matter, following this
clue, the more fully are we convinced that such is the case ; that clean-
liness of person and surroundings ts the first law of health. Still, this
does not fully explain the phenomenon of zymotic disease, since the
advent of a specific case of disease is necessary that the evil effects of
uncleanly habits may be fully emphasized. This would seem to imply
the existence of a specific disease virus or poison for each of these epi-
demics, the spread of which poison was favoured by the prevalence of
uncleanly habits. Reasoning on this line led Pasteur, Koch, Cohn and
others to the discovery of what will hereafter be regarded as the most
important generalization of medical science in our century, namely, that
which points to the existence of a special microbe, bacillus or living
germ for each of the so-called zymotic diseases. The next step was to
attempt the isolation of this germ, and with certain diseases this has
been done. In the case of Anthrax, Koch has cultivated the bacillus
and studied it throughout its complete development. ‘The chart before
you will serve to give an idea of the appearance of this cnemy of man-
kind, as magnified about 15,000 times linear. In the next diagram I
shew you both zz stfu, and isolated the dact//us tuberculosis from photo-
graphs by Koch. It is the study of this bacillus which has made Koch’s
name so widely known within the last year; but my purpose in empha-
sizing the matter is to draw your attention to the explanation which this
theory of zymotic diseases offers of their sudden spread. The specific

28

bacilli are found in the waste matter from the bodies of patients, and
may, and must, if the greatest care be not taken to make the thing im-
possible, find their way into the atmosphere, and into open water
courses, into wells by surface or sewer drainage if such drainage finds
access to them. And while the taking of these disease germs into the
lungs in respiration is unquestionably the most effective way of spread-
ing the disease yet experience has proved beyond a doubt that taking
them into the system in our drinking water or our food is only second
in danger. I might quote many historical instances in proot of this if
time permitted, You will find such in the Sixth Report of the Royal
Commissioners (1868) on preventing the pollution of rivers. The im-
portance of immediate attention to the destruction of the dejecta of
patients suffering from any of these zymotic diseases will be evident; but
how are we to protect ourselves when by chance such infection pollutes
our streams and wells? There is but one safe rule, and it is this: —
Use no water for domestic purposes which at any time contains sewage ;
because although normal sewage may not contain actually poisonous
substances, and may, when sufficiently diluted, be drunk with impunity,
as proved by Dr. Emmerlich and others ; yet we can never know when
diseased sewage containing morbific germs may enter such a water
course, and the only safe way is to have nothing to do with it. As I
have said this is really the only safe rule, but what shall we do when
we cannot help ourselves. ‘To take our own case; there is apparently
no other source from which we can obtain a supply than the Ottawa
river, and this receives the sewage of places like Aylmer, Quyon and
others ; together with the drainage of fertilized fields all along its course,
and the fertilisers used are, as we know, not unlikely to contain disease
germs. Fortunately nature furnishes, in dissolved oxygen and through
other conditions, the means of self purification for such contaminated
waters. Only give time enough and the most dangerous sewage con-
tamination will be converted into harmless matter by natural agencies.
Still, it 1s reasonable to suppose that water containing much organic
matter in solution is more likely to furnish a suitable and congenial
nidus, or nourishing ground for bacteria than water that is more nearly
free from organic matter. This is the disadvantage at which we are
placed ; and I have no hesitation in saying that not only on esthetic, but

29

also on hygienic grounds some method should be provided for pre-
cipitating, or otherwise separating from our river water the large amount
of organic matter it contains before supplying it to the citizens for
household use.

Returning now to the consideration of well water, it will appear
that the chief differences in character to be expected between deep
well waters on the one hand, and shallow well, or surface waters on
the other hand are such as may result from the influence of filtration
through deep layers of soil. The most effective way of presenting
these differences will be by asking your attention to the following table
in which a few shallow wells, and a few deep wells are contrasted as
regards the results of their chemical analysis :—

: , Ox :
Total Solids. Nitrogen. ygen Con
: = ¢ sumed.
43/8
—- ee n Vos Ss : =
ol aan 2 Ee) 2) 8 z
al = 2 s os 2 fal 5
s6|bo| 2 | 2 | Alb. | Free] 5 [2a] © = a
O! &p ~ GS rs) Ss wn
ley yx 4 Zz O oe _ =

|

Shallow Wells .| 1] 128) 84] 44] 0.066; 0.016] 0.133} 3.0}none] 0.168]o.440

2| 424! 312] 112] 0.016, 0.090] 0.109 66.0) 4 O.194\0.232

1
|

|
| 31 148] 99] 49] 0.250] 0.020; 0 450; 9.6! tr. | 1.830)3.645
14 424| 320| 104] 0.181] 0.946] 1.154] 4.0) none| 2.412|5.042
x
Deep Wells.... §|1312]1136] 176] 0.080] 0.140} 0.260)330.0} ‘* | 0.076|0.244

6 552] 404| 148] 0.060] 0.090] 0.010] 10.0] ‘* | 0.160|1.600

7 993| 692! 301} 0.640} 0.200)37.0CO 108 .o|P&2v¥ 3-390|8.670

traces

0.218/11.190| 5.910)260.o}traces| 0.552/1.55

aaa 640] 472

No. 1—A well in the suburbs of Hamilton, Ont.

No. 2—A well at Ashburnham, Ont.

No. 3—A well in a bog at Joe’s Point, St. Andrews, N.B.
No. 4—A well at Brandon, N.W.T.

No. 5—A public well in Winnipeg, Man.

No. 6—An artesian well at Goderich, Ont.

No. 7—A well at Three Rivers, Que.

No, 8—A well in a large tenement house, Sherbrooke, Que,

30

Numbers 1 and 2 in the aboye:table give a very fair idea when
contrasted with numbers*§ and'6) of the differences which exist between
shallow and deep wells. The solids in'the latter aré Mnuch higher, and
although chlorides aré present-even’ in large amount, they need not
indicate sewage contamination, since their presence may be due to
chlorides in the soil or in rock strata through which the water has passed.
Albuminoid nitrogen should be low in these deep waters; that it happens
to be still lower in amount in the shallow wells quoted indicates their
freedom’ from sewage. Number 3 shews sewage contamination not
only in its albuminoid nitrogen but in its traces of phosphates, and this
is corroborated by its chlorine, for while 66 parts chlorine does not
indicate anything wrong in No. 2, one-seventh part as much chlorine is
a bad indication in No. 3, since its sewage origin is borne out by other
features of the analysis. ‘The free ammonia in No. 4 serves to indicate
sewage, and the nitrates here shew past sewage contamination. Num-
bers 7 and 8, although deep wells, shew in many items of the analysis
that sewage has found entrance to them, and they cannot be safe or
desirable sources of domestic supply.

I had intended interpreting for you the results of analysis ot Ottawa
river water for some years past, so far as I have been able to collect
statistics ; but this would require at least another half hour, and it is now
past ten o’clock. I must therefore defer this portion of the subject
until some future opportunity. There remains also the important
question of how, by artificial means, the quality of a natural water sup-
ply may be improved. This is in itself a subject large enough to
occupy a whole evening in its treatment, and must therefore be left to
be dealt with in the future.

31

_ THE BIRDS OF OTTAWA.

The appended list of birds found in the neighbourhood of Ottawa
has been compiled by the leaders of the Ornithological Branch of the
Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club, from the records of the Club, and
embodies the work of the Branch from its establishment in the begin-
ning of the year 1881 to the end of the year 1890.

A list was published in 1882 (Transactions O. F. N. C., Vol. L.,
No. 3, p. 29), enumerating one hundred and sixty-nine species. Of
these the following were afterwards struck off the list, having been
inserted by mistake:—12, Harporhyncus cinereus ; 329, Glaucidium
passerinum, var. Californicum ; 398, Fgialitis Wilsontus ; 609, Podtceps
cristatus. The following substitutions were also made :—33, Parus
Hudsonicus for 34, P. rufescens ; 125, Vireo gtlvus for 132, V. pusillus ;
467, Rallus Virginianus for 470, Porzana Jamaicensis ; 556, Larus
Philadelphia for 555, L. Franklinit. Of those remaining, or since
added to the list, it is now thought advisable to drop the following,
either because of mistakes in identification, or because sufficient evid-
ence cannot now be adduced to support the records :—Cofurniculus
passerinus, TRANSACTIONS O. F. N. C., Vol. I., No. 3, p. 30; Ibid.,
No. 4, p. 85; Steganopus Wilsonit, Ibid., No. 3, p. 32; Larus
atricilla, \bid., p. 44 ; Cistothorus stellarts, Ibid., Vol. I1., p. 141. See
also Otrawa Natura.ist, Vol. IV., pp. 93, 162. Auteo Swainsont,
OrrawA Natura ist, Vol. IL., p. 49; Acanthis linaria rostrata, Ibid.,
p. 150; Geothlypis agilis, Ibid. p. 150; Turdus alicie, Ibid., p. 150.
With these changes, the additions made to the old list since its publica-
tion bring the number recorded to two hundred and twenty-four. This
number includes two species now recorded for the first time by the
Club, vis.: No. 11, Urinator lumme, and No. 301, Lagopus lagopus,
besides those mentioned in the Report for the year 1890, which has
not yet been published.

The district covered by this list is embraced within a circle of
thirty miles radius, with the City of Ottawa as its centre. It includes,
roughly speaking, the Counties of Carleton and Russell, in Ontario, and
the Southern portion of the County of Ottawa, in Quebec, and lies
between 45° and 46° N. lat. The Northern portion of this district is
covered by what may be termed the first range of the Laurentian Hills,

32

one of which, known as King’s Mountain, has an elevation of 1,125 feet
above sea level, and rises about goo feet above the large alluvial plain
lying between it and the Ottawa River. These hills are covered with a
great variety of deciduous and evergreen trees, and among them are
numerous mountain lakes, varying in size from mere ponds to lakes of
five miles and upwards in length. Flowing from the North through this
range of hills, the rapid river Gatineau empties, opposite the city, into
the Ottawa, which flows from the West across the centre of the district,
widening above the City, with a Southward sweep into a broad and
beautiful sheet of water known as Lake Des Chenes, and again narrow-
ing at the City where, falling over a limestone ridge, it forms the well-
known Chaudiere Falls. Below these its course is straighter and nar-
rower, and about twenty miles down it receives from the North the
waters of another rapid stream, the Du Lievre. South of the Ottawa is
a somewhat undulating tract of country, drained principally by the
Rideau, which joins the Ottawa at the City. It is rather a sluggish
stream in its upper reaches, through being dammed back at various
points for cana] purposes, and thus affords several excellent resorts for
marsh birds. Much good farming land, with occasional hardwood
ridges, is to be found in this part of the district, as well as swamps
overgrown with tamarac, cedar, and other cone-bearing trees. The
largest of these swamps is a peat-bog in Gloucester Township, known as
the Mer Bleue, which covers several thousand acres of land, carpeted
to a great depth with s#agnum moss, and produces immense quantities
of berries of many kinds, notably cranberries and blueberries. Thus it
will be seen that the district in its various parts offers attractive breed-
ing and feeding grounds for many diverse forms of bird life, and
as there are parts of it as yet little explored by the ornithologist, it may
still be lcoked to to yield new records, as well as much valuable
information, of the breeding and other habits of many species of which
too little is now known.

It is too much to expect that the list has escaped the errors
to which a compilation of the kind is so liable, but the compilers trust
that when it shall have passed through the purifying fires of criticism, to
which it is hoped it will be subjected, it will form a useful basis for
future work and study, at least for our local workers.

33

LIST OF BIRDS OF THE OTTAWA DISTRICT.

The following abbreviations are used :—“S.,” summer resident or
visitant; “ W.,” winter resident or visitant; “R.,” resident; ‘“ M.,”
migrant ; ‘°B.,” known to breed; ‘“‘a.,” abundant; “c.,” common ;

“‘m.c.,” moderately common ; ‘“r.,” rare. The numbers prefixed and
the nomenclature are those of the A. O. U. Check-list.

ORDER, PYGOPODES—DIVING BIRDS.

PopiIcIPID&—GREBES.

1. dichmophorus occidentalis, Western Grebe. Casual. A pair were
shot at the mouth of the North Nation river previous to 1881.
The skins spoiled before they could be attended to. (G.R.
White. )

2. Colymbus holbellit, Holbeell’s Grebe. M.r. A young male was
shot by Mr. W. F. Whitcher in October, 1881, out of a flock of
eight, in Campbell’s Bay, about 28 miles down the Ottawa. It
was also reported in 1885 and 1889.

Colymbus auritus, Horned Grebe. S. m.c. B.

6. Podilymbus podiceps, Pied-billed Grebe. 5S. c. B.

SS

URINATORIDA'—LOONS.
7. Urinator imber, Loon. 5S. c. B.

II. i lumme, Red-throated Loon. M.r. A young female was
shot on the Ottawa r2th November, 1885, by Mr. T. R.
Coursolles and presented to the Museum of the Geological
and Natural History Survey.

Atcip&—Auvks, Murres, Purrins, Etc.

13. Fratercula arctica, Puffin. Casual. A young bird of this species
was shot on the Ottawa towards the end of October, 1881. It
was probably blown inland by a severe storm which took place
some days before.

ORDER, LONGIPENNES—LONG-WINGED SWIMMERS.
LARIDEZ—GULLS AND TERNS.

47. Larus marinus, Great Black-backed Gull. Casual. One was
seen May 2nd, 1885, near Kettle Island on the Ottawa, in com-

34

pany with ten or twelve American Herring Gulls. (G. R.
White.)

sta. Larus argentatus smithsonianus, American Herring Gull. _ S.
m.c. B. Most common in spring and fall. Found breeding
in the lakes north of Ottawa.

60. Larus philadelphia, Bonaparte’s Gull. S.m.c. May be found to
breed, as it has been seen as late as June 9th (1885.)

70. Sterna hirundo, Common Tern. Casual. A male shot near St.
Louis dam, on the Rideau Canal, June 29th, 1885, and another
on the Ottawa, August 27th, 1887. |

77. Hydrochelidon nigra surinamensis, Black Tern. Casual. Six,
including both males and females, were shot 28th May, 1888,
on the Ottawa, by Mr. E White.

ORDER, STEGANOPODES—TOTIPALMATE BIRDS.
PHALACROCORACID#—CORMORANTS.
120. Phalacrocorax adilophus, Double-crested Cormorant. Casual. A

young bird of this species was shot about rst October, 1890, at
Shirley’s Bay, near Britannia, on the Ottawa, by Mr. C. G. Rogers.

ORDER, ANSERES—LAMELLIROSTRAL SWIMMERS.
ANATIDA—DuckKs, GEESE AND SWANS.

129. Merganser americanus, American Merganser. M. c.
= serrator, Red-breasted Merganser. M. r.
131. Lophodytes cucullatus, Hooded Merganser. S. a. B.
132. Anas boschas, Mallard. M. r.

133. ‘“ obscura, Black Duck. S.c. B.

130.

Note.—Two ducks, a male and femaie, apparently hybrids
between the two last named species, were shot by Mr. G. R.
White on the Ottawa in 1882.

135. Anas strepera, Gadwall. Casual. A female was shot on the

Ottawa, from a small flock, October 29th, 1885, by Mr. W. F.
Whitcher.

137. Anas americana, Baldpate. M. r.
139: ‘* carolinensis, Green-winged Teal, M. m.c.

140.
142.

143.
144.
146.
147. -
148.
149.
150.
I5I-

153.
154.

160.

163.
165.
166.
167.

35

Anas discors, Blue-winged Teal. M.m.c. A few may breed.

Spatula clypeata. Shoveller. Casual. A few were shot on the
Rideau in the Fall of 1882; two were seen on the Ottawa in
October, 1883, (both females), and two were shot by Mr. W. P.
Lett in 1886, one at Richmond and the other at Brigham’s
Creek.

Dafila acuta, Pintail. M.r.

Aix sponsa, Wood Duck. S.c. B.

Aythya americana, Redhead. M. a.

vallisnerta, Canvas-back. M. r.

marila nearctica, American Scaup Duck. M. m.c.

“< affinis, Lesser Scaup Duck. M. c.
“ collaris, Ring-necked Duck. M.c.

Glaucionetta clangula americana, American Golden-eye. W. r.
Common in migration.

Charitonetta albeola, Buffle-head. M.c.

Clangula hyemalis, Old Squaw. M.c. A pair in full breeding
plumage were obtained by Mr. E. White in the Spring of 1887
from a person who had just shot them on the Rideau.

Somaterta dressert, American Eider. Casual. A young male in
the plumage of the female was shot by Mr. G. R. White on the
Ottawa, below the City, 9th November, 1889. A male in
mature plumage, said to have been shot on the Gatineau, was
seen on the By Ward market about the same time.

Oidemia americana, American Scoter. M. c.

‘ deglandi, White-winged Scoter. M. c.
“< perspicillata, Surf Scoter. M. r.

Erismatura rubida. Ruddy Duck. M. m.c. This species ap-
peared in large numbers in the fall of 1882, arriving early and
staying late.

169a. Chen hyperborea nivalis, Greater Snow Goose. M. r. On

November 1st, 1284, Mr. S. Herring, the Taxidermist of the
Geological and Natural History Survey, “put up” a bird of this
species from a stubble field on the Ontario side of the Ottawa,
and, although he did not secure it, is quite positive as to its
identity. The late Dr. Van Cortlandt shot one just above the

36

Chaudiere Falls about 1867, the head and wings of which were
in the possession of the Ottawa Literary and Scientific Society
until destroyed by moths.

169.1. Chen caerulescens, Blue Goose. Casual. Two geese and a
gander of this species were shot 11th October, 1886, within a
few miles of the City. (G. R. White.) The bills and feet were
black instead of being lake-red as in Dr. Coues’s description,
but the birds corresponded with it in every other particular.

172. Branta canadensis, Canada Goose. M. c.

173. Branta bernicla, Brant. Casual. One was shot by Mr. P.
Thompson on a sand-bar some thirty miles down the Ottawa in
the fall of 1887, and identified by comparison with Audubon’s
colored plate of the species.

ORDER, HERODIONES—HERONS, STORKS, IBISES, Xc.
ARDEID£—HERONS, BITTERNS, XC.

190. Botaurus lentiginosus, American Bittern. S. c. B.

QI. tf extlis, Least Bittern. S, r. B.

194. Ardea herodias, Great Blue Heron. S.c. B. For accounts of
visits to the heronry of this species, near Thurso, see ‘TRANSAC-
TIONS O. F. N. C., Vol. I., No. 4, p. 81, and Vol. II., p. 141.

202. Wycticorax nycticorax nevius, Black-crowned Night Heron. §,
m.c. B. Young of this species have been taken here in July.
(G. R. White.)

ORDER, PALUDICOLAA—CRANES, RAILS, &c.
RALLID&-—RaILSs.

212. Rallus virginianus, Virginia Rail. S. m.c. B.

214. Porzana carolina, Sora. S.c. B. One found dead in Mr. R. B.
Whyte’s garden in the City, 13th July, 1889, apparently having
flown against some object in the night.

219. Gallinula galeata, Florida Gallinule. S.c. B. A nest of this
species, with seven eggs parily incubated, was taken near Kars,

on the Rideau, oth July, 1890, by Messrs. W. E. and F. A.
Saunders.

221. Fulica americana, American Coot. S.c. B.

37
ORDER, LIMICOLA:—SHORE BIRDS.

PHALAROPODIDA:— PHALAROPES.

222. Crymophilus fulicarius, Red Phalarope. Casual. One shot 21st
October, 1886, at Cummings’s Island, in the Rideau, by Mr. E.
White, and another, a young one, on the Ottawa, 1st September,
1888, by Mr. G. R. White.

223. Phalaropus lobatus, Northern Phalarope. Casual. One was
obtained by Mr. A. G. Kingston, on roth September, 1890,
which had just been shot near Burritt’s Rapids on the Rideau.

SCOLOPACIDE—SNIPES, SANDPIPERS, &C.

228. Philohela minor, American Woodcock. S. m.c. B.

230, Gallinago delicata, Wilson’s Snive. S. m.c. B.

231. Macrorhamphus griseus, Dowitcher. Casual. <A pair were shot
May 22nd, 1890, by Mr. E. White.

234. Tringa canutus, Knot. M.r. A male in full breeding plumage
was shot by Mr. E. White 4th June, 18go.

235. Zringa maritima, Purple Sandpiper. Casual. One shot on the
Rideau 29th October, 1885, by Mr. W. Forbes.

239. Zringa maculata, Pectoral Sandpiper. M. c.

240. “ fusctcollis, White-rumped Sandpiper. M. r. One shot in
1883, and five in 1884. Of the latter Mr. E. White got two on
8th October and one on 18th, and Mr. S. Herring two on 27th.

242. Tringa minutilla, Least Sandpiper. M. m.c.

243a. “ alpina pacifica, Red-backed Sandpiper. M.r. One shot
2nd October, 1885.

246. Ereunetes pustlius, Semipalmated Sandpiper. M. m.c.

248. Calidris arenaria, Sanderling. M. m.c.

251. Limosa hemastica, Hudsonian Godwit. M. r.

154. Zotanus metanoleucus, Greater Yellow-legs. _M. c,

255. «flavipes, Yellow-legs. M. c.

256. “« solitarius, Solitary Sandpiper. S. c. B.

262. Tryngites subrujficollis, Buff-breasted Sandpiper. M. r. One shot
on an island in the Ottawa, near Templeton, by Mr. E. White,
24th August, 1886.

263. Actitis macularia, Spotted Sandpiper. S. a. B.

38

CHARADRIID#-—PLOVERS.

270. Charadrius squatarola, Black-bellied Plover, M. c.

272. a dominicus, American Golden Plover. M. c.
273. gialitis vocifera, Killdeer. M.r. <A few breed (G. R. White.)
274. semtpalmata, Semipalmated Plover. M. r.

APHRIZIDE—-SURF BIRDS AND TURNSTONES.

283. Avenaria interpres, Turnstone. M. r.

ORDER, GALLINA—GALLINACEOUS BIRDS.
‘TETRAONIDA—GROUSE, PARTRIDGES, &C.

298. Dendragapus canadensis, Canada Grouse. R. m.c. B.

300a. Bonasa umbellus togata, Canadian Ruffed Grouse. R. a. B.

301. Lagopus lagopus, Willow Ptarmigan. Casual. One shot on the
Gatineau in the winter of 1885-6 is now in the collection of Mr.
G. R. White.

ORDER, COLUMBZ—PIGEONS.
CoLUMBID#— PIGEONS.
315. Lctopistes migratorius, Passenger Pigeon. S. r. B.

ORDER, RAPTORES—BIRDS OF PREY.
FALCONIDZ—Hawks, FALcons, EAGLEs, XC.

327. Elanoides forficatus, Swallow-tailed Kite. Casual. One was seen
by Lt.-Col. White and Mr. G. R. White, perched: on a flagstaff at
the Rideau Rifle Range. Though not secured it was closely
examined through a glass, and no doubt exists as to its identity.
The date was not noted, but it was previous to 1881.

331. Circus hudsonius, Marsh Hawk. S. c. B.

332. Accipiter velox, Sharp-shinned Hawk. R. c. B.

333. ‘ coopert, Coopers Hawk. S. r.

334. + atricapillus, American Goshawk. W. r.

337. Buteo borealis, Red-tailed Hawk. S. r. B.

339. “ <ineatus, Red-shouldered Hawk. S.r. This species was

not recorded here till 24th September, 1888, when Mr. G. R.
White shot one near the quarries on the Montreal Road,
343. Buteo latissimus, Broad-winged Hawk. S. c. B,

39

3474. Archibuteo lagopus sanctt-johannis, American Rough-legged Hawk.
M. r.

349. Aguila chrysaétos, Golden Eagle. R.r. B. A female was shot
30th October, 1883, near Casselman, by Mr. J. S. Castleman,
and another was seen near the same place shortly afterwards.
There are other records of its occurence in the district. It
breeds in the Laurentian Hills (G. R. White.)

352. Halieetus leucocephalus, Bald Eagle. R.r. B. On 21st March,
1888, one was seen flying low over the Rideau Rifle Range.
Several have been shot or taken alive in the Gatineau district,
and its nest has been seen at Lake Wilson, near Wakefield.

3544. falco rusticolus gyrfalco, Gyrfalcon. Casual. One was shot by
Mr. E. White on the bank of the Rideau, below Cummings’s
Bridge, on 23rd December, 1890. One was shot here before,
but not recorded as the skin was lost (G. R. White.)

356. Falco peregrinus anatum, Duck Hawk. M. r. One was seen
flying low over the Rifle Range 28th April, 1889, by Mr. G. R.
White and others, and another was seen at King’s Mountain
11th July, 1890, by Messrs. W. E. and F. A. Saunders. A third
was shot and wounded, but not secured, by Mr. F. A. Saunders,
22nd September, 1890.

357- alco columbarius, Pigeon Hawk. M.r. One was seen in the
City 19th December, 1890, eating an “ English” Sparrow (W.
AD Dx iees:)

360. Falco sparverius, American Sparrow-Hawk. S.c. B. A winter
record for this species is 26th January, 1890.

364. Pandion haltiaétus carolinensis, American Osprey. S. m.c. B.

BuponipD£—HorNED OWLS.

366. Asio wilsontanus, American Long-eared Owl. S.r. One shot by
Mr. F. A. Saunders near the Experimental Farm 7th July, 1890.
This is the only record.

367. Asio accipitrinus, Short-eared Owl. R.r. A pair were shot 6th
October, 1883, by Mr. G. R. White, and one was seen on 28th
of same month by Mr. W. L. Scott. It has not been reported
since.

368, Syrnium nebulosum, Barred Owl. R. mc,

40

371. Nyctala tengmalmi richardsoni, Richardson’s Owl, W.r. Shot
by Mr. G. R. White January rst and November 2gth, 1884, and
seen by Mr. W. A. D. Lees and others February 21st, 1889.

372. Wyctala acadica, Saw-whet Owl. R. m.c.

375. Bubo virginianus, Great Horned Owl. Rr.

376. Wyctea nyctea, Snowy Owl. W.r.

377a. Surnia ulula caparoch, American Hawk Owl. W. r.

ORDER, COCCYGES—CUCKOOS.
CucuLip®#—Cuckoos, ANIs, &c.

387. Coccyzus americanus, Yellow-billed Cuckoo. S.r.B. A pair
nested in Lt.-Col. White’s garden in this City in 1890. The
female was shot June 27th, but the male and young escaped.

388. Coccyzus erythrophthalmus, Black-billed Cuckoo. S. c. B.

ALCEDINID®—KINGFISHERS.

390. Ceryle alcyon, Belted Kingfisher. S. a. B.

ORDER, PICI—WOODPECKERS.
PiciIDa&—W OODPECKERS.

3934. Dryobates villosus leucomelas, Northern Hairy Woodpecker. R
esB:

394. Dryobates pubescens, Downy Woodpecker. Ra. B. Most abund-
ant in the spring migration.

400. Picoides arcticus, Arctic Three-toed Woodpecker. R. m.c.
Probably resident in the Laurentian Hills, as it is seen here in
September and October.

401. Ficoides americanus, American Three-toed Woodpecker. R. r.
One shot 5th November, 1883 (G. R. White.) Probably also
resident within the district. Seen 28th and zgth September and
12th and 13th October, 1890, in company with the last, (F. A.
Saunders. )

402. Sphyrapicus varius, Yellow-bellied Sapsucker. S.c. B | Com-
moner in migration than at other times.

405. Ceophleus pileatus, Pileated Woodpecker. R.r. B. It is not
uncommon in the hills north of us, where it known as “ Wood-

4]

cock,” and is occasionally sent to our game dealers braced with
“ Patridge” (Ruffed Grouse).
406. Melanerpes erythrocephalus, Red-headed Woodpecker. S. c. B.
412. Colaptes auratus, Flicker. S. a. B.

ORDER, MACROCHIRES—GOATSUCKERS, SWIFTS, &c.
CAPRIMULGIDA'—GOATSUCKERS, &XC.

417. Antrostomus voctferus, Whippoorwill. S. c. B.
420. Chordeiles virginianus, Night Hawk. S. a. B.

MICROPODID£—SWIFTS.

423. Chetura pelagica, Chimney Swift. S.a.B. In the first week of
February, 1883, a Chimney Swift came down a chimney in the
house of Mr. J. F. Whiteaves, Assistant Director of the Geolo-
gical and Natural History Survey. It was caught and examined
by him, and remained alive for several days. A similar instance
is known to have occurred in Toronto.

‘TROCHILIDZ— HUMMINGBIRDS,
428. Trochilus colubris, Ruby-throated Hummingbird. S.c.B. A
nest with two fresh eggs was taken 12th July, 1890, by Messrs.
W. E. and F. A. Saunders.

ORDER, PASSERES—PERCHING BIRDS.
TYRANNIDZ&— TYRANT FLYCATCHERS.

444. Tyrannus tyrannus, Kingbird. S. a. B.

452. Mytarchus crinitus, Crested Flycatcher. S, m.c. B.

456. Sayornis phabe, Phoebe. S. c. B.

459, Contopus borealis, Olive-sided Flycatcher. S.r. A pair were
shot near the City 24th May, 1883, and it has been occasionally
seen since.

461. Contopus virens, Wood Pewee. S. c. B.

463. Empidonax flaviventris, Y ellow-bellied Flycatcher. S.r. B. The
taking of the nest of this species is recorded in the Report of the
Branch for the year 1881, but the bird is not mentioned in the
old list, appended to that report. It is added as a species new

42

to the list by the report for 1884, one having been shot by Mr.
E. White on May 26th of that year.

466a.Empidonax pusillus traillii, Traill’s Flycatcher. S. mec. This
species seems to have become rather common here in the last
two years. It was considered rare before.

467. Empidonax minimus, Least Flycatcher. 5S. c. B.

ALAUDIDA—LaRKS.

474. Otocorts alpestris, Horned Lark. M.a. The Horned Larks of
this district were, for the first time, satisfactorily determined and
distinguished in the spring of 1890. ‘This species arrived 19th
April, and remained together in flocks till May 25th, when it
departed. It was again present in the fall, from September
26th to October 28th.

4740. Otocoris alpestris praticola, Prairie Horned Lark. S.c. B. This
sub-species arrives in the end of February or beginning of
March, remains all summer to breed, and leaves about the
beginning of November.

Corvip#&— Crows, JAys, MacPigs, &c.

477. Cyanocitta cristata. Blue Jay. RB. c. B.

484. Perisoreus canadensis, Canada Jay. R.c. Bb. This species rarely
visits the immediate neighborhood of the City, though common
in the hills to the north of it.

486a. Corvus corax principalis, Northern Raven. R. m.c. B.

488. “americanus. KR. B. Abundant in summer but scarce in
winter.

ICTERIDE—-BLACKBIRDS, ORIOLES, &C.

494. Dolichonyx oryzivorus, Bobolink. 5S. c. B.

495. Molothrus ater, Cowbird. S.a.B. On 11th July, 1882, two
eggs of this bird almost hatched were found in the nest of a
Vireo (presumably V. olivaceus), no eggs of the latter being
present. A similar case, with three eggs instead of: two, is
recorded in Zhe Canadian Sportsman and Naturalist for June,
1883.

498. Agelaius pheniceus, Red-winged Blackbird. S. c. B.

501. Sturnella magna, Meadowlark. S. m.c. B.

43

507. Lcterus galbula, Baltimore Oriole. S.c. B.

509. Scolecophagus carolinus, Rusty Blackbird. M.a. It probably
breeds sparingly.

5110. Quiscalus guiscula wneus, Bronzed Grackle. S. a. B.

FRINGILLIDA —FINCHES, SPARROWS, &C.

515. Pinicola enucleator, Pine Grosbeak. W. Irregularly abundant.
It appeared in immense numbers in the winter of 1882-3,
and again in 1888-9, as did many other of our winter birds.

517. Carpodacus purpureus, Purple Finch. S.c. B. Abundant in
migration. ‘There are a few winter records of this species, one
of which is 29th December, 1885.

521. Loxta curvirostra minor, American Crossbill. W.c. Summer
records are as follows:—1oth May, 1882; 4th August, 1887 ;
tgthaJune, 1889 ; 3rd July, 1890.

522. Loxta leucoptera, White-winged Crossbill. W.c. <A large flock
was seen near Beechwood Cemetery in June, 1882.

5274. Acanthis hornemanti extlipes, Hoary Redpoll. W. r. Specimens
of this bird, taken by Mr. W. L. Scott in the spring of 1883
were identified by Dr. Coues. It is also included in the list of
arrivals for 1887 on March roth.

528. Acanthis linaria, Redpoll. W.a. Summer records are 6th June,
1882 ; 3rd June, 1888 ; 22nd May, 1890.

529. Spinus tristis, American Goldfinch. S. a. B. It occasionally
winters here in large flocks. It did so in 1888-9.

533- Spinus pinus, Pine Siskin. W.c. Somewhat irregular in its
visits like most of our winter birds. Summer records are as
follows :—1oth May, 1882; 15th May and 15th August, 1884;

- and May, 1888; 16th May, 1890.

—-. Passer domesticus, European House Sparrow. R.a. B. Intro-
duced. An intolerable nuisance.

534: LPlectrophenax nivalis, Snowflake. W. a.

536. Calcarius lapponicus, Lapland Longspur. M. c. This species
was first recorded here in the spring of 1890, when, in company
with Horned Larks, (O. a/~estris), and Snowflakes, it remained
in flocks till May 25th, It was again present in the fall from
October 3rd to November 18th.

540.

44

Poocetes gramineus, Vesper Sparrow. 5S. a. B.

542a. Ammodramus sandwichensts savanna, Savanna Sparrow. S. c. B.

549:

554

559

560.
563.

619.

558.

Ammodramus caudacutus, Sharp-tailed Sparrow. Casual. One
shot in 1882 and identified by Dr. Coues. It would probably
now be referred to 5494, A. ¢. subvirgatus, Dwight.

Zonotrichia leucophrys, White-crowned Sparrow. M. c.

¥ albicollis, White-throated Sparrow. S.c. B.

Spizella monticola, Vree Sparrow. M. c.

“« soctavis, Chipping Sparrow. S.c. B.
pusilla, Field Sparrow. S.r. In each of the years 1888,
1889 and 18go, at least one of this species has beer observed
several times through the summer.

“ee

. Junco hyemalis, Slate-colored Junco. 5S. m.c. B. Abundant in

spring and fall.

. Melospiza fasciata, Song Sparrow. S. a. B.

“cc

Zincolnt, Lincoln’s Sparrow. Casual. A male of this
species was shot 16th May, 1884, near the East end of the
City, by Mr. G. R. White.

. Melospiza georgiana, Swamp Sparrow. 5S. m.c. B.

. Passerella tlaca, Fox Sparrow. M. m.c.

. Habia ludoviciana, Rose-breasted Grosbeak. S. m.c. B.
. Passerina cyanea, Indigo Bunting. S. m.c. B.

TANAGRIDA—TANAGERS.

. Piranga erythromedas, Scarlet Tanager. S. m.c. B.

HIRUNDINIDZ—SWALLOWS.

. Progne subts, Purple Martin. S. c. B.

. Petrochelidon lunifrons, Cliff Swallow. S.c. B.

. Chelidon erythrogaster, Barn Swallow. S. a. B.

. Lachyeaneta bicolor Tree Swallow. S. a. B.

. Clivicola riparia, Bank Swallow. S.a. B. <A set of spotted eggs

of this species was taken here in 1881.

AMPELIDZ— WAXWINGS.

. Ampelis garrulus, Bohemian Waxwing. W. It is now many

years since this bird has visited us in large numbers.
Ampelis cedrorum, Cedar Waxwing. S.c. B.

621.
6224.

624.
626.

627.
628.
629.

636.

645.

646.

647.

648.
650.

652.
654.
655.

45

LANIDA—SHRIKES.
Lantus borealis, Northern Shrike. W. m.c.
“ — ludovictanus excubitorides, White-rumped Shrike. S. r. B.
On 22nd July, r890, Mr. A. G. Kingston received from Capt.
Veith a shrike which seemed about midway between this variety
and the typical ludovictanus. :
VIREONIDA— VIREOS.
Vireo olivaceus, Red-eyed Vireo. S. a. B.
“ philadelphicus, Philadelphia Vireo. S r._ As this species is
not easily distinguished from the next it may be commoner than
is generally supposed.
Vireo gilvus, Warbling Vireo. S. a. B.
“ flavifrons, Yellow-throated Vireo. S. r.

** solitarius, Blue-headed Vireo. S. m.c.

MNIOTILTIDE—Woop WARBLERS.

Mnitotilta varia, Black and White Warbler. S. c. B, Commoner
in migration than in summer.

Helminthophila ruficapilla, Nashville Warbler. Sr. B. A nest
of this species with four eggs was taken in Dow’s Swamp 13th
July, 1881. In 1882 the bird was noted as “ quite common.”
Helminthophila celata, Orange-crowned Warbler. Casual. <A
male was shot by Mr. E. White 27th September, 1885, near the
Eastern end of the City.

Helminthophila peregrina, Tennessee Warbier. M.r. One was
shot on the bank of the Rideau gth April, 1882, by Mr. G. R.
White. Another was shot May 16th, 1888.

Compsoihlypis americana, Parula Warbler. M. m.c.

Dendroica tigrina, Cape May Warbler. M.r. A pair were shot
by Mr. E. White near the Rideau 24th May, 1883. Further
records are 7th June, 1885; 11th May, 1887; 16th May,
1888.

Dendroica estiva, Yellow Warbler. S. a. B.

S cerulescens, Black-throated Blue Warbler. M. m.c.
coronata, Myrtle Warbler. M. a. Has been seen all
through the summer and probably breeds in the Mer Bleue.

its

46

657. Dendroica maculosa, Magnolia Warbler. M. m.c. Found at the
Mer Bleue 3rd July, t890 (W. E. Saunders).
659. Dendroica pensylvanica, Chestnut-sided Warbler. S. c. B.

660. Hi castanea, Bay-breasted Warbler. M. m.c.

661. F striata, Black-poll Warbler. M. me.

662. = blackburnie, Blackburnian Warbler. M.c. A male in
full plumage was seen in Dow’s Swamp June 24th, 1890 (F. A.
Saunders).

667. Dendroica virens, Black-throated Green Warbler. 5S. m.c.

671, ¥ vigorsit, Pine Warbler. S. r.

672. “ palmarum, Palm Warbler. S.c. B. This species was

found common and breeding in the Mer Bleue 3rd July, 1890,
by Messrs. W. E. and F. A. Saunders, and several of the young
were shot. It was again seen there August gth.

672a. Dendroica palmarum hypochrysea, Yellow Palm Warbler. M. rt.
Latest record May 6th and 8th, 1888.

674. Sedurus aurocapillus, Ovenbird. S. c. B.

675; “ noveboracensis, Water Thrush. S. m.c. B.
679. Geothlypis philadelphia, Mourning Warbler. S. m.c. B.
681. = trichas, Maryland Yellow-throat. S. c. B.

685. Sylvania pusilla, Wilson’s Warbler. S, m.c. B. Found breeding
in the Mer Bleue 3rd July, 1890, by Messrs. W. E. and F. A.
Saunders.

686. Sylvania canadensis, Canadian Warbler. S. m.c. B.

687. Setophaga ruticilla, American Redstart. S. c. B.

MovaciLLip&—WAGTAILS.
697. Anthus pensilvanicus, American Pipit. M. a.
TROGLODYTIDE—WRENS, THRASHERS, &C.

704. Galeoscoptes cwrolinensis, Catbird. S.c. B.

705. Harporhyncus rufus, Brown Thrasher. S. m.c. B.

721. Troglodytes aédon, House Wren, S. a. B.

722. - hiemalis, Winter Wren. S m.c. B.

725. Cistothorus palustris, Long-billed Marsh Wren. S. c. B.

CERTHIIDE—CREEPERS.
726. Certhia familiaris americana, Brown Creeper. M. c. Winter

47

records are 8th December, 1883, and 18th February and 5th
December, 1885.
PaRIDa—NUTHATCHES AND TITts.

727. Sitta carolinensis, White-breasted Nuthatch. R. c. B.

728. ‘* canadensis, Red-breasted Nuthatch. R.c. B.

735. Parus atricapillus, Chickadee. R. c. B.

744. “ hudsonicus, Hudsonian Chickadee. W. m.c. Early fall
records for this species are 31st October, 1883, and 20th Octo-
ber, 1889.

SYLVIIDE—KINGLETS, GNATCATCHERS, &C.

748. Regulus satrapa, Golden-crowned Kinglet. M. c.

749. “ calendula, Ruby-crowned Kinglet. M. c.

751. Polioptila cerulea, Blue-gray Gnatcatcher. Casual. One was
shot by Mr. G. R. White previous to 1881. The skin has since
been lost, but was seen at the time by Mr. W. L. Scott, who is
satisfied of its identity.

TURDIDH—THRUSHES, BLUEBIRDS, XC.

755: Turdus mustelinus, Wood Thrush. S. r. B.

756. « fuscescens, Wilson’s Thrush. S. c. B.

758a. “ ustulatus swainsonit, Olive-backed Thrush. _ S. r.

759). ‘“ «aonalaschke pallasii, Hermit Thrush. S. c. B.

761. Merula migratoria, American Robin. S.a. B. Winter records are :
zoth December, 1881, 8th March, 1882, and 15th November,
1883. Mr. G. R. White has in his collection a peculiarly colored
robin, a description of which is to be found in TRANSACTIONS
OnE: N: C., Voli LL, p- 356:

766. Sialia sialis, Bluebird. S. c. B.

—__—:0:_ ——

EXCURSION No. 1—To KINGSMERE, Saturday, May 16. Members’
tickets 50c, Non-members 6o0c, Children 3oc.

48
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

To the Members of the Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club :-—

LADIES AND GENTLEMEN,—It has been the pleasing duty of the
Council—since the formation of the Club—to report its affairs in
a more prosperous state each succeeding year, but at no previous
period has the condition of the Club been so satisfactory, or the success
achieved during any year, been equal to that which has attended it
during the one just ending.

At the close of last year the membership was 232, and now—after
revising the list and deducting the lapses through death, removal and
resignation—it stands at 296. There were 66 new members elected
during the year.

There were five general excursions held during the summer ; the
first was on the 31st of May, to Butternut Grove, near Old Chelsea ;
the second on the 21st of June, to Casselman; the third on the
tgth of July, to Montebello; the fourth on the goth of August, to
Eastman’s Springs, and the fifth on the 6th of September, to Kirk’s
Ferry, on the Gatineau River. Besides these excursions a number of
the members availed themselves of the invitation given by the Montreal
Natural History Society, and met the members of that body at Lachute,
P.Q., on the 7th of June.

Sub-excursions were also carried on throughout the season, as
usual, to different points of interest within easy reach of the City.

The winter course of meetings was arranged as formerly, and
consisted of Soirées and Afternoon Lectures. The Soirées were held
on alternate Thursday evenings, in the Lecture room of the Normal
School building, and the papers read at them were as follows :—

18g0.
Dec. 11.—Science as an Aid to Education, by Dr. McCabe.

The President’s Inaugural Address, by Dr. Ells.
1891.

Jan. 15.—Report of the Zoological Branch.
Asbestus, by Dr. Ells.
“« 29.—Keport of the Ornithological Branch.
The Chimney Swift, by Mr. Kingston.

49

Feb. 12.—Report of the Botanical Branch.
The Development of Cultivated Fruits from Wild Varieties,
by Mr. John Craig.
** 26,—Canadian Gems, by Mr. Willimott.
March 3.—Report of the Geological Branch.
Additional Notes on Geology and Paleontology of Ottawa
by Mr. Ami,
*¢ 12.—Report of the Entomological Branch.
Mineral Phosphates, by Mr. Lainson Wills.

The Monday afternoon elementary lectures were commenced on
t2th January, and continued every Monday afternoon at 4.15 up to the
gth of March, and were nine in number, as follows :—

The Study of Natural History, by Miss M. A. Mills.

The Geographical Distribution of Plants, by Prof. Macoun.

The Educational Value of Botanic Gardens, by Mr. Fletcher.

The Physiology of Plants, by Mr. W. Scott.

The Migration of Birds. by Mr. Lees.

The True Bugs, by Mr. Harrington.

Two Lectures on the Chemistry of Food, by Mr. Shutt.

Beneficial Birds, by Mr. Kingston.

The large attendance at these lectures of teachers and students
of the Normal and Model Schools, especially at the afternoon lectures
"was very gratifying.

In addition to the courses of lectures, a series of sub-excursions to
the Geological Survey Museum took place on the 2nd and 4th Saturday
afternoons of each month, from November to March, at which interest-
ing addresses were kindly given by the following officers of the Survey
on the Geological and Natural History exhibits in that building: Mr.
Whiteaves, Prof. Macoun, Dr. Dawson, Mr. Ami and Mr. Ferrier.

From the Treasurer’s report, which will now be submitted, it will
be seen that the collection of membership and other dues has been one
of the features of the year’s success) Many members who were in
arrears have paid up, which has considerably swollen the receipts, and,
after settling all claims against the Club, there will remain a compara-
tively large balance to be carried to the incoming year’s account.

50

The Librarian’s report shows that this important department is also
in a very satisfactory condition, and that the small appropriation which
was made through the judicious management of the Club’s finances, for
binding, has been expended in that way to the very best advantage.

The authority given to the Council at the last annual meeting, to
use its own discretion as to the manner of publishing the Orrawa
NATURALIST, was promptly acted upon at the beginning of the year ;
the monthly number was adopted, and the Editor and his assistants
deserve much credit for the satisfactory manner in which the journal
has been conducted, and for its prompt issue throughout the year.

As the members have been kept well posted through the pages of
the NATURALIST, on all matters of interest in connection with the work
of the Club, it is not considered necessary to further enlarge this report.

In conclusion, your Council cannot too strongly emphasize the
importance of, and the advantages which have accrued to the Club, by
the acquisition—through the kindness of Dr. MacCabe—of the use of
rooms for lecturing and library purposes in the Normal School building.
When this and the other important changes and features of the year’s
success are taken into consideration—such as the enlarged range of the
Club’s operations, the addition of lady members on the Council, the
successful publication of the NATURALIST in monthly parts, the great
addition to the membership, the large attendance at lectures, and the
increased activity in the working ranks—the twelfth year may well be
considered as marking an epoch in the Club’s existence.

It is considered well to state here—in order that it may be dis-
cussed at this meeting if necessary—-that the International Congress of
Geologists has invited the members of this Club to take part in, or send
delegates to, the meeting of the Congress which is to take place on the
26th of August next, at Washington, D.C.

Respectfully submitted on behalf of the Council.

T. J. MacLauGuH.iin,
Secretary.

51

ON THE NICKEL AND COPPER DEPOSITS
OF SUDBURY, ONT.

By Alfred E. Barlow,M.A., Geological Survey Department,
(Read before the Logan Club, Ottawa, March 6th, 1891.)
Published by permission of Dr. Selwyn, Director Geological Survey,

The presence of large deposits of nickel and copper in the District
of Algoma, Ontario, has of late years attracted world-wide attention, in
the first place on account of their immense and apparently inexhaustible
character, but latterly because of the proposed application of nickel in
alloy with steel to improve the quality of the latter. The existence of
workable deposits of copper in this region was a fact that had long been
known, and as far back as 1770 a company had been formed and
attempts made to mine this metal, but the difficulty of procuring and
maintaining miners at so great a distance from any centre of civilization,
the remoteness of any market for the ore, as well as the absence of
facilities for transportation, rendered these first attempts abortive,
However, in 1846, owing to the activity in prospecting and locating
mineral lands on the southern shore of Lake Superior, and a favourable
report by Mr. W. E. Logan, then newly appointed Provincial Geologist,
some enterprising Canadians banded themselves together into two
associations called “The Montreal Mining Co’y,” and the “Upper
Canada Mining Co’y.” The former company having purchased, amongst
others, what was then known as ‘‘ The Bruce Mines” location, and on
account of the richness of the deposit decided to commence active
work at this locality, while the Upper Canada Co’y proceeded to develop
and work what was known as the “‘ Wallace Mine,” at the mouth of the
Whitefish River. The Montreal Mining Co’y continued their operations
from 1846 to 1865, when, from a variety of causes, the work proving
unremunerative, they sold out the whole of their claim to the “West
Canada Mining Co’y,” who had previously leased and worked the
western half of the location under the name of the Wellington Mine.
This company continued working till 1876 when, owing to unsatisfactory
results, work was suspended and has not been resumed since. The
Wallace Mine was chosen on account of its promising character. and
proximity to civilization, and is chiefly remarkable as having been the
first place in Canada in which the presence of nickel had been detected

52

According to Mr. Alex. Murray, of the Geological Survey of
Canada, who made an examination of, the location in 1848, “No
true vein can be discovered, but the ore occurs at the contact of quartz
ose and chloritic slates with diorite, as bunches and strings of pyritous
matter, interlaminated irregularly with the slates, and distributed in
specks and patches in the diorite. Abundant evidence of disturbance
is displayed in irregularities of dip and intrusion of the diorite. The
material collected for assay was chosen as free as possible from copper
pyrites, but nearly two-fifths of the specimen consisted of earthy mate-
tials which might readily be separated by dressing,” (See Report
Geological Survey of Canada, 1848-49, p. 42—45.) Dr. T. Sterry
Hunt, in his report on this ore, says that ‘“‘ the specimen is a steel grey
arseniuret, the species not determined, with white iron pyrites and
probably some arsenical sulphuret of iron. The mass, weighing 45 0z.,
was reduced to powder and submitted to analysis, with the following
results :—

ATOR os oo Petes Stele ete Deiat ee 24.78
Nickel, with*trice of eobalt.') 0". -. 2c eee 8.26
PUSPRIO cs spt ens ace ep ee ee eee 3-57
SUIpDGE Cl: cos es oe se ee oe ee 22.63
COppele. sae ree. aie oe 2 She 06
Barthy miaterals?. 20s ioc. ses ees ee 40.01

Bee i

In the process of washing the ore, the earthy parts being removed by
washing, the composition of the ore in 100 parts, as deduced by
calculation from the above, would be—

Tron cecz 3 102/40 ois oops QS eee 41.79
Nickel and.cobalt ).....i-3¢..28th. deters = eee 13,93
ATSOMICH. 55. b,o:.2(z)5)3i2-3 a 6.02
Sulphate). ¢(sscisv. wd 2 CUS Bee 38.16
Coppeiiti? 33's (c%(- <)> se See .I0

From the small proportion of arsenic the nickel must, in part at
least, be present in a state of sulphuret, a fact which is, indeed, made
evident by the spontaneous oxidation of the ore. The nickel from this

53

source contained about three parts in a thousand of cobalt. In con-
clusion, he remarks that in the same bands of rocks we may detect the
presence of nickel and cobalt, a prophecy which has since been amply
verified.

A mass of copper pyrites from the same mine weighing 9% lbs.
was also assayed, which yielded 11.6 per cent. of metallic copper,
Acting on these and other favourable reports, the company began to
sink shafts to test the extent and the quality of the ore, and one of
these shafts at least attained a depth of 10 or 15 fathoms. Work was
carried on energetically for some years, but the enterprise was finally
abandoned, as the quantity of ore did not seem sufficient to justify
further expenditure.

In his report for 1856, Mr. Alex. Murray (see Report Geological
Survey of Canada, 1853-55, p. 180,) mentious the occurrence of a
“ dingy green magnetic trap” associated with red syenite in the north-
west corner of the Township of Waters on Salter’s meridian line.
Specimens of this trap were given to Dr. Hunt for analysis, and the
result of his investigation showed that it contained magnetic iron ore
and magnetic iron pyrites, generally distributed through the rock, the
former in very small grains ; titaniferous iron was found associated with
the magnetic ore and a small quantity of nickel and copper. The
variation of the magnetic needle near this mass was from ten to
fifteen degrees west of the true meridian. It can thus be seen that even
at this early period of its history the officers of the Geological Survey were
aware of the existence of nickel in this region, and had pointed out the
probability that workable deposits would be found. Years passed by
and the inaccessible nature of the country deterred prospectors from
making very detailed exploration or examination, so that it was not till
1883, when the Canadian Pacific Railway was in course of construction,
that the first discoveries of any consequence were made, since which
time the whole belt of the Huronian district has been overrun with
eager prospectors and miners. A not infrequent accident in newly
settled districts led to the first important discovery. Judge McNaugh-
ton, stipendiary magistrate at Sudbury, had been lost in the woods to
the west of that village, and diligent search was at once instituted for
him, A party consisting of Dr. Howey and two others found the judge

54

seated on the small eminence which then marked the site of what is
now known as the “ Murray Mine.” Early in 1884 the Canadian Pacific
Railway made a cutting for their main line through this small hill
about 3% miles northwest of Sudbury, and on July r2th of the same year
Dr. Selwyn made a careful examination of the location and pronounced
the lode to be one of the most promising he had yet seen in Canada.
Other discoveries soon followed, and the McConnell, Lady Macdonald,
Stobie, Blezard, Copper Cliff and Evans Mines were all located. At
first the wildest notions were entertained as to the extent of these de-
posits, and the most exaggerated reports circulated as to their value.
It was €ven confidently asserted that these were immensely important
discoveries, and would revolutionize the whole copper trade and render
other mines then in operation quite unremunerative. Rounded hills
of gossan, indicating the presence of the more solid and unaltered ore
beneath, occur at intervals for miles in a southwesterly direction, con-
forming rudely to the strike of the rocks in the vicinity. This circum-
stance is all that seems to have justified the early discoverers in describ-
ing the deposits as veritable mountains of solid ore, many miles in
extent and hundreds of feet thick. Closer investigation revealed the
fact that these surface gossans everywhere indicate the presence of the —
ore beneath, and that the ore itself occurs in lenticular masses, entirely
separated from one another, whose longer axes correspond with the
strike of the enclosing rock. This gossan has resulted, as is usual, from
the formation of peroxide and hydrated peroxide of iron, due to the
decomposition of the pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite which gives a prevail-
ing red or reddish brown colour to the upper portion of the deposit.
This covering of iron oxide is sometimes as much as six feet in depth,
although usually it is only two or three feet, gradually merging itself
into the unaltered ore beneath. During the last few years prospectors
have not been idle, and at the present time about twenty very promising
deposits of these ores have been “located” and “taken up.” The
McAllister Mine, now called the Lady Macdonald Mine, was the first
property on which any work was done in the summer of 1885, although F
later in the fall the Evans Mine was opened up and some preliminary
tests made. On January 6th, 1886, the Canadian Copper Compary
was formed with a subscribed and paid up capital of $2,000,000, which

55

was afterward increased to $2,500,000, to operate the Copper Cliff,
Stobie and Evans Mines.

On May ist, 1886, work was started in earnest at the Copper Cliff
mine, and later on in the same year both the Stobie and Evans mines
were opened up, and with the exception of a few months last summer,
when, on account of some difference with the Canadian Pacific Railway,
the Stobie was shut down, these three mines have been in active opera-
tion ever since. The chief business of the Canadian Copper Company
is done at Copper Cliff, for here they have prepared a well equipped
roast yard, two smelting furnaces, laboratory and offices, and other
things requisite for carrying on this mining on an extensive scale. The
Stobie and Evans mines are provided with excellent rock houses, but all
their ore is brought by branch railways to Copper Cliff to be roasted
and smelted. In 1889 the Dominion Mineral Company was formed tg
operate the Blezard mine, and later on they purchased the Worthington
mine from the original owners. During the past summer this company
have had their smelter in operation, and both their mines are being
energetically developed. During the summer of 1889 the Murray mine
was prospected under bond by Messrs. Henry H. Vivian & Co.,
Swansea, England, and ia October of the same year they purchased it.
About the end of last September, everything being ready, the smelter
“was blown in” and set to work on some ore which had been previously
roasted. All three companies are now prosecuting the work vigorously,
and the output of these mines has already reached very large propor-
tions. The whole district has been prospected, and I think that a
very conservative estimate would now place the number of promising
deposits at twenty.

The Huronian system in which these ore deposits occur may be
regarded as the oldest series of sedimentary strata of which we have at
present any certain knowledge. Amongst the more important of these
rocks may be mentioned quartzites, greywackés, conglomerates, slates,
evenly laminated gneisses, felsites, hydromica, chloritic, epidotic, horn-
blendic and micaceous schists and narrow bands of cherty limestone.
Most of these clastic rocks have been derived from the waste of older
felspathic material, and hitherto it has been most generally supposed
and stated that the Laurentian gneiss was the source from which the

56

sediments had been derived. The Huronian conglomerates, however,
hold no pebbles that are undeniably referable to the Laurentian, and
the origin of the syenitic, quartzose and jaspery pebbles is still a matter
of doubt. The microscope can throw no certain light on the original
character of some of these rocks, for very often metamorphism and
recrystallization has gone on to such an extent that the former structure
has been either partially or completely obliterated. A close study of
these uncertain rocks in the field, aided by the use of the microscope
in the laboratory will eventually enable us to assign them their proper
place. We have thus numerous sedimentary rocks showing the various
stages of this metamorphism, from the typical sandstone or greywacké,
composed of well rounded grains of quartz and felspar, to the compact
felsite, which contains no trace of its original clastic structure. Associ-
ated with these sedimentary strata are certain undoubted eruptive and
irruptive rocks, among which may be mentioned many varieties of
diabase. diorite and gabbro. Besides these igneous rocks, there are
some granites and gneisses concerning whose origin many are in doubt.
After a close and careful study of these rocks, which have usually been
classified as Laurentian, and their relations with the true Huronian
stratified deposits, I have been fully convinced of their irruptive nature.
These granites and gneisses probably represent the original crust of the
earth which has undergone refusion, and was in a molten or plastic con-
dition at a period subsequent to the hardening of the Huronian sedi-
ments. The earth gradually cooling from a state of original incan-
descence, had reached that stage in the process when it admitted of
being surrounded by an ocean nearly, if not quite, universal. ‘Then
began that tearing down and building up which has since gone on in
forming the sediments which subsequently hardened into rocks. The
first formed crust was necessarily thin and weak, and it is therefore not
surprising that there were frequent irruptions, accompanied by the
fusion of the lower portion at least of the first formed deposits.

It is unnecessary here to go into all the facts of the case, as my
views have already been stated at some length in a paper read before
this club on February 27th of last year. Suffice it to say that the fuller
examinations of last summer have served to further strengthen these
views. Both clastic and irruptive rocks have been subjected to in-

57

tense pressure, as evidenced by the extensive cataclastic structure
which has been developed in both series of rocks. Frequently the
rocks show a pyroclastic origin, and volcanic tuffs and breccias are very
commonly met with. The relations of the diabase or basic irruptive
rocks with the surrounding sedimentary strata was closely examined in
a large number of instances, and revealed the fact that the diabase is
apparently of later age, as it breaks through and alters the bedded
Huronian. ‘The occurrence of these masses of diabase with a sur-
rounding breccia or agglomerate in many cases would seem to point to
the fact that they are the bases of Huronian volcanoes, which continued
in action after the latest sediments had been deposited. Some of these
diabasic masses send out dykes which ramify through and alter the sur-
rounding strata, these dykes frequently containing fragments of highlY
metamorphosed Huronian quartzite. These irruptive masses are
usually lenticular, although occasionally rudely circular or oval in out-
line, and their longer axes correspond in general with the strike of the
enclosing rock. ‘They vary in breadth from a few chains to half a mile,
or even more, and frequently extend for miles in length. ‘The origin ot
the nickel and copper is closely connected with this diabase or gabbro,
and the formation of the fissures containing these ores was no doubt
due to the disruptive forces of the intrusion, and the contraction caused
by the subsequent cooling of the igneous rock matter. These fissures
were necessarily most frequently formed along the line of contact with
the cooler sedimentary strata although in certain cases they were formed
in the midst of the igneous mass itself. In nearly every case, therefore,
the deposits of nickel and copper occur close to the contact of the
diabase with the stratified rocks, although in a few cases they are found
in the diabase near its junction with granite or micropegmatite. An-
other proof of the common genesis of these ores and the enclosing
diabase is that the diabase itself commonly contains these sulphides
disseminated through its mass, these impregnations occasionally form-
ing such considerable and rich deposits as to be workable.

All geologists who have examined these deposits agree that they
are not true fissure veins, and although at times a certain sloping sur-
face is obtained which seems to have a uniform inclination, yet it
seems certain that there are no regular walls in the miner’s sense of the

58

term, and at both sides of the deposits the enclosing rock is impreg-
nated more or less with the pyritous matter. Though mining is thus
rendered somewhat difficult and uncertain on account of the absence
of the walls and irregularity in the distribution of the ore, so that there
is no means of knowing in what direction to drive the levels, this un-
certainty is more than compensated by the extent and massiveness of the
deposit when found. The ore bodies like the masses of diabase with which
they are so intimately associated are lens or pod-shaped and “ pinch
out” in both directions. This structure is also characteristic of their
downward extension, and the deposits have been very truly likened to
a string of sausages, so that when one lenticular body of ore gives out
another commences close at hand, which in its turn gives place to
another, and though at the Copper Cliff they are down about 600 feet
on a slope of 45°, the quantity and quality of the ore shows no diminu-
tion. I have occasionally found true veins of quartz holding this pyrr-
hotite, but such evidences of secondary action are extremely rare and
proves nothing in regard to the origin of the more massive deposits.
The ores and the associated diabase were therefore in all probability
simultaneously introduced in a molten condition, the particles of pyrit-
ous matter aggregating themselves together in obedience to the law of
mutual attraction. The ore bodies were, therefore, not contemporane-
ous with the stratified Huronian, although there is nothing to prove
that they do not belong to the close of the Huronian period. Mr. Fer-
rier of the Geological Survey has noticed the occurrence of this
nickeliferous pyrrhotite in a specimen of chloritic schist and gneissic
granite, which had been taken to show the contact between the two
rocks. ‘The pyrrhotite is disseminated through both rocks, and its oc-
currence here in the Township of Dill at the junction of what has been
called Laurentian would seem to be another proof of the irruptive origin
of this gneiss.

The ore itself is a mixture of pyrrhotite, a monosulphide of iron
(Fe; S,) and chalcopyrite, a sulphide of copper and iron (Cu Fe S,).
The two minerals are not so intimately commingled as to form a perfect
homogeneous mass, but one may be described as occurring in pockets,
spots, bunches or threads in the other. The chalcopyrite is not so
closely intermixed with the pyrrhotite, but isolates itself rather in spots

— ——

59

and patches enclosed by massive pyrrhotite, so that it is not hard to
separate considerable masses of chalcopyrite that will assay over 30 per
cent. of copper, or pyrrhotite that will only show traces of that metal.
In practice, however, careful examination and trial have proved that the
two minerals are too intimately associated to make sorting by hand at
all practicable, and the pyrrhotite is very often so feebly magnetic as to
preclude the possibility of separation by magnetism. Although the
chalcopyrite seldom occurs free from the pyrrhotite, large and massive
deposits of the latter occur comparatively free from copper. In this
connection Dr. Peters mentions a slope which, having furnished about
2,000 tons of pyrrhotite, gave place, just before the end boundaries
were reached, to a deposit which afforded nearly 20 tons of almost pure
chalcopyrite. In some instances these ore bodies show a brecciated
character, large angular or partially rounded boulders or “horses” of
almost barren rock being mingled with the ore, which seem to evidence
the disruptive force of the intrusive mass, while in others, as at the
Worthington mine, the diabase in which the ore occurs has developed a
concretionary structure while cooling, and large irregularly rounded concre-
tions, which, on weathering, peel off in concentric layers, are cemented
together, so to speak, by a very pure chalcopyrite and highly nickelifer-
ous pyrrhotite. The concretions themselves usually contain more or
less pyritous matter disseminated through them, but are usually cast
aside as too barren for the roast heap. ‘The pyrrhotite varies in colour
from steel-grey to bronze yellow, and the chalcopyrite is the usual brass
or deep yellow colour. Both tarnish readily, and very beautiful
iridescent specimens can be easily obtained from the ore heap or
scattered around the works. These sulphides, therefore, may be said
to occur in three distinct ways—

1st. As contact deposits of pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite situated
between the clastic rocks, such as felsites, quartzites, etc., and irruptive
diabase or gabbro, or between these latter and granite or micropegma-
tite. Good examples of the former are furnished by the Evans, Stobie
and Copper Cliff, while the Murray mine may be cited as illustrating
the latter.

2nd. As impregnations of these minerals through the diabase or
gabbro, which are sometimes so rich and considerable as to form

60

workable deposits. These sulphides are in no case present as dis-
seminations through the clastic rocks very distant from the diabase or
gabbro, which seems clear evidence that they have been brought up by
the latter.

3rd. As segregated veins which may have been filled subsequently
to the irruption which brought up the more massive deposits. These
veins are not very common, although certain portions of the more
massive deposits may have been dissolved out and re-deposited along
certain faults and fissures.

The composition of the ore varies according to the preponderance
of either the pyrrhotite or chalcopyrite in the specimen examined. The
pyrrhotite may be said roughly to be composed of 407% sulphur and
60% iron, with a varying proportion of the iron replaced by nickel,
while the chalcopyrite contains 35% sulphur, 35% copper and 30%
iron. The mines of the Canadian Copper Co’y, as the name of the
company indicates, were first opened for their copper contents, and it
was not until considerable work had been done that nickel was dis-
covered to be present in the ore. A large shipment of ore had been
made to New York, and a chemist there who was making a volumetric
determination of the copper contents by the Potassium Cyanide process,
was struck by the great variation in his results, which led him to make a
more minute examination of the ore, when he found that nickel was pre-
sent. The ore has now become of more value on account of its nickel than
its copper contents, and Dr. Peters himself greatly doubted if the mines
would pay to work for copper alone, The percentage of nickel and
copper varies greatly, as might be expected, but assays of nine samples
from the different mines of the Canadian Copper Co’y, made in Novem-
ber 1888, will show the usual percentage of these metals. These assays
were made by Mr. Francis L. Sperry, and show a range in the percentage
of nickel from 1.127% to 4.217, with an average of 2.38°/,, while the
copper varied from 4.03°/, to 9.98°/., with an average of 6.44°/,.. A
minute proportion of cobalt also occurs in the pyrrhotite, usually about
=i;th as much as the nickel present. Mr. G. C. Hoffman assayed four
samples from this district which I collected last summer, and these
showed the nickel contents to vary from 1.957% to 3.10%, with an
average of 2.25%. Three of these samples contained traces of cobalt,

61

which are included in the above percentage of nickel. The nickel is
usually spoken of as replacing an equal quantity of iron in the pyrrhotite»
but the discovery of undoubted crystals of muillerite or sulphide of nickel
150 feet below the surface at Copper Cliff Mine, as well as the more
recent recognition of polydymite, a ferriferous sulphide of nickel, at the
Vermilion Mine, in the Township of Denison, seems to justify the
assumption that in the more highly nickeliferous deposits of the region
at least, the nickel is also present as a sulphide, disseminated through
the ore mass like the iron and copper.

This view is also borne out by Dr. Hunt’s analysis of the ore of
the old Wallace mine which seems precisely analogous to some of the
richer deposits nearer the Canadian Pacific Railway. Traces of gold
and silver, as also platinum are also usually found in these ores, and in
this connection it was thought advisable to call your attention to the
- detection of what Messrs. Clarke & Catlett call a ‘‘ platiniferous nickel
ore from Canada.” They say (see article xxxix, page 372, American
Journal of Science, 1889.) During the autumn of 1888 we received,
through two different channels, samples of nickel ores taken from the
mines of the Canadian Copper Company at Sudbury, Ont. From one
source we obtained two masses of sulphides to be examined for nickel
and copper, from the other came similar sulphides together with a
series of soil and gravel-like material (gossan), 7 samples in all. In
the latter case an examination for platinum was requested, and in 5
of the samples above mentioned it was found the gravel yielded 74.85
ozs. of metals of the platinum group to the ton of 2,000 lbs. The
sulphide ores submitted to us from Sudbury were all of a similar char-
acter. They consisted of mixed masses in which a grey readily tarn-
ishing substance was predominant with some chalcupyrite, possibly
some pyrite and a very little quartz. Two samples were examined in
mass: one gave 31.41 { nickel with a little copper, and the other gave
35.39 % nickel and 5.2 % copper. The nickel mineral itself proved to
be a sulphide of nickel and iron, and as ores of that composition are
not common, it was thought advisable to examine the substance further.
It is steel-grey, massive and exceedingly alterable in the air with a Sp.
Gr. of 4.5. An analysis of carefully selected material gave :—

Mikel ast sa) onal eee see eee det 41.96
Troms}. 224.) JUGS RSTT le eae 15-57
SiliGawt-2 a9 tA Be Sid ee RP 1.02
Gopper 2.0 sia IPSs Aly BBS 62
Sulphuns§ 6404 44. 43 bes te we SR A 40,80

These figures give approximately the formula Ni; FeS,;. Neither
cobalt nor arsenic could be detected. If we deduct silica together with
the copper reckoned as admixed chalcopyrite and re-calculate the
remainder of the analysis to 100°/, we get the following figures :—

Nickel sizsze) kere. paket shems Jed ieee 43.18
Tron). syste «eben eee) oe 15-47
Sulphur «:}.i2avet wilseaisenie Seon 41.35

In short the mineral has the composition of Ni, S; with about
y th of the nickel replaced by iron, which seems to agree with Laspeyres
polydymite of which it is doubtless a ferriferous variety. Probably in
most cases the niccoliferous constituent of pyrrhotite is millerite, but
other sulphides like polydymite may occur too. The polydymite which
was selected for the above analysis came from the mass in which the
average of 35.39 4 nickel and 5.20 % copper had previously been
found.

The mass weighed several kilograms and was remarkably free from
quartz. The same mass, with two smaller pieces resembling it, were
also examined for platinum. ‘The results were as follows, “A” repre-
senting the large mass in which the polydymite was determined :—

A....2.55 oz. platinum per ton, or .0087 °/,
| 2 ae 1. Mor? 3 “eve OOGG As
(ee ba EZ i T tresses ee ame

Probably the platinum exists in the ore as sperrylite, although this
point was not proved. The amount of platinum in the mass most
thoroughly examined would require to form sperrylite only about
.007 °/, of arsenic, which is too small a quantity for detection by ordin-
ary analysis. ‘That platinum should exist in appreciable quantities in
an ore of such a character is something quite extraordinary, but
whether it could be profitably extracted is an open question, Sperry-

63

lite was first found at the Vermilion mine in the gossan or loose
material, and was named after Mr. Francis L. Sperry of the C. C. C. by
Messrs. Horace L. Wells and S. L. Penfield, of the Sheffield Scientific
School, who examined and described this new species. It is isometric ;
simple cubes are common, octahedrons are exceptional, while the
majority of the crystals are combinations of the cube and octahe-
dron. H.—Between six and seven, as it scratches felspar but not
quartz. The crystals have no distinct cleavage, but are very brittle and
break with an irregular, probably conchoidal fracture. The chemical
composition, according to the mean of two analyses was as follows :—

a. Lee Rese? LL, SPS NOR 40.98
Pumnianyy. 7: SEED SO .50
Pee es SOT EY OST 52.57
Piadiane: SO CaeUrod de. sue STR) ig 72
awaits. 7F.IS DIGI Aor S Te, Pa, trace.
Cassiterite or oxide of tin.................. 4.62

The composition is therefore represented by the formula Pt. As,.,
a small portion of the platinum being replaced respectively by rhodium
and antimony. The cclor of the mineral was nearly tin white or about
the same as metallic platinum. The fine powder is black. Nearly all
the grains showed extremely brilliant crystal faces, though most of the
crystals were fragmentary in size they were usually 7,—=%,th of an inch
in diameter. Sp. Gr. 10.602.

ROASTING.

The metallurgical treatment of this ore commences at the roast
yard whither it is conveyed, and, being piled in convenient heaps on
previously laid cordwood, is exposed at high temperatures without
fusion, or, at most, incipient fusion, to the action of a current of air.
The objects of this roasting are, 1st, an oxidation of the iron, and,
incidentally, of the sulphur, as complete as is possible without involving
an undue loss of copper in the slags of the following smelting, and 2nd,
the expulsion of arsenic if there is any present. If the oxidation be
very imperfect the resulting matte will contain so much iron that
its bringing forward will be unduly costly, while, if the oxidation be too
thorough, an undue loss of metal will occur on smelting the roasted ore,

64

At Copper Cliff the Canadian Copper Company have spared neither
trouble nor expense in the construction and equipment of their roast
yard. The natural rough and uneven surface has been cleared and
levelled, and the whole given a gentle slope, which, with carefully made
drains, serve to remove at once any rain or surface water. These
precautions have to be taken to prevent loss of copper as soluble
sulphate of copper, which is liable to be washed out by the rain.

At the Murray mine a large shed has been erected to roast ore
during the winter months, with openings in the roof to allow of the
escape of sulphurous fumes, but during last summer they had no regular
roast yard, and the few heaps burnt could only be placed where the
surface of the ground would permit. This was also the case at the
Blezard and Worthington mines, and the mechanical loss alone from
this carelessness must have been of considerable moment. The shaft
of the Copper Cliff mine, on an incline of 45°, has reached already
a depth of nearly 600 feet. It is provided with a double skip
road, the skips dumping automatically at the mouth of the breaker
in the top of the rock house. Here the ore is sledged to a proper size
for the 15 x9 in. Blake crusher set to about 134 inches, which has a
capacity of nearly 20 tons an hour. It is then passed through a
revolving screen where it is sized into three classes for the succeeding
operation of roasting. The coarse size passes a 4-inch ring, the medium
or ragging, a 134-inch ring, while the fines pass through one 3 of an
inch in diameter. Each of these sizes falls into a separate bin under
which a car runs. Thus the ore is loaded automatically into cars
holding 114 tons, whence it is transported to the upper story of
the ore shed. There it falls into a series of bins from which it is
loaded by means of inclined steel shutes into the cars and taken
up a rather steep grade to a high trestle which extends the whole length
of the roast yard. The only wood that can be obtained is dead pine, a
good deal of the surrounding district having been burnt over about 20
years ago. This can be procured very cheaply, and although it does
not roast the ores as thoroughly as hard wood, it makes very fair and
economical fuel, and serves on account of its short fierce heat to ignite
the pile, and this once started continues burning on account of its
sulphur contents. These piles are built as follows :—The place selected

an

65

is first covered with about six inches of fine ore distributed as evenly as
possible over the clay soil. Sticks of cordwood of nearly uniform size
should be placed side by side across both sides and ends of the rect-
angular area. The whole interior of this can be filled in with old stumps
roots, ties or cordwood, but in sucha way as to form a level and solid bed
for the ore to rest on. Overall this is placed small wood and chips to fill
up all interstices, care being taken to provide small canals filled with
kindlings at intervals of 8 or 1o feet leading from the outer air to the
chimneys along the centre of the heap. These chimneys which assist
in rapidly and certainly kindling the whole heap are usually built of
four sticks or old boards, so fixed together as to leave an opening and
communicating below with the diaught passages. Five or six of these
chimneys suffice for each pile, and they should project 2 feet above the
upper surface of the heap, so that no pieces of ore could fall into the
flue opening. ‘The coarsest class of ore is first thrown on, then the
ragging or medium, on top of which is scattered a layer of rotten wood
or chips, and lastly the whole heap is covered over with fines till it
reaches a height of about 6 feet, The whole structure should then
form a shapely rectangular pile with sharp corners and as steeply slop-
ing sides as the ore will naturally lie on without rolling (about 45°).
Only a portion of the fine ore is put on at first, the rest being shovelled
on after the fire is fairly started. The best way to light the pile is to
place a quantity of ignited cotton waste saturated with coal oil down
each of the chimneys. About 12 hours after firing the whole heap
should be pouring forth dense yellow fumes of sulphurous acid. Great
attention is at first paid to the pile to prevent undue local heating
which frequently causes partial fusion of the ore, and this can at once
be prevented by covering the place with more fines. This heap should
then burn from 50 to 70 days when the outer covering of raw or partially
roasted ore is removed, and the remainder of the heap conveyed a few
yards in wheelbarrows to a sunken railroad which runs alongside of the
roast-yard. When filled, the cars are pushed up another steep grade
along a track running over the bins back of the smelter. The slop-
ing sides and corners of a pile are frequently covered with almost
raw ore, this evil being often remedied by placing ignited sticks
of cordwood around the whole structure, or by building a new pile in

66

the passageway between two others which have been almost burnt out,
the latter plan adding very materially to the capacity of the roast yard.
After this operation the ore is invariably so thoroughly roasted that it is
necessary to add from ro to 257 of raw fine ore during the smelting to
prevent the matte from being too rich. Each pile usually contains
about 600 tons of ore, and requires 30 cords of wood to roast it. The
roast yard at Copper Cliff is nearly half a mile long by too feet wide,
while each pile occupies a space of 40 x 80 feet, room being left to get
round them, and for drains. The present capacity is about 60,000 tons,
which, with a little extra work, could be increased to 90,000 tons.
Working full power each roast bed can be used four times a year,
counting the time in making, roasting and clearing the beds. The yearly
capacity would therefore be 240,000 tons, and by increasing the space,
360,000 tons. The unroasted ore contains from 35 to 40% sulphur,
and assays of a large number of samples of the roast heaps have varied
from 2% to 8% of sulphur. One analysis taken at random which may be
taken as a fair sample of all the rest, gave 5.407 copper, 2.437 nickel,
7.92% sulphur and 257% iron, lime, magnesia, etc., and the residue
chiefly hornblende. Up to October ist, 1890, 56,534 tons had been
taken to the roast yard.
SMELTING OF THE ORE.

There are two smelting furnaces at Copper Cliff, and the building
which contains these is 65 feet long by 40 feet wide. Thirty-five feet
of this length is on a level with the ground, while the rest of the floor is
81% feet higher, and it is on this upper flat that the ore and fuel bins
are situated. The daily capacity of each of these furnaces is 125 tons,

although one of the furnaces has reduced 187 tons of ore in one day, -

and the furnace manager says that 135 tons could be reduced without
much forcing. The furnace itself is a steel plate water jacket of the
Herreshof patent, made in Sherbrooke, P.Q., by the Jenckes Manu-
facturing Co’y. It is nearly oval in form, the Jonger diameter at the
tuyéres being 6 ft. 6 in., while the shorter one is 3 ft. 3 in. There are
11 2% in. tuyeres through which the blast enters from a Baker’s rotary

lower under a pressure of about 9g oz. per square inch. It is g feet
high from these tuyéres to the charging door, and is an unbroken water
jacket from the cast iron bottom up. It is made of rolled steel with

Rte ew 7”

67

ily a 2 inch water space, and not a single brick of any description.
he well is a circular, cast iron water jacketed vessel, mounted on four
rong wheels for convenience of moving it when repairs are necessary,
id so made that the hole in one side connects with the outlet hole of the
mace, which is also thoroughly protected by water and it is through this
at the matte and slag flow out of the furnace as rapidly as form-
|. They thus escape the influence of the blast, and prevent what
ivian calls “the sole objection to blast furnaces” the so-called
sows ” or “salamanders” as great masses of metallic iron which choke
) the furnace and tie up large quantities of copper and other metals.
1e charging door is situated on the upper floor, as also the bins for
ast ore and coke. The coke used is from Connellsville, Pa., and is
ought by way of the Great Lakes and the Sault Branch of the C.P.R.
ne charge for the furnace consists of 1,800 or 2,000 lbs. of ore and
ke mixed, one ton of coke usually sufficing for eight tons of ore. The
ass as it melts gathers at the bottom of the furnace, and flows through
e outlet into the well or reservoir, where the heavier and metallic
tions sink to the bottom while the lighter slag remains on the sur-
ce, running in a continuous stream over the jacketed spout into pots
1 wheels, which are removed when filled, an empty one always being
ady to take the vacant place. The matte is drawn off at intervals of
; or 20 minutes through a separated bronze water-cooled tap-hole
sting, near the bottom of the well, and which is filled as usual with a
iy plug that can readily be removed with a few blows from a steel
. The smelting of the ores is greatly facilitated by the basic char-
ter of the accompanying gangue rock, for instead of quartz and acid
icates there is chiefly hornblende and very fusible felspars. This
rcumstance, as well as a judicious mixture of the different qualities of
e obviates the necessity of any flux, which is a very fortunate circum-
ance, as limestone is somewhat distant and suitable iron ore difficult
procure. ‘The slag buggies or pots are made as strongly and lightly
possible, are case-hardened and shaped like inverted hollow cones,
id before each tap are thickly washed with clay water to prevent the
atte from welding to the iron mould. This matte is sampled and
eighed and allowed to cool before being dumped from the pots and
e slag also is sampled and assayed once every 24 hours, so that an

68

accurate record can be kept of the composition of both. An average
of two analyses of this matte in February and March, 1889, will prob-
ably give us the usual composition: Copper, 26.91 ; nickel, 14.14 ;
iron, 31.335 ; sulphur, 26.95 ; cobalt, .935. Mr. F. L. Sperry says that
platinum exists in quite appreciable quantities, so that the matte con-
tains some ounces per ton of that rare metal, while gold and silver
occur in strong traces. The first blast furnace was started on the 24th
December, 1888, and with slight interruptions has been running ever
since. The second furnace was built in the summer of 1889, and was
started on the 4th of September of the same year. On October Ist,
1890, there was about 6,500 tons of matte, and the ore on the roast
beds would produce about 6,000 tons more, containing 922 and 852
tons of nickel respectively, or a total of 1,774 tons of metallic nickel,
and 3,362% tons of metallic copper.

‘Lhe average daily output of matte for the month of September,
1890, was 25 tons, but the full capacity of both furnaces would be about
60 tons of matte. If the former average was kept up, the yearly
production of matte would reach 9,125 tons, but if the furnaces were

run at their full capacity they would average nearly 834 tons of nickel a

day, or nearly 3,066 tons of metallic nickel and 5,913 tons of copper a
year. At present the matte is piled in heaps outside of the smelters,
and, when wanted to be shipped, is broken up in pieces and placed in
old oil barrels, the chinks between the larger pieces being filled with
smaller fragments, so that the whole is packed tolerably firm and close
It is then sent to the various refiners in Europe or the United States
according to their respective bids. So far no refining works have been
built at Sudbury, but the vast quantity of material to treat, the tedious
and costly process for the further refining of the ore, consisting as it
does of alternate roastings and smeltings, in addition to the great
expense incurred at present in shipping the matte to such long
distances, seem great incentives to the early erection of refining works,
so that the ore could be fully treated on the spot. The proposition to
build nickel steel works was lately submitted to the Government by the
Canadian Copper Company, and it is to be hoped that some satisfactory
arrangement will be arrived at to give a further impetus to our present
mining activity in this region.

69

Nickel is a comparatively new metal for it was not recognized as
an element till 1751, when Cronstedt, the Swedish mineralogist, in
examining the ores of certain veins in the German Copper mines made
the discovery of the two new metals, nickel and cobalt, which names
he retained as they were in use amongst the miners. Nickel in its
pure state is silver white in colour, hard, tough, fusible with difficulty,
and is susceptible to magnetism, although not to the same extent as
iron. Its use in the industrial arts has rapidly increased since it has been
produced in a pure state, as it formerly existed only as an impure alloy.
and so could rot be so suitable for the pnrposes for which it is now
used. ‘The demand has only grown at a moderate rate as compared
with the growth and demand for other useful metals, and a decrease in
price from $2.60 per pound in 1876 to the present price, which varies
from 50 to 60 cents per pound, seems to have had no very important
influence in increasing that demand. The supply of late years has
been more than sufficient for the demand and new deposits have always
been found in advance of any necessity for their product. ‘The first
chief demand for this metal was for making nickel or german silver as
a substitute for the more precious metal in making spoons and forks
and other ware in general for which silver had been previously used’
and its whiteness and the facility with which it received and held the
silver, after the process of what is known as electro-plating was intro-
duced cause it to be still more widely used. It is also made use of to
plate iron, zinc, &c., and also in alloy with copper for the manufacture
of small coins, which are used so extensively in the United States, Ger-
many, Belgium, and other countries. The proposition to use rolled
nickel plate as an advance over ordinary tin plate, is one which is re-
ceiving attention at present. It has also been recommended for making
nickel crucibles to replace those of silver used in chemical manipulations
as they would cost less and have the great advantage of melting at a
higher temperature.

Nickel plated kitchen utensils are coming into general use as in
Germany, and as it is well known that acids have a mcre or less solvent
action on nickel, an investigation was undertaken which showed that
7% grains of nickel could be taken into the stomach and repeated for a
long time without any noticeably bad effects. There is thus no ground

70

for uneasiness in the use of such utensils, especially if the same
precautions are used as in the case of copper vessels, namely, thoroughly
cleaning them and avoiding the storing of food in them. The proposi.
tion to use nickel in alloy with steel to increase the strength and quality
of the latter, will, if carried out, increase the consumption very mate-
rially, and all have been eager to know the result of the recent experi-
ments undertaken at the instigation of the United States Government.
A French invention has effected the means of regulating the composi-
tion of such an alloy, and subsequent experiments in Glasgow revealed
the fact that this alloy could be made in any good open hearth furnace
working at a fairly high temperature as well as in the crucible. In obtaining
a correct idea of the value or usefulness of alloys of nickel with iron or
steel it should be borne in mind that the composition is complicated
by manganese, carbon, silicon, sulphur and phosphorus, whose influence
must be carefully watched, requiring a long series of experiments, A
comparison of steel alloyed with 4.7 7% nickel raised the elastic limit
from 16 up to 28 tons, and the breaking strain from 30 up to 40 tons,
without impairing the elongation or contraction of area to any notice-
able extent. A further gradual increase of hardness was noticed until
20 % is reached, when a change takes place, and successive additions
of nickel tend to make the steel softer and more ductile. The alloys
polish well, and the colour of the steel is lightened as the proportion of
nickel increases. ‘They do not corrode as readily as other steel. The
1 % nickel steel welds fairly well, but this property lessens with each
addition of nickel. It can, therefore, be seen that considerable
advantage may be expected from these alloys, especially where the
percentage of nickel is less than five.

The consumption of nickel and nickel alloy in the United States
has increased from 294,000 pounds in 1880 to 421,000 pounds in 1888
while the total consumption of the world was estimated not to exceed
700 or 800 tons of the pure metal. The chief supply at present comes
from New Caledonia, a penal colony of France (long. 165° E., S. lat,
22°). M. du Peloux states that the cost of production at this place
could be so reduced that the company could sell at from 37 to 46 cents
per pound, and yet have a good profit. Dr. Peters in his evidence before
the Ontario Mining Commission states that the Canadian Copper Com-

71

pany could sell it from 25 to 30 cents per pound with a handsome
profit. A commission appointed by the United States Government to
examine the probable quantity of nickel in the Sudbury district has
given a very glowing report to their government. It is highly probable,
however, as can be seen from the above figures that our mines could
supply the whole demand, even if the other sources of supply did not
produce anything. It has been decided by the United States Govern-
ment to make use of nickel steel armour plates, and already the con-
tract has been awarded so that there is every prospect of a brilliant
future for this mining industry around Sudbury. In view of our im-
mense deposits it will be necessary to increase its consumption in every
possible direction.

BOOK NOTICE.

CATALOGUE OF CANADIAN PL ants. Part V. Acrogens. By John
Macoun, M.A., F.L.S., F.R.S.C. 1890.

The fifth part of Prof. Macoun’s great work appeared last autumn
and would have been noticed sooner but for promises made previously
with regard to other matter printed in THE Naturatist. As already
stated, we consider Prof. Macoun’s catalogue the most important work
which has appeared on Canadian botany. Nor is this appreciation of
our Canadian Linnzeus confined to ourselves. J. E. Bagnall, writing
in the Midland Naturalist, published at Birmingham, England, says in
the February number: “This concludes Vol. II of this valuable work,
the first 45 pages being devoted to an enumeration of the ferns and
fern allies, with a full account of their geographical distribution through
the Dominion of Canada; and as in the preceding portions of this
work, the treatment throughout is excellent, and characteristic of the
scientific acumen and indefatigable zeal of the author. The remain

72

ing portion of Part V is devoted to additions and corrections to Part

I-IV, which occupy 103 pages, and record 155 species added to the
flora of Canada since the publication of Part IV, raising the total num-
ber of flowering plants, ferns and fern allies found in Canada to 3,209
species ; of these, 2,340 are Exogens, 771 2re Endogens, and 98 are
Acrogens.”

In the serial literature of this continent, the following taken from
the March number of the “Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club” may
be taken as a sample of many similar articles which have appeared :—
““We congratulate Prof. Macoun on the very successful progress of his
work. He is contributing more at the present time to our knowledge
of North American botany than anyone else, and through his en-
deavours the distribution of Canadian plants is becoming thoroughly
worked out.”

73

THE BEHRING SEA SEAL COMMISSION.

Every member of the OtrawaA FIELD NATURALISTS’ CLusB must
feel proud that one of our most highly esteemed members, Dr. G. M.
Dawson, First Assistant Director of the Geological Survey of Canada,
should have been chosen as one of the two British Commissioners en-
trusted with the investigation of the habits of the Fur Seal in the Behring
Sea. The United States Commissioner is our corresponding member,
Dr. C. Hart Merriam, of Washington, who won such golden opinions
from all who had the good fortune to meet him in Ottawa a few years
ago when he attended our spring outing to Kingsmere, on the occasion
of the excursion given by the Club to the Fellows of the Royal Society
of Cauada. There are no two men in America better fitted to carry
out this important investigation, and the association of their names with
that of Sir George Baden-Powell, the English Commissioner, ensures
that the work will be done in a thorough and scientific manner. Dr.
Dawson is the eldest son of Sir William Dawson, Principal of McGill
University. He was born at Pictou, Nova Scotia, August 1st, 1849.
Although a comparatively young man, his career has been a brilliant and
useful one. Educated at McGill University, Montreal, and the Royal
School of Mines, London, England, to the associateship of which he was
admitted in 1872, and where he held the Duke of Cornwall’s Scholarship,
given by the Prince of Wales, and took the Edward Forbes Medal in
Paleontology and the Murchison Medal in Geology. He was appointed
Geologist and Naturalist to Her Majesty’s Boundary Commission in 1873,
and investigated the country along the boundary of Canada and the
United States, from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains.
In £875 he issued his report under the title of “The Geology and Re-
sources of the 49th Parallel,” and in the same year received an appoint-
ment upon the Geological Survey of Canada, since which time he has
done much valuable work in exploring the unknown regions of Brltish
Columbia and the North-West Territories. In 1877 he commanded the
Yukon river expedition to Alaska, making a boat voyage of 1300 miles,
with one portage of 50 miles, from the basin of the I.iard to the Yukon.
Dr. Dawson has travelled extensively and studied in Europe. He is a
member of many scientific bodies, and was one of the original Fellows
of the Royal Society of Canada. He isa Doctor of Science, and is also
an LL.D. both of Queen’s University, Kingston, and McGill Univer

74

sity. In recognition of his services to the science of Geology, he was
this year awarded the Bigsby Medal by the Geological Society of Eng-
land, and on June 4th was elected a Fellow of the Xoyal Society of
England, the highest honour which can be conferred on a scientific man.
As a writer, Dr. Dawson is clear, terse and simple, and the chief char-
acteristics of his work are accuracy and thoroughness.

EXTINCT CANADIAN VERTEBRATES
FROM THE
MIOCENE ROCKS OF THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES
OF CANADA.

The following is an abstract of a most interesting address delivered
by Mr. H. M. Ami, First Assistant Palceontologist of the Geological
Survey Department, upon one of the afternoon excursions, to the
Museum last winter. There were about 80 members and friends
in attendance.

Amongst the more recent and interesting additions to the collec-
tions in the National Museum on Sussex Street, Ottawa, Canada, are
the mammalian and fish remains from the Tertiary rocks of the Cana-
dian North-West. These collections, which were made by Messrs. R.
G. McConnell and T. C. Weston especially, have been recently studied
by Prof. E. D. Cope, of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,
and the result of his observations will soon be made known in a memoir
now in print, published by the Geological Survey Department. The
specimens in question are now on exhibition in the upright cases of
the Museum, and from the labels attached the following interesting
forms are noticed of special interest.

ExtTincr RHINOCEROS.

Menodus angustigenis—This is the name which Prof. Cope has
given to the largest species of hoofed animal analogous to the rhino-
ceros that has ever yet been discovered, and which, in early Tertiary
times, was roaming about in the extinct forests of the now treeless

’. i

—- ©

79

prairie regions of Canada. ‘The best portion of the skull of one indi-
vidual may be séen about three feet long and eighteen inches acros,
with the frontal bones and snout preserved; also the two horn-cores
and portions of the upper jaw with several huge molars zz situ. The
lower jaw of the same individual was also found with the teeth beauti-
fully preserved. Some of these teeth are nearly four inches across and
three inches in thickness, being nearly four inches in length, with
lengthened roots and sharply cut crowns. The humerus, femur, tibia and
many horn-cores, bones of the pelvic arch, and of various other portions
of the skeleton were also found, making in all a beautiful display of
fossil bones belonging to as huge and ferocious a beast as any of those
which to-day are found in the jungles of an African or Indian forest.
Besides this form of AZenodus, Prof. Cope has recognized a number
more to which he has given separate specific designations, so that we
find that there existed in Canada not cnly this huge and ferocious
individual, but other allied creatures. These included Wenodus syceras
Cope; 4. Proutit, Cope; M. Americanus, Cope, and MM. Selwynt, Cope.
They all belong to Miocene Tertiary strata, occuring in the vicinity of

Swift Current, N.W.T. These belong to the family of the Titanotheridz

and forma group of animals analogous to the modern rhinoceros.

ExTiIncr Boar.

Elotherium Mortoni, Leidy. Amongst the specimens on exhibition
and collected by Mr. Weston, may be seen an almost perfect lower left
ramus of this extinct mammal, allied to the modern wild boar and
domestic pig, all of which belong tu the family of the Chzeropotamide.
This creature was of huge dimensions, the specimen in question being
nearly ro inches in length, and the teeth are beautifully preserved in a
spotted grey and yellowish coloured lime-rock. This is the first time
that this form has been found so far north on the American Continent.

Extinct DEER.

LEPTOMERYX MAMMIFER, Cope. This new species, and a member
of the family of the Zragu/ide, appears to be one of the ancestors of the
deer tribe, b2ing both a ruminant and ungulate mammal, a very well
preserved portion of the lower jaw, with several teeth zx szfu has per-
mitted Prof. Cope to establish its relations and affinities, and it forms

76°

a valuable addition to the fauna of those times which preceded the
advent of the great ice age, when all these types disappeared and made
room for the mastodon, the mammoth and other creatures, including
the megalonyx and its allies.

OTHER EXTINCT FORMS.

Besides the above, may be seen a large wcisor belonging to a
large carnivore allied to the modern dog or wolf, the tooth of an
oreodont, an extinct hare: Paleolagus turgidus, Cope, belonging to
the family of the Lep»ride, also a species of Trionyx, which Prof.
Cope has called 7’. Jewcopotamicus from the fact that similar forms
occur also in the so-called White River series or formation in the
Territories of the United States to the south. But besides the above,
we find also extinct forms allied to the squirrels : Hypertragulus rever-
sus, Cope, and also a large number of bones of siluroid fishes belong-
ing to the genera Amiurus, Rhineastes, etc.

Amongst these we find Amiurus McConnelli, A. cancellatus, all
described by Cope ; also Amia macrospondyla, and Amia Selwyniana,
and Rhineastes rheas, Cope.

Then come the remains of a species of Stylemis, an extinct turtle
belonging to the family of the Testudinata, one of the Chelonians.

Last BUT NOT LEAST

come the representatives of the two genera Chalicotheriwm and
Hemipsalodon, ‘The latter form, described under the name of H.
grandis, Cope, affords another example of an extinct type of hyzena
much larger than any of the modern living forms. It belongs to the
family of the Hycenodontide and forms part of a sub-order of that
family with very large representatives. The genus Chalicotherium, one
of the family of Chalicotheridze, has certain affinities to the rhinoceros,
which in size and proportions it greatly resembled.

Thus it will be seen that from the Miocene Tertiary strata of the
Swiit Current River not far from the line of the Canadian Pacific Rail
way, as well as from the treeless prairie region, there was once a large
fauna, the remains of which are entombed in these beds, and some of
which now adorn the cases of the National Museum of the Capital.

a

~

“I

REPORT OF THE ORNITHOLOGIVCAI, BRANCH FOR THE
YEAR 1890.

Lo the Council of the Ottawa Field-Naturalisis’ Club:

LADIES AND GENTLEMEN,—The leaders of the above named
branch have the honour to report that during the year 1890 five observ-
ers reported their observations in this district, covering one hundred
and fifty species and sub species, seven of which are new to our list.
One of these observers, we are glad to say, was a lady member, Miss
Gertrude Harmer, who, though beginning when the summer was half
over, and with scarcely any previous knowledge of the birds, made a list
of sixty-five species. It is also gratifying to note that four of the seven
new records were made by a new hand, and one of our youngest work-
ing members, Mr. F. A. Saunders. With some assistance from his
brother, Mr. W. E. Saunders of London, Ont., he made a list during
the year of 122 species, whilst the two leaders who worked in the dis-
trict made but 107 and 108 respectively. These figures are given to
show the members of the Club what may be done during spare hours
by a novice in the first year’s work, and it is hoped they may encourage
others to follow the example set by the members above referred to.

The additions to the list are as follows, the numbers prefixed being
those of the A. O. U. Check-list :—

120. Phalacrocorax dilophus, Double-crested Cormorant. A young
one was shot about Oct. 1st at Shirley’s Bay, near Britannia, by Mr. C.
G. Rogers and sent to W. J. Henry, taxidermist, to be mounted.

223. Phalaropus lobatus, Northern Phalarope. One obtained by
Mr. A. G. Kingston, Sept. roth, near Burritt’s Rapids on the Rideau.

354a. Falco rusticolus gyrfalco, Gyrfalcon. One shot by Mr. E.
White, Dec. 23rd, at the foot of Lt.-Col. White’s garden on the bank of
the Rideau in the city.

366. Asto wilsonianus, American Long-eared Owl. One shot by
Mr. F. A. Saunders in a piece of woods north of the Experimental Farm,
July 7th.

474. Otocoris alpestris, Horned Lark. This species was found by
Mr. F. A. Saunders to be quite abundant on the Experimental Farm

78

from April 19th to May 25th, and again from Sept. 26th to Oct. 28th
and easily distinguishable from its variety frafzcola, which arrives here
about the end of February, remains to breed, and leaves about the
beginning of November. ‘Though both were nominally recorded tefore
this is virtually a new record, as they were never satisfactorily distin-
guished till 1890.

536. Calcarius lappontcus. Lapland Longspur. Mr. F. A. Saun-
ders also found this species abundant at the farm in company with the last
species and with Snowflakes (Plecirophenax nivalts) till May 25th, an
unusually late date for winter birds in this latitude. The Longspurs
were again seen in the fall from Oct. 3rd to Nov. 18. Till 1890 we
were without a record of this species.

672. Dendroica palmarum. Palm Warbler. This species was
found by Messrs. W. E. and F. A. Saunders on 3rd July, breeding and
rather common in the Mer Blue. Both adults and young were secured
and carefully identified by Ridgway’s Manual as true Ja/marum and not
var. hypfochrysea which occurs sparingly here as a migrant. The former
were again seen in the same locality by Messrs. Kingston and Lees,
Aug. gth.

Besides the above, the following more or less rare birds were
observed, the common names and A. O. U. numbers alone being given:

231. Dowitcher, May 22nd, E. White.

234. ‘Knot (full breeding plumage), June 4th, E. White.

239. Fectoral Sandpiper, Oct. 2nd, Miss G. Harmer.

272. American Golden Plover, Oct. 18th, F. A. Saunders.

337. Red-tailed Hawk, April 18th, G. R. White.

356. Duck Hawk, July 11th, F. A. Saunders.

357. Pigeon Hawk, Dec. 19th, W. A. D. Lees.

387. Yellow-billed Cuckoo, June 27th, G. R. White. A pair nested
in Lt.-Col. White’s garden and raised young. The male and young
escaped. The female was shot.

401. American Three-toed Woodpecker, Sept. 28th and 29th, Oct.
12th and 13th, F. A. Saunders.

405. Pleated Woodpecker, Oct. 13, A. G. Kingston.

466a. Traill’s Flycatcher. This species seems to have become
quite common here in the last two years.

es

Py OS ¢ Sy ees

79

521. American Crossbill, On July 3rd Mr. W. A. D. Lees saw a
small flock of these birds, apparently young of the year, with bills not
quite fully developed. They seemed to be picking up something from
the sand of a newly made road in Ottawa East.

528. Redpoll, May 22nd, F. A. Saunders. A late date for the
species.

533. Line Siskin, May 16th, F. A. Saunders. Also late.

563. Field Sparrow, May 6th, W. A. D. Lees.

622a. White-rumped Shrike. On July 22nd Capt. Veith handed
Mr. Kingston a shrike which seemed to him about midway between
this variety and the true /udovicianus.

628. Yellow-throated Vireo, May toth, A. G. Kingston.

672a. -Yellow Palm Warbler. May toth, A. G. Kingston.

758. Oltve-backed Thrush. Oct. 11th, A. G. Kingston.

The following warblers have been rather unexpectedly found here
during the breeding season, viz. :—657 Magnolia; 662 Blackurnian ;
685 Wilson's.

A nest of the //ortda Gallinule (219) were taken by Messrs. W.
E. and F. A. Saunders near Kars on the Rideau, July 9th, containing
seven eggs, partly incubated. The same gentlemen also discovered on
July 7th, that gem of all ornithological prizes a nest of the Ruby-throated
Hummingbird. It was in process of building and they had the rare
privilege of watching the bird working at it for about an hour. On the
12th the completed nest with two fresh eggs was taken.

As there is some doubt among tbe leaders as to the comparative
abundance in this district of the Wood Thrush and the Hermit Thrush,
the members of the branch will confer a favor on the leaders by making
a careful investigation of this question during the coming year, taking
especial care in the identification of each species.

The leaders are glad to be able to announce that they have in
preparation for the pages of THE OrrawA NATURALIST, and almost
completed a list of all the birds recorded for this district up to the
end of 1890.* In view of this fact it has been thought better not to
publish the usual list of dates of arrival and departure. This list has,

* This was published in the June number.

80

however, been compiled and may be consulted by members interested.

All of which is respectfully submitted.
WM. A. D. LEES,

A. G. KINGSTON,

JOHN MACOUN,
Ottawa, 27th January, 1891. Leaders.

THE BIRDS OF OTTAWA.

Readers will please make the foilowing corrections in the list of
birds published in the Naruratist, Vol. v, No. 2: p.42. No. 474,
after “1890” read “by Mr. F. A. Saunders”: No, 48, after ‘‘americanus”
read ‘American Crow.” p. 43, No. 536, after “November. 18th” read
“(F. A Saundets)”: p. 46, No. 685, strike out the word “breeding”.

REPORT OF THE BOTANICAL BRANCH, 1890.
To the Council of the Ottawa Fietd-Naturalistt Club.

LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, —The leaders beg to report that active
work in this branch has been maintained in a satisfactory manner
throughout the season. Fresh plants have been added to the Flora
Ottawaensis, and good work has been done by new botanists in
confirming past records and discovering new localities. Many of
these have already been recorded in the flora now being pub-
lished as a supplement to the Orrawa NaturRa.List. This work
which has been of considerable assistance to beginners, will, we
trust, be finished early next year. Efforts have been put forth by the
leaders at the General and Sub-excursions to make their branch popu-
lar and useful to all who attend those meetings. The addresses have
been attentively listened to, and the interest shown has been very en-
couraging. One of the series of Sub-Excursions to the Geological Survey
Museum, which have been such an instructive feature of the Club’s work
during this winter, was ably conducted by Prof. Macoun. The leaders

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81

take the liberty of specially drawing the attention of the members of the
Club to the exceptional advantages we derive from having the Geologi-
cal Survey Department located at Ottawa. This, however, we feel it
our duty to mention, would be only of comparative value were it not for
the great courtesies which are at all times extended to our members by
the Director and officers of the survey. As leaders of the Botanical
Branch, we have particular pleasure in testifying to the cordial and
ready assistance always given by Prof. Macoun and his assistant, Mr.
James M. Macoun. During the past season the leaders, assisted by
Prof. Macoun, have been devoting some time to the study of mosses.
Prof. Macoun has during the winter worked out the collections of
Sphagnum and has furnished us with the list which is appended to this
report. Prof. Macoun’s Catalogue of Canadian Plants has been com-
pleted during the year and will be of inestimable value to our Botanists.
Mr. Fletcher and Mr. Scott have made a special study of the willows
found in this locality with good results, which will be given in the
Flora Ottawaensis.

The leaders beg to call the attention of members to the newly
formed Canadian Botanists’ Correspondence Association, which has been
formed by Mr. J. A. Morton, of Wingham, Ont., Mr. J. Dearness, of
London, Ont., and some other botanists. The object of this association
is to help botanists by giving them facilities for exchanging herbarium
specimens and becoming acquainted with other botanists in different parts
of the country. We anticipate that much good will result from this
organization and recommend it to the notice of our botanical members.

The following plants of interest, but not new to the list, may be
referred to here:

A fine fruiting specimen of the curious introduced crucifer /Ves/ia
paniculata, which has flowers resembling Erysimum chetran thoides, a
sparse stellate pubescence and small roundish seed-pods, was found in
an oat field near the Hog’s Back.

Nuphar Advena + Kalmiana. Fine flowering specimens of this
magnificent hybrid were found in Brigham’s Creek in August.

Bellis perennis. The English Daisy has been several times
_observed for one or two years after lawns have been sown with English
seed, but like Plantago lanceolata, seldom lives many years.

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Chenopodium Botrys. An interesting sub-excursion was held by
the branch, and the members visited an excavation on Sandy Hill at
the invitation of Lt.-Col. White, to examine the flora which had ap-
peared subsequent to the carting away of the surface sand. An interest-
ing feature was that, several plants not observed as growing in the imme-
diate locality before, now appeared, and the above named attractive
goose-foot was the most conspicuous amongst these.

Cornus sericea was found at Billings’ Bridge.

Cornus paniculata. Several nice bushes were observed on the
light-house Island above Aylmtr.

Aspidium Goldianum. A new locality for this grand fern was dis-
covered near Kingsmere in the Chelsea Mountains.

Asplenitum angustifolium. A pleasing and somewhat novel record
has to be made with regard to this beautiful fern. Some 15 years ago
a few plants were discovered near Hemlock Lake. When this same
locality was visited last autumn the delicate and pale green fronds-could
be seen in large clumps extending over nearly an acre.

Amongst the new records two of the Orchids are worthy of special
mention Habenaria virescens was found in abundance at Thurso by Mr.
Scott, Spiranthes Romanzofiana a beautiful and highly-scented Ladies
Tresses was found by Mr. Scott at Templeton, and on Kettle Island

soon afterwards by Mr. Robert B. Whyte.
JAMES FLETCHER,

R. B. WHYTE,

Ww. SCOTT,
Leaders.

FLORA OTTAWAENSIS.
The following is a list of the additions to the local list discovered
since the last report which have not already been recorded :—
Brassica campestris var. vletfera, Elgin Street, Sept. 1, W. Scott.
Fragaria Virginiana, Duch, v. Illinoensis, Gray, Rockcliffe, May 12>
J. M. Macoun.
Dianthus Armeria, \.. Hartwell’s Locks, July 10, J. Fletcher. d
Amarantus blitoides, Wat., Hartwell’s Locks, Sept. 3. W. Scott. §

.
.

Centaurea nigra, L., Thurso, Aug. 7, W. Scott.

83

Helianthus decapetalus, L., Casselman, Aug. 16, W. Scott.

Monotropa hypopitys, L., (ripe fruit), Kirk’s Ferry, Sept. 6, T. J.
McLaughlin.

Scrophularia nodosa L., v. Marilandica, Gray, Casselman, June 21,
W. Scott.

Physostegia Virginiana, Benth, Billings Bridge, Sept. 20, W. Scott.

Lobelia Kalmii, L., Skead’s Mills, Aug., R. B. Whyte.

Spiranthes Romanzoffiana, Cham., ‘l'empleton, July 23, W. Scott.

Habenaria virescens, Spreng., Thurso, Aug. 7, W. Scott.

Allium Canadense, Kalm., Billings Bridge, July, J. Fletcher.

Streptopus amplexifolius, D.C., Kingsmere, May 24, J. Fletcher.

Elatine Americana, Arn., Brigham’s Creek, Sept., J. Fletcher.

Eatonia Pennsylvanica, Gray, Stewarton, Hull, July, J. Fletcher.

List of the species of the Genus Sphagnum found at Ottawa.

1. Sphagnum Girgenshontt Russ. McKay’s wood.

Var. hygrophyllum Warnst. Beechwood.

. §. fuscum, (Schpr.) von Klinggraeff. Var. fuscescens. Warnst.
Abundant in Mer Bleue.

Var. pallescens, Warnst. Abundant in Mer Bleue.

N

3. S. Zenellum, (Schpr.) von Klinggraeff. Var. rubellum Wils. Very
fine and abundant in Mer Bleue.

4. S. acutifolum, (Ehrh in part.) Russ. and Warnst. Very common in
peat bogs Mer. Bleue, etc.

Var. versicolor, Warnst. Common in Mer Bleue.

Var. pallescens, Warnst. Mer Bleue.

5. 8. recurvum, (Beauy.) Russ. and Warnst. Var, puldchrum, Lindb.
In woods by the Mer Bleue.

Var. mucronatum, Russ. Wet woods near Beechwood.

Var. amblyphyllum, Russ. Abundant in pools in the Mer
Bleue.

84

Var. parvifolium, (Sendt.) Warnst. In woods along the
Mer Bleue.

6. S. sguarrosum, Pers. Var. speciosum, Warnst. Woods near McKay’s
Lake.

Var. semisguarrosum, Russ. In woods along the Mer Bleue

7. S. Wulfianum Girg. Var. macroclanm, Warnst. Woods near Beech-
wood.

Var. viride, Warnst. Race Course, Oct. 11th.

8. S. cymbifolium, Ehrh. Var. deve, Warnst. Abundant in Mer Bleue,
also at the Race Course.

EXCURSION No. 1.

“When is the first excursion to be?” is the question asked, by many

anxious enquirers, every spring as soon as the leaves begin to unfold

and the genial smile of nature once more greets the eager naturalist who ~

has been impatiently waiting for snow and winier to pass away, that he
might lay aside his books and dried specimens and go to the woods to
worship his goddess and learn more of her creatures, and thus find the
only true rest from the cares and worries of the every day world.

The first excursion is always one of the best attended of the whole
year, and that held this spring, at the end of May, was no exception to
the general rule. King’s Mountain, in the Chelsea Mountains, has now
become recognized as ‘the best place ” for the first outing.

Tne weather, early in the morning of the day chosen, looked rather
doubtful, and this had the effect of keeping some who would have at-
tended from doing so. However, more than 100 ladies and gentlemen
turned up and left the rendezvous at 9.15 in six large vans. The day
was decidedly hot, but the cool breeze which all day blew from the
mountains, rendered the trip to the woods most agreeable. Kingsmere

was reached by noon, and after lunch the president, Dr. R. W. Ells,

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85

announced the programme and gave the names of the leaders who were
present. Nearly the whole party ascended the mountain, under the
leadership of Mr. R. b. Whyte, who in his usual genial way answered
the questions of all enquirers. The steep slopes and glades resounded
with merry laughter as the eager excursionists spread out over the
mountain side and vied with each other in trying to find something new.
When the party re-rssembled before leaving, the usual addresses were
given. Mr. William Scott, the botanical leader, was first called upon
by the president. He spoke of many plants in an easy and instructive
manner and imbued his hearers with some of his own enthusiasm as he
drew attention to the various points of interest in the various flowers
exhibited. The delicate mauve bells of Clematis verticillaris were
admired by all, as well as many other floral treasures. Mr. A G.
Kingston told of the habits of the birds seen, and described their notes.
The attractive manner in which he treated his subject held the attention of
all present. Mr. Fletcher spoke of the insects collected, and also on some
fungous diseases and edible fungi. ‘The edible Morell( M/orchella esculenta)
was shown, as well as a somewhat similar fungus of the genus Helvella.
Mr. H. P. Brumell gave a simple and most interesting account of some of
the more important minerals in the Laurentian formation at the con-
clusion of which he was loudly applauded. Before leaving, Dr. Ells
congratulated the members on the success of the meeting, which every
one present felt was largely due to the excellent management of the
excursion committee, and also to the kindness and attention of the
President and Mrs. Ells, who were untiring in their efforts to make every
one present enjoy the day thoroughly.

EXCURSION No. 2z.

The seccnd general excursion of the Club was held on Saturday,
the 27th June, when Montebello was visited. Notwithstanding the
somewhat unfavorable weather for a river trip—the morning being very
cool with a high wind—about sixty of the members and their friends
availed themselves of the opportunity of again visiting the village so

86

famous in civil, military, and natural history. Among those who have
not been seen at previous excursions of the club were noticed Dr.
Wilson and his three sisters from Cumberland, and the Rev. J. F. and
Mrs. Gorman, of Ottawa.

Montebello is about 45 miles from Ottawa, on the left bank of the
Ottawa River, and was during the rebellion of 1837-8 the scene of con-
siderable military action. Here stand the old homestead and grounds
of the Hon. Mr. Papineau, whose father figures so prominently in Cana-
dian history on account of the part he took in that struggle. The
house stands in a park which, to all appearance, is a primitive forest
beautifully laid out in drives, foot-paths and flower beds. In this park are
several other buildings, including a chapel, a museum and a lodge, each
in a separate stone building kept scrupulously clean and in good order
by a staff of workmen continuously employed. As the morning wore
away, the day became warm and the trip enjoyable, and after a run of
four hours on the ‘‘ Empress” the excursionists were landed safely at
the wharf Ample justice having been done to the contents of the
baskets, the party proceeded to the grounds mentioned, where the Hon.
Mr. Papineau was waiting to receive and welcome them, and in his
usual courteous manner threw open the museum and explained the
arrangement of the armory and the various implements of war, as well
as the meaning and uses of the numerous curiosities there to be seen.
The whole place presents a sight of antiquity, and to those familiar
with the early history of the country calls up reminiscences of the
gravest nature. After viewing the many objects of interest in the
museum and park, the botanical section, under the leadership of Mr.
R. B. Whyte, went to the woods and mountains to the north of the
village, where many rarities of the vegetable world were collected and
brought back to the landing barely in time to catch the boat on her re-
turn trip from Grenville at 3 p.m. When Mr. Whyt2 had finished
arranging his plants, Mr. T. J. MacLaughlin, First Vice-President of
the club, addressed the members and passengers, and after explaining
to the latter that it was customary for the leaders to give addresses on
the collections and observations made by them during the day, and that
the Captain had given them permission to do so on the boat, he called
on Mr. Whyte to speak on botany. Mr. Whyte, in his usual forcible

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87

and earnest manner, enumerated the various plants, which were of un-
usual interest, and gave interesting accounts of their habits, medicinal
qualities and other uses known to science, answered questions and gave

much valuable information to eager and numerous inquiries among the

passengers. Mr. MacLaughlin again addressed those present, and after
expressing his regret at the absence of so many of the leaders, spoke at
length on the advantages of a knowledge of natural history and of the
good work the club was doing for science in cultivating a taste for the
subject, and emphasized the affirmation that although the club was not
aided by Government, nor Ly any other source outside of its individual
membership fees, it was doing as much for the cause of science, if not
more, than any other institution of the kind in North America. The
party returned to the city at 7.30, well satisfied that they had spent a
pleasant and profitable day.

HG

HENRY EDWARDS.

It is with deep regret that we have to announce the death of our
highly esteemed corresponding member, Henry Edwards, who died of
dropsy in New York, oth June last. By his death, one of the most
devoted lovers of science and art has passed away. As an Entomolo-
gist, Mr. Edwards had few equals, and he possessed one of the largest
private collections of insects in the world. His courtesy in naming
specimens, and his generosity in helping others were well known by all
his correspondents. His death will be deplored by many grateful and
loving friends.

Mr. Edwards was an Englishman, and was born at Ross in Here-
fordshire, August 27th, 1830. When quite young he showed much
talent as an actor, and frequently took part in amateur theatricals.
In 1853 he sailed for Australia and took to the stage as a profession.
From Australia he went to South America and lived for some time in
Peru and Panama. In 1867 he reached San Francisco, where he
stayed ten years, during which time he took an active interest in th

88

California Academy of Sciences, and made many friends. In 1877 he
moved to the east where he made his first appearance in Boston. In
1879 he went to New York and was for many years manager of Wallack’s
Theatre. In 1889 he left New York for his old home in Australia, but
returned again in 1890.

As an Entomologist, Mr. Edwards had a world-wide reputation,
and was recognized as one of the highest authorities in North America.
Through his own generosity, we have in our club library most of his
valuable papers. Amongst these his “ Descriptions of Pacific Coast
Lepidoptera,” and “ Bibliographical Catalogue of the Described Trans-
formations of North American Lepidoptera,” are very valuable to the
working Entomologist. His death will deprive many of an able and
kind helper, as well as of a friend, who even through his correspondence
had endeared himself to those who never had the pleasure of meeting

him.

A. Ax A. 5.

Beginning August 12th next, a series of meetings extending over
two weeks is to be held at Washington, D.C. These meetings will be
of the utmost interest. On August 12th the first meeting will be held of
the Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations.
August 17th the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science begins
its sessions, and also on the same day the meeting of the Association of
Economic Entomologist, of which Mr. Fletcher of this club is the
President for the year. These meetings will take two days, and on the
1yth the American Association for the Advancement of Science begins
its week of meetings and entertainments. Washington is undoubtedly
now the scientific ceatre of the North American continent, and great
preparations have been made to ensure the success of these meetings.
Everyone who could possibly attend them should make a special
effort to do so.

89

THE OTTAWA COLONY OF CHIMNEY SWIFTS
(CHETURA PELAGICA).
By A. G. KINGSTON.
(Read 29th January, r89r.)

Among the many different physical powers exhibited by animal life
in its endless variety of forms there is none which has so much im-
pressed the mind of man in every age as that one so widely character-
istic of the feathered class, the gift of flight. In the systems of the
ornithologists a bird may take higher or lower rank according to the
development or simplicity of its internal structure ; but in the eyes of
mankind at large, let but the power of rapid and untiring flight be
shown in a high state of perfection, and just in that measure will its
possessor approach the ideal bird. Throughout the whole class there
are few, if any, families which in this respect can rival the Swifts.

The Albatross and the Frigate Bird can indeed sweep over immense
stretches of ocean in an hour’s time, but, after all, the sea and the earth
enter largely into the life of these birds. Their food is sought amid the
waves, their nests are placed among the rocks along shore; but the
home of the Swift is in the upper air where he delights to spend every
moment of the long summer days. By him every function of life, except
sleep and the incubation of the egg, is performed upon the wing ;
and every organ of the body, as we shall see, is specialized to fit it for
this purpose, almost to the disregard of all others.

In most parts of Eastern Canada and the United States the Chim-
ney Swift is one of our most common city birds, often an uninvited
guest within our houses and spending the short summer nights within a
few feet of our beds.

Here in Ottawa every stroller upon Parliament Hill during the pleas
ant evenings in spring, and again in the later summer months, is
amused by the merry twittering and rhythmic whirling motion of that
countless cloud of little birds circling round one of the towers of the
Government Buildings. And in the height of summer no better example
can be found of the power and grace of motion than to see one of these
same swifts, after soaring for some time high in the air, descend and,
hurrying along just over the roofs of the houses, wheel once or twice
about the chimney where his nest is hung, and suddenly arresting his

90

onward motion, with wings raised high above the back like a shuttlecock,
drop down into the darkness. This habit of theirs of nesting in chim™
neys, it may as well be admitted, seems at first to detract much from
their claim to an etherial nature as dwellers in the air, but it should be
borne in mind that the swift never makes his habitation amongst soot
and smoke, for he is always careful to choose a chimney that is not in
present use. Moreover, in the days when the human lord of this con-
tinent was living in a wigwam filled with soot and smoke, the home
of the switt was the shaft of a tall and hollow tree.

The Cypselide or Swifts are a family of swallow-like birds of medium
size and generally of dull plumage. In the classification of the older
ornithologists, on account of many superficial points of resemblance’
they were closely associated with the true swallows; and as popular
language even in the present day applies the name ‘‘swallow” indis-
criminately to all those birds of graceful flight which live on insects
caught upon the wing, it may be well to consider for a moment the
reasons that have led to the modern classification ; for now while the
swallows are closely linked with the finches, tanagers and other singing
birds of the Passerine order, so unlike them externally, the swifts on
the other hand are placed in a distinct order and as intimately coupled
with a family of entirely different appearance, the humming birds. For
a vindication of what seems at first an unnatural classification it
would be hard to find anything more satisfactory or conclusive than the
words of Prof. Garrod as quoted in Cassell’s Natural History. At the
same time they will give us a glimpse of the internal structure of the
swifts which may serve to explain some of their curious habits. i give
them in abridged and somewhat modified form :

‘Most of us know that unlike the hair upon a quadruped the
feathers of a bird are not distributed evenly over the body, but grow
in linear clusters, called tracts, with narrow naked spaces between.
A similarity of the arrangement of these feather tracts in different
species has been found to be closely associated with that general simi-
larity of the important organs of the body which leads to the grouping
of species together under one order, while the different orders frequently
show different patterns in this respect. Now the arrangement of the
feather tracts on the swift is found to be almost identical with that of

91

he hummingbird, while the swallow shows an entirely different pattern,
closely resembling that of the finches.

‘ Again, the breast-bone, or sternum, is a bone of great importance in
all flying birds, as it gives origin to the powerful muscles which move
the wings. Here, too, the swift and the hummingbird show a similar
model, the swallow and the finch another.

‘The swallow is not asinging bird, yet upon dissection, the syrnix,
or origin of voice, at the lower end of the windpipe, is found in one of
its most highly developed forms, as in the true songsters. Ages ot dis-
use do not seem in this instance to have caused a degeneration of the
organ. Upon the swift and the hummingbird, on the other hand, no
reproach can be cast for neglect of musical talent. In them the syrinx
is of an entirely different and much simpler form.

‘The foot of a swallow is, though comparatively smal! and feeble,
that of a true percher. It is covered with scufe/la, or scales, and has
the power of moving the hind toe independently of the other toes ;
this is indispensible for the grasping of a perch. The swift’s foot,
unlike that of all other birds, is covered with smooth skin. The hind toe is
lacking in the power of independent motion, and in some of the genera
is turned forward alongside the others, instead of having an opposing
action like a thumb. Accordingly the posture of a swift when at rest is
either clinging to a vertical surface or squatting flat upon a level
one; whereas, a swallow may often be seen perching on a twig or
wire.

‘Lastly the swifts and hummingbirds have ten primary feathers in
the wing and ten in the tail, while the swallow and the singing perchers
have only nine in the wing but twelve in the tail.’ ;

For these reasons, then, among others, the swifts have been removed
from their old proximity to the swallows, and grouped with the hum-
mingbirds and the goatsuckers, or nighthawks, under an order called
the Macrochires, or long-handed-ones, in allusion to the great length,
comparatively, of the outer joint of the wing, corresponding to the hand
in man.

The Cypselide are world-wide in their distribution, species of one or
more of their six genera being found in every continent and in Aus-
tralia, all remarkable for their wonderful power of flight and for their

92

excellence as architects. Their styles of nest-building are very various
indesign, but there is one characteristic running through all which dis-
tinguishes their nests from those of all others birds. Owing to the ex-
treme weakness of the feet and to the great length of the wings these
birds are excessively awkward in any situation but their native element,
the upper air. They cannot build of grass, feathers or hair mixed with
mud as so many other birds do. To collect the materials would be diffi-
cult to weave them together impossible. Neither can they nest upon

the ground—a common alternative, especially with non-perching birds.
get him on a solid, level surface and the swift is almost helpless. He
flounders awkwardly about until he can launch himself over the edge
of a rock or bank, and spread those long wings again on the free air.
But if nature has condemned this race to make bricks without straw,
she has herself shown them how to provide a substitute, and that from
a most unique source. The whole family are gifted with an unusual
development of the salivary glands which in nesting time secrete within
the mouth a thick viscous fluid. Of this material, wholly or in part,
the nests of all the various species of swift are composed. On ex
posure to the air it soon dries into a glue-like substance, hard, light
and elastic. So tenacious is it that in removing the nest of our own
North Aierican species from a chimney the very brick itself will often
come away in scales before the nest will break. Thus equipped these
children of the air are almost independent of the earth, and can fix
their homes and rear their young in the most inaccessible places, far
from the dangers of this lower world.

In Ceylon and the islands of the Indian Archipelago several species
of the genus Collocatia fasten their little saucer-shaped egg-baskets
against high over-hanging cliffs, or on the walls of caverns running in
from the sea. These furnish the famous Salangane, or edible birds-
nests, so dear to the heart of the Chinese epicure. The best samples,
that is, the first of the season, are composed wholly of the salivary
gum, and are so difficult to obtain that they are frequently sold in the
Celestial Empire as high as three guineas ($15) a pound. In general
shape they resemble the nest of our own chimney swift, but are of a
translucent white colour, and appear as if woven of threads of
isinglass.

—<—

93

In the West Indies the long flower-spathes of the cocoanut palm often
hang on the trees in a withered state for many months; and _ up inside
of these the Palm Swift finds a safe and convenient place to affix its
nest, composed of feathers glued together with the same salivary gum.
This plan of fastening the nest to the inside of a hollow tube or shaft
seems to be a favourite one with several of the American species. Not
only is the idea shown in the choice of the chimney swift, but there are
two species which actually construct the protecting tube for themselves. |
Paniptila Sancti Hyeronime inhabiting Guatemal2, attaches to the
underside of an over-hanging rock a tube some feet in length, composed
of the seed-down of plants caught flying in the air and glued together
with saliva. Entrance to this is from below and the eggs are laid on a
kind of shelf near the top, Very similar is the nest of a Brazilian
species, Chaetura poliura, only in this case the tube is suspended
from the branch of a tree and is covered with bright coloured feathers.
There is no shelf within to receive the eggs, and it is believed that
these are cemented against the side of the tube and brooded on by the
bird while in an upright position.

Having thus referred to the characteristics of the family in general,
and to some of its more interesting members in other lands, we will
perhaps be better prepared to consider the peculiarities of our own
bird, the American chimney swift (Chetwra pelagica). This bird is
about 5 inches in length and 12 to 13 in extent of wings. The general
colour 1s a dull dark gray, considerably lighter on the throat and breast
and having a faint gloss of metallic green on the back. On taking
either of the specimens on the table in the hand one is at once struck
with the singular appearance of the tail, each of the ten quills ending
ina strong sharp spine formed by the shaft being produced abcut a
quarter of an inch beyond the vane. Such a form of tail is almost
valueless as a steering apparatus during flight, but serves admirably the
purpose for which it is used—that of a prop to support the weight of
the body while at rest ; for the only position of rest ever assumed by
this bird is a vertical one, as it clings to the inside of a chimney or
hollow tree braced up by this strong spiked tail. A woodpecker at
work on the outside of the tree would assume much the same position,
but in his case the spineous nature of the tail is less marked, while the

94

foot is suitable for climbing, that of the swift being weaker and fitted
mostly for clinging.

The next striking feature is the great length of the wings, the dis-
tance from tip to tip when fully extended being more than 24 times the
extreme length of the body. The ratio of these two measurements in
most land birds is about as 1% to 1. Inthe swallows it only reaches 2
to 1; and the proportion shown in the chimney swift is only exceeded,
if at all, by one or two of the hawks and some of the long-winged sea-
birds, as the frigatebird and the wandering albatross.

Referring to the latter it is worthy of notice that in these seabirds
the great stretch of wing is due to the lengthening of the inner joint
or hwmerus, the other bones being comparatively short, while in the wing
of the swift and all birds of the same order the proportion of the bones
is exactly reversed. The radius and metacarpals, or forearm and hand,
make up almost the whole of the wing, the inner joint being so short
that the carpalangle is almost covered by the feathers of the shoulder.
And there is a corresponding difference in the style of flight. The sea-
bird propels itself by long measured sweeps, or soars for whole minutes
without a movement, whereas the wing of the swift is constantly a-
quiver as he darts and dives hither and thither after the insects that
make up his food. Much as the swallows resemble the swifts in colour,
size and habit, it is not difficult to distinguish between them when on
the wing. The motions of all the swallows are more measured and
graceful, being guided by the long rudder-like tail, while the swift might
be compared to a short boat without a rudder but having very long
oars, not quite suited for following a perfectly straight track, but making
splendid time and brilliant steering on a very tortuous course. The
small flattened and curved bill looks at first sight ill-suited for its duty
of capturing insects in rapid motion, but it will be noticed that the
mouth is cleft far beyond the base of the bill, reaching to a point just
below the eye, and when wide open the gape is really very great. There
is an eyebrow or shade over the eye to protect it from the glare of the
sun. A similar feature is seen in some eagles, which have a prominent
bony shelf above the eye. That of the chimney swift, however, is
formed entirely of feathers.

These birds are late comers with us, most of the swallows generally

——_ ev

ae

95

appearing some time before them, but they atone for tardiness by remark-
able regularity. The records of a number of years show that they may be
looked for in Ottawa almost with certainty on one of the first six days
of May ; and when they come they come altogether. To-day, perhaps:
not a swift is to be seen, or at most but a couple of pioneers; to-morrow
the whole colony is with us. They take up their abode at first in what may
be called the swifts’ immigrant shed. I call it by that name because none
of the birds have any intention of making it a home in which to bring up
a family. This temporary shelter is a ventilating tower at the northeast
corner of the Western Departmental Building. Here on any fine evening
in May they may be seen in countless numbers, sporting and chas-
ing each other high in air, at first extending their gambols over the
who ec of Parliament Hill, waiting for the stragglers to come home, per
haps from an afternoon’s trip to the St. Lawrence, or far back over the
Laurentian Mountains, for distance is nothing to them. As the even-
ing advances, however, the whole flock commences to take up a circling
motion round the favourite tower, though still high above it. Gradually
the circle becomes narrower and a few birds will now and then dash
down at the windows of the tower as if about to enter; but these are
only ‘false offers,” for the birds sheer off and rejoin the twittering
stream above, which is all the while drawing lower down and closer
together, until now the sun has fallen behind Chelsea Mountain, and
just as the twilight comes on, the stream narrows to a living whirlpool
whose vortex is the tower window. Then with the roar of many wings
beating together they pour into the opening. ‘There are four such
windows within a few feet of one another, but the swifts use only one,
the eastern; and as it is too narrow for the multitude of birds pres-
sing in, many flutter against the stone work and eddying off at the sides
heighten the resemblance of the whole to a whirlpool. These fall
into the main current again when its force slackens, and soon the last
swift has entered for the night.

The great Audubon and several other ornithologists describe the
chimney swifts as prolonging these gambols after sundown far into
the dusk, and Nuttall even calls them nocturnal birds; but with us
they always retire with, or soon after, the setting sun, and when the last
straggler has disappeared there is still light enough to read a book without

96

much difficulty in the open air. The observations of most of these
naturalists were made in the Central and Southern States, where even in
summer the nights are of considerable length. In our northern lati-
tude, on the other hand, the short duration of the hours of darkness
at this season compels the birds to seek more promptly the rest so much
needed after the incessant activities of the long bright day.

At this hour the inside of the ventilating shaft is too dark to permit
one to see anything of its occupants, but on the zoth of May last I was
fortunate enough to find them almost all at home in the daytime. The
weather was cold with a light rain, and, as the swifts are very suscept
ible to a fall in the temperature, only a few score ventured out to circle
round the building or take a short turn over the city. Entering one of
the ducts through a trapdoor in the attic, a journey of a few feet on
the hands and knees was well repaid by the view within the shaft. The
tower is an octagonal one, built of stone lined with bricks, the space
within being about 8 feet across. Up through the centre passes an iron
smoke-pipe from the furnaces in the basement. This is about 3 feet in
diameter, so that the intervening space leaves ample room fora view of
the wall lighted by the little windows at the top where the swifts find
entrance. All round the inside the birds were clinging against
the wall, shoulder to shoulder, covering every availabie inch from a
short distance below the windows down to about to feet above my
head, a :space of probably 18 feet in height. Many were continually
fluttering in and out, knocking each other off and beating about in the
dim light with endless flapping and twittering. The wall surface covered
would be about 470 square feet. Audubon in making a rough computa-
tion of the number of a flock roosting within a hollow tree which he
visited near Louisville, Ky., allows 32 birds as the number resting on
each square foot of surface. At this rate the census of the Ottawa
colony would reach 15,040. I believe, however, that this is consider-
ably over the mark. On several evenings I took the time occupied by
the flock in entering the tower, which proved to be about 16 minutes.
If there were as many as 15,000, it would require something over 15
birds to pass in during each second, The opening isa small one, about
1 foot by 3, and it seems hardly possibly that they can crowd in at sucha
rate, though they certainly go faster than one can count. Probably 9,000

97

or 10,000 would not be far from the true number of the flock. There
is at the bottom of the shaft a mass of droppings and feathers, evidently
the accumulation of several years, but no sign of a nest anywhere.
This place is not made use of by them for that purpose.

Inspection of the tower during daylight on a number of other
occasions when the weather was fine showed not a single swift within.
It is well known that they never rest in the open air, and as there
appears to be no other roost in this neighbourhood the conclusion is
almost unavoidable that these tiny creatures spend the whole 16 or 17
hours of the summer day upon the wing. What restless energy in those
little pinions! And what a vast quantity of insect food, in the aggre-
gate, must be consumed in order to sustain such untiring muscles !

In the year 1869 the late Lt.-Col. Wiley read a paper on “Swallows’
before the Ottawa Literary and Scientific Society, in which he gave an
interesting account of this same colony. Their favourite rendezvcus
was then a tower in the Eastern Block, from which they were afterwards
excluded by placing a wire netting over the openings. Itis to be hoped
that they may long remain undisturbed in their present quarters. The
good work done by such a flock in clearing the atmosphere of insects
must be almost incalculable. And for this we are now more than ever
dependent upon the swifts, since almost all the swallows and other
insect-eating birds have been driven from their city homes by the Euro-
pean sparrows.

There are several other similar towers about the Government
Buildings, but none of these are ever occupied by the swifts, so inten-
sely gregarious are they in disposition. When nesting time comes,
however, the case is exactly reversed. The birds are scattered over the
city and probably far into the country, and seldom, I believe, is there
more than one pair found nesting in any one chimney.

Amongst all the feathered tribes, at the nesting season, the males
are endowed with some distinguishing mark of beauty or some acces-
sory power of display which serves to point out to the other sex the
most vigorous and desirable among many suitors. The brilliant colours,
the wonderful growths of ornamental plumes, the sweet songs or extra-
ordinary calls of many birds in spring time are all to be accounted for
upon this principle. In other species the same end is served by curious

98

feats executed, generally on the wing, but sometimes on land or water.
The drumming of the partridge is a familiar instance of this kind of
performance ; and though very different in style, the courtship of the
chimney swift may be classed under the same head. At all other
seasons they hunt singly or in pairs, twittering frequently ; but during
the latter half of May they are almost always to be seen in groups of
three. The twittering becomes almost a continuous trill, and the lines
of flight more graceful. Neglecting those zigzag darts after insects
which mark their course at other times, and keeping for a long time the
same relative positions, the little trio sail low down over the houses and
tree-tops in long sweeping curves as if conscious of being on exhibition.
By the first week in June these preliminaries are over. The unfortunate
rejected has given up the suit and has retired to spend the summer in
celibacy, with others equally unlucky, at the tower; and the mated ones
at once set about the selection of a suitable chimney, free from fire and
smoke, and tolerably clean from soot for the firm attachment of the
nest. The few necessary building materials are supplied by any tall
tree having dead twigs at the top. The birds while on the wing seize
the twigs, and by a sudden twist break off short pieces and carry them
away to the site already chosen. These are glued to the side of the
flue and to each other with the mucilage secreted in the mouth of the
bird as already mentioned, and are formed into a light and strong
saucer-shaped nest. No down or other soft material is placed within,
but the eggs are laid upon the bare framework of the nest.

On the 3rd July, 1890, I was fortunate enough to discover the
nest of a pair of these birds in one of the chimneys of my house. By
removing the stopper of a stove-pipe hole and placing two small
mirrors in suitable positions in the flue I was able to see a good deal of
the household management of my little guests. The nest was about
three and a half feet above the pipe hole and eight feet from the top
of the chimney ; and was when unoccupied nearly hidden from sight
by a slight ‘‘jog” inthe chimney. Although during several weeks before
that the birds had been heard in the flue and careful watch had been
kept, the operation of building had not been seen; and indeed the
exact location of the nest was only made known by the long wings of
the bird projecting from it after egg-laying or, perhaps, incubation had
begun.

99

Whether both birds or only the female took part in the nest-build-
ing is uncertain, but it appears to have occupied more than a fortnight.
During the nine or ten days of incubation the mate did not appear to
roost in the chimney and seems to have been rather remiss in his
attentions. Indeed, I did not see tne two birds together in the chim-
ney during all this time. After the young were hatched, however,
which took place on the 13th July, the male became less neglectful of
his family duties, taking a fair share of the task of feeding the young,
and always spending the night within the flue, not far from the nest.
These observations are in accord with the fact that the birds resorting
to the tower of the West Block, though somewhat reduced during the
latter part of June and the first half of July, still formed a large flock,
perhaps half of the original number ; while after the time of hatching
out they rapidly dwindled,—no doubt, by the calling away of the males
to assist in the care of the young. On the evening of the 2nd of
August not more than forty or fifty were seen to enter the tower.

For the first week the young were kept constantly covered by cone
or other of the old birds, who relieved each other at intervals of half

an hour or an hour. Contrary to the descriptions given in most of the
_books treating of the swift, these birds seemed to be but poor ciimbers.

They would flutter down from the entrance with wings half open above
the back and alight at some little distance from the nest, generally
below it. Then after a moment’s rest, they weuld scramble up to the
nest, half climbing, half flying, being never seen to ascend the wall
without the assistance of the fluttering wings.

There was something about their manner of feeding the young
which struck me asremarkable. When one of the parent birds returned
from hunting and tuok its place on the nest, as I have just described, it
would not proceed to feed the nestlings until after an interval of several
minutes. Then without uncovering the nest it would put its head
down and make a sort of contortion of the whole body, and at the
same time the young would be heard to peep. This action would sug-
gest that the food, instead of being carried in the bill, as is done by
other birds when feeding their young, is disgorged from the crop after
the manner of the vultures and some seabirds. And may it not be
possible that the mucilaginous secretion, so useful to these birds in

100

nest-building, plays just as important a part in the nourishment of the
young? What yields such delicious soup for a Chinese mandarin
ought surely to make good pap for a young swiftlet. Something analo-
gous to this is well known to take place in the pigeon family where the
nestlings are fed with a material disgorged from the crop of the parent
and consisting largely of a milky and nutricious fluid secreted by the
walls of the crop.

In such works as treat of the swifts the subject of nourishment of
the young 1s touched but lightly, if at all, though some writers express
a suspicion—it is never stated positively—that they are in the habit
at this season of hawking during the night for insects to supply the
often recurring demands of the nestlings. It is true that the roaring of
wings in the chimney and the voices of both old and young birds are
to be heard several times every night; but I believe this may be
accounted for by the movements of the parent birds in exchanging
places as they take turns in the care of the young. The mate generally
roosts at some little distance from the nest, and, as remarked before,
they always move either by actuai flight or by a half-flying, half-climbing
movement which is sufficient to occasion all the noise that is heard.
Moreover, though bats and night-hawks are visible enough any summer
night, I do not know any record of a chimney swift having been seen
in pursuit of prey, even by the brightest moonlight, after nine o’clock ;
and so far as my observations extend they seem to show greatest activity
and highest flight during the sunniest hours of the day. The presence
of the shade over the eye, too, seems to mark this bird as a lover of
sunshine rather than of dusk.

The regular complement of eggs is from 4 to 6, but only three were
hatched out in this case. The young grew rapidly, however, and soon
filled the nest to overflowing.

By the of 4th August the stiff tail feathers were plainly visible, and as
the young seemed to be crowding each other over the edge, I took a stick
and dislodged the nest, catching it and its contents on a cloth fastened
across the flue for that purpose. The little birds were not at all injured
and started at once to climb up the side again, using claws, wings and
tail with much vigor. One taken out and.kept in the room a few
minutes proved to be about half fledged and was in colour and mark-

——

101

ings exactly a miniature of the old birds. On the floor it struggled
about heiplessly, but when put near the window curtain it would climb
quite rapidly with outspread and fluttering wings. The parent birds on
returning and finding the nest fallen and the family scattered did not
make as much commotion as most other birds would do under
like circumstances. Such accidents are said to be a matter of common
occurrence with them, especially in rainy weather when the water trick-
ling down softens the gum which holds the nest to the wall. I replaced
the third nestling in the chimney, and after he had crept up a little dis-
tance, one of the old ones came down and, putting its head under the
angle of the outstretched wing of the little one, helped it up to the
ledge above, on which the nest had formerly stood, and where all
three seemed now much more comfortable than when crowded together
in the nest.

I had hoped that after the fall of the nest the young would
remain below where, having a better view of them, I should be able to
see the process of feeding more plainly. On the contrary, I saw but
little of them from this out, as they were continually moving
from place to place and only one mirror could be brought to bear on
them. They soon grew so large as to be almost undistinguishable from
the parents, though they did not yet attempt flight in the outer air
On the 14th and 15th of August, however, I noticed them mounting on
the wing toward the top of the flue and then settling down again. Per-
haps this is their usual manner of learning to fly. Unable as they are
to rise from a flat surface, a first lesson in the open air, which would
probably result in a fall to the ground, might prove disastrous, or even
fatal, to them.

About this time the numbers resorting to the tower were rapidly
increasing again, showing that the nesting season was almost over. On
the 19th of August I was called away from town, and on my return at
the end of the month my little visitors had disappeared. Even at the
rendezvous of the tower only a few remained, and these soon followed
the main army to its winter quarters.

Where do they go when they leave us?

A poet tells us that when these northern shores become bleak and
stormy :

102

‘‘Far over purple seas,
They wait in sunny ease
The balmy southern breeze
To waft them to their northern homes once more.”

Ornithologists, however, though able to point out with a fair de-
gree of certainty the winter resort of each of the American swallows,
as well as of most of the other birds on the Check-list, have nothing to
tell us of the wherabouts of the chimney swift at this season. He has
never been reported from Central or South America, and from the
beginning of November, when he is last observed at the southernmost
stations of the United States until his reappearance there about the
middle of March, his written history is a blank. To account for this
mysterious disappearance the old theory of hibernation has been parti-
ally revived by some ornithologists.

In the days when the swallows were supposed to spend half the
year buried in the mud at the bottoms of lakes and ponds, the chimney
swifts were assigned winter quarters somewhat more congenial in the
hollow tree from which they used to he seen issuing in such vast flocks
on the sunny mornings in spring. Alexander Wilson writing in 1810-13
found it necessary vigorously to combat these ideas. But our know
ledge has made but little progress in this direction in the meantime,
and Dr. Coues in his ‘ Birds of the Colorado Valley,” discusses the
question of possible hibernation seriously and at some length. The
trouble is that nearly all the evidence on either side is negative ; and to
this shadowy array of facts we in Ottawa can add our little quota—that
the swifts cestainly do not spend the winter in the tower which is their
favourite home in spring and autumn. ‘This has been proved by in-
spection for two successive winters.

Before saying farewell to this little bird let us again place him for
a moment side by side with his rival and imitator, the swallow. Even
in the points of superficial resemblance, which at the beginning of this
paper we took such care to overlock, there is, I believe a lesson for the
student of natural history; for they show how creatures of very different
origin and structure may take on a great degree of external similarity
through living upon similar food and under similar outward conditions.
The swifts are probably the older family in their present form, and as we

103

have seen, have become almost perfectly adapted to the life which they
have chosen. But apparently they had not taken up the whole ground,
for in the course of time there appears another family radically different
in structure and belonging to a much higher order, the Passeres. It
covets the food of the swifts, which can be taken only in one way—on
the wing, as those birds take it; so it adopts their manner of life, and
in time, without losing its passerine characteristics, the swallow becomes
superficially so like the swift that to the casual observer they are both
as one. Not only does the resemblance of these families cover the gen-
eral colour of the plumage, the shape and proportion of the wings and
consequent style of flight, the form of head and wide-gaping mouth,
adapted for scooping in the fluttering prey, but even the voices of the
two, in spite of the great difference in the structure of the syrinx, are
really so much alike as to be easily confounded. A still more interesting
point of similarity is seen in the way both the swift and the swallow
have changed their manner of nesting to suit the change caused by the
advent of civilized man. As long as this continent was under the
domain of the red man the chimney swift, as has been shown, found a
place both for roosting and nesting in a hollow tree, closed at the
bottom and with a narrow opening at the top. The barn and cliff
swallows fastened their castles of mud and straw against a lofty rock,
while the purple martin and the white-belly nested in crevices of the
rock or in deserted woodpecker-holes in the trees. The white man
came upon the scene, and long before his progress had cleared away,
even, any large fraction of the forest, the swift had found out the sup
erior advantages of protection and stability afforded by an empty
chimney ; for even Wilson at the beginning of the century knew the
bird only as the chimney swift and spoke of the hollow-tree habit as a
thing then long passed away. The barn swallow and the martin were
almost as prompt in seeking the shelter offered by the outbuildings of
the farmer ; and now the cliff swallow, the white-belly and the rough”
wing, though a little behind, are fast following the example. The bank
swallow alone still clings to the home of his fathers, a burrow in the
side of a bank of sand or gravel. The tunnelling out of such a nesting
place must often involve heavy labour. Perhaps those little feet of his,
feeble as they look, have retained something of the strength of his pas-

104

serine ancestors, and, if so, he is in this respect less swift-like than his
brethren who have, with the swifts, adopted the ways of civilization.

Other examples could be cited of this principle by which a super-
ficial likeness is produced in really different birds by similar environ-
ment, as for instance the resemblance of the shrike or butcher-bird to
the hawks; but, perhaps, in the whole class there is no case where
the real difference and the apparent similarity are at once so great as in
this of the swift and the swallow.

EXCURSION No. 3 (1891).

The completion of the first section of the Gatineau Valley Rail-
way, running into the heart of the Laurentian Mountains, will afford
easy access to a district which has always possessed great attractions for
the collector and observer in almost every branch of natural history.
The excursions of the Field-Naturalists’ Club to King’s Mountain have
usually been amongs} the most satisfactory outings of each season both
from a scientific and financial point of view; but attempts to penetrate
en masse further into the hills have generally proved unsuccessful owing
to the wearisome length of the drive. The Excursion Committee
expect shortly to complete arrangements with the Railway Company
for an excursion of the Club to the village of La Peche, or Wakefield,
which is pleasantly situated in a widening of the valley, at a point where
a smaller stream, the Riviere de la Peche, empties into the Gatineau,
about twenty-one miles from Ottawa. Several members of the Club
can vouch for the beauty of the scenery upon the route, running, as it
does, in and out of the hills along the river bank.

To be transported to the midst of the Laurentians in an hour’s
time will be a novel experience for Ottawa excursionists, and it is
hoped that a large number of members and their friends will attend.
The event will probably take place within the first fifteen days of
September. Due notice will be given by circular.

105

MONDAY AFTERNOON POPULAR LECTURES—BOTANY.
THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF BOTANIC GARDENS.
By James Fletcher.
ead January 26th, 1891.

One of the influences which has affected materially the progress of the
science of Botany, has been the instution in various parts of the world
of Botanic Gardens. The importance of public Botanic Gardens has
for centuries been recognized by the governments of civilized states.
In an article on this subject in the Encyclopzedia Britannica, we find as
follows: ‘‘The foundation of Botanic Gardens during the XVI and
XVII centuries did much in the way of advancing Botany. They were
at first appropriated chiefly to the cultivation of medicinal plants. This
was especially the case at universities, where medical schools existed.
The first Botanic Garden was established at Padua in 1545. The
Jardin des Plantes at Paris, was established in 1626. The Botanic
Garden at Oxford was founded in 1632. The garden at Edinburgh
was founded by Sir Andrew Balfour and Sir Robert Sibbald in £670,
and, under the name of the Physic Garden, was placed under the
superintendence of James Sutherland, afterwards professor of Botany in
the university. The park and garden at Kew date from about 1730.
The garden of the Royal Dublin Society at Glasnevin, was opened
about 1796. Gesner states that at the end of the r8th century, there
were 1600 Botanic Gardens in Europe.” (Ency. Brit. IV, 80.)

“The Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew originated in the exotic
garden, formed by Lord Capel and greatly extended by the Princess
Dowager, widow of Frederick, Prince of Wales, and by George IIL.,
aided by the skill.of the Aitons, and of Sir Joseph Banks. In 1840
the gardens were adopted as a national establishment, and transferred
to the department of woods and forests. The gardens proper, which
originally contained only about 11 acres, have been increased to 75
acres and the pleasure grounds and arboretum adjoining extend to 270
acres.” (Ency. Brit. XIV. p. 55.)

It may be well now to consider what a Botanic Garden is. In a
report of a committee appointed by the British Parliament, in 1838, to
enquire into the management, etc. of the Royal Gardens at Kew

106

previous to their being taken over by the Government as the National
Public Botanic Gardens, we find that Dr. Lindley, who signed the
report, defines a Botanic Garden as “A Garden of Science and
Instruction,” which means, I take it, a garden where science, that is
knowledge, concerning plants may be accumulated and there applied
for educational purposes. In order that these objects may be attained
in the most satisfactory manner, there are certain features of the work
which must always be borne in mind. The means of gathering
together the material to be grown in the garden, by purchase, by
exchange, by communication with correspondents at other gardens or
who live in different parts of the world, although of great importance
in the management of a botanical garden, do not come within the
scope of my subject to-day. One of the chief sources of supply
however is, of course, by exchange with other Botanical Gardens, of
which there are many, both public and private, in all parts of the
world where education and culture are cherished. In the first instance
Botanic Gardens were merely collections of plants which were deemed
useful for their medicinal qualities, later general utility, beauty, variety,
or even curiosity were considered, and it is only comparatively lately
that the most important development of all, the educational value of
these institutions, has been recognized. One thing which should be
conspicuously apparent on entering a Botanic Garden is systematic
arrangement, not necessarily any particular arrangement, but an ar-
rangement by which something is illustrated. A feature of the utmost
importance also, is that every plant should be labelled plainly, both
with its scientific and vernacular names. In addition to this any
further information should be given which can be put on the label
without confusion, such as its native country and date of introduction,
for foreign plants, and more definite localities in the case of indigenous
species. When a plant is the source of some useful product, and this
is not shown by the name, it should be indicated on the label. In
short the label should give as much information to a visitor as is
possible without loss of clearness. In a scientific garden record
books, giving full particulars, must of course, be kept, as to the source,
age and condition of every individual plant grown. This is of great
value and may be the means of saving much loss by preventing the

107

introduction of trees or other plants into districts unsuitable for their
proper development. Many plants are peculiarly affected by climate,
the fact that such will grow even luxuriantly in a certain locality makes
it by no means sure that they will produce in paying quantities any
useful products derived from them in their natural habitat. Most
plants show impatience of being grown in unsuitable soil or climate by
their behaviour as to flowering or fruiting. Many of our wild plants
when grown in England, flower very seldom or not ac all, as the
Virginian Creeper and Wax Works Vine (Celastrus scandens). The
charming British Columbian shrub MWuttallia cerasiformis although it
flowers frequently and profusely in England, will not produce the
exquisitely beautiful waxy berries, with their shades of pure white,
yellow, pink and black, all growing on the same bnsh and
at the same time, which make it such an attractive object in the
Vancouver Island hedgerows and woods. Similarly the produc-
tion by plants of alkaloids, aromatic oils, and other products |
which may be utilized in the various arts and sciences, is much affected
by change of climate. But, on the other hand, many most useful
_members of the vegetable kingdom can, and have been introduced
from one part of the world to others where they were not found natur-
ally. Tea from China, and coffee from Arabia, the banana from Africa,
the peach from Persia, and many other luscious fruits ; our own indian
corn, the sugar cane and numerous grasses are now grown over far
wider areas on the globe’s surface, than were originally adorned with
them by nature. Forest trees and trees and shrubs for hedges and
ornament, are frequently being imported from one country in‘o
another or from other parts of the same country. But all plants, even
from the same locality, do not thrive similarly when placed under the
changed conditions of soil and climate consequent upon their introduc-
tion into another country or locality. In this way thousands of plants
have been destroyed and much capital squandered, which might have
been obviated had there been a botanic garden, where caretul experi-
ment could have been made beforehand with all the part’culars record-
ed for reference when required. Certain trees will thrive well in some
localities for a few years and then suddenly their development wil
cease—instances of this are found in the attempted cultivation of certain

108

kinds of apple and pear trees in some parts of Canada, where they
seldom attain to any great age or size. The black walnut again is a
tree which has disappointed some of its admirers. Fora few years
after germination, being a vigorous grower, the rapid production of
wood gave so much promise that experimenters were induced to devote
considerable areas to its cultivation, only to find after to or 15 years
that the trees rapidly decreased in vigour and retrograded. This may
be due to their having penetrated through the upper layer of suitable
soil and reached a colder or less congenial stratum ; but, I do not wish
to discuss that point now ; the unnecessary outlay would not have been
made, had it been possible to examine trees of a known age, grown
under similar circumstances in a botanic garden. Again ou the other
hand, a botanic garden would be the means of introducing and distri-
buting through the country new and valuable plants, with the great
advantage that those who acquired them would know beforehand
whether they were likely to succeed. Botanic Gardens to be of the
greatest educational utility should be, of course, thrown open to the
public as much as possible, and for that reason should be laid out in an
ornamental manner, so that not only botanists, gardeners and specialists
may be satisfied when they visit them to study and examine new or
rare plants, but, also that they may form attractive places of recreation
for the large and important class of mechanics and other labouring
classes and their families, consisting in this country of people possessed
of considerable education, and, who, when once attracted to one of these
gardens, could not but find in it an efficient instrument for refining the
taste, increasing their knowledge and augmenting in a very high degree
the amount of rational and elevating pleasure available to them. A
fertile source of interest in Botanic Gardens is the cultivation and
exhibition of the various plants from which foods and other economic
products are derived. Interest in these will soon extend to other plants,
In the same line of thought is the fostering of a love for flowers in
children, and I believe that every child should be taught to wish for a
garden of its own. I know of nothing at all which will give such con-
tinued and wholesome pleasure to a child as a small plot of garden of
which it considers it has the sole proprietorship. If any one wishes to
see true pleasure, let them take a seedsman’s catalogue, about the

109

month of May and give it, together with a small amount of money to
spend on seeds, to a child who has had a garden of its own and learnt
to love flowers. Do not give any helpin the choosing unless especi-
ally asked to do so, and limit the choice to about three or four packets:
For a child to get the most pleasure out of a garden it should not have
too much assistance, either in plants or work. The soil should be well
dug up to begin with, all else should be done by the juvenile proprietor,
and for the garden to be of the most use, it should not be made too easy
to get plants, so that each one may be cherished and new ones grown
from seeds or cuttings. I know from my own experience when a child,
what a source of delight my garden was. On coming home from board-
ing-school to spend the holidays, the first thing to be looked at was my
garden. ‘The associations with flowers are all good and enlightening,
and a love for them should be most carefully engendered and cherished
in those unhappy children where it does not exist naturally. Such how-
ever, are exceedingly rare. The greatest encouragement to a child who
has a garden of its own, is for the elders to take an interest in it, never
decline to go and look at it whenever asked to do so, and abeve all things
do not interfere in the arrangement and management except to prevent
disastrous mistakes ; small mistakes will do good, by teaching their own
lessons. Now, what these gardens are to children, public gardens are
to the masses, furnishing them with, at the same time, innocent and
beneficial and also engrossing and satisfying occupation.

All public gardens should be scientific to the extent of having
everything properly named and plainly labelled. The first demand when
anything creates interest is to know its name, and it is a great dis
appointment when this cannot be obtained. As a matter ot history it
is interesting to learn that the Royal Botanic Garden at Kew, now the
most extensive scientific garden in the world, was far from being scien-
tific at the time it was taken over, and the committee appointed to
investigate the matter, when referring to the fact that few plants were
properly labelled, expressed the following opinion of a garden in that
state: “It is not easy to discover what advantage except that of a
pleasant walk has been derived, by the public, from the privilege of
visiting the garden.”

The value of plants as food and medicine is a legitimate field of

110

enquiry for the botanist and the one by means of which he comes most
frequently in contact with the unscientific public. Now, there is no
place where such investigations can be carried on so conveniently as at
a properly equipped Botanic Garden, where plants can be grown
under observation and examined, at all stages of development, by in-
vestigators specially trained to understand and make the most of what
they see, and also fully equipped with the necessary apparatus and
literature. Such knowledge as we have, as to the value for food oi
most of the more important products of the vegetable kingdom, has
been derived from the aboriginal inhabitants of the countries where the
plants producing them occur in a state of nature ; but the scientific
botanist has added very much indeed to this list of useful plants from
his knowledge of other species in the same or closely allied families.
On the other hand in medical botany the useful knowledge derived
from aboriginal sources is comparatively small, by far the larger
proportion of the valuable vegetable remedies having been discovered
by the scientific chemist as a result of direct chemical analysis of plants,
aided by experiment or actual knowledge of the effects produced upon
the human frame by the various products obtained.

A subject of great interest to everybody and one which is —

frequently made an excuse by ill-informed people for not studying wild
plants, is the fear of being poisoned. Strangely enough this fear never
troubles them with regard to cultivated and greenhouse plants where a
much larger proportion of poisonous species is to be found than is the
case in the woods around us. As a matter of fact poisonous plants in
Canada are exceedingly rare. The Poison Ivy (Rhus Toxicodendron)
is the only plant in this part of Canada, which is poisonous to the
iouch, and even with regard to this, although it is so virulent in the
southern states it is, as you all know, an extremely rare thing to find
anyone affected by it here. There are, also, far fewer plants than most
people think which are actually poisonous, even when taken internally -
and anyone with a very small amount of knowledge and common sense
is warned against these by their acrid taste or nauseous odour. This,
I have no doubt, is the reason why cattle and wild animals which feed
on vegetation are so seldom poisoned. The poisonous plants are dis-
tasteful to them and are not eaten in any quantity when their dangerous

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nature has been detected by the keen senses of taste or smell.. For this
reason I can make no excuse for people, who are old enough to think,
who allow themselves to be poisoned, and I do not believe any sensible
person ever will.

I quite agree with my friend Professor Macoun who a few years
ago, in speaking of the vast supplies of good wholesome food going to
waste all round us every year in the shape of various fungi, touched on
this subject and speaking of the small number of poisonous plants in
any locality said: “I have no patience with the stupid people who
allow themselves to starve to death in a country clothed with grass,
plants, and trees, nearly all of which are capable of sustaining life.”
With regard to such plants as contain noxious principles there are a few
general rules, which may be borne in mind by those who travel in the
wilds and are liable to require such knowledge, and to which, without
going into undue detail, it may not be amiss to refer here. Plants
belonging to the same natural order, as a rule, contain similar constitu-
ents. There are large orders of plants every member of which makes
wholesome food, notwithstanding the occasional presence of acrid
principles ; such we find in the cress family which may always be
recognized by their cruciform flowers, made up of four separate petals
The same may be said of ail the rose family which have the stamens
standing on the calyx as we find in the rose and apple. All grasses as
wheat and corn, and all plants bearing papilionaceous flowers as the
bean, the pea, and clover, produce wholesome food for man and _ beast.

Mrs. Lincoln in her ‘“‘ Familiar Lectures cn Botany” says “Such
plants as have five stamens and ove fzstz/, with a corolla of a dull livid
colour, and a disagreeable smell, are usually poisonous ; the thorn apple
( Stramonium) and tobacco are examples. The mbelliferous plants,
which grow in we¢ places, have usually a nauseous smell: such plants
are potsonous, as the water hemlock. Umbelliferous plants which grow
in dry places, usually have an aromatic smell and are not poisonous,
as caraway and fennel. Plants with labiate corollas, and containing
their seeds in capsules, are often poisonous, as the foxglove (Digéfa/is) ;
also such as contain a mi/ky juice, unless they are compound flowers.
Such plants as have horned or hooded nectaries, as the columbine and
monk’s hood are mostly poisonous. Amongst plants which are seldom

112

poisonous are the compound flowers as the Dandelion and Boneset
( Eupatorium ); such as have labiate corollas, with seeds lying naked in
the calyx, are seldom or never poisonous, the mint and thyme are
examples of such plants.” .

Plants containing mucilaginous matter are, as a rule wholesome;
and in British Columbia the Indians eat almost any bulbous root, makin§&
regular annual trips to districts where certain liliaceous plants abound
Amongst those roots which they collect in this way are the camass
( Camassia esculenta) Lilium Columbianum, Fritillaria, the small
bulbs of Calypso bcrealis and, as Professor Macoun tells me, the bulbs
of nearly all bulbous-rooted plants, which they designate by the genera
name of muck-a-muck. Another article of food to which they are very
partial is the inner bark of young trees of Pinus Murrayana.

With regard to the poisonous properties of the parsley family referred
to above, Dr. Trimen says, ‘The properties of the Umbellifere are of
three principle and remarkably different kinds. In one section a watery
and acrid matter is present; in a second a milky gum-resinous secretion ;
and in a third, an aromatic and oily one. When the first of these pre-
dominates, they are poisonous ; the second in excess converts them in-
to stimulants ; and the third renders them carminative and serviceable
as pleasant condiments. If both the acrid and gum-resinous secretions
be absent they are often useful articles of food, as happens with the
sweet roots of the carrot and the parsnip, and the foliage of the sam-
phire, fennel, chervil, parsley and celery.”

Before closing I should like to say a few words concerning the
Botanic Garden and Arboretum at the Central Experimental Farm. I
have there in my charge a tract of 65 acres of rolling land admirably
suited to the purposes of a Botanic Garden. ‘The higher portion is
virtually a plateau with a wide bottom running round three sides of it and
with banks sloplng down tothe bottom land. This variety of aspect
is very convenient for the purposes to which it has been assigned. The
soil is not particularly good but will improve with treatment. The differ-
ent natural orders and families of plants will be represented by groups»
many of which have been already located. There are at the present
time about 4oo species of trees and shrubs planted out, and of most of
these there are two specimens—all are labelled and a record has been

113

taken of their time of planting. Special efforts will be made to have the
collection illustrating the Canadian flora as complete as possible, and I
now appeal to the members of the Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club to help
me in securing roots of as many as possible of our native plants for cultiva-
tion. Every working botanist knows the difficulty of deciding specific
limits from dried herbarium specimens. I shall, therefore, make a speci-
alty cf trying to clear up some of the botanical problems, which now
bother botanists, by growing several specimens from seed, where possible
from various localities. I have already several species under cultiva-
tion, the seeds of which were collected by Prcfessor Macoun, myself or
some of my correspondents, and I shall be glad to experiment with any
seeds sent to me for that purpose. I would particularly request now
the seeds of Asters and Solid igoes, as 1am convinced there is yet much
to be done, in working up the Canadian’ representatives of these two
genera, which can only be satisfactorily accomplished by growing them
from the seed.

Besides the solution of such scientific problems as the above,
economic plants from other parts of the world will be tested as to their
suitability for profitable cultivation in Canada. Forestry now becoming
so important in Canada, will also receive attention. Already enormous
numbers of young trees have been grown from the seed and distributed
to settlers on the treeless .praries of Manitoba and the Norti-West
Territories. Before long it will become necessary in Canada to grow
trees for timber, in the same way as is now systematicaliy done in Ger-
many. This however will not be done for many years to come and by
that time, I hope, valuable data will be available from the growth of
the specimens on the Experimental Farm to show what kinds of trees
can be profitably grown.

Many other benefits, I trust, will come from this Botanic Garden
now begun, by which general botanic?] knowledge, economic and scien-
tific, will be advanced, and I look forward to the time when the Botanic
Garden of Ottawa, shall be one of the chief attractious of this part of
the Dominion.

114

LIBRARIAN’S REPORT, 1890-91.
To the Council of the Ottawa Field-Naturalists Club.

Ladies and Gentlemen,—I have the honour to report that since
our last annual meeting the library of the Club has been removed from
its old quarters in the Literary and Scientific Society’s rooms to a room
kindly provided for that purpose in the Normal School building by
Principal MacCabe, Partly owing to lack of time on my part and
partly to the delay of a carpenter intrusted with the making of a set of
shelves, the books have not yet been placed in order, for which an
apology is due and is hereby tendered to Principal MacCabe as well as
to the Council of the Club. I am assured, however, that the shelves
are now being made and will shortly be completed. Their cost 1s not
to exceed $6.00. An appropriation of $10.00 has been made for bind-
ing periodicals received in exchange for the Orrawa NaTurRatist, and
arrangements will be made for the binding of fourteen volumes, which
will probably contain upwards of twenty volumes of periodicals, as
some of them are small enough to be bound two or more together.
Eight names have been added to our exchange list during the year, as
follows :—

Botanische Gessellschaft, Munich, Bavaria.

Iowa Academy of Sciences, Des Moines, Ia.

Jardin Botanique, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Natural History Society of British Columbia, Victoria, B.C.

Natural History Society of P. E. I., Charlottetown, P. E. I.

Rochester Academy of Sciences, Rochester, N.Y.

Scudder S. H., Cambridge, Mass.

Victoria University, Cobourg, Ont.

The total number of exchanges now on our list is 71.

A list of publications received as donations and exchanges during
the year is appended to this report.

Respectfully submitted.
WM. A. D. LEES;
Librarian,

OtTTawa, 17th March, 18or.

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115

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED 1890-81.
Auk, The (organ of the American Ornithologists’ Union).
American Museum of Natural History—Annual Reports and Bulletins,
American Association for the Advancement of Science-—Proceedings.
American Geologist.
Botanical Gazette.
Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club.
Boston Society of Natural History—Proceedings
Canadian Entomologist.
Canadian Record of Science.
Cincinnati Society of Natural History—Journal.
Central Park Menagerie—Report.
California Academy of Sciences—Proceedings and Occasional Papers.
Department of Agriculture, Canada— Reports of Experimental Farms.
Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society—Journal.
Entomological Society of Ontario—Annual Report.
Entomologica Americana.
_ Essex Naturalist.
Geological Survey of Canada—Reports and Maps.
Hummingbird, The.
Iowa Academy of Sciences— Proceedings.
Illinois State Laboratory—Bulletin.
Johns Hopkins University— Circulars.
Journal of Comparative Medicine and Veterinary Archives.
Kansas Academy of Sciences—Transactions.
Kansas Naturalist.
Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society—Transactions.
Massachusetts Historical Society—Transactions and Prize Lists.
Meteorological Service of Canada—Weather Review.
Nautilus, The (Conchological).
Natural History Society of New Brunswick—Bulletin.
Natural Science Association of Staten Island—Proceedings.
Nova Scotian Institute of Natural Science—Proceedings.
New York Microscopical Society-—Journal.
New York State Entomologist—Sixth Report.

116

North Staffordshire Field Club—Annual Report.

New York Academy of Sciences—Transactions.

Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station—Bulletin.

Ornithologist and Oo'ogist.

Ormerod, Miss Eleanor A.—Reports on Injurious Insects, 1889, 1890.

Physik-Oekonomischen Gessellschaft (Konigsberg, Prussia)—Schriften.

Psyche (Entomological).

Queen’s College—Calendar.

Royal Society of Canada—Proceedings and Transactions.

Rochester Academy of Sciences—Transactions.

Smithsonian Institution—Reports and Price List of Publications.

U. S. Department of Agriculture—Insect Life—Journal of Mycology—
Bulletins and Circulars.

U. S. Geological Survey—Monographs I, XV, XVI—Minere2] Re-
sources of the U. S. 1889—Bulletins 54 to 66.

Université Laval— Annuaire.

West American Scientist-

Wisconsin Naturalist.

Non-periodical publications have also been received from the
following :—

American Ornithologists’ Union. Ormerod, Miss E. A.

Chamberlain, Montague. Piers, Harry.

Edwards, Henry. Scudder, S. H.

Ells, Dr. R. W- Smith, John B.

Forster, Dr. E. J. U. S. Department of Agriculture.
Farlow, Prof. W. G. White, Lt.-Col. William.

Geological Survey of Canada.

WINTER SOIREES.

The Soiree Committee requests such members of the Club as are
willing to read papers during the coming winter to send in the titles to _
the Secretary as soon as possible, and at the same time to indica
approximately the date when they prefer to present them.

117

CANADIAN GEMS AND PRECIOUS STONES.
By C. W. Witirmorr.
(Read January 29th, 1891.)

The subject of this paper is Canadian Gems and Precious Stones ;
and although I shall touch briefly on such materials, available for the
purposes of the Lapidary, as have come under my observation during
the past nineteen years, I cannot hope to accomplish anything more
than a general outline of their distribution, together with some of their
most important characters. Before I begin the enumeration of the
various minerals, I had better first of all define what a gem really is.

For the sake of convenience I shall divide the various minerals
into two classes—tst, Gem material ; 2nd, Semi-Gem material. Now it
sometimes happens that the conventional value put upon a gem of the
second class, through richness of colour, transparency, etc., is much
higher than belongs to a gem of the first class ; hence to draw a line
between these two classes may often be attended by some difficulty.
The real gems are represented by the Diamond, Sapphire varieties,
Chrysoberyl, Spinel, Beryl, Topaz, Zircon, Garnet, Tourmaline, Iolite
Quartz and Chrysolite. All others are considered as semi-precious
stones.

The origin of the taste for gems is lost in the most remote ages ;
it is very evident that the gems mentioned in the scriptures, and other
early accounts, do not correspond with ours of to-day. Pliny describes
a Sapphire as a stone spotted with gold; this is thought by some
authors to be the mineral we call Lapis-Lazuli.

The ancients must have included a number of minerals under the
same name. Carbuncle, for instance, included all gems of a red
colour, such as the Hyacinth, Ruby, Garnet, etc. Much superstition
has existed in all 2ges regarding the various gems. ‘The following
extracts from Emanuel’s ‘‘ Book of Gems” may be interesting :—
‘“‘ Serapius,” he says, ‘ascribes to the Diamond the power of making men
courageous ; also, if this gem is placed in contact with a loadstone, it
nullifies its power. According to Boetius the Ruby is a sovereign
remedy against the plague and poison ; it also drives away evil spirits
and bad dreams. ‘The Jacinth procures sleep and brings riches,
honour and wisdom. ‘The Amethyst dispels drunkenness and sharpens

118

the wit. The Balais Ruby is a protector against lightning. The
Chrysolite was said to cool boiling water and assuage the thirst, and if
placed in contact with poison it lost its brilliancy until removed.”

It was not until chemistry began to be fairly understood that the
system of classifying all stones of one colour under the same name was
abandoned, and although science has made rapid strides and much
light has been thrown on this subject, yet the investigators of the near
future may look upon our labours and theories with the same doubtful
appreciation as we now entertain of those of our forefathers. I have
been diverted somewhat from my original intention, in pointing out the
superstitions of the ancients regarding certain gems, but in so doing
we are enabled to see the existing link still unbroken, with the
superstition of the present day. Concerning the Opal you will find
that not two ladies out of six will wear this stone, because they say it is
unlucky.

The present time may be considered an age of artificial gems,
owing, no doubt, to their insignificant value and bright colours, which
frequently almost equal those of real gems, and thanks also to the skill
of the artificer, whose designs have been immortalized by the apprecia-
tion they have received. I know of no more unpleasant business than
to be called upon to give an opinion of an old family heirloom, perhaps
a ring or a brooch, from the age or make-up of which one could infer
without much doubt that the setting once contained a costly gem;
years of wear had, however, weakened the delicate claws, and it was
then handed to a workman for repair, so as to avoid its loss ; but alas,
too often some unscrupulous person had abstracted the jewel and
replaced it with one of glass. ‘he imposition may remain unnoticed
for a great many years, and at last, when the fact is known, it is then
too late to recover the gem. The workman that was guilty of such
fraud had either left for other parts of the world or was dead—(personal
experience).

Another way in which the unsuspecting public can be defrauded 1s
known to the trade as ‘‘Growing a Diamond.” ‘This consists of
abstracting a l:amond from a piece of jewellery that has been left for
repair and replacing it with a smaller stone. Another fraud which is
very prevalent, 1s the substitution of a “doublet ” for a real gem. In

119

this instance the top of the stone is genuine and the under part glass,
joined together neatly by transparent cement, or in other cases the top
may be Sapphire and the bottom a less expensive gem, such as the
Garnet. In these cases, when set, they are difficult to detect, and often
deceive the most experienced. Doublets are sold by the Cingalese to
Europeans, and even plain blue glass is cut into facets, and sent there
from Birmingham and Paris, and palmed off for the real stones.

In throwing out these hints I am convinced that to no jeweller in
this city can these prove prejudicial, but on the contrary, as the public
are enabled to test for themselves the truth of statements made to
them, so also are they able to appreciate the genuine gems. We must
not forget to mention the coloured glass, or “pastes” as they are
usually termed, which are made to do duty for all the different gems,
and which vary in brilliancy according to their mode of production.
Some are merely moulded and their angles sharpened on the wheel of
the Lapidary; others are cut direct from blocks of crystal glass, which
are sometimes very brilliant, termed ‘‘ Rhine Stones,” etc. You will,
perhaps, say, how are we to know a real gem from the artificial, we
cannot submit it to the chemist, who must break it up before he can
pronounce on its nature; it is true he can take its specific gravity, but
in this he may fail to identify the mincral after all. Dr. Feutchwanger
says he took the specific gravity of an artificial Topaz and found it fully
corresponded with the Brazilian Topaz. He, however, found that by
employing the simple breath test he was enabled to pronounce on its
true character. If an artificial and a real gem be breathed upon at the
same time, it will be found that the genuine will become clear much
sooner than the false. Having drawn your attention to the dangers of
a gem I will now pass on to Nature’s store-house where the original or
crude minerals lie hidden, ready to be fashioned into the coveted jewel.

We shall first of all consider such minerals as constitute, when cut,
gems (proper).

Sapphire.—In the Geology cf Canada is mentioned the occurrence
of light rose-red Ruby and blue Sapphire in grains, on lot two of the
ninth range of Burgess. I should imagine, however, that the quantity
is not very considerable, as I examined the rocxs myself on two
different occasions without finding a trace.

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Beryl.—This mineral has been noticed at a few places in Canada,
more particularly in the County of Berthier, where crystals several
inches in length occur in a granite vein, and although these are often of
a good colour (various shades of green), they are nct transparent
enough for cutting, except, perhaps, in small portions of a crystal
which will sometimes cut into small gems. The pale bluish-green
transparent varieties of this mineral are called Aqua-Marine; the
emerald-green, Emerald. Sometimes the name Aqua-Marine Chrysolite
is applied to the yellowish-green varieties. The Emerald and the
Aquamarine are sometimes introduced as oriental, which, of course,
enhances their value considerably, and, if genuine, are really the green
and the light bluish-green Sapphire.

Tourmaline is another gem of some importance, and although its
name is seldom heard from the jewellers, it is nevertheless often sold
under various names. The yellow transparent variety is often sold in
Ceylon for the Topaz. The blue variety is sometimes sold for the
Brazilian Sapphire, the green variety as the Brazilian Emerald, and the
greenish-yellow as the Ceylon Chrysolite. The carmine or hyacinth-
red variety (Rubellite), which is, perhaps, the most valuable, retains the
name of Tourmaline.

This mineral is widely distributea in the Laurentian rocks either
in crystals or crystalline masses ; its predominating colour is black,
although such colours as hair-brown, various shades of green, light
rose--ed and yellow also occur. The black crystals from the Township
of Bathurst will cut into fine mourning gems. Small stones of one to
two carats, of transparent green of various shades, sometimes a right
emerald, also a yellow and a yellowish-green variety, have been cut
from the Tourmaline of Wakefield. ‘The crystals at this locality are
seldom more than a quarter of an inch across, but often many inches in
length, aggregating together in large masses. I have seen bunches of these
slender crystals that would measure eighteen inches in length, exhibit-
ing such colours as black, red, green, yellow and colourless in the same
crystal, and graduating from opaque to transparent. Light yellowish-
green crystals of Tourmaline are met with in the Township of
Chatham in a vein of quartz, but these are opaque and too small for

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cutting.

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Some of the brown varieties found at Lachute, Calumet Island,
and other places, might contribute small gems.

Zircon is of frequent occurrence in Ontario and Quebec, and
constitutes such gems as the Hyacinth, Jacinth, and the Jargoon. The
latter variety has not been met with in Canada. It comes principally
from Ceylon, it is perfectly transparent and almost colourless, and
on account of its peculiar smoky hue is sometimes passed off for a
Diamond. At the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London specti-
mens were shewn under the name of Ceylon or Matara Diamonds.

In the Counties of Renfrew, in Ontario, and Ottawa, in Quebec,
magnificent crystals of the brownish-red variety have been found from
time to time, but with the exception of a ‘ew very small hyacinth
coloured crystals from Sebastopol, not fit for cutting.

Independent of the cutting qualities of this mineral, and partly on
account of its crystalographic forms, single and twinned, it has been
greatly sought after by mineralogists. Forty dollars has been paid for
a single crystal from the Township of Brudenell. Small crystals of an
inch and under have no value, but large and well-defined crystals

_command a good price.

Spinel is thought to have been included under Carbuncle by the
ancients, and even to-day it is often sold in Ceylon for the Ruby. This
mineral is known to jewellers and others under various names, such as
Spinel Ruby, when of shades of red; Balais Ruby, when pale red or

‘rose-pink ; Almandine Ruby, when red bordering on shades of blue ;

Sapphirine, when blue, and Pleonast, when black.

In the Township of Wakefield large cubical crystals of a dark
green and purplish colour occur in a vein cf Calcite, and at times
afford small dark green and blue transparent gems. In the same
neighbourhood octahedral and cubical crystals of pink Spinel (Balais
Ruby) occur sparingly, sometimes three-quarters of an inch across, and
although marred with numerous cleavages, afford small pieces from
which fair transparent gems may be cut. The blue variety is said to
occur in limestone in the Seigniory of Daillebout. Black octahedral
crystals, often grouped together, are mentioned in the Geology of
€anada as occurring in Burgess in flesh-red limestone.

Garnet, which is introduced to us under various names by jewellers

122

and others, is of frequent occurrence in Canada, distributed through
the Laurentian rocks in crystals and lamellar pieces, as well as con-
stituting veins and bedded masses of some magnitude. Garnet, how-
ever, as a mineral, is one thing, and Garnet, as a gem, is another.
Many persons are, perhaps, not aware that this mineral, owing to its
various colours, is often made to represent such minerals as the Ruby,
Topaz, Chrysolite, Amethyst, or, in fact, any gem that its shade of
colour happens to imitate. This imposition is generally confined to
closed settings. Independent of the several gems it may be said to
represent, it is itself known under various names in the trade according
to its colour.

The brownish-red variety known as Almandine is found at several
places in Canada, and will at times afford gems. On the river Rouge
this mineral occurs in a highly feldspathic rock, in light pinkish-red
cleavable masses or imperfect crystals. At Bay St. Paul it occurs of a
good colour in mica schist, and in the neighbourhood of Ottawa the
red Garnet that is frequently met with in the gneissic rocks probably
belongs to this variety. This is the Syrian, also the Oriental or
Precious Garnet of the jewellers.

The blood-red Pyrope, Bohemian or Ceylonese Garnet, has not
yet been, to my knowledge, found in Canada.

The variety Essonite, or Cinnamon Stone, and at one time called
Hyacinth, occurs in the Township of Wakefield of a yellowish and
brownish-red colour, from which small gems might be cut. ‘This
mineral is mentioned in the Geology of Canada as occurring in the
Township of Orford, but is not of gem quality. Another lime Garnet,
in well-defined crystals, occurs in limestone in the Township of Wake-
field, the crystals of which are sometimes two to three inches across,
and vary in colour from colourless through various shades of yellow
and green, pieces of which, perfectly free from cleavage joints, will
often cut into two carat stones, which are exceedingly brilliant, and
might often be mistaken for the Topaz or Chrysolite.

The variety known as Spessartite, a manganesian Garnet, occurs
in Muscovite, in flattened brownish-red transparent crystals, in the
Township of Villeneuve, and may yet possibly contribute a handsome
gem.

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Chrome Garnet, which occurs in large aggregated masses of
minute emerald-green ciystals in the Township of Orford, has not yet
presented specimens large enough for cutting. In the Township of
Wakefield, however, this mineral presents more promising prospects
from a gem point of view. During the past summer preliminary
preparations were made with a view of developing a property in this
township for gem material.

If crystals of a large size were found, I think it doubtful if they
would be cut, as the demand for fine mineralogical specimens of this
mineral is very great, and they would realize a greater price than the
cut stones, although, if this mineral is perfectly transparent, it would
surpass the Emerald in value.

The largest crystal obtained last summer would be about a quarter
of an inch, but translucent, yet some of the smalier ones were perfectly
transparent.

Chrysolite.—This mineral is mentioned in the Geology of Canada
as occurring in well-defined yellowish-green crystals in Basalt, in
Rougemont. This is the Peridote of jewellers and lapidaries.

The yellowish grains mentioned in the same work as occurring in
the Dolorites of Montarville and Montreal are the Chrysolite proper,
although jewellers will persist in confining that name to Chrysoberyl.

No gems have thus far been cut from either of these varieties.

Mr. A. F. Low mentions the occurrence of a yellowish-grey opaque
variety in rock masses in the Shickshock Mountains, but this is of no
value as an ornamental stone.

Quartz.—Several varieties of this mineral suitable for cutting are
found in different parts of Canada, foremost of which is the Quartz
Asteria, iound in the neighbourhood of the Gatineau. It occurs as a
constituent of a granitic vein, in pieces the size of a pea to that of a
pigeon’s egg, together with other translucent quartz. The quantity of
the gem material to the quartzose mass would not be more than one
per cent., and even with the available material much of it is marred by
inclusions of web-like markings, which often escape observation until
after the stone is cut. This stone is perfectly transparent, and by
transmitted or reflected light exhibits a star of six rays. This may also
be seen in a first-class stone in ordinary light.

124

The name Asteria applied by me to a certain variety of Quartz,
will require some explanation, as individual opinions are somewhat
diversified on this point. I will endeavour to give my reasons for
adhering to this name. I have been informed by one scientist that I
could call these gems Asteriated Quartz, but not Quartz Asteria, which
certainly seems to me a distinction without a difference.

Pliny described the Star Sapphire under the name “ Asteria.” This
latter name is still retained to designate varieties of Asteriated Corun-
dum, such asthe Sapphire Asteria, Ruby Asteria, Topaz Asteria, etc.
I think we may safely infer that the word Asteria was used to particu-
larize a variety depending on physical properties, which were then
known to occur only in the corundum mineral, and as Cats-eyes are
described under Quartz by many authors, when the real stone is Chyrs-
oberyl, Asteria applied to Quartz would be no more misleading. Em-
manuel says the Quartz Cats-eyes are frequently confounded by jewel-
lers with the true or Chrysoberyl Cats-eye, which they persist in calling
the Chrysolite Cats-eye. The Corundum Asterias or star stones are
peculiar to Ceylon. By skilful cutting the natives produce a star of six
rays, which by sunlight or artifical light is vividly shown. A top light
is best to judge them by, Fine stones command a high price.

Dr. Feuchtwanger says that certain translucent varieties of Sap-
phire, when cut convex, and when the principal axis of the crystal
stands perpendicular to the base of the convex cut stone a white light
running in six rays, resembling three white planes or stripes crossing one
another at one point is seen.

We feel assured as the properties of the Canadian Asteria become
better known to jewellers and others, and the prejudice against its being
Canadian is overlooked we shall have more admirers of this handsome
gem. It compares in some way with the Ceylonese Moonstone, but is
much harder and will retain its polish much longer, and on the other hand
the Moonstone does not come within the category of true gems.

Probably if these stones had been introduced by some organized
ring as new Ceylonese gems and high prices asked for them, they would
have been held in higher estimation by some persons. ‘Take for in-
stance the Moonstone, above referred to, which material is far more
plentiful, and more easily cut and polished and cheap enough in its

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125

own country, and yet for a two-carat stone and not perfect at that, I was
asked the moderate sum of $7 by a prominent jeweller in Montreal:
This stone would be worth in Ceylon about twenty five cents.

You will perhaps rely more on the weight of my statement if I
read you an abstract from the Hand-book of Exhibits of Ceylon at the
Colonial Exhibition: ‘ Moonstones were credited to other countries
in past ages, besides Ceylon, and were known to the ancients, who as-
sociated the moonlike lustre with the phases of the moon. These
stones are found in large numbers in severai places and are not of any
considerable value; indeed the large quantities found prevent their
commanding <« high price.” I do not mention this to throw any more
reflection on the Moonstone, but merely as a comparison between the
intrinsic value of it and the Quartz Asteria.

The taste for the one has been acquired ; for the other it has yet
to be acquired. You will say, if the stone with its attractive qualities is
what you claim for it, why is it not more in demand? To which I
would reply, that vendors of precious stones are not generally min-
eralogists, they therefore decline handling gems that are not known in the
market until the demand on the part of the public forces them to do

~so; and again, the introduction of a new stone may perhaps seriously

retard the sale of a large stock of gems on hand, not to mention the
many vexatious questions that might be put by customers concerning
its durability, etc.

Besides the above variety, the colourless transparent crystals of
Quartz found in many parts of Canada will afford at times clear gems.

The brilliant crystals found in the neigbourhood of Quebec and
known as Quebec Diamonds lock well when mounted in their natural
state, and when cut as brilliants are exceedingly bright.

The rose and smoky varieties of Quartz are occasionally met
with, and according to Prof. Howe, some years ago, large crystals of
the latter kind could be found in the stone heaps of the fields in the
neighbourhood of Paradise Village, N.S. I have also seen some fine
crystals of this variety from British Columbia, fit for cutting.

Rose Quartz although occurring at a number of places in Canada,
has not yet to my knowledge been mei with as a gem macerial.

The perfectly transparent variety, Rock crystal, referred to above

126

as occurring at several places in Canada, has not, however, been found
sufficiently large, I think, for the needs of the optician, who designates
this mineral pebble, and who prefers it to glass on account of its
superior hardness and coolness to the touch.

I shall here call your attention to some erroneous ideas concerning
different coloured Quartz.

The Cairngorm (named from the Cairngorm Mountain in Scot-
land) isa smoky variety of Quartz——although this name is often applied
to the same mineral of other tints. Such namesas the Brazilian Topaz
Mexican Topaz, Spanish Topaz, False Topaz, Citrine, Smoke Stone
Cairngorm, etc., are all applied in turn to coloured Quartz by jewellers
and others, who appear to have a name always ready, according to the
shade of gem indemand. If this loose nomenclature were confined
to varieties of Quartz it would not be of so much consequence, but re-
gardless of their composition, they call all stones of a pale green
colour Aquamarine, and all pale yellow ones Topaz.

Amethyst is another variety of Quartz, found principally at Lake
Superior and Nova Scotia, although at the former locality it is much
more abundant and is found lining cavities in groups of large crystals
that are often coated with Jasper, Pyrite, Fluorite, etc. Itscolouris of
various shades of purple in blotched markings, which prevents their use
to any extent as gems, owing to the difficulty of getting an evenly
coloured stone. On the Bay cf Fundy a more uniformly coloured stone
is met with, although comparatively rare, which will at times cut into a
costly jewel.

Amethyst is valued according to the depth, richness and uniformity
of colour, and its transparency. ‘This stone like most gems appears
less brilliant at night, but when surrounded with pearls it appears at all
times to its best advantage.” In 1652 Emmanuel says that an Amethyst
was worth as much as a Diamond of equal weight.

Cats-Eye Quarts is reported to have been found on the Bay of
Fundy. Sometime ago I was shown a rolled specimen from Partridge
Island, N.S., which the owner prized very much, but which I was con-
vinced was nothing but a pebble of Heulandite. However, notwith-
standing this single mistake, we are informed on good authority that the

127

real mineral does exist on Partridge Island. But no specimen of
it, as yet, has come before our notice.

Opal has been found by Dr. G. M. Dawson in British Columbia
in small faintly iridescent pieces in Trachyte. They, however, were too
small for cutting. But possibly if this locality were examined more
closely for gem material the result might prove more favourable. ‘The
same gentleman found the variety Hyalite in small globular aggrega-
tions also in British Columbia.

Kyanite.—TVhis mineral has been noticed at two or three places in
Canada. In the Sudbury district it occurs in light sky blue crystals in
a triclinic felspar, and would cut into handsome gems if found trans-
parent.

Topaz.— According to the late Prof. Howe, of Nova Scotia speci-
mens of this stone were exhibited in London in 1862, both rough and,
cut, by Mr. McDonald—the locality given was. Cape Breton, and the
cutting is said to have been done in Pictou. The cut stone was rather
more than half an inch in length, its colour yellow.

Having come to the end of the gems proper, we will now refer to
those minerals which constitute Semi-precious stones, and which form
a much larger proportion of our gem material than the former.

We will first notice the siliceous varieties.

Quartz.—This mineral has been referred to as a real gem ; we shall
now consider it in connection with other minerals, such as—

Gold Quartz.—When native gold is dispersed through a white
translucent quartz it makes a very pretty gem.

Thousands of dollars worth of this material have been cut up in the
United States during the last few years. We have not as yet been
fortunate enough to see much of our Canadian gold quartz fit for the
purpose, although, no doubt, suitable specimens are often consigned to
the crushers. It is not the scarcity of gold in our Canadian specimens
that makes this material hard to obtain ; they are too rich if anything,
but it is due to the rusty coloured nature of the quartz. A few stones
have been cut, with small nuggets attached, from the Nova Scotia
quartz.

Stlver Quarts will often afford good material for cutting when th?
base is evenly coloured.

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Thetis Hatr Stone.—I noticed this mineral some years ago filling a
vein in the ‘Township of Hull. In the rough state it is not a very
preposse-sing mineral, but when cut tolerably thin it displays its
peculiar hair-like markings, floating in a greasy transparent quartz
These inclusions are filaments of Actinolite, and when sparingly
distributed and less defined they would assist in producing Catseye
(Quartz.

Chalcedony.—Under this heading we must include a number of
minerals that differ only in their translucency and colour, such as
Agates, Onyx, Sardonyx, Hornstone, Chrysoprase, Plasma, Prase, Jasper,
Bloodstone and Cachelony, which will be described separately.

Chalcedony includes those clear, translucent varieties of bright red,
yellow and white, often called Carnelian ; when of brownish red it is
called Sard.

These varieties may frequently be found in rolled pebbles on the
shores of the Bay of Fundy, Baie des Chaleurs and Lake Superior, also
at a few places in British Columbia.

ffornstone is improperly applied to a cellular cherty mineral from
Grenville, of no value for cutting; but in the neighbourhood of Two
Islands, Nova Scotia, a beautiful white translucent variety occurs,
which, owing to its extreme toughness and its susceptibility to a high
polish, is well suited tor Signet rings, etc.

Agate.—A description of this mineral alone would fill a good-
sized volume were we to make any attempt to elaborate on its varieties
and occurrence. The three principal localities where it is obtained are
Nova Scotia, Lake Superior region in Ontario, and British Columbia.

From Two Islands, in Minas Bay, to Cape Chignecto, in the Bay
of Fundy, and trom Digby Gut to Blomidon, on the south side of the
Bay, may be called the home of the Agates, occurring at intervals in
veins and pebbles, the latter being generally the finest. The varieties
mostly met with on the Bay are the variegated and brecciated Agates,
although the Fortification and Moss Agates are frequently found, the
latter both yellow and green.

In the neighbourhood of Lake Superior the Fortification Agates
predominate, although pretty Moss Agates are often found. In British
Columbia the Agates are also of the Fortification type, but generally

= CO
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129

light coloured or white; not unfrequently stalactitic markings may be
seen in a transparent base.

It is a pity that our Agates, which have been so lavishly distributed
over the Dominion, beautiful in their natural colours, should be
ignored for the more spurious and gaudy articles imported, and paimed
off on tourists and others at the Lake Superior and Niagara resorts as
Canadian. ‘These Agates come principally from Brazil and India, and,
according to some authors, may be recognized from the German by
being water worn, whereas the German are generally coated externally
with delissite. They are, however, all cut in Germany, and after being
polished are steeped in oil, and finally boiled in sulphuric acid, by
which process they are often converted from the pure white Fortifica-
tion Agate to the black Onyx with its white concentric rings. This is
caused by the oil entering the more porous portions of the stone and
then being carbonized by the sulphuric acid.

Onyx.—This variety is found occasionally at the Agate localities
before mentioned, and differs only from that mineral by its colours
being arranged in parallel layers, which are either black, brown, red,
yellow, etc., striped so as to exhibit alternate colours, arranged like a
sandwich, itis then termed Sardonyx. However, rarely more than two
colours are seen in the imported stones It is on this particular
mineral that some of the finest masterpieces of art are still preserved in
some of the European museums. A marvellously fine antique Sard-
oynx Cameo of five strata, representing the bust of Faustina, was said
to have been sold at the sale of the effects of the Marquis of Dree for
7,000 francs.

We often hear from jewellers and others of the “ Oriental Onyx.’
This name enhances its value considerably, and yet these are identical
with the German stones, and as there is every reasun to suppose that
the same process coloured the stones from India as those from
Germany, their quality and translucency is identical, and more particu-
larly as no lapidary or jeweller can tell one from the other, why should
there be any difference ?

Some fine Onyx pebbles were brought from Queen Charlotte
Island, B.C., by the Marquis of Lorne. They were of a pale yellowish
colour striped with white. But perhaps the finest specimens of this

130

variety have lately been found by Dr. G. M. Dawson in British
Columbia. These are made up of several strata, and as these layers
are exceedingly thin, of different colours, conspicuous among which is
a bright green, they would cut into handsome Sardonyx gems.

Chrysoprase occurs of various shades of green, and is translucent.
Its colour is due to the presence of a little nickel. This stone was
formerly greatly esteemed in Europe, but now is almost valueless.
This may be owing to the fact that its colour gradually fades in the
course of time. ‘The mineral was found by Dr. Bell, of the Geological
Survey, in the Hudson Bay Territory.

Prase hes been noticed by Dr. Dawson, in British Columbia, of a
dark green colour. It would contribute a curious gem, but although it
takes a good polish, it is said to become spotted by long exposure to
the air.

Jasper.—Another mineral of the many varieties of Quartz, may be
said to be quite common in Canada, and indeed only a few miles from
our doors, a band of variegated Jasper occurs, from bright red to various
shades of brown and yellow, with often the three colours intermingled.
Ribbon Jasper is of frequent occurrence in the Bay of Fundy, often of
a brownish base with yellow bands. At Two Islands, Minas Basin, in
Nova Scotia, a peculiar white porcelainous looking Jasper, interspersed
with rose coloured markings, occurs in veins of Basalt. It takes a high
polish and some specimens resemble hand-painted Porcelain. Jasper
of various colours may be found almost anywhere on the Bay of Fundy,
either in loose pebbles among the debris of the shore or in veins inter-
secting the Basalt.

The occurrence of this mineral at Sherbrooke and Riviere Ouelle
in the Eastern Townships in beds and veins is mentioned in the Geol-
ogy of Canada. This is, however, very uncertain in its polish at the
former locality, where this mineral is of various shades of red. Specular
Iron ore, together with numerous small holes, render it entirely useless
as an ornamental stone. The Riviere Ouelle specimens, which are
often beautifully variegated, will occasionally take a good polish. The
so-called “‘ Gaspe Pebbles ” are generally Jasper. In the Lake Superior
district, in Ontario, Jasper of different colours is found, both in veins
and pebbles, the latter enclosed in a translucent quartzite, forms large

131

beds, and were it not for its vessicular nature would make a handsome
ornamental stone. However, small pieces, sufficiently compact, may
be obtained which work up into a curious and pretty gem.

In British Columbia, Jasper is often found of a green colour,
constituting Heliotrope ; also at the Lake Superior district and Two
Islands in Nova Scotia a similar mineral occurs, sometimes interspersed
with thin seams and dots of red Jasper, called Bloodstone.

Silicified Wood is merely wood that has been saturated with Silica,
either in the form of Quartz or Opal, and some varieties of which are
very handsome. it is frequently found in the Tertiary and Cretaceous
rocks of the North-West and British Columbia in large pieces.

Cachelony is a hydrous variety of Quartz or Opal occurring at
several places on the Bay of Fundy, associated with Agate. This
stone would cut into small gems cf a white translucent colour.

Chiastolite—This mineral is worthy of a place among the gem
materials ; if its sombre colour does not introduce it as a general
favourite, its quaint dark coloured cross, which is revealed when the
crystals are cut at right angles to the longer axis, would obtain for it
some admirers as a curious gem. ‘This mineral, according ‘o the
Geology of Canada, is found on Lake St. Francis, and boulders of a
schistose rock of some hundreds of pounds in weight, thickly studded
with these crystals, were observed by Dr. Ells in the Eastern Town-
ships.

Staurolite, isanother mineral that may be mentioned in this connec-
tion as it is sufficiently hard and takes a good polish, and when of a
reddish-brown colour and translucent, will make rather a pretty gem-
Crystals of this mineral occur at Moore’s Mills in New Brunswick, and
it has also been observed in Nova Scotia and the Eastern Townships,
but judging from specimens I have seen, none of gem quality.

Feldspar, is made to include a number of minerals such as
Orthoclase, including Adularia, (Moonstone) and Porphyry ; Microcline,
including Amazon Stone and Perthite ; Albite, including Moonstone
and Peristerite; Oligoclase, including Sunstone and Moonstone;
Labradorite and Obsidian, You will therefore see that the Moonstone
may consist of three different feldspars. The transparent variety from
Ceylon is Oligoclase. The milky variety from St. Gothard is Ortho-

clase, and the similar Canadian variety is Albite, although some of our
Orthoclase is quite luminous when cut.

Orthoclase occurs in Canada of different colours the more conspi-
cuous of which are pinkish, white and brown, the latter variety often
beautifully crystallized in the Townships of Sebastopol and Ross,
and sometimes the crystals when cut parallel with certain planes are
quite luminous. ‘They at the same time, reveal minute spangles of a
glistening yellow colour, thus combining the properties ot the Moon-
stone and Aventurine. This constitutes a neat and pretty gem, and it
is a pity that prejudice should prevent these stones from taking the
place of the gaudy imitation trash that is at present glutting our market.

It is stated in the Geology of Canada that a reddish-brown: Ortho-
clase with cleavages of half an inch across, which exhibits golden-bronze
reflections of great beauty, was brought from the coast of Labrador.
Another Aventurine variety was noticed by Dr. Bigsby on the north
east shore of Lake Huron, twenty miles east of the French River.

Porphyry, more properly is a rock mass, composed of two or more
minerals. This material of various colored bases, interspersed with
white, rose red, and greenish spots is found at many places in Canada.
A rock of this description covers a number of acres in Grenville and
Chatham, and could be utilized for ornamental purposes, and also, as a
gem stone, portions of it being as pretty as a Bloodstone.

Felsite. JY should here mention another rock that occurs at Cham-
cook, N.B., under the name of Felsite. It is thoroughly homogenous
and takes a high polish. Its colour is of various shades of brown, some-
times veined with lighter or darker shades, giving to the mass the aspect
of rosewood.

Microcline or “Amazon Stone,” is found in the Townships of Hull,
Wakefield, Sebastopol and in the neighbourhood of Paul’s Island,
Labrador, of various shades of green, often verging on blue. This
stone from the neighbourhood of Wakefield when cut convexly often
reveals a bright, silvery lustre and in artificial light has a pretty effect.

Ferthite, is the name given by Dr. Thompson to a variety of Feld-
spar from the Township of Burgess, and according to Bauerman, is
made up of different laminz of Albite, Orthoclase and Microcline, the
latter being rendered iridescent by inclusions of Specular Iron. This

133

compound mineral together with Quartz forms a granite vein, which
covers a large area, although the proportion of the Perthite to the
rock mass would not be very great. Its colour varies from a light flesh-
red toa dark brown and it will at times cut into very handsome gem
stones, the surfaces of which are brilliant with golden reflections. Mr.
George F. Kunz the author of ‘‘ Precious Stones in America,” says:
“‘ Perthite forms a very curious and rich coloured gem, with its bright
Aventurine reflections.” This mineral has not been observed at any
other Iccality than that given above.

Albite has been found at several places in Canada, but there is
reason to suppose it has a much wider distribution than we are aware
of at present. In thetownships of Wakefield, Hull and Villeneuve, in
Quebec, and Drummond and Bathurst in Ontario, this mineral oc-
curs with broad and striated cleavages, the surfaces of which are beau-
tifully chatoyant with such colours as blue, green and yellow and will
rarely cut into fine Moonstones with pearly and bluish reflections, and
first-class stones will compare with those from St. Gothard.

Peristertte isa name given to the opalescent Albite at Bathurst,
where it occurs associated with Quartz. ‘The mineral from this locality
although pretty with its bluish reflections is nevertheless marred by
being generally stained by the oxidation of the Pyrites that is associated
with it.

O.goclase—This mineral constitutes the Ceylon Moonstone, and
although a vein of this material occurs in the Township of Hull it has
not proved to be of gem quality.

Sunstone, possibly Oligoclase associated with Titaniferous Iron
Ore, was biought in by a farmer from the Gatineau region.

Labradorite—Although abundant throughout Northeastern Canada,
as a constituent of the Anorthosite rocks, and at times affording large
cleavages, is neverthele-s devoid of those bright coloured reflections
which so characterize those specimens biought from Paul’s Island,
Labrador. Scme specimens from the reighbourhood of Perth, gave
fiery red reflections, but not so vividly as those from Labrador, which
at times are entirely blue, at others green, sometimes the two colours
are interblended with the addition of purple and bronze, but the rarest

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colour is the coppery or fiery red, and in cut sto.es, with convex sur-
faces, this mineral will vie with the Fire Opal.

Obsidian is a volcanic glass, often beautifully mottled with various
colours. The Canadian varieties, however, are usually dark. It is
found in British Columbia and Nova Scotia, at the latter place in small
rounded pebbles, coated with a blue mineral embedded in Amygdaloid.
‘These when cut take a brilliant lustre and are jet black, someiimes
bordering on blue.

Chrome Pyroxere, which is found associated with the Chrome
Garnet in the Township of Orford, is occasionally of an emerald green
tint and semi-transparent and might afford small gems. In the Town-
ship of Wakefield, at the other Chrome Garnet locality, a massive sea-
green variety interspersed with emerald green dots occurs. It takes a
high polish and could Le utilized for ornamental purposes.

Scapolite. This mineral is found widely distributed in the Lauren-
tian, of various colours, such as pink, lilac, bluish, yellow and white,
and when sufficiently clear from cleavages, cracks and foreign mincrals,
takes a good polish, making rather a neat and pretty gem stone.

Wilsonite, which is mentioned as a material suitable for gems, is
occasionally found of a pink colour, associated with Scapolite and from
which, according to some authors, it has resulted. The cifficulty with
th s mineral, is to get it sufficiently free from foreign inclusions, which
are generally of a harder nature, and consequently after being polished,
stand out in relief. I have also noticed that its colour after exposure
to the air for some time becomes much paler. This mineral is of fre-
quent occurence in the Apatite deposits of Ottawa County, the best
specimens however, come from the Township of Bathurst.

Hy persthene as a gem material was introduced some time ago by
the French jewellers. It is said to take a high polish, with an
ridescence of copper, ‘red, bright brown, gold yellow, and greenish
shades. Dr. Feuchtwanger says he saw a stone of this nature, twelve
lines long and six broad, sold in Paris for 120 francs.

This mineral is of trequent occurrence in the Anorthosite rocks of
Canada.
Idocrase or Vesuvianite is cut occasionally at Naples, and there

sold under the name of Italian Chrysolite, where it occurs in trans-
parent green and brown crystals. The Canadian Idocrase, observed in

135

the Townships of Grenville, Wakefield, Templeton and the Calumet
Islands, is usually in hair-brown crystals, except in the first named
Township the colour is a yellow, all of which are translucent only on
their edges, except in the case of some very small crystals from
Wakefield, which were semi-transparent. No gem material of this
mineral has yet been met with in Canada.

Lazulite.—This mineral was found by Dr. R. Bell on the Churchill
River ot a cobalt-blue colour. This material is sometimes employed as
a substitute for Lapis-lazuli, which it resembles somewhat in colour.

Sodalite is another blue mineral, which occurs associated with
granite on the Recky Mountains in British Columbia. It varies in
colcurs from light to dark blue, from translucent to opaque. From a
large number of specimens examined 1 should think that fair-sized
blocks of the Granite, interspersed with veins and patches of Sodalite,
could be obtained which would make a very handsome ornamental
stone. As a gem material it compares with the Lapis-lazuli, is the
same hardness, and takes a higher polish. ‘The largest stone of this
material, free from any adhering rock, that has been cut in Canada,
would be about one and half inches by three-quarters, and three-quarters
of an inch thick.

Chlorastrolite was thought, until recently, to be confined to Isle
Royal, but has lately been found ina place I believe on the Canadian
side. In the neighbourhood of Lake Superior they are often called
Turtle Agates, owing to the markings of the stone, resembling the
grotesque designs often seen on some species of turtles. They occur
in rounded pebbles of various sizes, of dark green colours mottled and
veined with white ; they are perfectly opaque, and a stone of a good
colour and marking makes a very pretty gem.

Prehnite, of which the former Chlorastrolite is supposed to be a
variety, occurs at several places in the Lake Superior district, also at
the Baie des Chaleurs in New Brunswick, and at the Bay of Fundy ir
Nova Scotia. In the first named area, independent of the important
veins of this mineral which sometimes form the gangue of rich native
Copper deposits, pebbles of various colours, sometimes radiating, are
found among the debris of the shore, generally enclosing scales of the
ame mineral. The pale greenish variety of the Baie des Chaleurs, and

136

the somewhat darker shade from Nova Scotia, also afford material for
cutting. This stone, when translucent and prettily mottled, will cut
into curious and pretty gems.

Jade or Nephrite is a tough compact translucent eed graduat-
ing from a greyish white to dark shades of green. It takes a high
polish, having a somewhat greasy lustre. This is not much known in
this country, but is very popular in Asia. It is found in Corisca, China,
Egypt and New Zealand, in the latter country it is called Greenstone,

In British Columbia numerous implements and tools, fashioned
by the Indians out of a beautiful translucent variety of this mineral
equal to that from New Zealand, are often found, but no occurance of
this mineral in situ has yet been observed.

Epidote, when in translucent crystals and of a good colour will
sometimes cut ito a very curious gem. Our Canadian mineral is gen-
erally of a hue of greenish or yellowish colour; some small crystals,
however, from Wakefield are translucent, but not of gem quality. The
massive variety although widely distributed in the Pre-Cambrian rocks
is rarely met with in large pieces, but as an accessory to the Gneissic
rocks it sometimes lends a pleasing tint when these are polished. Fine
slabs of a reddish colour, veined or clouded with light green Epidote,
might be cut from the Gneiss of Ramsay. Epidosite from the Shick-
Shock Mountains will also cut into fair stones of a pale yellowish green
colour somewhat resembling Chrysoprase. According to the Geology
of Canada this mineral is also of frequent occurence in the Silurian
rocks.

Rutile is mentioned as a gem material, sometimes cutting into
Ruby red stones, and others of a black colour, more closely resembling
the Black Diamond then any other known gem. Some of the lighter
coloured ones cut into gems closely resembling the common Garnet.

This mineral occurs in Canada in Ruby red grains distributed
through the Ilmenite at Bay St. Paul, but I have not heard of any
pieces being found large enough for cuiting. It also occurs in geni-
culated crystals of a reddish colour in a mixed bed of Barite and Cal-
cite at Templeton, but not of gem quality.

Chondrodite occurs of various shades of yellow to hyacinth red,
also green and brown in massive varieties. In Canada the only occur-

€ eke 137

rence of this mineral I am aware of is in the Township of South
Crosby where it is found as yellowish grains dispersed through a crys-
talline limestone, but not large enough for cutting.

Pyrite, which is occasionally cut abroad, and was formerly much
used in jewellery, is of very common occurrence in Canada. But
material suitable for cutting is much more limited although sufficient
quantity is available to supply the demand for some time to come. The
Townships of Wakefield and Elizabethown probably afford the best
material for this.

Hematite and certain. varieties of Limonite will at times cut into
curious and pretty gems. At the Iron mining districts of Michigan
large quantities of these stones are sold to tourists and others as
souvenirs of the locality, but it is said that they are cut abroad from
foreign material. Some of the Limonite from Londonderry, N-S.,
will cut into curious stones of brown colour with concentric markings
of yellow and a metallic lustre. They also take a high polish.

Titanite, which is found in Tyrol and the United States, in trans-
parent yellowish and greenish crystals, will at times cut into fine gems,
and although Canada has probably afforded the finest twin and single
crystals of this mineral found in any part ot the world, the sales of
which in the United States have netted the various dealers thousands of
dollars, even to-day good crystals of this mineral command a high price
but small and inferior crystals are of little value. Their colour is usually
hair brewn to black, and from translucent to opaque, with, occasionally,
aventurine reflections on their planes. The Townships of Sebastc pol,
Grattan and Ross, have probably afforded the best specimens, although
it is also quite common in many of the Apatiie deposits, in single
crystals. No material fit for the Lapidary’s use has yet been observed
from any of the above localities.

Natrolite cccurs in the Amygdaloids of Nova Scotia and may be
met with, in some form or other, almost anywhere on the Bay of Fundy,
where this rock 1s found. At cne remarkable locality on Stronach
Mountain, near Margaretville, large masses of this mineral in radiating
acicular crystals, may often be found piled up with the stones of the
field. The largest individual crystal that I have seen is about one-
fourth of an inch across, and translucent, but not fit for cutting, A

139

often banded or zoned with lighter or darker tints. This mineral, like
the Agate, seems to offer facilities for the introduction of the skill
of the artificer, as the manufactured articles often seen are not of
natural hue, but are brought to that state of perfection by subjecting
them to a certain degree of heat before polishing.

Crystals of this mineral are often found of large size and richly
coloured, and have been employed in making rings, stones, etc., known
in the trade as False Amethyst, False Emerald, False Ruby, False
Topaz, etc., according to the colour. This mineral is much too scft for
any purposes of jewellery.

At Lake Superior large cubical crystals of a dingy green colour are
often found associated with Amethyst. Emerald green and purpl
cleavable varieties are often met with in the Lrecciated veins that
are now being worked for Silver in the Port Arthur district In
the Township of Ross, in Ontario, a beautiful purplish-red granular
variety occurs, with a more compact semi-transparent whitish fluor. In
the Township of Hull a single crystal of semi-transparent green colour,
and which must have been four cubic inches, was found by a farmer in
developing an Apatite deposit, who, being of a liberal disposition, broke
up the crystal to give pieces of it to his friends, thereby robbing
the scientific world of one of the finest crystals ever found in Canada.

A portion of this crystal is in the Geological Museum.

Several other localities in this and the neighbouring Townships
afford this mineral.

Aragontte, Satin Spar and Alabaster, are minerals used to a large
extent abroad for making fancy ornaments, and as the two latter are
often represented by various minerals, it may be as well to point out
their difference. .

Satin Spar, or fibrous limestone, is found largely in the coal
formations of Cumberland and Derbyshire; it is also found in
Hungary, United States and Canada. I have seen several specimens
from the Lake Superior district that would cut into beads and other
ornaments. Beads of this mineral were, some years ago, in great
favour in England, but owing to the introduction of an imitation, made
from hollow glass globes, filled with fish scales, which very nearly
resembled the originals, they have of late years gone out of fashion.

138

more compact fibrous variety, often zoned with pink, found at Cape
Split and elsewhere on the Bay, will sometimes cut into neat and pretty
gems.

Thomsonite 1s reported to have been found on the Bay of Fundy,
in N.S., but these specimens are considered by some authors to be a
variety of Mesotype. The pretty little pebbles of Thomsonite that are
brought from Lake Superior, are really from the State of Minnesota, at
a place called Grand Marais. ‘They occur as pebbles in the Amygda-
loid, and are often beautifully variegated with such colours as flesh red,
zoned and motiled with green, red, brown and white, and when per‘ect-
ly free from holes, make very handsome gems.

Apatite, which is destined to become the backbone of the Ottawa
Valley, cannot be left altogether out of this category. If we have not
yet found any material from which gems or ornaments may be cut ;
and though we have seen during the past few years so many different varie-
ties developed, we may still look forward to better results in the future,
and possibly some of them may yet yield a more compact variety suit
able for this purpose. I have seen both yellow and blue transparent
crystals, but too small fur cutting, from the Township of Wakefield.

Since writing the above, some fine olive green transparent gems
have been cut from this m'neral trom Portland.

Apophylite, sometimes called Fish-eye Stone, (this name is also
applied occasionally to Adularia,) is met with at several places on the
Bay of Fundy, the more noticeable of which, for gem purposes, is on
the Blomidon shore, where it occurs in greenish-white, semi-transparent
to translucent crystals often an inch across. On the other side of the
Bay, at Cape D'Or, large modified white crystals, two inches in diameter
are found. ‘These are however, perfectly opaque and unfit for cutting.
This mineral also occurs at Lake Superior, of a reddish colour, but of
no value as a gem.

Fluor.— Derbyshire Spar, or Blue John, as it is sometimes called,
has been employed extensively in England for the last century, and
even to-day there are more manufactories of this material in Derby
than anywhere e'se, engaged in making such ornaments as vases, cups,
plates, candlesticks, etc. ‘The variety from which the above articles are
made occurs in compact and granular masses of some shades of blue,

140

Satin Gypsum, sometimes called Satin Spar, which bears a strong
resemblance to the former, is much softer, and consequently not so
often used.

Fine specimens of this material are found at various places on
Minas Basin, more particularly at Cape Blomidon, Cape Sharp and
Swan Creck.

Alabaster is represented by Limestone (carbonate of lime), and
Gypsum (sulphate of lime). The purest material used in Italy, and
from which source many of the ornaments of this mineral come,
is derived from a bed 2co feet deep at Castelino, in Tuscany, One of
the principal mauufactories of Alabaster ornaments is at Valterra,
thirty miles from Leghorn, where about 5,000 persons are dependent
upon this industry. This variety of Limestone has not yet been
observed in Canada.

Gypsum Alabaster is found at Hillsborough, N.B., and is suscepti-
ble of a good polish. Large blocks, hundreds of pounds in weight, are
often taken out, consisting of translucent white anhydrite, which are
generally veined with Gypsum ; the latter mineral, being softer, wears
away faster in the polishing, leaving a somewhat uneven surface. This,
however, should not be sufficient to detract from its value as an
ornamental stone, as the effect produced by the sunken veins is often
very grotesque.

Mala. hite—This beautiful carbonate of copper which comes to us
from Australia, Hungary, Tyrol and Siberia is also met with sparingly
in Canada associated with other ores of copper. In the County of
Hastings nodules of this mineral as large as a cricket ball are said
to be found occasionally in the loose soil. From some of the copper
mines of tne Eastern Townships and New Brunswick, handsome small
spectimens are sometimes met with and would contribute small gems.

Serpentine.—This mineral with its rich colour has always been an
attractive ornamental stone. In Saxony several hundred people are
employed making boxes, trinkets and other ornaments out of this
material. Our Canadian Serpentines, more particularly those occurring
in the Laurentian, are often of rich yellowish and greenish colours and
might be utilized for all purposes of interior decoration. Some years
ago an enteiprising machinist established himself in the vicinity of the

141

Grenville Serpentines, where he turned by a fcot-lathe a number of very
pretty crraments such as vases, doork-nobs, etc., but owing to his
method of cutting up the stone with a hand-saw we need hardly men-
tion that this enterprise was not attended with much success.

Calumet Island, Wakefield, Templeton, Bowman and Grenville
probably afford the best translucent variety, although it is largely distri-
buted cver other parts of Canada, especially the Eastern Townships.

Amber is occasionally found in rounded pieces in the lignites of
the cretaceous and may possibly afford material suitable for beads, ete:
The North-West Territory and British Columbia have both contributed
small specimens.

Jet is a variety of cannel coal, not yet observed at any Canadian
locality, and judging from the many so-called imported Jet ornaments
that I have seen lately, if the Whitby mineral is much used, black
enamel and glass constitute the Jet of the present time.

I have now called your attention to the various minerals
available for gems and semi-gems scattered over the Dominion and
given the localities of the more important material, and at the same time
have drawn comparisons with those of other countries. Some per-
sons have an idea that our crude material has no value before cutting
and that it might be sold by the ton or hundredweight instead of by the
carat, as most European or Oriential gems are. Now this vague idea
might lead some persons to infer that our gems in Canada are compara-
tively worthless, owing to the great abundance of cutting material,
and only after being polished are they of any value.
Certainly several of our semi-gems, such as Agate, Jasper, Amazon
Stone, &c., might be obtained by the ton, and consequently are of little
value, and even after being cut are quite inexpensive. But betore we
begin to guage our material for gem cuiting, we must provide ourselves
with certain facts, respecting its uniformity of colour and transparency,
and its freedom from flaws and cavities ; then when blocks of six inch
cube of such material can be obtained, we may talk or selling it by the
ton. It is true of certain minerals, that large masses often occur, and
perhaps one per cent. of this might be utilized, but then this large per
centage only applies to a very few of our semi-gem minerals. And, on
the other hand, the uncertainty of some minerals makes it almos.

142

impossible to tell what sort of gems they will produce, and consequent-
ly only about twenty-five per cent of the cut stones may be considered
fair samples. This therefore raises the price of manufacture one hun-
dred per cent. Neither does it follow, that the few selected stones are
equal in value, as one, through richness of colour, transparency, &c.,
may realize more than ten of the others. This system of valuation will
serve to illustrate the low prices of certain gems in the market; and
those who are in the habit of buying these grades of stones, and at the
same time are unaware that the low prices, are caused by the sale of a few
called No. 1 at fancy prices, should understand that the price of pro-
duction of each stone is often greatly in excess of the prices paid by
them for this class of gems.

In mentioning the word Oriental, many persons, I presume, would
infer that it signifies gems from the east. Many authors, however, apply
this appelation to the Corundum species, such as Blue Sapphire,
(Oriental Sapphire,) Green Sapphire, (Oriental Emerald,) Yellow Sap-
phire, (Oriental Topaz,) Red Sapphire, (Oriental Ruby.) &c., and others
apply the word Oriental to the Emeralds from Peru, which are neither
Corundum species, nor yet from the east, and as the word Oriental as
applied to certain gems, is somewhat ambiguous, it should not be con-
sidered in purchasing a gem, except from very reliable dealers.

As to our crude material being of no value, this must depend
entirely on the collector, who should be the best judge of the requisite
material available. Now, as some of our local stones are sold by the
carat on account of their scarcity, you will understand why the erroneous
idea, that they may be obtained by the ton, should be pointed out. I
can assure you we have not yet arrived at that stage when we can build

our houses of Tourmaline, Moonstone or Quartz Asteria.

143

MONDAY AFTERNOON LECTURES. Nos. 7 & 8.

THE CHEMISTRY OF Foon.
By Frank T. Suurr, M.A., F:C.S., F.C.
(Two Lectures delivered Feb. 23rd, and March 2nd, 1891.)

He, indeed, would be an unreflecting and unthanktul individual
who would not be willing to admit that the higher civilization of later
times has given us great and innumerable blessings. We might, per-
chance, find such an one among those who have grown up amid the
comforts and luxuries of wealthy modern life, an unconscious re-
cipient of good things and ignorant of the life of our forefathers ; or
among those who, from long-continued poverty or degradation, can
hardly he said to enjoy those blessings. ‘To recount the triumphs of
science and enterprise—not to speak of other and not less important
factors of our civilization—during the last fifty years would be a
more than Herculean task. Triumphs of the Natural and Applied
Sciences—great triumphs in the art of healing and no less great in
electricity, and mechanics, and agriculture, and a host of sister sciences
—triumphs that have added to our comforts and have alleviated our
sufferings, attend and surround us on every side.

But yet, while confessing all-this with ready lips, a moment’s serious
reflection tells us that there is scarcely a blessing without its concomi-
tant evil—an evil too often the result of the abuse of the blessing.
Evils whose origins may easily be traced to the wrong or excessive use
of things in themselves good and wholesome, pervade all ranks of
society. It is only when we view exclusively this side of the picture—
as too many of us occasionally. do—that we are apt to conclude thay
our boasting of the achievements of the nineteenth century and the
so-called betterment of the race, is worse than vain.

But what has all this to do with the subject under discussion—the
chemistry of food? A little careful thought may show us the applica-
bility of these remarks as an introduction to a lecture on such an
im ortant matter as food; for although my title might be considered,
strictly speaking, to confine me to the composition of foods, I propose
to incorporate with the chemistry somewhat of the physiology of food.

144

In this way I hope to make these lectures not only more interesting but
more instructive than they otheswise might be to a general audience.
By learning the functions of the constituents of foods in the system we
may —as we shall see more clearly later on—be the better able to prac-
tise economy and preserve health.

To many of us civilized life has brought with it the accumulation
of wealth, and wealth grants us comparative leisure and the means of
obtaining not only necessities but luxuries in abundance. It gives us
plenty of good, nutritious’and palatable food, but it also gives us the
opportunity of indulging in those luxuries of the table, the excessive use
of which is so disastrous to our health. eisure takes from us the
necessity of that wholesome amount of exercise, which promotes a nor-
mal and healthful condition of the system.

On the other hand the conditions of society make us ambitious and
encourage us to strain every muscle and nerve towards the attainment
of more money and power, and thus it is that often we overwork our-
selves, body and mind—become physical wrecks, not from the want of
an ample supply of food, but because from the mode of our living we
have not allowed it to nourish us properly.

I, therefore, wish to emphasize the great and, I may say, vital
importance that a knowledge of the requirements of the human body
and of the composition and character.of our daily foods is to everyone
nowadays. In the first place we are confronted with the statement on
good authority that more suffer from over eating than from over-drinking,
though the number of victims of the latter vice, we must all admit, is
not small. Over-eating is a term used not only to designate the more
than sufficient use of simple, wholesome food but also to include the
taking in excessive quantities of rich and concentrated foods, most of
which may be called luxuries, and lastly, one-sided diets adopted either
from necessity or from mere fancy. Such diets are sooner or later
inevitably followed by disease or a disordered system. That dyspepsia
and allied ailments, especially on this side of the Atlantic, are very
prevalent, and that the same are due to an abnormal or excessive diet,
is well known, but that probably over fifty per cent. of the common dis-
orders now afflicting mankind are from the same causes, and which are
preventable by a proper care of the body and a judicious diet, is cer-

145

tainly not widely recognized by the la‘ty, though the medical profession
have repeatedly attested the truthfulness of the statement.

From a hygienic standpoint, therefore, we must admit the useful-
ness of that knowledge which tells of the true nuritive value of the
different foods and the amounts of them required to sustain health and
vigour—a knowledge that will enable us to use with discretion those
foods best suited to our wants and as a result experience mens sana in
corpore sano.

But the importance of the subject may be urged from another
aspect—the economic one. “Half the struggle of life is a struggle for
food,” says Edward Atkinson, and though this may appear an extreme
statement, reflection assures us of its truth. Evidence in its support is
supplied in abundance by our large cities where competition is rife and
the inhabitants are massed together. When the scourge of famine
overtakes a country, the misery and horrors which attend such a
catastrophe emphatically attest its accuracy. Surely, then, food-econ-
omy is a subject well worthy of study, for from it governments and
individuals may learn how to obtain the most nutritious food for the
least outlay, and thus in’ times of distress be enabled to alleviate much
suffering. But nearer home there seems to be ample room tor improving
our Own condition in this matter of food-economy. I do not here refer
to that wilful waste of food in’our homes, which I must designate a sin
against mankind, nor to that excessive use of food that engenders
disease. I wish, rather, to direct your attention to the study of con-
trasting the money value of foods with their nutritive value. For by
such we shall be enabled to make choice of the most nutritious and
palatable viands at the least cost. Then, perhaps, while spending a little
less on our stomachs, we should have somewhat more to expend on
other and no less noble objects in life—the improvement of our
faculties and mental enjoyments—to say nothing of the noblest of all,
the benefitting of our fellow man in one or other of the many ways now
open to us.

And there is yet a third side to the question—that of pleasure,
This is, undoubtedly, a legitimate one for our consideration. The
pleasure of eating and drinking oi the good things provided for us is
assuredly a right one, and one that has been so recognized from all

146

times. But my subject is rather with foods themselves, and I must
hasten on, having briefly outlined the reason why I deem a knowledge
of what we eat so important, so necessary as to warrant my impressing
upon you so urgently the value of its study.

It is the food we eat that forms the tissues and developes the
heat and energy of our bodies. The body creates nothing, neither
matter or force. The physical life is dependent directly upon the
digested food, water, and the oxygen we breathe. The changes the
food undergoes in the life functions are simply and truly transforma-
tions. We shall therefore do well at the outset to consider briefly those
elements and compounds that compose the body structure.

THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF THE HUMAN Bopy.

Chemical analysis has proven that only fifteen, or at most seventeen,
of the elements enter into the composition of the tissues of the body.
In the following table, from Brubaker’s Physiology, they are enumerated
together with the relative quantities in which they exist and the tissues
in which they are found.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE HUMAN Bopy.

Oxygen, 72.00 O. H.C. are found in all the tissues and

Hydrogen, 9.10 fluids of the body, without exception.

Nitrogen, 2.50 O. H. C.and N found in most of the fluids

Carbon, 13 ae and all the tissues, except fat.

Sulphur, .147. In fibrin, casein, albumen, gelatine of the
tissues, in sweat and urine.

Phosphorus, 1.15 In brain, saliva, blood and bones.

Calcium, 1.30 In bones and teeth, in blood, saliva and
chyle.

Sodium, pce) In all the fluids of the body.

Potassium, .026 In muscles.

Magnesium, .oor __In bones, associated with calcium.

Chlorine, .085 In the fluids and solid tissues.

Fluorine, .080 With calcium in bones and teeth.

Iron, OL In blood corpuscles and in muscles.

Silicon traces, In blood, bones and hair.

Manganese traces, Probably in hair, bones and nails.

147

These elements do not exist in the body in the free state, if we
except traces of uncombined Oxygen, Nitrogen and Hydrogen, but in
various combinations with one another forming exceedingly complex
compounds. These, for the sake of convenience, fail into two great
classes :—OrGANIc and INorGANIC, though the distinction is no longer
a strictly accurate one. The organic compounds may be considered
under the divisions, (2) NIrROGENOoUS, (4) NoN-NrTROGENOUS, accord-
ing as to whether Nitrogen enters into their composition or not. Many
of the elements above cited are common to both the Organic and
Inorganic compounds.

The NITROGENOUS COMPOUNDS are the most numerous as to their
number as well as most complex as to their quantitative composition,
though ‘they are made up of but four elements, Carbon, Hydrogen,
Nitrogen and Carbon, with occasionally small amounts of Phosphorus
and Sulphur. We can here only mention certain large groups ot
these compounds.

Albuminoids or Proteids, a generic term including a number of
substances having the same percentage composition but different physical
properties. Sub-divisions comprise, (1) ative Albumens, of which the
white of egg is an example; (2) G/odudims, chief among which is
Myosin, the organic basis of muscle; (3) Derived Albumens, the casein
or curd of milk and certain substances formed in the stomach during
digestion; and (4) Peptones or Soluble Albuminoids, formed by the action
of the digestive fluids on food, and which pass into the blood to nourish
the body. Besides these there are the Gelatins found in bones, etc.,
and certain other waste products formed by the life functions of the
various organs of the body.

The NON-NITROGENOUS ORGANIC COMPOUNDS are made up entirely
of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen. ‘They consist of (2) Carbo-hydrates,
in which the Oxygen and Hydrogen are in proportion to form water ;
(4) Fats, richer in Carbon and Hydrogen than the Carbo-hydrates, (¢)
Fatty acids and (d) Alcohols.

Carbo-hydrates, Sugar, Starch, are represented in comparatively
small quantities in the body, though found in many of the fluids and

-

148

tissues. The forms of sugar are G ycogen of the liver, Lactose or sugar
of milk, Glucose (grape sugar) and Inosite or sugar of muscle.

Fats and Oils—Palmitin, Olein and Stearin. These are really salts
of the alcohol Glycerins with the fatty acids Palmitic, Oleic and Stearic.
The fat of the body is made up chiefly of Palmitin and Stearin (solids)
with small quantities of Olein (liquid).

The fatty acids require no special discussion here. Mention of
the three principal ones has already been made. These with Butyric
acid in milk and Propionic acid in sweat, exist in combination with
certain bases, e.g., Potassium, Calcium and Sodium in various parts of

the body. |
Alcohols :—Glycerine, a true alcohol has already been spoken of

under “ fats;” it is also produced during digestion; Cholesterine, a
crystallized uncombined alcohol, is present chiefly in bile. Ordinary
alcohol has been detected in the body—probably the result of a
fermentation in the digestive tr2ct. Under normal conditions, however,
it is doubtful if it is produced.

INORGANIC OR MINERAL Compounns.—-The chief of these is
WaTER (Oxygen and Hydrogen), present to a very large extent in every
fluid and tissue. Its great importance and function will be spoken of
jater on. Calcium phosphate (phosphate of lime), another essential
cempound, is the. basis of bones and teeth, but also found in other
parts. Chloride of Sodium (common salt) is to be met with in all
tissues and fluids. Iron in minute quantities enters into the cum-
position of hemoglobin, the colouring maiter of the blood. It is also
to be detected in many of the body tissues.

The foregoing outline may serve as an enumeration of the more
important body substances. Their origin and physiological function
will be discussed when speaking of the nutritive ingredients of foods
and the processes of digestion and assimilation. A knowledge of the
relative amounts of the chemical elements and of the compounds already
alluged to, as they exist in the body, will be found to be of
interest and value. I, therefore, subjoin the following admirable tables
compiled for the United States National Museum, Washington, by
Messrs. Welch and Pomeroy.

149

WEIGHTS OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS IN THE BODY OF
A MAN WEIGHING 148 LBS.

PEL oP ali cet. ea 92.4 pounds
emer ess US es RE SS S153 -
RMMARONSCD 1536505 f00 sac, bere bob ose 14,6 be
SS BEAM = 83 0 coe eye eam ioe 4.6 e
2 LDPE eee aoe 2.8 -
RMON ers Sis Sad Fn eo oi gd a I.4 2
2 UBS bs eee ae ae mc Ya Rs
00 SSC Ss rr ee
2 FR ovine od amas ce S a ee
L712 ee ne ek
Lo SS og.“
UD LS ee re 02
Ren ere ss oa! so) 0. ore. «vids as pm Ef
EEE) See ey Si 14G:00; “=

COMPOUNDS IN THE BODY OF A MAN WEIGHING

148 POUNDS.
Jp! Sa Th Lagan Pe ke 90.0 pounds
Eratem, (Albuminoids)............ 26.1 <
D0 2s Sees rare BOL
Carbo-hydrates (starch, sugar).... .. ers
Mineral matters (inorganic)........ ee ae
are es koe os te eee ELGG, woe

THe NUTRIENTS OF FOop.

Having learnt somewhat of the compounds of the body and that
the latter is built up by the functions of the organs of the body from
the digested food, we may go on to consider the composition of foods,
vegetable and animal. In view of what has already been said we shall
not be surprised to hear that the edible and nutritive portions consist, in
varying proportions, of those ingredients or compounds already consi-
dered, viz: Albuminoids, Carbo-hydrates, Fats and Mineral matters

150

(including water). These are termed Nutrients, and the composition of
the three classes of organic compounds is roughly as follows :
Albuminoids. Fats. Carbo-hydrates.

Per cent. Per cent. Per cent.
SEaROGIRN so Ses eee een 5a 76.5 44.0
PIyeROpeM ol. oie Seas one Oe 7-0 12.0 6.0
veehe go ns, Same ok ee 24.0 11.5 500
NILTOP ENE sce ana) oh oe = es 16.0 None None
TO00.0 100.0 100.0

These Nutrients are by no means equally distributed throughout
the food materials. The animal foods—meats and fish—-while very
rich in albumino:ds and fats, possess but traces of the carbo-hydrates.
They rnay be considered, therefore, essentially nitrogenous. Vegetable
foods as a rule contain a large percentage of Carbo-hydrates, starch
and sugar, and small quantities of albuminoids and fats, and conse-
quently may be considered as essentially ncen-nitrogenous. An exception
to the latter is to be found in peas and beans, which contain a notable
amount of albuminoids. Very fat meats on the other hand, by reason
of the large amount of fat they possess, cannot be considered as highly
nitrogenous.

This great distinction between these classes of foods is one
worth remembering as helping us to arrive at their trué nutritive value.
To enable us to do this the better, however, we may now proceed to
state the physiological functions of these nutrients, whether they be
derived from animal or vegetable foods. For this purpose I shall take
the liberty of placing before you another chart from the National

Museum. ;
UsEs OF FooD IN THE Bopy.

Food supplics the wants of the body in several ways. Food fur-
nishes :

1. The materials of which the body is made.

2. The materials to repair the wastes of the body and to protect’

its tissues from being unduly consumed.

Food is consumed in the body as fuel to

3. Provide heat to keep it warm ;

4. Produce muscular and intellectual energy for the work it has to do

a

151

The body is built up and its wastes repaired by the nutrients. The
nutrients also serve as fuel to warm the body and supply it with
strength.

Ways in which the nutrients are used in the body :

Form the nitrogenous basis of blood, muscle, sinew,
Thealbuminoid-_ bone, skin, &c.
ot food Are chinged into fats and carbo-hydrates.
Are consumed for fuel.

The fats of { Arestored in the body as fats.
food _ __ | Are-consumed for fuel.

The carbo- / Are changed into fats.
hydrates of food\ Are consumed for fuel.

Are transformed into the mineral matters of bone
and other tissues.
Are used in various other ways.

The mineral
matters of food |

This is a very instructive table, and it will be well before passing
on to consider in more detail what it’means. It emphatically tells us
in the first place that we cannot exist for any length of time on any one
class of nutrients—a fact amply proved by actual experiment. No
one nutrient is a complete diet. A diet consisting entirely of albumi-
noids, or of carbo-hydrates, or of fats, is an impossible one, though a
glance at the table shows that the albuminoids are more universal in their
functions that the other two nutrients. We shall learn later on some-
what of the proper ratio in which they should be used in order to
preserve health. The tissues of the body are continually undergoing
disintegration, heat is being dissipated and muscular and intellectual
energy constantly expended. Let us examine fora moment the different
classes of food as to their power to supply these wants.

We have already said that animal foods— meats of all kinds and
fish—are principally nitrogenous. The albuminoids they contain are
often called flesh formers, because such go to form in the body the
muscle and the blood. They also possess more or less fat, which may
be laid up or converted into adipose tissue or used up in the production
of heat.

The vegetable foods consist largely of the carbo-hydrates, and

152

cannot be said to assist in the formation of new tissue—muscle, blood,
&c., but are of service as fuel in developing the necéssary heat and
energy. Of course, the fats they contain may be so used, or deposited

as such in the adipose tissues.

Water and mineral matters are common to both classes of foods.
While both are absolutely necessary, they can scarcely be called nutrients.
Water is the universal solvent. Dependent upon its presence are the
processes of digestion and assimilation. The blood and lymph are
largely water, and by them the nutri ive matter is conveyed to every
part of the body. It also takes part in the elimination of waste
products. Mineral matters, especially common salt and phosphate
of lime are required tor tissues and bones. ‘The salt in the blood
holds the albuminoids in solution, and by regulating the amount of water
in the blood corpuscles and the cellular elements of the tissues, preserves
their form and consistence.” Phosphate of lime gives solidity to the
bones and teeth, and is also present in muscle, milk, &c.

COMPOSITION AND DIGESTIBILITY OF THE MORE Common Foops.

We may now consider the composition and digestibility of some of
the more common foods. In the subjoined table, obtained from the
same source as the preceding, the percentage indigestible, as well as the
total amount of each nutrient is given. It is a very instructive
chart and one that well deserves a careful study. It shows most clearly
the large amount of albuminoids, entirely digestible, in the animal foods
(meats and fish), and that in such, increased fat generally means
decreased water. This is exemplified in the case of fat pork. The carbo-
hydrates (starch and sugar) are practically absent in these foods. Eggs
we see to be a highly concentrated food, being rich in albuminoids and
fat, but containing no starch or sugar. Fish, generally speaking, is a
very nutritious food, being easy of digestion. Its value as a brain food
will be spoken of later on. Cod may be considered albuminoids and
water. Milk is shown to bea well balanced food—z.e. it contains all
the materials in good proportions and approaches most nearly the com-
position of a ‘ perfect food.’ Its almost total digestibility makes it a
most important factor in the diet of the young and aged. It has been
found that boiling milk somewhat impairs its digestibility. Butter may

TABLE showing composition and proportion of indigestible materials of
the more ordinary foods.

Beef, rather lean....

Albuminoids. ||

Fats.

Perather fats). 2...

WMttrOM tatoo. 55. 5.

Pork, very fat.......

Cheese, whole milk .

Wheat. flours... .:

yh Reads..: .°..-

Ww

o)

°

Indi
gestible.

0.0 |

Carbo-
hydrates.
ee || Total. ee
~ Bo | ™ bo |
i
0.9 1 0.0 | 0.0
1.9 ! 0.0} .6.0.)H
| o.o | o.9
6:0 ©O-.G-) 10.0
0.0 | 0.0
O26, | 0.6
0.8 0.0 | 0.0
2.4 | O:7| “O20
O.1 4.8 0.0
say 0.5
0.9 2AFe\ (LO
Ono ele
55-5 | 0.6
69.0
57cm py 22k
WECOS) 223
0.0 || 96.7 | 0.0
Zee 1.6
GA0n)te3

Mineral Matters

oO WwW
& \o

o

soa) .
on Water.
“I

60.

oo Pal BS
iS) ° 4
On ° ° (o}

(oy)
nN
°

154+

be considered pure fat, which is easy of digestion and assimilation if
the condition of the stomach be normal and too much be not taken.
Cheese is a highly nitrogenous and exceedingly valuable food. It not
only is easily digested but also assists in the digestion of other foods.
Its price, when we consider these important desiderata, recommends it
for more extensive use than it at present enjoys.

The vegetable foods are characterized by low albuminoids and high
carbo-hydrates. The amount of fat in most of them is small, and need
hardly be taken into account as a nutrient. Peas and beans (fruit of the
Leguminosz) stand out as exceptions in containing large percentages
of albuminoids. Oatmeal also more closely approximates animal foods
than any of the other cereals. The starch and sugar of vegetable foods
is as a rule very digestible. The vegetables proper consist largely of
starch, or allied substances, and water. Potatoes, cabbage and many
other vegetables are also valuable for the mineral salts they contain.
Asparagus, lettuce, celery and some others contain but little nutritive
matter, but play a very importan: hygienic role, aiding the digestion
of other viands, diluting the more concentrated foods, and thus render-
ing them more easily assimilable ; the salts and active principles many
of them contain have a beneficial and medicinal effect on the sys-
tem. Vegetables must form a large part of every wholesome diet.
Fruits are largely water, and are divided into (a2) Sweet, in which sugar
predominates when ripe; (4) Acid, containing tartaric and citric acid,
generally refreshing and giving a healthy tone to the organs; (¢) Starchy;
and (d) Oily, the essential oils in which give the peculiar flavour
Fruits, though having a low nutritive value, are, when ripe, easy of
digestion. The pectose of green fruit is indigestible. This as the fruit
ripens turns to pectin, akin to sugar, which, as before stated, is easily
digested. The odour and flavour of fruits, due as before mentioned to
oils and volatile ethers, chiefly abundant in the pericarp, seem to
enhance their palatability.

Here a word may be said of a large class of substances which
act rather as stimulants than nutrients. Tea, coffee, spices and alcohol
come under this category. They act as appetisers, and in moderation
as useful and proper excitants of the digestive organs, especially in
cases of enfeebled digestion.

155

AMOUNTS OF THE NUTRIENTS REQUIRED.

The quantity and kind of food eaten must depend largely on
the age, the weight, and the kind and amount of work of the in-
dividual, taking into consideration the climate and the peculiar char-
acteristics of the person’s digestion—a most important factor. The
amount of food required per diem by the body is measured by the
amount of carbon and nitrogen eliminated daily from the system.
These represent the final and waste products of the food compounds.
The weight of carbon excreted by a healthy person in one form or
another doing a fair amount of work is about fifteen times heavier than
that of the nitrogen. The carbon daily eliminated is about 4,600
grains, the nitrogen about 300 grains. These numbers are the results
of many experiments, but for many reasons are only approximate. In
order to retain health it is necessary to preserve as closely as possible
this ratio in our diet, for not only do we wish to avoid an excess or
lack of food, but also the excess or lack of any one ingredient. If we
supply the nitrogen (Albuminoids) altogether from vegetable foods:
2a a large quantity has to be consumed that there would be a large
excess of carbon—a state of affairs seriously affecting the health. On
the other hand, if the tequiréd amount of carbon is to be obtained
from an exclusive meat diet, about four times as much nitrogen as
needed would be furnished. ‘This would seriously impair the digestion
and’ be apt to induce disease. ;

As I have before emphasized, no one class of nutrients is in ftecte a
complete food, and it is only when they are in proper proportions that a
healthy and vigorous system can be maintained. Though there is
strong tendency in the system to eliminate any excess of food, yet, 2s
I have pointed out before, too much food acts deleteriously. The
habitual use of large quantities of meat and albuminous foods induces
a diseased condition of the liver, gout, &c., while excessive amounts of
the fats, starch and sugar cause obesity and dyspepsia.

Professor Ranke found that when doing no muscular work, his
weight was maintained with the following per day.

Albuminoids, 3.5 ozs. ; Fats, 3.5 ozs. : Carbo-hydrates, 8.5 ozs.
Professor Voit, an eminent German scientist, gives the following

156

amour is per day for an adult doing an ordinary day’s (muscular) work,
supposing neither to gain nor loose weight.

Albuminoids, 4.2 ozs.; Fats, 2 ozs.; Carbo-hydrates, 17.6 ozs.
Professor W. O. Atwater, of Washington, U.S.A., who has written
a splendid series of articles in the “ Century” for 1887, on the subject
of foods, to which I am largely indebted for material in these lectures,
estimates that an average man doing muscular work requires—

For moderate work, Albuminoids, 4.4 ozs.; Fats, 4.4 ozs.; Carbo-
hydrates, 14.4 OZs.

For hard work, Albuminoids, 5.2 ozs.; Fats, 4.4 ozs.; Carbo-
hydrates, 14.4 02s.

Professor Parkes says that the food required for a healthy adult is :
For laborious occupation, Albuminoids, 6 to 7 0z; Fats, 3.5 to 4.5 oz;
Carbo-hydrates, 16 to 18 0z; Salts, 1.2 to 1.5 oz.

At rest, Albuminoids, 2.50z; Fat, 1 oz; Carbo-hydrates, 12 0z;
Salts, .5 02.

‘The harder the work the more nitrogenous (albuminoids) should
the diet be.

The heat of the body in order to be maintained necessitates the com-
bustion of a large proportion of the food, probably about {25 of it. This
heat, together with the work expended internally in the functions of the
heart, respiration, &c., and the external muscular action in locomotion
and other voluntary work, represent an amount of energy calculated at
about 3,400 foot-tons, z.¢., the force required to raise 3,400 tons 1 foot
high. The heat of the body represents in amount that required to raise
48.4 lbs. from the freezing to the boiling point, or in mechanical power
would be sufficient to raise 150 lbs. through a vertical height of 8}
miles. All this must be provided for by food and oxygen before making
any demands on the system for muscular or brain labour.

FIsH AS A BRAIN Foon.

I may here allude very briefly to the common, but erroneous, opinion
that brain work requires or is benefitted by a liberal fish diet. This has
arisen from statements made to the effect that thought and brain work
in general used up a large quantity of phosphorus, and secondly, that
fish supplied in abundance this element. Neither of these assertions
appears on investigation to be true. The brain tissue consumed by

157

mental activity contains no more phosphorus than that of other parts of
the body—not so much as the bones and teeth. Fish does not furnish
this element more abundantly than other animal foods. Good head
work like good hand work requires a good digestion, and as fish is easily
assimilated it may, for this very reason, be found of great value to
brain workers, especially if such do not take sufficient muscular exercise
to induce a vigorous digestion.

Before bringing these lectures to a close I wish to give you an
outline of the process of digestion, the changes that take place in
cooking food, and a few practical remarks drawn from a consideration
of the whole subject.

DIGESTION.

Mastication or trituration of the food in the mouth serves by a
thorough division of the material to present a greater surface to the
solvent action of the digestive fluids. An increased digestion is the
result. Saliva, secreted by certain glands of the mouth, softens and
moistens the food and converts the insoluble starch into soluble
sugar. In this reaction the active principle is Ptyaline.

The gastric juice, the secretion of the true peptic glands of the
stomach, has a physical and chemical action. It dissolves and disin-
tegrates the food, reducing it to a liquid condition, and converts the
a'buminoids into peptones, which are assimilated by the blood. Its

composition is :—

Tee Be a age ot 97-5
RM Ieee ed nile o eau e, 5 neta i a Ee 1.5
MRTRAPETLIGSENC ACIEN 03h 8o 8 5 25 wanin, egy ese oe a
|S 8 ee sapere 5

100.0

It has an acid reaction.

The intestinal digestion is promoted by the pancreatic juice, which
has an alkaline reaction. It has a fourfold function :—

(1) Converting starch into sugar.

(2) Converting albuminoids into peptones.

(3) The emulsification of fats.

(4) Conversion of cane sugar into grape sugar.

158

Bile, formed in the hepatic cells, assists in the emulsification of fats
and promotes their absorption and stimulates the secretions ef the
intestinal glands. It also serves to prevent putrefactive changes in the
food. The digested food or chyme is absorbed by the blood as
the food passes through the intestines, the undigested portion entering
the large intestines.

THE CHEMISTRY OF COOKING.

The changes induced by cooking are manifold, some increasing,
others decreasing the digestibility of the food, while others only serve
to render the same more tasteful by the production of certain substan-
ces which pleasantly excite the palate.

Meats are more readily digested when ‘“underdone” than well
cooked, though undoubtedly very tough meat by its disintegration is
rendered more tender and easy of mastication by the process. Certain
empyreumatic substances are developed by roasting and boiling meats
which give agreeable taste and savoury odours. These act rather as
stimulants than nutrients, and render the food more palatable than in
the uncooked condition. Roast beef, beef tea and soups ow2 their
piquancy to these compounds. Eggs and milk are rendered less
digestible by cooking, for the reason that coagulated albumen is not
readily acted upon by the digestive fluids.

On the other hand, most vegetable foods require cooking to in-
crease their digestibility, The cells containing the starch in the raw
material have walls of cellulose, difficult of digestion. By cooking, this
cellulose is softened and the starch grains are burst. The contents then
are more completely exposed to the digestive fluids.

In summing up I would offer the following remarks and deductions:
Their importance, I think, merits your consideration.

1. That in the choice ot viands care should be taken that the diet
consists of both vegetable and animal foods. The proportion of
nutrients may roughly be stated at three times the weight of carbo-
hydrates to equal weights of fats and albuminoids. Excess of any one
nutrient is likely to be injurious to health.

It would seem that nature teaches what science confirms—a
proper combination of materials. The Irishman with his potatoes
(carbo-hydrates) and buttermilk {albuminoids), the Englishman with

159

his bread and cheese (carbo-hydrates, fat and albuminoids), and many
others, exemplify this inference.

2. Starch, sugar and fats are essentially heat and energy producers.
As heat producers fats are about 214 times more valuable than carbo-
hydrates. In cold climates we find the inhabitants existing largely on
fatty foods. Esquimaux and lumbermen are notable examples.

The albuminoids are the most costly of all the nutrients. While
performing to some extent the functions just mentioned, they have for their
chief office that of building up the tissues of the body and repairing
the waste continually going on. The albuminoids cannot be replaced
in the diet by any other material.

3. Fruits and many vegetables while not rich in nutritive material
should form a large part of the diet, as they assist in digestion and,
acting medicinally, give a healthy tone to the system. Salads of lettuce,
celery and beets, if not too rich, have a cooling and refreshing effect.

4- Condiments and stimulants are often desirable as appetisers
and in moderate amounts excite the flow of the digestive fluids, and
thus aid digestion. Excess of alcohol, tea and certain other articles of
this class is well known to have injurious physiological action.

5. Cooking, while, as a rule, rendering the animal foods rather less
digestible, makes vegetable foods more fit for consumption.

6. Mastication should be thorough in order that the food may be
well mixed with saliva, and for this purpose slow eating is to-be
recommended.

7. The process of digestion is a continuous one. Active work
retards somewhat the digestion of a heavy meal, and such should,
therefore, be taken rather after the work of the day than during it. The
times of meals must largely be regulated by the amount and kind of
work. It is better to eat a little and often than to overload the digestive
apparatus at any one meal. Though the digestive process is not so
vigorous during sleep as in the day time, light refreshment is to be
recommended before retiring—the stomach thereby is kept from being
totally void of food in the morning. To those who are not robust eaters
this advice is more particularly given.

8. The blood which conveys the digested food to every part of the
body is largely water. On this account and because all the tissues contain

160

a large amount of this compound, and the waste of the body is partially
eliminated in a fluid form, it is necessary that as such, or under the
guise of some drink, a considerable quantity of water be daily taken.
Very cold water lowers the temperature of the stomach, retarding diges-
tion. In excess, water dilutes detrimentally the gastric juice. The
aged, therefore, and those whose digestion is not vigorous should avoid
too much water, especially of a low temperature. For such, a light wine
or other stimulant in moderation is undoubtedly beneficial. In drinking
as in eating the appetite is a safeguide. As arule itis wise not to satiate .
the appetite for solids or fluids. ‘The old adage ‘ Rise with an appetite |
and you will always sit down with one,” is a wise one.

g. Pastry and sweetmeats. Hot rich pastry and cake are exces-
sively indigestible, and in no sense can be considered as complete
foods. They should be sparingly eaten, if at all. Excess of sugar, as
in sweetmeats, deranges digestion.

10. Many ‘“‘made dishes” are very rich and concentrated, and can
scarcely be considered as having a place in a wholesome diet.

‘0:
PROGRAMME.
1891. teen
Dec. 17—President’s Inaugural Address, (The work of the Geological
Survey) : 5 : : : . : : : Dr. Ells
1892.
Jiun’y 14—Notes ofa trip in Japan, : : : . : Mr. Harrington
Report of Ornithological Branch.
Jan’y 28—The Educational value of Natural Science, . : : Mr. Cowley

Feb’y 11—Microscopical Soiree. (Normal School Students particularly invited).
Four short papers of not more than ten minutes each, by Messrs. Ferrier,
Harrington, Shutt and Fletcher, to be illustrated by microscopes.
Feb’y 25—--On some New Chazy Fossils, : : : Mr. J. W. E. Sowter
The Spring Flowers of Ottawa and Vicinity, . Mr. James Macoun
Report of the Entomological Branch.

March 10—-Water : its properties and functions, : : : Mr. Lehmann
Report of Zoological Branch.
Report of the Geological Branch.

i
;

ie ’ a P
Des. Ce aemerr W.%
= Ae mt

7 ass

F
is
.

i

161

INAUGURAL ADDRESS.

THE WoRK OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA.
(R2 Ws, Eves, LL.D.)

(Delivered December 17th, 1891.)

Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen,—In attempting to prepare
the opening lecture of the course for the present season, I have been
considerably exercised as to what subject would be of most interest to
the membzrs of the Club. It has, however, been suggested to me that
to those of us who live in this city, where the Geological Survey has its
location, as well as to many of our members abroad, sore facts relative
to the work of such a department, as annually carried out, might be of
interest. Very often it has been asked: What is the work of the
Geological Survey? What does its staff find to do year after year, and
what great purpose does it serve in the country’s progress and welfare ?
To discuss this subject fully would require a very long chapter, but I hope
to be able to lay before you a few ideas regarding the general character of
this work that may to some extent at least be an answer to the ques-

_ tions propounded.

In the open ng paper which I had the honour of giving before this
Club two ye.irs ago, I reviewed very briefly the subject of geological
progress in Canada tor the fifty years subsequent to the first recognized
work done in this country in connection with that branch of science.
In this, the work was divided into three periods, viz: 1st, that prior
to the esta! lishment of the Geological Survey; 2nd, that under the
direction of the late Sir Wilham Logan, and 3rd, that subsequent to his
retirement ; the latter of which could not, owing to lack of time, be
then consiaered.

The confederation of the Lower Provinces with Ontario and Que-
bec in 1867 very greatly extended the field of the Survey’s labours, and
changed, very materially, the then existing arrangements of the staff
and methods of operation. It brought into the work of the Depart-
ment the study of the geology of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia ;
and this) was sjeedily followed by the extension of this work into British
Columbia and the great Northwest ; thus furnishing a field for geologi-
cal exploration of the most magnificent dimensions, comprising an area

162

second to thit of no other colony or nation in the civilized world. This
enormous and sudden increase in the work thrown upon the Survey
necessitated an almost complete change not only in methods but a very
considerable change in the personnel of the staff itself; an amount of
work, in fact, which can scarcely be estimated by anyone without careful
study and comparison with similar work done in this branch of science
by other countries. For while the importance of a systematic geologi-
cal survey has for many years been recognized by all nations and
regarded as a very considerable factor in connection with the national
progress and development, the areas embraced in the several countries
in which such surveys have been carried on are, for the most part,
of very limited extent as compared with the great stretch of country
called Canada, and the entering upon the geological study of half a
continent by so comparatively young a nation may well be regarded as
one of the greatest and most important events in the history of the
science.

Probably one of the most elaborately conducted surveys in recent
times is that of the British Islands, in which we have an area embraced
in the three divisions of England, Ireland and Scotland, scarcely two-
thirds the extent of the Province of Quebec alone; densely populated
and so arranged that the work of the geologist was facilitated to the
utmost degree by the open charac:er of the whole country and by the
presence of the most carefully constructed large scale maps possible to
be obtained; yet for more than half a century the combined skill of the
geologists of England, Scotland and Ireland, aided by the most recent
improvements in instruments and in appliances for conducting all
necessary examinations, and by a financial backing sufficient to meet
every requirement, has been devoted to the determination of their
geological structure and mineral resources. Even the great Geological
Survey of India, which, with the exception of the United States and
Canada, is probably on the most extensive scale of any in the world,
embraces in the whole [ndian Empire an area of only one and a half
million square miles, while the gigantic colony of Australia, even were
the confederation there complete, would still in the whole island fail to
approach the area embraced in the Survey’s operations in Canada by
half a million of square miles. In point of fact we here in Canada

163

have so acqu'red the habit of looking upon such immense areas as of
every day occurrence, that an initial journey of three or four thousand
miles to begin operations is regarded with no zreater feeling of excite-
ment or uneasiness than one ofa tenth that distance in a much smaller
country. In Australia, however, the work of the geological surveys has
been comparatively local, and has never been applied to the enormous
areas with which we are familiar in this country. The only survey, then
which in point of extent can at all compare with that of Canada is that
of our gigantic neighbour to the south, where the area of surface to be
covered by its operations is not very different from our own, but where
certain conditions exist which render a comparison of the work of the
two surveys interesting from several standpo’nts. Thus, in the United
States, owing to their more southerly position, field parties are enabled
to spend a very much longer period in exploration than in Canada; in
fact there is no reason why their field work cannot, in many portions,
be carried on throughout the entire year. In Canada, on the other
hand, owing to an early and often excessive snowfall, aad to the extreme
cold ot winter, the period in which field operations can be carried on
with profit in some years scarcely exceeds a third of the whole time,
Then again, in many of the American states local or state geological
surveys are, or have been, carried on, by which the structure and min-
eral resources of each have-been investigated by the state authorities
and at the state’s expense, and thus the work of the general survey has
been greatly facilitated. It is true, in the earlier days, before the con-
federation of cur own provinces, local surveys were carried on, to a
limited ex ent only, in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward
Island, but the amount of time and money expended in these was com-
paratively insignificant, although the work done by the local geologists
was of very considerable value ; while in the provinces of Ontario and
Quebec, which have enjoyed legislative union for half a century, the
work was done by the Geoiogical Survey of Canada with a very limited
staff indeed, for years scarcely exceeding in number more than half a
dozen persons in all. Contrasting also the facilities for work of the
British surveyors, and to a certain extent of the Americans as well,
with the difficulties which the members of the Sanadian staff have to
encounter, the unfavourable position of the latter becomes most striking

164

Thus, instead of a thickly settled country, opened up in all directions,
and easy of access by railways or by ordinary roads, millions of square
mi'es of our Dominion are at the present tim2 inice:ssible, except by
means of canoes or bouts and by the help of the hardy voyageur or
hunter ; and not only mast the means of transport be provided for, but
the means of obtaining subsistence, either from the woods or waters, by
hunting and fishing, must also be taken into the account; and, in
point of fact, with the exception of the more thickly settled portions of
the older provinces, this mode of exploration must of necessity be con-
stantly employed. To most people unacquainted with our country, and
to many even in our midst, it will perhaps be news that even here in the
Ottawa district, in the exploration of the area to the north of the rivers
Ottawa and St. Lawrence, beyond a distance of twenty to twenty-five miles,
where occasional settlhement roads penetrate, the only means of carry-
ing on the work to day is by the aid of the canoe and the Indian guide,
by traversing the several rivers and the many lakes which le so thickly
scattered over the surface of the mountainous Laurentian country, com-
munication between which is made by numerous and often exceedingly
difficult portages, over which canoes and supplies must be carried upon
men’s backs wherever the route of the survey may lead; and all this in
the very heart of the oldest province of our I)ominion.

If now we compare the personnel and the financial outlay of the
world’s two greatest surveys in point of extent of area to be surveyed,
we can see more clearly under what additional disadvantages the Cana-
dian brethren of the hammer labour. Thus the expenditure for the year
1887-88 of the American Geological Survey, exclusive of publication,
was about half a million dollars; that of the Canadian Survey for the
same year about one-fifth of that amount, including publication and all
expenses of management. A portion of this sum, amounting to about
$20,000 only, was divided among sixteen parties, whose operations ex-
tended from eastern Nova Scotia to Alaska, and included surveys in
all the provinces, with special examination of the country east of Alaska
and the Mackenzie River Basin, Hudson and James Bays and Lake
Winnipeg and vicinity. In numbers the staff of exploration comprised
in all, including assistants, thirty-five persons. In addition, work was
carried on in the branches of Paleontology, Botany, Chemistry and

165

Natural History, the results of that year being comprised in twelve
scientific reports, besides that of the Director, which were published in
two volumes of 1364 pages, in addition to the bulletins on Paleontol-
ogy and Botany. ‘he American Survey during the same year employed
in the Geographical branch alone eighty-five assistants, in addition to
the chiets of the several divisions, of whom there were fifteen in con-
nection with the outside or geological work proper, and twelve for the
associated branches, among whom are many of-the leading professors
in the different universities, men most distinguished in their special
lines of work. With such a command of men and money magnificent
results may be confidently looked for, yet in the published volume for
the year mentioned there are only four scientific reports, besides that
of the Director. with twenty-four administrative reports, corresponding
with the summary reports of the Canadian Survey, and describing only
the season’s operations as carried on by the different parties, but not
giving the scientific results, the whole being comprised in a magnifi-
cently printed and illustrated volume of 710 pages. In addition to
this, as in the Canadian Survey, bulletins containing special reports on
- the work o the various associated subjects were also published. Com-
paring results, then, in so far as these can be ascertained, it is evident
that the Canadian Survey has continued to maintair the high standard
of work which it has ever enjoyed from its commencement and is
giving at least full value for the amount of money expended thereon.
But many persons have asked the question: Of what does the
work of the G-ological Survey consist ? and what is the object of send-
ing out these parties of exploration all over the Dominion? what prac-
tical benefit does the country receive from such explorations? Some
even appear to consider the fitting out of the field parties each spring
as something preparatory, on the part of the staff, to going on some
grand pic-nic, in which all that the persuns engaged have to do is to
enjoy themselves in the most perfectly epicurean manner. Now, while
to the scientific explorer who enters upon the work in hand with the
proper amount or interest there must ever be a certain amount of en-
joyment, and that often of a very high order, in the unravelling of the
complicated problems which are presented in the study of the wrinkled
face of old mother earth, there is very little of the pic-nic character ob-

166

servable, taxing that word in its ordiniry acce ‘tation. Th2 work of
the Geological Survey is of various kinds. In its inception it was held
to include more particularly the study of the rock crust of the earth,
and the determination of its mineral resources, since the relations
between these two subjects are exceedingly close. Gradually attention
was directed to the study of plants and insects, collections of these
being occasionally made by some assistant attached to one of the
regular exploring parties. Chemistry, which embraced not only the
analysis or the assay of important ores, but of rocks as well, tozether
with the analysis of mineral waters, and other kindred suojects also
received a large amount of attention. But the rapid development and
extension of the country and its various, interests have in time necessit-
ated a corresponding change in the operations of the Survey, so that it
has gradually come to embrace not only Geology, Paleontology, Chem-
istry and Topography, but the Natural History of the country as well,
including the subjects of Botany, Ornithology, Entomology, Zoology,
Ethnology, Mining Statistics, and other kindred subjects—the proper
carrying out of which is, however, at the present time very seriously
interfered with, not only by great lack of space for disp'aying collec-
tions when made, but by a lack also of workers in the several fields.

In the American Survey the different lines of work are carried on
in much the same way as the Canadian department, though on a much
more elaborate scale. Thus the work of the interior department is ar-
ranged under certain divisions, of which the principal are those of
Topography or Geography, Geology, Paleontology, Mining Statistics
and Technology, Chemistry and Physics, Illustrations, Library and
Documents, &c. Of these the topographical division has charge of the
surveys proper, and the preparation of the maps connected therewith,
with the care of the instruments, &c., and for the year 1887-88 their
field parties were distributed over twenty states, extending from the
Atlantic to the Pacific. The geological work is also arranged in
divisions, of which there are thirteen, iamed principally on grounds of
location, as the Atlantic Cuast division, the Mountain division, &c., but
also in some cases from the character of the work, such as the division
o. Ar hean geolosy.

In paleontology also the work is specialized, and instead of pla-

167

cing upon the shoulders of one man the work of half a dozen, the Ameri-
can Survey has this subject so arranged that to one person is entrusted
the division of the vertebrates as distinct from the invertebrates, the latter
also being divided into the Paleozoic or.ancient and Cenozoic or recent
divisions, while in the case of fossil plants, fishes and insects, these are
for the most part assigned to specialists in each of these branches, and
in this way the very highest results are attained in each subject.

The division of geography or topographic work is one of the most
important of the whole. Finding, as in Canada, the exceeding diffi-
culty of doing accurate geological work without a good ground plan or
map cn which the observations made can be systematically recorded
this division has been organized to meet the required want. This work
employs nearly one hundred persoas alone in the scientific work rela-
ting to the making and arrangement of the surveys, including ten
draughtsmen, but the very great utility derived from having good and
reliable maps of the country ready to hand for the work of the geologi-
cal staff proper is such that whatever extra expense is incurred in their
construction is amply repaid Of course, in the comparison of countries
like the United States and Canada, the conditions of which are alike
principally as regards area, while the one has already an enormous
development of wealth and population and the other an immense terri-
tory and a scattered population, such comparison appears to place
Canada in a very unfavourable aspect unless the diverse conditions are
thoroughly comprehended.

Although the work of the Geological Survey of Canada has been
going steadily torward for almost half a century, it is surprising how
few persons rally understand what is the legitimate scope of the labours
undertaken by its staff or in what direction the field work should
actually extend. Thus many persons apparently have the impression
that one part at least of its duties should be the examination of every
locality where minerals may be fancied to exist by any person who
may irduie the often foolish notion that there should be unlimited
wealth in the rocks which may constitute a large part of his real estate.
Such persons entertain the idea that not only should surtace indications
be carefully explored for their own particular benefit, but that even
excavations, shafts or bore holes should be put down, and in fact that

168

the Survey should completely develop their part*cular min‘n¢ areas ond
open up their properties at the government expense... The absurdity
of this method or the fallacy of their logic never appears to be con-
sidered by these individuals, since two very important obstacles would
be presented at the very outset, the first of which would probably be
the protest made by every mining engineer against the encroachment
on the part of the government, through its staff, upon the rights of
the private individual and the consequent interference with his pro-
fession ; and secondly, the tact that very few treasuries could be found
which would stand the enormous drain put upon their resources if the
government should attempt the development of every mining location,
real or fancied, and at the instance of every proprietor or company,
while the staff necessary to undertake so extensive a system of work
would speedily assume such enormous dimensions as to be beyond
control. There are, however, certain cases where the advice of the
government geological expert may be sought, and that with propriety,
although it frequently happens that when such advice has been asked
and obtained, the person giving it receives very little credit for ability
either as a mining expert or geologist. Very often this by no means
flattering result arises from the fact that some mining quack has already
visited the spot, and in the hope or expectation of finding a job, more
or less permanent, in the development of the property, has, by means
of a judicious employment of certain technical terms, concerning the
meaning of which he is very often ignorant, done his best to persuade
the owner that great stores of mineral wealth lie just beneath the sur-
face, waiting only for the application of the skill which he may possess
for their successful extraction. How often this story has been told
concerning certain areas, when upon a careful examination not the
slightest indication of mineral wealth has been revealed, but such is
the credulity and the peculiar bias of the human mind that the opinion
most in accord with its own desires, is accepted, no matter how great
its improbability.

It would appear desirable, also, that government advice should be
given when requested in cases where large interests are involved, which
are of more than a merely private importance ; as, for instance, where
the mineral resources of an entire district are in question, as in the case

169

‘of the great deposits of nickel at Sudbury, of asbestos in Quebec, of
coal in Nova Scotia, or the North-West, or the mode of occurrence and
geol gical horizon of apatite or any other mineral of great economic
value, in which the welfare of large portions of the country is involved ;
or on the other hand the conducting of certain lines of assays where the
fullest and mcst reliable tests should be made for the common good,
such as the assays of gold bearing rocks or of silver bearing veins from
certain areas not yet entirely passed out of the public domain. To
those of you who have examined the great collections in the Geological
Museum the wonderful variety of our mineral resources from every
province of the Dominion must have been matter for astonishment, yet
in very many cases these great stores of mineral wealth are even yet
lying idle and undeveloped, owing to lack of capital or enterprise on
the part of our investors.

Were the immense territorial extent of Canada which has been
traversed in the collecting of these representatives of our economic
mineral resources, often at large expense and with much labour, as
easily accessible as the countries of Great Britain, France or Germany,
the work of the geologist, botanist and naturalist would be a compara-
tively easy matter. I say comparatively easy, for while the intricate
problems of structure would yet remain to be solved by the geologist,
the facilities presented for their solution would be so great that much
of the hardship and uncertainty which now prevail in the examination
of a new and unsettled country would be done away with.

In the absence of such aids, however, to geological exploration,
and in fact very often without any aids at all in the shape of maps,
even over many portions of the older provinces, much of the time of
the geologist in charge must now be devoted to deciphering his path
through the tangled wilderness, and in getting together sufficient
materials as regards topography as will enable him to place on paper
and to render intelligible the scientific observations, geological or
otherwise, which it is his peculiar province to obtain; for it can be
readily understood by anyone, even but slightly conversant with the
subject, that to attempt to delineate the geology or structure of any
country on a projection, without the topographical features of river, lake
or mountain, is almost a hopeless task. Thus it comes about that,

170

owing to the necessity of obtaining topogranvhical data, which has been
laid upon the staff of the Geological Survey, over very large portions of
Canada, the ground work for many of our best mans his been derived
from their Jabours, and great areas in all the provinces from the
Atlantic to the Pucific have been mapped in detail, first of all
by the officers of that staff, as can be seen in the large published maps
of eastern Nova Scotia and in New Brunswick, in each of which/many
thousands of miles of roads, streams and coast lines were carefully
measured and platted before the map necessary for the depicting of the
geology of these countries could be laid down with any attempt at ac-
curacy. In the newer and western sections, the well executed map
of the Sudbury district, the Lake of the Woods, large portions of the
Northwest plains, and great areas in the Rocky Mountains and British
Columbia, testify to the labours of the Geological survey in this capacity.
In the province of Quebec even, the celebrated map of the Eastern
Townships, which includes also a large portion of the province west of
the St. Lawrence as well, has formed the foundation of all subsequent
maps of that province since it was first caretully compiled in the
Geological Survey office from materials drawn from Crown Land plans,
supplemented and bound together with infinite pains and labour, by
surveys made by the different officers of that department, a work the
difficulty of which can only be properly understvod by those who have
attempted similar compilations.

Probably in no country under the sun do more complicated geo-
logical problems exist than in Canada, nor are such problems anywhere
on a grander scale. A territory embracing three and a half millions of
square miles, or very nearly the extent of the whole of Europe, and
extending from the 49th parallel of latitude to far within the arctic
circle, and embracing the extremes of heat and cold, in the northern
part especially, where the fierce heat of the short summer is sufficient
to ripen wheat almost to the 60th degree of latitude. Mere we have
the oldest known rocks of the globe, the solid backbone of the western
hemisphere, extending from Labrador, in a great V shaped area, to near
the mouth of the Mackenzie River, and including in its survey large
portions of the provinces of Quebec and Ontario, and with great over-
lying aveas of all the systzms and formations of rock strata down to

ee

171

the Cretaceous, with the finest oportunities for the study of the more
recent geological phenomena, such as pertain to the glacial and ost
glacial times. Here we have the broad areas of the Silurian lying
against the buttresses of the old Laurentian hills in as horizontal a
posit'on as when first deposited, and there we have the same series of
rocks, folded and twisted, overturned and faulted, and metamorphosed

to such an extent that all traces of their early and original character

have apparently departec. Wonderful displays of the enormous foldings
to wh: ‘') the earth’s crust has been subjected are visible in the Rocky
Mountain uplift on the west, and in the fractured and crumpled char-
acter of the rocks in the sections east of the St. Lawrence with their
tangled complex of strata of widely separated horizons.

To attempt to give even an outline of the work of the Survey
during the past twenty years would require a far longer time than we
have at our disposal this evening, and we can but point out some of
the most prominent points in the policy of exploration which have been
pursued. Prior to the admission of the North-West Territory into the
Dominion we were practically destitute of any knowledge of that great

- country. What information we possessed was derived from the travels

and explorations, principally, of the Palliser-Hector expzdition of thirty-
five years ago, from the Hind Saskatchewan expedition of the same
date, as well as from the journals of Hudson Bay Factors and the
story of search parties in the quest after Franklin. At best it was
sufficiently meagre. Its great wealth of soil and minerals was almost
entirely unknown, and the general concensis of opinion appeared to be
that the greater part of the immense plain country, bounded by a sea
of mountains on the west, and with its great inland seas and streams,
navigable for many hundreds of miles, as fitted only for the support
of the Indian, the buffalo and the fur bearing animals, and likely to be
of but little prospective importance to the white settler Directly
following its incorporation int» tie Dominion, exploratory parties were
fitted out by the Geological Survey which traversed the great plains, the
passes of the Rockies, the country of the Peace River, and the
Saskatchewan. Year after year has this policy been carried on till now
these scientific explorations, geological and botanical. have explored a
very large area indeed, reaching northward nearly to the mouth of the

172

Mackenzie River and traversing the hitherto unknown area between
that river and the Pacific Ocean. As the result we know very
accurately the botany, the natural history and to a large extent the
general distribution of the several geological formations which there
occur. We now have ascertained the welcome fact that in acquiring
the North-West Territories we have become possessors of millions of
acres of the choicest soil, adapted to the raising of the finest cereals, while
its mineral wealih is widely distributed and practically inexhaustible, as
we can witness in the great coal seams of the eastern Rocky Mountain
slopes in which larger and even more important seams have recently
been discovered, which will furnish a supply of the most excellent fuel,
sufficient for the wants of the country for thousands of years. Consider
also thewonderful extent of the great petroleum basin of the Athabasca
River district where, for many miles the sands and gravel are cemented
by thickened oil, and present a succession of black cliffs along the
course of that stream, with indications which point to this area as
probably, in the near future, likely to become one of the greatest oil
producing districts in the world. Consider also the rich silver mines in
the western section of the Rocky Mountain chain, along the Illicillawa2t,
and more recently the great developments of the Kootenay district and
vicinity which bid fair to rival the great Comstock deposits south
of the boundary, with the great deposits of salt, the rich areas of placer
gold, and the great masses of iron ore, concerning the existence and
importance of all which but little was known prior to the labours of the
Geological Survey fifteen years ago, and in some cases even at a much
later date.

You will remember two years ago, in a lecture before this club by
Dr. G. M. Dawson on ‘‘the unexplored areas of Canada,” the fact was
pointed out that there yet existed in our Dominion, at least one
million of square miles of which it may be said we know practically
nothing. While this is true, it may also be said of many other hun-
dreds of thousands of square miles, that our information has been
obtained only by traverses along river courses or lakes, and that the
great resources of these portions must as yet of necessity be practically
unknown. But such a lack of information about so much of our
Do.uinion in spite of the fact that the labours of the Geological Survey

|S)

staff and of various explorersfrom the other departments have been carried
on for nearly fifty years, as well as of hundreds of pr.vate parties, will
cease to be matter for astonishment when we consider the enormous
extent of our territory and the limited force available to carry on such
work. Even in thé older provinces of Quebec and Ontario, where
these operations have been carried on most continuously. the great
succession of mountain country to the north of the St. Lawrence and
Ottawa, constituting the height of land between these rivers and those
of Hudson and James Bays, is to a large extent comparatively
unknown. ‘True, sections have been made across this country here and
there along the various water courses but these only afford us a know-
ledge of our mineral wealth over limited areas. Exploration under
such conditions is necessarily slow and great areas must remain practi-
cally unknown until greater facilities of transport are presented, an
instance of which is presented in the discovery of the mining district of
Sudbury, within a short distance of Ottawa, a discovery due to the
opening up of the country by the Canadian Pacific Railway, and in
Quebec also in the discovery otf the asbestos mines of the eastern town-
ships, in a section opened up by the passage of the Quebec Central
Railway, the localities in both cases being practically inaccessible prior
to the building of these roads. It is not yet twenty years since the
importance of the phosphate mines of the Buckingham district was
ascertained. When such wonderful stores of mineral wealth at our
very doors have so recently been brought to light, who can say what
further enormous developments may be looked for in the extension of
those mineral bearing rocks which have so enormous a development in
our country, and which owing very often to present difficulty of access
are entirely unknown. Thus if we contemplate the situation ever so
briefly we find before us a problem pertaining to the development of
our country and its mineral wealth which requires clear heads for its
inception and brave hearts and strong hands for its successful accom-
plishment. In the elucidation of this problem it is needless to say the
staff of the Geological Su:vey, in making known to the world at large
the mineral and agricultural resources of our land, has performed and
must continue to perform no unimportant part. With the utmost
cheerfulness, in the simple discharge of their duty, the members of that

174

staf hove never hesitated to penetrate into the most forbidding areas,
fertile in resources to find or invent means by which unexpected
difficulties may be overcome. In canoe, in cart, by boat, or on the
trail they have gone forward year after year, “by dint of thought and
hammering” they have collected great stores of information and have
by their collections and researches made easily accessible to any who
may choose to examine, the geology, the mineral resources, and the
natural history of the northern half of this continent from ocean to
ocean, and have displayed all this information in the most attractive
and instructive form in the rooms of the Museum in this city.

But the geological aspect of the work of the Survey department, is
at the present day only one of many. Here, stowed away in cases and
high presses can be found one of the largest and finest collections of
plants, illustrative of the botany of all parts of our Dominion possible
to be obtained. Much of the work of this branch of the department
is invisible to the ordinary visitor to the Museum, since, unlike rock
specimens or masses of ore, dried plants are perishable things and
cannot endure exposure to the light and open air. They must be
carefully laid away and precautions taken to guard against the ravages
of insects and other enemies of the botanist’s handiwork. Yet here
in the cases of the Museum are stored more than 100,000 specimens
illustrating the distribution of our flora fron the foggy shores of
Anticosti to the green valleys of the Island of Vancouver. ‘The flora
of the Peace River district, of the great plains, and of the Rocky
Mountain steeps on the west, of the shores and islands of the Atlantic
on the east, as well as of the country about the great inland likes and
of distant I.abrador, are here rendered availab!e for study to any one
interested in the botany of our country, and who may wish, for purposes
of comparison or for any other cause, to examine the plant yrowth of
any district whatever. The enormous value of such a collection can
scarcely be overestimated, and its practical utility in determining the
fitness of certain areas for the growth of wheat or other cereals, as
determined by the flora of the district is an admitted fact, not now called
in question by anyone at all familiar with this branch of science. To
the botanists of the Survey, then, great credit and praise are due for
the magnificent coliections made and tor the careful way in which this

ie)

branch of the Survey work has been executed, and the publications
on this subject are regarded as of the greatest value by the learned
societies, both of urope and America. Equally inconspicuous with
the botanical collection in the rooms of the Museum building are the
magnificent collections, illustrative of the insect life of our country ; and
probably most of those who wander through the corridors of that
building are unaware that such beautiful specimens are there stored.
These have been brought together in various ways, since the resources
of the Survey have not yet permitted the employment of a regular
entomologist. The great importance of this branch of science is, how-
ever, acknowledged by the Government, and at the Central Experi-
mental Farm the study of the insect life, of certain areas at least, is ~
carried out and their benefit or iniury to plant life carefully ascertained ;
but while these studies are of the greatest practical importance to the
agriculturist they cannot, of course, fill the place which the science of
entomology requires in a purely scientific department.

In the division of ethnology also much work has been done.
Extensive collections, illustrative of the manners, customs and institu-

_ tions of the various Indian tribes which now inhabit our country, have

been made, as well as large quantities of remains and relics of former
races. The ornithology and to a certain extent the zoology also of the
Dominion are well illustrated by means of a good collection of the
principal birds and mammals, the further expansion of which is sadly
hindered by a lack of space for their display. The varisus species of
land and marine shells are exhibited and though in but few of these are
the collections by any means exhaustive, and though the Museum
space at the disposal of such branches of the department’s work is of
necessity utterly inadequate, sufficient has been done to show that the
<omparatively newer branch of natural history has not only not been
neglected, but that the results already obtained are large and im-
portant.

But while the main purpose of a geological department may be
held to lie in the work of the geologist, very frequently that work is so
clearly associated with the investigations of his confrere, the paleontolo:
gist, that the work of the one generally involves the assistance of the
other. In this branch, and in mineralogy also, the Geological Survey of

176

Canada has always maintained a high place among similar institutions.
Thirty-five years ago Billings set himself earnestly to the task of
deciphering the history of our country as written in its fossil remains
How well he succeeded is evidenced by the tact that the work of E.
Billings not ou.ly reflected the highest lustre on the Survey in his branch
while he remained a member of its staff, but the determinations then
made have never ceased to be regarded as authoritative. Since his day
the opening of the North West has introduced a new feature into the
study of Canadian paleontology by the accession of grea‘ collections of
fossils from the Cretaceous and other closely associated format ons of
that area, and less attention has in consequence been directed to the
study of the older paleozoic tossils ; but this change in policy has only
been in accordance with the rapidly growing importance of our western
country. The result of the fifty years’ collecting in this branch of the
Survey work has been to gather together one of the finest and most
comprehensive collections, illustrative of the life of past ages ‘n the
earth’s history, that can anywhere be found ; a collection of such value
to the scientific world that if by chance it should be destroyed its loss
would be regarded as a great calamity by everyone interested in science
the world over.

Of the internal eeonomy of the Survey we have as yet spoken but
in general terms. Here much work of the highest importance must be
carried out. The collecting of facts relative to structure and the
making of surveys in the field would not possess one-tenth of their real
value, were no provision made by which these surveys and facts could
be presented in compact and visible shape to the general as well as the
scientific public. Hence the necessity of a topographical corps |
whereby not only can the work of the field staff be arranged in map
form for publication, but connecting surveys can be made to render
these more intelligible. Then there is the careful arrangement of the
Museum by which everything deemed worthy of exhibit can be so
placed as to show to the best possible advantage the relation between
the rock structure and the contained fossils where such exist, and
the minerals or ores also which may therein be contained ; in order
that anyone in quest of information can most readily obtain such to
the fullest possible extent and with the least possible delay.

177

The library division also is one of importance, in which the working
scientist can find the most recent helps to enable him the better to profit
by the researches of his brethren in other, but similar, fields, and so
become the better fitted to work out the problems he may himself
encounter ; and here it may be said that the library of the Geological
Survey is probably by far the most complete in scientific literature of
any of the libraries in the Dominion, and, in as far as practicable, is
kept well abreast of tie age as regards the current literature in the
subjects concerned.

The financial management of such an institution is also a most
important item in its general scheme ot successful work and the
proper disposition of the funds by which the necessities of the several
widely scattered parties can be best met, calls for a wise discrimination
of the needs of each, and the expense peculiar to each locality to be
explored ; the prime object being the most judicious expenditure of the
funds at the disposal of the department consistent with the highest and
most satisfactory results obtainable.

I trust in this very imperfect description of the work done by the
‘Geological Survey department I have shown you that in the old
building on Sussex Street many kinds of work of great importance to
the nation are being carried on. The structure and contained wealth
of the rock masses from the Laurentian or fundamental crust of the
earth to the most recent formation of drift sand, gravel and peat are
being systematically studied and their actual value, in so far as this is
pessible, ascertained. The importance of each system as a source of
mineral supply is carefully weighed and the mode of occurrence and
probable extent and value of each element of economic importance
sought out where practicable, to «ome extent in the field and in more
detail in the laboratory of the Museum. Not only are the analyses of
the rocks and of the contained ores there conducted and their probable
value, from many localities carefully proven, but the chemical composi-
tion of the mineral waters from various provinces of the Dominion is
carefully ascertained and their probable beneficial effects noted. Many
of these hive proved already to be large and important sources of
revenue to the localities in which they occur, as at St. Leon, Caledonia
St. Catharines and other points. Much of this work though presented

178

annually in published volumes fails to reach the general public, being
by some curious reasoning apparently regarded as of more importance
to scientific bodies and institutions of leaming abroad than to those
who are most directly interested in the developmen! and growth of our
country’s mineral wealth—a condition of things which doubtless to a
large extent accounts for the oft repeated question: ‘‘ What is the work
of the Geological Survey?” In the present arrangement of publication,
however, far greater facilities now exist for obtaining desired information
on any particular area.

While it would be folly to assert that the work of the Canadian
Survey or of any other similar institution has always been free from
mistakes, since that would imply a degree of infallibility and accurate
scientific knowledge, not yet enjoyed by mortals, it will, I think, be
admitted by anyone conversant with its method of operations that the
attainment of the truth, in regard to the geological questions presented,
has ever been the chief aim of those associated in the work. That the
Geclogical Survey has ever borne an excellent reputation both at home
and abroad is due probably, first of all, to the excellent reputation of
its founder, the late Sir William Logan, and secondly to the fact that
the great majority of its staff have laboured to their utmost with hearts
filled with a love for the profession and with the desire to achieve great
results. While we may now be able to say that we have a fairly good
general knowledge of the geology of our country, and can depict on
the map the lines of the several systems, and in some cases even of the
geological formations, yet as settlement and advancement increase,
new fields will be constantly opened up which will call for further de-
tailed examinations. The geological study of a country embracing
three and a half millions of square miles may be truly said to be 1 great
work. The field certainly is large and the labourers are lamentably few
to accomplish it, and many more years must elapse before we can hope
to see a complete geological and topographical map of this our great
Dominion. The work which as members of the present staff we can-
not hope to see successfully accomplished will we trust be handed
down to our successors, who, imbued with the true scientific spirit and
under more favorable conditions, as the development of this great
country progresses, and with accommodations enlarged, and better

3

adapted '» the necessity of the work and the preservation of the
valuable records belonging to the department, will continue to do still
nobler deeds in the cause of geological science.

SOME NEW MOSSES FROM THE PRIBYLOV ISLANDS,
BEHRING SEA.
(Jas. M. Macoun.)

While with the British Behring Sea Commission last summer a
number of plants were collected among which were several mosses new
to America and a few new t) science.

Dr. N. C. Kindberg has already described six new species and
varieties which are given below. All were found on St. Paul Island, in
about 57 N. Lat. and 170° W. Long.

CERATODON HETEROPHYLLUS, Kindb. n. sp. Agrees with Ceva-
todon purpureus in the shape of the capsule and the stem leaves, the
not excurrent costa and the revolvable annulus, but the capsule is often
more curved and distinctly strumose; agrees with Ceratlodon conicus
(Hampe.) in the peristomial teeth having few articulations ; differs from
both in the blunt perichetial leaves, is also very peculiar in the short,
concave, sub-oval leaves ot the long shoots.

DipyMoDOoN babrN-PowWELLI, Kindb. n. sp. Differs from Dzdymo-
don rube’lus in the dicecious inflorescence, the blunt, conic, very short
lid, scarcely + of the capsule, and the distinctly dentate leaves (as in
Didymodon alpigenus, Vent.) ‘lhe tufts are compact, about 2 cm. high,
the leaves revolute nearly all around, short-acuminate, the lower pale
brown, ferichetial ones longer acuminate or subulate entire. The
capsules are (unripe) more or less curved, the pedicel pale red. Named
for Sir George Baden Powell, one of the commissioners.

WEBERA CANALICULATA, C. M.& Kindb., var. MIcROCARPA, Kindb.
n. var. Differs only in the much smaller capsule.

BrRYUM BRACHYNEURON, Kindb., n. sp. Agrees with Bryum
pendulum in the syncecious inflorescence, the peristomes orange, the

180

segments adhering to the teeth, the apirrlate lid and the large spores
(about 0.04 mm.); differs in the decurrent leaves, short-ovate, the
costa broad, abbreviate, not excurrent, the sterile shoots bearing globose
buds (gemme), the very much broader peristomial teeth. Stem red,
very short, the pedicel about 1 cm. long or shorter, often scarcely
emerging above the tufts; costa of the lowest leaves red, percurrent
only in the leaves of the shoots and the perichetial ones; capsule
ventricose, short-necked constricted below the mouth. Sryum fallax,
Milde., resembling it in habit, is dicecious ; the segments are free, the
spores smaller. Bryum lJacustre differs in not having decurrent leaves,
the capsule not being constricted below the mouth, the pedicel longer,
the peristome pale, etc.

BryumM FroubeEr, Kindb., n. sp. Habit of Webera nulans.
Agrees with Bryum inclinatum in the syncecious inflorescence and the
symmetric capsule, etc. ; differs in the leaves being long-acuminate, cells
long and narrow, the upper sublinear (nearly as in Webera), costa
very long-excurrent, peristomial segments quite free from the teeth,
spores smaller, scarcely 0.02 mm.; the cilia are wanting. Named for
Mr. Ashley Froude, secretary to the commission.

POLYTRICHUM (POGONATUM) ALPINUM, Roehl., var. MICRODON-
TIUM, Kindb., n. var. Differs in the leaves being nearly entire or
indistinctly denticulate.

181

NOTES OF TRAVEL IN JAPAN.
(By W. Hacue Harrincton.)
(Delivered January rgth, 1892.)

On Thursday, the 14th of January, Mr. W. Hague Harrington
delivered an address on some of the physical and natural history
features of Japan as observed by him in his visit to the Sunrise King-
dom during the preceding summer, Hilly and well-wooded land was
seen from the Lwpress of 7ndia on the 11th August, some three hun-
dred miles northward of Yokohama. The following morning at day-
light the Gulf of Tokio was entered, and the run up this capacious bay
about thirty miles to Yokohama (Tokio lying at the head several miles

eyond) was very charming, the shores on either side being clothed
with foliage and with a succession of villages lining the bays at the foot
of the hills. Great numbers of junks and fishing craft enlivened the
waters, and when the steamer anchored off Yok»hama, the water being
shallow, she was immediately surrounded by scores of sampans and
other craft, with military, police, customs, medical, post-office and
other officials, and the scene was very animated and interesting. Mr.
Harrington was met by his two brothers (Rev. F. G. Harrington
and Rev. C. K. Harrington), who reside in. Yokohama, and from
his landing to the termination of his visit, ten weeks later, enjoyed
every moment and found ever new features of interest. To be in a
country where the people, dress, customs, dwellings and almost every-
thing observed are so strikingly different from those of America was in
itself a guarantee of pleasurable excitement.

An early visit was made to Hakone, the favourite summer resort
of many foreigners, and a district of a very beautiful character. The
village of Hakone is situated on a lake (nearly four miles long and
2,400 feet above sea level), which apparently lies in the crater of an
ancient volcano, and which is surrounded by fine wooded or grass-
covered hills. In the vicinity are rsany hot springs of varied tempera-
ture and qualities, while about two miles from the head of the lake is
an extensive solfatara or volcanic gorge from which rise steaming
vapours. The native name is Ojikoku (Big Hell), and beneath the de-
composed surface may be hear] the boiling waters. It's necessary to

182

walk carefully, as the ground is often undermined and lives have been
lost here.

Japan exhibits many of these and other forms of volcanic action,
and there are several important volcanoes still more or less active. The
principal of these is Asama, nearly one hundred miles N. W. of Yoko-
hama. Mr. Harrington and his brother ascended this mountain
(8,280 feet high), and found that the present crater lies in the centre of
a much larger and older one, the broken rim of which is well marked,
although it has been nearly filled up. At the time of their visit the
volcano was more than usually active, the vapours filling the crater
(said to be one-quarter of a mile in diameter) and rising several hun
dred feet above it. After the great earthquake of 28th October the
mountain was emitting flames and ashes. This mountain, lke many
of the others, evidences that the craters of remote times were much
larger than present ones, and in some cases a series of cones and
craters has been built up.

Among the other mountains climbed by Mr. Harrington was the
sacred cone of Fuji, which rises to a height of 11,365 feet, with the
outline of an inverted fan. Although the slope is not very great, the
footing is for much of the way very trying, and toward the summit the
climb becomes difficult. Starting from Gotemba at 6.30 a.m., the top
was reached about 5.30 p.m., and the night was passed there. This
mountain is climbed annually by great numbers of pilgrims during the
months of July and August. It has not been in eruption since 1707,
but although the crater is partly filled with snow and ice, there are
signs that it is not completely extinct, as steam sometimes issues from
cracks outside the crater on the east side.

Japan at first sight appears to be a very fertile country, but
closer examination shows that tillable land forms the smaller part of the
I’mpire, and that much of the land cultivated is of a very poor quality,
being largely composed of volcanic tufa and debris. According to
recent authorities, it was found that 37% (not including Yezo, which is
slimly populated), is classed as desert, including volcanoes, solfataras,
scoriz covered plains, etc. Mountain forests cover 237%, so that these
two divisions include about two-thirds of the country. Cultivated
forests cover 18%

/o)

and are an evidence of the attention paid to forestry,

183

the Japanese in this respect being much in advance of Americans. .
Along the sand dunes of the coast Mr. Harrington observed the ex-
tensive planting of pines, showing specimens from a few inches upward,
while older forests showed by the regularity of the trees that they were
planted by man. Farming lands proper occupy 15% of the country,
and are classed as Ta and Hata, the rice fields and the dry fields. To
these may be added 5% of land under other forms of cultivation, such
as fruit and nut trees, etc., making in all 20%, or one-filth of the land
evoted to agriculture of all kinds.

From this area, careful and systematic tillage furnishes food for the
large population of 40 000,000, besides a considerable quantity for ex-
port. Wherever water can be obtained, rice is the staple crop, and the
plains and valleys are carefully levelled and irrigated, so that they may
be kept wet during the growth of the rice. When Mr. Harrington
arrived, the young rice covercd the plains with a beautiful verdure, and
before his departure the harvesting was well advanced. The annual
yield in favourable years is about 200,000,000 bushels. No fences are
needed, and as the farmers chiefly live in villages on the edges of the
rice plains, these present a wide expanse of vegetation.

Along the ridges which bound the rice plats are generally planted
beans, which are also extensively grown in the dry-fields, and form a
large element of the food. They are generally known as Soy-beans,
because certain varieties are used in making the sauce of that name
(Shoyu), so much used asa relish. Of other crops, the mulberry was
described as largely grown in some districts where the silk worms are
bred, an industry employing a large part of the population. In other
districts, tea was a chief product, and the plantations of these shrubs
we:e described as being very attractive in appearance. ‘The cotton
which in some districts is very largely grown, and for the spinning of
which several large mills were seen, is a smaller plant apparently than
that cultivated in America.

Mr. Harrington regretted that his knowledge of geology was not
sufficient for the full appreciation of the phenomena which, in a land
where the forces of nature are so actively in operation, must be of a
most instructive character. The Hakone district exhibits both well
wooded hills, and others covered with a very vigorous tall grass, a

18t

species of @ulalia, several feet in height, and in the north, as at Nikko,
‘ the country is mountainous and wooded. At Nagano (in the Shinshiu
district) he had seen hills of chalk or plaster and described how hot
nad been the road cut along the face of those hills. In the south the
ranges of hills were largely barren, sometimes formed apparently of
coarse diluvial drift and conglomerate, at others largely of sand.

The rivers from the mountains frequently do great damage in the
plains when suddenly swollen by the rains, or melting snows, and large
sums of money are spent yearly on embankments and improvements in
the channels. On some of the plains the rivers have been raised by the
silt deposited by their waters, and the continu2l heightening of the
embankments, until (as ut Lake Biwa) the railway across the plain goes
under the beds of the rivers by tunnels. When unusual floods, or earth-
quakes occur the embankments may be burst and much loss ef property
and life result.

The flora and fauna of the empire were described by Mr. Harring-
ton as very rich in interesting species, and he had often thought how
the botanists especially of the Field- Naturalists’ Club, would have
revelled in the scenes presented. Trees were very numerous, of great
variety of foliage and often of very large size. Of conifers the most
striking had been seen at Nikko, where the famous temples and tombs
in honour of the first and third Shoguns, are embowered in magnificent
groves, and the avenues and courts are lined with gigantic specimens,
with trunks four, five, six or even up to eight feet in diameter. These
trees are about 250 years old, showing that the growth of this species is
rapid. At one of the shrines at Nikko stands a beautiful Koya-maki,
or umbrella pine (Sc/adofpitys verticillata), now several feet in diameter,
which is said to have been a pot plant belonging to Iyeyasu, the first
Shogun. The old highways of Japan were generally lined with fine
trees forming veritable avenues, thronged by the travelling multitudes.
Such an avenue of Cryptomerias (C. afonica) leads up to the sacred
groves of Nikko, the last six miles being especially imposing.

It is a favourite habit of the Japanese to train out on supports the
branches of one of the species of pines, until the extent of their spread
is wondertul. Such a tree was seen at the Kurodani monastery (Kyoto),
upon which, the priests relate, Nazane hung his armour when, abcut

185

800 years ago, he abandoned the military for the monastic life. The
most famous, however, of such trees is that at Karasaki on the shore
of Lake Biwa, which is of great unknown age, and hence very sacred.
The trunk has a circumference of 37 feet and gives off nearly 400
branches, the spread of which from east to west is 240 feet and from
north to south 288 feet. There are many varieties of cedar, cypress,
pine and fir, and the residences of foreigners in Yokahama are much
beautified by well trimmed hedges and shrubberies.

Next to the conifers, the traveller’s attention is arrested by the
abundance of glossy leaved trees and shrubs, which present in summer
a bright vigorous foliage, and which are chiefly evergreens. The
camellias grow to considerable size, and blooming late in the year are
a feature of the winter scenery. The cinnamons are represented by
several species, the most important being C. camphora, which is widely
distributed and of great economic value, as it grows to a large size,
and yields wood very valuable for cabinet and box making, in addition
to the camphor obtained by distillation. A camphor tree seen near a
temple on the path from Hakone to Atami was found to have a cir-
cumference of of fifty feet. It was centrally split and decayed, but was
a majestic tree, and the priests stated its age to be some eight hun-
dred years.

Keyaki (Zelkowa keaki) was another large tree, yielding very valu-
able timber in demand for many purposes. At a new temple being
built at Kyoto fine sticks of this wood had been seen, about four feet
square, and the pillars supporting the roofs were of the same material.
When new, the Japanese buildings exhibit very well the different beau-
tiful woods used in their construction, but, not being varnished nor
painted, all outside work soon becomes dingy from the effects of the
weather.

A very remarkable tree is the Icho, a member of the Taxacez or
yew family, the scientific name being Sadlisburta adiantifolia, the
specific name derived from the great resemblance of its leaves to those
of the maiden-hair fern. It is a large tree of handsome growth and in
autumn the leaves turn of a fine golden colour. It has probably been
introduced into Japan, as the trees are usually near the temples. Good
specimens were seen in Kyoto, etc., but the largest was at the Hachi-

186

man temple at Kamakura, which is claimed to be over a thousand
years old, and of which the trunk has a circumference of twenty feet.
The fruit is about the size of a damson, and the nut-like kernels are
used as food. ‘This tree is also called Ginko biloba, the word gin sig-
nifying gold in Japanese, The Japanese yew (Taxus cuspidata) is a
fine tree, and furnishes a much valued and beautiful wood.

Among the many interesting trees observed were several varieties
of oak; fine walnuts, magnolias (the wood of AZ. hypoleuca being very
ciose-grained and valuable); maples of various species and very pretty
foliage, much prized for the autumn tints, which, however, do not equal
those of Canadian maples; birches, like our white birch, upon the
mountains ; and a wonderful variety of ovher fine trees.

A remarkable feature of the forests is the great abundance of
strong climbing plants, which festoon the trees, and frequently entirely
hide them. Of these the Fuji (W7sterta chinensis) is the most striking
species and winds its thick coils high around the lofty trunks, or even,
when support is absent, about itself. This fine vine is much admired
and forms a fine screen for verandahs and summer-houses, and when
the immense clusters of bloom are pendent from it the effect is very
fine. Curious trees are Stuartia and Lagerstrocemia, which have red
smooth trunks, and in Japanese are called Sarusuberi (from Saru a
monkey and suberu to slide), because the trunks are so slippery.

Of fruit trees the principal are peach, plum, pear and persimmon.
Peaches are by no means equal to American ones; plums are large
and of good appearance, but the flavour is not so good as might there-
from be expected. Of pears enormous numbers are grown, and many
of these are of large size and very pleasing colour, often a rich golden
hue. They are much esteemed by the natives, but foreigners accus-
tomed to other varieties find them very insipid, although when one is
thirsty their juicy flesh is very refreshing. The persimmon, or kaki, is
very largely grown and appears to be the favourite fruit of the Japan-
ese. The fruit ripen late in the year, and until perfectly ripe are
dreadfully astringent. When ripened fully, however, they are very
good, especially those in which the flesh becomes a soft juicy pulp that
has to be eaten with a spoon. Many of these fruits are dried and
pressed like figs for winter use. The Japanese oranges are said to be

187

very good, but were not ripe when Mr. Harrington left. In the south-
ern provinces the Pompelo or Shaddock (C2z¢trus decumana) is abundant,
the fruit being very large and the pulp very agreeable. Pomegranates‘
are very handsome in flower and fruit, but the latter does not offer
much except the acid pulp around the seeds.

Although the time of Mr. Harrington’s visit was not the period of
flowering for many plants, he saw, especially in the mountains, some
fine species in bloom. Of these may be especially mentioned the
lotus, which grows luxuriantly in the temple ponds, and often in moats
or ditches, lifting its large leaves and beautiful flowers high above the
water. On the Hakone hills the grand white lily (Zz//um auratum)
grows in abundance, and the root bulbs of this and of other fine
species are largely gathered for food. Near the foot of Asama had
been observed a beautiful yellow lily on a stalk some three feet high,
and in the ara (dry plain) below Fuji many examples of fine tiger-lilies
occurred. Other smaller lilies, and other closely related forms had
frequently been seen, showing how extensively these beautiful plants
are distributed.

A very conspicuous species in the early part of October, from Kobe
to Yokohama, was one about 1% to 2% feet high, with a fleshy stem
and no leaves. Each stem bore several bright cardinal or scarlet blos-
soms of a lily-like form, but with the petals narrow and twisted. This
plant grew in abundance along the irrigation ditches or in any unculti-
vated spot, and its bright colour sometimes showed in large vivid
patches. Of flowering shrubs Avdrangea paniculata was a good
example, as it was seen in large masses along the mountain paths, and
showed at once its relationship to the cultivated form, although in
nature flowering in the fashion of our Canadian Viburnum lenianotdes.

Of the varied flora perhaps no plant is so attractive in appearance
as the giant of the grasses, the bamboo, which is also as useful as it is
beautiful. Fine groves were seen, especially in the south, where the
stems rise forty or fifty feet, and have a diameter of three to six inches.
The uses of these stems are innumerable, and it would be difficult for
the people to get along without them. Upon the mountains the under-
brush often consisted almost solely of a dwarf species, forming an
almost impenetrable scrub.

188

But little time remained to say anything of the fauna, although this
had been found of the greatest interest. As was to be expected, very
few mammals were seen in their native haunts, the exceptions being a
large black squirrel and weasels. In the northern portion of the coun-
try, however, especially in Yezo, there are many deer, bears, etc., and at
Nikko the fur shops exhibited great quantities of pelts, largely martens,
with otter, badger, fox, monkey, etc. The monkey, Saru (Juuus speci-
osus), is one of the most interesting species, inhabiting a large portion
of the country even well northward, and is said in some places to be
rather a serious pest of the farmers, It was frequently observed in
captivity at the temples, theatres, etc. In the beautiful parks surround-
ing the temples at Nara are numbers of tame deer which feed out of
the visitor’s hand, and assemble at the call of a trumpet. The stags are
handsome animals of brownish colour, the fawns and does lighter and
spotted. Great numbers of hairpins, chopsticks and other trifles are
manufactured from the horns. This town was also a great producer of
ink, enormous numbers of tablets having been seen.

Next to agriculture, the fisheries of the kingdom are of the greatest
importance, and the immense fleets of boats engaged in this industry
afford beautiful pictures all along the coasts; many hundreds of them
may at all times (except in heavy gales) be seen reaping their harvest
from the capacious waters of Tokio Bay. Fish and vegetables form
almost the entire food of the inhabitants, and of the former a great
variety is fortunately fuund, it being stated by some authorities that
about 700 species frequent the Japanese waters. Many of these are
very valuable for food, including some forty species of the mackerel
group, of varying size and quality, some of them very good.

A favourite fish is the Tai, a beautiful deep red gold-bream
(Chrysopus cardinalis), the delicate flesh of which is most delicious. It
is frequently served up raw in delicate flakes, and is very palatable in
this fashion. The Japanese are, however, very skillful in cooking fish,
and the traveller enjoys this part of his diet,

Herrings occur abundantly, and some species are much used in
the manufacture of fertilizers for the rice fields, for in Japan the art of
manuring is well understood, and every available material is made use
of and nothing allowed to be wasted. The odour arising from this

189

fish-guano is far from pleasant, as was experienced by Mr. Harrington
at Bikan, where the steamer up the Inland Sea had a large quantity of
sacks of it on board.

Mollusca are also largely used for food, especially cephalopods,
haliotis, and the larger shell fish, of which immense numbers are taken
for home consumption and export to China.

A visit had been made to Enoshima, where a large trade is done
in shells and other marine productions, and many articles manutactured
from shells, corals. etc. Specimens of the celebrated glass-rope sponge
(Hyalonema Sieboldit) can always be obtained in this interesting place,
and form favourite souvenirs for visitors.

The waters of Japan contain great numbers of crustaceans, the
most remarkable of which is Alacrochetrus Kampfert, called by the
fishermen Taka-ashi (long legs) the limbs extending ten or more feet
from tip to tip. A very large specimen was seen in the Ueno Museum,
Tokio. A curious little crab found down in the Inland Sea has on its
back a striking resemblance to a human face, and has connected with
it interesting legends. At Yokohama and elsewhere small crabs may
be seen running about the roadways, and scuttling into their burrows
in the damp ditches. At Chofu a larger and more handsomely marked
species abounded so much that, despite its agility and wariness, many
were killed on the road by passing jinrickshas.

Of reptiles the most frequently observed were two species of lizards,
one of which has the hinder part of the body and the tail of a very
bright greenish blue. In Hakone lake a red-bellied newt was very
abundant in shallow water. Other species of newts also occur, and,
like the lizards, are caught in large numbers and dried for medicinal
purposes. A curious little Gekko (Péerodactylus Yamort) frequents
houses, subsisting upon insects and hiding by day in crevices. Snakes
of several species abound, but only one poisonous species is found,
viz., Zrigonocephalus Blomhoffi, which is considered to be a good nerve
strengthener when skinned and cooked. Small green tree-toads were
common, and one specimen was seen of a very large toad with whitish
belly, white blotches along the sides and reddish markings on the
head.

In the ponds and tanks which frequently adjoin temples may be

19)

often seen great numbers of turtles (a species of Emmys) which are fed
by the visitors with small fish, lizards, ctc., pucchased for a few 72” from
the attendants. The turtle is a very frequent object in Japanese art
work, and is often represented as if with spreading plumose tail. This
is apparently meant to represent old individuals in which the shell is
often covered with conferve that stream out behind as the animal
swims along.

Birds also furnish abundant themes for the Japanese artist, who
knows so well how to depict them in lifelike attitudes, and with the
greatest fidelity to nature. In the cities great numbers of a large kite,
the Tombi (J/z/vus govinda), may always be seen circling slowly round,
and acting the part of useful scavengers, without fear of man. In
Yokohama they were very numerous about the harbour, seeking their
food trom land and water, and resting in the rigging of the ships.
Ravens are also abundant, and with the sparrows are very troublesome.
‘The latter (Passer montanus) swarms in the rice-fields in spite of scare-
crows, nets, traps and rattles, and much resembles in appearance and
destructiveness the English sparrows. The most interesting birds are
perhaps the storks and cranes, of which several fine species abound.
They are protected and hence may be seen more frequently than might
be expected. ‘Tsuru is the name applied to the cranes, but each
species has likewise a special name, as the Tancho (Grus leucauchen), a
noble white bird with a red crown, black neck and tail. There are three
species of silver heron, Sagi, very beautiful birds, seen upon the mud
flats near Tokio, at Hiroshima and elsewhere.

In the moats surrounding the castle at Tokio were seen great
numbers of ducks, which of course are never molested, and swim about
in all the beauty of their various plumages. Jays, thrushes, finches,
wagtails, doves and many others were observed, including pheasants, of
which two species are common, and in some districts so numerous that
great numbers are killed.

* Insects were very numerous and about 600 species had been col-
lected, about half of which were beetles. There was no time to discuss

nn —

* A paper had already been read by Mr. Harrington before the Entomological
Society of Ontario upon the Japanese Insects and is being printed in the annual
report of the society.

TS]

these collections or the many fine insects observed, but reference was
made to the abundance of large wasps, and to the Semi or Cicada,
whose noise is so obtrusive during the hot weather, and which is cap-
tured by the children with slender bamboos tipped with rice glue.

The address having occupied an hour and a half it was moved by
Mr. Kingston, seconded by Mr. Lees, ‘“‘that the reading of the
Ornithologcal Report be deferred until the next soiree.” Carried.

At the request of the members Mr. Harrington attired himself ina
Japanese costume, explaining, however, that fine feathers do not make
fine birds, and chat he was afraid the clothes would not make him look
like a Japanese, or show to advantage their graceful qualities.

CORRESPONDENCE.

THE JAPANESE GLASS-ROPF. SPONGE.

To the Editor of the O:tawa Naturalist.

Dear Sir,—In anticipation of any report you may make of my
“talk” upon Japan will you permit me to briefly supplement the
reference then made to the exhibited specimens of Hyalonema Steboldit
I find that some of those present received the impression that this
iateresting form is an artificial “plant” instead of a zatural curiosity.
The specimens shown, of which one was complete and the other stripped
of the sponge proper, were obtained at Enoshima, where they may be
had in abundance, of varying sizes and degrees of perfection. The
trifling price at which they are sold would at once negative the idea
that they are manufactured, even were the object of such manufacture
apparent. They are obtained by dredging, in about 200 fathoms, on
re2fs situated near the mouth of the Gulf of Tokio. During my stay in
Yokohama I read in a volume of the transactions of the Asiatic Society
of Japan a very interesting paper on these sponges, and the only point
on which the author asked for further investigation was the relationship
borne to the sponge by the polyps surrounding the stalk. Various
theories have been held by naturalists as to the growth of these

192

sponges but they were based upon imperfect specimens. The
first specimens examined consisted merely of the stems with the
sponge scraped off, and were supposed to be the skeletons of the
parasitic polyps (Palythoa). Later it was supposed that the stalk
grew upward from the sponge. As more perfect specimens were ob-
tained, and closely allied species were obtained in other seas, the true
method of growth was determined. I have no time to refer to author-
ities, but will quote from the brief account of Prof. Hyatt in the
Standard Natural History :

“The sponge itself is * * * ofa light brown colour, and friable
when dry. The top is usually occupied with a number of cloacal aper-
tures surrounding a central prominence which is in reality the end of
the stem. The stem is spun by the tissues, as a supporting column, of
elongated spicules bound together and growing in a spiral as the
animal progresses upwards. The lower end of the stem becomes
frayed out, and sinks into the mud as the animal grows, but constant
additions to the upper end compensate for this and form a column

which sometimes reaches a foot in length.

W. HaAGueE HARRINGTON.
O.tawa, Jan. 15, 1892.

REPORT OF THE ENTOMOLOGICAL BRANCH FOR 1891.
(Read March r2th, 1891.)

To the Council of the Ottawa Field-Naturalists Club.

GENTLEMEN.— The leaders are pleased to announce an increased
interest in this branch. Several of the younger members have collected
regularly throughout the season, and have been remarkably successful
in obtaining rare and valuable species.

In this connection special mention may be made of Mr. Willibert
Simpson, Mr. Reginald Bradley and Masters Tommy and Beverley
McLaughlin. The joint collection made by the last named took the
prize at the Central Canada Exhibition. With reference to this
association and the prizes that have been offered at the annual exhibi-
tions, the leaders trust that greater efforts will be made to exhibit larger

133

collections and thus keep up the interest of the public in this important
branch of study.

A large part of the collections of Messrs. C. P. Bate, W. Simpson,
and R. bradley was made at Kingsmere in the Chelsea mountains.
Amongst the beetles collected were some not previously recorded as
having been taken in this locality, e.g., AZyas cyanescens, 2 specimens
Mr. Bradley, Eucyclops ceruleus and Xylotrechus sagitlarius Mr. Bate.
Mr.Simpson took a fine female of Pityodius angurnus, another specimen,
a male, was taken by Mr Fleteher and Mr. Harrington bred a female
from a larva found in a decaying log in Beechwood in May, showing
that this insect, one of the finest and largest of our Elaters is not so
rare here as previously supposed. Saferda calcaraia the large poplar
borer was found in injurious numbers by Messrs. Simpson and Bradley
at Kingsmere. They have now a barrelful of infested poplar stems
containing many of the larvee.

The leaders regret exceedingly the loss this branch has sustained,
by the return of Rev. G. W. Taylor to British Columbia. Before leaving
he had made a critical study of the Caradide with good results ; many
of the doubtful species in this difficult order were satisfactorily deter-
mined and several additions were made to the Ottawa list, particularly
in the genus Bembidium. In the early spring diligent search was made
for the members of this order and large series of specimens were taken.
Amongst those not before recorded were Cyzhrus Brevoortit, Lachnocrepis
parallelus, Nebria pallipes, and Loricera cerulescens.

Two interesting occurrences of exotic insects imported with fruits
were brought to the notice of the leaders by Mr. C. P. Bate. Blaps
mortisaga, a California beetle, he had found alive walking across a floor
in the city. This, from what we could learn, had probably been intro-
duced in a case of dried fruit. A small scorpion was also found by Mr.
M. M cVeity in a consignment of pineapples from the West Indies.
In taking them out of a barrel he was stung on the hand. The weather
was cool and the scorpion was sluggish or he would probably have suf
fered more severely than he did from the sting. As it was, the wound
was extremely painful for several hours.

Some attention has been given to the local Hemiptera, and Mr.
Harrington gave an afternoon lecture on this order and submitted a

194

preliminary list, which will appear in a future number of the Orrawa
NATURALIST. The large families of Aphididz and Coccidz, which em-
brace a large proportion of the svecies of this order, have not so far
been much studied and must for the present bz omitted. The study
of some families of the Hymenoptera has been so far advanced that
the leaders hope soon to begin the publication of the list of this order
which was promised in a previous report ; but the printing of which has
been postponed, owing to the great number of new species constantly
turning up and the difficulties attending their accurate determination.

Mr. McLaughlin has collected several new species of dragon-fl-es,
but they are not yet identified.

In the order Lepidoptera several rare species have been collected.
A few specimens of AVrsontades Horatius, not previously recorded from
this locality, were taken at Beechwood by Mr. Fletcher, ovipositing on
Aquilegia Canadensis.

A small but interesting collection of moths was taken at the
dynamo house of the Electric Light Co. This contained two speci-
mens of AHepialus argenteomaculatus, Sphinx Kalmia, Smerinthus mo-
destus, S geminatus, S. excecatus and Tolype velleda. ‘Two of the large
sphinx caterpillars, PAzdampelus Achemon and Sphinx Chersis, were
injuriously abundant on the Experimental Farm, the former on grape
vines and the latter on ashes.

A serious attack on the wheat crop by a small fly (Osctnis vart-
abilis) has to be recorded. It is being specially studied by Mr.
Fletcher.

T. McLAUGHL IN,
JAMES FLETCHER; Faia
W.. H. HARRINGTON, J

195

SOME NEW MOSSES.
(By Nils. C. Kindberg. Communicated by Mr. J. M. Macoun.)

1. DICRANOWEISIA OBLIQUA, Kindb., n. sp.

Differs from D. erispula in the capsule being asymmetric, obliquely
curved, substrumose in a dry state, the leaves with an excurrent costa,
the perichetial ones being longer acuminate the peristomial teeth longer
subulate, cleft above.

On rocks along Asulcan Creek, near the Asulcan Glacier, Selkirk
Mountains, B. C., Aug. 7th, 1890 (Macoun).

2. DICRANELLA POLARIS, Kindb., n. sp.

Tufts dusky green not shining, fuscescent below; stem 1-3 mm. in
height. Leaves rigid, nearly straight, erect-patent from the ovate-
oblong base narrowed to the subulate acumen, which 1s furnished with
2-3 indistinct teeth; lower marginal cells narrow, upper sub-oblong ;
costa broad, often 24 of the lower part, faintly marked, filling the whole
acumen ; perichetial leaves larger, entire, broader at the base, with more
numerous marginal cells. Capsule asymmetric suboval, finally sub-
clavate, curved, smooth, short-necked, orange; lid with a long oblique
beak ; peristomial teeth nearly entire, slightly cleft above, orange with
piler tips; annulus not distinct; pedicel yellow, 10-12 mm. long.
Spores small, about 0.015 mm. Calyptra short dimidiate. Dicecious.

This species differs from D. heteromalla in its smaller size, the
rigid leaves, the broad costa (broader than in the European AZe/rlerta
alpina, Schimp., and resembling it in habit) and the smooth capsule.

St. Lawrence Island, Behring Sea, 15th August, 1891 (J. M.
Macoun).

Note.—St. Lawrence Tsland, situated in N. Lat. 63°30’, W. Long.
170°, is a barren rocky island covered with a scanty growth of vegetation,
principally lichens of a few species. At the date of our visit there snow
still filled the ravines and covered the northern slopes.

3. DICRANELLA CERVICULATULA, Kindb., n. sp.

Agrees with Dicrané‘la cerviculata in the strumose capsule, the
yellow pedicel and the dicecious inflorescence, differs in the leaves not
suddenly acuminate, the cells short quadrate, only the inner basal

196

rectangular, and the costa narrow, well defined and not filling the
acumen, only in the perichetial ones distinctly excurrent. The tufts
are very dense and compact, dark green, the leaves not spreading, rather
sub-erect or patent, the stem about 5 mm., the pedicel 7-8 mm.
Nottingham Island, Hudson Strait, August 24th, 1884 (R. Bell.)

4. BARBULA SUBCUNEIFOLIA, Kindb., n. sp.

Differs from Barbula cunetfolia in very much larger subacute
leaves, reddish in the older state, costa very stout. elevate and blood-
red, larger capsule with more twisted teeth, very twisting and dark-red
pedicel ; inflorescence probably diccious.

Mixed with Pottia Heimit; St. Matthew Island, Behring sea,
August roth, 1891 (J. M. Macoun.)

Note.—St. Matthew Island, 60°30’ N. Lat., 173°30’ W. Long.,
resembles St. Lawrence Island in general appearance, but there is on

it a much greater variety of plants. The interior of the island is hilly
and covered with grass.

MICROSCOPICAL SOIREE.

On Thursday, the r1ith of February, at 8 p.m., a microscopical
soiree will be held in the Normal School, to which the students of that
institution are particularly invited. Four short papers, of not more
than ten minutes each, will be read by Messrs. Ferrier, Shutt, Fletcher
and Harrington. The subjects discussed will be illustrated by micro-
scopes.

SUBSCRIPTIONS.

The Club year having nearly expired (the third Tuesday in March
being the date of the annual meeting), any members who have not yet
paid their subscriptions will oblige by sending them to the Treasurer,
Mr. A. G. Kingston, Dept. of Public Works, Ottawa.

197

~ BOPANICAL.-EXCURSION TO “THE CHATS.”

AN ADDRESS DELIVERED BY MR. R. B. WHYTE JAN. 28, 1892

Mr. Robert B. Whyte gave an account of a botanical excursion
he had taken with Mr. R. H. Cowley to the Chats Rapids, Falls and
Island during the past summer. The address was illustrated by a map
of the county of Carleton showing part of the Ottawa River, upon
which the various places mentioned were pointed out. The Missis-
sippi River divides south of the Chats Island, one branch flowing
straight north, and the other called the Snye, flowing east, and empty-
ing into the Ottawa River at Fitzroy Harbor. ‘The interest attached to
the Chats is not only on account of the many plants found there ; for
just at the northern point of the island a series of wild rapids begins,
which ends near Fitzroy Harbor in a lovely waterfall of thirty feet.
This extends right across the river, and is of great beauty, being a
succession of falls with wooded islands between them. Indeed Mr.
Whyte thinks it is the prettiest fall in Canada. Some years ago the
construction of a canal was started on the north side of the rapids, and
nearly half-a-million of dollars were expended on it, but the rock was
-found to be so hard that the builders decided it was not worth the
trouble, and gave it up. This is the original Laurentian rock which
forms the islands at the falls, and from there runs down past Galetta
and Perth to the St. Lawrence. Near the proposed route of the canal
there was formerly a horse tramway from Pontiac to Bristol, but it is
now almost in ruins. About twenty-five years ago Mr. Whyte took a
trip on this railway, and was then struck by the profusion of wild
flowers of all kinds which lined both sides of the track. On this
occasion Messrs. Cowley and Whyte took the train to Arnprior,
from which place they proceeded by steamer. The water was too
shallow to land on the island, but through the kindness of Mr. Cowley’s
brother, they were set down about a mile from shore, and rowed in a
small boat to land. Here they met Capt. Cowley, who accompanied
them in a walk along the north shore, a beach formed of shingle and
broad flat stones, amongst which they found some of their most inter-
esting specimens, a previously unrecorded Aster and the shrubby
Potentilla, with yellow flowers, which would be well worthy of cultiva-

198

tion as an ornamental shrub in gardens; also the beautiful Zodelia
Kalmit, Prenanthes racemosa, Pycnanthemum lanceolatum, and other
interesting plants. After lunch they walked down an old road which
Capt. Cowley said was made to connect Deschénes Lake with Chats
Lake, completing the line between Aylmer and Portage-du-Fort. This
was the only road between 1837 and 1847. He also said that where
Mr. Whyte had found some of the rarest plants he had once had an
old storehouse, which in those days was used for storing merchandise
from Montreal, and he suggested that some of the seeds might have
been brought from that region. Subsequently they rowed up the
Mississippi River to Galetta, where they spent the night. Starting
early the next morning before breakfast they went out to search for the
Ceanothus Americanus, which Mr. Whyte had found growing there the
year before, but at this time they could not discover a single specimen,
although a great many were discovered later in the day. After break-
fast they had a delightful row down the Mississippi again to the Snye,
where both banks of the river were lined with arrow heads, water lilies,
cardinal flowers and many other beautiful flowers. After rowing for
some time down the Snye they landed on the north side, where they
found Felanthus, divaricatus, Helenium autumzale, Pycnanthemum,
and Ceanothus in great abundance. Before returning to the boat they
visited a Galena mine which is situated to the south-west of the island ;
it is worked by a man from Montreal, and sends out many dollars
worth of lead every year. After leaving the Snye they rowed down the
Mississippi to a place on the lake called “‘ The Camp,” where people
from Arnprior and Galetta often spend the summer. Here within one
hundred yards they found almost all the plants seen during the two
days. Mr. Whyte then described the new plants, of which he had
mounted specimens with him. The first was Aster plarmicoides, which
has not been found before east of Belleville, but it is known in many
places in the North-West. It is however scarce and local, and the
Chats Island may be the nearest place to Ottawa where it grows. The
Potentilla fruticosa, or Shrubby Cinquefoil, which grows on the rocky
margins of rivers, is common in Eastern Canada, having been found
even in Northern Labrador. Another plant was the Pvenanthes race-
mos2, or Rattlesnake-root, which is found at Montreal and Lake Huron ;

199

it is common also in the lower provinces, and would likely be found a
little north of the city, ‘The Helianthus divaricafus has never before
been found by any member of the club in this locality, but in McGill
College Herbarium there is a specimen of it, said to have been found
in the vicinity of Ottawa. It is common at Prescott, and to the west
of this place. The Pycnanthemum lanceolatum, commonly called
Mountain Mint, was found at Montreal fifty years ago, and in later
times at Weller’s Bay, Lake Ontario, by Prof. Macoun, although it has
not been found here. Lobelia Kalmii is a pretty little plant which
grows on rocky points below waterfalls. There were fifteen new plantS
found last year, most of them near Ottawa, and Mr. Whyte thinks they
would have been found before if they had been looked for more
closely, and he reminded the members that there is plenty of work for
many years yet in places that have not been thoroughly gone over.

At the conclusion of Mr. Whyte’s interesting address, remarks
were made by some of the members present. Mr. Fletcher thought
it was hardly likely that the seeds of the plants found by Mr. Whyte
had been introduced in stores taken to Capt. Cowley’s depot, and he
agreed with Mr. Whyte that although the locality had been well worked
up, there was still plenty of opportunity for the members of the club to
distinguish themselves by finding plants as yet unrecorded from this
locality. Most of the collecting so far had been done in only a few
different localities, and there were many large districts close to the
city which were never visited. He congratulated Messrs. Whyte and
Cowley on their success, and felt sure it would spur others on to use
their eyes better next year.

Mr. Ami spoke of the peculiarities of Montreal Mountain as a
botanical locality.

NoTEe.—The above excellent report of Mr. Whyte’s lecture was kindly prepared
by one of our lady members, to whom the Editor begs to tender his thanks. J.F.

200

REPORT OF THE BOTANICAL SECTION, 1891
(Read Jan. 28th, 1892.)

To the Council of the Ottawa Field-Naturatists Club -

GENTLEMEN,—The leaders in botany have pleasure in reporting
that there has been continued activity in this branch during the past
season. Some additional plants have been added to the local list, new
localities discovered for rare species previously recorded, and interest-
ing observations made in growing native plants from seed. In this
connection the leaders would draw attention to the work now being
carried on at the botanic garden on the Central Experimental Farm,
where a large number of native plants have been grown from seed trom
various parts of the Dominion, and which are always available for study
by visitors and students. A magnificent collection of seeds of prairie
flowers has during the past season been presented to the botanist in
charge by Mr. T. N. Willing, of Calgary, N.W T., a member of the
club. Some of these have been sown, and many others are ready for
planting in the spring. All members are invited to assist with seeds
and roots of rare plants. ‘lhe importance of studying plants in a grow-
ing condition cannot de too strongly urged. Of particular interest to
botanists are several plants, the seeds of which have been presented by
Prof. Macoun, concerning which there was some doubt as to specific
identity, or for the observation of other points of scientific interest.
As an instance of the value of this work mention may be made of an
investigation made by Mr. J. M. Macoun last spring, by which it was
found that the Camassia, abundant around Victoria, in Vancouver
Island, is not, as was supposed, Camassia esculenta but C. Leichthnit,
a fact which had previously been suggested by Prof. Macoun. The
true C. esculenta was collected by Mr. Macoun near Sproat’s Landing,
and grows in low land quite close to the river, growing, in fact, in the
eirly part of the season when discovered, in the water by the riverside.
C. Leichilinii has larger and darker purple flowers, with the lowest
segment of the perianth conspicuously deflexed. A collection of great
interest to the botanical student is the large collection of native and
foreign grasses—about 150 different species—which are being culti
vated at the Experimental Farm.

201

Sub-excursions by members of the branch to localities at some
distance from the city have been made during the past season: to
High Falls, on the Liévre; to Templeton and Buckingham down the
Ottawa River; to Casselman, on the Castor River; to the Chats
Rapids, to be specially reported upon by Mr. R. B. Whyte, and also, as
well, to less distant points. At High Falls Epzgwa repens, the May-
flower, sometimes miscalled the Trailing Arbutus, was found in magui-
ficent profusion, and large bunches of the exquisite flowers were brought
back to the city. The lovely Calypso borealis, a deliciously-scented
but very rare orchid, was also obtained there in unusual abundance by
Mr. R. B. Whyte. At Templeton Mr. W. Scott found Spiranthes
Romanzofiiana in profusion in a hay field close to the East ‘lempleton
wharf, and between the wharf and the lighthouse keeper’s house ; also
Thalictrum purpurascens. Casselman, and Moose Creek a few miles
beyond that place, have again this year provided rich treasures for those
who went to seek them. Cardamine rhomboidea, the tall erect form,
with stiff and almost sessile leaves, only previously recorded from Hull,
was there found in great abundance. A violet taken to be Viola rotun-
dfolia, was found at Moose Creek. Perhaps the most interesting find
of the year was Merkea proserpinacotdes, found by Prof. Macoun at
Casselman early in the season. A tripto Buckingham by Prof. Macoun
and Mr. Scott in October gave new localities for Potamogeton Robinsit,
and what also is very rare here, Polygonum dumetorum var. scandens.
On the mountain at the back of Old Chelsea Carex Hiichcockiana and
Aspidium Brauni were discovered, while.on the slope of the mountain
running up from the north shore of Kingsmere, Carex Houghtonii was
collected. This is the only locality yet found near Ottawa, and it is
very rare here. Nearer home some other interesting discoveries were
made. Prof. Macoun collected Zveocharis intermedia near \|.eamy’s
Lake, and Mr. J. M. Macoun at Hull found Viola rostrata, the rarest
of all our violets in this locality. It has only once previously been
collected here, when two plants were found growing in the Governor-
General’s Bay at New Edinburgh Mr. Scott found undoubted
specimens of Ranunculus circinatus, the stiff water crow-foot, in Patter-
son’s Creek. Claytonia Virginica frequently sought for unsuccessfully
in this locality, was last spring found in abundance in the woods

202

running from Billings Bridge to Dow’s Swamp by both Mr. Fletcher
and Mr. J. M. Macoun. Ina field near the same place Mr. Fletcher
also found this season large numbers of plants of the yellow-flowered
form of Verbascum Blattaria, the Moth Mullein. This field he had
passed through several times the previous year at the same season, but
did not cbserve a specimen. Mr. R. H. Cowley also found a similar
occurrence near Skead’s Mills on the Ottawa River. Mr. Scott found
several fine specimens of Goodyera pubescens, the Rattlesnake Plantain,
at Ironsides, and in Dow’s Swamp Cypripedium arietinum and Mucros-
tylis monophylos, two of our rarest orchids. Mr. Fletcher collected at
Rockcliffe true and very characteristic specimens of the Glaucous
Meadow Grass, /va cesta. This resembles somewhat oa compressa,
the Canada Blue Grass, but the whole plant is covered with a bluish
white and conspicuous bloom, and the stems are round instead of
flattened. The following introduced plants have been collected in the
neighbourhood of the city by Mr. W. Scott:

Sisymbrium Sophia. A fine plant of this very distinct crucifer was
found on made ground near the artificial lake on Major’s Hill Park.

Sisymbrium Aliaria. A colony of this European plant has
established itself and spread considerably during the last few years in
Beechwood.

North-West Prairie Flowers. An interesting instance of western
plants having become well established is found near Capt. Cowley’s
house at Skead’s Mills, on the banks of the Ottawa, where the following
plants were found by Mr. R..H. Cowley :

Grindelia squarrosa, in large numbers, extending for about an acre
in all directions from a deserted house.

Lepachys columnaris,a handsome composite of a distinctly west-
ern type, in almost as great abundance as the above.

LErysimum parvifiorum. Several specimens were collected by
Mr. Scott on the Canadian Pacific Railway bank near the Union
station and submitted to Prof. Macoun.

Conium maculatum.—Vo the north of Beechwood Cemetery and
between it and the lake hundreds of specimens of this intensely poison-
ous plant were found growing in great luxuriance. This is the true
Poison Hemlock, and it would be well for all members of the Club to

203

mike themselves fimiliar with its appearance, so as to avoid it them-
selves and warn others against its poisonous properties.

Mr. R. H. Cowley discovered new localities for the Walking Fern
(Camptosorus rhizophyllus) and the Maiden hair Spleenwort (Asplenium
Trichomanes). These were growing together on rocks to the west of

the Beaver Meadow at Hull.

It will be noticed that no less chan fifteen new plants have been
added to the Flora Ottawaensis during the past season, and these
were all found im localities which had been previously worked over.
There are still several plants which should occur in this district, but
which so far have not been discovered. The leaders would suggest
the advisability of a special systematic search being made for these one
by one in the most likely places.

A curious case of poisoning in the city of Hull, Province of
Quebec, was traced up by the leaders to the rare introduced plant
Datura Tatula or Purple-flowered Thorn-apple. This plant is of rare
occurrence here ; but when once introduced seems to be able to live
and spread. This was the case in the streets of Stewarton some years
ago. Specimens kindly procured for the leaders by a gentleman ccn-
nected with the Ottawa Daity Citizen were distinctly recognizable as
this species by their purple stems. Datura Stramonium is not uncommon
in waste places about the city, but D. Za/u/a is rare There appears to
have been a large patch growing on a piece of waste land in the city of
Hull, and some five or six children ate the seeds, and all of them were
made extremely ill, so that it was feared for some days that all would
die. Ultimately, however, all recovered. The curious part of this
case is that anyone, even children, should eat the seeds of this unin-
viting plant. Not only are the pods covered with sharp spines; but
the whole plant has a most nauseous and sickening odour,

JAMES FLETCHER,
].EADERS.

WILLIAM SCOTT,
R. He COW LEY.

204

FLORA OTTAWAENSIS.
ADDITIONS MADE SINCE LAST REPORT.

Ranunculys circinatus, Sibth. _Patterson’s Creek, ........ W. Scott.
Erysimum parviflorum, Nutt. .........Chaudiere, ...:.... v
Sisymbrium Alliaria Scop. ........-. Beechwo0di.c aera sf
SINPERtUID SOPNIGs: laa ta ees eae Majors: ill, So eeieee vs
Viola blanda, vam palustriformis, Gr. \.06 ie). toe J. M. Macoun.
Viola-retupdilonay Mi.o2 tog ent 2¢ Moose Creek, ...John Macoun.
Floerkea proserpinacoides, Willd., ..... Casselman, ...John Macoun.
Claytonia:Wargiaicay ts. psy s te motes Dow’s Swamp, ......J. Fletcher.
Potentilla mucosa, in, 2c... etree Chats Island, . \ no Coe
Aster ptarmicoides, T. & G.,........ Chats Island, ys

ac e

Helianthus divanicatus, VU. ie «5.
Prenanthes yacennasa,, Mix. ie cos ;
Pycnanthemum lanceolatum, Pursh, ..Cl ats Island, ..

Oa) C225 1a SS UME aren 55 4) sae gens Ae Rockecliffe, sec J. Fletcher.

“cr

Aspidium aculeatum, Swartz vav. Braunii, Koch., Chelsea. .

«-

CANADIAN LAND ANI) FRESH WATER MOLLUSCA.

A very complete list of the shells of the Ottawa valley was pub.
lished in the Orrawa NaTurRALIst, Vol. IV, p. 52. A list of the land
shells of Vancouver Island was also published in this periodical (Vol.
III, p. 84 et seq.) and I have in MSS. a list of the fresh water shells of
the same district.

If we add together the numbers of the species named in the above
papers we have a total of about 160 species of Canadian mollusca.

There are a number of species, however, occurring in Canada
which do not find a place in either the Ottawa or Vancouver Island
lists—probably some 40 or 50 kinds—and I am trying to compile for
publication a catalogue that will include all these.

I have alreidy in hand a good deal of material for such a compila-
tion ; for instance, Mr. Whiteaves’s early papers ; a capital list of Ham-

205

ilton shells by Mr. A. W. Hanham; several smaller lists in the Reports
of the Geological and Natural History Survey ; a list of Manitoba shells
by Mr. Christy ; and a most interesting little collection of specimens
from near Winnipeg received from Mr. N. H. Cowdry through the
kindness of Mr. James Fletcher.

Much, however, remains to be done before a complete check list
can be prepared, and I am writing this note in the hope that the mem-
bers of the Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club, who are scattered through
the length and breadth of the Dominion, will co-operate with me.

I should like observers in different parts of Canada to send me,
not names merely, but actual specimens of all the species they can find,
no matter how common, and in return I will name the specimens sent,
as far as I can, for those who are not able to do this for themselves, and
will also try to reciprocate by sending Western specimens, if so desired.

If the members of the Club will help me in this way during the
coming summer, I think that in the autumn, all being well, I can pub-

lish a tolerably complete catalogue of our Canadian mollusca.
GEO. W: TAYLOR,
Victoria, B.C.

:0: ———

MICROSCOPICAL SOIREE.

On Thursday, the 18th February, a very successful microscopical
soiree was held in the Normal School, for the students of which it was
in a large measure arranged, in acknowledgment of the courtesy shown
to the club by Principal MacCabe. A large number of the students
availed themselves of the invitation to attend, and with the members
present completely filled the lecture rcom. By request of the com-
mittee brief elementary papers were prepared by the following members
in explanation of the preparations exhibited : —

Mr. Harrington—Entomology.

Mr. Ferrier —Petrography.

Mr. Shutt—Forms of Animal and Plant Life in Swamp water.

Mr. Lehmann-—Parasitic fungi.

At the close of each paper an interval of fifteen minutes was
allotted to the examination of specimens illustrative of the subject
introduced. Messrs. Whiteaves, Weston, Ferrier, Ami, Craig, Shutt,

206

Lehmann, Odell, Whitley, Tyrrell, McConnell and Fletcher supplied
and arranged the microscopes and slides, and explained to the observers
the objects exhibited. The Club is. much indebted to these members
for the assistance given, and the Council tenders them its sincere
thanks.

“Os

THE MICROSCOPE IN ENTOMOLOGY.

By W. HaGcue HaArrineton.

(Read at Microscopical Soiree, 18th February, 1892 )

To the student of Entomology a good microscope and the know-
ledge of its use are indispensable when he desires thoroughly to
decipher the characters upon which are based the determination and
classification of his specimens. Many insects are so small that the
naked eye can scarcely determine even the order to which they belong,
and even the large species are separated frequently by the formation of
the mouth parts, or other structures which require to be much magni-
fied before they can be satisfactorily distinguished. The microscopist,
therefore, can always, in the extensive field of Entomology, find ample
scope for the useful employment of his valued instrument, and can
always obtain abundant interesting slides for his cabinets. Hundreds
of the smaller species can advantageously be mounted whole, and will
make very fine slides. Especially suitable for this treatment are the
minute parasitic hymenoptera, many of the smaller diptera, the plant-
lice and scale-insects among hemiptera, various families of minute
coloeptéra, etc. All the orders will, in the earlier stages of the egg and
the larva, furnish unlimited supplies of curious, beautiful and instruc-
tive mounts.

Of special organs or structures which may form worthy objects of
‘examination, there is a wonderful variety, a portion of which only can —
be now indicated. Each insect, as you are aware, is composed of three
distinct regions—the head, the thorax and the abdomen—although in
“some species these may be so modified and consolidated as not to be
readily apparent. The insect also bears externally certain appendages,
and is furnished with an elaborate apparatus for digestion, sensation,
respiration, motion and generation.

207

The head varies endlessly in size and shape, and the mouth-parts
are correspondingly diversified. In some orders they consist of man-
dibles and maxilla, which work transversely between the labrum and
labium, and there are also attachments known as maxillary and labial-
palpi. Several of these parts are again subdivided, and in all there are
nearly a score or parts, each with its distinguishing name, to be studied
in connection with the mouth alone. Then there occur many modi-
fications of these organs, in which certain parts are so altered that the
entire form of the mouth is changed. Then the lepidoptera, diptera
and hemiptera have the mouth-parts transformed into a rostrum or
proboscis which serves to suck the nectar from flowers, or the vital
juices from plants and animals. The head also bears the eyes, which
consist generally of two large aggregations of facets, often to the number
of several thousands, besides which the majority of insects have two or
three simple eyes, or occelli. The antenne, also placed upon the head
are movable sense organs which perform very important functions,
and which vary in form. They are composed of small rings or segments
the number of which varies in the different groups, and averages perhaps
ten or twelve. In the simpler forms of antennz these joints are merely
short cylinders placed end to end, but in numerous families one or
more of these joints may be enlarged or modified so much, that the
antenna becomes very different in appearance, and many terms are
employed to indicate the modifications, such as serrate, flabellate, pec-
tinate, clavate, lamellate, etc.

The thorax is formed of a number of plates, more or less solidified
and united, and bears the organs of locomotion, usually three pairs oj
legs and two pairs of wings. The legs consist of several segments,
ending usually in a pair of small claws, and may be variously armed or
ornamented with spines and hairs. The wings are formed of two thin
transparent membranes stiffened by an interposed net work, more or
less complicated, of nervures or veins, and upon this venation of the
wings is based the classification of many groups. In beetles one pair
of wings is modified and hardened to form protecting sheaths for the
hinder pair, and a somewhat similar, but partial, thickening is observed
in grasshoppers and bugs. Butterflies and moths have the wings great
ly developed and covered with scales and pubescence, which are so

208

coloured as frequently to make these insects marvellously beautiful.

The abdomen is composed of several ring-like segments, but in com-
mon with the other regions of the body, is often greatly changed, and
has the segments welded together or atrophied. From the tip of the
female abdomen frequently projects the ovipositor, which is most
conspicuous in some hymenoptera, and which is modified in many
interesting directions. ‘The male abdomen in a large number of insects
differs in shape from that of the female, and the sexual organs are more
or less conspicuously developed.

In addition to the structures which have been so briefly indicated,
there is often much of interest in the sculpture or vestment of the body.
Some insects are smooth ard highly polished, deriving their beauty
from brilliant metallic or other colours of the body wall ; others depend
for their adornment on dense coverings of pubesence or scales, which,
as in the case of those which beautify the butterfly, make exquisite
objects for microscopical examination.

The internal anatomy of insects is no less a favourite study for
those who desire to see the mechanism which enables each of these
tiny creatures to fulfil its destiny in this world. For anatomical study
with the microscope insects are peculiarly well adapted, as they can
always be obtained, are easy to kill and handle, and have elaborate
muscular, nervous and digestive systems.

209

A BIOLOGICAL STATION IN JAMAICA.

A Jetter has been received from the Hon. Adam Brown, Dominion
Commissioner at the late Jamaica Exhibition, enclosing a copy of the
following letter from Lady Blake, which will be read with much interest
by the readers of the Orrawa Naturaist. The Marine Biological
Station at Naples, now under the able direction of its founder, Dr.
Dohrn, is the most important in the world, and students attend the
course of study from all parts of Europe and America. The following
is from Scéence of Sept. 18th, 1891, and will show how highly the work
of these stations 1s valued :

** At present, as we learn from a statement recently made by Pro-
fessor Sclater in /Vatuze, the zoological station at Naples rents contin-
uously about twenty tables, each at $500a year. These tables are
rented to different States and universities of Europe, as follows : Prussia,
4; Baden, 1; Bavaria, 1; Saxony, 1; Hesse, 1 ; Wurtemberg, r ; Italy,
7; Switzerlind, 1; Hungary, 1; Holland, 1; University of Cambridge
(England), 1; British Association, 1. Besides these twenty-one regular
rents, a number of others, varying from eight to sixteen, are made
every year to some or all of the following governments : Russia, Belgium,
Austria, Spain, and some Italian provincial governments. The aver-
age number disposed of in this way is estimated at ten, making the
total number thirty-one. The annual income from the tables would
thus amount to about $15,coo a year. The revenue from the sale of
preserved specimens amounts to about $3,500, while the receipts from
the admission of visitors to the aquarium amounts to about $5,000.
The whole income is thus approximately $24,000. But the annual
expenditure of the station has now reached $32,000, so that there is a
deficit of from $8,000 to $10,000 to meet. This heavy deficit is met
every year by a subsidy from the German government.

‘This is a good example,’ says Professor Sclater, ‘of the liberal way
in which science is encouraged and supported in the ‘‘ Fatherland,”
and is the more noteworthy because the object of its well-bestowed
bounty in this instaace is localized on foreign soil.’

Indeed, this is a splendid example of the high appreciation in
which pure scientific research is held by an enlightened government—
an example which we should be glad to see followed in this country.”

210
Lady Rlake’s letter is as follows :—

Kinc’s Houser, Jamaica, 1st Feb., 1892.
Dear Mr. Brown,—

My husband and I are at present much interested
in a scheme on behalf of which I am anxious to enlist your energetic
assistance. It is proposed to. establish here a Marine Biological
Station, on the lines of the Stations at Plymouth and Naples. The
Station is to be founded as a Memorial of the fourth Centenary of the
discovery of the New World, and to be named ‘‘ The Columbus Ma-
rine Biological Station.” In England the scheme is supported by
Professor Huxley, Professor Ray Lankester, M, A., Professor Flower,
Gunther, (British Museum) Dr. Ball, F. R. S., and many other eminent
scientific men. The Hon. Walter Rothschild has undertaken to act as
Honorary Secretary; Messrs. Coutts & Co. to be Bankers and the
Editor of the ‘‘ Zzmes” has promised a prominent position to correspon-
dence on the subject. We have also promises of support from many
leading scientific men in America and are most anxious to secure the
assistance and countenance of leading men in Canada. We shall beso
much obliged if you will do anything in your power to push the scheme
there. We are anxious that the Institution should be as international
as possible in its scope, and it would be a great matter to have a meet-
ing place in common for scientific students from the old and new worlds.
Jamaica is within easy reach of both, and appears to offer every
advantage for the proposed institution. Your advocacy of the plan in
Canada would be of great value. Please let me know if you think we
may hope for any assistance from there.

Believe me,
Yours truly,
EDITH BLAKE.
Adam Brown, Esq.,
Flamilton, Canada.

The value of such a station is undoubted and the Island of
Jamaica is particularly suitable for its location. The accessibility and
convenience of this station for American students would assure its

211

being appreciated and made use of by the large number of specialists in
the United States.

His Excellency the Governor of Jamaica, Sir Henry A. Blake, and
Lady Blake, have received so many promises of help from eminent
Biologists in Britain and elsewhere that they are sanguine as to the
feasibility and great value of such a station, which is to be international
in its objects. The Hon. Adam Brown with his characteristic energy
in patronizing and helping measures tending towards scientific advance-
ment is corresponding with the leading students in Canada asking for
their co-operation in forwarding this important project which has our
fullest sympathy.

:0:———-+
BOOK NOTICES.

THE Mon a is the title of a neat little monthly magazine which
has been sent to us by the editor, Rev. A. Dontenville, O.M I., who is

now living in New Westminster and is presiding over St. Louis College.
The Month is an attractive li:tle magazine, well printed and well ed ted,
_and we feel sure will be well patronized. Father Dontenville who was
a frequent attendant at our botanical and entomological lectures when
in Ottawa, is well known to many of our members; and we wish him
every happiness and success in his new home and hope to see in the
pages of the Month some papers upon the natural history subjects
which he made so attractive to his students when teaching at the
Ottawa University.

ENToMCLoGIcAL Society OF ONTARIO.—Twenty-second annual
report. The last annual report of this flourishing and useful society has
just come to hand. It is one of the most valuable from the standpoint
of the agriculturalist and fruit-grower which the society has ever issued.

The annual address of the president, the Rev. Dr. Bethune of Port
Hope is full of useful information. Notice is first taken of the various
injurious insects which have been most troublesome throughout the
Province during the year and the best remedies are suggested for each
in turn. The reports of the London sections and the Montreal branch
show that the work is being pushed vigorously and that good results are
being obtained. A subject which is being studied by the ornithological

212

sectior. is the food-habits of-wild birds. In the present report is given
a list of birds known to breed in Middlesex County, Ont., and a classi-
fication is made under the heads: 4, Benefictal; B, Neutral or nearly
so; C, Open to doubt as possibly injurious. Of these three classes there
are A 78, B 12, C 7. Interesting papers read at the annual meeting by
Messrs. H. H. Lyman, Rev. T. W. Fyles, G. Geddes, J. A. Moffat and J.
Fletcher are printed as well as a most entertaining article by Mr. W. H.
Harrington entitled ‘Notes on Japanese Insects.” This paper forms
with the paper already published in our February number a very com-
plete record of Mr. Harrington’s trip to Japan. The proceedings,
together with the papers read, at the meeting of the Association of Econ-
omic Entomologists held last August at Washington under the presidency
ot Mr. J. Fletcher of this Club are printed in full, from Insect Life.
These proceedings are of great value and were excellently reported by
the secretary Mr. L. O. Howard, the assistant United States Entomol-
ogist. They contain concise papers by some of the most eminent
Entomologists in America.

This report is made to the Ontario Government, and besides being
issued to the members of the Entomological Society will also be sent to
members of the Fruit-Growers’ Association.

THE ANNUAL MEETING.

Members are reminded that the annual meeting will be held on

the afternoon of the third Tuesday im March—{the 16th inst.) It will
be held in the Normal School lecture room at 4.15 p.m. “The impor-
tance of every member attending the annual meeting is manifest. The
officers for the ensuing year are then elected, and arrangements made
for carrying on che work we have undertaken in the most satisfactory
manner. Unexpected matters of interest always turn up at the annual
meetings, and the Council is particularly anxious that every member

should consider that he has a voice in directing the management of
the Club.

SE Sa aE Se a re ee oe
fae, >. Meeting at Washington........... 2... 4.4...
6 EL BST T SENS © Sie AS aa en RRM ic 5 Sola

Barbula snbcunetfolia, Kindb. vn. See. Pe eae cee a kee ae Mf
Barlow, Alfred E., on the Sudbury Nickel and Copper Deposits. .

Behring Sea Seal Commission . STAM opis 43, 273
RR ek cape S55
Book Notices. Macoun’s Catalogue. Part V................
Botanical Branch. Report for PSO)" s.. Be ahs sea Pe ed

Botanical Branch. Report for TOD py) 26). 3 ea sce ee eee
Botanical Excursion to the Chats... .

Bryum brachyneuron, Kindb. y. Ds Stes mee ei ES i as
eens 2eomerr, (endo. N. sp, et 0) SAMS ope Be

Canadian I.and and Fresh-water Mollusca. ....
Ceratodon heterophyllus, Kindb. n. SG: pee eet
Peemisieyeat. Pood: 2) Wau. iow. vars, TaN
Chimney Swifts. The Ottawa Colony, of. -....
Council, Annual Report... .. ere:

a) Se@buieits, *)% » 5a a Pies tee See

Didymodon Bawten-Powelli, Kindb. n. SW etyadts .2e
Drinking Water of Ottawa...............
Edwards, Henry. Obituary Notice... “RK
Ells, R. W. President’s Inaugural Address........
Entomological Branch. Report for WOOO + 3.> Teese aa
Excursion No. 1. To King’s Mountain.......... at
Excursion No. 2. To Montebello ..

Flora Ottawaensis...... .. eee yar eee.) Soe
Fletcher. J. Educational value of Botanical Gardens.....
Seen gmerreosurcers Report. ...............-..0....
Geological Survey of Canada, Work of ....................
Harrington, W. Hague. Notes of ‘l'ravel in WAP Six ene cs 208
— Japanese Glass-rope Sponge.......

Taaugutaladdress 6.25-+~2 Fiver ee ge ae

Japan, Notes of Travel’ iv Aaa ake Se -- 2 a
apanese Glass-rope Sponge-----+---+-- yey

Kindberg, Nils C. Descriptions of New Mosses..-=- - «++ ==s0
Kingston, A. G. On the Chimney Swift... ...-------+++-+*:

Lees, W. A. D. Librarian’s Report....-------+---+-°° a
PAbpari’s “Report, Mogae. = 2 =.= ee a te

Menibers, List Of 2: . 2: +++ <> ee ei Oe
Microscopical Soiree...------
Wilkes (Mews 5 iat Pear pe eeena) (i | J
Mosses (New) from the Pribylov Islands ....------- +2707
Mei: A. Om Onuking Water--> en" res
MacLaughlin, T. J. Annual Report of Council...-------++->
Macoun, Jas. M. Some New Mosses from the Pribylov Islands.
Macoun, John. Catalogue of Canadian Plants.....-------:
Monday Popular Lectures. Potaltys..).--- > -- > oe
Chemistry:-23° “5 See

Officers, LaBe Of 2: Das. +++ ge ape rE Oe
Ornithological Rranch. Report of, 18908..¢ <> .4+2-(07 7

Polytrichum alpinum, Reehl var. microdontium, Kindb. N. var.. -
Programme. =. > c)8e --=+- «ee ee
Publications recelwedce. <---> ==/+ "meee ee “rear OS

Soliget. ck: eae ee a eee > ce
Some New Musses from the Pribylov Islands. .<.--. 2.6 02S
Sphagnum, List of Ottawa Species... ..--*-
Subscriptions....-.-

‘Taylor, Rev. G. W. On Canadian Land and Fresh-water Mol-

fscachs CCR etee ae ees eee
Pyeasurer’s Report. 1898 4+ -- chines yh” ee
Webera canaliculata, C. M. and Kindb. var. macrocarpa,
Kandb.. we wales ON PS oe
Whyte, R. B. Botanical Excursion to the Chats:!.).2..:sceene

Willimott, C. W. Canadian Gems and Precious Stones...----

be a tae. ee cm = '
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BINDING SEGI.s4= °- ooo

QH The Canadian field-naturalist

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